90 files changed, 80151 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/old/13325-8.txt b/old/13325-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab9d200
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,23795 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+by J. Emerson Tennent
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+
+Author: J. Emerson Tennent
+
+Release Date: August 29, 2004 [EBook #13325]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Leonard Johnson and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team from images generously made available by the
+Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+
+
+
+SKETCHES
+OF THE
+NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON
+
+WITH
+
+NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES
+Illustrative of the Habits and Instincts of the
+MAMMALIA, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES, INSECTS, &c.
+
+INCLUDING A MONOGRAPH OF
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE MODES OF CAPTURING AND TRAINING IT
+WITH ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS
+
+BY
+
+SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c.
+
+1861
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A considerable portion of the contents of the present volume formed the
+zoological section of a much more comprehensive work recently published,
+on the history and present condition of Ceylon.[1] But its inclusion
+there was a matter of difficulty; for to have altogether omitted the
+chapters on Natural History would have impaired the completeness of the
+plan on which I had attempted to describe the island; whilst to insert
+them as they here appear, without curtailment, would have encroached
+unduly on the space required for other essential topics. In this
+dilemma, I was obliged to adopt the alternative of so condensing the
+matter as to bring the whole within the prescribed proportions.
+
+But this operation necessarily diminished the general interest of the
+subjects treated, as well by the omission of incidents which would
+otherwise have been retained, as by the exclusion of anecdotes
+calculated to illustrate the habits and instincts of the animals
+described.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ceylon: An Account of the Island, Physical, Historical,
+and Typographical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiquities, and
+Productions._ By Sir JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S., LL.D., &c.
+Illustrated by Maps. Plans, and Drawings. 2 vols. 8vo. Longman and Co.,
+1859.]
+
+A suggestion to re-publish these sections in an independent form has
+afforded an opportunity for repairing some of these defects by revising
+the entire, restoring omitted passages, and introducing fresh materials
+collected in Ceylon; the additional matter occupying a very large
+portion of the present volume.
+
+I have been enabled, at the same time, to avail myself of the
+corrections and communications of scientific friends; and thus to
+compensate, in some degree for what is still incomplete, by increased
+accuracy in minute particulars.
+
+In the Introduction to the First Edition of the original work I alluded,
+in the following terms, to that portion of it which is now reproduced in
+an extended form:--
+
+"Regarding the _fauna_ of Ceylon, little has been published in any
+collective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr. KELAART entitled
+_Prodromus Faunæ Zeilanicæ_; several valuable papers by Mr. EDGAR L.
+LAYARD in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_ for 1852 and
+1853; and some very imperfect lists appended to PRIDHAM'S compiled
+account of the island.[1] KNOX, in the charming narrative of his
+captivity, published in the feign of Charles II., has devoted a chapter
+to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. DAVY has described some of the
+reptiles: but with these exceptions the subject is almost untouched in
+works relating to the colony. Yet a more than ordinary interest attaches
+to the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of presenting, as is generally
+assumed, an identity between its _fauna_ and that of Southern India,
+exhibits a remarkable diversity, taken in connection with the limited
+area over which the animals included in it are distributed. The island,
+in fact, may be regarded as the centre of a geographical circle,
+possessing within itself forms, whose allied species radiate far into
+the temperate regions of the north, as well as in to Africa, Australia,
+and the isles of the Eastern Archipelago.
+
+[Footnote 1: _An Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of
+Ceylon and its Dependencies_, by C. PRIDHAM, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo., London,
+1849.]
+
+"In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation, I have
+endeavoured to interest others in the subject, by describing my own
+observations and impressions, with fidelity, and with as much accuracy
+as may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no greater
+knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than is ordinarily
+possessed by any educated gentleman. It was my good fortune, however, in
+my journeys to have the companionship of friends familiar with many
+branches of natural science: the late Dr. GARDNER, Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD,
+an accomplished zoologist, Dr. TEMPLETON, and others; and I was thus
+enabled to collect on the spot many interesting facts relative to the
+structure and habits of the numerous tribes. These, chastened by the
+corrections of my fellow-travellers, and established by the examination
+of collections made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison with
+specimens contained in museums at home, I have ventured to submit as
+faithful outlines of the _fauna_ of Ceylon.
+
+"The sections descriptive of the several classes are accompanied by
+lists, prepared with the assistance of scientific friends, showing the
+extent to which each particular branch had been investigated by
+naturalists, up to the period of my departure from Ceylon at the close
+of 1849. These, besides their inherent interest, will, I trust,
+stimulate others to engage in the same pursuit, by exhibiting chasms,
+which it remains for future industry and research to fill up;--and the
+study of the zoology of Ceylon may thus serve as a preparative for that
+of Continental India, embracing, as the former does, much that is common
+to both, as well as possessing a _fauna_ peculiar to the island, that in
+itself will amply repay more extended scrutiny.
+
+"From these lists have been excluded all species regarding the
+authenticity of which reasonable doubts could be entertained[1], and of
+some of them, a very few have been printed in _italics_, in order to
+denote the desirability of more minute comparison with well-determined
+specimens in the great national depositories before finally
+incorporating them with the Singhalese catalogues.
+
+[Footnote 1: An exception occurs in the list of shells, prepared by Mr.
+SYLVANUS HANLEY, in which some whose localities are doubtful have been
+admitted for reasons adduced. (See p. 387.)]
+
+"In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts embodied in these
+sections, I cannot too warmly express my thanks for the aid I have
+received from gentlemen interested in similar studies in Ceylon: from
+Dr. KELAART[1] and Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, as well as from officers of the
+Ceylon Civil Service; the Hon. GERALD C. TALBOT, Mr. C.R. BULLER, Mr.
+MERCER, Mr. MORRIS, Mr. WHITING, Major SKINNER, and Mr. MITFORD.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is with deep regret that I have to record the death of
+this accomplished gentleman, which occurred in 1860.]
+
+"Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work to the press, I
+have had the advantage of having portions of them read by Professor
+HUXLEY, Mr. MOORE, of the East India House Museum; Mr. R. PATTERSON,
+F.R.S., author of the _Introduction to Zoology_; and by Mr. ADAM WHITE,
+of the British Museum; to each of whom I am exceedingly indebted for the
+care they have bestowed. In an especial degree I have to acknowledge the
+kindness of Dr. J.E. GRAY, F.R.S., for valuable additions and
+corrections in the list of the Ceylon Reptilia; and to Professor FARADAY
+for some notes on the nature and qualities of the "Serpent Stone,"[2]
+submitted to him.
+
+[Footnote 2: See p. 312.]
+
+"The extent to which my observations on _the Elephant_ have been
+carried, requires some explanation. The existing notices of this noble
+creature are chiefly devoted to its habits and capabilities _in
+captivity_; and very few works, with which I am acquainted, contain
+illustrations of its instincts and functions when wild in its native
+woods. Opportunities for observing the latter, and for collecting facts
+in connection with them, are abundant in Ceylon; and from the moment of
+my arrival, I profited by every occasion afforded to me for observing
+the elephant in a state of nature, and obtaining from hunters and
+natives correct information as to its oeconomy and disposition.
+Anecdotes in connection with this subject, I received from some of the
+most experienced residents in the island; amongst others, from Major
+SKINNER, Captain PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY, Mr. FAIRHOLME, Mr. CRIPPS, and
+Mr. MORRIS. Nor can I omit to express my acknowledgments to Professor
+OWEN, of the British Museum, to whom this portion of my manuscript was
+submitted previous to its committal to the press."
+
+To the foregoing observations I have little to add beyond my
+acknowledgment to Dr. ALBERT GÜNTHER, of the British Museum, for the
+communication of important facts in illustration of the ichthyology of
+Ceylon, as well as of the reptiles of the island.
+
+Mr. BLYTH, of the Calcutta Museum, has carefully revised the Catalogue
+of Birds, and supplied me with much useful information in regard to
+their geographical distribution. To his experienced scrutiny is due the
+perfected state in which the list is now presented. It will be seen,
+however, from the italicised names still retained, that inquiry is far
+from being exhausted.
+
+Mr. THWAITES, the able Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at
+Peradenia, near Kandy, has forwarded to me many valuable observations,
+not only in connection with the botany, but the zoology of the mountain
+region. The latter I have here embodied in their appropriate places, and
+those relating to plants and vegetation will appear in a future edition
+of my large work.
+
+To M. NIETNER, of Colombo, I am likewise indebted for many particulars
+regarding Singhalese Entomology, a department to which his attention has
+been given, with equal earnestness and success.
+
+Through the Hon. RICHARD MORGAN, acting Senior Puisne Judge of the
+Supreme Court at Colombo, I have received from his Interpreter, M.D. DE
+SILVA GOONERATNE MODLIAR, a Singhalese gentleman of learning and
+observation, many important notes, of which I have largely availed
+myself, in relation to the wild animals, and the folk-lore and
+superstitions of the natives in connection with them.
+
+Of the latter I have inserted numerous examples; in the conviction that,
+notwithstanding their obvious errors in many instances, these popular
+legends and traditions occasionally embody traces of actual observation,
+and may contain hints and materials deserving of minuter inquiry.
+
+I wish distinctly to disclaim offering the present volume as a
+compendium of the Natural History of Ceylon. I present it merely as a
+"mémoire pour servir," materials to assist some future inquirer in the
+formation of a more detailed and systematic account of the _fauna_ of
+the island. My design has been to point out to others the extreme
+richness and variety of the field, the facility of exploring it, and the
+charms and attractions of the undertaking. I am eager to show how much
+remains to do by exhibiting the little that has as yet been done.
+
+The departments of _Mammalia_ and _Birds_ are the only two which can be
+said to have as yet undergone tolerably close investigation; although
+even in these it is probable that large additions still remain to be
+made to the ascertained species. But, independently of forms and
+specific characteristics, the more interesting inquiry into habits and
+instincts is still open for observation and remark; and for the
+investigation of these no country can possibly afford more inviting
+opportunities than Ceylon.
+
+Concerning the _Reptilia_ a considerable amount of information has been
+amassed. The Batrachians and smaller Lizards have, I apprehend, been
+imperfectly investigated; but the Tortoises are well known, and the
+Serpents, from the fearful interest attaching to the race, and
+stimulating their destruction, have been so vigilantly pursued, that
+there is reason to believe that few, if any, varieties exist which have
+not been carefully examined. In a very large collection, made by Mr.
+CHARLES REGINALD BULLER during many years' residence in Kandy, and
+recently submitted by him to Dr. Günther, only one single specimen
+proved to be new or previously unknown to belong to the island.
+
+Of the _Ichthyology_ of Ceylon I am obliged to speak ill very different
+terms; for although the materials are abundant almost to profusion,
+little has yet been done to bring them under thoroughly scientific
+scrutiny. In the following pages I have alluded to the large collection
+of examples of Fishes sent home by officers of the Medical Staff, and
+which still remain unopened, in the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham; but I
+am not without hope that these may shortly undergo comparison with the
+drawings which exist of each, and that this branch of the island _fauna_
+may at last attract the attention to which its richness so eminently
+entitles it.
+
+In the department of Entomology much has already been achieved; but an
+extended area still invites future explorers; and one which the Notes of
+Mr. Walker prefixed to the List of Insects in this volume, show to be of
+extraordinary interest, from the unexpected convergence in Ceylon of
+characteristics heretofore supposed to have been kept distinct by the
+broad lines of geographical distribution.
+
+Relative to the inferior classes of _Invertebrata_ very little has as
+yet been ascertained. The Mollusca, especially the lacustrine and
+fluviatile, have been most imperfectly investigated; and of the
+land-shells, a large proportion have yet to be submitted to scientific
+examination.
+
+The same may be said of the _Arachnida_ and _Crustacea_. The jungle is
+frequented by spiders, _phalangia_[1], and acarids, of which nothing is
+known with certainty; and the sea-shore and sands have been equally
+overlooked, so far as concerns the infinite variety of lobsters,
+crayfish, crabs, and all their minor congeners. The _polypi, echini,
+asterias_, and other _radiata_ of the coast, as well as the _acalephæ_
+of the deeper waters, have shared the same neglect: and literally
+nothing has been done to collect and classify the infusoriæ and minuter
+zoophytes, the labours of Dr. Kelaart amongst the Diatomaceæ being the
+solitary exception.
+
+[Footnote 1: Commonly called "harvest-men."]
+
+Nothing is so likely to act as a stimulant to future research as an
+accurate conception of what has already been achieved. With equal
+terseness and truth Dr. Johnson has observed that the traveller who
+would bring back knowledge from any country must carry knowledge with
+him at setting out: and I am not without hope that the demonstration I
+now venture to offer, of the little that has already been done for
+zoology in Ceylon, may serve to inspire others with a desire to resume
+and complete the inquiry.
+
+J. EMERSON TENNENT
+
+London: November 1st, 1861.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+MAMMALIA.
+
+Neglect of zoology in Ceylon
+
+Labours of Dr. Davy
+
+Followed by Dr. Templeton and others
+
+Dr. Kelaart and Mr. E.L. Layard
+
+Monkeys
+  The Rilawa, _Macacus pileatus_
+  Wanderoos
+  Knox's account of them
+  Error regarding the _Silenus Veter (note)_
+  Presbytes Cephalopterus
+  Fond of eating flowers
+  A white monkey
+  Method of the flight of monkeys
+  P. Ursinus in the Hills
+  P. Thersites in the Wanny
+  P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie
+  No dead monkey ever found
+
+Loris
+
+Bats
+  Flying Fox, _Pteropus Edwardsii_
+  Their numbers at Peradenia
+  Singularity of their attitudes
+  Food and mode of eating
+  Horse-shoe bat, _Rhinolophus_
+  Faculty of smell in bat
+  A tiny bat, _Scotophilus foromandelicus_
+  Extraordinary parasite of the bat, the _Nycteribia_
+
+_Carnivora_.--Bears
+  Their ferocity
+
+Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (_note_)
+
+Leopards
+  Erroneously confounded with the Indian _cheetah_
+  Curious belief
+  Anecdotes of leopards
+  Their attraction by the smallpox
+  Native superstition
+  Encounter with a leopard
+  Monkeys killed by leopards
+  Alleged peculiarity of the claws
+
+Palm-cat
+
+Civet
+
+Dogs
+  Cruel mode of destroying dogs
+  Their republican instincts
+
+Jackal
+  Cunning, anecdotes of
+  The horn of the jackal
+
+Mungoos
+  Its fights with serpents
+  Theory of its antidote
+
+Squirrels
+  Flying squirrel
+
+Tree-rat
+  Story of a rat and a snake
+
+Coffee-rat
+
+Bandicoot
+
+Porcupine
+
+Pengolin
+  Its habits and gentleness
+  Its skeleton
+
+_Ruminantia_.--The Gaur
+  Oxen
+  Humped cattle
+  Encounter of a cow and a leopard
+  Draft oxen
+  Their treatment
+  A _Tavalam_
+  Attempt to introduce the camel (note)
+  Buffaloes
+  Sporting buffaloes
+  Peculiar structure of the foot
+
+Deer
+
+Meminna
+
+Elk
+
+Wild-boar
+
+Elephants
+  Recent discovery of a new species
+  Geological speculations as to the island of Ceylon
+  Ancient tradition
+  Opinion of Professor Ansted
+  Peculiarities in Ceylon mammalia
+  The same in Ceylon birds and insects
+  Temminck's discovery of a new species of elephant in Sumatra
+  Points of distinction between it and the elephant of India
+  Professor Schlegel's description
+
+_Cetacea_
+  Whales
+  The Dugong
+  Origin of the fable of the mermaid
+  Credulity of the Portuguese
+  Belief of the Dutch
+
+Testimony of Valentyn
+
+List of Ceylon mammalia
+
+
+CHAP. II
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Its Structure_.
+
+Vast numbers in Ceylon
+
+Derivation of the word "elephant" (note)
+
+Antiquity of the trade in elephants
+
+Numbers now diminishing
+
+Mischief done by them to crops
+
+Ivory scarce in Ceylon
+
+Conjectures as to the absence of tusks
+
+Elephant a harmless animal
+
+Alleged antipathies to other animals
+
+Fights with each other
+
+The foot its chief weapon
+
+Use of the tusks in a wild state doubtful
+
+Anecdote of sagacity in an elephant at Kandy
+
+Difference between African and Indian species
+
+Native ideas of perfection in an elephant
+
+Blotches on the skin
+
+White elephants not unknown in Ceylon
+
+
+CHAP. III.
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Its Habits_.
+
+Water, but not heat, essential to elephants
+
+Sight limited
+
+Smell acute
+
+Caution
+
+Hearing, good
+
+Cries of the elephant
+
+Trumpeting
+
+Booming noise
+
+Height, exaggerated
+
+Facility of stealthy motion
+
+Ancient delusion as to the joints of the leg
+
+Its exposure by Sir Thos. Browne
+
+Its perpetuation by poets and others
+
+Position of the elephant in sleep
+
+An elephant killed on its feet
+
+Mode of lying down
+
+Its gait a shuffle
+
+Power of climbing mountains
+
+Facilitated by the joint of the knee
+
+Mode of descending declivities
+
+A "herd" is a family
+
+Attachment to their young
+
+Suckled indifferently by the females
+
+A "rogue" elephant
+
+Their cunning and vice
+
+Injuries done by them
+
+The leader of a herd a tusker
+
+Bathing and nocturnal gambols, description of a scene by Major Skinner
+
+Method of swimming
+
+Internal anatomy imperfectly known
+
+Faculty of storing water
+
+Peculiarity of the stomach
+
+The food of the elephant
+
+Sagacity in search of it
+
+Unexplained dread of fences
+
+Its spirit of inquisitiveness
+
+Anecdotes illustrative of its curiosity
+
+Estimate of sagacity
+
+Singular conduct of a herd during thunder
+
+An elephant feigning death
+
+_Appendix_.--Narratives of natives, as to encounters with rogue
+  elephants
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Elephant Shooting_.
+
+Vast numbers shot in Ceylon
+
+Revolting details of elephant killing in Africa
+
+Fatal spots at which to aim
+
+Structure of the bones of the head
+
+Wounds which are certain to kill
+
+Attitudes when surprised
+
+Peculiar movements when reposing
+
+Habits when attacked
+
+Sagacity of native trackers
+
+Courage and agility of the elephants in escape
+
+Worthlessness of the carcass
+
+Singular recovery from a wound
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_An Elephant Corral_.
+
+Early method of catching elephants
+
+Capture in pit-falls
+
+By means of decoys
+
+Panickeas--their courage and address
+
+Their sagacity in following the elephant
+
+Mode of capture by the noose
+
+Mode of taming
+
+Method of leading the elephants to the coast
+
+Process of embarking them at Manaar
+
+Method of capturing a whole herd
+
+The "keddah" in Bengal described
+
+Process of enclosing a herd
+
+Process of capture in Ceylon
+
+An elephant corral and its construction
+
+An elephant hunt in Ceylon, 1847
+
+The town and district of Kornegalle
+
+The rock of Ætagalla
+
+Forced labour of the corral in former times
+
+Now given voluntarily
+
+Form of the enclosure
+
+Method of securing a wild herd
+
+Scene when driving them into the corral
+
+A failure
+
+An elephant drove by night
+
+Singular scene in the corral
+
+Excitement of the tame elephants
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Captives_.
+
+A night scene
+
+Morning in the corral
+
+Preparations for securing the captives
+
+The "cooroowe," or noosers
+
+The tame decoys
+
+First captive tied up
+
+Singular conduct of the wild elephants
+
+Furious attempts of the herd to escape
+
+Courageous conduct of the natives
+
+Variety of disposition exhibited by the herd
+
+Extraordinary contortions of the captives
+
+Water withdrawn from the stomach
+
+Instinct of the decoys
+
+Conduct of the noosers
+
+The young ones and their actions
+
+Noosing a "rogue." and his death
+
+Instinct of flies in search of carrion (_note_)
+
+Strange scene
+
+A second herd captured
+
+Their treatment of a solitary elephant
+
+A magnificent female elephant
+
+Her extraordinary attitudes
+
+Wonderful contortions
+
+Taking the captives out of the corral
+
+Their subsequent treatment and training
+
+Grandeur of the scene
+
+Story of young pet elephant
+
+
+CHAP. VII.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Conduct in Captivity_.
+
+Alleged superiority of the Indian to the African elephant--not true
+
+Ditto of Ceylon elephant to Indian
+
+Process of training in Ceylon
+
+Allowed to bathe
+
+Difference of disposition
+
+Sudden death of "broken heart"
+
+First employment treading clay
+
+Drawing a waggon
+
+Dragging timber
+
+Sagacity in labour
+
+Mode of raising stones
+
+Strength in throwing down trees exaggerated
+
+Piling timber
+
+Not uniform in habits of work
+
+Lazy if not watched
+
+Obedience to keeper from affection, not fear
+
+Change of keeper--story of child
+
+Ear for sounds and music
+
+_Hurra! (note)_
+
+Endurance of pain
+
+Docility
+
+Working elephants, delicate
+
+Deaths in government stud
+
+Diseases
+
+Subject to tooth-ache
+
+Question of the value of labour of an elephant
+
+Food in captivity, and cost
+
+Breed in captivity
+
+Age
+
+Theory of M. Fleurens
+
+No dead elephants found
+
+Sindbad's story
+
+Passage from Ælian
+
+
+CHAP. VIII.
+
+BIRDS.
+
+Their numbers
+
+Songsters
+
+Hornbills, the "bird with two heads"
+
+Pea fowl
+
+Sea birds, their number
+
+I. _Accipitres_.--Eagles
+  Falcons and hawks
+  Owls--the devil bird
+
+II. _Passeres_.--Swallows
+  Kingfishers--sunbirds
+  The cotton-thief
+  Bul-bul--tailor bird--and weaver
+  The mountain jay
+  Crows, anecdotes of
+
+III. _Scansores_.--Parroquets
+
+IV. _Columbidæ_.--Pigeons
+
+V. _Gallinæ_.--Jungle-fowl
+
+VI. _Grallæ_.--Ibis, stork, &c.
+
+VII. _Anseres_.--Flamingoes
+  Pelicans
+  Strange scene
+  Game--Partridges, &c.
+
+List of Ceylon birds
+
+List of birds peculiar to Ceylon
+
+
+CHAP. IX.
+
+REPTILES.
+
+_Lizards_.--Iguana
+  Kabara-goya, barbarous custom in preparing the kabara-tel poison
+    Blood-suckers
+  The green calotes
+  The lyre-headed lizard
+  Chameleon
+  Ceratophora
+  Geckoes,--their power of reproducing limbs
+
+Crocodiles
+  Their sensitiveness to tickling
+  Anecdotes of crocodiles
+  Their power of burying themselves in the mud
+
+_Tortoises_.--Curious parasite
+  Terrapins
+  Edible turtle
+  Cruel mode of cutting it up alive
+  Huge Indian tortoises (_note_)
+  Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the tortoise-shell
+
+_Serpents_.--Venomous species rare
+  Tic polonga and carawala
+  Cobra de capello
+  Tame snakes (_note_)
+  Anecdotes of the cobra de capello
+  Legends concerning it
+  Instance of land snakes found at sea
+  Singular tradition regarding the robra de capello
+  Uropeltidæ.--New species discovered in Ceylon
+  Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello
+  The Python
+  Tree snakes
+  Water snakes
+  Sea snakes
+  Snake stones
+  Analysis of one
+  Cæcilia
+  Frogs
+  Tree frogs
+
+List of Ceylon reptiles
+
+
+CHAP. X.
+
+FISHES.
+
+Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known
+
+Fish for table, seir fish
+
+Sardines, poisonous?
+
+Sharks
+
+Saw-fish
+
+Fish of brilliant colours
+
+The ray
+
+The sword-fish
+
+Curious fish described by Ælian
+
+_Salarias alticus_
+
+Beautifully coloured fishes
+
+Fresh-water fish, little known,--not much eaten
+
+Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake
+
+Perches
+
+Eels
+
+Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes
+
+Their re-appearance after rain
+
+Mode of fishing in the ponds
+
+Showers of fish
+
+Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable
+
+Fish moving on dry land
+  Ancient authorities, Greek and Roman
+  Aristotle and Theophrastus
+  Athenæus and Polybius
+  Livy, Pompomus, Mela, and Juvenal
+  Seneca and Pliny
+  Georgius Agricola, Gesner, &c.
+  Instances in Guiana (_note_)
+  _Perca Scandens_, ascends trees
+  Doubts as to the story of Daldorf
+
+Fishes burying themselves daring the dry season
+  The _protopterus_ of the Gambia
+  Instances in the fish of the Nile
+  Instances in the fish of South America
+  Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon
+  Molluscs that bury themselves
+  The animals that so bury themselves in India
+  Analogous case of
+  Theory of æstivation and hybernation
+
+Fish in hot water in Ceylon
+
+List of Ceylon fishes
+
+Instances of fishes falling from the clouds
+
+_Note_ on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley
+
+Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus.
+
+_Note_ on the Bora-chung
+
+
+CHAP. XI.
+
+MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHÆ.
+
+I. _Conchology_.--General character of Ceylon shells
+  Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections
+  Ancient export of shells from Ceylon
+  Special forms confined to particular localities
+  The pearl fishery of Aripo
+  Frequent suspensions of
+  Experiment to create beds of the pearl oyster
+  Process of diving for pearls
+  Danger from sharks
+  The transparent pearl oyster (_Placuna placenta_)
+  The "musical fish" at Ballicaloa
+  A similar phenomenon at other places
+  Faculty of uttering sounds in fishes
+  Instance in the _Tritonia arborescens_
+  Difficulty in forming a list of Ceylon shells
+  List of Ceylon shells
+
+II. _Radiata_.--Star fish
+  Sea slugs
+  Parasitic worms
+  Planaria
+
+III. _Acalephæ_, abundant
+  The Portuguese man-of-war
+  Red infusoria
+  _Note_ on the _Tritonia arborescens_
+
+
+CHAP. XII.
+
+INSECTS.
+
+Profusion of insects in Ceylon
+  Imperfect knowledge of
+
+I. _Coleoptera_.--Beetles
+  Scavenger beetles
+  Coco-nut beetles
+  Tortoise beetles
+
+II. _Orthoptera_.--Mantis and leaf-insects
+  Stick-insects
+
+III. _Neuroptera_.--Dragon flies
+  Ant-lion
+  White ants
+  Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages
+
+IV. _Hymenoptera_.--Mason wasps
+  Wasps
+  Bees
+  Carpenter Bee
+  Ants
+  Burrowing ants
+
+V. _Lepidoptera_.--Butterflies
+  The spectre
+  Lycænidæ
+  Moths
+  Silk worms
+  Stinging caterpillars
+  Wood-carrying moths
+  Pterophorus
+
+VI. _Homoptera_
+  Cicada
+
+VII. _Hemiptera_
+  Bugs
+
+VIII. _Aphaniptera_
+
+IX. _Diptera_.--Mosquitoes
+  Mosquitoes the "plague of flies"
+  The coffee bug
+
+General character of Ceylon insects
+
+List of insects in Ceylon
+
+
+CHAP. XIII.
+
+ARACHNIDÆ, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACÆ, ETC.
+
+Spiders
+  Strange nets of the wood spiders
+  The mygale
+  Birds killed by it
+  _Olios Taprobanius_
+  The galeodes
+  Gregarious spiders
+  Ticks
+  Mites.--_Trombidium tinctorum_
+
+_Myriapods_.--Centipedes
+  Cermatia
+  Scolopendra crassa
+  S. pollippes
+  The fish insect
+
+_Millipeds_.--Julus
+
+_Crustacæ_
+  Calling crabs
+  Sand crabs
+  Painted crabs
+  Paddling crabs
+
+_Annelidæ_, Leeches.--The land leech
+  Medicinal leech
+  Cattle leech
+
+List of Articulata, &c.
+
+_Note_.--On the revivification of the Rotifera and Paste-eels
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                Page
+
+View of an Elephant Corral                              Frontispiece
+
+Group of Ceylon Monkeys                                    to face 5
+
+The Loris (_Loris gracilis_)                                      12
+
+Group of Flying Foxes (_Pteropus Edwardsii_)              to face 14
+
+Head of the Horse-shoe Bat (_Rhynulophus_)                        19
+
+Nycteribia                                                        21
+
+Indian Bear (_Prochylus labiatus_)                                23
+
+Ceylon Leopard and Indian Cheetah                                 26
+
+Jackal's Skull and "Horn"                                         36
+
+Mongoos of Neura-ellia (_Herpestes vitticollis_)                  38
+
+Flying Squirrel (_Pteromys oral_)                                 41
+
+Coffee Rat (_Golunda Elliotti_)                                   44
+
+Bandicoot Rat (_Mus bandicota_)                                   45
+
+Pengolin (_Manis pentadactylus_)                                  47
+
+Skeleton of the Pengolin                                          48
+
+Moose-deer (_Moschus meminna_)                                    55
+
+The Dugong (_Halicore dugung_)                                    69
+
+The Mermaid, from Valentyn                                        72
+
+Brain of the Elephant                                             95
+
+Bones of the Fore-leg                                            108
+
+Elephant descending a Hill                                       111
+
+Elephant's Well                                                  122
+
+Elephant's Stomach, showing the Water-cells                      125
+
+Elephant's Trachea                                               126
+
+Water-cells in the Stomach of the Camel                          128
+
+Section of the Elephant's Skull                                  145
+
+Fence and Ground-plan of a Corral                                172
+
+Mode of tying an Elephant                                        184
+
+His Struggles for Freedom                                        185
+
+Impotent Fury                                                    188
+
+Obstinate Resistance                                             189
+
+Attitude for Defence                                             203
+
+Singular Contortions of an Elephant                              204
+
+Figures of the African and Indian Elephants on Greek and
+  Roman Coins                                                    208
+
+Medal of Numidia                                                 212
+
+Modern "Hendoo"                                                  ib.
+
+The Horn-bill (_Buceros pica_)                                   243
+
+The "Devil-bird" (_Syrnium Indranec_)                            247
+
+The "Cotton-thief" (_Tchitrea paradisi_)                         250
+
+Layard Mountain Jay (_Cissa puella_)                             252
+
+The "Double-spur" (_Gallo-perdix bicalcaratus_)                  260
+
+The Flamingo (_Phoenicopterus roseus_)                           261
+
+The Kabara-goya Lizard (_Hydrosaurus salvator_)                  273
+
+The Green Calotes (_Calotes ophiomachus_)                        276
+
+Tongue of the Chameleon                                          278
+
+_Ceratophora_                                          _to face_ 280
+
+Skulls of the Crocodile and Alligator                            283
+
+Terrapin (_Emys trijuga_)                                        290
+
+Shield-tailed Serpent (_Uropeltis grandis_)                      302
+
+Tree Snake (_Passerita fusca_)                         _to face_ 307
+
+Sea Snake (_Hydrophis subloevisis_)                    _to face_ 311
+
+Saw of the Saw-fish (_Pristis antiquorum_)             _to face_ 326
+
+Ray (_Aëtobates narinari_)                                       327
+
+Sword-fish (_Histiophorus immaculatus_)                          330
+
+Cheironectes                                                     331
+
+_Pterois volitans_                                               334
+
+_Scarus harid_                                                   335
+
+Perch (_Therapon quadrilineatus_)                                337
+
+Eel (_Mastacembelus armatus_)                                    338
+
+Mode of Fishing, after Rain                                      340
+
+Plan of a Fish Decoy                                             342
+
+The Anabas of the dry Tanks                                      354
+
+The Violet Ianthina and its Shell                                370
+
+_Bullia vittata_                                                 ib.
+
+Pearl Oysters, in various Stages of Growth             _to face_ 380
+
+Pearl Oyster, full grown                               _to face_ 381
+
+_Cerithium palustre_                                             ib.
+
+The Portuguese Man-of-war (_Physalus urticulus_)                 399
+
+Longicorn Beetle (_Batocera rubus_)                              406
+
+Leaf Insects, &c                                                 409
+
+Eggs of the Leaf Insect (_Phyllium siccifolium_)                 410
+
+The Carpenter Bee (_Xylocapa tenniscapa_)                        419
+
+Wood-carrying Moths                                              431
+
+The "Knife, grinder" (_Cicada_)                                  432
+
+Flata (_Elidiptera Emersoniana and Poeciloptera Tennentii_)      433
+
+The "Coffee-bug" (_Lecanium caffeæ_)                   _to face_ 436
+
+Spider (_Mygate fasciata_)                             _to face_ 465
+
+Cermatia                                                         473
+
+The Calling Crab (_Gelusimus_)                                   477
+
+Eyes and Teeth of the Leech                                      480
+
+Land Leeches preparing to attack                                 481
+
+Medicinal Leech of Ceylon                                        483
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+MAMMALIA.
+
+
+With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the fauna of Ceylon has,
+up to the present, failed to receive that systematic attention to
+which its richness and variety most amply entitle it. The Singhalese
+themselves, habitually indolent, and singularly unobservant of nature
+and her operations, are at the same time restrained from the study of
+natural history by the tenet of their religion which forbids the
+taking of life under any circumstances. From the nature of their
+avocations, the majority of the European residents, engaged in
+planting and commerce, are discouraged by want of leisure from
+cultivating the taste; and it is to be regretted that, with few
+exceptions, the civil servants of the government, whose position and
+duties would have afforded them influence and extended opportunities
+for successful investigation, have never seen the importance of
+encouraging such studies.
+
+The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural science in
+Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when connected with the medical
+staff[1] of the army from 1816 to 1820, and his example stimulated
+some of the assistant-surgeons of Her Majesty's forces to make collections
+in illustration of the productions of the colony. Of these the late
+Dr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and successful. He was
+seconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal Artillery, who engaged
+assiduously in the investigation of various orders, and commenced an
+interchange of specimens with Mr. Blyth[2], the distinguished
+naturalist and curator of the Calcutta Museum. The birds and rarer
+vertebrata of the island were thus compared with their peninsular
+congeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those belonging to the island,
+so far as regards the higher classes of animals, has been the result.
+The example so set was perseveringly followed by Mr. E.L. Layard and
+the late Dr. Kelaart, and infinite credit is due to Mr. Blyth for the
+zealous and untiring energy with which he has devoted his attention
+and leisure to the identification of the specimens forwarded from
+Ceylon, and to their description in the Calcutta Journal. To him, and
+to the gentlemen I have named, we are mainly indebted for whatever
+accurate knowledge we now possess of the zoology of the colony.
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. DAVY, brother to the illustrious Sir Humphry Davy,
+published, in 1821, his _Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its
+Inhabitants_, which contains the earliest notice of the Natural
+History of the island, and especially of its ophidian reptiles.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xv. p. 280, 314.]
+
+The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first scientific
+description in an able work published in 1852 by Dr. Kelaart of the army
+medical staff[1], which is by far the most valuable that has yet
+appeared on the Singhalese fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard has
+supplied a fund of information especially in ornithology and conchology.
+The zoophytes and Crustacea have I believe been partially investigated
+by Professor Harvey, who visited Ceylon in 1852, and more recently by
+Professor Schmarda, of the University of Prague. From the united labours
+of these gentlemen and others interested in the same pursuits, we may
+hope at an early day to obtain such a knowledge of the zoology of Ceylon
+as will to some extent compensate for the long indifference of the
+government officers.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Prodromus Faunæ Zeylanicæ; being Contributions to the
+Zoology of Ceylon_, by F. KELAART, Esq., M.D., F.L.S., &c. &c. 2
+vols. Colombo and London, 1852.]
+
+[Illustration: CEYLON MONKEYS.
+
+  1. _Presbytes cephalopterus._
+  2. _P. thersites_
+  3. _P. Priamus_
+  4. _Macacus pileatus_]
+
+I. QUADRUMANA. 1. _Monkeys_.--To a stranger in the tropics, among
+the most attractive creatures in the forests are the troops of
+_monkeys_ that career in ceaseless chase among the loftiest
+trees. In Ceylon there are five species, four of which belong to one
+group, the Wanderoos, and the other is the little graceful grimacing
+_rilawa_[1], which is the universal pet and favourite of both
+natives and Europeans. The Tamil conjurors teach it to dance, and in
+their wanderings carry it from village to village, clad in a grotesque
+dress, to exhibit its lively performances. It does not object to smoke
+tobacco. The Wanderoo is too grave and melancholy to be trained to
+these drolleries.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Macacus pileatus_, Shaw and Desmarest. The
+"bonneted Macaque" is common in the south and west; it is replaced on
+the neighbouring coast of the Peninsula of India by the Toque, _M.
+radiatus_, which closely resembles it in size, habit, and form, and
+in the peculiar appearance occasioned by the hairs radiating from the
+crown of the head. A spectacled monkey is _said_ to inhabit the
+low country near to Bintenne; but I have never seen one brought
+thence. A paper by Dr. TEMPLETON, in the _Mag. Nat. Hist._ n. s.
+xiv. p. 361, contains some interesting facts relative to the Rilawa of
+Ceylon.]
+
+KNOX, in his captivating account of the island, gives an accurate
+description of both; the Rilawas, with "no beards, white faces, and long
+hair on the top of their heads, which parteth and hangeth down like a
+man's, and which do a deal of mischief to the corn, and are so impudent
+that they will come into their gardens and eat such fruit as grows
+there. And the Wanderoos, some as large as our English spaniel dogs, of
+a darkish grey colour, and black faces with great white beards round
+from ear to ear, which makes them show just like old men. This sort does
+but little mischief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and buds
+of trees, but when they are catched they will eat anything."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX, _Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in the
+East Indies_.--P. i. ch. vi. p. 25. Fol. Lond. 1681. See an account
+of his captivity in SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, etc., Vol.
+II. p. 66 n.]
+
+KNOX, whose experience during his long captivity was confined almost
+exclusively to the hill country around Kandy, spoke in all probability
+of one large and comparatively powerful species, _Presbytes ursinus_,
+which inhabits the lofty forests, and which, as well as another of the
+same group, _P. Thersites_, was, till recently, unknown to European
+naturalists. The Singhalese word _Ouandura_ has a generic sense, and
+being in every respect the equivalent fur our own term of "monkey" it
+necessarily comprehends the low country species, as well as those which
+inhabit other parts of the island. In point of fact, there are no less
+than four animals in the island, each of which is entitled to the name
+of "wanderoo."[1] Each separate species has appropriated to itself a
+different district of the wooded country, and seldom encroaches on the
+domain of its neighbours.
+
+[Footnote 1: Down to a very late period, a large and somewhat
+repulsive-looking monkey, common to the Malabar coast, the Silenus
+veter, _Linn._, was, from the circumstance of his possessing a
+"great white beard," incorrectly assumed to be the "wanderoo" of
+Ceylon, described by KNOX; and under that usurped name it has figured
+in every author from Buffon to the present time. Specimens of the true
+Singhalese species were, however, received in Europe; but in the
+absence of information in this country as to their actual habitat,
+they were described, first by Zimmerman, on the continent, under the
+name of, _Leucoprymnus cephalopterus_, and subsequently by Mr. E.
+Bennett, under that of _Semnopithecus Nestor_ (_Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ pt. i. p. 67: 1833); the generic and specific characters
+being on this occasion most carefully pointed out by that eminent
+naturalist. Eleven years later Dr. Templeton forwarded to the
+Zoological Society a description, accompanied by drawings, of the
+wanderoo of the western maritime districts of Ceylon, and noticed the
+fact that the wanderoo of authors (_S. veter_) was not to be
+found in the island except as an introduced species in the custody of
+the Arab horse-dealers, who visit the port of Colombo at stated
+periods. Mr. Waterhouse, at the meeting (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ p. 1:
+1844) at which this communication was read, recognised the identity of
+the subject of Dr. Templeton's description with that already laid
+before them by Mr. Bennett; and from this period the species in
+question was believed to truly represent the wanderoo of Knox. The
+later discovery, however, of the _P. ursinus_ by Dr. Kelaart, in
+the mountains amongst which we are assured that Knox spent so many
+years of captivity, reopens the question, but at the same time appears
+to me clearly to demonstrate that in this latter we have in reality
+the animal to which his narrative refers.]
+
+1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most numerous in the
+island, and the one best known in Europe, is the Wanderoo of the low
+country, the _P. cephalopterus_ of Zimmerman.[1] Although common
+in the southern and western provinces, it is never found at a higher
+elevation than 1300 feet. It is an active and intelligent creature,
+little larger than the common bonneted Macaque, and far from being so
+mischievous as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it is
+remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for an air of
+melancholy in its expression and movements which are completely in
+character with its snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition it
+is gentle and confiding, sensible in the highest degree of kindness,
+and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low plaintive cry when
+its sympathies are excited. It is particularly cleanly in its habits
+when domesticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its fur,
+and carefully divesting its hair of particles of dust.
+
+[Footnote 1: Leucoprymnus Nestor, _Bennett_.]
+
+Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed upon
+plantains and bananas, but for nothing did they evince a greater
+partiality than the rose-coloured flowers of the red hibiscus (H.
+_rosa-sinensis_).
+
+These they devoured with unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished the
+leaves of many other trees, and even the bark of a few of the more
+succulent ones. A hint might possibly be taken from this circumstance
+for improving the regimen of monkeys in menageries, by the occasional
+admixture of a few fresh leaves and flowers with their solid and
+substantial dietary.
+
+A white monkey, taken between Ambepusse and Kornegalle, where they are
+said to be numerous, was brought to me to Colombo. Except in colour,
+it had all the characteristics of _Presbytes cephalopterus_. So
+striking was its whiteness that it might have been conjectured to be
+an albino, but for the circumstance that its eyes and face were black.
+I have heard that white monkeys have been seen near the Ridi-galle
+Wihara in Seven Korles and also at Tangalle; but I never saw another
+specimen. The natives say they are not uncommon, and KNOX that they
+are "milk-white both in body and face; but of this sort there is not
+such plenty."[1] The Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY mentions, in his learned
+work on _Eastern Monachism_, that on the occasion of his visit to
+the great temple of Dambool, he encountered a troop of white monkeys
+on the rock in which it is situated--which were, doubtless, a variety
+of the Wanderoo.[2] PLINY was aware of the fact that white monkeys are
+occasionally found in India.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX, pt. i.e. vi. p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Eastern Monachism_. c: xix; p. 204.]
+
+[Footnote 3: PLINY, Nat. Hist. I. viii. c. xxxii.]
+
+When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty of
+these creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for berries
+and buds. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, except when
+they may have descended to recover seeds or fruit which have fallen at
+the foot of their favourite trees. When disturbed, their leaps are
+prodigious: but, generally speaking, their progress is made not so
+much by _leaping_ as by swinging from branch to branch, using
+their powerful arms alternately; and when baffled by distance,
+flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower boughs of an
+opposite tree, the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficient
+to cause a rebound of the branch, that carries them upwards again,
+till they can grasp a higher and more distant one, and thus continue
+their headlong flight. In these perilous achievements, wonder is
+excited less by the surpassing agility of these little creatures,
+frequently encumbered as they are by their young, which cling to them
+in their career, than by the quickness of their eye and the unerring
+accuracy with which they seem almost to calculate the angle at which a
+descent will enable them to cover a given distance, and the recoil to
+attain a higher altitude.
+
+2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills by the larger
+species, _P. ursinus_, which inhabits the mountain zone. The natives,
+who designate the latter the _Maha_ or Great Wanderoo, to distinguish it
+from the _Kaloo_, or black one, with which they are familiar, describe
+it as much wilder, and more powerful than its congener of the lowland
+forests. It is rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the country
+having till very recently been but partially opened; and even now it is
+difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the few roads
+which wind through these deep solitudes. At early morning, ere the day
+begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which consists of a quick
+repetition of the sounds _how how!_ maybe frequently heard in the
+mountain jungles, and forms one of the characteristic noises of these
+lofty situations. It was first captured by Dr. Kelaart in the woods near
+Nuera-ellia, and from its peculiar appearance it has been named _P.
+ursinus_ by Mr. Blyth.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. Blyth quotes as authority for this trivial name a
+passage from MAJOR FORBES' _Eleven Years in Ceylon;_ and I can
+vouch for the graphic accuracy of the remark.--"A species of very
+large monkey, that passed some distance before me, when resting on all
+fours, looked so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly took him for one."]
+
+3. The _P. Thersites_, which is chiefly distinguished from the
+others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was for some time
+doubtful whether the single specimen procured by Dr. Templeton from
+the Nuera-kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which Mr. Blyth
+conferred this new name, was in reality native; but the occurrence of
+a second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has established its
+existence as a separate species. Like the common wanderoo, the one
+obtained by Dr. Templeton was partial to fresh vegetables, plantains,
+and fruit; but he ate freely boiled rice, beans, and gram. He was fond
+of being noticed and petted, stretching out his limbs in succession to
+be scratched, drawing himself up so that his ribs might be reached by
+the finger, closing his eyes during the operation, and evincing his
+satisfaction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous.
+
+4. The _P. Priamus_ inhabits the northern and eastern provinces, and the
+wooded hills which occur in these portions of the island. In appearance
+it differs both in size and in colour from the common wanderoo, being
+larger and more inclined to grey; and in habits it is much less
+reserved. At Jaffna, and in other parts of the island where the
+population is comparatively numerous, these monkeys become so
+familiarised with the presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daring
+and indifference. A flock of them will take possession of a Palmyra
+palm; and so effectually can they crouch and conceal themselves among
+the leaves that, on the slightest alarm, the whole party becomes
+invisible in an instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites such an
+irrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they
+never fail to betray themselves. They may be frequently seen congregated
+on the roof of a native hut: and, some years ago, the child of a
+European clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been left on the ground
+by the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as to cause its death.
+
+The Singhalese have the impression that the remains of a monkey are
+never to be found in the forest; a belief which they have embodied in
+the proverb that "he who has seen a white crow, the nest of a paddi
+bird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey, is certain to live
+for ever." This piece of folk-lore has evidently reached Ceylon from
+India, where it is believed that persons dwelling on the spot where a
+hanumân monkey, _Semnopithecus entellus_, has been killed, will
+die, that even its bones are unlucky, and that no house erected where
+they are hid under ground can prosper. Hence when a dwelling is to be
+built, it is one of the employments of the Jyotish philosophers to
+ascertain by their science that none such are concealed; and Buchanan
+observes that "it is, perhaps, owing to this fear of ill-luck that no
+native will acknowledge his having seen a dead hanumân."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: BUCHANAN'S _Survey of Bhagulpoor_, p. 142. At
+Gibraltar it is believed that the body of a _dead monkey_ has
+never been found on the rock.]
+
+The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon is the little
+loris[1], which, from its sluggish movements, nocturnal habits, and
+consequent inaction during the day, has acquired the name of the
+"Ceylon Sloth."
+
+[Footnote 1: Loris græilis, _Geof_.]
+
+[Illustration: THE LORIS.]
+
+There are two varieties in the island; one of the ordinary fulvous
+brown, and another larger, whose fur is entirely black. A specimen of
+the former was sent to me from Chilaw, on the western coast, and lived
+for some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, fruit, and vegetables. It was
+partial to ants and, other insects, and was always eager for milk or the
+bone of a fowl. The naturally slow motion of its limbs enables the loris
+to approach its prey so stealthily that it seizes birds before they can
+be alarmed by its presence. The natives assert that it has been known to
+strangle the pea-fowl at night, to feast on the brain. During the day
+the one which I kept was usually asleep in the strange position
+represented on the last page; its perch firmly grasped with both hands,
+its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and its head hidden deep
+between its legs. The singularly-large and intense eyes of the loris
+have attracted the attention, of the Singhalese, who capture the
+creature for the purpose of extracting them as charms and love-potions,
+and this they are said to effect by holding the little animal to the
+fire till its eyeballs burst. Its Tamil name is _thaxangu_, or
+"thin-bodied;" and hence a deformed child or an emaciated person has
+acquired in the Tamil districts the same epithet. The light-coloured
+variety of the loris in Ceylon has a spot on its forehead, somewhat
+resembling the _namam_, or mark worn by the worshippers of Vishnu; and,
+from this peculiarity, it is distinguished as the _Nama-thavangu_.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: There is an interesting notice of the Loris of Ceylon by
+Dr. TEMPLETON, in the _Mag. Nat. Hist._ 1844, ch. xiv. p. 362.]
+
+II. CHEIROPTERA. _Bats_.--The multitude of _bats_ is one of the features
+of the evening landscape; they abound in every cave and subterranean
+passage, in the tunnels on the highways, in the galleries of the
+fortifications, in the roofs of the bungalows, and the ruins of every
+temple and building. At sunset they are seen issuing from their diurnal
+retreats to roam through the twilight in search of crepuscular insects,
+and as night approaches and the lights in the rooms attract the
+night-flying lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table and
+carry off their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps. Including the
+frugivorous section about sixteen species have been identified in
+Ceylon; and remarkable varieties of two of these are peculiar to the
+island. The colours of some of them are as brilliant as the plumage of a
+bird, bright yellow, deep orange, and a rich ferruginous brown inclining
+to red.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1:
+  Rhinolophus affinis? _var_. rubidus, _Kelaart_.
+  Hipposideros murinus, _var_. fulvus, _Kelaart_.
+  Hipposideros speoris, _var_. aureus, _Kelaart_.
+  Kerivoula picta, _Pallas_.
+  Scotophilus Heathii, _Horsf_.]
+
+But of all the bats, the most conspicuous from its size and numbers,
+and the most interesting from its habits, is the rousette of
+Ceylon[1];--the "flying fox," as it is called by Europeans, from the
+similarity to that animal in its head and ears, its bright eyes, and
+intelligent little face. In its aspect it has nothing of the
+disagreeable and repulsive look so common amongst the ordinary
+vespertilionidæ; it likewise differs from them in the want of the
+nose-leaf, as well as of the tail. In the absence of the latter, its
+flight is directed by means of a membrane attached to the inner side
+of each of the hind legs, and kept distended at the lower extremity by
+a projecting bone, just as a fore-and-aft sail is distended by a
+"gaff."
+
+[Footnote 1: Pteropus Edwardsii, _Geoff_.]
+
+[Illustration: FLYING FOXES.]
+
+In size the body measures from ten to twelve inches in length, but the
+arms are prolonged, and especially the metacarpal bones and phalanges of
+the four fingers over which the leathery wings are distended, till the
+alar expanse measures between four and five feet. Whilst the function of
+these metamorphosed limbs in sustaining flight entitles them to the
+designation of "wings," they are endowed with another faculty, the
+existence of which essentially distinguishes them from the feathery
+wings of a bird, and vindicates the appropriateness of the term
+_Cheiro-ptera_[1], or "winged hands," by which the bats are designated.
+Over the entire surface of the thin membrane of which they are formed,
+sentient nerves of the utmost delicacy are distributed, by means of
+which the animal is enabled during the darkness to direct its motions
+with security, avoiding objects against contact with which at such times
+its eyes and other senses would be insufficient to protect it.[2]
+Spallanzani ascertained the perfection of this faculty by a series of
+cruel experiments, by which he demonstrated that bats, even after their
+eyes had been destroyed, and their external organs, of smell and hearing
+obliterated, were still enabled to direct their flight with unhesitating
+confidence, avoiding even threads suspended to intercept them. But after
+ascertaining the fact, Spallanzani was slow to arrive at its origin; and
+ascribed the surprising power to the existence of some sixth
+supplementary sense, the enjoyment of which was withheld from other
+animals. Cuvier, however, dissipated the obscurity by showing the seat
+of this extraordinary endowment to be in the wings, the superficies of
+which retains the exquisite sensitiveness to touch that is inherent in
+the palms of the human hand and the extremities of the fingers, as well
+as in the feet of some of the mammalia.[3] The face and head of the
+_Pteropus_ are covered with brownish-grey hairs, the neck and chest are
+dark ferruginous grey, and the rest of the body brown, inclining to
+black.
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: cheir] the "hand," and [Greek: pteron] a "wing."]
+
+[Footnote 2: See BELL _On the Hand_, ch. iii. p. 70;]
+
+[Footnote 3: See article on _Cheiroptera_, in TODD'S
+_Cyclopiadia of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. i. p. 599.]
+
+These active and energetic creatures, though chiefly frugivorous, are
+to some extent insectivorous also, as attested by their teeth[1], as
+well as by their habits. They feed, amongst other things, on the
+guava, the plantain, the rose-apple, and the fruit of the various
+fig-trees. Flying foxes are abundant in all the maritime districts,
+especially at the season when the _pulum-imbul_[2], one of the
+silk-cotton trees, is putting forth its flower-buds, of which they are
+singularly fond. By day they suspend themselves from the highest
+branches, hanging by the claws of the hind legs, with the head turned
+upwards, and pressing the chin against the breast. At sunset taking
+wing, they hover, with a murmuring sound occasioned by the beating of
+their broad membranous wings, around the fruit trees, on which they
+feed till morning, when they resume their pensile attitude as before.
+
+[Footnote 1: Those which I have examined have four minute incisors in
+each jaw, with two canines and a very minute pointed tooth behind each
+canine. They have six molars in the upper jaw and ten in the lower,
+longitudinally grooved, and with a cutting edge directed backwards.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Eriodendron Orientale, _Stead_.]
+
+A favourite resort of these bats is to the lofty india-rubber trees,
+which on one side overhang the Botanic Gardens of Paradenia in the
+vicinity of Kandy. Thither for some years past, they have congregated,
+chiefly in the autumn, taking their departure when the figs of the
+_ficus elastica_ are consumed. Here they hang in such prodigious
+numbers, that frequently, large branches give way beneath their
+accumulated weight. Every forenoon, generally between the hours of 9 and
+11 A.M., they take to wing, apparently for exercise, and possibly to sun
+their wings and fur, and dry them after the dews of the early morning.
+On these occasions, their numbers are quite surprising, flying in clouds
+as thick as bees or midges. After these recreations, they hurry back to
+their favourite trees, chattering and screaming like monkeys, and always
+wrangling and contending angrily for the most shady and comfortable
+places in which to hang for the rest of the day protected from the sun.
+The branches they resort to soon become almost divested of leaves, these
+being stripped off by the action of the bats, attaching and detaching
+themselves by means of their hooked feet. At sunset, they fly off to
+their feeding-grounds, probably at a considerable distance, as it
+requires a large area to furnish sufficient food for such multitudes.
+
+In all its movements and attitudes, the action of the _Pteropus_
+is highly interesting. If placed upon the ground, it is almost
+helpless, none of its limbs being calculated for progressive motion;
+it drags itself along by means of the hook attached to each of its
+extended thumbs, pushing at the same time with those of its hind feet.
+Its natural position is exclusively pensile; it moves laterally from
+branch to branch with great ease, by using each foot alternately, and
+climbs, when necessary, by means of its claws.
+
+When at rest, or asleep, the disposition of the limbs is most curious.
+At such times it suspends itself by one foot only, bringing the other
+close to its side, and thus it is enabled to wrap itself in the ample
+folds of its wings, which envelop it like a mantle, leaving only its
+upturned head uncovered. Its fur is thus protected from damp and rain,
+and to some extent its body is sheltered from the sun.
+
+As it collects its food by means of its mouth, either when on the
+wing, or when suspended within reach of it, the flying-fox is always
+more or less liable to have the spoil wrested from it by its intrusive
+companions, before it can make good its way to some secure retreat in
+which to devour it unmolested. In such conflicts they bite viciously,
+tear each other with their hooks, and scream incessantly, till, taking
+to flight, the persecuted one reaches some place of safety, where he
+hangs by one foot, and grasping the fruit he has secured in the claws
+and opposable thumb of the other, he hastily reduces it to lumps, with
+which he stuffs his cheek pouches till they become distended like those
+of a monkey; then suspended in safety, he commences to chew and suck the
+pieces, rejecting the refuse with his tongue.
+
+To drink, which it does by lapping, the _Pteropus_ suspends
+itself head downwards from a branch above the water.
+
+Insects, caterpillars, birds' eggs, and young birds are devoured by
+them; and the Singhalese say that the flying-fox will even attack a
+tree snake. It is killed by the natives for the sake of its flesh,
+which, I have been told by a gentleman who has eaten of it, resembles
+that of the hare.[1] It is strongly attracted to the coconut trees
+during the period when toddy is drawn for distillation, and exhibits,
+it is said, at such times, symptoms resembling intoxication.
+
+[Footnote 1: In Western India the native Portuguese eat the
+flying-fox, and pronounce it delicate, and far from disagreeable in
+flavour.]
+
+Neither the flying-fox, nor any other bat that I know of in Ceylon,
+ever hybernates.
+
+There are several varieties (one of them peculiar to the island) of
+the horse-shoe-headed _Rhinolophus_, with the strange leaf-like
+appendage erected on the extremity of the nose.
+
+It has been suggested that the insectivorous bats, though nocturnal,
+are deficient in that keen vision characteristic of animals which take
+their prey by night.
+
+[Illustration: RINOLOPHUS.]
+
+I doubt whether this conjecture be well founded; it certainly does not
+apply to the _Pteropus_ and the other frugivorous species, in
+which the faculty of sight is singularly clear. As regards the others,
+it is possible that in their peculiar oeconomy some additional power
+may be required to act in concert with that of vision, as in insects,
+touch is superadded, in its most sensitive development, to that of
+sight. It is probable that the noseleaf, which forms an extended
+screen stretched behind the nostrils in some of the bats, may be
+intended by nature to facilitate the collection and conduction of
+odours, just as the vast expansion of the shell of the ear in the same
+family is designed to assist in the collection of sounds--and thus to
+supplement their vision when in pursuit of prey in the dusk by the
+superior sensitiveness of the organs of hearing and smell.
+
+One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humble
+bee[1], and of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be seen about
+Colombo. It is so familiar and gentle that it will alight on the cloth
+during dinner, and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes any
+effort to escape before a wine glass can be inverted to secure it.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is a _very_ small Singhalese variety of
+Scotophilus Coromandelicus, _F. Cuv._]
+
+Although not strictly in order, this seems not an inappropriate place
+to notice one of the most curious peculiarities connected with the
+bats--their singular parasite, the Nycteribia.[1] On cursory
+observation this creature appears to have neither head, antennæ, eyes,
+nor mouth; and the earlier observers of its structure satisfied
+themselves that the place of the latter was supplied by a cylindrical
+sucker, which, being placed between the shoulders, the insect had no
+option but to turn on its back to feed. Another anomaly was thought to
+compensate for this apparent inconvenience;--its three pairs of legs,
+armed with claws, are so arranged that they seem to be equally
+distributed over its upper and under sides, the creature being thus
+enabled to use them like hands, and to grasp the strong hairs above it
+while extracting its nourishment.
+
+[Footnote 1: This extraordinary creature had formerly been discovered
+only on a few European bats. Joínville figured one which he found on
+the large roussette (the flying-fox), and says he had seen another on
+a bat of the same family. Dr. Templeton observed them in Ceylon in
+great abundance on the fur of the _Scotophilus Coromandelicus_,
+and they will, no doubt, be found on many others.]
+
+It moves, in fact, by rolling itself rapidly along, rotating like a
+wheel on the extremities of its spokes, or like the clown in a
+pantomime, hurling himself forward on hands and feet alternately. Its
+celerity is so great that Colonel Montague, who was one of the first
+to describe it minutely[1], says its speed exceeds that of any
+known insect, and as its joints are so flexible as to yield in every
+direction (like what mechanics call a "ball and socket"), its motions
+are exceedingly grotesque as it tumbles through the fur of the bat.
+
+[Footnote 1: Celeripes vespertilionis, _Mont. Lin. Trans._ xi. p.11.]
+
+[Illustration: NYCTERBIA.]
+
+To enable it to attain its marvellous velocity, each foot is armed
+with two sharp hooks, with elastic opposable pads, so that the hair
+can not only be rapidly seized and firmly held, but as quickly
+disengaged, as the creature whirls away in its headlong career.
+
+The insects to which it bears the nearest affinity, are the
+_Hippoboscidæ_, or "spider flies," that infest birds and horses;
+but, unlike them, the Nycteribia is unable to fly.
+
+Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to the belief that
+it was headless, is its faculty when at rest of throwing back its head
+and pressing it close between its shoulders till the under side
+becomes uppermost, not a vestige of head being discernible where we
+would naturally look for it, and the whole seeming but a casual
+inequality on its back.
+
+On closer examination this, apparent tubercle is found to have a
+leathery attachment like a flexible neck, and by a sudden jerk the
+little creature is enabled to project it forward into its normal
+position, when it is discovered to be furnished with a mouth, antennæ,
+and four eyes, two on each side.
+
+The organisation of such an insect is a marvellous adaptation of
+physical form to special circumstances. As the nycteribia has to make
+its way through fur and hairs, its feet are furnished with prehensile
+hooks that almost convert them into hands; and being obliged to conform
+to the sudden flights of its patron, and accommodate itself to inverted
+positions, all attitudes are rendered alike to it by the arrangement of its
+limbs, which enables it, after every possible gyration, to find itself
+always on its feet.
+
+III. CARNIVORA.--_Bears_.--Of the _carnivora_, the one most
+dreaded by the natives of Ceylon, and the only one of the larger
+animals that makes the depths of the forest its habitual retreat, is
+the bear[1], attracted chiefly by the honey which is found in the
+hollow trees and clefts of the rocks. Occasionally spots of fresh
+earth are observed which have been turned up by the bears in search of
+some favourite root. They feed also on the termites and ants. A friend
+of mine traversing the forest, near Jaffna, at early dawn, had his
+attention attracted by the growling of a bear, that was seated upon a
+lofty branch, thrusting portions of a red-ants' nest into his mouth
+with one paw, whilst with the other he endeavoured to clear his
+eyebrows and lips of the angry inmates, which bit and tortured him in
+their rage. The Ceylon bear is found in the low and dry districts of
+the northern and south-eastern coast, and is seldom met with on the
+mountains or the moist and damp plains of the west. It is furnished
+with a bushy tuft of hair on the back, between the shoulders, by which
+the young are accustomed to cling till sufficiently strong to provide
+for their own safety. During a severe drought that prevailed in the
+northern province in 1850, the district of Caretchy was so infested by
+bears that the Oriental custom of the women resorting to the wells was
+altogether suspended, as it was a common occurrence to find one of these
+animals in the water, unable to climb up the yielding and slippery soil,
+down which its thirst had impelled it to slide during the night.
+
+[Footnote 1: Prochilus labiatus, _Blainville_.]
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN BEAR.]
+
+Although the structure of the bear shows him to be naturally omnivorous,
+he rarely preys upon flesh in Ceylon, and his solitary habits whilst in
+search of honey and fruits render him timid and retiring. Hence he
+evinces alarm on the approach of man or other animals, and, unable to
+make a rapid retreat, his panic, rather than any vicious disposition,
+leads him to become an assailant in self-defence. But so furious are his
+assaults under such circumstances that the Singhalese have a terror of
+his attack greater than that created by any other beast of the forest.
+If not armed with a gun, a native, in the places where bears abound,
+usually carries a light axe, called "kodelly," with which to strike them
+on the head. The bear, on the other hand, always aims at the face, and,
+if successful in prostrating his victim, usually commences by assailing
+the eyes. I have met numerous individuals on our journeys who exhibited
+frightful scars from such encounters, the white seams of their wounds
+contrasting hideously with the dark colour of the rest of their bodies.
+
+The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose principal stores consist of honey, live
+in dread of the bears, because, attracted by the perfume, they will
+not hesitate to attack their rude dwellings, when allured by this
+irresistible temptation. The Post-office runners, who always travel by
+night, are frequently exposed to danger from these animals, especially
+along the coast from Putlam to Aripo, where they are found in
+considerable numbers; and, to guard against surprise, they are
+accustomed to carry flambeaux, to give warning to the bears, and
+enable them to shuffle out of the path.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Amongst the Singhalese there is a belief that certain
+charms are efficacious in protecting them from the violence of bears,
+and those whose avocations expose them to encounters of this kind are
+accustomed to carry a talisman either attached to their neck or
+enveloped in the folds of their luxuriant hair. A friend of mine,
+writing of an adventure which occurred at Anarajapoora, thus describes
+an occasion on which a Moor, who attended him, was somewhat, rudely
+disabused of his belief in the efficacy of charms upon bears:--"Desiring
+to change the position of a herd of deer, the Moorman (with his charm)
+was sent across some swampy land to disturb them. As he was proceeding,
+we saw him suddenly turn from an old tree and run back with all speed,
+his hair becoming unfastened and like his clothes streaming in the wind.
+It soon became evident that he was flying from some terrific object, for
+he had thrown down his gun, and, in his panic, he was taking the
+shortest line towards us, which lay across a swamp covered with sedge
+and rushes that greatly impeded his progress, and prevented us
+approaching him, or seeing what was the cause of his flight. Missing his
+steps from one hard spot to another he repeatedly fell into the water,
+but he rose and resumed his flight. I advanced as far as the sods would
+bear my weight, but to go further was impracticable. Just within
+ball-range there was an open space, and, as the man gained it. I saw
+that he was pursued by a bear and two cubs. As the person of the
+fugitive covered the bear, it was impossible to fire without risk. At
+last he fall exhausted, and the bear being close upon him, I discharged
+both barrels. The first broke the bear's shoulder, but this only made
+her more savage, and rising on her hind legs she advanced with ferocious
+prowls, when the second barrel, though I do not think it took effect,
+served to frighten her, for turning round she retreated, followed by the
+cubs. Some natives then waded through the mud to the Moorman, who was
+just exhausted, and would have been drowned but that he fell with his
+head upon a tuft of grass: the poor man was unable to speak, and for
+several weeks his intellect seemed confused. The adventure sufficed to
+satisfy him that he could not again depend upon a charm to protect him,
+from bears, though he always insisted that but for its having fallen
+from his hair where he had fastened it under his turban, the bear would
+not have ventured to attack him."]
+
+Leopards[1] are the only formidable members of the tiger race in
+Ceylon[2], and they are neither very numerous nor very dangerous, as
+they seldom attack man. By the Europeans, the Ceylon leopard is
+erroneously called a _cheetah_, but the true "cheetah" (_felis
+jubata_),' the hunting leopard of India, does not exist in the
+island.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: Felis pardus, _Linn._ What is called a leopard, or a
+cheetah, in Ceylon, is in reality the true panther.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A belief is prevalent at Trincomalie that a Bengal tiger
+inhabits the jungle in its vicinity; and the story runs that it
+escaped from the wreck of a vessel on which it had been embarked for
+England. Officers of the Government state positively that they have
+more than once come on it whilst hunting; and one gentleman of the
+Royal Engineers, who had seen it, assured me that he could not be
+mistaken as to its being a tiger of India, and one of the largest
+description.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Mr. BAKER, in his _Eight Years in Ceylon_, has
+stated that there are two species of leopard in the island, one of
+which he implies is the Indian cheetah. But although he specifies
+discrepancies in size, weight, and marking between the varieties which
+he has examined, his data are not sufficient to identify any of them
+with the true _felis jubata_.]
+
+There is a rare variety of the leopard which has been found in various
+parts of the island, in which the skin, instead of being spotted, is of
+a uniform black.[1] Leopards frequent the vicinity of pasture hinds in
+quest of the deer and other peaceful animals which resort to them; and
+the villagers often complain of the destruction of their cattle by these
+formidable marauders. In relation to them, the natives have a curious
+but firm conviction that when a bullock is killed by a leopard, and, in
+expiring, falls so that _its right side is undermost_, the leopard will
+not return to devour it. I have been told by English sportsmen (some of
+whom share in the popular belief), that sometimes, when they have
+proposed to watch by the carcase of a bullock recently killed by a
+leopard, in the hope of shooting the spoiler on his return in search of
+his prey, the native owner of the slaughtered animal, though earnestly
+desiring to be avenged, has assured them that it would be in vain, as
+the beast having fallen on its right side, the leopard not return.
+
+[Footnote 1: F. melas, _Peron_ and _Leseur_.]
+
+[Illustration: LEOPARD AND CHEETAH.]
+
+The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their extremely beautiful
+skins, but prefer taking them in traps and pitfalls, and occasionally
+in spring cages formed of poles driven firmly into the ground, within
+which a kid is generally fastened as a bait; the door being held open
+by a sapling bent down by the united force of several men, and so
+arranged as to act as a spring, to which a noose is ingeniously
+attached, formed of plaited deer's hide. The cries of the kid attract
+the leopard, which being tempted to enter, is enclosed by the
+liberation of the spring, and grasped firmly round the body by the
+noose.
+
+Like the other carnivora, leopards are timid and cowardly in the
+presence of man, never intruding on him voluntarily, and making a
+hasty retreat when approached. Instances have, however, occurred of
+individuals having been slain by them; and it is believed, that,
+having once tasted human blood, they, like the tiger, acquire an
+habitual relish for it. A peon, on duty by night at the court-house of
+Anarajapoora, was some years ago carried off by a leopard from a table
+in the verandah on which he had laid down his head to sleep. At
+Batticaloa a "cheetah" in two instances in succession was known to
+carry off men placed on a stage erected in a tree to drive away
+elephants from rice-land: but such cases are rare, and, as compared
+with their dread of the bear, the natives of Ceylon entertain but
+slight apprehensions of the "cheetah." It is, however, the dread of
+sportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the jungle are especially
+exposed to its attacks: and I am aware of an instance in which a party
+having tied their dogs to the tent-pole for security, and fallen
+asleep round them, a leopard sprang into the tent and carried
+off a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters. On one occasion
+being in the mountains near Kandy, a messenger despatched to me
+through the jungle excused his delay by stating that a "cheetah" had
+seated itself in the only practicable path, and remained quietly
+licking its fore paws and rubbing them over its face, till he was
+forced to drive it, with stones, into the forest.
+
+Leopards are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour which
+accompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the natives to submit
+themselves or their children to vaccination exposes the island to
+frightful visitations of this disease; and in the villages in the
+interior it is usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle to
+serve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the leopards are certain
+to be allured; and the medical officers are obliged to resort to
+increased precautions in consequence. This fact is connected with a
+curious native superstition. Amongst the avenging scourges sent direct
+from the gods, the Singhalese regard both the ravages of the leopard,
+and the visitation of the small-pox. The latter they call _par
+excellence "maha ledda_," the great "sickness;" they look upon it
+as a special manifestation of _devidosay_, "the displeasure of
+the gods;" and the attraction of the cheetahs to the bed of the
+sufferer they attribute to the same indignant agency. A few years ago,
+the capua, or demon-priest of a "dewale," at Oggalbodda, a village
+near Caltura, when suffering under small-pox, was devoured by a
+cheetah, and his fate was regarded by those of an opposite faith as a
+special judgment from heaven.
+
+Such is the awe inspired by this belief in connection with the
+small-pox, that a person afflicted with it is always approached as one
+in immediate communication with the deity; his attendants, address him
+as "my lord," and "your lordship," and exhaust on him the whole series
+of honorific epithets in which their language abounds for approaching
+personages of the most exalted rank. At evening and morning, a lamp is
+lighted before him, and invoked with prayers to protect his family from
+the dire calamity which has befallen himself. And after his recovery,
+his former associates refrain from communication with him until a
+ceremony shall have been performed by the capua, called
+_awasara-pandema_, or "the offering of lights for permission," the
+object of which is to entreat permission of the deity to regard him as
+freed from the divine displeasure, with liberty to his friends to renew
+their intercourse as before.
+
+Major SKINNER, who for upwards of forty years has had occasionally to
+live for long periods in the interior, occupied in the prosecution of
+surveys and the construction of roads, is strongly of opinion that the
+disposition of the leopard towards man is essentially pacific, and
+that, when discovered, its natural impulse is to effect its escape. In
+illustration of this I insert an extract from one of his letters,
+which describes an adventure highly characteristic of this instinctive
+timidity:--
+
+"On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam's Peak, in the prosecution
+of my military reconnoissances of the mountain zone, I fixed on a pretty
+little patena (_i.e._, meadow) in the midst of an extensive and dense
+forest in the southern segment of the Peak Range, as a favourable spot
+for operations. It would have been difficult, after descending from the
+cone of the peak, to have found one's way to this point, in the midst of
+so vast a wilderness of trees, had not long experience assured me that
+good game tracks would be found leading to it, and by one of them I
+reached it. It was in the afternoon, just after one of those tropical
+sunshowers that decorate every branch and blade with pendant brilliants,
+and the little patena was covered with game, either driven to the open
+space by the drippings from the leaves or tempted by the freshness of
+the pasture: there were several pairs of elk, the bearded antlered male
+contrasting finely with his mate; and other varieties of game in a
+profusion not to be found in any place frequented by man. It was some
+time before I would allow them to be disturbed by the rude fall of the
+axe, in our necessity to establish our bivouac for the night, and they
+were so unaccustomed to danger that it was long before they took alarm
+at our noises.
+
+"The following morning, anxious to gain a height for my observations
+in time to avail myself of the clear atmosphere of sunrise, I started
+off by myself through the jungle, leaving orders for my men, with my
+surveying instruments, to follow my track by the notches which I cut
+in the bark of the trees. On leaving the plain, I availed myself of a
+fine wide game track which lay in my direction, and had gone, perhaps,
+half a mile from the camp, when I was startled by a slight rustling in
+the nilloo[1] to my right, and in another instant, by the spring of a
+magnificent leopard, which, in a bound of full eight feet in height
+over the lower brushwood, lighted at my feet within eighteen inches of
+the spot whereon I stood, and lay in a crouching position, his fiery
+gleaming eyes fixed on me.
+
+[Footnote 1: A species of one of the suffruticose _Acanthaccæ_
+(Strobilanthes), which grows, abundantly in the mountain ranges of
+Ceylon.]
+
+"The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had no weapon of defence, and
+with one spring or blow of his paw the beast could have annihilated me.
+To move I knew would only encourage his attack. It occurred to me at the
+moment that I had heard of the power of man's eye over wild animals, and
+accordingly I fixed my gaze as intently as the agitation of such a
+moment enabled me on his eyes: we stared at each other for some seconds,
+when, to my inexpressible joy, the beast turned and bounded down the
+straight open path before me. This scene occurred just at that period of
+the morning when the grazing animals retired from the open patena to the
+cool shade of the forest: doubtless, the leopard had taken my approach
+for that of a deer, or some such animal. And if his spring had been at a
+quadruped instead of a biped, his distance was so well measured, that it
+must have landed him on the neck of a deer, an elk, or a buffalo; as it
+was, one pace more would have done for me. A bear would not have let his
+victim off so easily."
+
+Notwithstanding the unequalled agility of the monkey, it falls a prey,
+and not unfrequently, to the leopard. The latter, on approaching a tree
+on which a troop of monkeys have taken shelter, causes an instant and
+fearful excitement, which they manifest by loud and continued screams,
+and incessant restless leaps from branch to branch. The leopard
+meanwhile walks round and round the tree, with his eyes firmly fixed
+upon his victims, till at last exhausted by terror, and prostrated by
+vain exertions to escape, one or more falls a prey to his voracity. So
+rivetted is the attention of both during the struggle, that a sportsman,
+on one occasion, attracted by the noise, was enabled to approach within
+an uncomfortable distance of the leopard, before he discovered the cause
+of the unusual dismay amongst the monkeys overhead.
+
+It is said, but I have never been able personally to verify the fact,
+that the leopard of Ceylon exhibits a peculiarity in being unable
+entirely to retract its claws within their sheaths.
+
+There is another piece of curious folk lore, in connexion with the
+leopard. The natives assert that it devours the _kaolin_ clay
+called by them _kiri-mattie_[1] in a very peculiar way. They say
+that the cheetah places it in lumps beside him, and then gazes
+intently on the sun, till on turning his eyes on the clay, every piece
+appears of a red colour like flesh, when he instantly devours it.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Sir J.E. TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, vol. i. p. 31.]
+
+They likewise allege that the female cheetah never produces more than
+one litter of whelps.
+
+Of the _lesser feline species_, the number and variety in Ceylon
+is inferior to those of India. The Palm-cat[1] lurks by day among the
+fronds of the coco-nut palms, and by night makes destructive forays on
+the fowls of the villagers; and, in order to suck the blood of its
+victim, inflicts a wound so small as to be almost imperceptible. The
+glossy genette[2], the "_Civet_" of Europeans, is common in the
+northern province, where the Tamils confine it in cages for the sake
+of its musk, which they collect from the wooden bars on which it rubs
+itself. Edrisi, the Moorish geographer, writing in the twelfth
+century, enumerates musk as one of the productions then exported from
+Ceylon.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: Paradoxurus typus, _F. Cuv._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Viverra Indica, _Geoffr., Hodgs._]
+
+[Footnote 3: EDRISI, _Géogr._ sec. vii. Jauberts's translation,
+t. ii. p. 72. In connexion with cats, a Singhalese gentleman has
+described to me a plant in Ceylon, called _Cuppa-mayniya_ by the
+natives; by which he says cats are so enchanted, that they play with
+it as they would with, a captured mouse; throwing if into the air,
+watching it till it falls, and crouching to see if it will move. It
+would be worth inquiring into the truth of this; and the explanation
+of the attraction.]
+
+_Dogs_.--There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but every village
+and town is haunted by mongrels of European descent, that are known by
+the generic description of _Pariahs_. They are a miserable race,
+lean, wretched, and mangy, acknowledged by no owners, living on the
+garbage of the streets and sewers, and if spoken to unexpectedly they
+shrink with an almost involuntary cry. Yet in these persecuted
+outcasts there survives that germ of instinctive affection which binds
+the dog to the human race, and a gentle word, even a look of
+compassionate kindness, is sufficient foundation for a lasting
+attachment.
+
+The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to taking away life in any
+form, permit the increase of these desolate creatures till in the hot
+season they become so numerous as to be a nuisance; and the only
+expedient hitherto devised by the civil government to reduce their
+numbers, is once in each year to offer a reward for their destruction,
+when the Tamils and Malays pursue them in the streets with clubs (guns
+being forbidden by the police for fear of accidents), and the
+unresisting dogs are beaten to death on the side-paths and door-steps
+where they had been taught to resort for food. Lord Torrington, during
+his government of Ceylon, attempted the more civilised experiment of
+putting some check on their numbers, by imposing a dog-tax, the effect
+of which would have been to lead to the drowning of puppies; whereas
+there is reason to believe that dogs are at present _bred_ by the
+horse-keepers to be killed for sake of the reward.
+
+The Pariahs of Colombo exhibit something of the same instinct, by
+which the dogs in other eastern cities partition the towns into
+districts, each apportioned to a separate pack, by whom it is
+jealously guarded from the encroachments of all intruders. Travellers
+at Cairo and Constantinople are often startled at night by the racket
+occasioned by the demonstrations made by the rightful possessors of a
+locality in repelling its invasion by some straggling wanderer. At
+Alexandria, in 1844, the dogs had multiplied to such an inconvenient
+extent, that Mehemet Ali, to abate the nuisance, caused them to be
+shipped in boats and conveyed to one of the islands at the mouth of
+the Nile. But the streets, thus deprived of their habitual patroles,
+were speedily infested by dogs from the suburbs, in such numbers that
+the evil became greater than before, and in the following year, the
+legitimate denizens were recalled from their exile in the Delta, and
+speedily drove back the intruders within their original boundary. May
+not this disposition of the dog be referable to the impulse by which,
+in a state of nature, each pack appropriates its own hunting-fields
+within a particular area? and may not the impulse which, even in a
+state of domestication, they still manifest to attack a passing dog
+upon the road, be a remnant of this localised instinct, and a
+concomitant dislike of intrusion?
+
+_Jackal_.--The Jackal[1] in the low country of Ceylon hunts thus in
+packs, headed by a leader, and these audacious prowlers have been seen
+to assault and pull down a deer. The small number of hares in the
+districts they infest is ascribed to their depredations. In the legends
+of the natives, and in the literature of the Buddhists, the jackal in
+Ceylon is as essentially the type of cunning as the fox is the emblem of
+craft and adroitness in the traditions of Europe. In fact, it is more
+than doubtful whether the jackal of the East be not the creature alluded
+to, in the various passages of the Sacred Writings which make allusion
+to the artfulness and subtlety of the "fox."
+
+[Footnote 1: Canis Aureus, _Linn._]
+
+These faculties they display in a high degree in their hunting
+expeditions, especially in the northern portions of the island, where
+they are found in the greatest numbers. In these districts, where the
+wide sandy plains are thinly covered with brushwood, the face of the
+country is diversified by patches of thick jungle and detached groups
+of trees, that form insulated groves and topes. At dusk, or after
+nightfall, a pack of jackals, having watched a hare or a small deer
+take refuge in one of these retreats, immediately surround it on all
+sides; and having stationed a few to watch the path by which the game
+entered, the leader commences the attack by raising the unearthly cry
+peculiar to their race, and which resembles the sound _okkay!_
+loudly and rapidly repeated. The whole party then rush into the
+jungle, and drive out the victim, which generally falls into the
+ambush previously laid to entrap it.
+
+A native gentleman[1], who had favourable opportunities of observing the
+movements of these animals, informed me, that when a jackal has brought
+down his game and killed it, his first impulse is to hide it in the
+nearest jungle, whence he issues with an air of easy indifference to
+observe whether anything more powerful than himself may be at hand, from
+which he might encounter the risk of being despoiled of his capture. If
+the coast be clear, he returns to the concealed carcase, and carries it
+away, followed by his companions. But if a man be in sight, or any other
+animal to be avoided, my informant has seen the jackal seize a coco-nut
+husk in his mouth, or any similar substance, and fly at full speed, as
+if eager to carry off his pretended prize, returning for the real booty
+at some more convenient season.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. D. de Silva Gooneratné.]
+
+They are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are frequent in Ceylon
+of cattle being bitten by them and dying in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: JACKAL'S SKULL AND HORN]
+
+An excrescence is sometimes found on the head of the jackal, consisting
+of a small horny cone about half an inch in length, and concealed by a
+tuft of hair. This the natives call _narrie-comboo_; and they aver that
+this "Jackal's Horn" only grows on the head of the leader of the
+pack.[1] Both the Singhalese and the Tamils regard it as a talisman, and
+believe that its fortunate possessor can command by its instrumentality
+the realisation of every wish, and that if stolen or lost by him, it
+will invariably return of its own accord. Those who have jewels to
+conceal rest in perfect security if along with them they can deposit a
+narri-comboo, fully convinced that its presence is an effectual
+safeguard against robbers.
+
+[Footnote 1: In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London (No.
+4362 A), there is a cranium of a jackal which exhibits this strange
+osseous process on the super-occipital; and I have placed along with
+it a specimen of the horny sheath, which was presented to me by Mr.
+Lavalliere, the late district judge of Kandy.]
+
+One fabulous virtue ascribed to the _narrie-comboo_ by the Singhalese is
+absurdly characteristic of their passion for litigation, as well as of
+their perceptions of the "glorious uncertainty of the law." It is the
+popular belief that the fortunate discoverer of a jackal's horn becomes
+thereby invincible in every lawsuit, and must irresistibly triumph over
+every opponent. A gentleman connected "with the Supreme Court of Colombo
+has repeated to me a circumstance, within his own knowledge, of a
+plaintiff who, after numerous defeats, eventually succeeded against his
+opponent by the timely acquisition of this invaluable charm. Before the
+final hearing of the cause, the mysterious horn was duly exhibited to
+his friends; and the consequence was, that the adverse witnesses,
+appalled by the belief that no one could possibly give judgment against
+a person so endowed, suddenly modified their previous evidence, and
+secured an unforeseen victory for the happy owner of the
+_narrie-comboo!_
+
+_The Mongoos_.--Of the Mongoos or Ichneumon four species have been
+described; and one, that frequents the hills near Neuera-ellia[1], is so
+remarkable from its bushy fur, that the invalid soldiers in the
+sanatarium there, to whom it is familiar, have given it the name of the
+"Ceylon Badger."
+
+[Footnote 1: _Herpestes vitticollis_. Mr. W. ELLIOTT, in his _Catalogue
+of Mammalia found in the Southern Maharata Country_, Madras, 1840, says,
+that "One specimen of this Herpestes was procured by accident in the
+Ghât forests in 1829, and is now deposited in the British Museum; it is
+very rare, inhabiting only the thickest woods, and its habits are very
+little known," p. 9. In Ceylon it is comparatively common.]
+
+[Illustration: HERPESTES VITTICOLLIS.]
+
+I have found universally that the natives of Ceylon attach no credit to
+the European story of the Mongoos (_H. griseus_) resorting to some
+plant, which no one has yet succeeded in identifying, as an antidote
+against the bite of the venomous serpents on which it preys: There is no
+doubt that, in its conflicts with the cobra de capello and other
+poisonous snakes, which it attacks with as little hesitation as the
+harmless ones, it may be seen occasionally to retreat, and even to
+retire into the jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable; but a
+gentleman, who has been a frequent observer of its exploits, assures me
+that most usually the herb it resorted to was grass; and if this were
+not at hand, almost any other plant that grew near seemed equally
+acceptable. Hence has probably arisen the long list of plants, such as
+the _Ophioxylon serpentinum_ and _Ophiorhiza mungos_, the _Aristolochia
+Indica_, the _Mimosa octandria_, and others, each of which has been
+asserted to be the ichneumon's specific; whilst their multiplicity is
+demonstrative of the non-existence of any one in particular on which the
+animal relies as an antidote. Were there any truth in the tale as
+regards the mongoos, it would be difficult to understand why creatures,
+such as the secretary bird and the falcon, and others, which equally
+destroy serpents, should be left defenceless, and the ichneumon alone
+provided with a prophylactic. Besides, were the ichneumon inspired by
+that courage which would result from the consciousness of security, it
+would be so indifferent to the bite of the serpent that we might
+conclude that, both in its approaches and its assault, it would be
+utterly careless as to the precise mode of its attack. Such, however, is
+far from being the case: and next to its audacity, nothing can be more
+surprising than the adroitness with which it escapes the spring of the
+snake under a due sense of danger, and the cunning with which it makes
+its arrangements to leap upon the back and fasten its teeth in the head
+of the cobra. It is this display of instinctive ingenuity that Lucan[1]
+celebrates where he paints the ichneumon diverting the attention of the
+asp, by the motion of his bushy tail, and then seizing it in the midst
+of its confusion:--
+
+  "Aspidas ut Pharias caudâ solertior hostis
+  Ludit, et iratas incertâ provocat umbrâ:
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 1: The passage in Lucan is a versification of the same
+narrative related by Pliny, lib. viii. ch. 53; and Ælian, lib. iii. ch.
+22.]
+
+  Obliquusque caput vanas serpentis in auras
+  Effuse toto comprendit guttura morsu
+  Letiferam citra saniem; tunc irrita pestis
+  Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno."
+                      _Pharsalia_, lib. iv. v. 729.
+
+The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has been referred to the
+supposition that there may be some peculiarity in its organisation which
+renders it _proof against_ the poison of the serpent. It remains for
+future investigation to determine how far this conjecture is founded in
+truth; and whether in the blood of the mongoos there exists any element
+or quality which acts as a prophylactic. Such exceptional provisions are
+not without precedent in the animal oeconomy: the hornbill feeds with
+impunity on the deadly fruit of the strychnos; the milky juice of some
+species of euphorbia, which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal to
+the zebra; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa, whose bite is
+mortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse, is harmless to man and the
+untamed creatures of the forest.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. LIVINGSTONE, _Tour in S. Africa_, p. 80. Is it a fact
+that, in America, pigs extirpate the rattlesnakes with impunity?]
+
+The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos, which they designate
+"_Hotambeya_" and which they assert never preys upon serpents. A writer
+in the _Ceylon Miscellany_ mentions, that they are often to be seen
+"crossing rivers and frequently mud-brooks near Chilaw; the adjacent
+thickets affording them shelter, and their food consisting of aquatic
+reptiles, crabs, and mollusca."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This is possibly the "musbilai" or mouse-cat of Behar,
+which preys upon birds and fish. Can it be the Urva of the Nepalese
+(_Urva cancrivora_, Hodgson), which Mr. Hodgson describes as dwelling in
+burrows, and being carnivorous and ranivorous?--Vide _Journ. As. Soc.
+Beng._ vol. vi. p. 56.]
+
+[Illustration: FLYING SQUIRREL.]
+
+IV. RODENTIA. _Squirrels_.--Smaller animals in great numbers enliven the
+forests and lowland plains with their graceful movements. Squirrels[1],
+of which there are a great variety, make their shrill metallic call
+heard at early morning in the woods; and when sounding their note of
+warning on the approach of a civet or a tree-snake, the ears tingle with
+the loud trill of defiance, which rings as clear and rapid as the
+running down of an alarum, and is instantly caught up and re-echoed from
+every side by their terrified playmates.
+
+[Footnote 1: Of two kinds which frequent the mountains, one which is
+peculiar to Ceylon was discovered by Mr. Edgar L. Layard, who has done
+me the honour to call it the _Sciurus Tennentii_. Its dimensions are
+large, measuring upwards of two feet from head to tail. It is
+distinguished from the _S. macrurus_ by the predominant black colour of
+the upper surface of the body, with the exception of a rusty spot at the
+base of the ears.]
+
+One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied subgenus, is known as
+the "Flying Squirrel,"[1] from its being assisted, in its prodigious
+leaps from tree to tree, by a parachute formed by the skin of the
+flanks, which, on the extension of the limbs front and rear, is
+laterally expanded from foot to foot. Thus buoyed up in its descent, the
+spring which it is enabled to make from one lofty tree to another
+resembles the flight of a bird rather than the bound of a quadruped.
+
+[Footnote 1: Pteromys oral., _Tickel_. P. petaurista, _Pallas_.]
+
+Of these pretty creatures there are two species, one common to Ceylon
+and India, the other (_Sciuropterus Layardii_, Kelaart) is peculiar to
+the island, and by far the most beautiful of the family.
+
+_Rats_.--Among the multifarious inhabitants to which the forest affords
+at once a home and provender is the tree rat[1], which forms its nest on
+the branches, and by turns makes its visits to the dwellings of the
+natives, frequenting the ceilings in preference to the lower parts of
+houses. Here it is incessantly followed by the rat-snake[2], whose
+domestication is encouraged by the servants, in consideration of its
+services in destroying vermin. I had one day an opportunity of
+surprising a snake that had just seized on a rat of this description,
+and of covering it suddenly with a glass shade, before it had time to
+swallow its prey. The serpent, appeared stunned by its own capture, and
+allowed the rat to escape from its jaws, which cowered at one side of
+the glass in the most pitiable state of trembling terror. The two were
+left alone for some moments, and on my return to them the snake was as
+before in the same attitude of sullen stupor. On setting them at
+liberty, the rat bounded towards the nearest fence; but quick as
+lightning it was followed by its pursuer, which seized it before it
+could gain the hedge, through which I saw the snake glide with its
+victim in its jaws. In parts of the central province, at Oovah and
+Bintenne, the house-rat is eaten as a common article of food. The
+Singhalese believe it and the mouse to be liable to hydrophobia.
+
+[Footnote 1: There are two species of the tree rat in Ceylon: M.
+rufescens, _Gray_; (M. flavescens, _Elliot_;) and Mus nemoralis,
+_Blyth_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Coryphodon Blumenbachii, _Merr_.]
+
+Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which made its appearance
+for the first time in the coffee plantations on the Kandyan hills in the
+year 1847; and in such swarms does it continue to infest them, at
+intervals, that as many as a thousand have been killed in a single day
+on one estate. In order to reach the buds and blossoms of the coffee, it
+cuts such of the slender branches as would not sustain its weight, and
+feeds on them when fallen to the ground; and so delicate and sharp are
+its incisors, that the twigs thus destroyed are detached by as clean a
+cut as if severed with a knife.
+
+The coffee-rat[1] is an insular variety of the _Mus hirsutus_ of W.
+Elliot, found in Southern India. They inhabit the forests, making their
+nests among the roots of the trees, and feeding, in the season, on the
+ripe seeds of the nilloo. Like the lemmings of Norway and Lapland, they
+migrate in vast numbers on the occurrence of a scarcity of their
+ordinary food. The Malabar coolies are so fond of their flesh, that they
+evince a preference for those districts in which the coffee plantations
+are subject to their incursions, where they fry the rats in coco-nut
+oil, or convert them into curry.
+
+[Footnote 1: Golunda Ellioti, _Gray_.]
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE RAT.]
+
+_Bandicoot_.--Another favourite article of food with the coolies is the
+pig-rat or Bandicoot[1], which attains on those hills the weight of two
+or three pounds, and grows to nearly the length of two feet. As it feeds
+on grain and roots, its flesh is said to be delicate, and much
+resembling young pork.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mus bandicota, _Beckst._ The English term bandicoot is a
+corruption of the Telinga name _pandikoku_, literally _pig-rat_.]
+
+Its nests, when rifled, are frequently found to contain considerable
+quantities of rice, stored up against the dry season.
+
+[Illustration: BANDICOOT.]
+
+_Porcupine_.--The Porcupine[1] is another of the _rodentia_ which has
+drawn down upon itself the hostility of the planters, from its
+destruction of the young coconut palms, to which it is a pernicious and
+persevering, but withal so crafty, a visitor, that it is with difficulty
+any trap can be so disguised, or any bait made so alluring, as to lead
+to its capture. The usual expedient in Ceylon is to place some of its
+favourite food at the extremity of a trench, so narrow as to prevent the
+porcupine turning, whilst the direction of his quills effectually bars
+his retreat backwards. On a newly planted coconut tope, at Hang-welle,
+within a few miles of Colombo, I have heard of as many as twenty-seven
+being thus captured in a single night; but such success is rare. The
+more ordinary expedient is to smoke them out by burning straw at the
+apertures of their burrows. At Ootacamund, on the continent of the
+Dekkan, spring-guns have been used with great success by the
+Superintendent of the Horticultural Gardens; placing them so as to sweep
+the runs of the porcupines. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon,
+and in consistency, colour, and flavour it very much resembles young
+pork.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hystrix leucurus, _Sykes_.]
+
+V. EDENTATA. _Pengolin_.--Of the Edentata the only example in Ceylon is
+the scaly ant-eater, called by the Singhalese, Caballaya, but usually
+known by its Malay name of _Pengolin_[1], a word indicative of its
+faculty, when alarmed, of "rolling itself up" into a compact ball, by
+bending its head towards its stomach, arching its back into a circle,
+and securing all by a powerful fold of its mail-covered tail. The feet
+of the pengolin are armed with powerful claws, which in walking they
+double in, like the ant-eater of Brazil. These they use in extracting
+their favourite food from ant-hills and decaying wood. When at liberty,
+they burrow in the dry ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, where
+they reside in pairs, and produce annually one or two young.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Manis pentadactyla, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 2: I am assured that there is a hedge-hog in Ceylon; but as I
+have never seen it, I cannot tell whether it belongs to either of the
+two species known in India (_Erinaceus mentalis_ and _E. collaris_)--nor
+can I vouch for its existence there at all. But the fact was told to me,
+in connexion with the statement, that its favourite dwelling is in the
+same burrow with the pengolin. The popular belief in this is attested by
+a Singhalese proverb, in relation to an intrusive personage; the import
+of which is that he is like "_a hedge-hog in the den of a pengolin_."]
+
+Of two specimens which I kept alive at different times, one, about two
+feet in length, from the vicinity of Kandy, was a gentle and affectionate
+creature, which, after wandering over the house in search of ants, would
+attract attention to its wants by climbing up my knee, laying hold of my
+leg with its prehensile tail. The other, more than double that length,
+was caught in the jungle near Chilaw, and brought to me in Colombo. I
+had always understood that the pengolin was unable to climb trees; but
+the one last mentioned frequently ascended a tree in my garden, in
+search of ants; and this it effected by means of its hooked feet, aided
+by an oblique grasp of the tail. The ants it seized by extending its
+round and glutinous tongue along their tracks; and in the stomach of one
+which was opened after death, I found a quantity of small stones and
+gravel, which had been taken to facilitate digestion. In both specimens
+in my possession the scales of the back were a cream-coloured white,
+with a tinge of red in that which came from Chilaw, probably acquired by
+the insinuation of the Cabook dust which abounds along the western coast
+of the island.
+
+[Illustration: THE PENGOLIN.]
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF PENGOLIN.]
+
+Of the habits of the pengolin I found that very little was known by the
+natives, who regard it with aversion, one name given to it being the
+"Negombo Devil." Those kept by me were, generally speaking, quiet during
+the day, and grew restless and active as evening and night approached.
+Both had been taken near rocks, in the hollows of which they had their
+dwelling, but owing to their slow power of motion, they were unable to
+reach their hiding place when overtaken. When frightened, they rolled
+themselves instantly into a rounded ball; and such was the powerful
+force of muscle, that the strength of a man was insufficient to uncoil
+it. In reconnoitring they made important use of the tail, resting upon
+it and their hind legs, and holding themselves nearly erect, to command
+a view of their object. The strength of this powerful limb will be
+perceived from the accompanying drawing of the skeleton of the Manis; in
+which it will be seen that the tail is equal in length to all the rest
+of the body, whilst the vertebræ which compose it are stronger by far
+than those of the back.
+
+From the size and position of the bones of the leg, the pengolin is
+endued with prodigious power; and its faculty of exerting this
+vertically, was displayed in overturning heavy cases, by insinuating
+itself under them, between the supports, by which it is customary in
+Ceylon to raise trunks a few inches above the floor, in order to prevent
+the attacks of white ants.
+
+VI. RUMINANTIA. _The Gaur_.--Besides the deer, and some varieties of the
+humped ox, that have been introduced from the opposite continent of
+India, Ceylon has probably but one other indigenous bovine _ruminant_,
+the buffalo.[1] There is a tradition that the gaur, found in the
+extremity of the Indian peninsula, was at one period a native of the
+Kandyan Mountains; but as Knox speaks of one which in his time "was kept
+among the king's creatures" at Kandy[2], and his account of it tallies
+with that of the _Bos Gaurus_ of Hindustan, it would appear even then to
+have been a rarity. A place between Neuera-ellia and Adam's Peak bears
+the name of "Gowra-ellia," and it is not impossible that the animal may
+yet be discovered in some of the imperfectly explored regions of the
+island.[3] I have heard of an instance in which a very old Kandyan,
+residing in the mountains near the Horton Plains, asserted that when
+young he had seen what he believed to have been a gaur, and he described
+it as between an elk and a buffalo in size, dark brown in colour, and
+very scantily provided with hair.
+
+[Footnote 1: Bubalus buffelus, _Gray_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: KNOX, _Historical Relation of Ceylon, &c._, A.D. 1681. Book
+i. c. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 3: KELAART, _Fauna Zeylan_., p. 87.]
+
+_Oxen_.--Oxen are used by the peasantry both in ploughing and in
+tempering the mud in the wet paddi fields before sowing the rice; and
+when the harvest is reaped they "tread out the corn," after the
+immemorial custom of the East. The wealth of the native chiefs and
+landed proprietors frequently consists in their herds of bullocks, which
+they hire out to their dependents during the seasons for agricultural
+labour; and as they already supply them with land to be tilled, and lend
+the seed which is to crop it, the further contribution of this portion
+of the labour serves to render the dependence of the peasantry on the
+chiefs and headmen complete.
+
+The cows are often worked as well as the oxen; and as the calves are
+always permitted to suck them, milk is an article which the traveller
+can rarely hope to procure in a Kandyan village. From their constant
+exposure at all seasons, the cattle in Ceylon, both those employed in
+agriculture and those on the roads, are subject to devastating murrains,
+that sweep them away by thousands. So frequent is the recurrence of
+these calamities, and so extended their ravages, that they exercise a
+serious influence upon the commercial interests of the colony, by
+reducing the facilities of agriculture, and augmenting the cost of
+carriage during the most critical periods of the coffee harvest.
+
+A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, frequently carries off the
+cattle in Assam and other hill countries on the continent of India; and
+there, as in Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the lungs and throat,
+and the internal derangement and external eruptive appearances, seem to
+indicate that the disease is a feverish influenza, attributable to
+neglect and exposure in a moist and variable climate; and that its
+prevention might be hoped for, and the cattle preserved, by the simple
+expedient of more humane and considerate treatment, especially by
+affording them cover at night.
+
+During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred at Neuera-ellia,
+which invested one of these pretty animals with an heroic interest. A
+little cow, belonging to an English gentleman, was housed, together with
+her calf, near the dwelling of her owner, and being aroused during the
+night by her furious bellowing, the servants, on hastening to the stall,
+found her goring a leopard, which had stolen in to attack the calf. She
+had got it into a corner, and whilst lowing incessantly to call for
+help, she continued to pound it with her horns. The wild animal,
+apparently stupified by her unexpected violence, was detained by her
+till despatched by a bullet.
+
+The number of bullock-carts encountered between Colombo and Kandy, laden
+with coffee from the interior, or carrying up rice and stores for the
+supply of the plantations in the hill-country, is quite surprising. The
+oxen thus employed on this single road, about seventy miles long, are
+estimated at upwards of twenty thousand. The bandy to which they are
+yoked is a barbarous two-wheeled waggon, with a covering of plaited
+coco-nut leaves, in which a pair of strong bullocks will draw from five
+to ten hundred weight, according to the nature of the country; and with
+this load on a level they will perform a journey of twenty miles a day.
+
+A few of the large humped cattle of India are annually imported for
+draught; but the vast majority of those in use are small and
+dark-coloured, with a graceful head and neck, and elevated hump, a deep
+silky dewlap, and limbs as slender as a deer. They appear to have
+neither the strength nor weight requisite for this service; and yet the
+entire coffee crop of Ceylon, amounting annually to upwards of half a
+million hundred weight, is year after year brought down from the
+mountains to the coast by these indefatigable little creatures, which,
+on returning, carry up proportionally heavy loads, of rice and
+implements for the estates.[1] There are two varieties of the native
+bullock; one a somewhat coarser animal, of a deep red colour; the other,
+the high-bred black one I have just described. So rare was a white one
+of this species, under the native kings, that the Kandyans were
+compelled to set them apart for the royal herd.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: A pair of these little bullocks carry up about twenty
+bushels of rice to the hills, and bring down from fifty to sixty bushels
+of coffee to Colombo.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WOLF says that, in the year 1763, he saw in Ceylon two
+white oxen, each of which measured upwards of eight feet high. They were
+sent as a present from the King of Atchin.--_Life and Adventures_, p.
+172.]
+
+Although bullocks may be said to be the only animals of draught and
+burden in Ceylon (horses being rarely used except in spring carriages),
+no attempt has been made to improve the breed, or even to better the
+condition and treatment of those in use. Their food is indifferent,
+pasture in all parts of the island being rare, and cattle are seldom
+housed under any vicissitudes of weather.
+
+The labour for which they are best adapted, and in which, before the
+opening of roads, these cattle were formerly employed, is in traversing
+the jungle paths of the interior, carrying light loads as pack-oxen in
+what is called a "_tavalam_"--a term which, substituting bullocks for
+camels, is equivalent to a "caravan."[1] The class of persons engaged in
+this traffic in Ceylon resemble in their occupations the "Banjarees" of
+Hindustan, who bring down to the coast corn, cotton, and oil, and take
+back to the interior cloths and iron and copper utensils. In the
+unopened parts of the island, and especially in the eastern provinces,
+this primitive practice still continues. When travelling in these
+districts I have often encountered long files of pack-bullocks toiling
+along the mountain paths, their bells tinkling musically as they moved;
+or halting during the noonday heat beside some stream in the forests,
+their burdens piled in heaps near the drivers, who had lighted their
+cooking fires, whilst the bullocks were permitted to bathe and browse.
+
+[Footnote 1: Attempts have been made to domesticate the camel in Ceylon;
+but, I am told, they died of ulcers in the feet, attributed to the too
+great moisture of the roads at certain seasons. This explanation seems
+insufficient if taken in connection with the fact of the camel living in
+perfect health in climates equally, if not more, exposed to rain. I
+apprehend that sufficient justice has not been done to the experiment.]
+
+The persons engaged in this wandering trade are chiefly Moors, and the
+business carried on by them consists in bringing up salt from the
+government depots on the coast to be bartered with the Kandyans in the
+hills for "native coffee," which is grown in small quantities round
+every house, but without systematic cultivation. This they carry down to
+the maritime towns, and the proceeds are invested in cotton cloths and
+brass utensils, dried fish, and other commodities, with which the
+_tavalams_ supply the secluded villages of the interior.
+
+_The Buffalo_.--Buffaloes abound in all parts of Ceylon, but they are
+only to be seen in their native wildness in the vast solitudes of the
+northern and eastern provinces, where rivers, lagoons, and dilapidated
+tanks abound. In these they delight to immerse themselves, till only
+their heads appear above the surface; or, enveloped in mud to protect
+themselves from the assaults of insects, they luxuriate in the long
+sedges by the water margins. When the buffalo is browsing, a crow will
+frequently be seen stationed on its back, engaged in freeing it from the
+ticks and other pests which attach themselves to its leathery hide, the
+smooth brown surface of which, unprotected by hair, shines with an
+unpleasant polish in the sunlight. When in motion a buffalo throws back
+its clumsy head till the huge horns rest on its shoulders, and the nose
+is presented in a line with the eyes.
+
+The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain, and such is its
+strength and courage that in the Hindu epic of the Ramayana its
+onslaught is compared to that of the tiger.[1] It is never quite safe to
+approach them, if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from their
+repose in the shallow lakes. On such occasions they hurry into line,
+draw up in defensive array, with a few of the oldest bulls in advance;
+and, wheeling in circles, their horns clashing with a loud sound as they
+clank them together in their rapid evolutions, they prepare for attack;
+but generally, after a menacing display the herd betake themselves to
+flight; then forming again at a safer distance, they halt as before,
+elevating their nostrils, and throwing back their heads to take a
+defiant survey of the intruders. The true sportsman rarely molests them,
+so huge a creature affording no worthy mark for his skill, and their
+wanton slaughter adds nothing to the supply of food for their assailant.
+
+[Footnote 1: CAREY and MARSHMAN'S Transl. vol. i. p. 430, 447.]
+
+In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese domesticate buffaloes,
+and use them to assist in the labour of the rice lands, the villagers
+are much annoyed by the wild ones, that mingle with the tame when sent
+out to the woods to pasture; and it constantly happens that a savage
+stranger, placing himself at the head of the tame herd, resists the
+attempts of the owners to drive them homewards at sunset. In the
+districts of Putlam and the Seven Corles, buffaloes are generally used
+for draught; and in carrying heavy loads of salt from the coast towards
+the interior, they drag a cart over roads which would defy the weaker
+strength of bullocks.
+
+In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie I found the natives
+making an ingenious use of them when engaged in shooting water-fowl in
+the vast salt marshes and muddy lakes. Being an object to which the
+birds are accustomed, the Singhalese train the buffalo to the sport,
+and, concealed behind, the animal browsing listlessly along, they guide
+it by ropes attached to its horns, and thus creep undiscovered within
+shot of the flock. The same practice prevails, I believe, in some of the
+northern parts of India, where they are similarly trained to assist the
+sportsman in approaching deer. One of these "sporting buffaloes" sells
+for a considerable sum.
+
+In the thick forests which cover the Passdun Corle, to the east, and
+south of Caltura, the natives use the sporting buffalo in another way,
+to assist in hunting deer and wild hogs. A bell is attached to its neck,
+and a box or basket with one side open is securely strapped on its back.
+This at nightfall is lighted by flambeaux of wax, and the buffalo
+bearing it, is driven slowly into the jungle. The huntsmen, with their
+fowling pieces, keep close under the darkened side, and as it moves
+slowly onwards, the wild animals, startled by the sound, and bewildered
+by the light, steal cautiously towards it in stupified fascination. Even
+the snakes, I am assured, will be attracted by this extraordinary
+object; and the leopard too falls a victim to curiosity.
+
+There is a peculiarity in the formation of the buffalo's foot, which,
+though it must have attracted attention, I have never seen mentioned by
+naturalists. It is equivalent to the arrangement which distinguishes the
+foot of the reindeer from that of the stag and the antelope. In the
+latter, the hoofs, being constructed for lightness and flight, are
+compact and vertical; but, in the reindeer, the joints of the tarsal
+bones admit of lateral expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards,
+while the two secondary ones behind (which are but slightly developed in
+the fallow deer and others of the same family) are prolonged vertically
+till, in certain positions, they are capable of being applied to the
+ground, thus adding to the circumference and sustaining power of the
+foot. It has been usually suggested as the probable design of this
+structure, that it is to enable the reindeer to shovel away the snow in
+order to reach the lichens beneath it; but I apprehend that another use
+of it has been overlooked, that of facilitating its movements in search
+of food by increasing the difficulty of its sinking in the snow.
+
+A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems to point to a
+corresponding design. The ox, whose life is spent on firm ground, has
+the bones of the foot so constructed as to afford the most solid support
+to an animal of its great weight; but in the buffalo, which delights in
+the morasses on the margins of pools and rivers, the construction of the
+foot resembles that of the reindeer. The tarsi in front extend almost
+horizontally from the upright bones of the leg, and spread apart widely
+on touching the ground; the hoofs are flattened and broad, with the
+extremities turned upwards; and the false hoofs behind descend till they
+make a clattering sound as the animal walks. In traversing the marshes,
+this combination of abnormal incidents serves to give extraordinary
+breadth to the foot, and not only prevents the buffalo from sinking
+inconveniently in soft ground[1], but at the same time presents no
+obstacle to the withdrawal of its foot from the mud.
+
+[Footnote 1: PROFESSOR OWEN has noticed a similar fact regarding the
+rudiments of the second and fifth digits in the instance of the elk and
+bison, which have them largely expanded where they inhabit swampy
+ground; whilst they are nearly obliterated in the camel and dromedary,
+that traverse arid deserts.--OWEN _on Limbs_, p. 34; see also BELL _on
+the Hand_, ch. iii.]
+
+The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in Ceylon as an albino,
+with purely white hair and a pink iris.
+
+_Deer_.--"Deer," says the truthful old chronicler, Robert Knox, "are in
+great abundance in the woods, from the largeness of a cow to the
+smallness of a hare, for here is a creature in this land no bigger than
+the latter, though every part rightly resembleth a deer: it is called
+_meminna_, of a grey colour, with white spots and good meat."[1] The
+little creature which thus dwelt in the recollection of the old man, as
+one of the memorials of his long captivity, is the small "musk deer"[2]
+so called in India, although neither sex is provided with a musk-bag.
+The Europeans in Ceylon know it by the name of the "moose deer;" and in
+all probability the terms _musk_ and _moose_ are both corruptions of the
+Dutch word "_muis_," or "mouse" deer, a name particularly applicable to
+the timid and crouching attitudes and aspect of this beautiful little
+creature. Its extreme length never reaches two feet; and of those which
+were domesticated about my house, few exceeded ten inches in height,
+their graceful limbs being of proportionate delicacy. It possesses long
+and extremely large tusks, with which it can inflict a severe bite. The
+interpreter moodliar of Negombo had a _milk white_ meminna in 1847,
+which he designed to send home as an acceptable present to Her Majesty,
+but it was unfortunately killed by an accident.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Relation, &c._, book i. c. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Moschus meminna.]
+
+[Footnote 3: When the English look possession of Kandy, in 1803, they
+found "five beautiful milk-white deer in the palace, which was noted as
+a very extraordinary thing."--_Letter_ in Appendix to PERCIVAL'S
+_Ceylon_, p. 428. The writer does not say of what species they were.]
+
+[Illustration: "MOOSE" DEER (MOSCHUS MEMINNA)]
+
+_Ceylon Elk_.--In the mountains, the Ceylon elk[1], which reminds one of
+the red deer of Scotland, attains the height of four or five feet; it
+abounds in all shady places that are intersected by rivers; where,
+though its chase affords an endless resource to the sportsman, its
+venison scarcely equals in quality the inferior beef of the lowland ox.
+In the glades and park-like openings that diversify the great forests of
+the interior, the spotted Axis troops in herds as numerous as the fallow
+deer in England: but, in journeys through the jungle, when often
+dependent on the guns of our party for the precarious supply of the
+table, we found the flesh of the Axis[2] and the Muntjac[3] a sorry
+substitute for that of the pea-fowl, the jungle-cock, and flamingo. The
+occurrence of albinos is very frequent in troops of the axis. Deer's
+horns are an article of export from Ceylon, and considerable quantities
+are annually sent to the United Kingdom.
+
+[Footnote 1: Rusa Aristotelis. Dr. GRAY has lately shown that this is
+the great _axis_ of Cuvier.--_Oss. Foss._ 502. t. 39; f. 10: The
+Singhalese, on following the elk, frequently effect their approaches by
+so imitating the call of the animal as to induce them to respond. An
+instance occurred during my residence in Ceylon, in which two natives,
+whose mimicry had mutually deceived them, crept so close together in the
+jungle that one shot the other, supposing the cry to proceed from the
+game.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Axis maculata, _H. Smith_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Stylocerus muntjac, _Horss_.]
+
+VII. PACHYDERMATA.--_The Elephant_.--The elephant, and the wild boar,
+the Singhalese "waloora,"[1] are the only representatives of the
+_pachydermatous_ order. The latter, which differs somewhat from the wild
+boar of India, is found in droves in all parts of the island where
+vegetation and water are abundant.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. BLYTH of Calcutta has distinguished, from the hog,
+common in India, a specimen sent to him from Ceylon, the skull of which
+approaches in form, that of a species from Borneo, the _susbarbatus_ of
+S. Müller.]
+
+The elephant, the lord paramount of the Ceylon forests, is to be met
+with in every district, on the confines of the woods, in the depths of
+which he finds concealment and shade during the hours when the sun is
+high, and from which he emerges only at twilight to wend his way towards
+the rivers and tanks, where he luxuriates till dawn, when he again seeks
+the retirement of the deep forests. This noble animal fills so dignified
+a place both in the zoology and oeconomy of Ceylon, and his habits in a
+state of nature have been so much misunderstood, that I shall devote a
+separate section to his defence from misrepresentation, and to an
+exposition of what, from observation and experience, I believe to be his
+genuine character when free in his native domains. But this seems the
+proper place to allude to a recent discovery in connexion with the
+elephant, which strikingly confirms a conjecture which I ventured to
+make elsewhere[1], relative to the isolation of Ceylon and its
+distinctness, in many remarkable particulars, from the great continent
+of India. Every writer who previously treated of the island, including
+the accomplished Dr. Davy and the erudite Lassen, was contented, by a
+glance at its outline and a reference to its position on the map, to
+assume that Ceylon was a fragment, which in a very remote age had been
+torn from the adjacent mainland, by some convulsion of nature. Hence it
+was taken for granted that the vegetation which covers and the races of
+animals which inhabit it, must be identical with those of Hindustan; to
+which Ceylon was alleged to bear the same relation as Sicily presents to
+the peninsula of Italy. MALTE BRUN[2] and the geographers generally,
+declared the larger animals of either to be common to both. I was led to
+question the soundness of this dictum;--and from a closer examination of
+its geological conformation and of its botanical and zoological
+characteristics I came to the conclusion that not only is there an
+absence of sameness between the formations of the two localities; but
+that plants and animals, mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects exist in
+Ceylon, which are not to be found in the flora and fauna of the Dekkan;
+but which present a striking affinity, and occasionally an actual
+identity, with those of the Malayan countries and some of the islands of
+the Eastern Archipelago. Startling as this conclusion appeared to be, it
+was strangely in unison with the legends of the Singhalese themselves,
+that at an infinitely remote period Ceylon formed an integral portion of
+a vast continent, known in the mythical epics of the Brahmans by the
+designation of "_Lanka_;" so immense that its southern extremity fell
+below the equator, whilst in breadth it was prolonged till its western
+and eastern boundaries touch at once upon the shores of Africa and
+China.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ceylon, &c._, by Sir J. EMERSON TENNENT, vol. i. pp. 7,
+13, 85, 160, 183, n., 205, 270, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 2: MALTE BRUN, _Geogr. Univ._, l. xlix.]
+
+Dim as is this ancient tradition, it is in consistency with the
+conclusions of modern geology, that at the commencement of the tertiary
+period northern Asia and a considerable part of India were in all
+probability covered by the sea but that south of India land extended
+eastward and westward connecting Malacca with Arabia. PROFESSOR ANSTED
+has propounded this view. His opinion is, that the Himalayas then
+existed only as a chain of islands, and did not till a much later age
+become elevated into mountain ranges,--a change which took place during
+the same revolution that raised the great plains of Siberia and Tartary
+and many parts of north-western Europe. At the same time the great
+continent whose position between the tropics has been alluded to, and
+whose previous existence is still indicated by the Coral islands, the
+Laccadives, the Maldives, and the Chagos group, underwent simultaneous
+depression by a counteracting movement.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _The Ancient World_, by D.T. ANSTED, M.A., &c., pp.
+322-324.]
+
+But divested of oriental mystery and geologic conjecture, and brought to
+the test of "geographical distribution," this once prodigious continent
+would appear to have connected the distant Islands of Ceylon and Sumatra
+and possibly to have united both to the Malay peninsula, from which the
+latter is now severed by the Straits of Malacca. The proofs of physical
+affinity between these scattered localities are exceedingly curious.
+
+A striking dissimilarity presents itself between some of the Mammalia of
+Ceylon and those of the continent of India. In its general outline and
+feature, this branch of the island fauna, no doubt, exhibits a general
+resemblance to that of the mainland, although many of the larger animals
+of the latter are unknown in Ceylon: but, on the other hand, some
+species discovered there are peculiar to the island. A deer[1] as large
+as the Axis, but differing from it in the number and arrangement of its
+spots, has been described by Dr. Kelaart, to whose vigilance the natural
+history of Ceylon is indebted, amongst others, for the identification of
+two new species of monkeys[2], a number of curious shrews[3], and an
+orange-coloured ichneumon[4], before unknown. There are also two
+squirrels[5] that have not as yet been discovered elsewhere, (one of
+them belonging to those equipped with a parachute[6],) as well as some
+local varieties of the palm squirrel (Sciurus penicillatus, _Leach_).[7]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cervus orizus, KELAART, _Prod. F. Zeyl.,_ p. 83.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Presbytes ursinus, _Blyth_, and P. Thersites, _Elliot_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Sorex montanus, S. ferrugineus, and Feroculus macropus.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Herpestes fulvescens, KELAART, _Prod. Faun. Zeylan_.. App.
+p. 42.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Sciurus Tennentii, _Layard_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Sciuropterus Layardi, _Kelaart_.]
+
+[Footnote 7: There is a rat found only in the Cinnamon Gardens at
+Colombo, Mus Ceylonus, _Kelaart_; and a mouse which Dr. Kelaart
+discovered at Trincomalie, M. fulvidiventris, _Blyth_, both peculiar to
+Ceylon. Dr. TEMPLETON has noticed a little shrew (Corsira purpurascens,
+_Mag. Nat. Hist_. 1855, p. 238) at Neuera-ellia, not as yet observed
+elsewhere.]
+
+But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a number of minor animals found
+in the Indian peninsula, cannot boast such a ruminant as the majestic
+Gaur[1], which inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin to the
+Himalaya; and, providentially, the island is equally free of the
+formidable tiger and the ferocious wolf of Hindustan. The Hyena and
+Cheetah[2], common in Southern India, are unknown in Ceylon; and, though
+abundant in deer, the island possesses no example of the Antelope or the
+Gazelle.
+
+[Footnote 1: Bos cavifrons, _Hodgs_.; B. frontalis, _Lamb_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Felis jubata, _Schreb_.]
+
+Amongst the Birds of Ceylon, the same abnormity is apparent. About
+thirty-eight species will be presently particularised[1], which,
+although some of them may hereafter be discovered to have a wider
+geographical range, are at present believed to be unknown in continental
+India. I might further extend this enumeration, by including the Cheela
+eagle of Ceylon, which, although I have placed it in my list as
+identical with the _Hematornis cheela_ of the Dekkan, is, I have since
+been assured, a different bird, and is most probably the _Falco bido_ of
+Horsfield, known to us by specimens obtained from Java and Sumatra.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Chapter on the Birds of Ceylon.]
+
+As to the Fishes of Ceylon, they are of course less distinct; and
+besides they have hitherto been very imperfectly compared. But the
+Insects afford a remarkable confirmation of the view I have ventured to
+propound; so much so that Mr. Walker, by whom the elaborate lists
+appended to this work have been prepared, asserts that some of the
+families have a less affinity to the entomology of India than to that of
+Australia.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Chapter on the Insects of Ceylon.]
+
+But more conclusive than all, is the discovery to which I have alluded,
+in relation to the elephant of Ceylon. Down to a very recent period it
+was universally believed that only two species of the elephant are now
+in existence, the African and the Asiatic; distinguished by certain
+peculiarities in the shape of the cranium, the size of the ears, the
+ridges of the teeth, the number of vertebræ, and, according to Cuvier,
+in the number of nails on the hind feet. The elephant of Ceylon was
+believed to be identical with the elephant of India. But some few years
+back, TEMMINCK, in his survey of the Dutch possessions in the Indian
+Archipelago[1], announced the fact that the elephant which abounds in
+Sumatra (although unknown in the adjacent island of Java), and which had
+theretofore been regarded as the same species with the Indian one, has
+been recently found to possess peculiarities, in which it differs as
+much from the elephant of India, as the latter from its African
+congener. On this new species of elephant, to which the natives give the
+name of _gadjah_, TEMMINCK has conferred the scientific designation of
+the _Elephas Sumatranus_.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Coup d'Oeil Général sur les Possessions Néerlandaises dans
+l'Inde Archipélagique_.]
+
+The points which entitle it to this distinction he enumerated minutely
+in the work[1] before alluded to, but they have been summarized as
+follows by Prince Lucien Bonaparte.
+
+[Footnote 1: TEMMINCK, _Coup-d'oeil, &c_., t. i. c. iv. p. 328.; t. ii.
+c. iii. p. 91.]
+
+"This species is perfectly intermediate between the Indian and African,
+especially in the shape of the skull, and will certainly put an end to
+the distinction between _Elephas_ and _Loxodon_, with those who admit
+that anatomical genus; since although the crowns of the teeth of _E.
+Sumatranus_ are more like the Asiatic animal, still the less numerous
+undulated ribbons of enamel are nearly quite as wide as those forming
+the lozenges of the African. The number of pairs of false ribs (which
+alone vary, the true ones being always six) is fourteen, one less than
+in the _Africanus_, _one_ more than in the _Indicus_; and so it is with
+the dorsal vertebræ, which are twenty in the _Sumatranus_ (_twenty-one_
+and _nineteen_, in the others), whilst the new species agrees with
+_Africanus_ in the number of sacral vertebræ (_four_), and with
+_Indicus_ in that of the caudal ones, which are _thirty-four_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Proceed. Zool. Soc. London_, 1849. p. 144, _note_. The
+original description of TEMMINCK is as follows:
+
+"Elephas Sumatranus, _Nob_. ressemble, par la forme générale du crâne à
+l'éléphant du continent de l'Asie; mais la partie libre des
+intermaxillaires est beaucoup plus courte et plus étroite; les cavités
+nasales sont beaucoup moins larges; l'espace entre les orbites des yeux
+est plus étroit; la partie postérieur du crâne au contraire est plus
+large que dans l'espèce du continent.
+
+"Les machelières se rapprochent, par la forme de leur couronne, plutòt
+de l'espèce Asíatique que do celle qui est propre à l'Afrique;
+c'est-à-dire que leur couronne offre la forme de rubans ondoyés et non
+pas en losange; mais ces rubans sont de la largeur de ceux qu'on voit à
+la couronne des dents de l'éléphant d'Afrique; ils sont conséquemment
+moins nombreux que dans celuí du continent de l'Asie. Les dimensions de
+ces rubans, dans la direction d'avant en arrière, comparées à celle
+prises dans la direction transversale et latérale, sont en raison de 3
+ou 4 à 1; tandis que dans l'éléphant du continent elles sont comme 4 ou
+6 à 1. La longueur totale de six de ces rubans, dans l'espèce nouvelle
+de Sumatra, ainsi que dans celle d'Afrique, est d'environ 12
+centimètres, tandis que cette longueur n'est que de 8 à 10 centimètres
+dans l'espèce du continent de l'Asie.
+
+"Les autres formes ostéologiques sont à peu près les mêmes dans les
+trois espèces; mais il y a différence dans le nombre des os dont le
+squelette se compose, ainsi que le tableau comparatif ci-joint
+l'éprouve.
+
+"_L'elephas Africanus_ a 7 vertèbres du cou, 21 vert. dorsales, 3
+lombaires, 4 sacrées, et 26 caudales; 21 paires de côtes, dont 6 vraies,
+et 15 fausses. _L'elephas Indicus_ a 7 vertèbres du cou, 19 dorsales, 3
+lombaires, 5 sacrées, et 34 caudales, 19 paires de côtes, dont 6 vraies,
+et 3 fausses. _L'elephas Sumatranus_ a 7 vertèbres du cou, 20 dorsales,
+3 lombaires, 4 sacrées, et 34 caudales; 20 paires du côtes, dont 6
+vraies, et 14 fausses.
+
+"Ces caractères ont été constatés sur trois squelettes de l'espèce
+nouvelle, un mâle et une femelle adultes et un jeune mâle. Nous n'avons
+pas encore été à même de nous procurer la dépouille de cette espèce."]
+
+PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL of Leyden, in a paper lately submitted by him to the
+Royal Academy of Sciences of Holland, (the substance of which he has
+obligingly communicated to me, through Baron Bentinck the Netherlands
+Minister at this Court), has confirmed the identity of the Ceylon
+elephant with that found in the Lampongs of Sumatra. The osteological
+comparison of which TEMMINCK has given the results was, he says,
+conducted by himself with access to four skeletons of the latter. And
+the more recent opportunity of comparing a living Sumatran elephant with
+one from Bengal, has served to establish other though minor points of
+divergence. The Indian species is more robust and powerful: the
+proboscis longer and more slender; and the extremity, (a point, in which
+the elephant of Sumatra resembles that of Africa,) is more flattened and
+provided with coarser and longer hair than that of India.
+
+PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL, adverting to the large export of elephants from
+Ceylon to the Indian continent, which has been carried on from time
+immemorial, suggests the caution with which naturalists, in
+investigating this question, should first satisfy themselves whether the
+elephants they examine are really natives of the mainland,  or whether
+they have been brought to it from the islands.[1] "The extraordinary
+fact," he observes in his letter to me, "of the identity thus
+established between the elephants of Ceylon and Sumatra; and the points
+in which they are found to differ from that of Bengal, leads to the
+question whether all the elephants of the Asiatic continent belong to
+one single species; or whether these vast regions may not produce in
+some quarter as yet unexplored the one hitherto found only in the two
+islands referred to? It is highly desirable that naturalists who have
+the means and opportunity, should exert themselves to discover, whether
+any traces are to be found of the Ceylon elephant in the Dekkan; or of
+that of Sumatra in Cochin China or Siam."
+
+[Footnote 1: A further inquiry suggests itself, how far the intermixture
+of the breed may have served to confound specific differences, in the
+case of elephants bred on the continent of India, from stock partially
+imported from Ceylon?]
+
+To me the establishment of a fact so conclusively confirmatory of the
+theory I had ventured to broach, is productive of great satisfaction.
+But it is not a little remarkable that the distinction should not long
+before have been discovered between the elephant of India and that of
+Ceylon. Nor can it be regarded otherwise than as a singular illustration
+of "geographical distribution" that two remote islands should be thus
+shown to possess in common a species unknown in any other quarter of the
+globe. As bearing on the ancient myth which represents both countries as
+forming parts of a submerged continent, the discovery is curious--and it
+is equally interesting in connection with the circumstance alluded to by
+Gibbon, that amongst the early geographers and even down to a
+comparatively modern date, Sumatra and Ceylon were confounded; and grave
+doubts were entertained as to which of the two was the "Taprobane" of
+antiquity. GEMMA FRISIUS, SEBASTIAN MUNSTER, JULIUS SCALIGER, ORTELIUS
+and MERCATOR contended for the former; SALMASIUS, BOCHART, CLUVERIUS,
+and VOSSIUS for Ceylon: and the controversy did not cease till it was
+terminated by DELISLE about the beginning of the last century.
+
+VIII. CETACEA.--Whales are so frequently seen that they have been
+captured within sight of Colombo, and more than once their carcases,
+after having been flinched by the whalers, have floated on shore near
+the lighthouse, tainting the atmosphere within the fort by their rapid
+decomposition.
+
+Of this family, one of the most remarkable animals on the coast is the
+dugong[1], a phytophagous cetacean, numbers of which are attracted to
+the inlets, from the bay of Calpentyn to Adam's Bridge, by the still
+water and the abundance of marine algæ in these parts of the gulf. One
+which was killed at Manaar and sent to me to Colombo[2] in 1847,
+measured upwards of seven feet in length; but specimens considerably
+larger have been taken at Calpentyn, and their flesh is represented as
+closely resembling veal.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Halicore dugung_, F. Cuv.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The skeleton is now in the Museum of the Natural History
+Society of Belfast.]
+
+[Illustration: THE DUGONG.]
+
+The rude approach to the human outline, observed in the shape of the
+head of this creature, and the attitude of the mother when suckling her
+young, clasping it to her breast with one flipper, while swimming with
+the other, holding the heads of both above water; and when disturbed,
+suddenly diving and displaying her fish-like tail,--these, together with
+her habitual demonstrations of strong maternal affection, probably gave
+rise to the fable of the "mermaid;" and thus that earliest invention of
+mythical physiology may be traced to the Arab seamen and the Greeks, who
+had watched the movements of the dugong in the waters of Manaar.
+
+Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the ocean, near
+Taprobane, with the aspect of a woman[1]; and Ælian, adopting and
+enlarging on his information, peoples the seas of Ceylon with fishes
+having the heads of lions, panthers, and rams, and, stranger still,
+_cetaceans in the form of satyrs_. Statements such as these must have
+had their origin in the hairs, which are set round the mouth of the
+dugong, somewhat resembling a beard, which Ælian and Megasthenes both
+particularise, from their resemblance to the hair of a woman: "[Greek:
+kai gynaikôn opsin echousin aisper anti plokamôn akanthai
+prosêrtêntai"][2]
+
+[Footnote 1: MEGASTHENES, _Indica_, fragm. lix. 34,]
+
+[Footnote 2: ÆLIAN, _Nat. Hist._, lib. xvi. ch. xviii.]
+
+The Portuguese cherished the belief in the mermaid, and the annalist of
+the exploits of the Jesuits in India, gravely records that seven of
+these monsters, male and female, were captured at Manaar in 1560, and
+carried to Goa, where they were dissected by Demas Bosquez, physician to
+the Viceroy, and "their internal structure found to be in all respects
+conformable to the human."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Hist, de la Compagnie de Jésus_, quoted in the _Asiat.
+Journ._ vol. xiv. p. 461; and in FORBES' _Orient. Memoirs_, vol. i. p.
+421.]
+
+The Dutch were no less inclined to the marvellous, and they propagated
+the belief in the mermaid with earnestness and particularity. VALENTYN,
+one of their chaplains, in his account of the Natural History of
+Amboina, embodied in his great work on the Netherlands' Possessions in
+India, published so late as 1727[1], has devoted the first section of
+his chapter on the Fishes of that island to a minute description of the
+"Zee-Menschen, Zee-Wyven," and mermaids. As to the dugong he admits its
+resemblance to the mermaid, but repudiates the idea of its having given
+rise to the fable, by being mistaken for one. This error he imagines
+must have arisen at a time when observations on such matters were made
+with culpable laxity; but now more recent and minute attention has
+established the truth beyond cavil.
+
+[Footnote 1: FRAN. VALENTYN, _Beschryving van Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien_,
+&c. 5 vol. fol. Dordrecht and Amsterdam, MDCCXXVII. vol. iii. p. 330.]
+
+For instance, he states that in 1653, when a lieutenant in the Dutch
+service was leading a party of soldiers along the sea-shore in Amboina,
+he and all his company saw the mermen swimming at a short distance from
+the beach with long and flowing hair, of a colour between gray and
+green--and six weeks afterwards, the creatures were again seen by him
+and more than fifty witnesses, at the same place, by clear daylight.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: VALENTYN, _Beschryving, &c._, vol. iii. p. 331.]
+
+"If any narrative in the world," adds VALENTYN, "deserves credit, it is
+this; since _not only one but two mermen_ together were seen by so many
+eye-witnesses. Should the stubborn world, however, hesitate to believe
+it, it matters nothing; as there are people who would even deny that
+such cities as Rome, Constantinople or Cairo, exist, merely because they
+themselves have not happened to see them."
+
+But what are such incredulous persons, he continues, to make of the
+circumstance recorded by Albert Herport in his account of India[1], that
+a sea-man was seen in the water near the Church of Taquan, on the
+morning of the 29th of April 1661, and a mermaid at the same spot the
+same afternoon?--or what do they say to the fact that in 1714, a mermaid
+was not only seen but captured near the island of Booro? "five feet
+Rhineland measure in height, which lived four days and seven hours, but
+refusing all food, died without leaving any intelligible account of
+herself."
+
+[Footnote 1: Probably the _Itinerarium Indicum_ of ALBRECHT HERPORT.
+Berne, 1669.]
+
+Valentyn, in support of his own faith in the mermaid, cites numerous
+other instances in which both "sea-men and women" were seen and taken at
+Amboina; especially one by an office-bearer in the Church of Holland[1],
+by whom it was surrendered to the Governor Vanderstel.
+
+[Footnote 1: A "krank-bezoeker" or visitant of the sick.]
+
+Of this well-authenticated specimen he gives an elaborate engraving
+amongst those of the authentic fishes of the island--together with a
+minute ichthyological description of each for the satisfaction of men of
+science.
+
+[Illustration: THE MERMAID (From VALENTYN)]
+
+The fame of this creature having reached Europe, the British Minister in
+Holland wrote to Valentyn on the 28th December 1716, whilst the Emperor,
+Peter the Great of Russia, was his guest at Amsterdam; to communicate
+the desire of the Czar, that the mermaid should be brought home from
+Amboina for his Imperial inspection.
+
+To complete his proofs of the existence of mermen and women, Valentyn
+points triumphantly to the historical fact, that in Holland in the year
+1404, a mermaid was driven during a tempest, through a breach in the
+dyke of Edam, and was taken alive in the lake of Purmer. Thence she was
+carried to Harlem, where the Dutch women taught her to spin; and where,
+several years after, she died in the Roman Catholic faith;--"but this,"
+says the pious Calvinistic chaplain, "in no way militates against the
+truth of her story."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: VALENTYN, _Beschryving, &c_., p. 333.]
+
+Finally Valentyn winds up his proofs, by the accumulated testimony of
+Pliny [1], Theodore Gaza, George of Trebisond, and Alexander ab
+Alexandro, to show that mermaids had in all ages been known in Gaul,
+Naples, Epirus, and the Morea. From these and a multitude of more modern
+instances he comes to the conclusion, that as there are "sea-cows,"
+"sea-horses," and "sea-dogs;" as well as "sea-trees" and "sea-flowers"
+which he himself had seen, what grounds in reason are there to doubt
+that there may also be "sea-maidens" and "sea-men!"
+
+[Footnote 1: _Nat. Hist_. l. ix. c. 5, where Pliny speaks of the
+Nereids.]
+
+_List of Ceylon Mammalia._
+
+A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In framing it, as well as
+the lists appended to the other chapters on the Fauna of the island, the
+principal object in view has been to exhibit the extent to which the
+Natural History of the island had been investigated, and collections
+made up to the period of my leaving the colony in 1850. It has been
+considered expedient to exclude a few individuals which have not had the
+advantage of a direct comparison with authentic specimens, either at
+Calcutta or in England. This will account for the omission of a number
+that have appeared in other catalogues, but of which many, though
+ascertained to exist, have not been submitted to this rigorous process
+of identification.
+
+The greater portion of the species of mammals and birds contained in
+these lists will be found, with suitable references to the most accurate
+descriptions, in the admirable catalogue of the collection at the India
+House, published under the care of the late Dr. Horsfield. This work
+cannot be too highly extolled, not alone for the scrupulous fidelity
+with which the description of each species is referred to its first
+discoverer, but also for the pains which have been taken to elaborate
+synonymes and to collate from local periodicals and other sources,
+(little accessible to ordinary inquirers,) such incidents and traits as
+are calculated to illustrate characteristics and habits.
+
+QUADRUMANA.
+
+Presbytes
+  cephalopterus, _Zimm_.
+  ursinus, _Blyth_.
+  Priamus, _Elliot & Blyth_.
+  Thersites, _Blyth_.
+Macacus pileatus, _Shaw & Desm_.
+Loris gracilis, _Geoff_.
+
+
+CHEIROPTERA.
+
+Pteropus Edwardsii, _Geoff_.
+  Leschenaultii, _Dum_.
+Cynopterus
+  marginatus, _Ham_.
+Megaderma spasma, _Linn._
+  lyra, _Geoff_.
+Rhinolophus _affinis_, _Horsf_.
+Hipposideros
+  murinus, _Elliot_.
+  speoris, _Elliot_.
+  armiger, _Hodgs_.
+  vulgaris, _Horsf_.
+Kerivoula picta, _Pall_.
+Taphozous
+  longimanus, _Har_.
+Scotophilus Coromandelicus, _F. Cuv._
+  _adversus_, _Horsf_.
+  Temminkii, _Horsf_.
+  Tickelli, _Blyth_.
+  Heathii.
+
+
+CARNIVORA.
+
+Sorex coerulescens, _Shaw_.
+  ferrugineus, _Kelaart_.
+  serpentarius, _Is. Geoff._
+  montanus, _Kelaart_.
+Feroculus macropus, _Kel_.
+Ursus labiatus, _Blainv_.
+Lutra nair, _F. Cuv_.
+Canis aureus. _Linn._
+Viverra Indica, _Geoff_., _Hod_.
+Herpestes vitticollis, _Benn_.
+  griseus, _Gm_.
+  Smithii, _Gray_.
+  fulvescens, _Kelaart_.
+Paradoxurus typus, _F. Cuv._
+  Ceylonicus, _Pall_.
+Felis pardus, _Linn._
+  chaus, _Guldens_.
+  viverrinus, _Benn_.
+
+
+RODENTIA.
+
+Sciurus macrurus, _Forst_.
+  Tennentii, _Layard_.
+  penicillatus. _Leach_.
+  trilineatus, _Waterh_.
+Sciuropterus Layardi, _Kel_.
+Pteromys petaurista, _Pall_.
+Mus bandicota, _Bechst_.
+  Kok, _Gray_.
+Mus rufescens. _Gray_.
+  nemoralis, _Blyth_.
+  Indicus, _Geoff_.
+  fulvidiventris, _Blyth_.
+Nesoki _Hardwickii_, _Gray_.
+Golunda Neuera, _Kelaart_.
+  Ellioti, _Gray_.
+Gerbillus Indicus, _Hardw_.
+Lepus nigricollis, _F. Cuv._
+Hystrix leucurus, _Sykes_.
+
+
+EDENTATA.
+
+Manis pentadactyla, _Linn._
+
+
+PACHYDERMATA.
+
+Elephas Sumatranus, _Linn._
+Sus Indicus, _Gray_.
+  _Zeylonicus_, _Blyth_.
+
+
+RUMINANTIA.
+
+Moschus meminna, _Eral_.
+Stylocerus muntjac, _Horsf_.
+Axis maculata, _H. Smith_.
+Rusa Aristotelis, _Cuv_.
+
+
+CETACEA.
+
+Halicore dugung, _F. Cuv._
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Structure and Functions._
+
+During my residence at Kandy, I had twice the opportunity of witnessing
+the operation on a grand scale, of capturing wild elephants, intended to
+be trained for the public service in the establishment of the Civil
+Engineer;--and in the course of my frequent journeys through the
+interior of the island, I succeeded in collecting so many facts relative
+to the habits of these interesting animals in a state of nature, as
+enable me not only to add to the information previously possessed, but
+to correct many fallacies popularly received regarding their instincts
+and disposition. These particulars I am anxious to place on record
+before proceeding to describe the scenes of which I was a spectator,
+during the progress of the elephant hunts in the district of the Seven
+Korles, at which I was present in 1846, and again in 1847.
+
+With the exception of the narrow but densely inhabited belt of
+cultivated land, that extends along the seaborde of the island from
+Chilaw on the western coast to Tangalle on the south-east, there is no
+part of Ceylon in which elephants may not be said to abound; even close
+to the environs of the most populous localities of the interior. They
+frequent both the open plains and the deep forests; and their footsteps
+are to be seen wherever food and shade, vegetation and water[1], allure
+them, alike on the summits of the loftiest mountains, and on the borders
+of the tanks and lowland streams.
+
+[Footnote 1: M. AD. PICTET has availed himself of the love of the
+elephant for water, to found on it a solution of the long-contested
+question as to the etymology of the word "elephant,"-a term which,
+whilst it has passed into almost every dialect of the West, is scarcely
+to be traced in any language of Asia. The Greek [Greek: elephas], to
+which we are immediately indebted for it, did not originally mean the
+animal, but, as early as the time of Homer, was applied only to its
+tusks, and signified _ivory_. BOCHART has sought for a Semitic origin,
+and seizing on the Arabic _fil_, and prefixing the article _al_,
+suggests _alfil_, akin to [Greek: eleph]; but rejecting this, BOCHART
+himself resorts to the Hebrew _eleph_, an "ox"--and this conjecture
+derives a certain degree of countenance from the fact that the Romans,
+when they obtained their first sight of the elephant in the army of
+Pyrrhus, in Lucania, called it the _Luca bos_. But the [Greek: antos] is
+still unaccounted for; and POTT has sought to remove the difficulty by
+introducing the Arabic _hindi_, Indian, s thus making _eleph-hindi_,
+"_bos Indicus_." The conversion of _hindi_ into [Greek: antos] is an
+obstacle, but here the example of "tamarind" comes to aid; _tamar
+hindi_, the "Indian date," which in mediæval Greek forms [Greek:
+tamarenti]. A theory of Benary, that helhephas might be compounded of
+the Arabic _al_, and _ibha_, a Sanskrit name for the elephant, is
+exposed to still greater etymological exception. PICTET'S solution is,
+that in the Sanskrit epics "the King of Elephants," who has the
+distinction of carrying the god Indra, is called _airarata_ or
+_airavana_, a modification of _airavanta_, "son of the ocean," which
+again comes from _iravat_, "abounding in water." "Nous aurions done
+ainsi, comme corrélatif du gree [Greek: elephanto], une ancienne forme,
+_âirâvanta_ ou _âilâvanta_, affaiblie plus tard en _âirâvata_ ou
+_âirâvana_.... On connaît la prédilection de l'éléphant pour le
+voisinage des fleuves, et son amour pour l'eau, dont l'abondance est
+nécessaire à son bien-être." This Sanskrit name, PICTET supposes, may
+have been carried to the West by the Phoenicians, who were the purveyors
+of ivory from India; and, from the Greek, the Latins derived _elephas_,
+which passed into the modern languages of Italy, Germany, and France.
+But it is curious that the Spaniards acquired from the Moors their
+Arabic term for ivory, _marfil_, and the Portuguese _marfim_; and that
+the Scandinavians, probably from their early expeditions to the
+Mediterranean, adopted _fill_ as their name for the elephant itself, and
+_fil-bein_ for ivory; in Danish, _fils-ben_. (See _Journ. Asiat._ 1843,
+t. xliii. p. 133.) The Spaniards of South America call the palm which
+produces the vegetable ivory (_Phytelephas macrocarpa_) _Palma de
+marfil_, and the nut itself, _marfil vegetal_.
+
+Since the above was written Gooneratné Modliar, the Singhalese
+Interpreter to the Supreme Court at Colombo, has supplied me with
+another conjecture, that the word elephant may possibly be traced to the
+Singhalese name of the animal, _alia_, which means literally, "the huge
+one." _Alia_, he adds, is not a derivation from Sanskrit or Pali, but
+belongs to a dialect more ancient than either.]
+
+From time immemorial the natives have been taught to capture and tame
+them and the export of elephants from Ceylon to India has been going on
+without interruption from the period of the first Punic War.[1] In later
+times all elephants were the property of the Kandyan crown; and their
+capture or slaughter without the royal permission was classed amongst
+the gravest offences in the criminal code.
+
+[Footnote 1: ÆLIAN, _de Nat. Anim._ lib. xvi. c. 18; COSMAS INDICOPL.,
+p. 128.]
+
+In recent years there is reason to believe that their numbers have
+become considerably reduced. They have entirely disappeared from
+localities in which they were formerly numerous[1]; smaller herds have
+been taken in the periodical captures for the government service, and
+hunters returning from the chase report them to be growing scarce. In
+consequence of this diminution the peasantry in some parts of the island
+have even suspended the ancient practice of keeping watchers and fires
+by night to drive away the elephants from their growing crops.[2] The
+opening of roads and the clearing of the mountain forests of Kandy for
+the cultivation of coffee, have forced the animals to retire to the low
+country, where again they have been followed by large parties of
+European sportsmen; and the Singhalese themselves, being more freely
+provided with arms than in former times, have assisted in swelling the
+annual slaughter.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: LE BRUN, who visited Ceylon A.D. 1705, says that in the
+district round Colombo, where elephants are now never seen, they were
+then so abundant, that 160 had been taken in a single corral. (_Voyage_,
+&c., tom. ii. ch. lxiii. p. 331.)]
+
+[Footnote 2: In some parts of Bengal, where elephants were formerly
+troublesome (especially near the wilds of Ramgur), the natives got rid
+of them by mixing a preparation of the poisonous Nepal root called
+_dakra_ in balls of grain, and other materials, of which the animal is
+fond. In Cuttack, above fifty years ago, mineral poison was laid for
+them in the same way, and the carcases of eighty were found which had
+been killed by it. (_Asiat. Res._, xv. 183.)]
+
+[Footnote 3: The number of elephants has been similarly reduced
+throughout the south of India.]
+
+Had the motive that incites to the destruction of the elephant in Africa
+and India prevailed in Ceylon, that is, had the elephants there been
+provided with tusks, they would long since have been annihilated for the
+sake of their ivory.[1] But it is a curious fact that, whilst in Africa
+and India both sexes have tusks[2], with some slight disproportion in
+the size of those of the females: not one elephant in a hundred is found
+with tusks in Ceylon, and the few that possess them are exclusively
+males. Nearly all, however, have those stunted processes called
+_tushes_, about ten or twelve inches in length and one or two in
+diameter. These I have observed them to use in loosening earth,
+stripping off bark, and snapping asunder small branches and climbing
+plants; and hence tushes are seldom seen without a groove worn into them
+near their extremities.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: The annual importation of ivory into Great Britain alone,
+for the last few years, has been about _one million_ pounds; which,
+taking the average weight of a tusk at sixty pounds, would require the
+slaughter of 8,333 male elephants.
+
+But of this quantity the importation from Ceylon has generally averaged
+only five or six hundred weight; which, making allowance for the
+lightness of the tusks, would not involve the destruction of more than
+seven or eight in each year. At the same time, this does not fairly
+represent the annual number of tuskers shot in Ceylon, not only because
+a portion of the ivory finds its way to China and to other places, but
+because the chiefs and Buddhist priests have a passion for collecting
+tusks, and the finest and largest are to be found ornamenting their
+temples and private dwellings. The Chinese profess that for their
+exquisite carvings the ivory of Ceylon excels all other, both in density
+of texture and in delicacy of tint; but in the European market, the
+ivory of Africa, from its more distinct graining and other causes,
+obtains a higher price.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A writer in the _India Sporting Review_ for October 1857
+says, "In Malabar a tuskless male elephant is rare; I have seen but
+two."--p. 157.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The old fallacy is still renewed, that the elephant sheds
+his tusks. ÆLIAN says he drops them once in ten years (lib. xiv. c. 5):
+and PLINY repeats the story, adding that, when dropped, the elephants
+hide them under ground (lib. viii.) whence SHAW says, in his _Zoology_,
+"they are frequently found in the woods," and exported from Africa (vol.
+i. p. 213): and Sir W. JARDINE in the _Naturalist's Library_ (vol. ix.
+p. 110), says, "the tusks are shed about the twelfth or thirteenth
+year." This is erroneous: after losing the first pair, or, as they are
+called, the "milk tusks," which drop in consequence of the absorption of
+their roots, when the animal is extremely young, the second pair acquire
+their full size, and become the "permanent tusks," which are never
+shed.]
+
+Amongst other surmises more ingenious than sound, the general absence of
+tusks in the elephant of Ceylon has been associated with the profusion
+of rivers and streams in the island; whilst it has been thrown out as a
+possibility that in Africa, where water is comparatively scarce, the
+animal is equipped with these implements in order to assist it in
+digging wells in the sand and in raising the juicy roots of the mimosas
+and succulent plants for the sake of their moisture. In support of this
+hypothesis, it has been observed, that whilst the tusks of the Ceylon
+species, which are never required for such uses, are slender, graceful
+and curved, seldom exceeding fifty or sixty pounds' weight, those of the
+African elephant are straight and thick, weighing occasionally one
+hundred and fifty, and even three hundred pounds.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding the inferiority in weight of the Ceylon
+tusks, as compared with those of the elephant of India, it would, I
+think, be precipitate to draw the inference that the size of the former
+was uniformly and naturally less than that of the latter. The truth, I
+believe to be, that if permitted to grow to maturity, the tusks of the
+one would, in all probability, equal those of the other; but, so eager
+is the search for ivory in Ceylon, that a tusker, when once observed in
+a herd, is followed up with such vigilant impatience, that he is almost
+invariably shot before attaining his full growth. General DE LIMA, when
+returning from the governorship of the Portuguese settlements at
+Mozambique, told me, in 1848, that he had been requested to procure two
+tusks of the largest size, and straightest possible shape, which were to
+be formed into a cross to surmount the high altar of the cathedral at
+Goa: he succeeded in his commission, and sent two, one of which was 180
+pounds, and the other 170 pounds' weight, with the slightest possible
+curve. In a periodical, entitled _The Friend_, published in Ceylon, it
+is stated in the volume for 1837 that the officers belonging to the
+ships Quorrah and Alburhak, engaged in the Niger Expedition, were shown
+by a native king two tusks, each two feet and a half in circumference at
+the base, eight feet long, and weighing upwards of 200 pounds. (Vol. i.
+p. 225.) BRODERIP, in his _Zoological Recreations_, p. 255, says a tusk
+of 350 pounds' weight was sold at Amsterdam, but he does not quote his
+authority.]
+
+But it is manifestly inconsistent with the idea that tusks were given to
+the elephant to assist him in digging for his food, to find that the
+females are less bountifully supplied with them than the males, whilst
+the necessity for their use extends equally to both sexes. The same
+argument serves to demonstrate the fallacy of the conjecture, that the
+tusks of the elephant were given to him as weapons of offence, for if
+such were the case the vast majority in Ceylon, males as well as
+females, would be left helpless in presence of an assailant. But
+although in their conflicts with one another, those which are provided
+with tusks may occasionally push with them clumsily at their opponents;
+it is a misapprehension to imagine that tusks are designed specially to
+serve "in warding off the attacks of the wily tiger and the furious
+rhinoceros, often securing the victory by one blow which transfixes the
+assailant to the earth."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, published by the Society for the
+Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. i. p. 68: "The Elephant," ch. iii.
+It will be seen that I have quoted repeatedly from this volume, because
+it is the most compendious and careful compilation with which I am
+acquainted of the information previously existing regarding the
+elephant. The author incorporates no speculations of his own, but has
+most diligently and agreeably arranged all the facts collected by his
+predecessors. The story of antipathy between the elephant and rhinoceros
+is probably borrowed from ÆLIAN _de Nat._, lib. xvii. c. 44.]
+
+So harmless and peaceful is the life of the elephant, that nature
+appears to have left it unprovided with any weapon of offence: its trunk
+is too delicate an organ to be rudely employed in a conflict with other
+animals, and although on an emergency it may push or gore with its tusks
+(to which the French have hastily given the term "_défenses_"), their
+almost vertical position, added to the difficulty of raising its head
+above the level of the shoulder, is inconsistent with the idea of their
+being designed for attack, since it is impossible for the elephant to
+strike an effectual blow, or to "wield" its tusks as the deer and the
+buffalo can direct their horns. Nor is it easy to conceive under what
+circumstances an elephant could have a hostile encounter with either a
+rhinoceros or a tiger, with whose pursuits in a state of nature its own
+can in no way conflict.
+
+Towards man elephants evince shyness, arising from their love of
+solitude and dislike of intrusion; any alarm they exhibit at his
+appearance may be reasonably traced to the slaughter which has reduced
+their numbers; and as some evidence of this, it has always been observed
+that an elephant exhibits greater impatience of the presence of a white
+man than of a native. Were its instincts to carry it further, or were it
+influenced by any feeling of animosity or cruelty, it must be apparent
+that, as against the prodigious numbers that inhabit the forests of
+Ceylon, man would wage an unequal contest, and that of the two one or
+other must long since have been reduced to a helpless minority.
+
+Official testimony is not wanting in confirmation of this view;--in the
+returns of 108 coroners' inquests in Ceylon, during five years, from
+1849 to 1855 inclusive, held in cases of death occasioned by wild
+animals; 16 are recorded as having been caused by elephants, 15 by
+buffaloes, 6 by crocodiles, 2 by boars, 1 by a bear, and 68 by serpents
+(the great majority of the last class of sufferers being women and
+children, who had been bitten during the night). Little more than
+_three_ fatal accidents occurring annually on the average of five years,
+is certainly a very small proportion in a population estimated at a
+million and a half, in an island abounding with elephants, with which,
+independently of casual encounters, voluntary conflicts are daily
+stimulated by the love of sport or the hope of gain. Were the elephants
+instinctively vicious or even highly irritable in their temperament, the
+destruction of human life under the circumstances must have been
+infinitely greater. It must also be taken into account, that some of the
+accidents recorded may have occurred in the rutting season, when
+elephants are subject to fits of temporary fury, known in India by the
+term _must_, in Ceylon _mudda_,--a paroxysm which speedily passes away,
+but during the fury of which it is dangerous even for the mahout to
+approach those ordinarily the gentlest and most familiar.
+
+But, then, the elephant is said to "entertain an extraordinary dislike
+to all quadrupeds; that dogs running near him produce annoyance; that he
+is alarmed if a hare start from her form;" and from Pliny to Buffon
+every naturalist has recorded its supposed aversion to swine.[1] These
+alleged antipathies are in a great degree, if not entirely, imaginary.
+The habits of the elephant are essentially harmless, its wants lead to
+no rivalry with other animals, and the food to which it is most attached
+flourishes in such abundance that it is obtained without an effort. In
+the quiet solitudes of Ceylon, elephants may constantly be seen browsing
+peacefully in the immediate vicinity of other animals, and in close
+contact with them. I have seen groups of deer and wild buffaloes
+reclining in the sandy bed of a river in the dry season, and elephants
+plucking the branches close beside them. They show no impatience in the
+company of the elk, the bear, and the wild hog; and on the other hand, I
+have never discovered an instance in which these animals have evinced
+any apprehension of elephants. The elephant's natural timidity, however,
+is such that it becomes alarmed on the appearance in the jungle of any
+animal with which it is not familiar. It is said to be afraid of the
+horse; but from my own experience, I should say it is the horse that is
+alarmed at the aspect of the elephant. In the same way, from some
+unaccountable impulse, the horse has an antipathy to the camel, and
+evinces extreme impatience, both of the sight and the smell of that
+animal.[2] When enraged, an elephant will not hesitate to charge a rider
+on horseback; but it is against the man, not against the horse, that his
+fury is directed; and no instance has been ever known of his wantonly
+assailing a horse. A horse, belonging to the late Major Rogers[3], had
+run away from his groom, and was found some considerable time afterwards
+grazing quietly with a herd of elephants. In DE BRY'S splendid
+collection of travels, however, there is included "_The voyage of a
+Certain Englishman to Cambay_;" in which the author asserts that at
+Agra, in the year 1607, he was present at a spectacle given by the
+Viceregent of the great Mogul, in the course of which he saw an elephant
+destroy two horses, by seizing them in its trunk, and crushing them
+under foot.[4] But the display was avowedly an artificial one, and the
+creature must have been cruelly tutored for the occasion.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," ch. iii.]
+
+[Footnote 2: This peculiarity was noticed by the ancients, and is
+recorded by Herodotus: [Greek: "kamêlon hippos phobeetai, kai ouk
+anechetai oute tên ideên autês oreôn oute tên odmên osphrainomenos"]
+(Herod. ch. 80). Camels have long been bred by the Grand Duke of
+Tuscany, at his establishment near Pisa, and even there the same
+instinctive dislike to them is manifested by the horse, which it is
+necessary to train and accustom to their presence in order to avoid
+accidents. Mr. BRODERIP mentions, that, "when the precaution of such
+training has not been adopted, the sudden and dangerous terror with
+which a horse is seized in coming unexpectedly upon one of them is
+excessive."--_Note-book of a Naturalist_, ch. iv. p. 113.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Major ROGERS was many years the chief civil officer of
+Government in the district of Oovah, where he was killed by lightning,
+1845.]
+
+[Footnote 4: "Quidam etiam cum equis silvestribus pugnant. Sæpe unus
+elephas cum sex equis committitur; atque ipse adeo interfui cum unus
+elephas duos equos cum primo impetu protinus prosternerit;--injecta enim
+jugulis ipsorum longa proboscide, ad se protractos, dentibus porro
+comminuit ac protrivit." _Angli Cujusdam in Cambayam Navigatio_. DE BRY,
+_Coll., &c._, vol. iii. ch. xvi. p. 31.]
+
+Pigs are constantly to be seen feeding about the stables of the tame
+elephants, which manifest no repugnance to them. As to the smaller
+animals, the elephant undoubtedly evinces uneasiness at the presence of
+a dog, but this is referable to the same cause as its impatience of a
+horse, namely, that neither is habitually seen by it in the forest; but
+it would be idle to suppose that this feeling could amount to hostility
+against a creature incapable of inflicting on it the slightest
+injury.[1] The truth I apprehend to be that, when they meet, the
+impudence and impertinences of the dog are offensive to the gravity of
+the elephant, and incompatible with his love of solitude and ease. Or
+may it be assumed as an evidence of the sagacity of the elephant, that
+the only two animals to which it manifests an antipathy, are the two
+which it has seen only in the company of its enemy, man? One instance
+has certainly been attested to me by an eye-witness, in which the trunk
+of an elephant was seized in the teeth of a Scotch terrier, and such was
+the alarm of the huge creature that it came at once to its knees. The
+dog repeated the attack, and on every renewal of it the elephant
+retreated in terror, holding its trunk above its head, and kicking at
+the terrier with its fore feet. It would have turned to flight, but for
+the interference of its keeper.
+
+[Footnote 1: To account for the impatience manifested by the elephant at
+the presence of a dog, it has been suggested that he is alarmed lest the
+latter should attack _his feet_, a portion of his body of which the
+elephant is peculiarly careful. A tame elephant has been observed to
+regard with indifference a spear directed towards his head, but to
+shrink timidly from the same weapon when pointed at his foot.]
+
+Major Skinner, formerly commissioner of roads in Ceylon, whose official
+duties in constructing highways involved the necessity of his being in
+the jungle for months together, always found that, by night or by day,
+the barking of a dog which accompanied him, was sufficient to put a herd
+to flight. On the whole, therefore, I am of opinion that the elephant
+lives on terms of amity with every quadruped in the forest, that it
+neither regards them as its foes, nor provokes their hostility by its
+acts; and that, with the exception of man, _its greatest enemy is a
+fly_!
+
+The current statements as to the supposed animosity of the elephant to
+minor animals originated with Ælian and Pliny, who had probably an
+opportunity of seeing, what may at any time be observed, that when a
+captive elephant is picketed beside a post, the domestic animals, goats,
+sheep, and cattle, will annoy and irritate him by their audacity in
+making free with his provender; but this is an evidence in itself of the
+little instinctive dread which such comparatively puny creatures
+entertain of one so powerful and yet so gentle.
+
+Amongst elephants themselves, jealousy and other causes of irritation
+frequently occasion contentions between individuals of the same herd;
+but on such occasions it is their habit to strike with their trunks, and
+to bear down their opponents with their heads. It is doubtless correct
+that an elephant, when prostrated by the force and fury of an antagonist
+of its own species, is often wounded by the downward pressure of the
+tusks, which in any other position it would be almost impossible to use
+offensively.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A writer in the _India Sporting Review_ for October 1857
+says a male elephant was killed by two others close to his camp: "the
+head was completely smashed in; there was a large hole in the side, and
+the abdomen was ripped open. The latter wound was given probably after
+it had fallen."--P. 175.]
+
+Mr. Mercer, who in 1846 was the principal civil officer of Government at
+Badulla, sent me a jagged fragment of an elephant's tusk, about five
+inches in diameter, and weighing between twenty and thirty pounds, which
+had been brought to him by some natives, who, being attracted by a noise
+in the jungle, witnessed a combat between a tusker and one without
+tusks, and saw the latter with his trunk seize one of the tusks of his
+antagonist and wrench from it the portion in question, which measured
+two feet in length.
+
+Here the trunk was shown to be the more powerful offensive weapon of the
+two; but I apprehend that the chief reliance of the elephant for defence
+is on its ponderous weight, the pressure of its foot being sufficient to
+crush any minor assailant after being prostrated by means of its trunk.
+Besides, in using its feet for this purpose, it derives a wonderful
+facility from the peculiar formation of the knee-joint in the hind leg,
+which, enabling it to swing the hind feet forward close to the ground,
+assists it to toss the body alternately from foot to foot, till deprived
+of life.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: In the Third Book of Maccabees, which is not printed in our
+Apocrypha, but appears in the series in the Greek Septuagint, the
+author, in describing the persecution of the Jews by Ptolemy Philopater,
+B.C. 210, states that the king swore vehemently that he would send them
+into the other world, "foully trampled to death by the knees and feet of
+elephants" ([Greek: pempsein eis hadên en gonasi kai posi thêrion
+hêkismenous.] 3 Mac. v. 42). ÆLIAN makes the remark, that elephants on
+such occasions use their _knees_ as well as their feet to crush their
+victims.--_Hist Anim._ viii. 10.]
+
+A sportsman who had partially undergone this operation, having been
+seized by a wounded elephant but rescued from its fury, described to me
+his sufferings as he was thus flung back and forward between the hind
+and fore feet of the animal, which ineffectually attempted to trample
+him at each concussion, and abandoned him without inflicting serious
+injury.
+
+KNOX, in describing the execution of criminals by the state elephants of
+the former kings of Kandy, says, "they will run their teeth (_tusks_)
+through the body, and then tear it in pieces and throw it limb from
+limb;" but a Kandyan chief, who was witness to such scenes, has assured
+me that the elephant never once applied its tusks, but, placing its foot
+on the prostrate victim, plucked off his limbs in succession by a sudden
+movement of the trunk. If the tusks were designed to be employed
+offensively, some alertness would naturally be exhibited in using them;
+but in numerous instances where sportsmen have fallen into the power of
+a wounded elephant, they have escaped through the failure of the enraged
+animal to strike them with its tusks, even when stretched upon the
+ground.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The _Hastisilpe_, a Singhalese work which treats of the
+"Science of Elephants," enumerates amongst those which it is not
+desirable to possess, "the elephant which will fight with a stone or a
+stick in his trunk."]
+
+Placed as the elephant is in Ceylon, in the midst of the most luxuriant
+profusion of its favourite food, in close proximity at all times to
+abundant supplies of water, and with no enemies against whom to protect
+itself, it is difficult to conjecture any probable utility which it
+could derive from such appendages. Their absence is unaccompanied by any
+inconvenience to the individuals in whom they are wanting; and as
+regards the few who possess them, the only operations in which I am
+aware of their tusks being employed in relation to the oeconomy of the
+animal, is to assist in ripping open the stem of the jaggery palms and
+young palmyras to extract the farinaceous core; and in splitting the
+juicy shaft of the plantain. Whilst the tuskless elephant crushes the
+latter under foot, thereby soiling it and wasting its moisture; the
+other, by opening it with the point of his tusk, performs the operation
+with delicacy and apparent ease.
+
+These, however, are trivial and almost accidental advantages: on the
+other hand, owing to irregularities in their growth, the tusks are
+sometimes an impediment in feeding[1]; and in more than one instance in
+the Government studs, tusks which had so grown as to approach and cross
+one another at the extremities, have had to be removed by the saw; the
+contraction of space between them so impeding the free action of the
+trunk as to prevent the animal from conveying branches to its mouth.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Among other eccentric forms, an elephant was seen in 1844,
+in the district of Bintenne, near Friar's-Hood Mountain, one of whose
+tusks was so bent that it took what sailors term a "round turn," and
+resumed its curved direction as before. In the Museum of the College of
+Surgeons, London, there is a specimen, No. 2757, of a _spira_ tusk.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Since the foregoing remarks were written relative to the
+undefined use of tusks to the elephant, I have seen a speculation on the
+same subject in Dr. HOLLAND'S "_Constitution of the Animal Creation, as
+expressed in structural Appendages_;" but the conjecture of the author
+leaves the problem scarcely less obscure than before. Struck with the
+mere _supplemental_ presence of the tusks, the absence of all apparent
+use serving to distinguish them from the essential organs of the
+creature, Dr. HOLLAND concludes that their production is a process
+incident, but not ancillary, to other important ends, especially
+connected with the vital functions of the trunk and the marvellous
+motive powers inherent to it; his conjecture is, that they are "a
+species of safety valve of the animal oeconomy,"--and that "they owe
+their development to the predominance of the senses of touch and smell,
+conjointly with the muscular motions of which the exercise of these is
+accompanied." "Had there been no proboscis," he thinks, "there would
+have been no supplementary appendages,--the former creates the
+latter."--Pp. 246, 271.]
+
+It is true that in captivity, and after a due course of training, the
+elephant discovers a new use for its tusks when employed in moving
+stones and piling timber; so much so that a powerful one will raise and
+carry on them a log of half a ton weight or more. One evening, whilst
+riding in the vicinity of Kandy, towards the scene of the massacre of
+Major Davie's party in 1803, my horse evinced some excitement at a noise
+which approached us in the thick jungle, and which consisted of a
+repetition of the ejaculation _urmph! urmph!_ in a hoarse and
+dissatisfied tone. A turn in the forest explained the mystery, by
+bringing me face to face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by any
+attendant. He was labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber,
+which he balanced across his tusks, but the pathway being narrow, he was
+forced to bend his head to one side to permit it to pass endways; and
+the exertion and this inconvenience combined led him to utter the
+dissatisfied sounds which disturbed the composure of my horse. On seeing
+us halt, the elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us for a moment,
+then flung down the timber, and voluntarily forced himself backwards
+among the brushwood so as to leave a passage, of which he expected us to
+avail ourselves. My horse hesitated: the elephant observed it, and
+impatiently thrust himself deeper into the jungle, repeating his cry of
+_urmph!_ but in a voice evidently meant to encourage us to advance.
+Still the horse trembled; and anxious to observe the instinct of the two
+sagacious animals, I forbore any interference: again the elephant of his
+own accord wedged himself further in amongst the trees, and manifested
+some impatience that we did not pass him. At length the horse moved
+forward; and when we were fairly past, I saw the wise creature stoop and
+take up its heavy burthen, trim and balance it on its tusks, and resume
+its route as before, hoarsely snorting its discontented remonstrance.
+
+Between the African elephant and that of Ceylon, with the exception of
+the striking peculiarity of the infrequency of tusks in the latter, the
+distinctions are less apparent to a casual observer than to a scientific
+naturalist. In the Ceylon species the forehead is higher and more
+hollow, the ears are smaller, and, in a section of the teeth, the
+grinding ridges, instead of being lozenge-shaped, are transverse bars of
+uniform breadth.
+
+The Indian elephant is stated by Cuvier to have four nails on the hind
+foot, the African variety having only three: but amongst the perfections
+of a high-bred elephant of Ceylon, is always enumerated the possession
+of _twenty_ nails, whilst those of a secondary class have but eighteen
+in all.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Chapter on Mammalia, p. 60.]
+
+So conversant are the natives with the structure and "points" of the
+elephant, that they divide them readily into castes, and describe with
+particularity their distinctive excellences and defects. In the
+_Hastisilpe_, a Singhalese work which treats of their management, the
+marks of inferior breeding are said to be "eyes restless like those of a
+crow, the hair of the head of mixed shades; the face wrinkled; the
+tongue curved and black; the nails short and green; the ears small; the
+neck thin, the skin freckled; the tail without a tuft, and the
+fore-quarter lean and low:" whilst the perfection of form and beauty is
+supposed to consist in the "softness of the skin, the red colour of the
+mouth and tongue, the forehead expanded and hollow, the ears broad and
+rectangular, the trunk broad at the root and blotched with pink in
+front; the eyes bright and kindly, the cheeks large, the neck full, the
+back level, the chest square, the fore legs short and convex in front,
+the hind quarter plump, and five nails on each foot, all smooth,
+polished, and round.[1] An elephant with these perfections," says the
+author of the _Hastisilpe_, "will impart glory and magnificence to the
+king; but he cannot be discovered amongst thousands, yea, there shall
+never be found an elephant clothed at once with _all_ the excellences
+herein described." The "points" of an elephant are to be studied with
+the greatest advantage in those attached to the temples, which are
+always of the highest caste, and exhibit the most perfect breeding.
+
+[Footnote 1: A native of rank informed me, that "the tail of a
+high-caste elephant will sometimes touch the ground, but such are very
+rare."]
+
+The colour of the animal's skin in a state of nature is generally of a
+lighter brown than that of those in captivity; a distinction which
+arises, in all probability, not so much from the wild animal's
+propensity to cover itself with mud and dust, as from the superior care
+which is taken in repeatedly bathing the tame ones, and in rubbing their
+skins with a soft stone, a lump of burnt clay, or the coarse husk of a
+coco-nut. This kind of attention, together with the occasional
+application of oil, gives rise to the deeper black which the hides of
+the latter present.
+
+Amongst the native Singhalese, however, a singular preference is evinced
+for elephants that exhibit those flesh-coloured blotches which
+occasionally mottle the skin of an elephant, chiefly about the head and
+extremities. The front of the trunk, the tips of the ears, the forehead,
+and occasionally the legs, are thus diversified with stains of a
+yellowish tint, inclining to pink. These are not natural; nor are they
+hereditary, for they are seldom exhibited by the younger individuals in
+a herd, but appear to be the result of some eruptive affection, the
+irritation of which has induced the animal in its uneasiness to rub
+itself against the rough bark of trees, and thus to destroy the outer
+cuticle.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This is confirmed by the fact that the scar of the ancle
+wound, occasioned by the rope on the legs of those which have been
+captured by noosing, presents precisely the same tint in the healed
+parts.]
+
+To a European these spots appear blemishes, and the taste that leads the
+natives to admire them is probably akin to the feeling that has at all
+times rendered a _white elephant_ an object of wonder to Asiatics. The
+rarity of the latter is accounted for by regarding this peculiar
+appearance as the result of albinism; and notwithstanding the
+exaggeration of Oriental historians, who compare the fairness of such
+creatures to the whiteness of snow, even in its utmost perfection, I
+apprehend that the tint of a white elephant is little else than a
+flesh-colour, rendered somewhat more conspicuous by the blanching of the
+skin, and the lightness of the colourless hairs by which it is sparsely
+covered. A white elephant is mentioned in the _Mahawanso_ as forming
+part of the retinue attached to the "Temple of the Tooth" at
+Anarajapoora, in the fifth century after Christ[1]; but it commanded no
+religious veneration, and like those in the stud of the kings of Siam,
+it was tended merely as an emblem of royalty[2]; the sovereign of Ceylon
+being addressed as the "Lord of Elephants."[3] In 1633 a white elephant
+was exhibited in Holland[4]; but as this was some years before the Dutch
+had established themselves firmly in Ceylon, it was probably brought
+from some other of their eastern possessions.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Mahawanso_, ch. xxxviii. p. 254, A.D. 433.]
+
+[Footnote 2: PALLEGOIX, _Siam, &c._, vol. i. p. 152.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Mahawanso_, ch. xviii. p. 111. The Hindu sovereigns of
+Orissa, in the middle ages, bore the style of _Gaja-pati_, "powerful in
+elephants."--_Asiat. Res_. xv. 253.]
+
+[Footnote 4: ARMANDI, _Hist. Milit. des Elephants_, lib. ii. c. x. p.
+380. HORACE mentions a white elephant as having been exhibited at Rome:
+"Sive elephas albus vulgi converteret ora."--HOR. _Ep_. II. 196.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Habits when Wild_.
+
+Although found generally in warm and sunny climates, it is a mistake to
+suppose that the elephant is partial either to heat or to light. In
+Ceylon, the mountain tops, and not the sultry valleys, are its favourite
+resort. In Oovah, where the elevated plains are often crisp with the
+morning frost, and on Pedura-talla-galla, at the height of upwards of
+eight thousand feet, they are found in herds, whilst the hunter may
+search for them without success in the hot jungles of the low country.
+No altitude, in fact, seems too lofty or too chill for the elephant,
+provided it affords the luxury of water in abundance; and, contrary to
+the general opinion that the elephant delights in sunshine, it seems at
+all times impatient of glare, and spends the day in the thickest depth
+of the forests, devoting the night to excursions, and to the luxury of
+the bath, in which it also indulges occasionally by day. This partiality
+for shade is doubtless ascribable to the animal's love of coolness and
+solitude; but it is not altogether unconnected with the position of the
+eye, and the circumscribed use which its peculiar mode of life permits
+it to make of the faculty of sight.
+
+All the elephant hunters and natives to whom I have spoken on the
+subject, concur in opinion that its range of vision is circumscribed,
+and that it relies more on its ear and sense of smell than on its sight,
+which is liable to be obstructed by dense foliage; besides which, from
+the formation of its short neck, the elephant is incapable of directing
+the range of the eye much above the level of the head.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: After writing the above, I was permitted by the late Dr.
+HARRISON, of Dublin, to see some accurate drawings of the brain of an
+elephant, which he had the opportunity of dissecting in 1847; and on
+looking to that of the base, I have found a remarkable verification of
+the information which I collected in Ceylon.
+
+The small figure A is the ganglion of the fifth nerve, showing the small
+motor and large sensitive portion.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The _olfactory lobes_, from which the olfactory nerves proceed, are
+large, whilst the _optic and muscular nerves of the orbit are singularly
+small_ for so vast an animal; and one is immediately struck by the
+prodigious size of the fifth nerve, which supplies the proboscis with
+its exquisite sensibility, as well as by the great size of the motor
+portion of the seventh, which supplies the same organ with its power of
+movement and action.]
+
+The elephant's small range of vision is sufficient to account for its
+excessive caution, its alarm at unusual noises, and the timidity and
+panic exhibited at trivial objects and incidents which, imperfectly
+discerned, excite suspicions for its safety.[1] In 1841 an officer[2]
+was chased by an elephant that he had slightly wounded. Seizing him near
+the dry bed of a river, the animal had its forefoot already raised to
+crush him; but its forehead being caught at the instant by the tendrils
+of a climbing plant which had suspended itself from the branches above,
+it suddenly turned and fled; leaving him badly hurt, but with no limb
+broken. I have heard similar instances, equally well attested, of this
+peculiarity in the elephant.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Major ROGERS. An account of this singular adventure will be
+found in the _Ceylon Miscellany_ for 1842, vol. i. p. 221.]
+
+On the other hand, the power of smell is so remarkable as almost to
+compensate for the deficiency of sight. A herd is not only apprised of
+the approach of danger by this means, but when scattered in the forest,
+and dispersed out of range of sight, they are enabled by it to
+reassemble with rapidity and adopt precautions for their common safety.
+The same necessity is met by a delicate sense of hearing, and the use of
+a variety of noises or calls, by means of which elephants succeed in
+communicating with each other upon all emergencies. "The sounds which
+they utter have been described by the African hunters as of three kinds:
+the first, which is very shrill, produced by blowing through the trunk,
+is indicative of pleasure; the second, produced by the mouth, is
+expressive of want; and the third, proceeding from the throat, is a
+terrific roar of anger or revenge."[1] These words convey but an
+imperfect idea of the variety of noises made by the elephant in Ceylon;
+and the shrill cry produced by blowing through his trunk, so far from
+being regarded as an indication of "pleasure," is the well-known cry of
+rage with which he rushes to encounter an assailant. ARISTOTLE describes
+it as resembling the hoarse sound of a "trumpet."[2] The French still
+designate the proboscis of an elephant by the same expression "trompe,"
+(which we have unmeaningly corrupted into _trunk_,) and hence the scream
+of the elephant is known as "trumpeting" by the hunters in Ceylon. Their
+cry when in pain, or when subjected to compulsion, is a grunt or a deep
+groan from the throat, with the proboscis curled upwards and the lips
+wide apart.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," ch. iii. p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 2: ARISTOTLE, _De Anim_., lib. iv. c. 9. "[Greek: homoion
+salpingi]." See also PLINY, lib. x. ch. cxiii. A manuscript in the
+British Museum, containing the romance of "_Alexander_" which is
+probably of the fifteenth century, is interspersed with drawings
+illustrative of the strange animals of the East. Amongst them are two
+elephants, whose trunks are literally in form of _trumpets with expanded
+mouths_. See WRIGHT'S _Archæological Album_, p. 176.]
+
+Should the attention of an individual in the herd be attracted by any
+unusual appearance in the forest, the intelligence is rapidly
+communicated by a low suppressed sound made by the lips, somewhat
+resembling the twittering of a bird, and described by the hunters by the
+word "_prut_."
+
+A very remarkable noise has been described to me by more than one
+individual, who has come unexpectedly upon a herd during the night, when
+the alarm of the elephants was apparently too great to be satisfied with
+the stealthy note of warning just described. On these occasions the
+sound produced resembled the hollow booming of an empty tun when struck
+with a wooden mallet or a muffled sledge. Major MACREADY, Military
+Secretary in Ceylon in 1836, who heard it by night amongst the wild
+elephants in the great forest of Bintenne, describes it as "a sort of
+banging noise like a cooper hammering a cask;" and Major SKINNER is of
+opinion that it must be produced by the elephant striking his sides
+rapidly and forcibly with his trunk. Mr. CRIPPS informs me that he has
+more than once seen an elephant, when surprised or alarmed, produce this
+sound by striking the ground forcibly with the flat side of the trunk;
+and this movement was instantly succeeded by raising it again, and
+pointing it in the direction whence the alarm proceeded, as if to
+ascertain by the sense of smell the nature of the threatened danger. As
+this strange sound is generally mingled with the bellowing and ordinary
+trumpeting of the herd, it is in all probability a device resorted to,
+not alone for warning their companions of some approaching peril, but
+also for the additional purpose of terrifying unseen intruders.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: PALLEGOIX, in his _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_,
+adverts to a sound produced by the elephant when weary: "quand il est
+fatigué, _il frappe la terre avec sa_ trompe, et en tire un son
+semblable à celui du cor."--Tom. i. p. 151.]
+
+Elephants are subject to deafness; and the Singhalese regard as the most
+formidable of all wild animals, a "rogue"[1] afflicted with this
+infirmity.
+
+[Footnote 1: For an explanation of the term "rogue" as applied to an
+elephant, see p. 115.]
+
+Extravagant estimates are recorded of the height of the elephant. In an
+age when popular fallacies in relation to him were as yet uncorrected in
+Europe by the actual inspection of the living animal, he was supposed to
+grow to the height of twelve or fifteen feet. Even within the last
+century in popular works on natural history, the elephant, when full
+grown, was said to measure from seventeen to twenty feet from the ground
+to the shoulder.[1] At a still later period, so imperfectly had the
+facts been collated, that the elephant of Ceylon was believed "to excel
+that of Africa in size and strength."[2] But so far from equalling the
+size of the African species, that of Ceylon seldom exceeds the height of
+nine feet; even in the Hambangtotte country, where the hunters agree
+that the largest specimens are to be found, the tallest of ordinary
+herds do not average more than eight feet. WOLF, in his account of the
+Ceylon elephant[3], says he saw one taken near Jaffna, which measured
+twelve feet and one inch high. But the truth is, that the general bulk
+of the elephant so far exceeds that of the animals which we are
+accustomed to see daily, that the imagination magnifies its unusual
+dimensions; and I have seldom or ever met with an inexperienced
+spectator who did not unconsciously over-estimate the size of an
+elephant shown to him, whether in captivity or in a state of nature.
+Major DENHAM would have guessed some which he saw in Africa to be
+sixteen feet in height, but the largest when killed was found to measure
+nine feet six, from the foot to the hip-bone.[4]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Natural History of Animals_. By Sir JOHN HILL, M.D.
+London, 1748-52, p. 565. A probable source of these false estimates is
+mentioned by a writer in the _Indian Sporting Review_ for Oct. 1857.
+"Elephants were measured formerly, and even now, by natives, as to their
+height, by throwing a rope over them, the ends brought to the ground on
+each side, and half the length taken as the true height. Hence the
+origin of elephants fifteen and sixteen feet high. A rod held at right
+angles to the measuring rod, and parallel to the ground, will rarely
+give more than ten feet, the majority being under nine."--P. 159.]
+
+[Footnote 2: SHAW'S _Zoology_. Lond. 1806. vol. i. p. 216; ARMANDI,
+_Hist. Milit. des Eléphans_, liv. i. ch. i. p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 3: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures, &c_., p. 164. Wolf was a
+native of Mecklenburg, who arrived in Ceylon about 1750, as chaplain in
+one of the Dutch East Indiamen, and having been taken into the
+government employment, he served for twenty years at Jaffna, first as
+Secretary to the Governor, and afterwards in an office the duties of
+which he describes to be the examination and signature of the "writings
+which served to commence a suit in any of the Courts of justice." His
+book embodies a truthful and generally accurate account of the northern
+portion of the island, with which alone he was conversant, and his
+narrative gives a curious insight into the policy of the Dutch
+Government, and of the condition of the natives under their dominion.]
+
+[Footnote 4: DENHAM'S _Travels, &c_., 4to p. 220. The fossil remains of
+the Indian elephant have been discovered at Jabalpur, showing a height
+of fifteen feet.--_Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng_. vi. Professor ANSTED in his
+_Ancient World_, p. 197, says he was informed by Dr. Falconer "that out
+of eleven hundred elephants from which the tallest were selected and
+measured with care, on one occasion in India, there was not one whose
+height equalled eleven feet."]
+
+For a creature of such extraordinary weight it is astonishing how
+noiselessly and stealthily the elephant can escape from a pursuer. When
+suddenly disturbed in the jungle, it will burst away with a rush that
+seems to bear down all before it; but the noise sinks into absolute
+stillness so suddenly, that a novice might well be led to suppose that
+the fugitive had only halted within a few yards of him, when further
+search will disclose that it has stolen silently away, making scarcely a
+sound in its escape; and, stranger still, leaving the foliage almost
+undisturbed by its passage.
+
+The most venerable delusion respecting the elephant, and that which held
+its ground with unequalled tenacity, is the ancient fallacy which is
+explained by SIR THOMAS BROWNE in his _Pseudodoxia Epidemica_, that "it
+hath no joynts; and this absurdity is seconded by another, that being
+unable to lye downe it sleepeth against a tree, which the hunters
+observing doe saw almost asunder, whereon the beast relying, by the fall
+of the tree falls also downe it-selfe and is able to rise no more."[1]
+Sir THOMAS is disposed to think that "the hint and ground of this
+opinion might be the grosse and somewhat cylindricall composure of the
+legs of the elephant, and the equality and lesse perceptible disposure
+of the joynts, especially in the forelegs of this animal, they
+appearing, when he standeth, like pillars of flesh;" but he overlooks
+the fact that PLINY has ascribed the same peculiarity to the
+Scandinavian beast somewhat resembling a horse, which he calls a
+"machlis,"[2] and that CÆSAR in describing the wild animals in the
+Hercynian forests, enumerates the _alce_, "in colour and configuration
+approaching the goat, but surpassing it in size, its head destitute of
+horns _and its limbs of joints_, whence it can neither lie down to rest,
+nor rise if by any accident it should fall, but using the trees for a
+resting-place, the hunters by loosening their roots bring the _alce_ to
+the ground, so soon as it is tempted to lean on them."[3] This fallacy,
+as Sir THOMAS BROWNE says, is "not the daughter of latter times, but an
+old and grey-headed errour, even in the days of ARISTOTLE," who deals
+with the story as he received it from CTESIAS, by whom it appears to
+have been embodied in his lost work on India. But although ARISTOTLE
+generally receives the credit of having exposed and demolished the
+fallacy of CTESIAS, it will be seen by a reference to his treatise _On
+the Progressive Motions of Animals_, that in reality he approached the
+question with some hesitation, and has not only left it doubtful in one
+passage whether the elephant has joints _in his knee_, although he
+demonstrates that it has joints in the shoulders[4]; but in another he
+distinctly affirms that on account of his weight the elephant cannot
+bend his forelegs together, but only one at a time, and reclines to
+sleep on that particular side.[5]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Vulgar Errors_, book iii. chap. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Machlis (said to be derived from _a_, priv., and [Greek:
+klinô], _cubo_, quod non cubat). "Moreover in the island of Scandinavia
+there is a beast called _Machlis_, that hath neither ioynt in the hough,
+nor pasternes in his hind legs, and therefore he never lieth down, but
+sleepeth leaning to a tree, wherefore the hunters that lie in wait for
+these beasts cut downe the trees while they are asleepe, and so take
+them; otherwise they should never be taken, they are so swift of foot
+that it is wonderful."--PLINY, _Natur. Hist._ Transl. Philemon Holland,
+book viii. ch. xv. p. 200.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "Sunt item quæ appellantur _Alces_. Harum est consimilis
+capreis figura, et varietas pellium; sed magnitudine paulo antecedunt,
+mutilæque sunt cornibus, _et crura sine nodis articulisque habent_;
+neque quietis causa procumbunt; neque, si quo afflictæ casu considerunt,
+erigere sese aut sublevare possunt. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus; ad
+eas sese applicant, atque ita, paulum modo reclinatæ, quietem capiunt,
+quarum ex vestigiis cum est animadversum a venatoribus, quo se recipere
+consueverint, omnes eo loco, aut a radicibus subruunt aut accidunt
+arbores tantum, ut summa species earum stantium relinquatur. Huc cum se
+consuetudine reclinaverint, infirmas arbores pondere affligunt, atque
+una ipsæ concidunt."--CÆSAR, _De Bello Gall_. lib. vi. ch. xxvii.
+
+The same fiction was extended by the early Arabian travellers to the
+rhinoceros, and in the MS. of the voyages of the "_Two Mahometans_" it
+is stated that the rhinoceros of Sumatra "n'a point d'articulation au
+genou ni à la main."--_Relations des Voyages, &c._, Paris, 1845, vol. i.
+p. 29.]
+
+[Footnote 4: When an animal moves progressively an hypothenuse is
+produced, which is equal in power to the magnitude that is quiescent,
+and to that which is intermediate. But since the members are equal, it
+is necessary that the member which is quiescent should be inflected
+either in the knee or in the incurvation, _if the animal that walks is
+without knees_. It is possible, however, for the leg to be moved, when
+not inflected, in the same manner as infants creep; and there is an
+ancient report of this kind about elephants, which is not true, for such
+animals as these, _are moved in consequence of an inflection taking
+place either in their shoulders or hips_."--ARISTOTLE, _De Ingressu
+Anim._, ch. ix. Taylor's Transl.]
+
+[Footnote 5: ARISTOTLE, _De Animal_., lib. ii. ch. i. It is curious that
+Taylor, in his translation of this passage, was so strongly imbued with
+the "grey-headed errour," that in order to elucidate the somewhat
+obscure meaning of Aristotle, he has actually interpolated the text with
+the exploded fallacy of Ctesias, and after the word reclining to sleep,
+has inserted the words "_leaning against some wall or tree_," which are
+not to be found in the original.]
+
+So great was the authority of ARISTOTLE, that ÆLIAN, who wrote two
+centuries later and borrowed many of his statements from the works of
+his predecessor, perpetuates this error; and, after describing the
+exploits of the trained elephants exhibited at Rome, adds the expression
+of his surprise, that an animal without joints ([Greek: anarthron])
+should yet be able to dance.[1] The fiction was too agreeable to be
+readily abandoned by the poets of the Lower Empire and the Romancers of
+the middle ages; and PHILE, a contemporary of PETRARCH and DANTE, who in
+the early part of the fourteenth century, addressed his didactic poem on
+the elephant to the Emperor Andronicus II., untaught by the exposition
+of ARISTOTLE, still clung to the old delusion,
+
+[Greek:
+  "Podes de toutps thauma kai saphes teras,
+  Ous, ou kathaper talla tôn zôôn genê,
+  Eiôthe kinein ex anarthrôn klasmatôn,
+  Kai gar stibarois syntethentes osteois,
+  Kai tê pladara tôn sphyrôn katastasei,
+  Kai tê pros arthra tôn skelôn hypokrisei,
+  Nyn eis tonous agousi, nyn eis hypheseis,
+  Tas pantodapas ekdromas tou thêriou.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Brachyterous ontas de ton opisthiôn
+  'Anamphilektôs oida tous emprosthious
+  Toutois elephas entatheis osper stylois
+  'Orthostadên akamptos hypnôttôn menei."]
+                               v. 106, &c.
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: "Zpson de anarthron sunienai kai rhuthmou kai
+melous, kai phylattein schêma physeôs dôra tauta hama kai idiotês  kath'
+ekaston ekplêktikê]."--ÆLIAN, _De Nat. Anim_., lib. ii.  cap. xi.]
+
+SOLINUS introduced the same fable into his _Polyhistor_; and DICUIL, the
+Irish commentator of the ninth century, who had an opportunity of seeing
+the elephant sent by Haroun Alraschid as a present to Charlemagne[1] in
+the year 802, corrects the error, and attributes its perpetuation to the
+circumstance that the joints in the elephant's leg are not very
+apparent, except when he lies down.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Eginhard, _Vita Karoli_, c. xvi. and _Annales Francorum_,
+A.D. 810.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Sed idem Julius, unum de elephantibus mentions, falso
+loquitur; dicens elephantem nunquam jacere; dum ille sicut bos
+certissime jacet, ut populi communiter regni Francorum elephantem, in
+tempore Imperatoris Karoli viderunt. Sed, forsitan, ideo hoc de
+elephante ficte æstimando scriptum est, eo quod genua et suffragines sui
+nisi quando jacet, non palam apparent."--DICUILUS, _De Mensura Orbis
+Terræ_, c. vii.]
+
+It is a strong illustration of the vitality of error, that the delusion
+thus exposed by Dicuil in the ninth century, was revived by MATTHEW
+PARIS in the thirteenth; and stranger still, that Matthew not only saw
+but made a drawing of the elephant presented to King Henry III. by the
+King of France in 1255, in which he nevertheless represents the legs as
+without joints.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cotton MSS_. NERO. D. 1. fol. 168, b.]
+
+In the numerous mediæval treatises on natural history, known under the
+title of _Bestiaries_, this delusion regarding the elephant is often
+repeated; and it is given at length in a metrical version of the
+_Physiologus_ of THEOBALDUS, amongst the Arundel Manuscripts in the
+British Museum.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Arundel MSS_. No. 292, fol. 4, &c. It has been printed in
+the _Reliquiæ Antiquæ_, vol. i. p. 208, by Mr. WRIGHT, to whom I am
+indebted for the following rendering of the passage referred to:--
+
+    in water ge sal stonden
+    in water to mid side
+    that wanne hire harde tide
+    that ge ne falle nither nogt
+    that it most in hire thogt
+    for he ne haven no lith
+    that he mugen risen with, etc.
+
+  "They will stand in the water,
+  in water up to the middle of the side,
+  that when it comes to them hard,
+  they may not fall down:
+  that is most in their thought,
+  for they have no joint
+  to enable them to rise again.
+  How he resteth him this animal,
+  when he walketh abroad,
+  hearken how it is here told.
+  For he is all unwieldy,
+  forsooth he seeks out a tree,
+  that it strong and stedfast,
+  and leans confidently against it,
+  when he is weary of walking.
+  The hunter has observed this,
+  who seeks to ensnare him,
+  where his usual dwelling is,
+  to do his will;
+  saws this tree and props it
+  in the manner that he best may,
+  covers it well that he (the elephant) may not be on his guard.
+  Then he makes thereby a seat,
+  himself sits alone and watches
+  whether his trap takes effect.
+  Then cometh this unwieldy elephant,
+  and leans him on his side,
+  rests against the tree in the shadow,
+  and so both fall together.
+  If nobody be by when he falls,
+  he roars ruefully and calls for help,
+  roars ruefully in his manner,
+  hopes he shall through help rise.
+  Then cometh there one (elephant) in haste,
+  hopes he shall cause him to stand up;
+  labours and tries all his might,
+  but he cannot succeed a bit.
+  He knows then no other remedy,
+  but roars with his brother,
+  many and large (elephants) come there in search,
+  thinking to make him get up,
+  but for the help of them all
+  he may not get up.
+  Then they all roar one roar,
+  like the blast of a horn or the sound of bell,
+  for their great roaring
+  a young one cometh running,
+  stoops immediately to him,
+  puts his snout under him,
+  and asks the help of them all;
+  this elephant they raise on his legs:
+  and thus fails this hunter's trick,
+  in the manner that I have told you."]
+
+With the Provençal song writers, the helplessness of the fallen elephant
+was a favourite simile, and amongst others RICHARD DE BARBEZIEUX, in the
+latter half of the twelfth century, sung[1],
+
+  "Atressi cum l'olifans
+  Que quan chai no s'pot levar."
+
+[Footnote 1: One of the most venerable authorities by whom the fallacy
+was transmitted to modern times was PHILIP de THAUN, who wrote, about
+the year 1121, A.D., his _Livre des Créatures_, dedicated to Adelaide of
+Louvaine, Queen of Henry I. of England. In the copy of it printed by the
+Historical Society of Science in 1841, and edited by Mr. WRIGHT, the
+following passage occurs:--
+
+  "Et Ysidre nus dit ki le elefant descrit,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Es jambes par nature nen ad que une jointure,
+  Il ne pot pas gesir quant il se volt dormir,
+  Ke si cuchet estait par sei nen leveraît;
+  Pur ceo li stot apuier, el lui del cucher,
+  U à arbre u à mur, idunc dort aseur.
+
+  E le gent de la terre, ki li volent conquere,
+  Li mur enfunderunt, u le arbre encíserunt;
+  Quant li elefant vendrat, ki s'i apuierat,
+  La arbre u le mur carrat, e il tribucherat;
+  Issi faiterement le parnent cele gent."
+  P. 100.]
+
+As elephants were but rarely seen in Europe prior to the seventeenth
+century, there were but few opportunities of correcting the popular
+fallacy by ocular demonstration. Hence SHAKSPEARE still believed that,
+
+  "The elephant hath joints; but none for courtesy:
+  His legs are for necessity, not flexure:"[1]
+
+and DONNE sang of
+
+  "Nature's great masterpiece, an Elephant;
+  The only harmless great thing:
+  Yet Nature hath given him no knee to bend:
+  Himself he up-props, on himself relies;
+  Still sleeping stands."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Troilus and Cressida_, act ii. sc. 3. A.D. 1609.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Progress of the Soul_, A.D. 1633.]
+
+Sir THOMAS BROWNE, while he argues against the delusion, does not fail
+to record his suspicion, that "although the opinion at present be
+reasonably well suppressed, yet from the strings of tradition and
+fruitful recurrence of errour, it was not improbable it might revive in
+the next generation;"[1]--an anticipation which has proved singularly
+correct; for the heralds still continued to explain that the elephant is
+the emblem of watchfulness, "_nec jacet in somno,"_[2] and poets almost
+of our own times paint the scene when
+
+  "Peaceful, beneath primeval trees, that cast
+  Their ample shade on Niger's yellow stream,
+  Or where the Ganges rolls his sacred waves,
+  _Leans_ the huge Elephant."[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: Sir T. BROWNE, _Vulgar Errors_, A.D. 1646.]
+
+[Footnote 2: RANDAL HOME'S _Academy of Armory_, A.D. 1671. HOME
+only perpetuated the error of GUILLAM, who wrote his _Display of
+Heraldry_ in A.D. 1610; wherein he explains that the elephant is
+"so proud of his strength that he never bows himself to any
+(_neither indeed can he_), and when he is once down he cannot
+rise up again."--Sec. III. ch. xii. p. 147.]
+
+[Footnote 3: THOMSON'S _Seasons_, A.D. 1728.]
+
+It is not difficult to see whence this antiquated delusion took its
+origin; nor is it, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE imagined, to be traced
+exclusively "to the grosse and cylindricall structure" of the animal's
+legs. The fact is, that the elephant, returning in the early morning
+from his nocturnal revels in the reservoirs and water-courses, is
+accustomed to rub his muddy sides against a tree, and sometimes
+against a rock if more convenient. In my rides through the northern
+forests, the natives of Ceylon have often pointed out that the
+elephants which had preceded me must have been of considerable size,
+from the height at which their marks had been left on the trees
+against which they had been rubbing. Not unfrequently the animals
+themselves, overcome with drowsiness from the night's gambolling, are
+found dosing and resting against the trees they had so visited, and in
+the same manner they have been discovered by sportsmen asleep, and
+leaning against a rock.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to explain that the position is accidental, and
+that it is taken by the elephant not from any difficulty in lying at
+length on the ground, but rather from the coincidence that the structure
+of his legs affords such support in a standing position, that reclining
+scarcely adds to his enjoyment of repose; and elephants in a state of
+captivity have been known for months together to sleep without lying
+down.[1] So distinctive is this formation, and so self-sustaining the
+configuration of the limbs, that an elephant shot in the brain, by Major
+Rogers in 1836, was killed so instantaneously that it died literally _on
+its knees_, and remained resting on them. About the year 1826, Captain
+Dawson, the engineer of the great road to Kandy, over the Kaduganava
+pass, shot an elephant at Hangwelle on the banks of the Kalany Ganga;
+_it remained on its feet_, but so motionless, that after discharging a
+few more balls, he was induced to go close to it, and found it dead.
+
+[Footnote 1: So little is the elephant inclined to lie down in
+captivity, and even after hard labour, that the keepers are generally
+disposed to suspect illness when he betakes himself to this posture.
+PHILE, in his poem _De Animalium Proprietate_, attributes the propensity
+of the elephant to sleep on his legs, to the difficulty he experiences
+in rising to his feet:
+
+    [Greek:
+    'Orthostadên de kai katheudei panychos
+    'HOt ouk anastêsai men eucherôs pelei.]
+
+But this is a misapprehension.]
+
+The real peculiarity in the elephant in lying down is, that he extends
+his hind legs backwards as a man does when he kneels, instead of
+bringing them under him like the horse or any other quadruped. The wise
+purpose of this arrangement must be obvious to any one who observes the
+struggle with which the horse _gets up_ from the ground, and the violent
+efforts which he makes to raise himself erect. Such an exertion in the
+case of the elephant, and the force requisite to apply a similar
+movement to raise his weight (equal to four or five tons) would be
+attended with a dangerous strain upon the muscles, and hence the simple
+arrangement, which by enabling him to draw the hind feet gradually under
+him, assists him to rise without a perceptible effort.
+
+The same construction renders his gait not a "gallop," as it has been
+somewhat loosely described[1], which would be too violent a motion for
+so vast a body; but a shuffle, that he can increase at pleasure to a
+pace as rapid as that of a man at full speed, but which he cannot
+maintain for any considerable distance.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c_. "The elephant," ch. i. Sir CHARLES BELL,
+in his essay on _The Hand and its Mechanism_, which forms one of the
+"Bridgewater Treatises," has exhibited the reasons deducible from
+organisation, which show the incapacity of the elephant to _spring_ or
+_leap_ like the horse and other animals whose structure is designed to
+facilitate agility and speed. In them the various bones of the shoulder
+and fore limbs, especially the clavicle and humerus, are set at such an
+angle, that the shock in descending is modified, and the joints and
+sockets protected from the injury occasioned by concussion. But in the
+elephant, where the weight of the body is immense, the bones of the leg,
+in order to present solidify and strength to sustain it, are built in
+one firm and perpendicular column; instead of being placed somewhat
+obliquely at their points of contact. Thus whilst the force of the
+weight in descending is broken and distributed by this arrangement in
+the case of the horse; it would be so concentrated in the elephant as to
+endanger every joint from the toe to the shoulder.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is to the structure of the knee-joint that the elephant is indebted
+for his singular facility in ascending and descending steep activities,
+climbing rocks and traversing precipitous ledges, where even a mule dare
+not venture; and this again leads to the correction of another generally
+received error, that his legs are "formed more for strength than
+flexibility, and fitted to bear an enormous weight upon a level surface,
+without the necessity of ascending or descending great acclivities."[1]
+The same authority assumes that, although the elephant is found in the
+neighbourhood of mountainous ranges, and will even ascend rocky passes,
+such a service is a violation of its natural habits.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c_., "The Elephant," ch. ii.]
+
+Of the elephant of Africa I am not qualified to speak, nor of the nature
+of the ground which it most frequents; but certainly the facts in
+connection with the elephant of India are all irreconcilable with the
+theory mentioned above. In Bengal, in the Nilgherries, in Nepal, in
+Burmah, in Siam, Sumatra, and Ceylon, the districts in which the
+elephants most abound, are all hilly and mountainous. In the latter,
+especially, there is not a range so elevated as to be inaccessible to
+them. On the very summit of Adam's Peak, at an altitude of 7,420 feet,
+and on a pinnacle which the pilgrims climb with difficulty, by means of
+steps hewn in the rock, Major Skinner, in 1840, found the spoor of an
+elephant.
+
+Prior to 1840, and before coffee-plantations had been extensively opened
+in the Kandyan ranges, there was not a mountain or a lofty feature of
+land of Ceylon which they had not traversed, in their periodical
+migrations in search of water; and the sagacity which they display in
+"laying out roads" is almost incredible. They generally keep along the
+_backbone_ of a chain of hills, avoiding steep gradients: and one
+curious observation was not lost upon the government surveyors, that in
+crossing the valleys from ridge to ridge, through forests so dense as
+altogether to obstruct a distant view, the elephants invariably select
+the line of march which communicates most judiciously with the opposite
+point, by means of _the safest ford_.[1] So sure-footed are they, that
+there are few places where man can go that an elephant cannot follow,
+provided there be space to admit his bulk, and solidity to sustain his
+weight.
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. HOOKER, in describing the ascent of the Himalayas,
+says, the natives in making their paths despise all zigzags, and run in
+straight lines up the steepest hill faces; whilst "the elephant's path
+is an excellent specimen of engineering--the opposite of the native
+track,--for it winds judiciously."--_Himalayan Journal_, vol. i. ch.
+iv.]
+
+This faculty is almost entirely derived from the unusual position, as
+compared with other quadrupeds, of the knee joint of the hind leg;
+arising from the superior length of the thigh-bone, and the shortness of
+the metatarsus: the heel being almost where it projects in man, instead
+of being lifted up as a "hock." It is this which enables him, in
+descending declivities, to depress and adjust the weight of his hinder
+portions, which would otherwise overbalance and force him headlong.[1]
+It is by the same arrangement that he is enabled, on uneven ground, to
+lift his feet, which are tender and sensitive, with delicacy, and plant
+them with such precision as to ensure his own safety as well as that of
+objects which it is expedient to avoid touching.
+
+[Footnote 1: Since the above passage was written, I have seen in the
+_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. xiii, pt. ii. p. 916, a
+paper upon this subject, illustrated by the subjoined diagram.
+
+The writer says, "an elephant descending a bank of too acute an angle to
+admit of his walking down it direct, (which, were he to attempt, his
+huge tody, soon disarranging the centre of gravity, would certainly
+topple over,) proceeds thus. His first manoeuvre is to kneel down close
+to the edge of the declivity, placing his chest to the ground: one
+fore-leg is then cautiously passed a short way down the slope; and if
+there is no natural protection to afford a firm footing, he speedily
+forms one by stamping into the soil if moist, or kicking out a footing
+if dry. This point gained, the other fore-leg is brought down in the
+same way; and performs the same work, a little in advance of the first;
+which is thus at liberty to move lower still. Then, first one and then
+the second of the hind legs is carefully drawn over the side, and the
+hind-feet in turn occupy the resting-places previously used and left by
+the fore ones. The course, however, in such precipitous ground is not
+straight from top to bottom, but slopes along the face of the bank,
+descending till the animal gains the level below. This an elephant has
+done, at an angle of 45 degrees, carrying a _howdah_, its occupant, his
+attendant, and sporting apparatus; and in a much less time than it takes
+to describe the operation." I have observed that an elephant in
+descending a declivity uses his knees, on the side next the bank; and
+his feet on the lower side only.
+
+[Illustration]]
+
+A _herd_ of elephants is a family, not a group whom accident or
+attachment may have induced to associate together. Similarity of
+features and caste attest that, among the various individuals which
+compose it, there is a common lineage and relationship. In a herd of
+twenty-one elephants, captured in 1844, the trunks of each individual
+presented the same peculiar formation,--long, and almost of one uniform
+breadth throughout, instead of tapering gradually from the root to the
+nostril. In another instance, the eyes of thirty-five taken in one
+corral were of the same colour in each. The same slope of the back, the
+same form of the forehead, is to be detected in the majority of the same
+group.
+
+In the forest several herds will browse in close contiguity, and in
+their expeditions in search of water they may form a body of possibly
+one or two hundred; but on the slightest disturbance each distinct herd
+hastens to re-form within its own particular circle, and to take
+measures on its own behalf for retreat or defence.
+
+The natives of any place which may chance to be frequented by elephants,
+observe that the numbers of the same herd fluctuate very slightly; and
+hunters in pursuit of them, who may chance to have shot one or more,
+always reckon with certainty the precise number of those remaining,
+although a considerable interval may intervene before they again
+encounter them. The proportion of males is generally small, and some
+herds have been seen composed exclusively of females; possibly in
+consequence of the males having been shot. A herd usually consists of
+from ten to twenty individuals, though occasionally they exceed the
+latter number; and in their frequent migrations and nightly resort to
+tanks and water-courses, alliances are formed between members of
+associated herds, which serve to introduce new blood into the family.
+
+In illustration of the attachment of the elephant to its young, the
+authority of KNOX has been quoted, that "the shees are alike tender of
+any one's young ones as of their own."[1] Their affection in this
+particular is undoubted, but I question whether it exceeds that of other
+animals; and the trait thus adduced of their indiscriminate kindness to
+all the young of the herd,--of which I have myself been an
+eye-witness,--so far from being an evidence of the strength of parental
+attachment individually, is, perhaps, somewhat inconsistent with the
+existence of such a passion to any extraordinary degree.[2] In fact,
+some individuals, who have had extensive facilities for observation,
+doubt whether the fondness of the female elephants for their offspring
+is so great as that of many other animals; as instances are not wanting
+in Ceylon, in which, when pursued by the hunters, the herd has abandoned
+the young ones in their flight, notwithstanding the cries of the latter
+for help.
+
+[Footnote 1: A correspondent of Buffon, M. MARCELLUS BLES, Seigneur de
+Moergestal, who resided eleven years in Ceylon in the time of the Dutch,
+says in one of his communications, that in herds of forty or fifty,
+enclosed in a single corral, there were frequently very young calves;
+and that "on ne pouvoit pas reconnaître quelles étoient les mères de
+chacun de ces petits éléphans, car tous ces jeunes animaux paroissent
+faire manse commune; ils têtent indistinctement celles des femelles de
+toute la troupe qui ont du lait, soit qu'elles aient elles-mêmes un
+petit en propre, soit qu'elles n'en aient point."--BUFFON, _Suppl. à
+l'Hist. des Anim._, vol. vi. p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WHITE, in his _Natural History of Selborne_, philosophising
+on the fact which had fallen under his own notice of this indiscriminate
+suckling of the young of one animal by the parent of another, is
+disposed to ascribe it to a selfish feeling; the pleasure and relief of
+having its distended teats drawn by this intervention. He notices the
+circumstance of a leveret having been thus nursed by a cat, whose
+kittens had been recently drowned: and observes, that "this strange
+affection was probably occasioned by that desiderium, those tender
+maternal feelings, which the loss of her kittens had awakened in her
+breast; and by the complacency and ease she derived to herself from
+procuring her teats to be drawn, which were too much distended with
+milk; till from habit she became as much delighted with this foundling
+as if it had been her real offspring. This incident is no bad solution
+of that strange circumstance which grave historians, as well as the
+poets, assert of exposed children being sometimes nurtured by female
+wild beasts that probably had lost their young. For it is not one whit
+more marvellous that Romulus and Remus in their infant state should be
+nursed by a she wolf than that a poor little suckling leveret should be
+fostered and cherished by a bloody Grimalkin."--WHITE'S _Selborne_,
+lett. xx.]
+
+In an interesting paper on the habits of the Indian elephant, published
+in the _Philosophical Transactions for_ 1793, Mr. CORSE says: "If a wild
+elephant happens to be separated from its young for only two days,
+though giving suck, she never after recognises or acknowledges it,"
+although the young one evidently knows its dam, and by its plaintive
+cries and submissive approaches solicits her assistance.
+
+If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly separated from his own
+herd, he is not permitted to attach himself to any other. He may browse
+in the vicinity, or frequent the same place to drink and to bathe; but
+the intercourse is only on a distant and conventional footing, and no
+familiarity or intimate association is under any circumstances
+permitted. To such a height is this exclusiveness carried, that even
+amidst the terror and stupefaction of an elephant corral, when an
+individual, detached from his own party in the _mêlée_ and confusion,
+has been driven into the enclosure with an unbroken herd, I have seen
+him repulsed in every attempt to take refuge among them, and driven off
+by heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted to insinuate
+himself within the circle which they had formed for common security.
+There can be no reasonable doubt that this jealous and exclusive policy
+not only contributes to produce, but mainly serves to perpetuate, the
+class of solitary elephants which are known by the term _goondahs_, in
+India, and which from their vicious propensities and predatory habits
+are called _Hora_, or _Rogues_, in Ceylon.[1]
+
+It is believed by the Singhalese that these are either individuals, who
+by accident have lost their former associates and become morose and
+savage from rage and solitude; or else that being naturally vicious they
+have become daring from the yielding habits of their milder companions,
+and eventually separated themselves from the rest of the herd which had
+refused to associate with them. Another conjecture is, that being almost
+universally males, the death or capture of particular females may have
+detached them from their former companions in search of fresh
+alliances.[2] It is also believed that a tame elephant escaping from
+captivity, unable to rejoin its former herd, and excluded from any
+other, becomes a "_rogue_" from necessity. In Ceylon it is generally
+believed that the _rogues_ are all males (but of this I am not certain),
+and so sullen is their disposition that although two may be in the same
+vicinity, there is no known instance of their associating, or of a
+_rogue_ being seen in company with another elephant.
+
+[Footnote 1: The term "rogue" is scarcely sufficiently accounted for by
+supposing it to be the English equivalent for the Singhalese word
+_Hora_. In that very curious book, the _Life and Adventures of_ JOHN
+CHRISTOPHER WOLF, _late principal Secretary at Jaffnapatam in Ceylon_,
+the author says, when a male elephant in a quarrel about the females "is
+beat out of the field and obliged to go without a consort, he becomes
+furious and mad, killing every living creature, be it man or beast: and
+in this state is called _ronkedor_, an object of greater terror to a
+traveller than a hundred wild ones."--P. 142. In another passage, p.
+164, he is called _runkedor_, and I have seen it spelt elsewhere
+_ronquedue_, WOLF does not give "_ronkedor_" as a term peculiar to that
+section of the island; but both there and elsewhere, it is obsolete at
+the present day, unless it be open to conjecture that the modern term
+"rogue" is a modification of _ronquedue._]
+
+[Footnote 2: BUCHANAN, in his _Survey of Bhagulpore_, p. 503, says that
+solitary males of the wild buffalo, "when driven from the herd by
+stronger competitors for female society, are reckoned very dangerous to
+meet with; for they are apt to wreak their vengeance on whatever they
+meet, and are said to kill annually three or four people." LIVINGSTONE
+relates the same of the solitary hippopotamus which becomes soured in
+temper, and wantonly attacks the passing canoes.--_Travels in South
+Africa_, p. 231.]
+
+They spend their nights in marauding, often about the dwellings of men,
+destroying their plantations, trampling down their gardens, and
+committing serious ravages in rice grounds and young coco-nut
+plantations. Hence from their closer contact with man and his dwellings,
+these outcasts become disabused of many of the terrors which render the
+ordinary elephant timid and needlessly cautious; they break through
+fences without fear; and even in the daylight a _rogue_ has been known
+near Ambogammoa to watch a field of labourers at work in reaping rice,
+and boldly to walk in amongst them, seize a sheaf from the heap, and
+retire leisurely to the jungle. By day they generally seek concealment,
+but are frequently to be met with prowling about the by-roads and jungle
+paths, where travellers are exposed to the utmost risk from their savage
+assaults. It is probable that this hostility to man is the result of the
+enmity engendered by those measures which the natives, who have a
+constant dread of their visits, adopt for the protection of their
+growing crops. In some districts, especially in the low country of
+Badulla, the villagers occasionally enclose their cottages with rude
+walls of earth and branches to protect them from nightly assaults. In
+places infested by them, the visits of European sportsmen to the
+vicinity of their haunts are eagerly encouraged by the natives, who
+think themselves happy in lending their services to track the ordinary
+herds in consideration of the benefit conferred on the village
+communities by the destruction of a rogue. In 1847 one of these
+formidable creatures frequented for some months the Rangbodde Pass on
+the great mountain road leading to the sanatarium, at Neuera-ellia; and
+amongst other excesses, killed a Caffre belonging to the corps of Caffre
+pioneers, by seizing him with its trunk and beating him to death against
+the bank.
+
+To return to the herd: one member of it, usually the largest and most
+powerful, is by common consent implicitly followed as leader. A tusker,
+if there be one in the party, is generally observed to be the commander;
+but a female, if of superior energy, is as readily obeyed as a male. In
+fact, in this promotion there is no reason to doubt that supremacy is
+almost unconsciously assumed by those endowed with superior vigour and
+courage rather than from the accidental possession of greater bodily
+strength; and the devotion and loyalty which the herd evince to their
+leader are very remarkable. This is more readily seen in the case of a
+tusker than any other, because in a herd he is generally the object of
+the keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such occasions the others do
+their utmost to protect him from danger: when driven to extremity they
+place their leader in the centre and crowd so eagerly in front of him
+that the sportsmen have to shoot a number which they might otherwise
+have spared. In one instance a tusker, which was badly wounded by Major
+ROGERS, was promptly surrounded by his companions, who supported him
+between their shoulders, and actually succeeded in covering his retreat
+to the forest.
+
+Those who have lived much in the jungle in Ceylon, and who have had
+constant opportunities of watching the habits of wild elephants, have
+witnessed instances of the submission of herds to their leaders, that
+suggest an inquiry of singular interest as to the means adopted by the
+latter to communicate with distinctness, orders which are observed with
+the most implicit obedience by their followers. The following narrative
+of an adventure in the great central forest toward the north of the
+island, communicated to me by Major SKINNER, who was engaged for some
+time in surveying and opening roads through the thickly-wooded districts
+there, will serve better than any abstract description to convey an idea
+of the conduct of a herd on such occasions:--
+
+"The case you refer to struck me as exhibiting something more than
+ordinary brute instinct, and approached nearer to reasoning powers than
+any other instance I can now remember. I cannot do justice to the scene,
+although it appeared to me at the time to be so remarkable that it left
+a deep impression in my mind.
+
+"In the height of the dry season in Neuera-Kalawa, you know the streams
+are all dried up, and the tanks nearly so. All animals are then sorely
+pressed for water, and they congregate in the vicinity of those tanks in
+which there may remain ever so little of the precious element.
+
+"During one of those seasons I was encamped on the bund or embankment of
+a very small tank, the water in which was so dried that its surface
+could not have exceeded an area of 500 square yards. It was the only
+pond within many miles, and I knew that of necessity a very large herd
+of elephants, which had been in the neighbourhood all day, must resort
+to it at night.
+
+"On the lower side of the tank, and in a line with the embankment, was a
+thick forest, in which the elephants sheltered themselves during the
+day. On the upper side and all around the tank there was a considerable
+margin of open ground. It was one of those beautiful bright, clear,
+moonlight nights, when objects could be seen almost as distinctly as by
+day, and I determined to avail myself of the opportunity to observe the
+movements of the herd, which had already manifested some uneasiness at
+our presence. The locality was very favourable for my purpose, and an
+enormous tree projecting over the tank afforded me a secure lodgement in
+its branches. Having ordered the fires of my camp to be extinguished at
+an early hour, and all my followers to retire to rest, I took up my post
+of observation on the overhanging bough; but I had to remain for upwards
+of two hours before anything was to be seen or heard of the elephants,
+although I knew they were within 500 yards of me. At length, about the
+distance of 300 yards from the water, an unusually large elephant issued
+from the dense cover, and advanced cautiously across the open ground to
+within 100 yards of the tank, where he stood perfectly motionless. So
+quiet had the elephants become (although they had been roaring and
+breaking the jungle throughout the day and evening), that not a movement
+was now to be heard. The huge vidette remained in his position, still as
+a rock, for a few minutes, and then made three successive stealthy
+advances of several yards (halting for some minutes between each, with
+ears bent forward to catch the slightest sound), and in this way he
+moved slowly up to the water's edge. Still he did not venture to quench
+his thirst, for though his fore-feet were partially in the tank and his
+vast body was reflected clear in the water, he remained for some minutes
+listening in perfect stillness. Not a motion could be perceived in
+himself or his shadow. He returned cautiously and slowly to the position
+he had at first taken up on emerging from the forest. Here in a little
+while he was joined by five others, with which he again proceeded as
+cautiously, but less slowly than before, to within a few yards of the
+tank, and then posted his patrols. He then re-entered the forest and
+collected around him the whole herd, which must have amounted to between
+80 and 100 individuals,--led them across the open ground with the most
+extraordinary composure and quietness, till he joined the advanced
+guard, when he left them for a moment and repeated his former
+reconnoissance at the edge of the tank. After which, having apparently
+satisfied himself that all was safe, he returned and obviously gave the
+order to advance, for in a moment the whole herd rushed into the water
+with a degree of unreserved confidence, so opposite to the caution and
+timidity which had marked their previous movements, that nothing will
+ever persuade me that there was not rational and preconcerted
+co-operation throughout the whole party, and a degree of responsible
+authority exercised by the patriarch leader.
+
+"When the poor animals had gained possession of the tank (the leader
+being the last to enter), they seemed to abandon themselves to enjoyment
+without restraint or apprehension of danger. Such a mass of animal life
+I had never before seen huddled together in so narrow a space. It seemed
+to me as though they would have nearly drunk the tank dry. I watched
+them with great interest until they had satisfied themselves as well in
+bathing as in drinking, when I tried how small a noise would apprise
+them of the proximity of unwelcome neighbours. I had but to break a
+little twig, and the solid mass instantly took to flight like a herd of
+frightened deer, each of the smaller calves being apparently shouldered
+and carried along between two of the older ones."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Letter from Major SKINNER.]
+
+In drinking, the elephant, like the camel, although preferring water
+pure, shows no decided aversion to it when discoloured with mud[1]; and
+the eagerness with which he precipitates himself into the tanks and
+streams attests his exquisite enjoyment of the fresh coolness, which to
+him is the chief attraction. In crossing deep rivers, although his
+rotundity and buoyancy enable him to swim with a less immersion than
+other quadrupeds, he generally prefers to sink till no part of his huge
+body is visible except the tip of his trunk, through which he breathes,
+moving beneath the surface, and only now and then raising his head to
+look that he is keeping the proper direction.[2] In the dry season the
+scanty streams which, during the rains, are sufficient to convert the
+rivers of the low country into torrents, often entirely disappear,
+leaving only broad expanses of dry sand, which they have swept down with
+them from the hills. In this the elephants contrive to sink wells for
+their own use by scooping out the sand to the depth of four or five
+feet, and leaving a hollow for the percolation of the spring. But as the
+weight of the elephant would force in the side if left perpendicular,
+one approach is always formed with such a gradient that he can reach the
+water with his trunk without disturbing the surrounding sand.
+
+[Footnote 1: This peculiarity was known in the middle ages, and PHILE,
+writing in the fourteenth century, says, that such is his _preference_,
+for muddy water that the elephant _stirs it_ before he drinks.
+
+[Greek:
+
+  "Ydor de pineisynchythen prin anpinoi
+  To gar dieides akribos diaptuei."]
+
+         --PHILE _de Eleph_., i. 144.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A tame elephant, when taken by his keepers to be bathed,
+and to have his skin washed and rubbed, lies down on his side, pressing
+his head to the bottom under water, with only the top of his trunk
+protruded, to breathe.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+I have reason to believe, although the fact has not been authoritatively
+stated by naturalists, that the stomach of the elephant will be found to
+include a section analogous to that possessed by some of the ruminants,
+calculated to contain a supply of water as a provision against
+emergencies. The fact of his being enabled to retain a quantity of water
+and discharge it at pleasure has been long known to every observer of
+the habits of the animal; but the proboscis has always been supposed to
+be "his water-reservoir,"[1] and the theory of an internal receptacle
+has not been discussed. The truth is that the anatomy of the elephant is
+even yet but imperfectly understood[2], and, although some peculiarities
+of his stomach were observed at an early period, and even their
+configuration described, the function of the abnormal portion remained
+undetermined, and has been only recently conjectured. An elephant which
+belonged to Louis XIV. died at Versailles in 1681 at the age of
+seventeen, and an account of its dissection was published in the
+_Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire Naturelle_, under the authority of
+the Academy of Sciences, in which the unusual appendages of the stomach
+are pointed out with sufficient particularity, but no suggestion is made
+as to their probable uses."[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: BRODERIP'S _Zoological Recreations_, p. 259.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For observing the osteology of the elephant, materials are
+of course abundant in the indestructible remains of the animal: but the
+study of the intestines, and the dissection of the softer parts by
+comparative anatomists in Europe, have been up to the present time beset
+by difficulties. These arise not alone from the rarity of subjects, but
+even in cases where elephants have died in these countries,
+decomposition interposes, and before the thorough examination of so vast
+a body can be satisfactorily completed, the great mass falls into
+putrefaction.
+
+The principal English authorities are _An Anatomical Account of the
+Elephant accidentally burnt in Dublin_, by A. MOLYNEUX, A.D. 1696; which
+is probably a reprint of a letter on the same subject in the library of
+Trinity College, Dublin, addressed by A. Moulin, to Sir William Petty,
+Lond. 1682. There are also some papers communicated to Sir Hans Sloane,
+and afterwards published in the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the year
+1710, by Dr. P. BLAIR, who had an opportunity of dissecting an elephant
+which died at Dundee in 1708. The latter writer observes that,
+"notwithstanding the vast interest attaching to the elephant in all
+ages, yet has its body been hitherto very little subjected to
+anatomical, inquiries;" and he laments that the rapid decomposition of
+the carcase, and other causes, had interposed obstacles to the scrutiny
+of the subject he was so fortunate as to find access to.
+
+In 1723 Dr. WM. STUCKLEY published _Some Anatomical Observations made
+upon the Dissection of an Elephant_; but each of the above essays is
+necessarily unsatisfactory, and little has since been done to supply
+their defects. One of the latest and most valuable contributions to the
+subjects, is a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy, on the 18th of
+Feb., 1847, by Professor HARRISON, who had the opportunity of dissecting
+an Indian elephant which died of acute fever; but the examination, so
+far as he has made it public, extends only to the cranium, the brain,
+and the proboscis, the larynx, trachea, and oesophagus. An essential
+service would be rendered to science if some sportsman in Ceylon, or
+some of the officers connected with the elephant establishment there,
+would take the trouble to forward the carcase of a young one to England
+in a state fit for dissection.
+
+_Postscriptum._--I am happy to say that a young elephant, carefully
+preserved in spirits, has recently been obtained in Ceylon, and
+forwarded to Prof. Owen, of the British Museum, by the joint exertions
+of M. DIARD and Major SKINNER. An opportunity has thus been afforded
+from which science will reap advantage, of devoting a patient attention
+to the internal structure of this interesting animal.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The passage as quoted by BUFFON from the _Mémoires_ is as
+follows:
+
+--"L'estomac avoit peu de diamètre; il en avoit moins que le colon, car
+son diamètre n'étoit que de quatorze pouces dans la partie la plus
+large; il avoit trois pieds et demi de longueur: l'orifice supérieur
+étoit à-peu-près aussi éloigné du pylore que du fond du grand cul-de-sac
+qui se terminoit en une pointe composée de tuniques beaucoup plus
+épaisses que celles du reste de l'estomac; il y avoit au fond du grand
+cul-de-sac plusieurs feuillets épais d'une ligne, larges d'un pouce et
+demi, et disposés irrégulierement; le reste de parois intérieures étoit
+percé de plusieurs petits trous et par de plus grands qui
+correspondoîent à des grains glanduleux."--BUFFON, _Hist. Nat_., vol.
+xi. p. 109.]
+
+A writer in the _Quarterly Review_ for December 1850, says that "CAMPER
+and other comparative anatomists have shown that the left, or cardiac
+end of the stomach in the elephant is adapted, by several wide folds of
+lining membrane, to serve as a receiver for water;" but this is scarcely
+correct, for although CAMPER has accurately figured the external form of
+the stomach, he disposes of the question of the interior functions with
+the simple remark that its folds "semblent en faire une espèce de
+division particulière."[1] In like manner SIR EVERARD HOME, in his
+_Lectures on Comparative Anatomy_, has not only carefully described the
+form of the elephant's stomach, and furnished a drawing of it even more
+accurate than CAMPER; but he has equally omitted to assign any purpose
+to so strange a formation, contenting himself with observing that the
+structure is a peculiarity, and that one of the remarkable folds nearest
+the orifice of the diaphragm appears to act as a valve, so that the
+portion beyond may be considered as an appendage similar to that of the
+hog and the _peccary_.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: "L'extrémité voisine du cardia se termine par une poche
+très-considérable et doublée à l'intérieure du quatorze valvules
+orbiculaires que semblent en faire une espèce de division
+particulière."--CAMPER, _Description Anatomique d'un Eléphant Mâle_, p.
+37, tabl. IX.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "The elephant has another peculiarity in the internal
+structure of the stomach. It is longer and narrower than that of most
+animals. The cuticular membrane of the oesophagus terminates at the
+orifice of the stomach. At the cardiac end, which is very narrow and
+pointed at the extremity, the lining is thick and glandular, and is
+thrown into transverse folds, of which five are broad and nine narrow.
+That nearest the orifice of the oesophagus is the broadest, and appears
+to act occasionally as a valve, so that the part beyond may be
+considered as an appendage similar to that of the peccary and the hog.
+The membrane of the cardiac portion is uniformly smooth; that of the
+pyloric is thicker and more vascular."--_Lectures on Comparative
+Anatomy_, by Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart. 4to. Lond. vol. i. p. 155. The
+figure of the elephant's stomach is given, in his _Lectures_, vol. ii.
+plate xviii.]
+
+[Illustration: ELEPANT'S STOMACH.]
+
+The appendage thus alluded to by Sir EVERARD HOME is the grand
+"cul-de-sac," noticed by the Académic des Sciences, and the "division
+particulière," figured by CAMPER. It is of sufficient dimensions to
+contain ten gallons of water, and by means of the valve above alluded
+to, it can be shut off from the chamber devoted to the process of
+digestion. Professor OWEN is probably the first who, not from an
+autopsy, but from the mere inspection of the drawings of CAMPER and
+HOME, ventured to assert (in lectures hitherto unpublished), that the
+uses of this section of the elephant's stomach may be analogous to those
+ascertained to belong to a somewhat similar arrangement in the stomach
+of the camel, one cavity of which is exclusively employed as a reservoir
+for water, and performs no function the preparation of food.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A similar arrangement, with some modifications, has more
+recently been found in the llama of the Andes, which, like the camel, is
+used as a beast of burden in the Cordilleras of Chili and Peru; but both
+these and the camel are _ruminants_, whilst the elephants belongs to the
+Pachydermata.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Whilst Professor OWEN was advancing this conjecture, another comparative
+anatomist, from the examination of another portion of the structure of
+the elephant, was led to a somewhat similar conclusion. Dr. HARRISON of
+Dublin had, in 1847, an opportunity of dissecting the body of an
+elephant which had suddenly died; and in the course of his examination
+of the thoracic viscera, he observed that an unusually close connection
+existed between the trachea and oesophagus, which he found to depend on
+a muscle unnoticed by any previous anatomist, connecting the back of the
+former with the forepart of the latter, along which the fibres descend
+and can be distinctly traced to the cardiac orifice of the stomach.
+Imperfectly acquainted with the habits and functions of the elephant in
+a state of nature, Dr. HARRISON found it difficult to pronounce as to
+the use of this very peculiar structure; but looking to the intimate
+connection between the mechanism concerned in the functions of
+respiration and deglutition, and seeing that the proboscis served in a
+double capacity as an instrument of voice and an organ for the
+prehension of food, he ventured (apparently without adverting to the
+abnormal form of the stomach) to express the opinion that this muscle,
+viewing its attachment to the trachea, might either have some influence
+in raising the diaphragm, and thereby assisting in expiration, "_or that
+it might raise the cardiac orifice of the stomach, and so aid this organ
+to regurgitate a portion of its contents into the oesophagus_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Proceed. Roy. Irish Acad_., vol. iv. p. 133.]
+
+Dr. HARRISON, on the reflection that "we have no satisfactory evidence
+that the animal ever ruminates," thought it useless to speculate on the
+latter supposition as to the action of the newly discovered muscle, and
+rather inclined to the surmise that it was designed to assist the
+elephant in producing the remarkable sound through his proboscis known
+as "trumpeting;" but there is little room to doubt that of the two the
+rejected hypothesis was the more correct one. I have elsewhere described
+the occurrence to which I was myself a witness[1], of elephants
+inserting their proboscis in their mouths, and withdrawing gallons of
+water, which could only have been contained in the receptacle figured by
+CAMPER and HOME, and of which the true uses were discerned by the clear
+intellect of Professor OWEN. I was not, till very recently, aware that a
+similar observation as to the remarkable habit of the elephant, had been
+made by the author of the _Ayeen Akbery_, in his account of the _Feel_
+_Kaneh_, or elephant stables of the Emperor Akbar, in which he says, "an
+elephant frequently with his trunk takes water out of his stomach and
+sprinkles himself with it, and it is not in the least offensive."[2]
+FORBES, in his Oriental Memoirs, quotes this passage of the _Ayeen
+Akbery_, but without a remark; nor does any European writer with whose
+works I am acquainted appear to have been cognisant of the peculiarity
+in question.
+
+[Footnote 1: In the account of an elephant corral, chap. vi.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ayeen Akbery_, transl. by GLADWIN, vol i. pt. i, p. 147.]
+
+[Illustration: WATER-CELLS IN THE STOMACH OF THE CAMEL.]
+
+It is to be hoped that Professor OWEN'S dissection of the young
+elephant, recently arrived, may serve to decide this highly interesting
+point.[1] Should scientific investigation hereafter more clearly
+establish the fact that, in this particular, the structure of the
+elephant is assimilated to that of the llama and the camel, it will be
+regarded as more than a common coincidence, that an apparatus, so unique
+in its purpose and action, should thus have been conferred by the
+Creator on the three animals which in sultry climates are, by this
+arrangement, enabled to traverse arid regions in the service of man.[2]
+To show this peculiar organization where it attains its fullest
+development, I have given a sketch of the water-cells, in the stomach of
+the camel on the preceding page.
+
+[Footnote 1: One of the Indian names for the elephant is _duipa_, which
+signifies "to drink twice" (AMANDI, p. 513). Can this have reference to
+the peculiarity of the stomach for retaining a supply of water? Or has
+it merely reference to the habit of the animal to fill his trunk before
+transferring the water to his mouth.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The buffalo and the humped cattle of India, which are used
+for draught and burden, have, I believe, a development of the
+organisation of the reticulum which enables the ruminants generally, to
+endure thirst, and abstain from water, somewhat more conspicuous than in
+the rest of their congeners; but nothing that approaches in singularity
+of character to the distinct cavities in the stomach exhibited by the
+three animals above alluded to.]
+
+The _food_ of the elephant is so abundant, that in feeding he never
+appears to be impatient or voracious, but rather to play with the leaves
+and branches on which he leisurely feeds. In riding by places where a
+herd has recently halted, I have sometimes seen the bark peeled
+curiously off the twigs, as though it had been done in mere dalliance.
+In the same way in eating grass the elephant selects a tussac which he
+draws from the ground by a dexterous twist of his trunk, and nothing can
+be more graceful than the ease with which, before conveying it to his
+mouth, he beats the earth from its roots by striking it gently upon his
+fore-leg. A coco-nut he first rolls under foot, to detach the strong
+outer bark, then stripping off with his trunk the thick layer of fibre
+within, he places the shell in his mouth, and swallows with evident
+relish the fresh liquid which flows as he crushes it between his
+grinders.
+
+The natives of the peninsula of Jaffna always look for the periodical
+appearance of the elephants, at the precise time when the fruit of the
+palmyra palm begins to fall to the ground from ripeness. In like manner
+in the eastern provinces where the custom prevails of cultivating what
+is called _chena_ land (by clearing a patch of forest for the purpose of
+raising a single crop, after which the ground is abandoned, and reverts
+to jungle again), although a single elephant may not have been seen in
+the neighbourhood during the early stages of the process, the Moormen,
+who are the cultivators of this class, will predict their appearance
+with almost unerring confidence so soon as the grains shall have begun
+to ripen; and although the crop comes to maturity at different periods
+in different districts, herds are certain to be seen at each in
+succession, as soon as it is ready to be cut. In these well-timed
+excursions, they resemble the bison of North America, which, by a
+similarly mysterious instinct, finds its way to portions of the distant
+prairies, where accidental fires have been followed by a growth of
+tender grass. Although the fences around these _chenas_ are little more
+than lines of reeds loosely fastened together, they are sufficient, with
+the presence of a single watcher, to prevent the entrance of the
+elephants, who wait patiently till the rice and _coracan_ have been
+removed, and the watcher withdrawn; and, then finding gaps in the fence,
+they may be seen gleaning among the leavings and the stubble; and they
+take their departure when these are exhausted, apparently in the
+direction of some other _chena_, which they have ascertained to be about
+to be cut.
+
+There is something still unexplained in the dread which an elephant
+always exhibits on approaching a fence, and the reluctance which he
+displays to face the slightest artificial obstruction to his passage. In
+the fine old tank of Tissa-weva, close by Anarajapoora, the natives
+cultivate grain, during the dry season, around the margin where the
+ground has been left bare by the subsidence of the water. These little
+patches of rice they enclose with small sticks an inch in diameter and
+five or six feet in height, such as would scarcely serve to keep out a
+wild hog if he attempted to force his way through. Passages of from ten
+to twenty feet wide are left between each field, to permit the wild
+elephants, which abound in the vicinity to make their nocturnal visits
+to the water still remaining in the tank. Night after night these open
+pathways are frequented by immense herds, but the tempting corn is never
+touched, nor is a single fence disturbed, although the merest, movement
+of a trunk would be sufficient to demolish the fragile structure. Yet
+the same spots, the fences being left open as soon as the grain has been
+cut and carried home, are eagerly entered by the elephants to glean
+amongst the stubble.
+
+Sportsmen observe that an elephant, even when enraged by a wound, will
+hesitate to charge an assailant across an intervening hedge, but will
+hurry along it to seek for an opening. It is possible that, on the part
+of the elephant, there may be some instinctive consciousness, that owing
+to his superior bulk, he is exposed to danger from sources that might be
+perfectly harmless in the case of lighter animals, and hence his
+suspicion that every fence may conceal a snare or pitfall. Some similar
+apprehension is apparent in the deer, which shrinks from attempting a
+fence of wire, although it will clear without hesitation a solid wall of
+greater height.
+
+At the same time, the caution with which the elephant is supposed to
+approach insecure ground and places of doubtful[1] solidity, appears to
+me, so far as my own observation and experience extend, to be
+exaggerated, and the number of temporary bridges which are annually
+broken down by elephants in all parts of Ceylon, is sufficient to show
+that, although in captivity, and when familiar with such structures, the
+tame ones may, and doubtless do, exhibit all the wariness attributed to
+them; yet, in a state of liberty, and whilst unaccustomed to such
+artificial appliances, their instincts are not sufficient to ensure
+their safety. Besides, the fact is adverted to elsewhere[2], that the
+chiefs of the Wanny, during the sovereignty of the Dutch, were
+accustomed to take in pitfalls the elephants which they rendered as
+tribute to government.
+
+[Footnote 1: "One of the strongest instincts which the elephant
+possesses, is this which impels him to experiment upon the solidity of
+every surface which he is required to cross."--_Menageries, &c._ "The
+Elephant," vol. i. pp. 17, 19, 66.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 151. See p. 115, _note_.]
+
+A fact illustrative at once of the caution and the spirit of curiosity
+with which an elephant regards an unaccustomed object has been
+frequently mentioned to me by the officers engaged in opening roads
+through the forest. On such occasions the wooden "tracing pegs" which
+they are obliged to drive into the ground to mark the levels taken
+during the day, will often be withdrawn by the elephants during the
+night, to such an extent as frequently to render it necessary to go over
+the work a second time, in order to replace them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Private Letter_ from Dr. DAVY, author of _An Account of
+the Interior of Ceylon_.]
+
+Colonel HARDY, formerly Deputy Quarter-Master-General in Ceylon, when
+proceeding, about the year 1820, to a military out-post in the
+south-east of the island, imprudently landed in an uninhabited part of
+the coast, intending to take a short cut through the forest, to his
+destination. He not only miscalculated the distance, but, on the
+approach of nightfall, he was chased by a vicious rogue elephant. The
+pursuer was nearly upon him, when, to gain time, he flung down a small
+dressing-case, which he happened to be carrying. The device was
+successful; the elephant halted and minutely examined its contents, and
+thus gave the colonel time to effect his escape.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The _Colombo Observer_ for March 1858, contains an offer of
+a reward of twenty-five guineas for the destruction of an elephant which
+infested the Rajawallé coffee plantation, in the vicinity of Kandy. Its
+object seemed to be less the search for food, than the satisfying of its
+curiosity and the gratification of its passion for mischief. Mr. TYTLER,
+the proprietor, states that it frequented the jungle near the estate,
+whence it was its custom to sally forth at night for the pleasure of
+pulling down buildings and trees, "and it seemed to have taken a spite
+at the pipes of the water-works, the pillars of which it several times
+broke down--its latest fancy being to wrench off the taps." This
+elephant has since been shot.]
+
+As regards the general sagacity of the elephant, although it has not
+been over-rated in the instances of those whose powers have been largely
+developed in captivity, an undue estimate has been formed in relation to
+them whilst still untamed. The difference of instincts and habits
+renders it difficult to institute a just comparison between them and
+other animals. CUVIER[1] is disposed to ascribe the exalted idea that
+prevails of their intellect to the feats which an elephant performs with
+that unique instrument, its trunk, combined with an imposing expression
+of countenance: but he records his own conviction that in sagacity it in
+no way excels the dog, and some other species of Carnivora. If there be
+a superiority, I am disposed to award it to the dog, not from any excess
+of natural capacity, but from the higher degree of development
+consequent on his more intimate domestication and association with man.
+
+[Footnote 1: CUVIER, _Règne Animal_. "Les Mammiferes," p. 280.]
+
+One remarkable fact was called to my attention by a gentleman who
+resided on a coffee plantation at Rassawé, one of the loftiest mountains
+of the Ambogammoa range. More than once during the terrific
+thunder-bursts that precede the rains at the change of each monsoon, he
+observed that the elephants in the adjoining forest hastened from under
+cover of the trees and took up their station in the open ground, where I
+saw them on one of these occasions collected into a group; and here, he
+said, it was their custom to remain till the lightning had ceased, when
+they retired again into the jungle.[1] It must be observed, however,
+that showers, and especially light drizzling rain, are believed to bring
+the elephants from the jungle towards pathways or other openings in the
+forest;--and hence, in places infested by them, timid persons are afraid
+to travel in the afternoon during uncertain weather.
+
+[Footnote 1: The elephant is believed by the Singhalese to express his
+uneasiness by his voice, on the approach of _rain_; and the Tamils have
+a proverb.--"_Listen to the elephant, rain is coming._"]
+
+When free in its native woods the elephant evinces rather simplicity
+than sagacity, and its intelligence seldom exhibits itself in cunning.
+The rich profusion in which nature has supplied its food, and
+anticipated its every want, has made it independent of those devices by
+which carnivorous animals provide for their subsistence; and, from the
+absence of all rivalry between it and the other denizens of the plains,
+it is never required to resort to artifice for self-protection. For
+these reasons, in its tranquil and harmless life, it may appear to
+casual observers to exhibit even less than ordinary ability; but when
+danger and apprehension call for the exertion of its powers, those who
+have witnessed their display are seldom inclined to undervalue its
+sagacity.
+
+Mr. CRIPPS has related to me an instance in which a recently captured
+elephant was either rendered senseless from fear, or, as the native
+attendants asserted, _feigned death_ in order to regain its freedom. It
+was led from the corral as usual between two tame ones, and had already
+proceeded far towards its destination; when night closing in, and the
+torches being lighted, it refused to go on, and finally sank to the
+ground, apparently lifeless. Mr. CRIPPS ordered the fastenings to be
+removed from its legs, and when all attempts to raise it had failed, so
+convinced was he that it was dead, that he ordered the ropes to be taken
+off and the carcase abandoned. While this was being done he and a
+gentleman by whom he was accompanied leaned against the body to rest.
+They had scarcely taken their departure and proceeded a few yards, when,
+to their astonishment, the elephant rose with the utmost alacrity, and
+fled towards the jungle, screaming at the top of its voice, its cries
+being audible long after it had disappeared in the shades of the forest.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NARRATIVES OF THE NATIVES OF CEYLON RELATIVE TO ENCOUNTERS WITH ROGUE
+ELEPHANTS.
+
+
+The following narratives have been taken down by a Singhalese gentleman,
+from the statements of the natives by whom they are recounted;--and they
+are here inserted, in order to show the opinion prevalent amongst the
+people of Ceylon as to the habits and propensities of the rogue
+elephant. The stories are given in words of my correspondent, who writes
+in English, as follows:--
+
+1. "We," said my informant, who was a native trader of Caltura, "were on
+our way to Badulla, by way of Ratnapoora and Balangodde, to barter our
+merchandize for coffee. There were six in our party, myself, my
+brother-in-law, and four coolies, who carried on pingoes[1] our
+merchandize, which consisted of cloth and brass articles. About 4
+o'clock, P.M., we were close to Idalgasinna, and our coolies were rather
+unwilling to go further for fear of elephants, which they said were sure
+to be met with at that noted place, especially as there had been a
+slight drizzling of rain during the whole afternoon. I was as much
+afraid of elephants as the coolies themselves; but I was anxious to
+proceed, and so, after a few words of encouragement addressed to them,
+and a prayer or two offered up to _Saman dewiyo_[2], we resumed our
+journey. I also took the further precaution of hanging up a few
+leaves.[3] As the rain was coming down fast and thick, and I was anxious
+to get to our halting-place before night, we moved on at a rapid pace.
+My brother-in-law was in the van of the party, I myself was in the rear,
+and the four coolies between us, all moving along on a rugged, rocky,
+and difficult path; as the road to Badulla till lately was on the
+sloping side of a hill, covered with jungle, pieces of projecting rock,
+and brushwood. It was about five o'clock in the evening, or a little
+later, and we had hardly cleared the foot of the hill and got to the
+plain below, when a rustling of leaves and a crackling of dry brushwood
+were heard on our right, followed immediately by the trumpeting of a
+_hora allia_[4], which was making towards us. We all fled, followed by
+the elephant. I, who was in the rear of the party, was the first to take
+to flight; the coolies threw away their pingoes, and my brother-in-law
+his umbrella, and all ran in different directions. I hid myself behind a
+large boulder of granite nearly covered by jungle: but as my place of
+concealment was on high ground, I could see all that was going on below.
+The first thing I observed was the elephant returning to the place where
+one of the pingoes was lying: he was carrying one of the coolies in a
+coil of his trunk. The body of the man was dangling with the head
+downward. I cannot say whether he was then alive or not; I could not
+perceive any marks of blood or bruises on his person: but he appeared to
+be lifeless. The elephant placed him down on the ground, put the pingo
+on his (the man's) shoulder, steadying both the man and the pingo with
+his trunk and fore-legs. But the man of course did not move or stand up
+with his pingo. Seeing this, the elephant again raised the cooly and
+dashed him against the ground, and then trampled the body to a very
+jelly. This done, he took up the pingo and moved away from the spot; but
+at the distance of about a fathom or two, laid it down again, and
+ripping open one of the bundles, took out of it all the contents,
+_somans_[5], _camb[=a]yas_[6], handkerchiefs, and several pieces of
+white cambrick cloth, all which he tore to small pieces, and flung them
+wildly here and there. He did the same with all the other pingoes. When
+this was over the elephant quietly walked away into the jungle,
+trumpeting all the way as far as I could hear. When danger was past I
+came out of my concealment, and returned to the place where we had
+halted that morning. Here the rest of my companions joined me soon
+after. The next morning we set out again on our journey, our party being
+now increased by some seven or eight traders from Salpity Corle: but
+this time we did not meet with the elephant. We found the mangled corpse
+of our cooly on the same spot where I had seen it the day before,
+together with the torn pieces of my cloths, of which we collected as
+fast as we could the few which were serviceable, and all the brass
+utensils which were quite uninjured. That elephant was a noted rogue. He
+had before this killed many people on that road, especially those
+carrying pingoes of coco-nut oil and ghee. He was afterwards killed by
+an Englishman. The incidents I have mentioned above, took place about
+twenty years ago."
+
+[Footnote 1: Yokes borne on the shoulder, with a package at each end.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The tutelary spirit of the sacred mountain, Adam's Peak.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The Singhalese hold the belief, that twigs taken from one
+bush and placed on another growing close to a pathway, ensure protection
+to travellers from the attacks of wild animals, and especially of
+elephants. Can it be that the latter avoid the path, on discovering this
+evidence of the proximity of recent passengers?]
+
+[Footnote 4: A rogue elephant.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Woman's robe.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The figured cloth worn by men.]
+
+The following also relates to the same locality. It was narrated to me
+by an old Moorman of Barberyn, who, during his earlier years, led the
+life of a pedlar.
+
+2. "I and another," said he, "were on our way to Badulla, one day some
+twenty-five or thirty years ago. We were quietly moving along a path
+which wound round a hill, when all of a sudden, and without the
+slightest previous intimation either by the rustling of leaves or by any
+other sign, a huge elephant with short tusks rushed to the path. Where
+he had been before I can't say; I believe he must have been lying in
+wait for travellers. In a moment he rushed forward to the road,
+trumpeting dreadfully, and seized my companion. I, who happened to be in
+the rear, took to flight, pursued by the elephant, which had already
+killed my companion by striking him against the ground. I had not moved
+more than seven or eight fathoms, when the elephant seized me, and threw
+me up with such force, that I was carried high into the air towards a
+_Cahata_ tree, whose branches caught me and prevented my falling to the
+ground. By this I received no other injury than the dislocation of one
+of my wrists. I do not know whether the elephant saw me after he had
+hurled me away through the air; but certainly he did not come to the
+tree to which I was then clinging: even if he had come, he couldn't have
+done me any more harm, as the branch on which I was far beyond the reach
+of his trunk, and the tree itself too large for him to pull down. The
+next thing I saw was the elephant returning to the corpse of my
+companion, which he again threw on the ground, and placing one of his
+fore feet on it, he tore it with his trunk limb after limb; and dabbled
+in the blood that flowed from the shapeless mass of flesh which he was
+still holding under his foot."
+
+3. "In 1847 or '46," said another informant, "I was a superintendent of
+a coco-nut estate belonging to Mr. Armitage, situated about twelve miles
+from Negombo. A rogue elephant did considerable injury to the estate at
+that time; and one day, hearing that it was then on the plantation, a
+Mr. Lindsay, an Englishman, who was proprietor of the adjoining
+property, and myself, accompanied by some seven or eight people of the
+neighbouring village, went out, carrying with us six rifles loaded and
+primed. We continued to walk along a path which, near one of its turns,
+had some bushes on one side. We had calculated to come up with the brute
+where it had been seen half an hour before; but no sooner had one of our
+men, who was walking foremost, seen the animal at the distance of some
+fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he exclaimed, 'There! there!' and
+immediately took to his heels, and we all followed his example. The
+elephant did not see us until we had run some fifteen or twenty paces
+from the spot where we turned, when he gave us chase, screaming
+frightfully as he came on. The Englishman managed to climb a tree, and
+the rest of my companions did the same; as for myself I could not,
+although I made one or two superhuman efforts. But there was no time to
+be lost. The elephant was running at me with his trunk bent down in a
+curve towards the ground. At this critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out
+his foot to me, with the help of which and then of the branches of the
+tree, which were three or four feet above my head, I managed to scramble
+up to a branch. The elephant came directly to the tree and attempted to
+force it down, which he could not. He first coiled his trunk round the
+stem, and pulled it with all his might, but with no effect. He then
+applied his head to the tree, and pushed for several minutes, but with
+no better success. He then trampled with his feet all the projecting
+roots, moving, as he did so, several times round and round the tree.
+Lastly, failing in all this, and seeing a pile of timber, which I had
+lately cut, at a short distance from us, he removed it all (thirty-six
+pieces) one at a time to the root of the tree, and piled them up in a
+regular business-like manner; then placing his hind feet on this pile,
+he raised the fore part of his body, and reached out his trunk, but
+still he could not touch us, as we were too far above him. The
+Englishman then fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on the
+elephant's head, but did not kill him. It made him only the more
+furious. The next shot, however, levelled him to the ground. I
+afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo, and it is still
+to be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage."
+
+4. "One night a herd of elephants entered a village in the Four Corles.
+After doing considerable injury to plaintain bushes and young coco-nut
+trees, they retired, the villagers being unable to do anything to
+protect their fruit trees from destruction. But one elephant was left
+behind, who continued to scream the whole night through at the same
+spot. It was then discovered that the elephant, on seeing a jak fruit on
+a tree somewhat beyond the reach of his trunk, had raised himself on his
+hind legs, placing his fore feet against the stem, in order to lay hold
+of the fruit, but unluckily for him there happened to be another tree
+standing so close to it that the vacant space between the two stems was
+only a few inches. During his attempts to take hold of the fruit one of
+his legs happened to get in between the two trees, where, on account of
+his weight and his clumsy attempts to extricate himself, it got so
+firmly wedged that he could not remove it, and in this awkward position
+he remained for some days, till he died on the spot."
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Elephant Shooting._
+
+
+As the shooting of an elephant, whatever endurance and adroitness the
+sport may display in other respects, requires the smallest possible
+skill as a marksman, the numbers which are annually slain in this way
+may be regarded as evidence of the multitudes abounding in those parts
+of Ceylon to which they resort. One officer, Major ROGERS, killed
+upwards of 1400; another, Captain GALLWEY, has the credit of slaying
+more than half that number; Major SKINNER, the Commissioner of Roads,
+almost as many; and less persevering aspirants follow at humbler
+distances.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: To persons like myself, who are not addicted to what is
+called "sport," the statement of these wholesale slaughters is
+calculated to excite surprise and curiosity as to the nature of a
+passion that impels men to self-exposure and privation, in a pursuit
+which presents nothing but the monotonous recurrence of scenes of blood
+and suffering. Mr. BAKER, who has recently published, under the title of
+"_The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon_" an account of his exploits in the
+forest, gives us the assurance that "_all real sportsmen are
+tender-hearted men, who shun cruelty to an animal, and are easily moved
+by a tale of distress_;" and that although man is naturally
+bloodthirsty, and a beast of prey by instinct, yet that the true
+sportsman is distinguished from the rest of the human race by his "_love
+of nature, and of noble scenery_." In support of this pretension to a
+gentler nature than the rest of mankind, the author proceeds to attest
+his own abhorrence of cruelty by narrating the sufferings of an old
+hound, which, although "toothless," he cheered on to assail a boar at
+bay, but the poor dog recoiled "covered with blood, cut nearly in half,
+with a wound fourteen inches in length, from the lower part of the
+belly, passing up the flank, completely severing the muscles of the hind
+leg, and extending up the spine; his hind leg having the appearance of
+being nearly off." In this state, forgetful of the character he had so
+lately given of the true sportsman, as a lover of nature and a hater of
+cruelty, he encouraged "the poor old dog," as he calls him, to resume
+the fight with the boar, which lasted for an hour, when he managed to
+call the dogs off; and perfectly exhausted, the mangled hound crawled
+out of the jungle with several additional wounds, including a severe
+gash in his throat. "He fell from exhaustion, and we made a litter with
+two poles and a horsecloth to carry him home."--P. 314. If such were the
+habitual enjoyments of this class of sportsmen, their motiveless
+massacres would admit of no manly justification. In comparison with them
+one is disposed to regard almost with favour the exploits of a hunter
+like Major ROGERS, who is said to have applied the value of the ivory
+obtained from his encounters towards the purchase of his successive
+regimental commissions, and had, therefore, an object, however
+disproportionate, in his slaughter of 1400 elephants.
+
+One gentleman in Ceylon, not less distinguished for his genuine kindness
+of heart, than for his marvellous success in shooting elephants, avowed
+to me that the eagerness with which he found himself impelled to pursue
+them had often excited surprise in his own mind; and although he had
+never read the theory of Lord Kames, or the speculations of Vicesimus
+Knox, he had come to the conclusion that the passion thus excited within
+him was a remnant of the hunter's instinct, with which man was
+originally endowed, to enable him, by the chase, to support existence in
+a state of nature, and which, though rendered dormant by civilisation,
+had not been utterly eradicated.
+
+This theory is at least more consistent and intelligible than the "love
+of nature and scenery," sentimentally propounded by the author quoted
+above.]
+
+But notwithstanding this prodigious destruction, a reward of a few
+shillings per head offered by the Government for taking elephants was
+claimed for 3500 destroyed in part of the northern province alone, in
+less than three years prior to 1848: and between 1851 and 1856, a
+similar reward was paid for 2000 in the southern province, between Galle
+and Hambangtotte.
+
+Although there is little opportunity for the display of marksmanship in
+an elephant battue, there is one feature in the sport, as conducted in
+Ceylon, which contrasts favourably with the slaughterhouse details
+chronicled with revolting minuteness in some recent accounts of elephant
+shooting in South Africa. The practice in Ceylon is to aim invariably at
+the head, and the sportsman finds his safety to consist in boldly facing
+the animal, advancing to within fifteen paces, and lodging a bullet,
+either in the temple or in the hollow over the eye, or in a well-known
+spot immediately above the trunk, where the weaker structure of the
+skull affords an easy access to the brain.[1] The region of the ear is
+also a fatal spot, and often resorted to,--the places I have mentioned
+in the front of the head being only accessible when the animal is
+"charging." Professor HARRISON, in his communication to the Royal Irish
+Academy on the Anatomy of the Elephant, has rendered an intelligible
+explanation of this in the following passage descriptive of the
+cranium:--"it exhibits two remarkable facts: _first_, the small space
+occupied by the brain; and, _secondly_, the beautiful and curious
+structure of the bones of the head. The two tables of all these bones,
+except the occipital, are separated by rows of large cells, some from
+four to five inches in length, others only small, irregular, and
+honey-comb-like:--these all communicate with each other, and, through
+the frontal sinuses, with the cavity of the nose, and also with the
+tympanum or drum of each ear; consequently, as in some birds, these
+cells are filled with air, and thus while the skull attains a great size
+in order to afford an extensive surface for the attachment of muscles,
+and a mechanical support for the tusks, it is at the same time very
+light and buoyant in proportion to its bulk; a property the more
+valuable as the animal is fond of water and bathes in deep rivers."
+
+[Footnote 1: The vulnerability of the elephant in this region of the
+head was known to the ancients, and PLINY, describing a combat of
+elephants in the amphitheatre at Rome, says, that one was slain by a
+single blow, "pilum sub oculo adactum, in vitalia capitis venerat" (Lib.
+viii. c. 7.) Notwithstanding the comparative facility of access to the
+brain afforded at this spot, an ordinary leaden bullet is not certain to
+penetrate, and frequently becomes flattened. The hunters, to counteract
+this, are accustomed to harden the ball, by the introduction of a small
+portion of type-metal along with the lead.]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF ELEPHANT'S HEAD.]
+
+Generally speaking, a single ball, planted in the forehead, ends the
+existence of the noble creature instantaneously: and expert sportsmen
+have been known to kill right and left, one with each barrel; but
+occasionally an elephant will not fall before several shots have been
+lodged in his head.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "There is a wide difference of opinion as to the most
+deadly shot. I think the temple the most certain, but authority in
+Ceylon says the 'fronter,' that is, above the trunk. Behind the ear is
+said to be deadly, but that is a shot which I never fired or saw fired
+that I remember. If the ball go true to its mark, all shots (in the
+head) are certain; but the bones on either side of the honey-comb
+passage to the brain are so thick that there is in all a 'glorious
+uncertainty' which keeps a man on the _qui vive_ till he sees the
+elephant down."--From a paper on _Elephant Shooting in Ceylon_, by Major
+MACREADY, late Military Secretary at Colombo.]
+
+Contrasted with this, one reads with a shudder the sickening details of
+the African huntsman approaching _behind_ the retiring animal, and of
+the torture inflicted by the shower of bullets which tear up its flesh
+and lacerate its flank and shoulders.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: In Mr. GORDON CUMMING'S account of a _Hunter's Life in
+South Africa_, there is a narrative of his pursuit of a wounded elephant
+which he had lamed by lodging a ball in its shoulder-blade. It limped
+slowly towards a tree, against which it leaned itself in helpless agony,
+whilst its pursuer seated himself in front of it, in safety, to _boil
+his coffee_, and observe its sufferings. The story is continued as
+follows:--"Having admired him for a considerable time, _I resolved to
+make experiments on vulnerable points_; and approaching very near I
+fired several bullets at different parts of his enormous skull. He only
+acknowledged the shots by a salaam-like movement of his trunk, with the
+point of which he gently touched the wounds with a striking and peculiar
+action. Surprised and shocked at finding that I was only prolonging the
+sufferings of the noble beast, which bore its trials with such dignified
+composure, I resolved to finish the proceeding with all possible
+despatch, and accordingly opened fire upon him from the left side,
+aiming at the shoulder. I first fired _six_ shots with the two-grooved
+rifle, which must have eventually proved mortal. After which I fired
+_six_ shots at the same part with the Dutch six-pounder. _Large tears
+now trickled from his eyes, which he slowly shut and opened, his
+colossal frame shivered convulsively, and falling on his side, he
+expired_." (Vol. ii. p. 10.)
+
+In another place, after detailing the manner in which he assailed a poor
+animal--he says, "I was loading and firing as fast as could be,
+sometimes at the head, sometimes behind the shoulder, until my
+elephant's fore-quarter was a mass of gore; notwithstanding which he
+continued to hold on, leaving the grass and branches of the forest
+scarlet in his wake. * * * Having fired _thirty-five rounds_ with my
+two-grooved rifle, I opened upon him with the Dutch six-pounder, and
+when forty bullets had perforated his hide, he began for the first time,
+to evince signs of a dilapidated constitution." The disgusting
+description is closed thus: "Throughout the charge he repeatedly cooled
+his person with large quantities of water, which he ejected from his
+trunk over his sides and back, and just as the pangs of death came over
+him, he stood trembling violently beside a thorn tree, and kept pouring
+water into his bloody mouth until he died, when he pitched heavily
+forward with the whole weight of his fore-quarters resting on the points
+of his tusks. The strain was fair, and the tusks did not yield; but the
+portion of his head in which the tusks were embedded, extending a long
+way above the eye, yielded and burst with a muffled crash."--(_Ib_.,
+vol. ii. pp. 4, 5.)]
+
+The shooting of elephants in Ceylon has been described with tiresome
+iteration in the successive journals of sporting gentlemen, but one who
+turns to their pages for traits of the animal and his instincts is
+disappointed to find little beyond graphic sketches of the daring and
+exploits of his pursuers, most of whom, having had no further
+opportunity of observation than is derived from a casual encounter with
+the outraged animal, have apparently tried to exalt their own prowess,
+by misrepresenting the ordinary character of the elephant, describing
+him as "savage, wary, and revengeful."[1]
+
+These epithets may undoubtedly apply to the outcasts from the herd, the
+"Rogues" or _hora allia_, but so small is the proportion of these that
+there is not probably one _rogue_ to be found for every five hundred of
+those in herds; and it is a manifest error, arising from imperfect
+information, to extend this censure to them generally, or to suppose the
+elephant to be an animal "thirsting for blood, lying in wait in the
+jungle to rush on the unwary passer-by, and knowing no greater pleasure
+than the act of crushing his victim to a shapeless mass beneath his
+feet."[2] The cruelties practised by the hunters have no doubt taught
+these sagacious creatures to be cautious and alert, but their
+precautions are simply defensive; and beyond the alarm and apprehension
+which they evince on the approach of man, they exhibit no indication of
+hostility or thirst for blood.
+
+[Footnote 1: _The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon_; by S.W. BAKER, Esq.,
+pp. 8, 9. "Next to a rogue," says Mr. BAKER, "in ferocity, and even more
+persevering in the pursuit of her victim, is a female elephant." But he
+appends the significant qualification, "_when her young one has been
+killed_."--_Ibid_., p. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ibid_.]
+
+An ordinary traveller seldom comes upon elephants unless after sunset or
+towards daybreak, as they go to or return from their nightly visits to
+the tanks: but when by accident a herd is disturbed by day, they evince,
+if unattacked, no disposition to become assailants; and if the attitude
+of defence which they instinctively assume prove sufficent to check the
+approach of the intruder, no further demonstration is to be apprehended.
+
+Even the hunters who go in search of them find them in positions and
+occupations altogether inconsistent with the idea of their being savage,
+wary, or revengeful. Their demeanour when undisturbed is indicative of
+gentleness and timidity, and their actions bespeak lassitude and
+indolence, induced not alone by heat, but probably ascribable in some
+degree to the fact that the night has been spent in watchfulness and
+amusement. A few are generally browsing listlessly on the trees and
+plants within reach, others fanning themselves with leafy branches, and
+a few are asleep; whilst the young run playfully among the herd, the
+emblems of innocence, as the older ones are of peacefulness and gravity.
+
+Almost every elephant may be observed to exhibit some peculiar action of
+the limbs when standing at rest; some move the head monotonously in a
+circle, or from right to left; some swing their feet back and forward;
+others flap their ears or sway themselves from side to side, or rise and
+sink by alternately bending and straightening the fore knees. As the
+opportunities of observing this custom have been almost confined to
+elephants in captivity, it has been conjectured to arise from some
+morbid habit contracted during the length of a voyage by sea[1], or from
+an instinctive impulse to substitute a motion of this kind in lieu of
+their wonted exercise; but this supposition is erroneous; the propensity
+being equally displayed by those at liberty and those in captivity. When
+surprised by sportsmen in the depths of the jungle, individuals of a
+herd are always occupied in swinging their limbs in this manner; and in
+the several corrals which I have seen, where whole herds have been
+captured, the elephants in the midst of the utmost excitement, and even
+after the most vigorous charges, if they halted for a moment in stupor
+and exhaustion, manifested their wonted habit, and swung their limbs or
+swayed their bodies to and fro incessantly. So far from its being a
+substitute for exercise, those in the government employment in Ceylon
+are observed to practise their acquired motion, whatever it may be, with
+increased vigour when thoroughly fatigued after excessive work. Even the
+favourite practice of fanning themselves with a leafy branch seems less
+an enjoyment in itself than a resource when listless and at rest. The
+term "fidgetty" seems to describe appropriately the temperament of the
+elephant.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries_, &c., "The Elephant," ch. i. p. 21.]
+
+They evince the strongest love of retirement and a corresponding dislike
+to intrusion. The approach of a stranger is perceived less by the eye,
+the quickness of which is not remarkable (besides which its range is
+obscured by the foliage), than by sensitive smell and singular acuteness
+of hearing; and the whole herd is put in instant but noiseless motion
+towards some deeper and more secure retreat. The effectual manner in
+which an animal of the prodigious size of the elephant can conceal
+himself, and the motionless silence which he preserves, is quite
+surprising; whilst beaters pass and repass within a few yards of his
+hiding place, he will maintain his ground till the hunter, creeping
+almost close to his legs, sees his little eye peering out through the
+leaves, when, finding himself discovered, the elephant breaks away with
+a crash, levelling the brushwood in his headlong career.
+
+If surprised in open ground, where stealthy retreat is impracticable, a
+herd will hesitate in indecision, and, after a few meaningless
+movements, stand huddled together in a group, whilst one or two, more
+adventurous than the rest, advance a few steps to reconnoitre. Elephants
+are generally observed to be bolder in open ground than in cover, but,
+if bold at all, far more dangerous in cover than in open ground.
+
+In searching for them, sportsmen often avail themselves of the
+expertness of the native trackers; and notwithstanding the demonstration
+of Combe that the brain of the timid Singhalese is deficient in the
+organ of destructiveness[1], he shows an instinct for hunting, and
+exhibits in the pursuit of the elephant a courage and adroitness far
+surpassing in interest the mere handling of the rifle, which is the
+principal share of the proceeding that falls to his European companions.
+
+[Footnote 1: _System of Phrenology_, by GEO. COMBE, vol. i. p. 256.]
+
+The beater on these occasions has the double task of finding the game
+and carrying the guns; and, in an animated communication to me, an
+experienced sportsman describes "this light and active creature, with
+his long glossy hair hanging down his shoulders, every muscle quivering
+with excitement; and his countenance lighting up with intense animation,
+leaping from rock to rock, as nimble as a deer, tracking the gigantic
+game like a blood-hound, falling behind as he comes up with it, and as
+the elephants, baffled and irritated, make the first stand, passing one
+rifle into your eager hand and holding the other ready whilst right and
+left each barrel performs its mission, and if fortune does not flag, and
+the second gun is as successful as the first, three or four huge
+carcases are piled one on another within a space equal to the area of a
+dining room."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Private letter from Capt. PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY.]
+
+It is curious that in these encounters the herd never rush forward in a
+body, as buffaloes or bisons do, but only one elephant at a time moves
+in advance of the rest to confront, or, as it is called, to "charge,"
+the assailants. I have heard of but one instance in which _two_ so
+advanced as champions of their companions. Sometimes, indeed, the whole
+herd will follow a leader, and manoeuvre in his rear like a body of
+cavalry; but so large a party are necessarily liable to panic; and, one
+of them having turned in alarm, the entire body retreat with terrified
+precipitation.
+
+As regards boldness and courage, a strange variety of temperament is
+observable amongst elephants, but it may be affirmed that they are, much
+more generally timid than courageous. One herd may be as difficult to
+approach as deer, gliding away through the jungle so gently and quickly
+that scarcely a trace marks their passage; another, in apparent stupor,
+will huddle themselves together like swine, and allow their assailant to
+come within a few yards before they break away in terror; and a third
+will await his approach without motion, and then advance, with fury to
+the "charge."
+
+In individuals the same differences are discernible; one flies on the
+first appearance of danger, whilst another, alone and unsupported, will
+face a whole host of enemies. When wounded and infuriated with pain,
+many of them become literally savage[1]; but, so unaccustomed are they
+to act as assailants, and so awkward and inexpert in using their
+strength, that they rarely or ever exceed in killing a pursuer who falls
+into their power. Although the pressure of a foot, a blow with the
+trunk, or a thrust with the tusk, could scarcely fail to prove fatal,
+three-fourths of those who have fallen into their power have escaped
+without serious injury. So great is this chance of impunity, that the
+sportsman prefers to approach within about fifteen paces of the
+advancing elephant, a space which gives time for a second fire should
+the first shot prove ineffectual, and should both fail there is still
+opportunity for flight.
+
+[Footnote 1: Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by a
+native, near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the town, followed him
+along the street, trampled him to death in the bazaar before a crowd of
+spectators, and succeeded in making good its retreat to the jungle.]
+
+Amongst full-grown timber, a skilful runner can escape from an elephant
+by "dodging" round the trees, but in cleared land, and low brushwood,
+the difficulty is much increased, as the small growth of underwood which
+obstructs the movements of man presents no obstacle to those of an
+elephant. On the other hand, on level and open ground the chances are
+rather in favour of the elephant, as his pace in full flight exceeds
+that of man, although as a general rule, it is unequal to that of a
+horse, as has been sometimes asserted.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: SHAW, in his _Zoology_, asserts that an elephant can run as
+swiftly as a horse can gallop. London, 1800-6, vol. i. p. 216.]
+
+The incessant slaughter of elephants by sportsmen in Ceylon, appears to
+be merely in subordination to the influence of the organ of
+destructiveness, since the carcase is never applied to any useful
+purpose, but left to decompose and to defile the air of the forest. The
+flesh is occasionally tasted as a matter of curiosity: as a steak it is
+coarse and tough; but the tongue is as delicate as that of an ox; and
+the foot is said to make palatable soup. The Caffres attached to the
+pioneer corps in the Kandyan province are in the habit of securing the
+heart of any elephant shot in their vicinity, and say it is their custom
+to eat it in Africa. The hide it has been found impracticable to tan in
+Ceylon, or to convert to any useful purpose, but the bones of those shot
+have of late years been collected and used for manuring coffee estates.
+The hair of the tail, which is extremely strong and horny, is mounted by
+the native goldsmith, and made into bracelets; and the teeth are sawn by
+the Moormen at Galle (as they used to be by the Romans during a scarcity
+of ivory) into plates, out of which they fashion numerous articles of
+ornament, knife-handles, card racks, and "presse-papiers."
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+Amongst extraordinary recoveries from desperate wounds, I venture to
+record here an instance which occurred in Ceylon to a gentleman while
+engaged in the chase of elephants, and which, I apprehend, has few
+parallels in pathological experience. Lieutenant GERARD FRETZ, of the
+Ceylon Rifle Regiment, whilst firing at an elephant in the vicinity of
+Fort MacDonald, in Oovah, was wounded in the face by the bursting of his
+fowling-piece, on the 22nd January, 1828. He was then about thirty-two
+years of age. On raising him, it was found that part of the breech of
+the gun and about two inches of the barrel had been driven through the
+frontal sinus, at the junction of the nose and forehead. It had sunk
+almost perpendicularly till the iron-plate called "the tail-pin," by
+which the barrel is made fast to the stock by a screw, had descended
+through the palate, carrying with it the screw, one extremity of which
+had forced itself into the right nostril, where it was discernible
+externally, whilst the headed end lay in contact with his tongue. To
+extract the jagged mass of iron thus sunk in the ethmoidal and
+sphenoidal cells was found hopelessly impracticable; but, strange to
+tell, after the inflammation subsided, Mr. FRETZ recovered rapidly; his
+general health was unimpaired, and he returned to his regiment with
+this, singular appendage firmly embedded behind the bones of his face.
+He took his turn of duty as usual, attained the command of his company,
+participated in all the enjoyments of the mess-room, and died _eight
+years afterwards_, on the 1st of April, 1836, not from any consequences
+of this fearful wound, but from fever and inflammation brought on by
+other causes.
+
+So little was he apparently inconvenienced by the presence of the
+strange body in his palate that he was accustomed with his finger
+partially to undo the screw, which but for its extreme length he might
+altogether have withdrawn. To enable this to be done, and possibly to
+assist by this means the extraction of the breech itself through the
+original orifice (which never entirely closed), an attempt was made in
+1835 to take off a portion of the screw with a file; but, after having
+cut it three parts through the operation was interrupted, chiefly owing
+to the carelessness and indifference of Capt. FRETZ, whose death
+occurred before the attempt could be resumed. The piece of iron, on
+being removed after his decease, was found to measure 2-3/4 inches in
+length, and weighed two scruples more than two ounces and three
+quarters. A cast of the breech and screw now forms No. 2790 amongst the
+deposits in the Medical Museum of Chatham.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_An Elephant Corral_.
+
+So long as the elephants of Ceylon were merely required in small numbers
+for the pageantry of the native princes, or the sacred processions of
+the Buddhist temples, their capture was effected either by the
+instrumentality of female decoys, or by the artifices and agility of the
+individuals and castes who devoted themselves to their pursuit and
+training. But after the arrival of the European conquerors of the
+island, and when it had become expedient to take advantage of the
+strength and intelligence of these creatures in clearing forests and
+making roads and other works, establishments were organised on a great
+scale by the Portuguese and Dutch, and the supply of elephants kept up
+by periodical battues conducted at the cost of the government, on a plan
+similar to that adopted on the continent of India, when herds varying in
+number from twenty to one hundred and upwards are driven into concealed
+enclosures and secured.
+
+In both these processes, success is entirely dependent on the skill with
+which the captors turn to advantage the terror and inexperience of the
+wild elephant, since all attempts would be futile to subdue or confine
+by ordinary force an animal of such strength and sagacity.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The device of taking them by means of pitfalls still
+prevails in India: but in addition to the difficulty of providing
+against that caution with which the elephant is supposed to reconnoitre
+suspicious ground, it has the further disadvantage of exposing him to
+injury from bruises and dislocations in his fall. Still it was the mode
+of capture employed by the Singhalese, and so late as 1750 WOLF relates
+that the native chiefs of the Wanny, when capturing elephants for the
+Dutch, made "pits some fathoms deep in those places whither the elephant
+is wont to go in search of food, across which were laid poles covered
+with branches and baited with the food of which he is fondest, making
+towards which he finds himself taken unawares. Thereafter being subdued
+by fright and exhaustion, he was assisted to raise himself to the
+surface by means of hurdles and earth, which he placed underfoot as they
+were thrown down to him, till he was enabled to step out on solid
+ground, when the noosers and decoys were in readiness to tie him up to
+the nearest tree."--See WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 152. Shakspeare
+appears to have been acquainted with the plan of taking elephants in
+pitfalls: Decius, encouraging the conspirators, reminds them of Cæsar's
+taste for anecdotes of animals, by which he would undertake to lure him
+to his fate:
+
+  "For he loves to hear
+  That unicorns may be betrayed with trees.
+  And bears with glasses; _elephants with holes_."
+
+JULIUS CÆSAR, Act ii. Scene I.]
+
+Knox describes with circumstantiality the mode adopted, two centuries
+ago, by the servants of the King of Kandy to catch elephants for the
+royal stud. He says, "After discovering the retreat of such as have
+tusks, unto these they drive some _she elephants_, which they bring with
+them for the purpose, which, when once the males have got a sight of,
+they will never leave, but follow them wheresoever they go; and the
+females are so used to it that they will do whatsoever, either by word
+or a beck, their keepers bid them. And so they delude them along through
+towns and countries, and through the streets of the city, even to the
+very gates of the king's palace, where sometimes they seize upon them by
+snares, and sometimes by driving them into a kind of pound, they catch
+them."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, A.D. 1681, part i.
+ch. vi. p. 21.]
+
+In Nepaul and Burmah, and throughout the Chin-Indian Peninsula, when in
+pursuit of single elephants, either _rogues_ detached from the herd, or
+individuals who have been marked for the beauty of their ivory, the
+natives avail themselves of the aid of females in order to effect their
+approaches and secure an opportunity of casting a noose over the foot of
+the destined captive. All accounts concur in expressing high admiration
+of their courage and address; but from what has fallen under my own
+observation, added to the descriptions I have heard from other
+eye-witnesses, I am inclined to believe that in such exploits the
+Moormen of Ceylon evince a daring and adroitness, surpassing all others.
+
+These professional elephant catchers, or, as they are called, Panickeas,
+inhabit the Moorish villages in the north and north-east of the island,
+and from time immemorial have been engaged in taking elephants, which
+are afterwards trained by Arabs, chiefly for the use of the rajahs and
+native princes in the south of India, whose vakeels are periodically
+despatched to make purchases in Ceylon.
+
+The ability evinced by these men in tracing elephants through the woods
+has almost the certainty of instinct; and hence their services are
+eagerly sought by the European sportsmen who go down into their country
+in search of game. So keen is their glance, that like hounds running
+"breast high" they will follow the course of an elephant, almost at the
+top of their speed, over glades covered with stunted grass, where the
+eye of a stranger would fail to discover a trace of its passage, and on
+through forests strewn with dry leaves, where it seems impossible to
+perceive a footstep. Here they are guided by a bent or broken twig, or
+by a leaf dropped from the animal's mouth, on which the pressure of a
+tooth may be detected. If at fault, they fetch a circuit like a setter,
+till lighting on some fresh marks, they go a-head again with renewed
+vigour. So delicate is the sense of smell in the elephant, and so
+indispensable is it to go against the wind in approaching him, that on
+those occasions when the wind is so still that its direction cannot be
+otherwise discerned, the Panickeas will suspend the film of a gossamer
+to determine it and shape their course accordingly.
+
+They are enabled by the inspection of the footmarks, when impressed in
+soft clay, to describe the size as well as the number of a herd before
+it is seen; the height of an elephant at the shoulder being as nearly as
+possible twice the circumference of his fore foot.[1]
+
+On overtaking the game their courage is as conspicuous as their
+sagacity. If they have confidence in the sportsman for whom they are
+finding, they will advance to the very heel of the elephant, slap him on
+the quarter, and convert his timidity into anger, till he turns upon his
+tormentor and exposes his front to receive the bullet which is awaiting
+him.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Previous to the death of the female elephant in the
+Zoological Gardens, in the Regent's Park, in 1851, Mr. MITCHELL, the
+Secretary, caused measurements to be accurately made, and found the
+statement of the Singhalese hunters to be strictly correct, the height
+at the shoulders being precisely twice the circumference of the fore
+foot.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Major SKINNER, the Chief Officer at the head of the
+Commission of Roads, in Ceylon, in writing to me, mentions an anecdote
+illustrative of the daring of the Panickeas. "I once saw," he says, "a
+very beautiful example of the confidence with which these fellows, from
+their knowledge of the elephants, meet their worst defiance. It was in
+Neuera-Kalawa; I was bivouacking on the bank of a river, and had been
+kept out so late that I did not get to my tent until between 9 and 10 at
+night. On our return towards it we passed several single elephants
+making their way to the nearest water, but at length we came upon a
+large herd that had taken possession of the only road by which we could
+pass, and which no intimidation would induce to move off. I had some
+Panickeas with me; they knew the herd, and counselled extreme caution.
+After trying every device we could think of for a length of time, a
+little old Moorman of the party came to me and requested we should all
+retire to a distance. He then took a couple of chules (flambeaux of
+dried wood, or coco-nut leaves), one in each hand, and waving them above
+his head till they flamed out fiercely, he advanced at a deliberate pace
+to within a few yards of the elephant who was acting as leader of the
+party, and who was growling and trumpeting in his rage, and flourished
+the flaming torches in his face. The effect was instantaneous: the whole
+herd dashed away in a panic, bellowing, screaming, and crushing through
+the underwood, whilst we availed ourselves of the open path to make our
+way to our tents."]
+
+So fearless and confident are they that two men, without aid or
+attendants, will boldly attempt to capture the largest-sized elephant.
+Their only weapon is a flexible rope made of elk's or buffalo's hide,
+with which it is their object to secure one of the hind legs. This they
+effect either by following in its footsteps when in motion or by
+stealing close up to it when at rest, and availing themselves of its
+well-known propensity at such moments to swing the feet backwards and
+forwards, they contrive to slip a noose over the hind leg.
+
+At other times this is achieved by spreading the noose on the ground
+partially concealed by roots and leaves beneath a tree on which one of
+the party is stationed, whose business it is to lift it suddenly by
+means of a cord, raising it on the elephant's leg at the moment when his
+companion has succeeded in provoking him to place his foot within the
+circle, the other end having been previously made fast to the stem of
+the tree. Should the noosing be effected in open ground, and no tree of
+sufficient strength at hand round which to wind the rope, one of the
+Moors, allowing himself to be pursued by the enraged elephant, entices
+him towards the nearest grove; where his companion, dexterously laying
+hold of the rope as it trails along the ground, suddenly coils it round
+a suitable stem, and brings the fugitive to a stand still. On finding
+himself thus arrested, the natural impulse of the captive is to turn on
+the man who is engaged in making fast the rope, a movement which it is
+the duty of his colleague to present by running up close to the
+elephant's head and provoking the animal to confront him by irritating
+gesticulations and taunting shouts of _dah! dah!_ a monosyllable, the
+sound of which the elephant peculiarly dislikes. Meanwhile the first
+assailant, having secured one noose, comes up from behind with another,
+with which, amidst the vain rage and struggles of the victim, he entraps
+a fore leg, the rope being, as before, secured to another tree in front,
+and the whole four feet having been thus entangled, the capture is
+completed.
+
+A shelter is then run up with branches, to protect their prisoner from
+the sun, and the hunters proceed to build a wigwam for themselves in
+front of him, kindling their fires for cooking, and making all the
+necessary arrangements for remaining day and night on the spot to await
+the process of subduing and taming his rage. In my journeys through the
+forest I have come unexpectedly on the halting place of adventurous
+hunters when thus engaged; and on one occasion, about sunrise, in
+ascending the steep ridge from the bed of the Malwatte river, the
+foremost rider of our party was suddenly driven back by a furious
+elephant, which we found picketed by two Panickeas on the crest of the
+bank. In such a position, the elephant soon ceases to struggle; and what
+with the exhaustion of rage and resistance, the terror of fire which he
+dreads, and the constant annoyance of smoke which he detests, in a very
+short time, a few weeks at the most, his spirit becomes subdued; and
+being plentifully supplied with plantains and fresh food, and indulged
+with water, in which he luxuriates, he grows so far reconciled to his
+keepers that they at length venture to remove him to their own village,
+or to the sea-side for shipment to India.
+
+No part of the hunter's performances exhibits greater skill and audacity
+than this first forced march of the recently captured elephant from the
+great central forests to the sea-coast. As he is still too morose to
+submit to be ridden, and as it would be equally impossible to lead or to
+drive him by force, the ingenuity of the captors is displayed in
+alternately irritating and eluding him, but always so attracting his
+attention as to allure him along in the direction in which they want him
+to go. Some assistance is derived from the rope by which the original
+capture was effected, and which, as it serves to make him safe at night,
+is never removed from the leg till his taming is sufficiently advanced
+to permit of his being entrusted with partial liberty.
+
+In Ceylon the principal place for exporting these animals to India is
+Manaar, on the western coast, to which the Arabs from the continent
+resort, bringing with them horses to be bartered for elephants. In order
+to reach the sea, open plains must be traversed, across which it
+requires the utmost courage, agility, and patience of the Moors to coax
+their reluctant charge. At Manaar the elephants are usually detained
+till any wound on the leg caused by the rope has been healed, when the
+shipment is effected in the most primitive manner. It being next to
+impossible to induce the still untamed creature to walk on board, and no
+mechanical contrivances being provided to ship him; a dhoney, or native
+boat, of about forty tons' burthen, and about three parts filled with
+the strong ribbed leaves of the Palmyra palm, is brought alongside the
+quay in front of the Old Dutch Fort, and lashed so that the gunwale may
+be as nearly as possible on a line with the level of the wharf. The
+elephant being placed with his back to the water is forced by goads to
+retreat till his hind legs go over the side of the quay, but the main
+contest commences when it is attempted to disengage his fore feet from
+the shore, and force him to entrust himself on board. The scene becomes
+exciting from the screams and trumpeting of the elephants, the shouts of
+the Arabs, the calls of the Moors, and the rushing of the crowd.
+Meanwhile the huge creature strains every nerve to regain the land; and
+the day is often consumed before his efforts are overcome, and he finds
+himself fairly afloat. The same dhoney will take from four to five
+elephants, who place themselves athwart it, and exhibit amusing
+adroitness in accommodating their movements to the rolling of the little
+vessel; and in this way they are ferried across the narrow strait which
+separates the continent of India from Ceylon.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1701, there is "An
+Account of the taking of Elephants in Ceylon, by Mr. STRACHAN, a
+Physician who lived seventeen years there," in which the author
+describes the manner in which they were shipped by the Dutch, at Matura,
+Galle, and Negombo. A piece of strong sail-cloth having been wrapped
+round the elephant's chest and stomach, he was forced into the sea
+between two tame ones, and there made fast to a boat. The tame ones then
+returned to land, and he swam after the boat to the ship, where tackle
+was reeved to the sail-cloth, and he was hoisted on board.
+
+"But a better way has been invented lately," says Mr. Strachan; "a large
+flat-bottomed vessel is prepared, covered with planks like a floor; so
+that this floor is almost of a height with the key. Then the sides of
+the key and the vessel are adorned with green branches, so that the
+elephant sees no water till he is in the ship."--_Phil. Trans._, vol.
+xxiii. No. 227, p. 1051.]
+
+But the feat of ensnaring and subduing a single elephant, courageous as
+it is, and demonstrative of the supremacy with which man wields his
+"dominion over every beast of the earth," falls far short of the daring
+exploit of capturing a whole herd: when from thirty to one hundred wild
+elephants are entrapped in one vast decoy. The mode of effecting this,
+as it is practised in Ceylon, is no doubt imitated, but with
+considerable modifications, from the methods prevalent in various parts
+of India. It was introduced by the Portuguese, and continued by the
+Dutch, the latter of whom had two elephant hunts in each year, and
+conducted their operations on so large a scale, that the annual export
+after supplying the government establishments, was from one hundred to
+one hundred and fifty elephants, taken principally in the vicinity of
+Matura, in the southern province, and marched for shipment to Manaar.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: VALENTYN. _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien_, ch. xv. p. 272.]
+
+The custom in Bengal is to construct a strong enclosure (called a
+_keddah_), in the heart of the forest, formed of the trunks of trees
+firmly secured by transverse beams and buttresses, and leaving the gate
+for the entrance of the elephants. A second enclosure, opening from the
+first, contains water (if possible a rivulet): this, again, communicates
+with a third, which terminates in a funnel-shaped passage, too narrow to
+admit of an elephant turning, and within this the captives being driven
+in line, are secured with ropes introduced from the outside, and led
+away in custody of tame ones trained for the purpose.
+
+The _keddah_ being prepared, the first operation is to drive the
+elephants towards it, for which purpose vast bodies of men fetch a
+compass in the forest around the haunts of the herds, contracting it by
+degrees, till they complete the enclosure of a certain area, round which
+they kindle fires, and cut footpaths through the jungle, to enable the
+watchers to communicate and combine. All this is performed in cautious
+silence and by slow approaches, to avoid alarming the herd. A fresh
+circle nearer to the _keddah_ is then formed in the same way, and into
+this the elephants are admitted from the first one, the hunters
+following from behind, and lighting new fires around the newly inclosed
+space. Day after day the process is repeated; till the drove having been
+brought sufficiently close to make the final rush, the whole party close
+in from all sides, and with drums, guns, shouts, and flambeaux, force
+the terrified animals to enter the fatal enclosure, when the passage is
+barred behind them, and retreat rendered impossible.
+
+Their efforts to escape are repressed by the crowd, who drive them back
+from the stockade with spears and flaming torches; and at last compel
+them to pass on into the second enclosure. Here they are detained for a
+short time, and their feverish exhaustion relieved by free access to
+water;--until at last, being tempted by food, or otherwise induced to
+trust themselves in the narrow outlet, they are one after another made
+fast by ropes, passed in through the palisade; and picketed in the
+adjoining woods to enter on their course of systematic training.
+
+These arrangements vary in different districts of Bengal; and the method
+adopted in Ceylon differs in many essential particulars from them all;
+the Keddah, or, as it is here called, the corral or _korahl_[1] (from
+the Portuguese _curral_, a "cattle-pen"), consists of but one enclosure
+instead of three. A stream or watering-place is not uniformly enclosed
+within it, because, although water is indispensable after the long
+thirst and exhaustion of the captives, it has been found that a pond or
+rivulet within the corral itself adds to the difficulty of leading them
+out, and increases their reluctance to leave it; besides which, the
+smaller ones are often smothered by the others in their eagerness to
+crowd into the water. The funnel-shaped outlet is also dispensed with,
+as the animals are liable to bruise and injure themselves within the
+narrow stockade; and should one of them die in it, as is too often the
+case in the midst of the struggle, the difficulty of removing so great a
+carcase is extreme. The noosing and securing them, therefore, takes
+place in Ceylon within the area of the first enclosure into which they
+enter, and the dexterity and daring displayed in this portion of the
+work far surpasses that of merely attaching the rope through the
+openings of the paling, as in an Indian keddah.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is thus spelled by WOLF, in his _Life and Adventures_,
+p. 144. _Corral_ is at the present day a household word in South
+America, and especially in La Plata, to designate an _enclosure for
+cattle_.]
+
+One result of this change in the system is manifested in the increased
+proportion of healthy elephants which are eventually secured and trained
+out of the number originally enclosed. The reason of this is obvious:
+under the old arrangements, months were consumed in the preparatory
+steps of surrounding and driving in the herds, which at last arrived so
+wasted by excitement and exhausted by privation that numbers died within
+the corral itself, and still more died during the process of training.
+But in later years the labour of months is reduced to weeks, and the
+elephants are driven in fresh and full of vigour, so that comparatively
+few are lost either in the enclosure or the stables. A conception of the
+whole operation from commencement to end will be best conveyed by
+describing the progress of an elephant corral as I witnessed it in 1847
+in the great forest on the banks of the Alligator River, the Kimbul-oya,
+in the district of Kornegalle, about thirty miles north-west of Kandy.
+
+Kornegalle, or Kurunai-galle, was one of the ancient capitals of the
+island, and the residence of its kings from A.D. 1319 to 1347.[1] The
+dwelling-house of the principal civil officer in charge of the district
+now occupies the site of the former palace, and the ground is strewn
+with fragments of columns and carved stones, the remnants of the royal
+buildings. The modern town consists of the bungalows of the European
+officials, each surrounded with its own garden; two or three streets
+inhabited by Dutch descendants and by Moors; and a native bazaar, with
+the ordinary array of rice and curry stuffs and cooking chattees of
+brass or burnt clay.
+
+[Footnote 1: See SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, Vol. I. Pt. III. ch.
+xii. p. 415.]
+
+The charm of the village is the unusual beauty of its position. It rests
+within the shade of an enormous rock of gneiss upwards of 600 feet in
+height, nearly denuded of verdure, and so rounded and worn by time that
+it has acquired the form of a couchant elephant, from which it derives
+its name of Ætagalla, the Rock of the Tusker.[1] But Ætagalla is only
+the last eminence in a range of similarly-formed rocky mountains, which
+here terminate abruptly; and, which from the fantastic shapes into which
+their gigantic outlines have been wrought by the action of the
+atmosphere, are called by the names of the Tortoise Rock, the Eel Rock,
+and the Rock of the Tusked Elephant. So impressed are the Singhalese by
+the aspect of these stupendous masses that in ancient grants lands are
+conveyed in perpetuity, or "so long as the sun and the moon, so long as
+Ætagalla and Andagalla shall endure."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Another enormous mass of gneiss is called the
+Kuruminiagalla, or the Beetle-rock, from its resemblance in shape to the
+back of that insect, and hence is said to have been derived the name of
+the town, _Kuruna-galle_ or Kornegalle.]
+
+[Footnote 2: FORBES quotes a Tamil conveyance of land, the purchaser of
+which is to "possess and enjoy it as long as the sun and the moon, the
+earth and its vegetables, the mountains and the River Cauvery
+exist."--_Oriental Memoirs_, vol. ii. chap. ii. It will not fail to be
+observed, that the same figure was employed in Hebrew literature as a
+type of duration--" They shall fear thee, _so long as the sun and moon
+endure_; throughout all generations."--Psalm lxxii. 5, 17.]
+
+Kornegalle is the resort of Buddhists from the remotest parts of the
+island, who come to visit an ancient temple on the summit of the great
+rock, to which access is had from the valley below by means of steep
+paths and steps hewn out of the solid stone. Here the chief object of
+veneration is a copy of the sacred footstep hollowed in the granite,
+similar to that which confers sanctity on Adam's Peak, the towering apex
+of which, about forty miles distant, the pilgrims can discern from
+Ætagalla.
+
+At times the heat at Kornegalle is intense, in consequence of the
+perpetual glow diffused from these granite cliffs. The warmth they
+acquire during the blaze of noon becomes almost intolerable towards
+evening, and the sultry night is too short to permit them to cool
+between the setting and the rising of the sun. The district is also
+liable to occasional droughts when the watercourses fail, and the tanks
+are dried up. One of these calamities occurred about the period of my
+visit, and such was the suffering of the wild animals that numbers of
+crocodiles and bears made their way into the town to drink at the wells.
+The soil is prolific in the extreme; rice, cotton, and dry grain are
+cultivated largely in the valley. Every cottage is surrounded by gardens
+of coco-nuts, arecas, jak-fruit and coffee; the slopes, under tillage,
+are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and, as far as the eye can reach
+on every side, there are dense forests intersected by streams, in the
+shade of which the deer and the elephant abound.
+
+In 1847 arrangements were made for one of the great elephant hunts for
+the supply of the Civil Engineer's Department, and the spot fixed on by
+Mr. Morris, the Government officer who conducted the corral, was on the
+banks of the Kimbul river, about fifteen miles from Kornegalle. The
+country over which we rode to the scene of the approaching capture
+showed traces of the recent drought, the fields lay to a great extent
+untilled, owing to the want of water, and the tanks, almost reduced to
+dryness, were covered with the leaves of the rose-coloured lotus.
+
+Our cavalcade was as oriental as the scenery through which it moved; the
+Governor and the officers of his staff and household formed a long
+cortege, escorted by the native attendants, horse-keepers, and
+foot-runners. The ladies were borne in palankins, and the younger
+individuals of the party carried in chairs raised on poles, and covered
+with cool green awnings made of the fresh leaves of the talipat palm.
+
+After traversing the cultivated lands, the path led across open glades
+of park-like verdure and beauty, and at last entered the great-forest
+under the shade of ancient trees wreathed to their crowns with climbing
+plants and festooned by natural garlands of convolvulus and orchids.
+Here silence reigned, disturbed only by the murmuring hum of glittering
+insects, or the shrill clamour of the plum-headed parroquet and the
+flute-like calls of the golden oriole.
+
+We crossed the broad sandy beds of two rivers over-arched by tall trees,
+the most conspicuous of which is the Kombook[1], from the calcined bark
+of which the natives extract a species of lime to be used with their
+betel. And from the branches hung suspended over the water the gigantic
+pods of the huge puswæl bean[2], the sheath of which measures six feet
+long by five or six inches broad.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Pentaptera paniculata_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Entada pursætha_.]
+
+On ascending the steep bank of the second stream, we found ourselves in
+front of the residences which had been extemporised for our party in the
+immediate vicinity of the corral. These cool and enjoyable structures
+were formed of branches and thatched with palm leaves and fragrant lemon
+grass; and in addition to a dining-room and suites of bedrooms fitted
+with tent furniture, they included kitchens, stables, and storerooms,
+all run up by the natives in the course of a few days.
+
+In former times, the work connected with these elephant hunts was
+performed by the "forced labour" of the natives, as part of that feudal
+service which under the name of Raja-kariya was extorted from the
+Singhalese during the rule of their native sovereigns. This system was
+continued by the Portuguese and Dutch, and prevailed under the British
+Government till its abolition by the Earl of Ripon in 1832. Under it
+from fifteen hundred to two thousand men superintended by their headmen,
+used to be occupied, in constructing the corral, collecting the
+elephants, maintaining the cordon of watch-fires and watchers, and
+conducting all the laborious operations of the capture. Since the
+abolition of Raja-kariya, however, no difficulty has been found in
+obtaining the voluntary co-operation of the natives on these exciting
+occasions. The government defrays the expense of that portion of the
+preparations which involves actual cost,--for the skilled labour
+expended in the erection of the corral and its appurtenances, and the
+providing of spears, ropes, arms, flutes, drums, gunpowder, and other
+necessaries for the occasion.
+
+The period of the year selected is that which least interferes with the
+cultivation of the rice-lands (in the interval between seed time and
+harvest), and the people themselves, in addition to the excitement and
+enjoyment of the sport, have a personal interest in reducing the number
+of elephants, which inflict serious injury on their gardens and growing
+crops. For a similar reason the priests encourage the practice, because
+the elephants destroy their sacred Bo-trees, of the leaves of which they
+are passionately fond; besides which it promotes the facility for
+obtaining elephants for the processions of the temples: and the
+Rata-mahat-mayas and headmen have a pride in exhibiting the number of
+retainers who follow them to the field, and the performances of the tame
+elephants which they lend for the business of the corral. Thus vast
+numbers of the peasantry are voluntarily occupied for many weeks in
+putting up the stockades, cutting paths through the jungle, and
+relieving the beaters who are engaged in surrounding and driving in the
+elephants.
+
+In selecting the scene for the hunt a position is chosen which lies on
+some old and frequented route of the animals, in their periodical
+migrations in search of forage and water; and the vicinity of a stream
+is indispensable, not only for the supply of the elephants during the
+time spent in inducing them to approach the enclosure, but to enable
+them to bathe and cool themselves throughout the process of training
+after capture.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF A CORRAL, AND METHOD OF FENCING IT.]
+
+In constructing the corral itself, care is taken to avoid disturbing the
+trees or the brushwood within the included space, and especially on the
+side by which the elephants are to approach, where it is essential to
+conceal the stockade as much as possible by the density of the foliage.
+The trees used in the structure are from ten to twelve inches in
+diameter; and are sunk about three feet in the earth, so as to leave a
+length of from twelve to fifteen feet above ground; with spaces between
+each stanchion sufficiently wide to permit a man to glide through. The
+uprights are made fast by transverse beams, to which they are lashed
+securely by ratans and flexible climbing plants, or as they are called
+"jungle ropes," and the whole is steadied by means of forked supports,
+which grasp the tie beams, and prevent the work from being driven
+outward by the rush of the wild elephants.
+
+On the occasion I am now attempting to describe, the space thus enclosed
+was about 500 feet in length by 250 wide. At one end an entrance was
+left open, fitted with sliding bars, so prepared as to be capable of
+being instantly shut;--and from each angle of the end by which the
+elephants were to approach, two lines of the same strong fencing were
+continued, and cautiously concealed by the trees; so that if, instead of
+entering by the open passage, the herd should swerve to right, or left,
+they would find themselves suddenly stopped and forced to retrace their
+course to the gate.
+
+The preparations were completed by placing a stage for the Governor's
+party on a group of the nearest trees looking down into the enclosure,
+so that a view could be had of the entire proceeding, from the entrance
+of the herd, to the leading out of the captive elephants.
+
+It is hardly necessary to observe that the structure here described,
+massive as it is, would be entirely ineffectual to resist the shock, if
+assaulted by the full force of an enraged elephant; and accidents have
+sometimes happened by the breaking through of the herd; but reliance is
+placed not so much on the resistance of the stockade as on the timidity
+of the captives and their unconsciousness of their own strength, coupled
+with the daring of their captors and their devices for ensuring
+submission.
+
+The corral being prepared, the beaters address themselves to drive in
+the elephants. For this purpose it is often necessary to fetch a circuit
+of many miles in order to surround a sufficient number, and the caution
+to be observed involves patience and delay; as it is essential to avoid
+alarming the elephants, which might otherwise escape. Their disposition
+being essentially peaceful, and their only impulse to browse in solitude
+and security, they withdraw instinctively before the slightest
+intrusion, and advantage is taken of this timidity and love of seclusion
+to cause only just such an amount of disturbance as will induce them to
+return slowly in the direction which it is desired they should take.
+Several herds are by this means concentrated within such an area as will
+admit of their being completely surrounded by the watchers; and day
+after day, by degrees, they are moved gradually onwards to the immediate
+confines of the corral. When their suspicions become awakened and they
+exhibit restlessness and alarm, bolder measures are adopted for
+preventing their escape. Fires are kept burning at ten paces apart,
+night and day, along the circumference of the area within which they are
+detained; a corps of from two to three thousand beaters is completed,
+and pathways are carefully cleared through the jungle so as to keep open
+a communication along the entire circuit. The headmen keep up a constant
+patrol, to see that their followers are alert at their posts, since
+neglect at any one spot might permit the escape of the herd, and undo in
+a moment the vigilance of weeks. By this means any attempt of the
+elephants to break away is generally checked, and on any point
+threatened a sufficient force can be promptly assembled to drive them
+back. At last the elephants are forced onwards so close to the
+enclosure, that the investing cordon is united at either end with the
+wings of the corral, the whole forming a circle of about two miles,
+within the area of which the herd is detained to await the signal for
+the final drive.
+
+Two months had been spent in these preliminaries, and the preparations
+had been thus far completed, on the day when we arrived and took our
+places on the stage erected for us, overlooking the entrance to the
+corral. Close beneath us a group of tame elephants sent by the temples
+and the chiefs to assist in securing the wild ones, were picketed in the
+shade, and lazily fanning themselves with leaves. Three distinct herds,
+whose united numbers were variously represented at from forty to fifty
+elephants, were enclosed, and were at that moment concealed in the
+jungle within a short distance of the stockade. Not a sound was
+permitted to be made, each person spoke to his neighbour in whispers,
+and such was the silence observed by the multitude of the watchers at
+their posts, that occasionally we could hear the rustling of the
+branches as some of the elephants stripped off a leaf.
+
+Suddenly the signal was made, and the stillness of the forest was broken
+by the shouts of the guard, the rolling of the drums and tom-toms, and
+the discharge of muskets; and beginning at the most distant side of the
+area, the elephants were urged forward at a rapid pace towards the
+entrance into the corral.
+
+The watchers along the line kept silence only till the herd had passed
+them, and then joining the cry in their rear they drove them onward with
+redoubled shouts and noises. The tumult increased as the terrified rout
+drew near, swelling now on one side now on the other, as the herd in
+their panic dashed from point to point in their endeavours to force the
+line, but they were instantly driven back by screams, muskets, and
+drums.
+
+At length the breaking of the branches and the crackling of the
+brushwood announced their close approach, and the leader bursting from
+the jungle rushed wildly forward to within twenty yards of the entrance
+followed by the rest of the herd. Another moment and they would have
+plunged into the open gate, when suddenly they wheeled round, re-entered
+the forest, and in spite of the hunters resumed their original position.
+The chief headman came forward and accounted for the freak by saying
+that a wild pig[1], an animal which the elephants are said to dislike,
+had started out of the cover and run across the leader, who would
+otherwise have held on direct for the corral; and intimated that as the
+herd was now in the highest pitch of excitement: and it was at all times
+much more difficult to effect a successful capture by daylight than by
+night when the fires and flambeaux act with double effect, it was the
+wish of the hunters to defer their final effort till the evening, when
+the darkness would greatly aid their exertions.
+
+[Footnote 1: Fire, the sound of a horn, and the grunting of a boar are
+the three things which the Greeks, in the middle ages, believed the
+elephant specially to dislike:
+
+  [Greek:
+  Pyr de ptoeitai kai krion kerasphoron,
+  Kai tôn moniôn tên boên tên athroan.]
+
+    --PHILE, _Expositio de Elephante_, 1. 177.]
+
+After sunset the scene exhibited was of extraordinary interest; the low
+fires, which had apparently only smouldered in the sunlight, assumed
+their ruddy glow amidst the darkness, and threw their tinge over the
+groups collected round them; while the smoke rose in eddies through the
+rich foliage of the trees. The crowds of spectators maintained a
+profound silence, and not a sound was perceptible beyond the hum of an
+insect. On a sudden the stillness was broken by the distant roll of a
+drum, followed by a discharge of musketry. This was the signal for the
+renewed assault, and the hunters entered the circle with shouts and
+clamour; dry leaves and sticks were flung upon the watch-fires till they
+blazed aloft, and formed a line of flame on every side, except in the
+direction of the corral, which was studiously kept dark; and thither the
+terrified elephants betook themselves, followed by the yells and racket
+of their pursuers.
+
+The elephants approached at a rapid pace, trampling down the brushwood
+and crushing the dry branches; the leader emerged in front of the
+corral, paused for an instant, stared wildly round, and then rushed
+headlong through the open gate, followed by the rest of the herd.
+Instantly, as if by magic, the entire circuit of the corral, which up to
+this moment had been kept in profound darkness, blazed with thousands of
+lights, every hunter on the instant that the elephants entered, rushing
+forward to the stockade with a torch kindled at the nearest watch-fire.
+
+The elephants first dashed to the very extremity of the enclosure, and
+being brought up by the fence, retreated to regain the gate, but found
+it closed. Their terror was sublime: they hurried round the corral at a
+rapid pace, but saw it now girt by fire on every side; they attempted to
+force the stockade, but were driven back by the guards with spears and
+flambeaux; and on whichever side they approached they were repulsed with
+shouts and volleys of musketry. Collecting into one group, they would
+pause for a moment in apparent bewilderment, then burst off in another
+direction, as if it had suddenly occurred to them to try some point
+which they had before overlooked; but again baffled, they slowly
+returned to their forlorn resting-place in the centre of the corral.
+
+The attraction of this strange scene was not confined to the spectators;
+it extended to the tame elephants which were stationed outside. At the
+first approach of the flying herd they evinced the utmost interest. Two
+in particular which were picketed near the front were intensely excited,
+and continued tossing their heads, pawing the ground, and starting as
+the noise drew near. At length, when the grand rush into the corral took
+place, one of them fairly burst from her fastenings and rushed towards
+the herd, levelling a tree of considerable size which obstructed her
+passage.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The other elephant, a fine tusker, which belonged to
+Dehigam Ratamahatmeya, continued in extreme excitement throughout all
+the subsequent operations of the capture, and at last, after attempting
+to break its way into the corral, shaking the bars with its forehead and
+tusks, it went off in a state of frenzy into the jungle. A few days
+after the Aratchy went in search of it with a female decoy, and watching
+its approach, sprang fairly on the infuriated beast, with a pair of
+sharp hooks in his hands, which he pressed into tender parts in front of
+the shoulder, and thus held the elephant firmly till chains were passed
+over its legs, and it permitted itself to be led quietly away.]
+
+For upwards of an hour the elephants continued to traverse the corral
+and assail the palisade with unabated energy, trumpeting and screaming
+with rage after each disappointment. Again and again they attempted to
+force the gate, as if aware, by experience, that it ought to afford an
+exit as it had already served as an entrance, but they shrank back
+stunned and bewildered. By degrees their efforts became less and less
+frequent. Single ones rushed excitedly here and there, returning
+sullenly to their companions after each effort; and at last the whole
+herd, stupified and exhausted, formed themselves into a single group,
+drawn up in a circle with the young in the centre, and stood motionless
+under the dark shade of the trees in the middle of the corral.
+
+Preparations were now made to keep watch during the night, the guard was
+reinforced around the enclosure, and wood heaped on the fires to keep up
+a high flame till sunrise.
+
+Three herds had been originally entrapped by the beaters outside; but
+with characteristic instinct they had each kept clear of the other,
+taking up different stations in the space invested by the watchers. When
+the final drive took place one herd only had entered the enclosure, the
+other two keeping behind; and as the gate had to be instantly shut on
+the first division, the last were unavoidably excluded and remained
+concealed in the jungle. To prevent their escape, the watchers were
+ordered to their former stations, the fires were replenished; and all
+precautions having been taken, we returned to pass the night in our
+bungalows by the river.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Captives._
+
+As our sleeping-place was not above two hundred yards from the corral,
+we were frequently awakened by the din of the multitude who were
+bivouacking in the forest, by the merriment round the watch-fires, and
+now and then by the shouts with which the guards repulsed some sudden
+charge of the elephants in attempts to force the stockade. But at
+daybreak, on going down to the corral, we found all still and vigilant.
+The fires were allowed to die out as the sun rose, and the watchers who
+had been relieved were sleeping near the great fence, the enclosure on
+all sides being surrounded by crowds of men and boys with spears or
+white peeled wands about ten feet long, whilst the elephants within were
+huddled together in a compact group, no longer turbulent and restless,
+but exhausted and calm, and utterly subdued by apprehension and
+amazement at all that had been passing around them.
+
+Nine only had been as yet entrapped[1], of which three were very large,
+and two were little creatures but a few months old. One of the large
+ones was a "rogue" and being unassociated with the rest of the herd, he
+was not admitted to their circle, although permitted to stand near them.
+
+[Footnote 1: In some of the elephant hunts conducted in the southern
+provinces of Ceylon by the earlier British Governors, as many as 170 and
+200 elephants were secured in a single corral, of which a portion only
+were taken out for the public service, and the rest shot, the motive
+being to rid the neighbourhood of them, and thus protect the crops from
+destruction. In the present instance, the object being to secure only as
+many as were required for the Government stud, it was not sought to
+entrap more than could conveniently be attended to and trained after
+capture.]
+
+Meanwhile, preparations were making outside to conduct the tame
+elephants into the corral, in order to secure the captives. Noosed ropes
+were in readiness; and far apart from all stood a party of the out-caste
+Rodiyas, the only tribe who will touch a dead carcase, to whom,
+therefore, the duty is assigned of preparing the fine flexible rope for
+noosing, which is made from the fresh hides of the deer and the buffalo.
+
+At length, the bars which secured the entrance to the corral were
+cautiously withdrawn, and two trained elephants passed stealthily in,
+each ridden by its mahout (or _ponnekella_, as the keeper is termed in
+Ceylon), and one attendant; and, carrying a strong collar, formed by
+coils of rope made from coco-nut fibre, from which hung on either side
+cords of elk's hide, prepared with a ready noose. Along with these, and
+concealed behind them, the headman of the "_cooroowe_," or noosers,
+crept in, eager to secure the honour of taking the first elephant, a
+distinction which this class jealously contests with the mahouts of the
+chiefs and temples. He was a wiry little man, nearly seventy years old,
+who had served in the same capacity under the Kandyan king, and wore two
+silver bangles, which had been conferred on him in testimony of his
+prowess. He was accompanied by his son, named Ranghanie, equally
+renowned for his courage and dexterity.
+
+On this occasion ten tame elephants were in attendance; two were the
+property of an adjoining temple (one of which had been caught but the
+year before, yet it was now ready to assist in capturing others), four
+belonged to the neighbouring chiefs, and the rest, including the two
+which first entered the corral, were part of the Government stud. Of the
+latter, one was of prodigious age, having been in the service of the
+Dutch and English Governments in succession for upwards of a century.[1]
+The other, called by her keeper "Siribeddi," was about fifty years old,
+and distinguished for gentleness and docility. She was a most
+accomplished decoy, and evinced the utmost relish for the sport. Having
+entered the corral noiselessly, carrying a mahout on her shoulders with
+the headman of the noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly along
+with a sly composure and an assumed air of easy indifference; sauntering
+leisurely in the direction of the captives, and halting now and then to
+pluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As she approached
+the herd, they put themselves in motion to meet her, and the leader,
+having advanced in front and passed his trunk gently over her head,
+turned and paced slowly back to his dejected companions. Siribeddi
+followed with the same listless step, and drew herself up close behind
+him, thus affording the nooser an opportunity to stoop under her and
+slip the noose over the hind foot of the wild one. The latter instantly
+perceived his danger, shook off the rope, and turned to attack the man.
+He would have suffered for his temerity had not Siribeddi protected him
+by raising her trunk and driving the assailant into the midst of the
+herd, when the old man, being slightly wounded, was helped out of the
+corral, and his son, Ranghanie, took his place.
+
+[Footnote 1: This elephant is since dead; she grew infirm and diseased,
+and died at Colombo in 1848. Her skeleton is now in the Museum of the
+Natural History Society at Belfast.]
+
+The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads towards the
+centre. The largest male was singled out, and two tame ones pushed
+boldly in, one on either side of him, till the three stood nearly
+abreast. He made no resistance, but betrayed his uneasiness by shifting
+restlessly from foot to foot. Ranghanie now crept up, and, holding the
+rope open with both hands (its other extremity being made fast to
+Siribeddi's collar), and watching the instant when the wild elephant
+lifted its hind-foot, succeeded in passing the noose over its leg, drew
+it close, and fled to the rear. The two tame elephants instantly fell
+back, Siribeddi stretched the rope to its full length, and, whilst she
+dragged out the captive, her companion placed himself between her and
+the herd to prevent any interference.
+
+In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn backwards some twenty
+or thirty yards, making furious resistance, bellowing in terror,
+plunging on all sides, and crushing the smaller timber, which bent like
+reeds beneath his clumsy struggles. Siribeddi drew him steadily after
+her, and wound the rope round the proper tree, holding it all the time
+at its full tension, and stepping cautiously across it when, in order to
+give it a second turn, it was necessary to pass between the tree and the
+elephant. With a coil round the stem, however, it was beyond her
+strength to haul the prisoner close up, which was, nevertheless,
+necessary in order to make him perfectly fast; but the second tame one,
+perceiving the difficulty, returned from the herd, confronted the
+struggling prisoner, pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head,
+forcing him backwards, whilst at every step Siribeddi hauled in the
+slackened rope till she brought him fairly up to the foot of the tree,
+where he was made fast by the cooroowe people. A second noose was then
+passed over the other hind-leg, and secured like the first, both legs
+being afterwards hobbled together by ropes made from the fibre of the
+kitool or jaggery palm, which, being more flexible than that of the
+coco-nut, occasions less formidable ulcerations. The two decoys then
+ranged themselves, as before, abreast of the prisoner on either side,
+thus enabling Ranghanie to stoop under them and noose the two fore-feet
+as he had already done the hind; and these ropes being made fast to a
+tree in front, the capture was complete, and the tame elephants and
+keepers withdrew to repeat the operation on another of the herd.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As long as the tame ones stood beside him the poor animal remained
+comparatively calm and almost passive under his distress, but the moment
+they moved off, and he was left utterly alone, he made the most
+surprising efforts to set himself free and rejoin his companions. He
+felt the ropes with his trunk and tried to untie the numerous knots; he
+drew backwards to liberate his fore-legs, then leaned forward to
+extricate the hind ones, till every branch of the tall tree vibrated
+with his struggles. He screamed in anguish, with his proboscis raised
+high in the air, then falling on his side he laid his head to the
+ground, first his cheek and then his brow, and pressed down his
+doubled-in trunk as though he would force it into the earth; then
+suddenly rising he balanced himself on his forehead and forelegs,
+holding his hind-feet fairly off the ground. This scene of distress
+continued some hours, with occasional pauses of apparent stupor, after
+which the struggle was from time to time renewed convulsively, and as if
+by some sudden impulse; but at last the vain strife subsided, and the
+poor animal remained perfectly motionless, the image of exhaustion and
+despair.
+
+Meanwhile Ranghanie presented himself in front of the governor's stage
+to claim the accustomed largesse for tying the first elephant. He was
+rewarded by a shower of rupees, and retired to resume his perilous
+duties in the corral.
+
+The rest of the herd were now in a state of pitiable dejection, and
+pressed closely together as if under a sense of common misfortune. For
+the most part they stood at rest in a compact body, fretful and uneasy.
+At intervals one more impatient than the rest would move out a few steps
+to reconnoitre; the others would follow at first slowly, then at a
+quicker pace, and at last the whole herd would rush off furiously to
+renew the often-baffled attempt to storm the stockade.
+
+There was a strange combination of the sublime and the ridiculous in
+these abortive onsets; the appearance of prodigious power in their
+ponderous limbs, coupled with the almost ludicrous shuffle of their
+clumsy gait, and the fury of their apparently resistless charge,
+converted in an instant into timid retreat. They rushed madly down the
+enclosure, their backs arched, their tails extended, their ears spread,
+and their trunks raised high above their heads, trumpeting and uttering
+shrill screams, yet when one step further would have dashed the opposing
+fence into fragments, they stopped short on a few white rods being
+pointed at them through the paling[1]; and, on catching the derisive
+shouts of the crowd, they turned in utter discomfiture, and after an
+objectless circle or two through the corral, they paced slowly back to
+their melancholy halting place in the shade.
+
+[Footnote 1: The fact of the elephant exhibiting timidity, on having a
+long rod pointed towards him, was known to the Romans; and PLINY,
+quoting from the annals of PISO, relates, that in order to inculcate
+contempt for want of courage in the elephant, they were introduced into
+the circus during the triumph of METELLUS, after the conquest of the
+Carthaginians in Sicily, and _driven round the area by workmen holding
+blunted spears_,--"Ab operariis hastas præpilatas habentibus, per circum
+totam actos."--Lib. viii. c. 6.]
+
+The crowd, chiefly comprised of young men and boys, exhibited
+astonishing nerve and composure at such moments, rushing up to the point
+towards which the elephants charged, pointing their wands at their
+trunks, and keeping up the continual cry of _whoop! whoop!_ which
+invariably turned them to flight.
+
+The second victim singled out from the herd was secured in the same
+manner as the first. It was a female. The tame ones forced themselves in
+on either side as before, cutting her off from her companions, whilst
+Ranghanie stooped under them and attached the fatal noose, and Siribeddi
+dragged her out amidst unavailing struggles, when she was made fast by
+each leg to the nearest group of strong trees. When the noose was placed
+upon her fore-foot, she seized it with her trunk, and succeeded in
+carrying it to her mouth, where she would speedily have severed it had
+not a tame elephant interfered, and placing his foot on the rope pressed
+it downwards out of her jaws. The individuals who acted as leaders in
+the successive charges on the palisades were always those selected by
+the noosers, and the operation of tying each, from the first approaches
+of the decoys, till the captive was left alone by the tree, occupied on
+an average somewhat less than three-quarters of an hour.
+
+It is strange that in these encounters the wild elephants made no
+attempt to attack or dislodge the mahouts or the cooroowes, who rode on
+the tame ones. They moved in the very midst of the herd, any individual
+in which could in a moment have pulled the riders from their seats; but
+no effort was made to molest them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "In a corral, to be on a tame elephant, seems to insure
+perfect immunity from the attacks of the wild ones. I once saw the old
+chief Mollegodde ride in amongst a herd of wild elephants, on a small
+elephant; so small that the Adigar's head was on a level the back of the
+wild animals: I felt very nervous, but he rode right in among them, and
+received not the slightest molestation."--_Letter from_ MAJOR SKINNER.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As one after another their leaders wore entrapped and forced away from
+them, the remainder of the group evinced increased emotion and
+excitement; but whatever may have been their sympathy for their lost
+companions, their alarm seemed to prevent them at first from following
+them to the trees to which they had been tied. In passing them
+afterwards they sometimes stopped, mutually entwined their trunks,
+lapped them round each other's limbs and neck, and exhibited the most
+touching distress at their detention, but made no attempt to disturb the
+cords that bound them.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The variety of disposition in the herd as evidenced by difference of
+demeanour was very remarkable: some submitted with comparatively little
+resistance; whilst others in their fury dashed themselves on the ground
+with a force sufficient to destroy any weaker animal. They vented their
+rage upon every tree and plant within reach; if small enough to be torn
+down, they levelled them with their trunks, and stripping them of their
+leaves and branches, they tossed them wildly over their heads on all
+sides. Some in their struggles made no sound, whilst others bellowed and
+trumpeted furiously, then uttered short convulsive screams, and at last,
+exhausted and hopeless, gave vent to their anguish in low and piteous
+moanings. Some, after a few violent efforts of this kind, lay motionless
+on the ground, with no other indication of suffering than the tears
+which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly. Others in all the
+vigour of their rage exhibited the most surprising contortions; and to
+us who had been accustomed to associate with the unwieldy bulk of the
+elephant the idea that he must of necessity be stiff and inflexible, the
+attitudes into which they forced themselves were almost incredible. I
+saw one lie with the cheek pressed to the earth, and the fore-legs
+stretched in front, whilst the body was twisted round till the hind-legs
+extended in the opposite direction.
+
+It was astonishing that their trunks were not wounded by the violence
+with which they flung them on all sides. One twisted his proboscis into
+such fantastic shapes, that it resembled the writhings of a gigantic
+worm; he coiled it and uncoiled it with restless rapidity, curling it up
+like a watch-spring, and suddenly unfolding it again to its full length.
+Another, which lay otherwise motionless in all the stupor of hopeless
+anguish, slowly beat the ground with the extremity of his trunk, as a
+man in despair beats his knee with the palm of his hand.
+
+They displayed an amount of sensitiveness and delicacy of touch in the
+foot, which was very remarkable in a limb of such clumsy dimensions and
+protected by so thick a covering. The noosers could always force them to
+lift it from the ground by the gentlest touch of a leaf or twig,
+apparently applied so as to tickle; but the imposition of the rope was
+instantaneously perceived, and if it could not be reached by the trunk
+the other foot was applied to feel its position, and if possible remove
+it before the noose could be drawn tight.
+
+One practice was incessant with almost the entire herd: in the interval
+between their struggles they beat the ground with their fore feet, and
+taking up the dry earth in a coil of the trunk, they flung it
+dexterously over every part of their body. Even when lying down, the
+sand within reach was thus collected and scattered over their limbs:
+then inserting the extremity of the trunk in their mouths, they withdrew
+a quantity of water, which they discharged over their backs, repeating
+the operation again and again, till the dust was thoroughly saturated. I
+was astonished at the quantity of water thus applied, which was
+sufficient when the elephant, as was generally the case, had worked the
+spot where he lay into a hollow, to convert its surface into a coating
+of mud. Seeing that the herd had been now twenty-four hours without
+access to water of any kind, surrounded by watch-fires, and exhausted by
+struggling and terror, the supply of moisture an elephant is capable of
+containing in the receptacle attached to his stomach must be very
+considerable.
+
+The conduct of the tame ones during all these proceedings was truly
+wonderful. They displayed the most perfect conception of every movement,
+both of the object to be attained, and of the means to accomplish it.
+
+They manifested the utmost enjoyment in what was going on. There was no
+ill-humour, no malignity in the spirit displayed, in what was otherwise
+a heartless proceeding, but they set about it in a way that showed a
+thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime. Their caution was as
+remarkable as their sagacity; there was no hurrying, no contusion, they
+never ran foul of the ropes, were never in the way of the animals
+already noosed; and amidst the most violent struggles, when the tame
+ones had frequently to step across the captives, they in no instance
+trampled on them, or occasioned the slightest accident or annoyance. So
+far from this, they saw intuitively a difficulty or a danger, and
+addressed themselves unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of the
+larger elephants, he contrived before he could be hauled close up to the
+tree, to walk once or twice round it, carrying the rope with him; the
+decoy, perceiving the advantage he had thus gained over the nooser,
+walked up of her own accord, and pushed him backwards with her head,
+till she made him unwind himself again; upon which the rope was hauled
+tight and made fast. More than once, when a wild one was extending his
+trunk, and would have intercepted the rope about to be placed over his
+leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own trunk, pushed his aside,
+and prevented him; and on one occasion, when successive efforts had
+failed to put the noose over the fore-leg of an elephant which was
+already secured by one foot, but which wisely put the other to the
+ground as often as it was attempted to pass the noose under it, I saw
+the decoy watch her opportunity, and when his foot was again raised,
+suddenly push in her own leg beneath it, and hold it up till the noose
+was attached and drawn tight.
+
+One could almost fancy there was a display of dry humour in the manner
+in which the decoys thus played with the fears of the wild herd, and
+made light of their efforts at resistance. When reluctant they shoved
+them forward, when violent they drove them back; when the wild ones
+threw themselves down, the tame ones butted them with head and
+shoulders, and forced them up again. And when it was necessary to keep
+them down, they knelt upon them, and prevented them from rising, till
+the ropes were secured.
+
+At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with a bunch of
+leaves, and the graceful ease with which an elephant uses his trunk on
+such occasions is very striking. It is doubtless owing to the
+combination of a circular with a horizontal movement in that flexible
+limb; but it is impossible to see an elephant fanning himself without
+being struck by the singular elegance of motion which he displays. The
+tame ones, too, indulged in the luxury of dusting themselves with sand,
+by flinging it from their trunks; but it was a curious illustration of
+their delicate sagacity, that so long as the mahout was on their necks,
+they confined themselves to flinging the dust along their sides and
+stomach, as if aware, that to throw it over their heads and back would
+cause annoyance to their riders.
+
+One of the decoys which rendered good service, and was obviously held in
+special awe by the wild herd, was a tusker belonging to Dehigame
+Rata-mahatmeya. It was not that he used his tusks for purposes of
+offence, but he was enabled to insinuate himself between two elephants
+by wedging them in where he could not force his head; besides which they
+assisted him in raising up the fallen and refractory with greater ease.
+In some instances where the intervention of the other decoys failed to
+reduce a wild one to order, the mere presence and approach of the tusker
+seemed to inspire fear, and insure submission, without more active
+intervention.
+
+I do not know whether it was the surprising qualities exhibited by the
+tame elephants that cast the courage and dexterity of the men into the
+shade, but even when supported by the presence, the sagacity, and
+co-operation of these wonderful creatures, the part sustained by the
+noosers can bear no comparison with the address and daring displayed by
+the _pícador_ and _matador_ in a Spanish bull-fight. They certainly
+possessed great quickness of eye in watching the slightest movement of
+the elephant, and great expertness in flinging the noose over its foot
+and attaching it firmly before the animal could tear it off with its
+trunk; but in all this they had the cover of the decoys to conceal them;
+and their shelter behind which to retreat. Apart from the services
+which, from their prodigious strength, the tame elephants are alone
+capable of rendering, in dragging out and securing the captives, it is
+perfectly obvious that without their co-operation the utmost prowess and
+dexterity of the hunters would not avail them, unsupported, to enter the
+corral and ensnare and lead out a single captive.
+
+Of the two tiny elephants which were entrapped, one was about ten months
+old, the other somewhat more. The smaller one had a little bolt head
+covered with woolly brown hair, and was the most amusing and interesting
+miniature imaginable. Both kept constantly with the herd, trotting after
+them in every charge; when the others stood at rest they ran in and out
+between the legs of the older ones; and not their own mothers alone, but
+every female in the group caressed them in turn.
+
+The dam of the youngest was the second elephant singled out by the
+noosers, and as she was dragged along by the decoys, the little creature
+kept by her side till she was drawn close to the fatal tree. The men at
+first were rather amused than otherwise by its anger; but they found
+that it would not permit them to place the second noose upon its mother;
+it ran between her and them, it tried to seize the rope, it pushed them
+and struck them with its little trunk, till they were forced to drive it
+back to the herd. It retreated slowly, shouting all the way, and pausing
+at every step to look back. It then attached itself to the largest
+female remaining in the group, and placed itself across her forelegs,
+whilst she hung down her trunk over its side and soothed and caressed
+it. Here it continued moaning and lamenting; till the noosers had left
+off securing its mother, when it instantly returned to her side; but as
+it became troublesome again, attacking every one who passed, it was at
+last tied up by a rope to an adjoining tree, to which the other young
+one was also tied. The second little one, equally with its playmate,
+exhibited great affection for its dam; it went willingly with its captor
+as far as the tree to which she was fastened, and in passing her
+stretched out its trunk and tried to rejoin her; but finding itself
+forced along, it caught at every twig and branch within its reach, and
+screamed with grief and disappointment.
+
+These two little creatures were the most vociferous of the whole herd,
+their shouts were incessant, they struggled to attack every one within
+reach; and as their bodies were more lithe and pliant than those of
+greater growth, their contortions were quite wonderful. The most amusing
+thing was, that in the midst of all their agony and affliction, the
+little fellows seized on every article of food that was thrown to them,
+and ate and roared simultaneously.
+
+Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the rogue. Though far more
+savage than the others, he joined in none of their charges and assaults
+on the fences, as they uniformly drove him off and would not permit him
+to enter their circle. When dragged past another of his companions in
+misfortune, who was lying exhausted on the ground, he flew upon him and
+attempted to fasten his teeth in his head; this was the only instance of
+viciousness which occurred during the progress of the corral. When tied
+up and overpowered, he was at first noisy and violent, but soon lay down
+peacefully, a sign, according to the hunters, that his death was at
+hand. Their prognostication was correct; he continued for about twelve
+hours to cover himself with dust like the others, and to moisten it with
+water from his trunk; but at length he lay exhausted, and died so
+calmly, that having been moving but a few moment before, his death was
+only perceived by the myriads of black flies by which his body was
+almost instantly covered, although not one was visible a moment
+before.[1] The Rodiyas were called in to loose the ropes that bound him,
+from the tree, and two tame elephants being harnessed to the dead body,
+it was dragged to a distance without the corral.
+
+[Footnote 1: The surprising faculty of vultures for discovering carrion,
+has been a subject of much speculation, as to whether it be dependent on
+their power of sight or of scent. It is not, however, more mysterious
+than the unerring certainty and rapidity with which some of the minor
+animals, and more especially insects, in warm climates congregate around
+the offal on which they feed. Circumstanced as they are, they must be
+guided towards their object mainly if not exclusively by the sense of
+smell; but that which excites astonishment is the small degree of odour
+which seems to suffice for the purpose; the subtlety and rapidity with
+which it traverses and impregnates the air; and the keen and quick
+perception with which it is taken up by the organs of those creatures.
+The instance of the scavenger beetles has been already alluded to; the
+promptitude with which they discern the existence of matter suited to
+their purposes, and the speed with which they hurry to it from all
+directions; often from distances as extraordinary, proportionably, as
+those traversed by the eye of the vulture. In the instance of the dying
+elephant referred to above, life was barely extinct when the flies, of
+which not one was visible but a moment before, arrived in clouds and
+blackened the body by their multitude; scarcely an instant was allowed
+to elapse for the commencement of decomposition; no odour of
+putrefaction could be discerned by us who stood close by; yet some
+peculiar smell of mortality, simultaneously with parting breath, must
+have summoned them to the feast. Ants exhibit an instinct equally
+surprising. I have sometimes covered up a particle of refined sugar with
+paper on the centre of a polished table; and counted the number of
+minutes which would elapse before it was fastened on by the small black
+ants of Ceylon, and a line formed to lower it safely to the floor. Here
+was a substance which, to our apprehension at least, is altogether
+inodorous, and yet the quick sense of smell must have been the only
+conductor of the ants. It has been observed of those fishes which travel
+overland on the evaporation of the ponds in which they live, that they
+invariably march in the direction of the nearest water, and even when
+captured, and placed on the floor of a room, their efforts to escape are
+always made towards the same point. Is the sense of smell sufficient to
+account for this display of instinct in them? or is it aided by special
+organs in the case of the others? Dr. MCGEE, formerly of the Royal Navy,
+writing to me on the subject of the instant appearance of flies in the
+vicinity of dead bodies, says: "In warm climates they do not wait for
+death to invite them to the banquet. In Jamaica I have again and again
+seen them settle on a patient, and hardly to be driven away by the
+nurse, the patient himself saying. 'Here are these flies coming to eat
+me ere I am dead.' At times they have enabled the doctor, when otherwise
+he would have been in doubt as to his prognosis, to determine whether
+the strange apyretic interval occasionally present in the last stage of
+yellow fever was the fatal lull or the lull of recovery; and 'What say
+the flies?' has been the settling question. Among many, many cases
+during a long period I have seen but one recovery after the assembling
+of the flies. I consider the foregoing as a confirmation of smell being
+the guide even to the attendants, a cadaverous smell has been perceived
+to arise from the body of a patient twenty-four hours before death."]
+
+When every wild elephant had been noosed and tied up, the scene
+presented was truly oriental. From one to two thousand natives, many of
+them in gaudy dresses and armed with spears, crowded about the
+enclosures. Their families had collected to see the spectacle; women,
+whose children clung like little bronzed Cupids by their sides; and
+girls, many of them in the graceful costume of that part of the
+country,--a scarf, which, after having been brought round the waist, is
+thrown over the left shoulder, leaving the right arm and side free and
+uncovered.
+
+At the foot of each tree was its captive elephant; some still struggling
+and writhing in feverish excitement, whilst others, in exhaustion and
+despair, lay motionless, except that, from time to time, they heaped
+fresh dust upon their heads. The mellow notes of a Kandyan flute, which
+was played at a distance, had a striking effect upon one or more of
+them; they turned their heads in the direction from which the music
+came, expanded their broad ears, and were evidently soothed with the
+plaintive sound. The two young ones alone still roared for freedom; they
+stamped their feet, and blew clouds of dust over their shoulders,
+brandishing their little trunks aloft, and attacking every one who came
+within their reach.
+
+At first the older ones, when secured, spurned every offer of food,
+trampled it under foot, and turned haughtily away. A few, however, as
+they became more composed, could not resist the temptation of the juicy
+stems of the plantain, but rolling them under foot, till they detached
+the layers, they raised them in their trunks, and commenced chewing
+listlessly.
+
+On the whole, whilst the sagacity, the composure, and docility of the
+decoys were such as to excite lively astonishment, it was not possible
+to withhold the highest admiration from the calm and dignified demeanour
+of the captives. Their entire bearing was at variance with the
+representation made by some of the "sportsmen" who harass them, that
+they are treacherous, savage, and revengeful; when tormented by the guns
+of their persecutors, they, no doubt, display their powers and sagacity
+in efforts to retaliate or escape; but here their every movement was
+indicative of innocence and timidity. After a struggle, in which they
+evinced no disposition to violence or revenge, they submitted with the
+calmness of despair. Their attitudes were pitiable, their grief was most
+touching, and their low moaning went to the heart. We could not have
+borne to witness their distress had their capture been effected by the
+needless infliction of pain, or had they been destined to ill-treatment
+afterwards.
+
+It was now about two hours after noon, and the first elephants that had
+entered the corral having been disposed of, preparations were made to
+reopen the gate, and drive in the other two herds, over which the
+watchers were still keeping guard. The area of the enclosure was
+cleared; and silence was again imposed on the crowds who surrounded the
+corral. The bars that secured the entrance were withdrawn and every
+precaution repeated as before; but as the space inside was now somewhat
+trodden down, especially near the entrance, by the frequent charges of
+the last herd, and as it was to be apprehended that the others might be
+earlier alarmed and retrace their steps, before the barricades could be
+replaced, two tame ones were stationed inside to protect the men to whom
+that duty was assigned.
+
+All preliminaries being at length completed, the signal was given; the
+beaters on the side most distant from the corral closed in with tom-toms
+and discordant noises; a hedge-fire of musketry was kept up in the rear
+of the terrified elephants; thousands of voices urged them forward; we
+heard the jungle crashing as they came on, and at last they advanced
+through an opening amongst the trees, bearing down all before them like
+a charge of locomotives. They were led by a huge female, nearly nine
+feet high, after whom one half of the herd dashed precipitately through
+the narrow entrance, but the rest turning suddenly towards the left,
+succeeded in forcing the cordon of guards and making good their escape
+to the forest.
+
+No sooner had the others passed the gate, than the two tame elephants
+stepped forward from either side, and before the herd could return from
+the further end of the enclosure, the bars were drawn, the entrance
+closed, and the men in charge glided outside the stockade. The elephants
+which had previously been made prisoners within exhibited intense
+excitement as the fresh din arose around them; they started to their
+feet, and stretched their trunks in the direction whence they winded the
+scent of the herd in its headlong flight; and as the latter rushed past,
+they renewed their struggles to get free and follow. It is not possible
+to imagine anything more exciting than the spectacle which the wild ones
+presented careering round the corral, uttering piercing screams, their
+heads erect and trunks aloft, the very emblems of rage and perplexity,
+of power and helplessness.
+
+Along with those which entered at the second drive was one that
+evidently belonged to another herd, and had been separated from them in
+the _mêlée_ when the latter effected their escape, and, as usual, his
+new companions in misfortune drove him off indignantly as often as he
+attempted to approach them.
+
+The demeanour of those taken in the second drive differed materially
+from that of the preceding captives, who, having entered the corral in
+darkness, to find themselves girt with fire and smoke, and beset by
+hideous sounds and sights on every side, were speedily reduced by fear
+to stupor and submission--whereas, the second herd having passed into
+the enclosure by daylight, and its area being trodden down in many
+places, could clearly discover the fences, and were consequently more
+alarmed and enraged at their confinement. They were thus as restless as
+the others had been calm, and so much more vigorous in their assaults
+that, on one occasion, their courageous leader, undaunted by the
+multitude of white wands thrust towards her, was only driven back from
+the stockade by a hunter hurling a blazing flambeau at her head. Her
+attitude as she stood repulsed, but still irresolute, was a study for a
+painter. Her eye dilated, her ears expanded, her back arched like a
+tiger, and her fore-foot in air, whilst she uttered those hideous
+screams that are imperfectly described by the term "_trumpeting_."
+
+Although repeatedly passing by the unfortunates from the former drove,
+the new herd seemed to take no friendly notice of them; they halted
+inquiringly for a minute, and then resumed their career round the
+corral, and once or twice in their headlong flight they rushed madly
+over the bodies of the prostrate captives as they lay in their misery on
+the ground.
+
+It was evening before the new captives had grown wearied with their
+furious and repeated charges, and stood still in the centre of the
+corral collected into a terrified and motionless group. The fires were
+then relighted, the guard redoubled by the addition of the watchers, who
+were now relieved from duty in the forest, and the spectators retired to
+their bungalows for the night. The business of the _third day_ began by
+noosing and tying up the new captives, and the first sought out was
+their magnificent leader. Siribeddi and the tame tusker having forced
+themselves on either side of her, a boy in the service of the
+Rata-Mahatmeya succeeded in attaching a rope to her hind-foot. Siribeddi
+moved off, but feeling her strength insufficient to drag the reluctant
+prize, she went down on her fore-knees, so as to add the full weight of
+her body to the pull. The tusker, seeing her difficulty, placed himself
+in front of the prisoner, and forced her backwards, step by step, till
+his companion, brought her fairly up to the tree, and wound the rope
+round the stem. Though overpowered by fear, she showed the fullest sense
+of the nature of the danger she had to apprehend. She kept her head
+turned towards the noosers, and tried to step in advance of the decoys;
+in spite of all their efforts, she tore off the first noose from her
+fore-leg, and placing it under her foot, snapped it into fathom lengths.
+When finally secured, her writhings were extraordinary. She doubled in
+her head under her chest, till she lay as round as a hedgehog, and
+rising again, stood on her fore-feet, and lifting her hind-feet off the
+ground, she wrung them from side to side, till the great tree above her
+quivered in every branch.
+
+Before proceeding to catch the others, we requested that the smaller
+trees and jungle, which partially obstructed our view, might be broken
+away, being no longer essential to screen the entrance to the corral;
+and five of the tame elephants were brought up for the purpose. They
+felt the strength of each tree with their trunks, then swaying it
+backwards and forwards, by pushing it with their foreheads, they watched
+the opportunity when it was in full swing to raise their fore-feet
+against the stem, and bear it down to the ground. Then tearing off the
+festoons of climbing plants, and trampling down the smaller branches and
+brushwood, they pitched them with their tusks, piling them into heaps
+along the side of the fence.
+
+[Illustration of elephant resisting capture.]
+
+Amongst the last that was secured was the solitary individual belonging
+to the fugitive herd. When they attempted to drag him backwards from the
+tree near which he was noosed, he laid hold of it with his trunk and lay
+down on his side immoveable. The temple tusker and another were ordered
+up to assist, and it required the combined efforts of the three
+elephants to force him along. When dragged to the place at which he was
+to be tied up, he continued the contest with desperation, and to prevent
+the second noose being placed on his foot, he sat down on his haunches,
+almost in the attitude of the "Florentine Boar," keeping his hind-feet
+beneath him, and defending his fore-feet with his trunk, with which he
+flung back the rope as often as it was attempted to attach it.
+
+[Illustration of elephant lying on ground after capture.]
+
+When overpowered and made fast, his grief was most affecting; his
+violence sunk to utter prostration, and he lay on the ground, uttering
+choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.
+
+The final operation was that of slackening the ropes, and marching each
+captive down to the river between two tame ones. This was effected very
+simply. A decoy, with a strong collar round its neck, stood on either
+side of the wild one, on which a similar collar was formed, by
+successive coils of coco-nut rope; and then, connecting the three
+collars together, the prisoner was effectually made safe between his two
+guards. During this operation, it was curious to see how the tame
+elephant, from time to time, used its trunk to shield the arm of its
+rider, and ward off the trunk of the prisoner, who resisted the placing
+the rope round his neck. This done, the nooses were removed from his
+feet, and he was marched off to the river, in which he and his
+companions were allowed to bathe; a privilege of which all availed
+themselves eagerly. Each was then made fast to a tree in the forest, and
+keepers being assigned to him, with a retinue of leaf-cutters, he was
+plentifully supplied with his favourite food, and left to the care and
+tuition of his new masters.
+
+Returning from a spectacle such as I have attempted to describe, one
+cannot help feeling how immeasurably it exceeds in interest those royal
+battues where timid deer are driven in crowds to unresisting slaughter;
+or those vaunted "wild sports" the amusement of which appears to be in
+proportion to the effusion of blood. Here the only display of power was
+the imposition of restraint; and though considerable mortality often
+occurs amongst the animals caught, the infliction of pain, so far from
+being an incident of the operation, is most cautiously avoided from its
+tendency to enrage, the policy of the captor being to conciliate and
+soothe. The whole scene exhibits the most marvellous example of the
+voluntary alliance of animal sagacity and instinct in active
+co-operation with human intelligence and courage; and nothing else in
+nature, not even the chase of the whale, can afford so vivid an
+illustration of the sovereignty of man over brute creation even when
+confronted with force in its most stupendous embodiment.
+
+Of the two young elephants which were taken in the corral, the smallest
+was sent down to my house at Colombo, where he became a general
+favourite with the servants. He attached himself especially to the
+coachman, who had a little shed erected for him near his own quarters at
+the stables. But his favourite resort was the kitchen, where he received
+a daily allowance of milk and plantains, and picked up several other
+delicacies besides. He was innocent and playful in the extreme, and when
+walking in the grounds he would trot up to me, twine his little trunk
+round my arm, and coax me to take him to the fruit-trees. In the evening
+the grass-cutters now and then indulged him by permitting him to carry
+home a load of fodder for the horses, on which occasions he assumed an
+air of gravity that was highly amusing, showing that he was deeply
+impressed with the importance and responsibility of the service
+entrusted to him. Being sometimes permitted to enter the dining-room,
+and helped to fruit at desert, he at last learned his way to the
+side-board; and on more than one occasion having stolen in, during the
+absence of the servants, he made a clear sweep of the wine-glasses and
+china in his endeavours to reach a basket of oranges. For these and
+similar pranks we were at last forced to put him away. He was sent to
+the Government stud, where he was affectionately received and adopted by
+Siribeddi, and he now takes his turn of public duty in the department of
+the Commissioner of Roads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VII.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+      *        *       *       *       *
+
+_Conduct in Captivity._
+
+The idea prevailed in ancient times, and obtains even at the present
+day, that the Indian elephant surpasses that of Africa in sagacity and
+tractability, and consequently in capacity for training, so as to render
+its services more available to man. There does not appear to me to be
+sufficient ground for this conclusion. It originated, in all
+probability, in the first impressions created by the accounts of the
+elephant brought back by the Greeks after the Indian expedition of
+Alexander, and above all by the descriptions of Aristotle, whose
+knowledge of the animal was derived exclusively from the East. A long
+interval elapsed before the elephant of Africa, and its capabilities,
+became known in Europe. The first elephants brought to Greece by
+Antipater, were from India, as were also those introduced by Pyrrhus
+into Italy. Taught by this example, the Carthaginians undertook to
+employ African elephants in war. Jugurtha led them against Metellus, and
+Juba against Cæsar; but from inexperienced and deficient training, they
+proved less effective than the elephants of India[1], and the historians
+of these times ascribed to inferiority of race, that which was but the
+result of insufficient education.
+
+[Footnote 1: ARMANDI, _Hist. Milit. des Eléphants_, liv. i. ch. i. p. 2.
+It is an interesting fact, noticed by ARMANDI, that the elephants
+figured on the coins of Alexander, and the Seleucidæ invariably exhibit
+the characteristics of the Indian type, whilst those on Roman medals can
+at once be pronounced African, from the peculiarities of the convex
+forehead and expansive ears.--_Ibid_. liv. i. cap. i. p. 3.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ARMANDI has, with infinite industry, collected from original sources a
+mass of curious informations relative to the employment of elephants in
+ancient warfare, which he has published under the title of _Histoire
+Militaire des Eléphants depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu' à
+l'introduction des armes a feu_. Paris. 1843.]
+
+It must, however, be remembered that the elephants which, at a later
+period, astonished the Romans by their sagacity, and whose performances
+in the amphitheatre have been described by Ælian and Pliny, were brought
+from Africa, and acquired their accomplishments from European
+instructors[1]; a sufficient proof that under equally favourable
+auspices the African species are capable of developing similar docility
+and powers with those of India. It is one of the facts from which the
+inferiority of the Negro race has been inferred, that they alone, of all
+the nations amongst whom the elephant is found, have never manifested
+ability to domesticate it; and even as regards the more highly developed
+races who inhabited the valley of the Nile, it is observable that the
+elephant is nowhere to be found amongst the animals figured on the
+monuments of ancient Egypt, whilst the camelopard, the lion, and even
+the hippopotamus are represented. And although in later times the
+knowledge of the art of training appears to have existed under the
+Ptolemies, and on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, it admits of
+no doubt that it was communicated by the more accomplished natives of
+India who had settled there.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: ÆLIAN, lib. ii. cap. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See SCHLEGEL'S Essay on the Elephant and the Sphynx.
+_Classical Journal_, No. lx. Although the trained elephant nowhere
+appears upon the monuments of the Egyptians, the animal was not unknown
+to them, and ivory and elephants are figured on the walls of Thebes and
+Karnac amongst the spoils of Thothmes III., and the tribute paid to
+Rameses I. The Island of Elephantine, in the Nile, near Assouan (Syene)
+is styled in hieroglyphical writing "The Land of the Elephant;" but as
+it is a mere rock, it probably owes its designation to its form. See Sir
+GARDNER WILKINSON'S _Ancient Egyptians_, vol. i. pl. iv.; vol. v. p.
+176. Above the first cataract of the Nile are two small islands, each
+bearing the name of Phylæ;--quære, is the derivation of this word at all
+connected with the Arabic term _fil_? See ante, p. 76, note. The
+elephant figured in the sculptures of Nineveh is universally as wild,
+not domesticated.]
+
+Another favourite doctrine of the earlier visitors to the East seems to
+me to be equally fallacious; PYRARD, BERNIER, PHILLIPE, THEVENOT, and
+other travellers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, proclaimed
+the superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, in size, strength, and
+sagacity, above those of all other parts of India[1]; and TAVERNIER in
+particular is supposed to have stated that if a Ceylon elephant be
+introduced amongst those bred in any other place, by an instinct of
+nature they do him homage by laying their trunks to the ground, and
+raising them reverentially. This passage has been so repeatedly quoted
+in works on Ceylon that it has passed into an aphorism, and is always
+adduced as a testimony to the surpassing intelligence of the elephants
+of that island; although a reference to the original shows that
+Tavernier's observations are not only fanciful in themselves, but are
+restricted to the supposed excellence of the Ceylon animal _in war_.[2]
+This estimate of the superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, if it ever
+prevailed in India, was not current there at a very early period; for in
+the _Ramayana_, which is probably the oldest epic in the world, the stud
+of Dasartha, the king of Ayodhya, was supplied with elephants from the
+Himalaya and the Vindhya Mountains.[3] I have had no opportunity of
+testing by personal observation the justice of the assumption; but from
+all that I have heard of the elephants of the continent, and seen of
+those of Ceylon, I have reason to conclude that the difference, if not
+imaginary, is exceptional, and must have arisen in particular and
+individual instances, from more judicious or elaborate instruction.
+
+[Footnote 1: This is merely a reiteration of the statement of ÆLIAN, who
+ascribes to the elephants of Taprobane a vast superiority in size,
+strength, and intelligence, above, those of continental India,--[Greek:
+"Kai oide ge næsiotai elephantes ton hæpiroton halkimoteroi te tæn
+rhomæn kai meixous idein eisi, kai thumosophoteroi de panta pantæ
+krinointo han."]--ÆLIAN, _De Nat. Anim_., lib. Xvi. Cap. xviii.
+
+ÆLIAN also, in the same chapter, states the fact of the shipment of
+elephants in large boats from Ceylon to the opposite continent of India,
+for sale to the king of Kalinga; so that the export from Manaar,
+described in a former passage, has been going on apparently without
+interruption since the time of the Romans.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The expression of TAVERNIER is to the effect that as
+compared with all others, the elephants of Ceylon are "plus courageux _à
+la guerre_." The rest of the passage is a curiosity:--
+
+"Il faut remarquer ici une chose qu'on aura peut-être de la peine à
+croire main quit est toutefois très-véritable: c'est que lorsque quelque
+roi on quelque seigneur a quelqu'un de ces éléphants de Ceylan, et qu'on
+en amène quelqu'autre des lieux où les marchands vont les prendre, comme
+d'Achen, de Siam, d'Arakan, de Pegu, du royáume de Boutan, d'Assam, des
+terres de Cochin et de la coste du Mélinde, dés que les éléphants en
+voient un de Ceylan, par un instinct de nature, ils lui font la
+révérence, portant le bout de leur trompe à la terre et la relevant. Il
+est vrai que les éléphants que les grand seigneurs entretiennent, quand
+en les amine devant eux, pour voir s'ils sent en bon point, font troi
+fois une espére de révérence avec leur troupe, _a que j'ai en souvent_,
+mais ils sont stylés à cela, et leurs maitres le leur enseignent de
+bonne heure."--_Les Six Voyages de_ J.B. TAVERNIER, lib. iii. ch. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Ramayana_, sec. vi.: CAREY and MARSHMAN, i. 105: FAUCHE,
+t. i. p. 66.]
+
+The earliest knowledge of the elephant in Europe and the West, was
+derived from the conspicuous position assigned to it in the wars of the
+East: in India, from the remotest antiquity, it formed one of the most
+picturesque, if not the most effective, features in the armies of the
+native princes.[1] It is more than probable that the earliest attempts
+to take and train the elephant, were with a view to military uses, and
+that the art was perpetuated in later times to gratify the pride of the
+eastern kings, and sustain the pomp of their processions.
+
+[Footnote 1: The only mention of the elephant in Sacred History in the
+account given in _Maccabees_ of the invasion of Egypt by Antiochus, who
+entered it 170 B.C., "with chariots and elephants, and horsemen, and a
+great navy."--1 _Macc_. i. 17. Frequent allusions to the use of
+elephants in war occur in both books: and in chap. vi. 34, it is stated
+that "to provoke the elephants to fight they showed them the blood of
+grapes and of mulberries." The term showed, "[Greek: edeixan]," might be
+thought to imply that the animals were enraged by the sight of the wine
+and its colour, but in the Third Book of Maccabees, in the Greek
+Septuagint, various other passages show that wine, on such occasions,
+was administered to the elephants to render them furious.--Mace, v. 2.
+10, 45. PHILE mentions the same fact, _De Elephante_, i. 145.
+
+There is a very curious account of the mode in which the Arab conquerors
+of Seinde, in the 9th and 10th centuries, equipped the elephant for war;
+which being written with all the particularity of an eye-witness, bears
+the impress of truth and accuracy. MASSOUDI, who was born in Bagdad at
+the close of the 9th century, travelled in India in the year A.D. 913,
+and visited the Gulf of Cambay, the coast of Malabar, and the Island of
+Ceylon:--from a larger account of his journeys he compiled a summary
+under the title of "_Moroudj al-dzeheb," or the "Golden Meadows_," the
+MS. of which is now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. M. REINAUD, in
+describing this manuscript says on its authority, "The Prince of
+Mensura, whose dominions lay south of the Indus, maintained eighty
+elephants trained for war, each of which bore in his trunk a bent
+cymeter (carthel), with which he was taught to cut and thrust at all
+confronting him. The trunk itself was effectually protected by a coat of
+mail, and the rest of the body enveloped in a covering composed jointly
+of iron and horn. Other elephants were employed in drawing chariots,
+carrying baggage, and grinding forage, and the performance of all
+bespoke the utmost intelligence and docility."--REINAUD, _Mèmoires sur
+l'Inde, antérieurement au milieu du XIe siècle, d'après les écrivains
+arabes, persans et chinois_. Paris, M.D.CCC. XLIX. p. 215. See
+SPRENGER'S English Translation of Massoudi, vol. i. p. 383.]
+
+An impression prevails even to the present day, that the process of
+training is tedious and difficult, and the reduction of a full-grown
+elephant to obedience, slow and troublesome in the extreme.[1] In both
+particulars, however, the contrary is the truth. The training as it
+prevails in Ceylon is simple, and the conformity and obedience of the
+animal are developed with singular rapidity. For the first three days,
+or till they will eat freely, which they seldom do in a less time, the
+newly-captured elephants are allowed to stand quiet; and, if
+practicable, a tame elephant is tied near to give the wild ones
+confidence. Where many elephants are being trained at once, it is
+customary to put every new captive between the stalls of half-tamed
+ones, when it soon takes to its food. This stage being attained,
+training commences by placing tame elephants on either side. The
+"cooroowe vidahn," or the head of the stables, stands in front of the
+wild elephants holding a long stick with a sharp iron point. Two men are
+then stationed one on either side, assisted by the tame elephants, and
+each holding a _hendoo_ or crook[2] towards the wild one's trunk, whilst
+one or two others rub their hands over his back, keeping up all the
+while a soothing and plaintive chaunt, interlarded with endearing
+epithets, such as "ho! my son," or "ho! my father," or "my mother," as
+may be applicable to the age and sex of the captive. The elephant is at
+first furious, and strikes in all directions with his trunk; but the men
+in front receiving all these blows on the points of their weapons, the
+extremity of the trunk becomes so sore that the animal curls it up
+close, and seldom afterwards attempts to use it offensively. The first
+dread of man's power being thus established, the process of taking him
+to bathe between two tame elephants is greatly facilitated, and by
+lengthening the neck rope, and drawing the feet together as close as
+possible, the process of laying him down in the water is finally
+accomplished by the keepers pressing the sharp point of their hendoos
+over the backbone.
+
+[Footnote 1: BRODERIP, _Zoological Recreations_, p. 226.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The iron goad with which the keeper directs the movements
+of the elephants, called a _hendoo_ in Ceylon and _hawkus_ in Bengal,
+appears to have retained the present shape from the remotest antiquity.
+It is figured in the medals of Caracalla in the identical form in which
+it is in use at the present day in India.
+
+The Greeks called it [Greek: harpê], and the Romans _cuspis_.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Numidia.]
+
+[Illustration: Modern Hendoo.]]
+
+For many days the roaring and resistance which attend the operation are
+considerable, and it often requires the sagacious interference of the
+tame elephants to control the refractory wild ones. It soon, however,
+becomes practicable to leave the latter alone, only taking them to and
+from the stall by the aid of a decoy. This step lasts, under ordinary
+treatment, for about three weeks, when an elephant may be taken alone
+with his legs hobbled, and a man walking backwards in front with the
+point of the hendoo always presented to the elephant's head, and a
+keeper with an iron crook at each ear. On getting into the water, the
+fear of being pricked on his tender back induces him to lie down
+directly on the crook being only held over him _in terrorem_. Once this
+point has been achieved, the further process of taming is dependent upon
+the disposition of the creature.
+
+The greatest care is requisite, and daily medicines are applied to heal
+the fearful wounds on the legs which even the softest ropes occasion.
+This is the great difficulty of training; for the wounds fester
+grievously, and months and sometimes years will elapse before an
+elephant will allow his feet to be touched without indications of alarm
+and anger.
+
+The observation has been frequently made that the elephants most vicious
+and troublesome to tame, and the most worthless when tamed, are those
+distinguished by a thin trunk and flabby pendulous ears. The period of
+tuition does not appear to be influenced by the size or strength of the
+animals: some of the smallest give the greatest amount of trouble;
+whereas, in the instance of the two largest that have been taken in
+Ceylon within the last thirty years, both were docile in a remarkable
+degree. One in particular, which was caught and trained by Mr. Cripps,
+when Government agent, in the Seven Korles, fed from the hand the first
+night it was secured, and in a very few days evinced pleasure on being
+patted on the head.[1] There is none so obstinate, not even a _rogue_,
+that may not, when kindly and patiently treated, be conciliated and
+reconciled.
+
+[Footnote 1: This was the largest elephant that had been tamed in
+Ceylon; he measured upwards of nine feet at the shoulders and belonged
+to the caste so highly prized for the temples. He was gentle after his
+first capture, but his removal from the corral to the stables, though
+only a distance of six miles, was a matter of the extremest difficulty;
+his extraordinary strength rendering him more than a match for the
+attendant decoys. He, on one occasion, escaped, but was recaptured in
+the forest; and he afterwards became so docile as to perform a variety
+of tricks. He was at length ordered to be removed to Colombo; but such
+was his terror on approaching the gate, that on coaxing him to enter the
+gate, he became paralysed in the extraordinary way elsewhere alluded to,
+and _died on the spot_.]
+
+The males are generally more unmaneagable than the females, and in both
+an inclination to lie down to rest is regarded as a favourable symptom
+of approaching tractability, some of the most resolute having been known
+to stand for months together, even during sleep. Those which are the
+most obstinate and violent at first are the soonest and most effectually
+subdued, and generally prove permanently docile and submissive. But
+those which are sullen or morose, although they may provoke no
+chastisement by their viciousness, are always slower in being taught,
+and are rarely to be trusted in after life.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The natives profess that the high caste elephants, such as
+are allotted to the temples, are of all others the most difficult to
+tame, and M. BLES, the Dutch correspondent of BUFFON, mentions a caste
+of elephants which he had heard of, as being peculiar to the Kandyan
+kingdom, that were not higher than a heifer (génisse), covered with
+hair, and insusceptible of being tamed. (BUFFON, _Supp._ vol. vi. p.
+29.) Bishop HEBER, in the account of his journey from Bareilly towards
+the Himalayas, describes the Raja Gourman Sing, "mounted on a little
+female elephant, hardly bigger than a Durham ox, and almost as shaggy as
+a poodle."--_Journx._, ch. xvii. It will be remembered that the mammoth
+discovered in 1803 embedded in icy soil in Siberia, was covered with a
+coat of long hair, with a sort of wool at the roots. Hence there arose
+the question whether that northern region had been formerly inhabited by
+a race of elephants, so fortified by nature against cold; or whether the
+individual discovered had been borne thither by currents from some more
+temperate latitudes. To the latter theory the presence of hair seemed a
+fatal objection; but so far as my own observation goes, I believe the
+elephants are more or less provided with hair. In some it is more
+developed than in others, and it is particularly observable in the
+young, which when captured are frequently covered with a woolly fleece,
+especially about the head and shoulders. In the older individuals in
+Ceylon, this is less apparent: and in captivity the hair appears to be
+altogether removed by the custom of the mahouts to rub their skin daily
+with oil and a rough lump of burned clay. See a paper on the subject,
+_Asiat. Journ._ N.S. vol. xiv. p. 182, by Mr. G. FAIRHOLME.]
+
+But whatever may be its natural gentleness and docility, the temper of
+an elephant is seldom to be implicitly relied on in a state of captivity
+and coercion. The most amenable are subject to occasional fits of
+stubbornness; and even after years of submission, irritability and
+resentment will unaccountably manifest themselves. It may be that the
+restraints and severer discipline of training have not been entirely
+forgotten; or that incidents which in ordinary health would be
+productive of no demonstration whatever, may lead, in moments of
+temporary illness, to fretfulness and anger. The knowledge of this
+infirmity led to the popular belief recorded by PHILE, that the elephant
+had _two hearts_, under the respective influences of which it evinced
+ferocity of gentleness; subdued by the one to habitual tractability and
+obedience, but occasionally roused by the other to displays of rage and
+resistance.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1:
+  [Greek:
+  "Diplês de phasin euporêsai kardias
+  Kai tê men einai thumikon to thêrion
+  Eis akratê kinêsin êrethismenon,
+  Tê de prosênes kai thrasytêtos xenon.
+  Kai pê men autôn akroasthai ton logôn
+  Ous an tis Indos eu tithaseuôn legoi,
+  Pê de pros autous tous nomeis epitrechein
+  Eis tas palaias ektrapen kakoupgias."]
+       PHILE, _Expos. de Eleph._, l. 126, &c.]
+
+In the process of taming, the presence of the tame ones can generally be
+dispensed with after two months, and the captive may then be ridden by
+the driver alone; and after three or four months he may be entrusted
+with labour, so far as regards docility;--but it is undesirable, and
+even involves the risk of life, to work an elephant too soon; it has
+frequently happened that a valuable animal has lain down and died the
+first time it was tried in harness, from what the natives believe to be
+"broken heart,"--certainly without any cause inferable from injury or
+previous disease.[1] It is observable, that till a captured elephant
+begins to relish food, and grow fat upon it, he becomes so fretted by
+work, that it kills him in an incredibly short space of time.
+
+[Footnote 1: Captain YULE, in his _Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in_
+1855, records an illustration of this tendency of the elephant to sudden
+death; one newly captured, the process of taming which was exhibited to
+the British Envoy, "made vigorous resistance to the placing of a collar
+on its neck, and the people were proceeding to tighten it, when the
+elephant, which had lain down as if quite exhausted, reared suddenly on
+the hind quarters, and fell on its side--_dead_!"--P. 104.
+
+Mr. STRACHAN noticed the same liability of the elephants to sudden death
+from very slight causes; "of the fall." he says, "at any time, though on
+plain ground, they either die immediately, or languish till they die;
+their great weight occasioning them so much hurt by the fall."--_Phil.
+Trans._ A.D. 1701, vol. xxiii. p. 1052.]
+
+The first employment to which an elephant is put is to tread clay in a
+brick-field, or to draw a waggon in double harness with a tame
+companion. But the work in which the display of sagacity renders his
+labours of the highest value, is that which involves the use of heavy
+materials; and hence in dragging and piling timber, or moving stones[1]
+for the construction of retaining walls and the approaches to bridges,
+his services in an unopened country are of the utmost importance. When
+roads are to be constructed along the face of steep declivities, and the
+space is so contracted that risk is incurred either of the working
+elephant falling over the precipice or of rocks slipping down from
+above, not only are the measures to which he resorts the most judicious
+and reasonable that could be devised, but if urged by his keeper to
+adopt any other, he manifests a reluctance sufficient to show that he
+has balanced in his own mind the comparative advantages of each. An
+elephant appears on all occasions to comprehend the purpose and object
+that he is expected to promote, and hence he voluntarily executes a
+variety of details without any guidance whatever from his keeper. This
+is one characteristic in which this animal manifests a superiority over
+the horse; although his strength in proportion to his weight is not so
+great as that of the latter.
+
+[Footnote 1: A correspondent informs me that on the Malabar coast of
+India, the elephant, when employed in dragging stones, moves them by
+means of a rope, which he either draws with his forehead, or manages by
+seizing it in his teeth.]
+
+His minute motions when engrossed by such operations, the activity of
+his eye, and the earnestness of his attitudes, can only be comprehended
+by being seen. In moving timber and masses of rock his trunk is the
+instrument on which he mainly relies, but those which have tusks turn
+them to good account. To get a weighty stone out of a hollow an elephant
+will kneel down so as to apply the pressure of his head to move it
+upwards, then steadying it with one foot till he can raise himself, he
+will apply a fold of his trunk to shift it to its place, and fit it
+accurately in position: this done, he will step round to view it on
+either side, and adjust it with due precision. He appears to gauge his
+task by his eye, and to form a judgment whether the weight be
+proportionate to his strength. If doubtful of his own power, he
+hesitates and halts, and if urged against his will, he roars and shows
+temper.
+
+In clearing an opening through forest land, the power of the African
+elephant, and the strength ascribed to him by a recent traveller, as
+displayed in uprooting trees, have never been equalled or approached by
+anything I have seen of the elephant in Ceylon[1] or heard of them in
+India.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Here the trees were large and handsome, but not strong
+enough to resist the inconceivable strength of the mighty monarch of
+these forests; almost every tree had half its branches broken short by
+them and at every hundred yards I came upon entire trees, and these,
+_the largest in the forest_, uprooted clean out of the ground, and
+_broken short across their stems_."--_A Hunter's Life in South Africa_.
+By R. GORDON CUMMING, vol. ii. p. 305.--
+
+"Spreading out from one another, they smash and destroy all the finest
+trees in the forest which happen to be in their course.... I have rode
+through forests where the trees thus broken lay so thick across one
+another, that it was almost impossible to ride through the
+district."--_Ibid_., p. 310.
+
+Mr. Gordon Cumming does not name the trees which he saw thus "uprooted"
+and "broken across," nor has he given any idea of their size and weight;
+but Major DENHAM, who observed like traces of the elephant in Africa,
+saw only small trees overthrown by them; and Mr. PRINGLE, who had an
+opportunity of observing similar practices of the animals in the neutral
+territory of the Eastern frontier of the Cape of Good Hope, describes
+their ravages as being confined to the mimosas, "immense numbers of
+which had been torn out of the ground, and placed in an inverted
+position, in order to enable the animals to browse at their ease on the
+soft and juicy roots, which form a favourite part of their food. Many of
+the _larger mimosas had resisted all their efforts; and indeed, it is
+only after heavy rain, when the soil is soft and loose, that they ever
+successfully attempt this operation._"--Pringle's _Sketches of South
+Africa._]
+
+Of course much must depend on the nature of the timber and the moisture
+of the soil; thus a strong tree on the verge of a swamp may be
+overthrown with greater ease than a small and low one in parched and
+solid ground. I have seen no "tree" deserving the name, nothing but
+jungle and brushwood, thrown down by the mere movement of an elephant
+without some special exertion of force. But he is by no means fond of
+gratuitously tasking his strength; and food being so abundant that he
+obtains it without an effort, it is not altogether apparent, even were
+he able to do so, why he should assail "the largest trees in the
+forest," and encumber his own haunts with their broken stems; especially
+as there is scarcely anything which an elephant dislikes more than
+venturing amongst fallen timber.
+
+A tree of twelve inches in diameter resisted successfully the most
+strenuous struggles of the largest elephant I ever saw led to it; and
+when directed by their keepers to clear away jungle, the removal of even
+a small tree, or a healthy young coco-nut palm, is a matter both of time
+and exertion. Hence the services of an elephant are of much less value
+in clearing a forest than in dragging and piling felled timber. But in
+the latter occupation he manifests an intelligence and dexterity which
+is surprising to a stranger, because the sameness of the operation
+enables the animal to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almost
+without a hint or direction from his attendant. For example, two
+elephants employed in piling ebony and satinwood in the yards attached
+to the commissariat stores at Colombo, were so accustomed to their work,
+that they were able to accomplish it with equal precision and with
+greater rapidity than if it had been done by dock-labourers. When the
+pile attained a certain height, and they were no longer able by their
+conjoint efforts to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony to the summit,
+they had been taught to lean two pieces against the heap, up the
+inclined plane of which they gently rolled the remaining logs, and
+placed them trimly on the top.
+
+It has been asserted that in their occupations "elephants are to a
+surprising extent the creatures of habit,"[1] that their movements are
+altogether mechanical, and that "they are annoyed by any deviation from
+their accustomed practice, and resent any constrained departure from the
+regularity of their course." So far as my own observation goes, this is
+incorrect; and I am assured by officers of experience, that in regard to
+changing his treatment, his hours, or his occupation, an elephant
+evinces no more consideration than a horse, but exhibits the same
+pliancy and facility.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries_, &c., "The Elephant," vol. ii. p. 23.]
+
+At one point, however, the utility of the elephant stops short. Such is
+the intelligence and earnestness he displays in work, which he seems to
+conduct almost without supervision, that it has been assumed[1] that he
+would continue his labour, and accomplish his given task, as well in the
+absence of his keeper as during his presence. But here his innate love
+of ease displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn,
+the moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, he will stroll
+away lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning himself and
+blowing dust over his back.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ibid._, ch. vi. p. 138.]
+
+The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a question of difficulty
+to his attendants. Force being almost inapplicable, they try to work on
+his passions and feelings, by such expedients as altering the nature of
+his food or withholding it altogether for a time. Ou such occasions the
+demeanour of the creature will sometimes evince a sense of humiliation
+as well as of discontent. In some parts of India it is customary, in
+dealing with offenders, to stop their allowance of sugar canes or of
+jaggery; or to restrain them from eating their own share of fodder and
+leaves till their companions shall have finished; and in such cases the
+consciousness of degradation betrayed by the looks and attitudes of the
+culprit is quite sufficient to identify him, and to excite a feeling of
+sympathy and pity.
+
+The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result of affection, as
+well as of fear; and although his attachment becomes so strong that an
+elephant in Ceylon has been known to remain out all night, without food,
+rather than abandon his mahout, lying intoxicated in the jungle, yet he
+manifests little difficulty in yielding the same submission to a new
+driver in the event of a change of attendants. This is opposed to the
+popular belief that "the elephant cherishes such an enduring remembrance
+of his old mahout, that he cannot easily be brought to obey a
+stranger."[1] In the extensive establishments of the Ceylon Government,
+the keepers are changed without hesitation, and the animals, when
+equally kindly treated, are usually found to be as tractable and
+obedient to their new driver as to the old, in fact so soon as they have
+become familiarised with his voice. This is not, however, invariably the
+case; and Mr. CRIPPS, who had remarkable opportunities for observing the
+habits of the elephant in Ceylon, mentioned to me an instance in which
+one of a singularly stubborn disposition occasioned some inconvenience
+after the death of its keeper, by refusing to obey any other, till its
+attendants bethought them of a child about twelve years old, in a
+distant village, where the animal had been formerly picketed, and to
+whom it had displayed much attachment. The child was sent for: and on
+its arrival the elephant, as anticipated, manifested extreme
+satisfaction, and was managed with ease, till by degrees it became
+reconciled to the presence of a new superintendent.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," vol. i. p. 19.]
+
+It has been said that the mahouts die young, owing to some supposed
+injury to the spinal column from the peculiar motion of the elephant;
+but this remark does not apply to those in Ceylon, who are healthy, and
+as long lived as other men. If the motion of the elephant be thus
+injurious, that of the camel must be still more so; yet we never hear of
+early death ascribed to this cause by the Arabs.
+
+The voice of the keeper, with a very limited vocabulary of articulate
+sounds, serves almost alone to guide the elephant in his domestic
+occupations.[1] Sir EVERARD HOME, from an examination of the muscular
+fibres in the drum of an elephant's ear, came to the conclusion, that
+notwithstanding the distinctness and power of his perception of sounds
+at a greater distance than other animals, he was insensible to their
+harmonious modulation and destitute of a musical ear.[2] But Professor
+HARRISON, in a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy in 1847, has
+stated that on a careful examination of the head of an elephant which he
+had dissected, he could "see no evidence of the muscular structure of
+the _membrana tympani_ so accurately described by Sir E. HOME." Sir
+EVERARD'S deduction, I may observe, is clearly inconsistent with the
+fact that the power of two elephants may be combined by singing to them
+a measured chant, somewhat resembling a sailor's capstan song; and in
+labour of a particular kind, such as hauling a stone with ropes, they
+will thus move conjointly a weight to which their divided strength would
+be unequal.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: The principal sound by which the mahouts in Ceylon direct
+the motions of the elephants is a repetition, with various modulations,
+of the words _ur-re! ur-re!_ This is one of those interjections in which
+the sound is so expressive of the sense that persons in charge of
+animals of almost every description throughout the world appear to have
+adopted it with a concurrence that is very curious. The drivers of
+camels in Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt encourage them to speed by
+shouting _ar-ré! ar-ré!_ The Arabs in Algeria cry _eirich!_ to their
+mules. The Moors seem to have carried the custom with them into Spain,
+where mules are still driven with cries of _arré_ (whence the muleteers
+derive their Spanish appellation of "arrieros"). In France the Sportsman
+excites the hound by shouts of _hare! hare!_ and the waggoner there
+turns his horses by his voice, and the use of the word _hurhaut!_ In the
+North, "_Hurs_ was a word used by the old Germans in urging their horses
+to speed;" and to the present day, the herdsmen in Ireland, and parts of
+Scotland, drive their pigs with shouts of _hurrish!_ a sound closely
+resembling that used by the mahouts in Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _On the Difference between the Human Membrana Tympani and
+that of the Elephant_. By Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart., Philos. Trans., 1823.
+Paper by Prof. HARRISON. Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. iii. p. 386.]
+
+[Footnote 3: I have already noticed the striking effect produced on the
+captive elephants in the corral, by the harmonious notes of an ivory
+flute; and on looking to the graphic description which is given by ÆLIAN
+of the exploits which he witnessed as performed by the elephants
+exhibited at Rome, it is remarkable how very large a share of their
+training appears to have been ascribed to the employment of music.
+
+PHILE, in the account which he has given of the elephant's fondness for
+music, would almost seem to have versified the prose narrative of ÆLIAN,
+as he describes its excitement at the more animated portions, its step
+being regulated to the time and movements of the harmony: the whole
+"_surprising in a creature whose limbs are without joints!_
+
+  [Greek:
+  "Kainon ti poiôn ex anarthrôn organôn."]
+          PHILE, _Expos. de Eleph_, 1. 216.
+
+For an account of the training and performances of the elephants at
+Rome, as narrated by ÆLIAN see the appendix to this chapter.]
+
+Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to obedience in the
+elephant, than the patience with which, at the order of his keeper, he
+swallows the nauseous medicines of the native elephant-doctors; and it
+is impossible to witness the fortitude with which (without shrinking) he
+submits to excruciating surgical operations for the removal of tumours
+and ulcers to which he is subject, without conceiving a vivid impression
+of his gentleness and intelligence. Dr. DAVY when in Ceylon was
+consulted about an elephant in the government Stud, which was suffering
+from a deep, burrowing sore in the back, just over the back-bone, which
+had long resisted the treatment ordinarily employed. He recommended the
+use of the knife, that issue might be given to the accumulated matter,
+but no one of the attendants was competent to undertake the operation.
+"Being assured," he continues, "that the creature would behave well, I
+undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but was made to kneel
+down at his keeper's command--and with an amputating knife, using all my
+force, I made the incision required through the tough integuments. The
+elephant did not flinch, but rather inclined towards me when using the
+knife; and merely uttered a low, and as it were suppressed, groan. In
+short, he behaved as like a human being as possible, as if conscious (as
+I believe he was), that the operation was for his good, and the pain
+unavoidable."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The _Angler in the Lake District_, p. 23.]
+
+Obedience to the orders of his keepers is not, however, to be assumed as
+the result of a uniform perception of the object to be attained by
+compliance; and we cannot but remember the touching incident which took
+place during the slaughter of the elephant at Exeter Change in 1846,
+when, after receiving ineffectually upwards of 120 balls in various
+parts of his body, he turned his face to his assailants on hearing the
+voice of his keeper, and knelt down at the accustomed word of command,
+so as to bring his forehead within view of the rifles.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A shocking account of the death of this poor animal is
+given in HONE'S _Every-Day Book_, March, 1830, p. 337.]
+
+The working elephant is always a delicate animal, and requires
+watchfulness and care. As a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory; for
+although in point of mere strength there is scarcely any weight which
+could be conveniently placed on him that he could not carry, it is
+difficult to pack his load without causing abrasions that afterwards
+ulcerate. His skin is easily chafed by harness, especially in wet
+weather. During either long droughts or too much moisture, his feet
+become liable to sores, that render him non-effective for months. Many
+attempts have been made to provide him with some protection for the sole
+of the foot, but from his extreme weight and peculiar mode of planting
+the foot, they have all been unsuccessful. His eyes are also liable to
+frequent inflammations, and the skill of the native elephant-doctors,
+which has been renowned since the time of Ælian, is nowhere more
+strikingly displayed than in the successful treatment of such
+attacks.[1] In Ceylon, the murrain among cattle is of frequent
+occurrence, and carries off great numbers of animals, wild as well as
+tame. In such visitations the elephants suffer severely, not only those
+at liberty in the forest, but those carefully tended in the government
+stables. Out of a stud of about 40 attached to the department of the
+Commission of Roads, the deaths between 1841 and 1849 were on an average
+_four_ in each year, and this was nearly doubled in those years when
+murrain prevailed.
+
+[Footnote 1: ÆLIAN, lib. xiii. c. 7.]
+
+Of 240 elephants, employed in the public departments of the Ceylon
+Government, which died in twenty-five years, from 1831 to 1856, the
+length of time that each lived in captivity has only been recorded in
+the instances of 138. Of these there died:--
+
+  Duration of Captivity.        No.     Male.   Female
+
+  Under 1 year                  72        29      43
+  From 1 to   2 years           14         5       9
+    "  2  "   3   "              8         5       3
+    "  3  "   4   "              8         3       5
+    "  4  "   5   "              3         2       1
+    "  5  "   6   "              2         2       .
+    "  6  "   7   "              3         1       2
+    "  7  "   8   "              5         2       3
+    "  8  "   9   "              5         5       .
+    "  9  "  10   "              2         2       .
+    " 10  "  11   "              2         2       .
+    " 11  "  12   "              3         1       2
+    " 12  "  13   "              3         .       3
+    " 13  "  14   "              .         .       .
+    " 14  "  15   "              3         1       2
+    " 15  "  16   "              1         1       .
+    " 16  "  17   "              1         .       1
+    " 17  "  18   "              .         .       .
+    " 18  "  19   "              2         1       1
+    " 19  "  20   "              1         .       1
+
+        Total                  138        62      76
+
+Of the 72 who died in one year's servitude, 35 expired within the first
+six months of their captivity. During training, many elephants die in
+the unaccountable manner already referred to, of what the natives
+designate _a broken heart_.
+
+On being first subjected to work, the elephant is liable to severe and
+often fatal swellings of the jaws and abdomen.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The elephant which was dissected by DR. HARRISON of Dublin,
+in 1847, died of a febrile attack, after four or five days' illness,
+which, as Dr. H. tells me in a private letter, was "very like
+scarlatina, at that time a prevailing disease; its skin in some places
+became almost scarlet."]
+
+  From these causes there died, between 1841 and 1849    9
+  Of cattle murrain                                     10
+  Sore feet                                              1
+  Colds and inflammation                                 6
+  Diarrhoea                                              1
+  Worms                                                  1
+  Of diseased liver                                      1
+  Injuries from a fall                                   1
+  General debility                                       1
+  Unknown causes                                         3
+
+Of the entire, twenty-three were females and eleven males.
+
+The ages of those that died could not be accurately stated, owing to the
+circumstance of their having been captured in corral. Two only were
+tuskers. Towards keeping the stud in health, nothing has been found so
+conducive as regularly bathing the elephants, and giving them the
+opportunity to stand with their feet in water, or in moistened earth.
+
+Elephants are said to be afflicted with tooth-ache; their tushes have
+likewise been found with symptoms of internal perforation by some
+parasite, and the natives assert that, in their agony, the animals have
+been known to break them off short.[1] I have never heard of the teeth
+themselves being so affected, and it is just possible that the operation
+of shedding the subsequent decay of the milk-tushes, may have in some
+instances been accompanied by incidents that gave rise to this story.
+
+[Footnote 1: See a paper entitled "_Recollections of Ceylon_," in
+_Fraser's Magazine_ for December, 1860.]
+
+At the same time the probabilities are in favour of its being true.
+CUVIER committed himself to the statement that the tusks of the elephant
+have no attachments to connect them with the pulp lodged in the cavity
+at their base, from which the peculiar modification of dentine, known as
+"ivory," is secreted[1]; and hence, by inference, that they would be
+devoid of sensation.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annales du Muséum_ F. viii. 1805. p. 94, and _Ossemens
+Fossiles_, quoted by OWEN, in the article on "Teeth," in TODD'S _Cyclop.
+of Anatomy, &c_., vol. iv. p. 929.]
+
+But independently of the fact that ivory in permeated by tubes so fine
+that at their origin from the pulpy cavity they do not exceed 1/15000th
+part of an inch in diameter, OWEN had the tusk and pulp of the great
+elephant which died at the Zoological Gardens in London in 1847
+longitudinally divided, and found that, "although the pulp could be
+easily detached from the inner surface of the cavity, it was not without
+a certain resistance; and when the edges of the co-adapted pulp and tusk
+were examined by a strong lens, the filamentary processes from the outer
+surface of the former could be seen stretching, as they were drawn from
+the dentinal tubes, before they broke. These filaments are so minute, he
+adds, that to the naked eye the detached surface of the pulp seems to be
+entire; and hence CUVIER was deceived into supposing that there was no
+organic connexion between the pulp and the ivory. But if, as there seems
+no reason to doubt, these delicate nervous processes traverse the tusk
+by means of the numerous tubes already described, if attacked by caries
+the pain occasioned to the elephant would be excruciating.
+
+As to maintaining a stud of elephants for the purposes to which they are
+now assigned in Ceylon, there may be a question on the score of prudence
+and economy. In the rude and unopened parts of the country, where rivers
+are to be forded, and forests are only traversed by jungle paths, their
+labour is of value, in certain contingencies, in the conveyance of
+stores, and in the earlier operations for the construction of fords and
+rough bridges of timber. But in more highly civilised districts, and
+wherever macadamised roads admit of the employment of horses and oxen
+for draught, I apprehend that the services of elephants might, with
+advantage, be gradually reduced, if not altogether dispensed with.
+
+The love of the elephant for coolness and shade renders him at all times
+more or less impatient of work in the sun, and every moment of leisure
+he can snatch is employed in covering his back with dust, or fanning
+himself to diminish the annoyance of the insects and heat. From the
+tenderness of his skin and its liability to sores, the labour in which
+he can most advantageously be employed is that of draught; but the
+reluctance of horses to meet or pass elephants renders it difficult to
+work the latter with safety on frequented roads. Besides, were the full
+load which an elephant is capable of drawing, in proportion to his
+muscular strength, to be placed upon waggons of corresponding dimension,
+the to the roads would be such that the wear and tear of the highways
+and bridges would prove too costly to be borne. On the other hand, by
+restricting it to a somewhat more manageable quantity, and by limiting
+the weight, as at present, to about _one ton and a half_, it is doubtful
+whether an elephant performs so much more work than could be done by a
+horse or by bullocks, as to compensate for the greater cost of his
+feeding and attendance.
+
+Add to this, that from accidents and other causes, from ulcerations of
+the skin, and illnesses of many kinds, the elephant is so often
+invalided, that the actual cost of his labour, when at work, is very
+considerably enhanced. Exclusive of the salaries of higher officers
+attached to the government establishments, and other permanent charges,
+the expenses of an elephant, looking only to the wages of his attendants
+and the cost of his food and medicines, varies from _three shillings to
+four shillings and sixpence_, per diem, according to his size and
+class.[1] Taking the average at three shillings and nine-pence, and
+calculating that hardly any individual works more than four days out of
+seven, the charge for each day so employed would amount to _six
+shillings and sixpence_. The keep per day of a powerful dray-horse,
+working five days in the week, would not exceed half-a-crown, and two
+such would unquestionably do more work than any elephant under the
+present system. I do not know whether it be from a comparative
+calculation of this kind that the strength of the elephant
+establishments in Ceylon has been gradually diminished of late years,
+but in the department of the Commissioner of Roads, the stud, which
+formerly numbered upwards of sixty elephants, was reduced, some years
+ago, to thirty-six, and is at present less than half that number.
+
+[Footnote 1: An ordinary-sized elephant engrosses the undivided
+attention of _three_ men. One, as his mahout or superintendent, and two
+as leaf-cutters, who bring him branches and grass for his daily
+supplies. An animal of larger growth would probably require a third
+leaf-cutter. The daily consumption is two cwt. of green food with about
+half a bushel of grain. When in the vicinity of towns and villages, the
+attendants have no difficulty in procuring an abundant supply of the
+branches of the trees to which elephants are partial; and in journeys
+through the forests and unopened country, the leaf-cutters are
+sufficiently expert in the knowledge of those particular plants with
+which the elephant is satisfied. Those that would be likely to disagree
+with him he unerringly rejects. His favourites are the palms, especially
+the cluster of rich, unopened leaves, known as the "cabbage," of the
+coco-nut, and areca; and he delights to tear open the young trunks of
+the palmyra and jaggery (_Caryota urens_) in search of the farinaceous
+matter contained in the spongy pith. Next to these come the varieties of
+fig-trees. particularly the sacred _Bo_ (_F. religiosa_) which is found
+near every temple, and the _na gaha_ (_Messua ferrea_), with thick dark
+leaves and a scarlet flower. The leaves of the Jak-tree and bread-fruit
+(_Artocarpus integrifolia_, and _A. incisa_), the Wood apple (_Ægle
+Marmelos_), Palu (_Mimusops Indica_), and a number of others well known
+to their attendants, are all consumed in turn. The stems of the
+plaintain, the stalks of the sugar-cane, and the feathery tops of the
+bamboos, are irresistible luxuries. Pine-apples, water-melons, and
+fruits of every description, are voraciously devoured, and a coco-nut
+when found is first rolled under foot to detach it from the husk and
+fibre, and then raised in his trunk and crushed, almost without an
+effort, by his ponderous jaws.
+
+The grasses are not found in sufficient quantity to be an item of daily
+fodder; the Mauritius or the Guinea grass is seized with avidity; lemon
+grass is rejected from its overpowering perfume, but rice in the straw,
+and every description of grain, whether growing or dry; gram (_Cicer
+arietinum_), Indian Corn, and millet are his natural food. Of such of
+these as can be found, it is the duty of the leaf-cutters, when in the
+jungle and on march, to provide a daily supply.]
+
+The fallacy of the supposed reluctance of the elephant to breed in
+captivity has been demonstrated by many recent authorities; but with the
+exception of the birth of young elephants at Rome, as mentioned by
+ÆLIAN, the only instances that I am aware of their actually producing
+young under such circumstances, took place in Ceylon. Both parents had
+been for several years attached to the stud of the Commissioner of
+Roads, and in 1844 the female, whilst engaged in dragging a waggon, gave
+birth to a still-born calf. Some years before, an elephant that had been
+captured by Mr. Cripps, dropped a female calf, which he succeeded in
+rearing. As usual, the little one became the pet of the keepers; but as
+it increased in growth, it exhibited the utmost violence when thwarted;
+striking out with its hind-feet, throwing itself headlong on the ground,
+and pressing its trunk against any opposing object.
+
+The duration of life in the elephant has been from the remotest times a
+matter of uncertainty and speculation. Aristotle says it was reputed to
+live from two to three hundred years[1], and modern zoologists have
+assigned to it an age very little less; CUVIER[2] allots two hundred and
+DE BLAINVILLE one hundred and twenty. The only attempt which I know of
+to establish a period historically or physiologically is that of
+FLEURENS, who has advanced an ingenious theory on the subject in his
+treatise "_De la Longévité Humaine_." He assumes the sum total of life
+in all animals to be equivalent to five times the number of years
+requisite to perfect their growth and development;--and he adopts as
+evidence of the period at which growth ceases, the final consolidation
+of the bones with their _epiphyses_; which in the young consist of
+cartilages; but in the adult become uniformly osseous and solid. So long
+as the epiphyses are distinct from the bones, the growth of the animal
+is proceeding, but it ceases so soon as the consolidation is complete.
+In man, according to FLEURENS, this consummation takes place at 20 years
+of age, in the horse at 5, in the dog at 2; so that conformably to this
+theory the respective normal age for each would be 100 years for man, 25
+for the horse, and 10 for a dog. As a datum for his conclusion, FLEURENS
+cites the instance of one young elephant in which, at 26 years old, the
+epiphyses were still distinct, whereas in another, which died at 31,
+they were firm and adherent. Hence he draws the inference that the
+period of completed solidification is thirty years, and consequently
+that the normal age of the elephant is _one hundred and fifty_.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: ARISTOTELES _de Anim. l. viii._ c. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Menag. de Mus. Nat._ p. 107.]
+
+[Footnote 3: FLEURENS, _De la Longévité Humaine_, pp. 82, 89.]
+
+Amongst the Singhalese the ancient fable of the elephant attaining to
+the age of two or three hundred years still prevails; but the Europeans,
+and those in immediate charge of tame ones, entertain the opinion that
+the duration of life for about _seventy_ years is common both to man and
+the elephant; and that before the arrival of the latter period, symptoms
+of debility and decay ordinarily begin to manifest themselves. Still
+instances are not wanting in Ceylon of trained decoys that have lived
+for more than double the reputed period in actual servitude. One
+employed by Mr. Cripps in the Seven Korles was represented by the
+Cooroowe people to have served the king of Kandy in the same capacity
+sixty years before; and amongst the papers left by Colonel Robertson
+(son to the historian of "Charles V."), who held a command in Ceylon in
+1799, shortly after the capture of the island by the British, I have
+found a memorandum showing that a decoy was then attached to the
+elephant establishment at Matura, which the records proved to have
+served under the Dutch during the entire period of their occupation
+(extending to upwards of one hundred and forty years); and it was said
+to have been found in the stables by the Dutch on the expulsion of the
+Portugese in 1656.
+
+It is perhaps from this popular belief in their almost illimitable age,
+that the natives generally assert that the body of a dead elephant is
+seldom or never to be discovered in the woods. And certain it is that
+frequenters of the forest with whom I have conversed, whether European
+or Singhalese, are consistent in their assurances that they have never
+found the remains of an elephant that had died a natural death. One
+chief, the Wannyah of the Trincomalie district, told a friend of mine,
+that once after a severe murrain, which had swept the province, he found
+the carcases of elephants that had died of the disease. On the other
+hand, a European gentleman, who for thirty-six years without
+intermission has been living in the jungle, ascending to the summits of
+mountains in the prosecution of the trigonometrical survey, and
+penetrating valleys in tracing roads and opening means of
+communication,--one, too, who has made the habits of the wild elephant a
+subject of constant observation and study,--has often expressed to me
+his astonishment that after seeing many thousands of living elephants in
+all possible situations, he had never yet found a single skeleton of a
+dead one, except of those which had fallen by the rifle.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This remark regarding the elephant of Ceylon does not
+appear to extend to that of Africa, as I observe that BEAVER, in his
+_African Memoranda,_ says that "the skeletons of old ones that have died
+in the woods are frequently found."--_African Memoranda relative to an
+attempt to establish British Settlements at the Island of Bulama_. Lond.
+1815, p. 353.]
+
+It has been suggested that the bones of the elephant, may be so porous
+and spongy as to disappear in consequence of an early decomposition; but
+this remark would not apply to the grinders or to the tusks; besides
+which, the inference is at variance with the fact, that not only the
+horns and teeth, but entire skeletons of deer, are frequently found in
+the districts inhabited by the elephant.
+
+The natives, to account for this popular belief, declare that the
+survivors of the herd bury such of their companions as die a natural
+death.[1] It is curious that this belief was current also amongst the
+Greeks of the Lower Empire; and PHILE, writing early in the fourteenth
+century, not only describes the younger elephants as tending the
+wounded, but as burying the dead:
+
+[Greek: "Otan d' epistê tês teleutês o chronos Koinou telous amunan o
+xenos pherei]."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: A corral was organised near Putlam in 1846, by Mr. Morris,
+the chief officer of the district. It was constructed across one of the
+paths which the elephants frequent in their frequent marches, and during
+the course of the proceedings two of the captured elephants died. Their
+carcases were left of course within the enclosure, which was abandoned
+as soon as the capture was complete. The wild elephants resumed their
+path through it, and a few days afterwards the headman reported to Mr.
+Morris that the bodies had been removed and carried outside the corral
+to a spot to which nothing but the elephants could have borne them.]
+
+[Footnote 2: PHILE, _Expositio de Eleph._ l. 243.]
+
+The Singhalese have a further superstition in relation to the close of
+life in the elephant: they believe that, on feeling the approach of
+dissolution, he repairs to a solitary valley, and there resigns himself
+to death. A native who accompanied Mr. Cripps, when hunting, in the
+forests of Anarajapoora, intimated to him that he was then in the
+immediate vicinity of the spot "_to which the elephants come to die_,"
+but that it was so mysteriously concealed, that although every one
+believed in its existence, no one had ever succeeded in penetrating to
+it. At the corral which I have described at Kornegalle, in 1847,
+Dehigame, one of the Kandyan chiefs, assured me it was the universal
+belief of his countrymen, that the elephants, when about to die,
+resorted to a valley in Saffragam, among the mountains to the east of
+Adam's Peak, which was reached by a narrow pass with walls of rock on
+either side, and that there, by the side of a lake of clear water, they
+took their last repose.[1] It was not without interest that I afterwards
+recognised this tradition in the story of _Sinbad of the Sea_, who in
+his Seventh Voyage, after conveying the presents of Haroun al Raschid to
+the king of Serendib, is wrecked on his return from Ceylon, and sold as
+a slave to a master who employs him in shooting elephants for the sake
+of their ivory; till one day the tree on which he was stationed having
+been uprooted by one of the herd, he fell senseless to the ground, and
+the great elephant approaching wound his trunk around him and carried
+him away, ceasing not to proceed, until he had taken him to a place
+where, his terror having subsided, _he found himself amongst the bones
+of elephants, and knew that this was their burial place_.[2] It is
+curious to find this legend of Ceylon in what has, not inaptly, been
+described as the "Arabian Odyssey" of Sinbad; the original of which
+evidently embodies the romantic recitals of the sailors returning from
+the navigation of the Indian Seas, in the middle ages[3], which were
+current amongst the Mussulmans, and are reproduced in various forms
+throughout the tales of the _Arabian Nights_.
+
+[Footnote 1: The selection by animals of a _place to die_, is not
+confined to the elephant, DARWIN says, that in South America "the
+guanacos (llamas) appear to have favourite spots for lying down to die;
+on the banks of the Santa Cruz river, in certain circumscribed spaces
+which were generally bushy and all near the water, the ground was
+actually white with their bones; on one such spot I counted between ten
+and twenty heads."--_Nat. Voy._ ch. viii. The same has been remarked in
+the Rio Gallegos; and at St. Jago in the Cape de Verde Islands, DARWIN
+saw a retired corner similarly covered with the bones of the goat, as if
+it were "the burial-ground of all the goats in the island."]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Arabian Nights' Entertainment_, LANE'S edition, vol. iii.
+p. 77.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See a disquisition on the origin of the story of Sinbad, by
+M. REINAUD, in the introduction prefixed to his translation of the
+_Arabian Geography of Aboulfeda_, vol. i. p. lxxvi.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VII.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As Ælian's work on the _Nature of Animals_ has never, I believe, been
+republished in any English version, and the passage in relation to the
+training and performance of elephants is so pertinent to the present
+inquiry, I venture to subjoin a translation of the 11th Chapter of his
+2nd Book.
+
+"Of the cleverness of the elephant I have spoken elsewhere, and likewise
+of the manner of hunting. I have mentioned these things, a few out of
+the many which others have stated; but for the present I purpose to
+speak of their musical feeling, their tractability, and facility in
+learning what it is difficult for even a human being to acquire, much
+less a beast, hitherto so wild:--such as to dance, as is done on the
+stage; to walk with a measured gait; to listen to the melody of the
+flute and to perceive the difference of sounds, that, being pitched low
+lead to a slow movement, or high to a quick one: all this the elephant
+learns and understands, and is accurate withal, and makes no mistake.
+Thus has Nature formed him not only the greatest in size, but the most
+gentle and the most easily taught. Now if I were going to write about
+the tractability and aptitude to learn amongst those of India, Æthiopia,
+and Libya, I should probably appear to be concocting a tale and acting
+the braggart, or to be telling a falsehood respecting the nature of the
+animal founded on a mere report, all which it behoves a philosopher, and
+most of all one who is an ardent lover of truth, not to do. But what I
+have seen myself, and what others have described as having occurred at
+Rome, this I have chosen to relate, selecting a few facts out of many,
+to show the particular nature of those creatures. The elephant when
+tamed is an animal most gentle and most easily led to do whatever he is
+directed. And by way of showing honour to time, I will first narrate
+events of the oldest date. Cæsar Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius,
+exhibited once a public show, wherein there were many full-grown
+elephants, male and female, and some of their breed born in this
+country. When their limbs were beginning to become firm, a person
+familiar with such animals instructed them by a strange and surpassing
+method of teaching; using only gentleness and kindness, and adding to
+his mild lessons the bait of pleasant and varied food. By this means he
+led them by degrees to throw off all wildness, and, as it were, to
+desert to a state of civilisation, conducting themselves in a manner
+almost human. He taught them neither to be excited on hearing the pipe,
+nor to be disturbed by the beat of drum, but to be soothed by the sounds
+of the reed, and to endure unmusical noises and the clatter of feet from
+persons while marching; and they were trained to feel no fear of a mass
+of men, nor to be enraged at the infliction of blows, not even when
+compelled to twist their limbs and to bend them like a stage-dancer, and
+this too although endowed with strength and might. And there is in this
+a very noble addition to nature, not to conduct themselves in a
+disorderly manner and disobediently towards the instructions of man; for
+after the dancing-master had made them expert, and they had learnt their
+lessons accurately, they did not belie the labour of his instruction
+whenever a necessity and opportunity called upon them to exhibit what
+they had been taught. For the whole troop came forward from this and
+that side of the theatre, and divided themselves into parties: they
+advanced walking with a mincing gait and exhibiting in their whole body
+and persons the manners of a beau, clothed in the flowery dresses of
+dancers; and on the ballet-master giving a signal with his voice, they
+fell into line and went round in a circle, and if it were requisite to
+deploy they did so. They ornamented the floor of the stage by throwing
+flowers upon it, and this they did in moderation and sparingly, and
+straightway they beat a measure with their feet and kept time together.
+
+"Now that Damon and Spintharus and Aristoxenus and Xenophilus and
+Philoxenus and others should know music excellently well, and for their
+cleverness be ranked amongst the few, is indeed a thing of wonder, but
+not incredible nor contrary at all to reason. For this reason that a man
+is a rational animal, and the recipient of mind and intelligence. But
+that a jointless animal ([Greek: anarthron]) should understand rhythm
+and melody, and preserve a gesture, and not deviate from a measured
+movement, and fulfil the requirements of those who laid down
+instructions, these are gifts of nature, I think, and a peculiarity in
+every way astounding. Added to these there were things enough to drive
+the spectator out of his senses; when the strewn rushes and other
+materials for beds on the ground were placed on the sand of the theatre,
+and they received stuffed mattrasses such as belonged to rich houses and
+variegated bed coverings, and goblets were placed there, very expensive,
+and bowls of gold and silver, and in them a great quantity of water; and
+tables were placed there of sweet-smelling wood and ivory very superb:
+and upon them flesh meats and loaves enough to fill the stomachs of
+animals the most voracious. When the preparations were completed and
+abundant, the banqueters came forward, six male and an equal number of
+female elephants; the former had on a male dress, and the latter a
+female; and on a signal being given they stretched forward their trunks
+in a subdued manner, and took their food in great moderation, and not
+one of them appeared to be gluttonous greedy, or to snatch at a greater
+portion, as did the Persian mentioned by Xenophon. And when it was
+requisite to drink, a bowl was placed by the side of each; and inhaling
+with their trunks they took a draught very orderly; and then they
+scattered the drink about in fun; but not as in insult. Many other acts
+of a similar kind, both clever and astonishing, have persons described,
+relating to the peculiarities of these animals, and I saw them writing
+letters on Roman tablets with their trunks, neither looking awry nor
+turning aside. The hand, however, of the teacher was placed so as to be
+a guide in the formation of the letters; and while it was writing the
+animal kept its eye fixed down in an accomplished and scholarlike
+manner."
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VIII.
+
+BIRDS.
+
+
+Of the _Birds_ of the island, upwards of three hundred and twenty
+species have been indicated, for which we are indebted to the
+persevering labours of Dr. Templeton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr. Layard; but
+many yet remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye of a stranger,
+their prodigious numbers, and especially the myriads of waterfowl which,
+notwithstanding the presence of the crocodiles, people the lakes and
+marshes in the eastern provinces, form one of the marvels of Ceylon.
+
+In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the interior are surpassed
+by those of South America and Northern India; and the melody of their
+song bears no comparison with that of the warblers of Europe, but the
+want of brilliancy is compensated by their singular grace of form, and
+the absence of prolonged and modulated harmony by the rich and melodious
+tones of their clear and musical calls. In the elevations of the Kandyan
+country there are a few, such as the robin of Neuera-ellia[1] and the
+long-tailed thrush[2], whose song rivals that of their European
+namesakes; but, far beyond the attraction of their notes, the traveller
+rejoices in the flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird[3], and
+some others equally charming; when at the first dawn of day, they wake
+the forest with their clear _réveil_.
+
+[Footnote 1: Pratincola atrata, _Kelaart_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Kittacincla macrura, _Gm_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Copsychussaularis, _Linn._. Called by the Europeans in
+Ceylon the "Magpie Robin." This is not to be confounded with the other
+popular favourite the "Indian Robin" (Thamnobia fulicata, _Linn._),
+which is "never seen in the unfrequented jungle, but, like the coco-nut
+palm, which the Singhalese assert will only flourish within the sound of
+the human voice, it is always found near the habitations of men."--E.L.
+LAYARD.]
+
+It is only on emerging from the dense woods and coming into the vicinity
+of the lakes and pasture of the low country, that birds become visible
+in great quantities. In the close jungle one occasionally hears the call
+of the copper-smith[1], or the strokes of the great orange-coloured
+woodpecker[2] as it beats the decaying trees in search of insects,
+whilst clinging to the bark with its finely-pointed claws, and leaning
+for support upon the short stiff feathers of its tail. And on the lofty
+branches of the higher trees, the hornbill[3] (the toucan of the East),
+with its enormous double casque, sits to watch the motions of the tiny
+reptiles and smaller birds on which it preys, tossing them into the air
+when seized, and catching them in its gigantic mandibles as they
+fall.[4] The remarkable excrescence on the beak of this extraordinary
+bird may serve to explain the statement of the Minorite friar Odoric, of
+Portenau in Friuli, who travelled in Ceylon in the fourteenth century,
+and brought suspicion on the veracity of his narrative by asserting that
+he had there seen "_birds with two heads_."[5]
+
+[Footnote 1: The greater red-headed Barbet (Megalaima indica, _Lath_.;
+M. Philippensis, _var. A. Lath_.), the incessant din of which resembles
+the blows of a smith hammering a cauldron.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Brachypternus aurantius, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 3: Buceros pica, _Scop_.; B. Malaharicus, _Jerd_. The natives
+assert that B. pica builds in holes in the trees, and that when
+incubation has fairly commenced, the female takes her seat on the eggs,
+and the male closes up the orifice by which she entered, leaving only a
+small aperture through which he feeds his partner, whilst she
+successfully guards their treasures from the monkey tribes; her
+formidable bill nearly filling the entire entrance. See a paper by Edgar
+L. Layard, Esq. _Mag. Nat. Hist._ March, 1853. Dr. Horsfield had
+previously observed the same habit in a species of Buceros in Java. (See
+HORSFIELD and MOORE'S _Catal. Birds_, E.I. Comp. Mus. vol. ii.) It is
+curious that a similar trait, though necessarily from very different
+instincts, is exhibited by the termites, who literally build a cell
+round the great progenitrix of the community, and feed her through
+apertures.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The hornbill is also frugivorous, and the natives assert
+that when endeavouring to detach a fruit, if the stem is too tough to be
+severed by his mandibles, he flings himself off the branch so as to add
+the weight of his body to the pressure of his beak. The hornbill abounds
+in Cuttack, and bears there the name of "Kuchila-Kai," or Kuchila-eater,
+from its partiality for the fruit of the Strychnus nuxvomica. The
+natives regard its flesh as a sovereign specific for rheumatic
+affections.--_Asiat. Res._ ch. xv. p. 184.]
+
+[Footnote 5: _Itinerarius_ FRATRIS ODORICI, de Foro Julii de
+Portu-vahonis, &c.--HAKLUYT, vol. ii. p. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HORNBILL.]
+
+The Singhalese have a belief that the hornbill never resorts to the
+water to drink; but that it subsists exclusively by what it catches in
+its prodigious bill while rain is falling. This they allege is
+associated with the incessant screaming which it keeps up during
+showers.
+
+As we emerge from the dark shade, and approach park-like openings on the
+verge of the low country, quantities of pea-fowl are to be found either
+feeding on the seeds among the long grass or sunning themselves on the
+branches of the surrounding trees. Nothing to be met with in English
+demesnes can give an adequate idea of the size and magnificence of this
+matchless bird when seen in his native solitudes. Here he generally
+selects some projecting branch, from which his plumage may hang free of
+the foliage, and, if there be a dead and leafless bough, he is certain
+to choose it for his resting-place, whence he droops his wings and
+suspends his gorgeous train, or spreads it in the morning sun to drive
+off the damps and dews of the night.
+
+In some of the unfrequented portions of the eastern province, to which
+Europeans rarely resort, and where the pea-fowl are unmolested by the
+natives, their number is so extraordinary that, regarded as game, it
+ceases to be "sport" to destroy them; and their cries at early dawn are
+so tumultuous and incessant as to banish sleep, and amount to an actual
+inconvenience. Their flesh is excellent in flavour when served up hot,
+though it is said to be indigestible; but, when cold, it contracts a
+reddish and disagreeable tinge.
+
+The European fable of the jackdaw borrowing the plumage of the peacock,
+has its counterpart in Ceylon, where the popular legend runs that the
+pea-fowl stole the plumage of a bird called by the natives _avitchia_. I
+have not been able to identify the species which bears this name; but it
+utters a cry resembling the word _matkiang!_ which in Singhalese means,
+"I _will_ complain!" This they believe is addressed by the bird to the
+rising sun, imploring redress for its wrongs. The _avitchia_ is
+described as somewhat less than a crow, the colours of its plumage being
+green, mingled with red.
+
+But of all, the most astonishing in point of multitude, as well as the
+most interesting from their endless variety, are the myriads of aquatic
+birds and waders which frequent the lakes and watercourses; especially
+those along the coast near Batticaloa, between the mainland and the sand
+formations of the shore, and the innumerable salt marshes and lagoons to
+the south of Trincomalie. These, and the profusion of perching birds,
+fly-catchers, finches, and thrushes, that appear in the open country,
+afford sufficient quarry for the raptorial and predatory
+species--eagles, hawks, and falcons--whose daring sweeps and effortless
+undulations are striking objects in the cloudless sky.
+
+I. ACCIPITRES. _Eagles_.--The Eagles, however, are small, and as
+compared with other countries rare; except, perhaps, the crested
+eagle[1], which haunts the mountain provinces and the lower hills,
+disquieting the peasantry by its ravages amongst their poultry; and the
+gloomy serpent eagle[2], which, descending from its eyrie in the lofty
+jungle, and uttering a loud and plaintive cry, sweeps cautiously around
+the lonely tanks and marshes, to feed upon the reptiles on their margin.
+The largest eagle is the great sea Erne[3], seen on the northern coasts
+and the salt lakes of the eastern provinces, particularly when the
+receding tide leaves bare an expanse of beach, over which it hunts, in
+company with the fishing eagle[4], sacred to Siva. Unlike its
+companions, however, the sea eagle rejects garbage for living prey, and
+especially for the sea snakes which abound on the northern coasts. These
+it seizes by descending with its wings half closed, and, suddenly
+darting down its talons, it soars aloft again with its writhing
+victim.[5]
+
+[Footnote 1: Spizaëtuslimnaëtus, _Horsf_. The race of these birds in the
+Deccan and Ceylon are rather more crested, originating the Sp.
+Cristatellus, _Auct_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Which Gould believes to be the _Hæmatornis Bacha_, Daud.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Pontoaëtus leucogaster, _Gmel_.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Haliastur Indus, _Bodd._]
+
+[Footnote 5: E.L. Layard. Europeans have given this bird the name of the
+"Brahminy Kite," probably from observing the superstitious feeling of
+the natives regarding it, who believe that when two armies are about to
+engage, its appearance prognosticates victory to the party over whom it
+hovers.]
+
+_Hawks_.--The beautiful Peregrine Falcon[1] is rare, but the Kestrel[2]
+is found almost universally; and the bold and daring Goshawk[3] wherever
+wild crags and precipices afford safe breeding places. In the district
+of Anarajapoora, where it is trained for hawking, it is usual, in lieu
+of a hood, to darken its eyes by means of a silken thread passed through
+holes in the eyelids. The ignoble birds of prey, the Kites[4], keep
+close by the shore, and hover round the returning boats of the fishermen
+to feast on the fry rejected from their nets.
+
+[Footnote 1: Falco peregrinus, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Tinnunculus alaudarius, _Briss._]
+
+[Footnote 3: Astur trivirgatus, _Temm._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Milvus govinda, _Sykes._ Dr. Hamilton Buchanan remarks that
+when gorged this bird delights to sit on the entablature of buildings,
+exposing its back to the hottest rays of the sun, placing its breast
+against the wall, and stretching out its wings _exactly as the Egyptian
+Hawk is represented on the monuments_.]
+
+_Owls_.--Of the nocturnal accipitres the most remarkable is the brown
+owl, which, from its hideous yell, has acquired the name of the
+"Devil-Bird."[1] The Singhalese regard it literally with horror, and its
+scream by night in the vicinity of a village is bewailed as the
+harbinger of impending calamity.[2] There is a popular legend in
+connection with it, to the effect that a morose and savage husband, who
+suspected the fidelity of his wife, availed himself of her absence to
+kill her child, of whose paternity he was doubtful, and on her return
+placed before her a curry prepared from its flesh. Of this the unhappy
+woman partook, till discovering the crime by finding the finger of her
+infant, she fled in frenzy to the forest, and there destroyed herself.
+On her death she was metamorphosed, according to the Buddhist belief,
+into an _ulama_, or Devil-bird, which still at nightfall horrifies the
+villagers by repeating the frantic screams of the bereaved mother in her
+agony.
+
+[Footnote 1: Syrnium Indranee, _Sykes._ Mr. Blyth writes to me from
+Calcutta that there are some doubts about this bird. There would appear
+to be three or four distinguishable races, the Ceylon bird approximating
+most nearly to that of the Malayan Peninsula.]
+
+[Illustration: THE "DEVIL BIRD."]
+
+[Footnote 2: The horror of this nocturnal scream was equally prevalent
+in the West as in the East. Ovid introduces it in his _Fasti_, L. vi. l.
+139; and Tibullus in his Elegies, L. i. El. 5. Statius says--
+
+  Nocturnæque gemunt striges, et feralla bubo
+  _Damna canens_.       Theb. iii. l. 511.
+
+But Pliny, l. xi. c. 93, doubts as to what bird produced the sound;--and
+the details of Ovid's description do not apply to an owl.
+
+Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, to whom I am indebted for many
+valuable notes relative to the birds of the island, regards the
+identification of the Singhalese Devil-Bird as open to similar doubt: he
+says--"The Devil-Bird is not an owl. I never heard it until I came to
+Kornegalle, where it haunts the rocky hill at the back of
+Government-house. Its ordinary note is a magnificent clear shout like
+that of a human being, and which can be heard at a great distance, and
+has a fine effect in the silence of the closing night. It has another
+cry like that of a hen just caught, but the sounds which have earned for
+it its bad name, and which I have heard but once to perfection, are
+indescribable, the most appalling that can be imagined, and scarcely to
+be heard without shuddering; I can only compare it to a boy in torture,
+whose screams are being stopped by being strangled. I have offered
+rewards for a specimen, but without success. The only European who had
+seen and fired at one agreed with the natives that it is of the size of
+a pigeon, with a long tail. I believe it is a Podargus or Night Hawk."
+In a subsequent note he further says--"I have since seen two birds by
+moonlight, one of the size and shape of a cuckoo, the other a large
+black bird, which I imagine to be the one which gives these calls."]
+
+II. PASSERES. _Swallows_.--Within thirty-five miles of Caltura, on the
+western coast, are inland caves, to which the Esculent Swift[1] resorts,
+and there builds the "edible bird's nest," so highly prized in China.
+Near the spot a few Chinese immigrants have established themselves, who
+rent the nests as a royalty from the government, and make an annual
+export of the produce. But the Swifts are not confined to this district,
+and caves containing them have been found far in the interior, a fact
+which complicates the still unexplained mystery of the composition of
+their nest; and, notwithstanding the power of wing possessed by these
+birds, adds something to the difficulty of believing that it consists of
+glutinous material obtained from algæ.[2] In the nests brought to me
+there was no trace of organisation; and the original material, whatever
+it be, is so elaborated by the swallow as to present somewhat the
+appearance and consistency of strings of isinglass. The quantity of
+these nests exported from Ceylon is trifling.
+
+[Footnote 1: Collocalia brevirostris, _McClell_.; C. nidifica, _Gray_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: An epitome of what has been written on this subject will be
+found in _Dr. Horsfield's Catalogue_ of the Birds in the E.I. Comp.
+Museum, vol. i. p. 101, &c. Mr. Morris assures me, that he has found the
+nests of the Esculent Swallow eighty miles distant from the sea.]
+
+_Kingfishers_.--In solitary places, where no sound breaks the silence
+except the gurgle of the river as it sweeps round the rocks, the lonely
+Kingfisher, the emblem of vigilance and patience, sits upon an
+overhanging branch, his turquoise plumage hardly less intense in its
+lustre than the deep blue of the sky above him; and so intent is his
+watch upon the passing fish that intrusion fails to scare him from his
+post.
+
+_Sun Birds_.--In the gardens the tiny Sun Birds[1] (known as the Humming
+Birds of Ceylon) hover all day long, attracted to the plants, over which
+they hang poised on their glittering wings, and inserting their curved
+beaks to extract the insects that nestle in the flowers.
+
+[Footnote 1: Nectarina Zeylanica, _Linn._]
+
+Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in form and motions,
+and the most chaste in colouring, is the one which Europeans call "the
+Bird of Paradise,"[1] and natives "the Cotton Thief," from the
+circumstance that its tail consists of two long white feathers, which
+stream behind it as it flies. Mr. Layard says:--"I have often watched
+them, when seeking their insect prey, turn suddenly on their perch and
+_whisk their long tails with a jerk_ over the bough, as if to protect
+them from injury."
+
+[Footnote 1: Tchitrea paradisi, _Linn._]
+
+[Illustration: TCHITREA PARADISI.]
+
+The tail is sometimes brown, and the natives have the idea that the bird
+changes its plumage at stated periods, and that the tail-feathers become
+white and brown in alternate years. The fact of the variety of plumage
+is no doubt true, but this story as to the alternation of colours in the
+same individual requires confirmation.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The engraving of the Tchitrea given on page 244 is copied
+by permission from one of the splendid drawings in. MR. GOULD'S _Birds
+of India_.]
+
+_The Bulbul_.--The _Condatchee Bulbul_[1], which, from the crest on its
+head, is called by the Singhalese the "Konda Cooroola," or _Tuft bird_,
+is regarded by the natives as the most "_game_" of all birds; and
+training it to fight was one of the duties entrusted by the Kings of
+Kandy to the Cooroowa, or Head-man, who had charge of the King's animals
+and Birds. For this purpose the Bulbul is taken from the nest as soon as
+the sex is distinguishable by the tufted crown; and secured by a string,
+is taught to fly from hand to hand of its keeper. When pitted against an
+antagonist, such is the obstinate courage of this little creature that
+it will sink from exhaustion rather than release its hold. This
+propensity, and the ordinary character of its notes, render it
+impossible that the Bulbul of India could be identical with the Bulbul
+of Iran, the "Bird of a Thousand Songs,"[2] of which, poets say that its
+delicate passion for the rose gives a plaintive character to its note.
+
+[Footnote 1: Pycnonotus hæmorrhous, _Gmel_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Hazardasitaum" the Persian name for the bulbul. "The
+Persians," according to Zakary ben Mohamed al Caswini, "say the bulbul
+has a passion for the rose, and laments and cries when he sees it
+pulled."--OUSELEY'S _Oriental Collections_, vol. i. p. 16. According to
+Pallas it is the true nightingale of Europe, Sylvia luscinia, which the
+Armenians call _boulboul_, and the Crim-Tartars _byl-byl-i_.]
+
+_Tailor-Bird_.--_The Weaver-Bird_.--The tailor-bird[1] having completed
+her nest, sewing together leaves by passing through them a cotton thread
+twisted by herself, leaps from branch to branch to testify her happiness
+by a clear and merry note; and the Indian weaver[2], a still more
+ingenious artist, hangs its pendulous dwelling from a projecting bough;
+twisting it with grass into a form somewhat resembling a bottle with a
+prolonged neck, the entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the
+approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles. The
+natives assert that the male bird carries fire flies to the nest, and
+fastens them to its sides by a particle of soft mud;--Mr. Layard assures
+me that although he has never succeeded in finding the fire fly, the
+nest of the male bird (for the female occupies another during
+incubation) invariably contains a patch of mud on each side of the
+perch. Grass is apparently the most convenient material for the purposes
+of the Weaver-bird when constructing its nest, but other substances are
+often substituted, and some nests which I brought from Ceylon proved to
+be formed with delicate strips from the fronds of the dwarf date-palm,
+_Phoenix paludosa_, which happened to grow near the breeding place.
+
+[Footnote 1: Orthotomus longicauda, _Gmel_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Ploceus baya, _Blyth_.; P. Philippinus, _Auct_.]
+
+[Illustration: "CISSA PUELLA."]
+
+Amongst the birds of this order, one which, as far as I know, is
+peculiar to the island is _Layard's Mountain-jay_ (_Cissa puella_, Blyth
+and Layard), is distinguished not less by the beautiful blue colour
+which enlivens its plumage, than by the elegance of its form and the
+grace of its attitudes. It frequents the hill country, and is found
+about the mountain streams at Neuera-ellia, and elsewhere.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The engraving above is taken by permission of Mr. Gould
+from one of his drawings for his _Birds of India_.]
+
+_Crows_.--Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the most familiar and
+notorious are the small glossy crows, whose shining black plumage shot
+with blue has suggested the title of _Corvus splendens_.[1] They
+frequent the towns in companies, and domesticate themselves in the close
+vicinity of every house; and it may possibly serve to account for the
+familiarity and audacity which they exhibit in their intercourse with
+men, that the Dutch during their sovereignty in Ceylon, enforced severe
+penalties against any one killing a crow, under the belief that they
+were instrumental in extending the growth of cinnamon by feeding on the
+fruit, and thus disseminating the undigested seed.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: There is another species, the _C. culminatus_, so called
+from the convexity of its bill; but though seen in the towns, it lives
+chiefly in the open country, and may be constantly observed wherever
+there are buffaloes, perched on their backs and engaged, in company with
+the small Minah (_Acridotheres tristis_), in freeing them from ticks.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 117.]
+
+So accustomed are the natives to their presence and exploits, that, like
+the Greeks and Romans, they have made the movements of crows the basis
+of their auguries; and there is no end to the vicissitudes of good and
+evil fortune which may not be predicted from the direction of their
+flight, the hoarse or mellow notes of their croaking, the variety of
+trees on which they rest, and the numbers in which they are seen to
+assemble.
+
+All day long these birds are engaged in watching either the offal of the
+offices, or the preparation for meals in the dining-room: and as doors
+and windows are necessarily opened to relieve the heat, nothing is more
+common than the passage of a crow across the room, lifting on the wing
+some ill-guarded morsel from the dinner-table. No article, however
+unpromising its quality, provided only it be portable, can with safety
+be left unguarded in any apartment accessible to them. The contents of
+ladies' work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket handkerchiefs vanish
+instantly if exposed near a window or open door. They open paper parcels
+to ascertain the contents; they will undo the knot on a napkin if it
+encloses anything eatable, and I have known a crow to extract the peg
+which fastened the lid of a basket in order to plunder the provender
+within.
+
+On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining a regimental
+mess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody clasp-knife drop from the
+air at her feet; but the mystery was explained on learning that a crow,
+which had been watching the cook chopping mince-meat, had seized the
+moment when his head was turned to carry off the knife.
+
+One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly attitudinising in front
+of a chained watch-dog, that was lazily gnawing a bone, and after
+fruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention by dancing before him,
+with head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for a moment, and
+returned bringing a companion which perched itself on a branch a few
+yards in the rear. The crow's grimaces were now actively renewed, but
+with no better success, till its confederate, poising itself on its
+wings, descended with the utmost velocity, striking the dog upon the
+spine with all the force of its strong beak. The _ruse_ was successful;
+the dog started with surprise and pain, but not quickly enough to seize
+his assailant, whilst the bone he had been gnawing was snatched away by
+the first crow the instant his head was turned. Two well-authenticated
+instances of the recurrence of this device came within my knowledge at
+Colombo, and attest the sagacity and powers of communication and
+combination possessed by these astute and courageous birds.
+
+On the approach of evening the crows near Colombo assemble in noisy
+groups along the margin of the freshwater lake which surrounds the fort
+on the eastern side; and here for an hour or two they enjoy the luxury
+of throwing the water over their shining backs, and arranging their
+plumage decorously, after which they disperse, each taking the direction
+of his accustomed quarters for the night.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A similar habit has been noticed in the damask Parrots of
+Africa (_Palæornis fuscus_) which daily resort at the same hour to their
+accustomed pools to bathe.]
+
+During the storms which usher in the monsoon, it has been observed, that
+when coco-nut palms are destroyed by lightning, the effect frequently
+extends beyond a single tree, and from the contiguity and conduction of
+the spreading leaves, or some other peculiar cause, large groups will be
+affected by a single flash, a few killed instantly, and the rest doomed
+to rapid decay. In Belligam Bay, a little to the east of Point-de-Galle,
+a small island, which is covered with coco-nuts, has acquired the name
+of "Crow Island," from being the resort of those birds, which are seen
+hastening towards it in thousands towards sunset. A few years ago,
+during a violent storm of thunder, such was the destruction of the crows
+that the beach for some distance was covered with a black line of their
+remains, and the grove on which they had been resting was to a great
+extent destroyed by the same flash.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Similar instances are recorded in other countries of sudden
+and prodigious mortality amongst crows; but whether occasioned by
+lightning seems uncertain. In 1839 thirty-three thousand dead crows were
+found on the shores of a lake in the county Westmeath in Ireland after a
+storm.--THOMPSON'S _Nat. Hist. Ireland_, vol. i. p. 319. PATTERSON in
+his _Zoology_, p. 356, mentions other cases.]
+
+III. SCANSORES. _Parroquets_.--Of the Psittacidæ the only examples are
+the parroquets, of which the most renowned is the _Palæornis Alexandri_,
+which has the historic distinction of bearing the name of the great
+conqueror of India, having been the first of its race introduced to the
+knowledge of Europe on the return of his expedition. An idea of their
+number may be formed from the following statement of Mr. Layard, as to
+the multitudes which are to be found on the western coast. "At Chilaw, I
+have seen such vast flights of parroquets hurrying towards the coco-nut
+trees which overhang the bazaar, that their noise drowned the Babel of
+tongues bargaining for the evening provisions. Hearing of the swarms
+that resorted to this spot, I posted myself on a bridge some half mile
+distant, and attempted to count the flocks which came from a single
+direction to the eastward. About four o'clock in the afternoon,
+straggling parties began to wend towards home, and in the course of half
+an hour the current fairly set in. But I soon found that I had no longer
+distinct flocks to count, it became one living screaming stream. Some
+flew high in the air till right above their homes, and dived abruptly
+downward with many evolutions till on a level with the trees; others
+kept along the ground and dashed close by my face with the rapidity of
+thought, their brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre in the
+sun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening closed, when I could
+hear, though no longer distinguish, the birds fighting for their
+perches, and on firing a shot they rose with a noise like the 'rushing
+of a mighty wind,' but soon settled again, and such a din commenced as I
+shall never forget; the shrill screams of the birds, the fluttering of
+their innumerable wings, and the rustling of the leaves of the palm
+trees was almost deafening, and I was glad at last to escape to the
+Government Rest House."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annals of Nat. Hist._ vol. xiii. p. 263.]
+
+IV. COLUMBIDÆ. _Pigeons_.--Of pigeons and doves there are at least a
+dozen species. Some live entirely on trees[1], never alighting on the
+ground; others, notwithstanding the abundance of food and warmth, are
+migratory[2], allured, as the Singhalese allege, by the ripening of the
+cinnamon berries, and hence one species is known in the southern
+provinces as the "Cinnamon Dove." Others feed on the fruits of the
+banyan: and it is probably to their instrumentality that this marvellous
+tree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being carried by them to
+remote localities. A very beautiful pigeon, peculiar to the mountain
+range, discovered in the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has, in compliment
+to the Viscountess Torrington, been named _Carpophaga Torringtoniæ_.
+
+[Footnote 1: Treron bicincta. _Jerd_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Alsocomus puniceus_, the "Season Pigeon" of Ceylon, so
+called from its periodical arrival and departure.]
+
+Another, called by the natives _neela-cobeya_[1], although strikingly
+elegant both in shape and colour, is still more remarkable for the
+singularly soothing effect of its low and harmonious voice. A gentleman
+who has spent many years in the jungle, in writing to me of this bird
+and of the effects of its melodious song, says, that "its soft and
+melancholy notes, as they came from some solitary place in the forest,
+were the most gentle sounds I ever listened to. Some sentimental smokers
+assert that the influence of the propensity is to make them feel _as if
+they could freely forgive all who had ever offended them_; and I can say
+with truth such has been the effect on my own nerves of the plaintive
+murmurs of the neela-cobeya, that sometimes, when irritated, and not
+without reason, by the perverseness of some of my native followers, the
+feeling has almost instantly subsided into placidity on suddenly hearing
+the loving tones of these beautiful birds."
+
+[Footnote 1: Chalcophaps Indicus, _Linn._]
+
+V. GALLINÆ. _The Ceylon Jungle-fowl_.--The jungle-fowl of Ceylon[1] is
+shown by the peculiarity of its plumage to be not only distinct from the
+Indian species, but peculiar to the island. It has never yet bred or
+survived long in captivity, and no living specimens have been
+successfully transmitted to Europe. It abounds in all parts of the
+island, but chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains; and one of the
+vivid memorials which are associated with our journeys through the
+hills, is its clear cry, which sounds like a person calling "George
+Joyce,"[2] and rises at early morning amidst mist and dew, giving life
+to the scenery, that has scarcely yet been touched by the sun-light.
+
+[Footnote 1: Gallus Lafayetti, _Lesson_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: I apprehend that in the particular of the peculiar cry the
+Ceylon jungle fowl differs from that of the Dekkan, where _I am told_
+that it crows like a bantam cock.]
+
+The female of this handsome bird was figured many years ago by Dr. GRAY
+in his illustrations of "_Indian Zoology_," under the name of _G.
+Stanleyi_. The cock bird subsequently received from LESSON, the name by
+which the species is now known: but its habitat was not discovered,
+until a specimen having been forwarded from Ceylon to Calcutta, Dr.
+BLYTH recognised it as the long-sought-for male of Dr. Gray's specimen.
+
+Another of the Gallinæ of Ceylon, remarkable for the delicate
+pencillings of its plumage, as well as for the peculiarity of the double
+spur, from which it has acquired its trivial name, is the _Galloperdix
+bicalcaratus_, of which a figure is given from a drawing by Mr. Gould.
+
+[Illustration: GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATUS.]
+
+VI. GRALLÆ.--On reaching the marshy plains and shallow lagoons on either
+side of the island, the astonishment of the stranger is excited by the
+endless multitudes of stilt-birds and waders which stand in long array
+within the wash of the water, or sweep in vast clouds above it.
+Ibises[1], storks[2], egrets, spoonbills[3], herons[4], and the smaller
+races of sand larks and plovers, are seen busily traversing the wet
+sand, in search of the red worm which burrows there, or peering with
+steady eye to watch the motions of the small fry and aquatic insects in
+the ripple on the shore.
+
+[Footnote 1: Tantalus leucocephalus, and Ibis falcinellus.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The violet-headed Stork (Ciconia leticocephala).]
+
+[Footnote 3: Platalea leucorodia, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Ardea cinerea. A. purpurea.]
+
+VII. ANSERES.--Preeminent in size and beauty, the tall _flamingoes_[1],
+with rose-coloured plumage, line the beach in long files. The Singhalese
+have been led, from their colour and their military order, to designate
+them the "_English Soldier birds_." Nothing can be more startling than
+the sudden flight of these splendid creatures when alarmed; their strong
+wings beating the air with a sound like distant thunder; and as they
+soar over head, the flock which appeared almost white but a moment
+before, is converted into crimson by the sudden display of the red
+lining of their wings. A peculiarity in the beak of this bird has
+scarcely attracted the attention it merits, as a striking illustration
+of creative wisdom in adapting the organs of animals to their local
+necessities.
+
+[Illustration: FLAMINGO.]
+
+[Footnote 1: Phoenicopterus roseus, _Pallas_.]
+
+The upper mandible, which is convex in other birds, is flattened in the
+flamingo, whilst the lower, instead of being flat, is convex. To those
+who have had an opportunity of witnessing the action of the bird in its
+native haunts, the expediency of this arrangement is at once apparent.
+To counteract the extraordinary length of its legs, it is provided with
+a proportionately long neck, so that in feeding in shallow water the
+crown of the head becomes inverted and the upper mandible brought into
+contact with the bottom; where its flattened surface qualifies it for
+performing the functions of the lower one in birds of the same class;
+and the edges of both being laminated, it is thus enabled, like the
+duck, by the aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift before swallowing its
+food.
+
+Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets of the Anatidæ,
+the Coromandel teal[1], the Indian hooded gull[2], the Caspian tern, and
+a countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl--pintails[3], teal[4],
+red-crested pochards[5], shovellers[6], and terns.[7] Pelicans[8] in
+great numbers resort to the mouths of the rivers, taking up their
+position at sunrise on some projecting rock, from which to dart on the
+passing fish, and returning far inland at night to their retreats among
+the trees, which overshadow some solitary river or deserted tank.
+
+[Footnote 1: Nettapus coromandelianus, _Gm_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Larus brunnicephalus, _Jerd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Dafila acuta, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Querquedula creeca, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 5: Fuligula rufina, _Pallas_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Spatula clypeata, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 7: Sterna minuta, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 8: Pelicanus Philippensis, _Gmel_.]
+
+I chanced upon one occasion to come unexpectedly upon one of these
+remarkable breeding places during a visit which I made to the great tank
+of Padivil, one of those gigantic constructions by which the early kings
+of Ceylon have left imperishable records of their reigns.
+
+It is situated in the depth of the forests to the north-west of
+Trincomalie; and the tank is itself the basin of a broad and shallow
+valley, enclosed between two lines of low hills, that gradually sink
+into the plain as they approach towards the sea. The extreme breadth of
+the included space may be twelve or fourteen miles, narrowing to eleven
+at the spot where the retaining bund has been constructed across the
+valley; and when this enormous embankment was in effectual repair, and
+the reservoir filled by the rains, the water must have been thrown back
+along the basin of the valley for at least fifteen miles. It is
+difficult now to determine the precise distances, as the overgrowth of
+wood and jungle has obliterated all lines left by the original level of
+the lake at its junction with the forest. Even when we rode along it,
+the centre of the tank was deeply submerged, so that notwithstanding the
+partial escape, the water still covered an area of ten miles in
+diameter. Even now its depth when full must be very considerable, for
+high on the branches of the trees that grow in the area, the last flood
+had left quantities of driftwood and withered grass; and the rocks and
+banks were coated with the yeasty foam, that remains after the
+subsidence of an agitated flood.
+
+The bed of the tank was difficult to ride over, being still soft and
+treacherous, although covered everywhere with tall and waving grass; and
+in every direction it was poched into deep holes by the innumerable
+elephants that had congregated to roll in the soft mud, to bathe in the
+collected water, or to luxuriate in the rich herbage, under the cool
+shade of the trees. The ground, too, was thrown up into hummocks like
+great molehills which, the natives told us, were formed by a huge
+earthworm, common in Ceylon, nearly two feet in length, and as thick as
+a small snake. Through these inequalities the water was still running
+off in natural drains towards the great channel in the centre, that
+conducts it to the broken sluice; and across these it was sometimes
+difficult to find a safe footing for our horses.
+
+In a lonely spot, towards the very centre of the tank, we came
+unexpectedly upon an extraordinary scene. A sheet of still water, two or
+three hundred yards broad, and about half a mile long, was surrounded by
+a line of tall forest-trees, whose branches stretched above its margin.
+The sun had not yet risen, when we perceived some white objects in large
+numbers on the tops of the trees; and as we came nearer, we discovered
+that a vast colony of pelicans had formed their settlement and
+breeding-place in this solitary retreat. They literally covered the
+trees in hundreds; and their heavy nests, like those of the swan,
+constructed of large sticks, forming great platforms, were sustained by
+the horizontal branches. Each nest contained three eggs, rather larger
+than those of a goose; and the male bird stood placidly beside the
+female as she sat upon them.
+
+Nor was this all; along with the pelicans prodigious numbers of other
+water-birds had selected this for their dwelling-place, and covered the
+trees in thousands, standing on the topmost branches; tall flamingoes,
+herons, egrets, storks, ibises, and other waders. We had disturbed them
+thus early, before their habitual hour for betaking themselves to their
+fishing-fields. By degrees, as the light increased, we saw them
+beginning to move upon the trees; they looked around them on every side,
+stretched their awkward legs behind them, extended their broad wings,
+gradually rose in groups, and slowly soared away in the direction of the
+seashore.
+
+The pelicans were apparently later in their movements; they allowed us
+to approach as near them as the swampy nature of the soil would permit;
+and even when a gun was discharged amongst them, only those moved off
+which the particles of shot disturbed. They were in such numbers at this
+favourite place; that the water over which they had taken up their
+residence was swarming with crocodiles, attracted by the frequent fall
+of the young birds; and the natives refused, from fear of them, to wade
+in for one of the larger pelicans which had fallen, struck by a rifle
+ball. It was altogether a very remarkable sight.
+
+Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, partridges and quails are
+to be had at all times; the woodcock has occasionally been shot in the
+hills, and the ubiquitous snipe, which arrives in September from
+Southern India, is identified not alone by the eccentricity of its
+flight, but by retaining in high perfection the qualities which have
+endeared it to the gastronome at home. But the magnificent pheasants,
+which inhabit the Himalayan range and the woody hills of the Chin-Indian
+peninsula, have no representative amongst the tribes that people the
+woods of Ceylon; although a bird believed to be a pheasant has more than
+once been seen in the jungle, close to Rangbodde, on the road to
+Neuera-ellia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Birds_.
+
+In submitting this Catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, I am anxious to
+state that the copious mass of its contents is mainly due to the
+untiring energy and exertions of my friend, Mr. E.L. Layard. Nearly
+every bird in the list has fallen by his gun; so that the most ample
+facilities have been thus provided, not only for extending the limited
+amount of knowledge which formerly existed on this branch of the zoology
+of the island; but for correcting, by actual comparison with recent
+specimens, the errors which had previously prevailed as to imperfectly
+described species. The whole of Mr. Layard's fine collection is at
+present in England.
+
+
+      ACCIPITRES.
+
+  Aquila
+    Bonelli, _Temm_.
+    pennata, _Gm_.
+  Spizaëtus
+    Nipalensis, _Hodgs_.
+    limnæëtus, _Horsf_.
+  Ictinaëtus
+    Malayensis, _Reinw_.
+  Hæmatornis
+    Bacha, _Daud_.
+    spilogaster, _Blyth_.
+  Pontoaëtus
+    leucogaster, _Gm_.
+    ichthyaëtus, _Horsf_.
+  Haliastur
+    Indus, _Bodd_.
+  Falco
+    peregrinus, _Linn._
+    peregrinator, _Sund_.
+  Tinnunculus
+    alaudarius, _Briss_.
+  Hypotriorchis
+    chicquera, _Daud_.
+  Baza
+    lophotes, _Cuv_.
+  Milvus
+    govinda, _Sykes_.
+  Elanus
+    melanopterus, _Daud_.
+  Astur
+    trivirgatus, _Temm_.
+  Accipiter
+    badius, _Gm_.
+  Circus
+    Swainsonii, _A. Smith_.
+    cinerascens, _Mont_.
+    melanoleucos, _Gm_.
+    _æruginosus, Linn_.
+  Athene
+    castonatus, _Blyth_.
+    scutulata, _Raffles_.
+  Ephialtes
+    scops, _Linn._
+    lempijii, _Horsf_.
+    sunia, _Hodgs_.
+  Ketupa
+    Ceylonensis, _Gm_.
+  Syrnium
+    Indranee, _Sykes_.
+  Strix
+    Javanica, _Gm_.
+
+
+      PASSERES.
+
+  Batrachostomus
+    moniliger, _Layard_.
+  Caprimulgus
+    _Mahrattensis, Sykes_.
+    Kelaarti, _Blyth_.
+    Asiaticus, _Lath_.
+  Cypselus
+    batassiensis, _Gray_.
+    melba, _Linn._
+    affinis, _Gray_.
+  Macropteryx
+    coronatus, _Tickell_.
+  Collocalia
+    brevirostris, _McClel_.
+  Acanthylis
+    caudacuta, _Lath_.
+  Hirundo
+    panayana, _Gm_.
+    daurica, _Linn._
+    hyperythra, _Layard_.
+    domicola, _Jerdon_.
+  Coracias
+    Indica, _Linn._
+  Harpactes
+    fasciatus, _Gm_.
+  Eurystomus
+    orientalis, _Linn._
+  Halcyon
+    Capensis, _Linn._
+    atricapillus, _Gm_.
+    Smyrnensis, _Linn._
+  Ceyx
+    tridactyla, _Linn._
+  Alcedo
+    Bengalensis, _Gm_.
+  Ceryle
+    rudis, _Linn._
+  Merops
+    Philippinus, _Linn._
+    viridis, _Linn._
+    quincticolor, _Vieill_.
+  Upupa
+    nigripennis, _Gould_.
+  Nectarina
+    Zeylanica, _Linn._
+    minima, _Sykes_.
+    Asiatica, _Lath_.
+    Lotenia, _Linn._
+  Dicæum
+    minimum, _Tickell_.
+  Phyllornis
+    Malabarica, _Lath_.
+    Jerdoni, _Blyth_.
+  Dendrophila
+    frontalis, _Horsf_.
+  Piprisoma
+    agile, _Blyth_.
+  Orthotomus
+    longicauda, _Gm_.
+  Cisticola
+    cursitans, _Frankl_.
+    omalura, _Blyth_.
+  Drymoica
+    valida, _Blyth_.
+    inornata, _Sykes_.
+  Prinia
+    socialis, _Sykes_.
+  Acrocephalus
+    dumetorum, _Blyth_.
+  Phyllopneuste
+    nitidus, _Blyth_.
+    montanus, _Blyth_.
+    viridanus, _Blyth_.
+  Copsychus
+    saularis, _Linn._
+  Kittacincla
+    macrura, _Gm_.
+  Pratincola
+    caprata, _Linn._
+    atrata, _Kelaart_.
+  Calliope
+    cyanea, _Hodgs_.
+  Thamnobia
+    fulicata, _Linn._
+  Cyanecula
+    Suecica, _Linn._
+  Sylvia
+    affinis, _Blyth_.
+  Parus
+    cinereus, _Vieill_.
+  Zosterops
+    palpebrosus, _Temm_.
+  Iöra
+    Zeylanica, _Gm_.
+    typhia, _Linn._
+  Motacilla
+    sulphurea, _Becks_.
+    Indica, _Gm_.
+    Madraspatana, _Briss_.
+  Budytes
+    viridis, _Gm_.
+  Anthus
+    rutulus, _Vieill_.
+    Richardii, _Vieill_.
+    striolatus, _Blyth_.
+  Brachypteryx
+    Palliseri, _Kelaart_.
+  Alcippe
+    nigrifrons, _Blyth_.
+  Pitta
+    brachyura, _Jerd_.
+  Oreocincla
+    spiloptera, _Blyth_.
+  Merula
+    Wardii, _Jerd_.
+    Kinnisii, _Kelaart_.
+  Zoothera
+    imbricata, _Layard_.
+  Garrulax
+    cinereifrons, _Blyth_.
+  Pormatorhinus
+    melanurus, _Blyth_.
+  Malacocercus
+    rufescens, _Blyth_.
+    griseus, _Gm_.
+    striatus, _Swains_.
+  Pellorneum
+    fuscocapillum, _Blyth_.
+  Dumetia
+    albogularis, _Blyth_.
+  Chrysomma
+    Sinense, _Gm_.
+  Oriolus
+    melanocephalus, _Linn._
+    _Indicus, Briss_.
+  Criniger
+    ictericus, _Stickl_.
+  Pycnonotus
+    pencillatus, _Kelaart_.
+    flavirictus, _Strickl_.
+    hæmorrhous, _Gm_.
+    atricapillus, _Vieill_.
+  Hemipus
+    picatus, _Sykes_.
+  Hypsipetes
+    Nilgherriensis, _Jerd_.
+  Cyornis
+    rubeculoïdes, _Vig_.
+  Myiagra
+    azurea, _Bodd_.
+  Cryptolopha
+    cinereocapilla, _Vieill_.
+  Leucocerca
+    _compressirostris, Blyth_.
+  Tchitrea
+    paradisi, _Linn._
+  *Butalis
+    latirostris, _Raffles_.
+    Muttui, _Layard_.
+  Stoparola
+    melanops, _Vig_.
+  Pericrocotus
+    flammeus, _Forst_.
+    peregrinus, _Linn._
+  Campephaga
+    Macei, _Less_.
+    Sykesii, _Strickl_.
+  Artamus
+    fuscus, _Vieill_.
+  Edolius
+    paradiseus, _Gm_.
+  Dicrurus
+    macrocereus, _Vieill_.
+    edoliformis, _Blyth_.
+    longicaudatus, _A. Hoy_.
+    leucopygialis, _Blyth_.
+    _cærulescens_, _Linn._
+  Irena
+    puella, _Lath_.
+  Lanius
+    superciliosus, _Lath_.
+    _erythronotus, Vig_.
+  Tephrodornis
+    affinis, _Blyth_.
+  Cissa
+    puella, _Blyth & Layard_.
+  Corvus
+    splendens, _Vieill_.
+    culminatus, _Sykes_.
+  Eulabes
+    religiosa, _Linn._
+    ptilogenys, _Blyth_.
+  Pastor
+    roseus, _Linn._
+  Hetærornis
+    pagodarum, _Gm_.
+    _albifrontata, Layard_.
+  Acridotheres
+    tristis, _Linn._
+  Ploceus
+    manyar, _Horsf_.
+    baya, _Blyth_.
+  Munia
+    undulata, _Latr_.
+    _Malabarica, Linn_.
+    Malacca, _Linn._
+    rubronigra, _Hodgs_.
+    striata, _Linn._
+    Kelaarti, _Blyth_.
+  Passer
+    Indicus, _Jard. & Selb._
+  Alauda
+    gulgula, _Frank_.
+    _Malabarica, Scop_.
+  Pyrrhulauda
+    grisea, _Scop_.
+  Mirafra
+    affinis, _Jerd_.
+  Buceros
+    gingalensis, _Shaw_.
+    Malabaricus, _Jerd_.
+
+
+      SCANSORES.
+
+  Loriculus
+    Asiaticus, _Lath_.
+  Palæcornis
+    Alexandri, _Linn._
+    torquatus, _Briss_.
+    cyanocephalus, _Linn._
+    Calthropæ, _Layard_.
+  Megalaima
+    Indica, _Latr_.
+    Zeylanica, _Gmel_.
+    flavifrons, _Cuv_.
+    rubicapilla, _Gm_.
+  Picus
+    gymnophthalmus, Blth.
+    Mahrattensis, _Lath_.
+    _Macei, Vieill_.
+  Gecinus
+    chlorophanes, _Vieill_.
+  Brachypternus
+    aurantius, _Linn._
+    Ceylonus, _Forst_.
+    _rubescens, Vieill_.
+    Stricklandi, _Layard_.
+  Micropternus
+    gularis, _Jerd_.
+  Centropus
+    rufipennis, _Illiger_.
+    chlororhynchos, _Blyth_.
+  Oxylophus
+    melanoleucos, _Gm_.
+    Coromandus, _Linn._
+  Endynamys
+    orientalis, _Linn._
+  Cuculus
+    Poliocephalus, _Lath_.
+    striatus, _Drapiex_.
+    canorus, _Linn._
+  Polyphasia
+    tenuirostris, _Gray_.
+    Sonneratii, _Lath_.
+  Hierococcyx
+    varius, _Vahl_.
+  Surniculus
+    dicruroïdes, _Hodgs_.
+  Phoenicophaus
+    pyrrhocephalus, _Forst_.
+  Zanclostomus
+    viridirostris, _Jerd_.
+
+
+      COLUMBÆ.
+
+  Treron
+    bicincta, _Jerd_.
+    flavogularis, _Blyth_.
+    Pompadoura, _Gm_.
+    chlorogaster, _Blyth_.
+  Carpophaga
+    pusilla, _Blyth_.
+    Torringtoniæ, _Kelaart_.
+  Alsocomus
+    puniceus, _Tickel_.
+  Columba
+    intermedia, _Strickl_.
+  Turtur
+    risorius, _Linn._
+    Suratensis, _Lath_.
+    humilis, _Temm_.
+    orientalis, _Lath_.
+  Chalcophaps
+    Indicus, _Linn._
+
+
+      GALLINÆ.
+
+  Pavo
+    cristatus, _Linn._
+  Gallus
+    Lafayetti, _Lesson_.
+  Galloperdix
+    bicalcaratus, _Linn._
+  Francolinus
+    Ponticerianus, _Gm_.
+  Perdicula
+    agoondah, _Sykes_.
+  Coturnix
+    Chinensis, _Linn._
+  Turnix ocellatus
+    _var._ Bengalensis, _Blyth_.
+    _var._ taigoor, _Sykes_.
+
+
+      GRALLÆ.
+
+  Esacus
+    recurvirostris, _Cuv_.
+  Oedienemus
+    crepitans, _Temm_.
+  Cursorius
+    Coromandelicus, _Gm_.
+  Lobivanellus
+    bilobus, _Gm_.
+    Göensis, _Gm_.
+  Charadrius
+    virginicus, _Bechs_.
+  Hiaticula
+    Philippensis, _Scop_.
+    Cantiana, _Lath_.
+    Leschenaultii, _Less_.
+  Strepsilas
+    Interpres, _Linn._
+  Ardea
+    purpurea, _Linn._
+    cinerea, _Linn._
+    asha, _Sykes_.
+    intermedia, _Wagler_.
+    garzetta, _Linn._
+    _alba, Linn_.
+    bubulcus, _Savig_.
+  Ardeola
+    leucoptera, _Bodd_.
+  Ardetta
+    cinnamomea, _Gm_.
+    flavicollis, _Lath_.
+    Sinensis, _Gm_.
+  Butoroides
+    Javanica, _Horsf_.
+  Platalea
+    leucorodia, _Linn._
+  Nycticorax
+    griseus, _Linn._
+  Tigrisoma
+    melanolopha, _Raffl_.
+  Mycteria
+    australis, _Shaw_.
+  Leptophilus
+    Javanica, _Horsf_.
+  Ciconia
+    leucocephala, _Gm_.
+  Anastomus
+    oscitans, _Bodd_.
+  Tantalus
+    leucocephalus, _Gm_.
+  Geronticus
+    melanocephalus, _Lath_.
+  Falcinellus
+    igneus, _Gm_.
+  Numenias
+    arquatus, _Linn._
+    phæopus, _Linn._
+  Totanus
+    fuscus, _Linn._
+    calidris, _Linn._
+    glottis, _Linn._
+    stagnalis, _Bechst_.
+  Actitis
+    glareola, _Gm_.
+    ochropus, _Linn._
+    hypoleucos, _Linn._
+  Tringa
+    minuta, _Leist_.
+    subarquata, _Gm_.
+  Limicola
+    platyrhyncha, _Temm_.
+  Limosa
+    ægocephala, _Linn._
+  Himantopus
+    candidus, _Bon_.
+  Recurvirostra
+    avocetta, _Linn._
+  Hæmatopus
+    ostralegus, _Linn._
+  Rhynchoea
+    Bengalensis, _Linn._
+  Scolopax
+    rusticola, _Linn._
+  Gallinago
+    stenura, _Temm_.
+    _scolopacina, Bon_.
+    _gallinula, Linn_.
+  Hydrophasianus
+    Sinensis, _Gm_.
+  Ortygometra
+    rubiginosa, _Temm_.
+  Corethura
+    Zeylanica, _Gm_.
+  Rallus
+    striatus, _Linn._
+    Indicus, _Blyth_.
+  Porphyrio
+    poliocephalus, _Lath_.
+  Porzana
+    pygmæa, _Nan_.
+  Gallinula
+    phoenicura, _Penn_.
+    chloropus, _Linn._
+    cristata, _Lath_.
+
+
+      ANSERES.
+
+  Phoenicopterus
+    ruber, _Linn._
+  Sarkidiornis
+    melanonotos, _Penn_.
+  Nettapus
+    Coromandelianus, _Gm_.
+  Anas
+    poecilorhyncha, _Penn_.
+  Dendrocygnus
+    arcuatus, _Cuv_.
+  Dafila
+    acuta, _Linn._
+  Querquedula
+    crecca, _Linn._
+    circia, _Linn._
+  _Fuligula
+    rufina, Pall_.
+  Spatula
+    clypeata, _Linn._
+  Podiceps
+    Philippensis, _Gm_.
+  Larus
+    brunnicephalus, _Jerd_.
+    ichthyaëtus, _Pall_.
+  Sylochelidon
+    Caspius, _Lath_.
+  Hydrochelidon
+    Indicus, _Steph_.
+  Gelochelidon
+    Anglicus, _Mont_.
+  Onychoprion
+    anasthætus, _Scop_.
+  Sterna
+    Javanica, _Horsf_.
+    melanogaster, _Temm_.
+    minuta, _Linn._
+  Seena
+    aurantia, _Gray_.
+  Thalasseus
+    Bengalensis, _Less_.
+    cristata, _Stepth_.
+  Dromas
+    ardeola, _Payk_.
+  Atagen
+    ariel, _Gould_.
+  Thalassidroma
+    _melanogaster, Gould_.
+  Plotus
+    melanogaster, _Gm_.
+  Pelicanus
+    Philippensis, _Gm_.
+  Graculus
+    Sinensis, _Shaw_.
+    pygmæus, _Pallas_.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+The following is a list of the birds which are, as far as is at present
+known, peculiar to the island; it will probably be determined at some
+future day that some included in it have a wider geographical range.
+
+Hæmatornis spilogaster. The "Ceylon eagle;" was discovered by Mr. Layard
+in the Wanny, and by Dr. Kelaart at Trincomalie.
+
+Athene castonotus. The chestnut-winged hawk owl. This pretty little owl
+was added to the list of Ceylon birds by Dr. Templeton. Mr. Blyth is at
+present of opinion that this bird is identical with Ath. Castanopterus,
+_Horsf_. of Java as figured by Temminck: _P. Col._
+
+Batrachostomus moniliger. The oil bird; was discovered amongst the
+precipitous rocks of the Adam's Peak range by Mr. Layard. Another
+specimen was sent about the same time to Sir James Emerson Tennent from
+Avisavelle. Mr. Mitford has met with it at Ratnapoora.
+
+Caprimulgus Kelaarti. Kelaart's nightjar; swarms on the marshy plains of
+Neuera-ellia at dusk.
+
+Hirundo hyperythra. The red-bellied swallow; was discovered in 1849, by
+Mr. Layard at Ambepusse. They build a globular nest, with a round hole
+at top. A pair built in the ring for a hanging lamp in Dr. Gardner's
+study at Peradenia, and hatched their young, undisturbed by the daily
+trimming and lighting of the lamp.
+
+Cisticola omalura. Layard's mountain grass warbler; is found in
+abundance on Horton Plain and Neuera-ellia, among the long Patena grass.
+
+Drymoica valida. Layard's wren-warbler; frequents tufts of grass and low
+bushes, feeding on insects.
+
+Pratincola atrata. The Neuera-ellia robin; a melodious songster; added
+to our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart.
+
+Brachypteryx Palliseri. Ant thrush. A rare bird, added by Dr. Kelaart
+from Dimboola and Neuera-ellia.
+
+Pellorneum fuscocapillum. Mr. Layard found two specimens of this rare
+thrush creeping about shrubs and bushes, feeding on insects.
+
+Alcippe nigrifrons. This thrush frequents low impenetrable thickets, and
+seems to be widely distributed.
+
+Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted thrush is only found in the mountain
+zone about lofty trees.
+
+Merula Kinnisii. The Neuera-ellia blackbird; was added by Dr. Kelaart.
+
+Garrulax cinereifrons. The ashy-headed babbler; was found by Mr. Layard
+near Ratnapoora.
+
+Pomatorhinus melanurus. Mr. Layard states that the mountain babbler
+frequents low, scraggy, impenetrable brush, along the margins of
+deserted cheena land. This may turn out to be little more than a local
+yet striking variety of P. Horsfieldii of the Indian Peninsula.
+
+Malacocercus rufescens. The red dung thrush added by Dr. Templeton to
+the Singhalese Fauna, is found in thick jungle in the southern and
+midland districts.
+
+Pycnonotus penicillatus. The yellow-eared bulbul; was found by Dr.
+Kelaart at Neuera-ellia.
+
+Butalis Muttui. This very handsome flycatcher was procured at Point
+Pedro, by Mr. Layard.
+
+Dicrurus edoliformis. Dr. Templeton found this kingcrow at the Bibloo
+Oya. Mr. Layard has since got it at Ambogammoa.
+
+Dicrurus leucopygialis. The Ceylon kingcrow was sent to Mr. Blyth from
+the vicinity of Colombo, by Dr. Templeton. A species very closely allied
+to D. coerulescens of the Indian continent.
+
+Tephrodornis affinis. The Ceylon butcher-bird. A migatory species found
+in the wooded grass lands in October.
+
+Cissa puella. Layard's mountain jay. A most lovely bird, found along
+mountain streams at Neuera-ellia and elsewhere.
+
+Eulabes ptilogenys. Templeton's mynah. The largest and most beautiful of
+the species. It is found in flocks perching on the highest trees,
+feeding on berries.
+
+Munia Kelaarti. This Grosbeak previously assumed to be M. pectoralls of
+Jerdon; is most probably peculiar to Ceylon.
+
+Loriculus asiaticus. The small parroquet, abundant in various districts.
+
+Palæornis Calthropæ. Layard's purple-headed parroquet, found at Kandy,
+is a very handsome bird, flying in flocks, and resting on the summits of
+the very highest trees. Dr. Kelaart states that it is the only parroquet
+of the Neuera-ellia range.
+
+Megalaima flavifrons. The yellow-headed barbet, is not uncommon.
+
+Megalaima rubricapilla, is found in most parts of the island.
+
+Picus gymnophthalmus. Layard's woodpecker. The smallest of the species,
+was discovered near Colombo, amongst jak-trees.
+
+Brachypternus Ceylonus. The Ceylon woodpecker, is found in abundance
+near Neuera-ellia.
+
+Brachypternus rubescens. The red woodpecker.
+
+Centropus chlororhynchus. The yellow-billed cuckoo, was detected by Mr.
+Layard in dense jungle near Colombo and Avisavelle.
+
+Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. The malkoha, is confined to the southern
+highlands.
+
+Treron Pompadoura. The Pompadour pigeon. "The Prince of Canino has shown
+that this is a totally distinct bird from Tr. flavogularis, with which
+it was confounded: it is much smaller, with the quantity of maroon
+colour on the mantle greatly reduced."--Paper by Mr. BLYTH, _Mag. Nat.
+Hist._ p. 514: 1857.
+
+Carpophaga Torringtoniæ. Lady Torrington's pigeon; a very handsome
+pigeon discovered in the highlands by Dr. Kelaart. It flies high in long
+sweeps, and makes its nest on the loftiest trees. Mr. Blyth is of
+opinion that it is no more than a local race, barely separable from C.
+Elphinstonii of the Nilgiris and Malabar coast.
+
+Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill dove a migratory species found by
+Mr. Layard in the mountain zone, only appearing with the ripened fruit
+of the teak, banyan, &c., on which they feed.
+
+Gallus Lafayetti.--The Ceylon jungle fowl. The female of this handsome
+bird was figured by Mr. GRAY (_Ill. Ind. Zool._) under the name of G.
+Stanleyi. The cock bird had long been lost to naturalists, until a
+specimen was forwarded by Dr. Templeton to Mr. Blyth, who at once
+recognised it as the long-looked-for male of Mr. Gray's recently
+described female. It is abundant in all the uncultivated portions of
+Ceylon; coming out into the open spaces to feed in the mornings and
+evenings. Mr. Blyth states that there can be no doubt that Hardwicke's
+published figure refers to the hen of this species, long afterwards
+termed G. Lafayetti.
+
+Galloperdix bicalcaratus. Not uncommon in suitable situations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IX.
+
+REPTILES.
+
+
+LIZARDS. _Iguana_.--One of the earliest, if not the first remarkable
+animal to startle a stranger on arriving in Ceylon, whilst wending his
+way from Point-de-Galle to Colombo, is a huge lizard of from four to
+five feet in length, the _Talla-goy[=a]_ of the Singhalese, and
+Iguana[1] of the Europeans. It may be seen at noonday searching for ants
+and insects in the middle of the highway and along the fences; when
+disturbed, but by no means alarmed, by the approach of man, it moves off
+to a safe distance; and, the intrusion being at an end, it returns again
+to the occupation in which it had been interrupted. Repulsive as it is
+in appearance, it is perfectly harmless, and is hunted down by dogs in
+the maritime provinces, and its delicate flesh, which is believed to be
+a specific in dysentery, is converted into curry, and its skin into
+shoes. When seized, it has the power of inflicting a smart blow with its
+tail. The Talla-goy[=a] lives in almost any convenient hollow, such as a
+hole in the ground, or a deserted nest of the termites; and some small
+ones, which frequented my garden at Colombo, made their retreat in the
+heart of a decayed tree.
+
+[Footnote 1: Monitor dracæna, _Linn._ Among the barbarous nostrums of
+the uneducated natives, both Singhalese and Tamil, is the tongue of the
+iguana, which they regard as a specific for consumption, if plucked from
+the living animal and swallowed whole.]
+
+A still larger species, the _Kabara-goy[=a]_[1], is partial to marshy
+ground, and when disturbed upon land, will take refuge in the nearest
+water. From the somewhat eruptive appearance of the yellow blotches on
+its scales, a closely allied species, similarly spotted, formerly
+obtained amongst naturalists the name of _Monitor exanthematicus_, and
+it is curious that the native appellation of this one, _kabara_[2], is
+suggestive of the same idea. The Singhalese, on a strictly homoeopathic
+principle, believe that its fat, externally applied, is a cure for
+cutaneous disorders, but that taken inwardly it is poisonous. The
+skilfulness of the Singhalese in their preparation of poisons, and their
+addiction to using them, are unfortunately notorious traits in the
+character of the rural population. Amongst these preparations, the one
+which above all others excites the utmost dread, from the number of
+murders attributed to its agency, is the potent kabara-tel--a term which
+Europeans sometimes corrupt into _cobra-tel_, implying that the venom is
+obtained from the hooded-snake; whereas it professes to be extracted
+from the "kabara-goy[=a]." Such is the bad renown of this formidable
+poison, that an individual suspected of having it in his possession, is
+cautiously shunned by his neighbours. Those especially who are on
+doubtful terms with him, suspect their servants lest they should be
+suborned to mix kabara-tel in the curry. So subtle is the virus supposed
+to be, that one method of administering it, is to introduce it within
+the midrib of a leaf of betel, and close the orifice with chunam; and,
+as it is an habitual act of courtesy for one Singhalese on meeting
+another to offer the compliment of a betel-leaf, which it would be
+rudeness to refuse, facilities are thus afforded for presenting the
+concealed drug. It is curious that to this latent suspicion has been
+traced the origin of a custom universal amongst the natives, of nipping
+off with the thumb nail the thick end of the stem before chewing the
+betel.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hydrosaurus salvator, _Laur_. Tail compressed; fingers
+long; nostrils near the extremity of the snout. A black band on each
+temple; round yellow spots disposed in transverse series on the back.
+Teeth with the crown compressed and notched.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In the _Mahawanso_ the hero Tissa, is said to have been
+"afflicted with a cutaneous complaint which made his skin scaly like
+that of the _godho_."--Ch. xxiv. p. 148. "Godho" is the Pali name for
+the Kabara-goy[=a].]
+
+[Illustration: THE KABARA-GOYA.]
+
+In the preparation of this mysterious compound, the unfortunate
+Kabara-goya is forced to take a painfully prominent part. The receipt,
+as written down by a Kandyan, was sent to me from Kornegalle, by Mr.
+Morris, the civil officer of that district; and in dramatic arrangement
+it far outdoes the cauldron of _Macbeth's_ witches. The ingredients are
+extracted from venomous snakes, the cobra de capello, the Carawilla, and
+the Tic-polonga, by making incisions in the head of these reptiles and
+suspending them over a chattie to collect the poison as it flows. To
+this, arsenic and other drugs are added, and the whole is "boiled in a
+human skull, with the aid of the three Kabara-goyas, which are tied on
+three sides of the fire, with their heads directed towards it, and
+tormented by whips to make them hiss, so that the fire may blaze. The
+froth from their lips is then added to the boiling mixture, and so soon
+as an oily scum rises to the surface, the _kabara-tel_ is complete."
+
+It is obvious that arsenic is the main ingredient in the poison, and Mr.
+Morris reported to me that the mode of preparing it, described above,
+was actually practised in his district. This account was transmitted by
+him apropos to the murder of a Mohatal[1] and his wife, which had been
+committed with the _kabara-tel_, and was then under investigation.
+Before commencing the operation of preparing the poison, a cock has to
+be sacrificed to the _yakhos_ or demons.
+
+[Footnote 1: A native head-man of low rank.]
+
+This ugly lizard is itself regarded with such aversion by the
+Singhalese, that if a _kabara_ enter a house or walk over the roof, it
+is regarded as an omen of ill fortune, sickness, or death; and in order
+to avert the evil, a priest is employed to go through a rhythmical
+incantation; one portion of which consists in the repetition of the
+words
+
+  Kabara goyin wan d[=o]sey
+  Ada palayan e d[=o]sey.
+
+"These are the inflictions caused by the Kabara-goya--let them now be
+averted!"
+
+It is one of the incidents that serve to indicate that Ceylon may belong
+to a separate circle of physical geography, that this lizard, though
+found to the eastward in Burmah[1], has not hitherto been discovered in
+the Dekkan or Hindustan.
+
+[Footnote 1: In corroboration of the view propounded elsewhere (see pp.
+7, 84, &c), and opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon, at some
+remote period, was detached from the continent of India by the
+interposition of the sea, a list of reptiles will be found at p. 319,
+including not only individual species, but whole genera peculiar to the
+island, and not to be found on the mainland. See a paper by Dr. A.
+GÜNTHER on _The Geog. Distribution of Reptiles_. Magaz. Nat. Hist. for
+March, 1859, p. 230.]
+
+[Illustration: CALOTES OPHIOMACHUS]
+
+_Blood-suckers_.--The lizards already mentioned, however, are but the
+stranger's introduction to innumerable varieties of others, all most
+attractive in their sudden movements, and some unsurpassed in the
+brilliancy of their colouring, which bask on banks, dart over rocks, and
+peer curiously out of the chinks of every ruined wall. In all their
+motions there is that vivid and brief energy, the rapid but restrained
+action associated with their limited power of respiration, which
+justifies the accurate picture of--
+
+  "The green lizard, rustling thro' the grass,
+  And up the fluted shaft, _with short, quick, spring_
+  To vanish in the chinks which time has made."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: ROGERS' _Pæstum._]
+
+The most beautiful of the race is the _green calotes_[1], in length
+about twelve inches, which, with the exception of a few dark streaks
+about the head, is as brilliant as the purest emerald or malachite.
+Unlike its congeners of the same family, it never alters this dazzling
+hue; whilst many of them possess, but in a less degree, the power, like
+the chameleon, of exchanging their ordinary colours for others less
+conspicuous. One of the most remarkable features in the physiognomy of
+those lizards is the prominence of their cheeks. This results from the
+great development of the muscles of the jaws; the strength of which is
+such that they can crush the hardest integuments of the beetles on which
+they feed. The calotes will permit its teeth to be broken, rather than
+quit its hold of a stick into which it may have struck them. It is not
+provided, like so many other tropical lizards, with a gular sac or
+throat-pouch, capable of inflation when in a state of high excitement.
+The tail, too, is rounded, not compressed, thus clearly indicating that
+its habits are those of a land-animal.
+
+[Footnote 1: Calotes sp.]
+
+The _Calotes versicolor_; and another, the _Calotes ophioimachus_, of
+which a figure is attached, possess in a remarkable degree the faculty,
+above alluded to, of changing their hue. The head and neck, when the
+animal is irritated or hastily swallowing its food, become of a
+brilliant red (whence the latter species has acquired the name of the
+"blood-sucker"), whilst the usual tint of the rest of the body is
+converted into pale yellow.[1] The _sitana_[2], and a number of others,
+exhibit similar phenomena.
+
+[Footnote 1: The characteristics by which the _Calotes ophiomachus_ may
+be readily recognised, are a small crest formed by long spines running
+on each side of the neck to above the ear, coupled with a green
+ground-colour of the scales. Many specimens are uniform, others banded
+transversely with white, and others again have a black band on each side
+of the neck.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Sitana Ponticereana, _Cuv_.]
+
+The lyre-headed lizard[1], which is not uncommon in the woods about
+Kandy, is more bulky than any of the species of Calotes, and not nearly
+so active in its movements.
+
+[Footnote 1: Lyriocephalus scutatus, _Linn._]
+
+As usually observed it is of a dull greenish brown, but when excited its
+back becomes a rich olive green, leaving the head yellowish: the
+underside of the body is of a very pale blue, almost approaching white.
+The open mouth exhibits the fauces of an intense vermilion tint; so
+that, although extremely handsome, this lizard presents, from its
+extraordinarily shaped head and threatening gestures, a most malignant
+aspect. It is, however, perfectly harmless.
+
+_Chameleon_.--The true chameleon[1] is found, but not in great numbers,
+in the dry districts to the north of Ceylon, where it frequents the
+trees, in slow pursuit of its insect prey; but compensated for the
+sluggishness of its other movements, by the electric rapidity of its
+extensible tongue. Apparently sluggish in its general habits, the
+chameleon rests motionless on a branch, from which its varied hues
+render it scarcely distinguishable in colour; and there patiently awaits
+the approach of the insects on which it feeds. Instantly on their
+appearance its wonderful tongue comes into play.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chameleo vulgaris, _Daud_.]
+
+[Illustration: TONGUE OF CHAMELEON.]
+
+Though ordinarily concealed, it is capable of protrusion till it exceeds
+in length the whole body of the creature. No sooner does an incautious
+fly venture within reach than the extremity of this treacherous weapon
+is disclosed, broad and cuneiform, and covered with a viscid fluid; and
+this, extended to its full length, is darted at its prey with an
+unerring aim, and redrawn within the jaws with a rapidity that renders
+the act almost invisible.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Prof. RYMER JONES, art. _Reptilia_, in TODD'S _Cyclop. of
+Anat_. vol. iv. pt. i. p. 292.]
+
+Whilst the faculty of this creature to assume all the colours of the
+rainbow has attracted the wonder of all ages, sufficient attention has
+hardly been given to the imperfect sympathy which subsists between the
+two lobes of its brain, and the two sets of nerves that permeate the
+opposite sides of its frame. Hence, not only has each of the eyes an
+action quite independent of the other, but one side of its body appears
+to be sometimes asleep whilst the other is vigilant and active; one will
+assume a green tinge whilst the opposite one is red; and it is said that
+the chameleon is utterly unable to swim, from the incapacity of the
+muscles of the two sides to act in concert.
+
+_Ceratophora_.--This which till lately was an unique lizard, known by
+only two specimens, one in the British Museum, and another in that of
+Leyden, was ascertained by Dr. Kelaart, about five years ago, to be a
+native of the higher Kandyan hills, where it is sometimes seen in the
+older trees in pursuit of insect larvæ. The first specimen brought to
+Europe was called _Ceratophora Stoddartii_, after the name of its
+finder; and the recent discovery of several others in the National
+Collection has enabled me, by the aid of Dr. A. Günther, to add some
+important facts to their history.
+
+This lizard is remarkable for having no external ear; and it has
+acquired its generic name from the curious horn-like process on the
+extremity of the nose. This horn, as it is found in mature males of ten
+inches in length, is five lines long, conical, pointed, and slightly
+curved; a miniature form of the formidable weapon, from which the
+_Rhinoceros_ takes its name. But the comparison does not hold good
+either from an anatomical or a physiological point of view. For, whilst
+the horn of the rhinoceros is merely a dermal production, a
+conglomeration of hairs cemented into one dense mass as hard as bone,
+and answering the purpose of a defensive weapon, besides being used for
+digging up the roots on which the animal lives; the horn of the
+_ceratophora_ is formed of a soft, spongy substance, coated by the
+rostral shield, which is produced into a kind of sheath. Although
+flexible, it always remains erect, owing to the elasticity of its
+substance. Not having access to a living specimen, which would afford
+the opportunity of testing conjecture, we are left to infer from the
+internal structure of this horn, that it is an erectile organ which, in
+moments of irritation, will swell like the comb of a cock. This opinion
+as to its physiological nature is confirmed by the remarkable
+circumstance that, like the rudimentary comb of the hen and young cocks,
+the female and the immature males of the _ceratophora_ have the horn
+exceedingly small. In mature females of eight inches in length (and the
+females appear always to be smaller than the males), the horn is only
+one half or one line long; while in immature males five inches in
+length, it is one line and a half.
+
+[Illustration: CERATOPHORA TENNENTII and C. STODDARTII]
+
+Among the specimens sent from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, and now in the
+British Museum, there is one which so remarkably differs from _C.
+Stoddartii_, that it attracted my attention, by the peculiar form of
+this rostral appendage. Dr. Günther pronounced it to be a new species;
+and Dr. Gray concurring in this opinion, they have done me the honour to
+call it _Ceratophora Tennentii_. Its "horn" somewhat resembles the comb
+of a cock not only in its internal structure, but also in its external
+appearance; it is nearly six lines long by two broad, slightly
+compressed, soft, flexile, and extensible, and covered with a
+corrugated, granular skin. It bears no resemblance to the depressed
+rostral hump of _Lyriocephalus_, and the differences of the new species
+from the latter lizard may be easily seen from the annexed drawing and
+the notes given below.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The specimen in the British Museum is apparently an adult
+male, ten inches long, and is, with regard to the distribution of the
+scales and the form of the head very similar to _C. Stoddartii_. The
+posterior angles of the orbit are not projecting, but there is a small
+tubercle behind them; and a pair of somewhat larger tubercles on the
+neck. The gular sac is absent. There are five longitudinal quadrangular,
+imbricate scales on each side of the throat; and the sides of the body
+present a nearly horizontal series of similar scales. The scales on the
+median line of the back scarcely form a crest; it is, however distinct
+on the nape of the neck. The scales on the belly, on the extremities,
+and on the tail are slightly keeled. Tail nearly round. This species is
+more uniformly coloured than _C. Stoddartii_; it is greenish, darker on
+the sides.]
+
+_Geckoes_.--The most familiar and attractive of the lizard class are the
+_Geckoes_[1], that frequent the sitting-rooms, and being furnished with
+pads to each toe, they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and
+adhere to glass and ceilings. Being nocturnal in their habits, the pupil
+of the eye, instead of being circular as in the diurnal species, is
+linear and vertical like that of the cat. As soon as evening arrives,
+the geckoes are to be seen in every house in keen and crafty pursuit of
+their prey; emerging from the chinks and recesses where they conceal
+themselves during the day, to search for insects that then retire to
+settle for the night. In a boudoir where the ladies of my family spent
+their evenings, one of these familiar and amusing little creatures had
+its hiding-place behind a gilt picture frame. Punctually as the candles
+were lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be fed with its
+accustomed crumbs; and if neglected, it reiterated it sharp, quick call
+of _chic, chic, chit,_ till attended to. It was of a delicate gray
+colour, tinged with pink; and having by accident fallen on a work-table,
+it fled, leaving part of its tail behind it, which, however, it
+reproduced within less than a month. This faculty of reproduction is
+doubtless designed to enable the creature to escape from its assailants:
+the detaching of the limb is evidently its own act; and it is
+observable, that when reproduced, the tail generally exhibits some
+variation from the previous form, the diverging spines being absent, the
+new portion covered with small square uniform scales placed in a cross
+series, and the scuta below being seldom so distinct as in the original
+member.[2] In an officer's quarters in the fort of Colombo, a geckoe had
+been taught to come daily to the dinner-table, and always made its
+appearance along with the dessert. The family were absent for some
+months, during which the house underwent extensive repairs, the roof
+having been raised, the walls stuccoed, and the ceilings whitened. It
+was naturally surmised that so long a suspension of its accustomed
+habits would have led to the disappearance of the little lizard; but on
+the return of its old friends, it made its entrance as usual at their
+first dinner the instant the cloth was removed.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hemidactylus maculatus, _Dum_. et _Bib_., H. Leschenaultii,
+_Dum_, et _Bib_; H. frenatus, _Schlegel_. Of these the last is very
+common in the houses of Colombo. Colour, grey; sides with small
+granules; thumb short; chin-shields four; tail rounded with transverse
+series of small spines; femoral and preanal pores in a continuous line.
+GRAY, _Lizard_, p. 155.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Brit. Mus. Cat._ p. 143; KELAART's _Prod. Faun. Zeylan.,_
+p. 183.]
+
+_Crocodile._--The Portuguese in India, like the Spaniards in South
+America, affixed the name of _lagarto_ to the huge reptiles that
+infested the rivers and estuaries of both continents; and to the present
+day the Europeans in Ceylon apply the term _alligator_ to what are in
+reality _crocodiles_, which literally swarm in the still waters and
+tanks in the low country, but rarely frequent rapid streams, and have
+never been found in the marshes among the hills. The differences,
+however, between the two, when once ascertained, are sufficiently
+marked, to prevent their being afterwards confounded. The head of the
+alligator is broader and the snout less prolonged, and the canine teeth
+of the under jaw, instead of being received into foramina in the upper,
+as in the crocodile, fit into furrows on each side of it. The legs of
+the alligator, too, are not denticulated, and the feet are only
+semi-palmate.
+
+The following drawing exhibits a cranium of each.
+
+[Illustration: SKULLS OF ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILE]
+
+The instincts of the crocodiles in Ceylon do not lead to any variation
+from the habits of those found in other countries. There would appear to
+be two well-distinguished species found in the island, the
+_Eli-kimboola_[1], the Indian crocodile, inhabiting the rivers and
+estuaries throughout the low countries of the coasts, attaining the
+length of sixteen or eighteen feet, and ready to assail man when pressed
+by hunger; and the marsh-crocodile[2], which lives exclusively in fresh
+water, frequenting the tanks in the northern and central provinces, and
+confining its attacks to the smaller animals: in length it seldom
+exceeds twelve or thirteen feet. Sportsmen complain that their dogs are
+constantly seized by both species; and water-fowl, when shot, frequently
+disappear before they can be secured by the fowler.[3] It is generally
+believed in Ceylon that, in the case of larger animals, the crocodile
+abstains from devouring them till the commencement of decomposition
+facilitates the operation of swallowing. To assist in this, the natives
+assure me that the reptile contrives to fasten the carcase behind the
+roots of a mangrove or some other convenient tree and tears off each
+piece by a backward spring.
+
+[Footnote 1: Crocodilus biporcatus. _Cuvier_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Crododilus palustris, _Less_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: In Siam the flesh of the crocodile is sold for food in the
+markets and bazaars, "Un jour je vis plus de cinquante crocodiles,
+petits et grands, attachés aux colonnes de leurs maisons. Ils es vendent
+la chair comme on vendrait de la chair de porc, mais à bien meilleur
+marché."-PALLEGOIX, _Siam_, vol. i. p. 174.]
+
+There is another popular belief that the crocodile is exceedingly
+sensitive to tickling; and that it will relax its hold of a man, if he
+can only contrive to reach and rub with his hand the softer parts of its
+under side.[1] An incident indicative of some reality in this piece of
+folklore, once came under my own observation. One morning, about
+sunrise, when riding across the sandy plain near the old fort of
+Moeletivoe, we came suddenly upon a crocodile asleep under some bushes
+of the Buffalo-thorn, several hundred yards from the water. The terror
+of the poor wretch was extreme, when it awoke and found itself
+discovered and completely surrounded. It was a hideous creature, upwards
+of ten feet long, and evidently of prodigious strength, had it been in a
+condition to exert it, but consternation completely paralysed it. It
+started to its feet and turned round in a circle hissing and clanking
+its bony jaws, with its ugly green eye intently fixed upon us. On being
+struck with a stick, it lay perfectly quiet and apparently dead.
+Presently it looked cunningly round, and made a rush towards the water,
+but on a second blow it lay again motionless and feigning death. We
+tried to rouse it, but without effect, pulled its tail, slapped its
+back, struck its hard scales, and teased it in every way, but all in
+vain; nothing would induce it to move till accidentally my son, then a
+boy of twelve years old, tickled it gently under the arm, and in an
+instant it drew the limb close to its side and turned to avoid a
+repetition of the experiment. Again it was touched under the other arm,
+and the same emotion was exhibited, the great monster twisting about
+like an infant to avoid being tickled. The scene was highly amusing, but
+the sun was rising high, and we pursued our journey to Moeletivoe,
+leaving the crocodile to make its way to the adjoining lake.
+
+[Footnote 1: A native gentleman who resided for a long time at Caltura
+tells me that in the rivers which flow into the sea, both there and at
+Bentotte, crocodiles are frequently caught in corrals, formed of stakes
+driven into the ground in shallow water, and so constructed, that when
+the reptile enters to seize the bait placed within, the aperture closes
+behind and secures him. A professional "crocodile charmer" then enters
+muttering a spell, and with one end of a stick pats the creature gently
+on the head for a time. The operator then boldly mounts astride upon its
+shoulders, and continues to soothe it with his one hand, whilst with the
+other he contrives to pass a rope under its body, by which it is at last
+dragged on shore. This story serves to corroborate the narrative of Mr.
+Waterton and his alligator.]
+
+The Singhalese believe that the crocodile can only move swiftly on sand
+or smooth clay, its feet being too tender to tread firmly on hard or
+stony ground. In the dry season, when the watercourses begin to fail and
+the tanks become exhausted, the marsh-crocodiles have occasionally been
+encountered in the jungle, wandering in search of water. During a severe
+drought in 1844, they deserted a tank near Kornegalle and traversed the
+town during the night, on their way to another reservoir in the suburb;
+two or three fell into the wells; others in their trepidation, laid eggs
+in the street, and some were found entangled in garden fences and
+killed.
+
+Generally, however, during the extreme drought, when unable to procure
+their ordinary food from the drying up of the watercourses, they bury
+themselves in the mud, and remain in a state of torpor till released by
+the recurrence of rains.[1] At Arne-tivoe, in the eastern province,
+whilst riding across the parched bed of the tank, I was shown the
+recess, still bearing the form and impress of a crocodile, out of which
+the animal had been seen to emerge the day before. A story was also
+related to me of an officer attached to the department of the
+Surveyor-General, who, having pitched his tent in a similar position,
+was disturbed during the night by feeling a movement of the earth below
+his bed, from which on the following day a crocodile emerged, making its
+appearance from beneath the matting.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: HERODOTUS records the observations of the Egyptians that
+the crocodile of the Nile abstains from food during the four winter
+months.--_Euterpe_, lviii.]
+
+[Footnote 2: HUMBOLDT relates a similar story as occurring at Calabazo,
+in Venezuela.--_Personal Narrative_, c, xvi.]
+
+The fresh water species that inhabits the tanks is essentially cowardly
+in it instincts, and hastens to conceal itself on the appearance of man.
+A gentleman (who told me the circumstance), when riding in the jungle,
+overtook a crocodile, evidently roaming in search of water. It fled to a
+shallow pool almost dried by the sun, and, thrusting its head into the
+mud till it covered up its eyes, remained unmoved in profound confidence
+of perfect concealment. In 1833, during the progress of the Pearl
+Fishery, Sir Robert Wilmot Horton employed men to drag for crocodiles in
+a pond which was infested by them in the immediate vicinity of Aripo.
+The pool was about fifty yards in length, by ten or twelve wide,
+shallowing gradually to the edge, and not exceeding four or five feet at
+the deepest part. As the party approached the bund, from twenty to
+thirty reptiles, which had been basking in the sun, rose and fled to the
+water. A net, specially weighted so as to sink its lower edge to the
+bottom, was then stretched from bank to bank and swept to the further
+end of the pond, followed by a line of men with poles to drive the
+crocodiles forward: so complete was the arrangement, that no individual
+could have evaded the net, yet, to the astonishment of the Governor's
+party, not one was to be found when it was drawn on shore, and no means
+of escape for them was apparent or possible except by their descending
+into the mud at the bottom of the pond.
+
+The lagoon of Batticaloa, and indeed all the still waters of this
+district, are remarkable for the numbers and prodigious size of the
+crocodiles which infest them. Their teeth are sometimes so large that
+the natives mount them with silver lids and use them for boxes to carry
+the powdered chunam, which they chew with the betel leaf. During one of
+my visits to the lake a crocodile was caught within a few yards of the
+government agent's residence, a hook having been laid the night before,
+baited with the entrails of a goat; and made fast, in the native
+fashion, by a bunch of fine cords, which the creature cannot gnaw
+asunder as it would a solid rope, since they sink into the spaces
+between its teeth. The one taken was small, being only about ten or
+eleven feet in length, whereas they are frequently killed from fifteen
+to nineteen feet long. As long as it was in the water, it made strong
+resistance to being hauled on shore, carrying the canoe out into the
+deep channel, and occasionally raising its head above the surface, and
+clashing its jaws together menacingly. This action has a horrid sound,
+as the crocodile has no fleshy lips; and it brings its teeth and the
+bones of the mouth together with a loud crash, like the clank of two
+pieces of hard wood. After playing it a little, the boatmen drew it to
+land, and when once fairly on the shore all courage and energy seemed
+utterly to desert it. It tried once or twice to regain the water, but at
+last lay motionless and perfectly helpless on the sand. It was no easy
+matter to kill it; a rifle ball sent diagonally through its breast had
+little or no effect, and even when the shot had been repeated more than
+once, it was as full of life as ever.[1] It feigned death and lay
+motionless, with its eye closed; but, on being pricked with a spear, it
+suddenly regained all its activity. It was at last finished by a
+harpoon, and then opened. Its maw contained several small tortoises, and
+a quantity of broken bricks and gravel, taken medicinally, to promote
+digestion.
+
+[Footnote 1: A remarkable instance of the vitality of the common
+crocodile, _C. biporcatus_, was related to me by a gentleman at Galle:
+he had caught on a baited hook an unusually large one, which his coolies
+disembowelled, the aperture in the stomach being left expanded by a
+stick placed across it. On returning in the afternoon with a view to
+secure the head, they found that the creature had crawled for some
+distance, and made its escape into the water.
+
+"A curious incident occurred some years ago on the Maguruganga, a stream
+which flows through the Pasdun Corle, to join the Bentolle river. A man
+was fishing seated on the branch of a tree that overhung the water; and
+to shelter himself from the drizzling rain, he covered his head and
+shoulder with a bag folded into a shape common with the natives. While
+in this attitude, a leopard sprang upon him from the jungle, but missing
+its aim, seized the bag and not the man, and fell with it into the
+river. Here a crocodile, which had been eyeing the angler is despair,
+seized the leopard as it fell, and sunk with it to the
+bottom."--_Letter_ from GOONE-RATNE Modliar, interpreter of the Supreme
+Court, 10th Jany., 1861.]
+
+During our journeys we had numerous opportunities of observing the
+habits of these hideous creatures, and I am far from considering them so
+formidable as they are usually supposed to be. They are evidently not
+wantonly destructive; they act only under the influence of hunger, and
+even then their motions on land are awkward and ungainly, their action
+timid, and their whole demeanour devoid of the sagacity and courage
+which characterise other animals of prey.
+
+TESTUDINATA. _Tortoise_.--Land tortoises are numerous, but present no
+remarkable features beyond the beautiful marking of the starred
+variety[1], which is common in the north-western province around Putlam
+and Chilaw, and is distinguished by the bright yellow rays which
+diversify the deep black of its dorsal shield. From one of these which
+was kept in my garden I took a number of flat ticks (_Ixodes_), which
+adhere to its fleshy neck in such a position as to baffle any attempt of
+the animal itself to remove them; but as they are exposed to constant
+danger of being crushed against the plastron during the protrusion and
+retraction of the head, each is covered with a horny case almost as
+resistant as the carapace of the tortoise itself. Such an adaptation of
+structure is scarcely less striking than that of the parasites found on
+the spotted lizard of Berar by Dr. Hooker, each of which presents the
+distinct colour of the scale to which it adheres.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Testudo stellata.]
+
+[Illustration: THE THREE-RIDGED TORTOISE (EMYS TRIJUGA)]
+
+[Footnote 2: HOOKER'S _Himalayan Journals_, vol. i. p. 37.]
+
+The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented by _terrapins_[1],
+which the natives are in the habit of keeping alive in wells under the
+conviction that they clear them of impurities. These fresh-water
+tortoises, the greater number of which are included in the genus _Emys_
+of naturalists, are distinguished by having their toes webbed. Their
+shell is less convex than that of their congeners on land (but more
+elevated than that of the sea-turtle); and it has been observed that the
+more rounded the shell, the nearer does the terrapin approach to the
+land-tortoise both in its habits and in the choice of its food. Some of
+them live upon animal as well as vegetable food, and those which subsist
+exclusively on the former, are noted as having the flattest shells.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cryptopus granum_, SCHÖPF; DR. KELAART, in his _Prodromus_
+(p. 179), refers this to the common Indian species, _C. punctata_; but
+it is distinct. It is generally distributed in the lower parts of
+Ceylon, in lakes and tanks. It is the one usually put into wells to act
+the part of a scavenger. By the Singhalese it is named _Kiri-ibba_.]
+
+The terrapins lay about thirty eggs in the course of several weeks, and
+these are round, with a calcareous shell. They thrive in captivity,
+provided that they have a regular supply of water and of meat, cut into
+small pieces and thrown to them. The tropical species, if transferred to
+a colder climate, should have arrangements made for enabling them to
+hybernate during the winter: they will die in a very short time if
+exposed to a temperature below the freezing point.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Of the _Emys trijuga_, the fresh water tortoise figured on
+preceding page, the technical characteristics are;--vertical plates
+lozenge-shaped; shell convex and oval; with three more or less distinct
+longitudinal keels; shields corrugated; with areola situated in the
+upper posterior corner. Shell brown, with the areolæ and the keels
+yellowish; head brown, with a yellow streak over each eye.]
+
+The edible turtle[1] is found on all the coasts of the island, and sells
+for a few shillings or a few pence, according to its size and abundance
+at the moment. A very repulsive spectacle is exhibited in the markets of
+Jaffna by the mode in which the flesh of the turtle is sold piece-meal,
+whilst the animal is still alive, by the families of the Tamil
+fishermen. The creatures are to be seen in the market-place undergoing
+this frightful mutilation; the plastron and its integuments having been
+previously removed, and the animal thrown on its back, so as to display
+all the motions of the heart, viscera, and lungs. A broad knife, from
+twelve to eighteen inches in length, is first inserted at the left side,
+and the women, who are generally the operators, introduce one hand to
+scoop out the blood, which oozes slowly. The blade is next passed round,
+till the lower shell is detached and placed on one side, and the
+internal organs exposed in full action. A customer, as he applies, is
+served with any part selected, which is cut off as ordered, and sold by
+weight. Each of the fins is thus successively removed, with portions of
+the fat and flesh, the turtle showing, by its contortions, that each act
+of severance is productive of agony. In this state it lies for hours,
+writhing in the sun, the heart[2] and head being usually the last pieces
+selected, and till the latter is cut off the snapping of the mouth, and
+the opening and closing of the eyes, show that life is still inherent,
+even when the shell has been nearly divested of its contents.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chelonia virgata, _Schweig_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: ARISTOTLE was aware of the fact that the turtle will live
+after the removal of the heart.--_De Vita et Morte_, ch. ii.]
+
+At certain seasons the flesh of turtle on the south-western coast of
+Ceylon is avoided as poisonous, and some lamentable instances are
+recorded of deaths ascribed to its use. At Pantura, to the south of
+Colombo, twenty-eight persons who had partaken of turtle in October,
+1840, were immediately seized with sickness, after which coma
+supervened, and eighteen died during the night. Those who survived said
+there was nothing unusual in the appearance of the flesh except that it
+was fatter than ordinary. Other similarly fatal occurrences have been
+attributed to turtle curry; but as they have never been proved to
+proceed exclusively from that source, there is room for believing that
+the poison may have been contained in some other ingredient.
+
+In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently found of such a size as to
+measure between four and five feet in length; and on one occasion, in
+riding along the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a man in charge of
+some sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle shell, which he had
+erected on sticks to protect him from the sun--almost verifying the
+statement of Ælian, that in the seas off Ceylon there are tortoises so
+large that several persons may find ample shelter beneath a single
+shell.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: "Tiktontai de ara en tautê tê thalattê, kai
+chelônai megistai, ônper oun ta elytra orophoi ginontai kai gar esti kai
+pentekaideka pêchôn en chelôneion, ôs hypoikein ouk oligous, kai tous
+hêlious pyrodestatous apostegei, kai skian asmenois parechei."]--Lib.
+xvi. c. 17. Ælian copied this statement literatim from MEGASTHESES,
+_Indica Frag._ lix. 31. May not Megasthenes have referred to some
+tradition connected with the gigantic fossilised species discovered on
+the Sewalik Hills, the remains of which are now in the Museum at the
+East India House?]
+
+The hawksbill-turtle[1], which supplies the tortoise-shell of commerce,
+was at former times taken in great numbers in the vicinity of
+Hambangtotte during the season when they came to deposit their eggs.
+This gave rise to the trade in tortoise-shell at Point de Galle, where
+it is still manufactured into articles of ornament by the Moors; but the
+shell they employ is almost entirely imported from the Maldives.
+
+[Footnote 1: Caretta imbricata, _Linn._]
+
+If taken from the animal after death and decomposition, the colour of
+the shell becomes clouded and milky, and hence the cruel expedient is
+resorted to of seizing the turtles as they repair to the shore to
+deposit their eggs, and suspending them over fires till heat makes the
+plates on the dorsal shields start from the bone of the carapace, after
+which the creature is permitted to escape to the water.[1] In
+illustration of the resistless influence of instinct at the period of
+breeding, it may be mentioned that the identical tortoise is believed to
+return again and again to the same spot, notwithstanding that at each
+visit she may have to undergo a repetition of this torture. In the year
+1826, a hawksbill turtle was taken near Hambangtotte, which bore a ring
+attached to one of its fins that had been placed there by a Dutch
+officer thirty years before, with a view to establish the fact of these
+recurring visits to the same beach.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: At Celebes, whence the finest tortoise-shell is exported to
+China, the natives kill the turtle by blows on the head, and immerse the
+shell in boiling water to detach the plates. Dry heat is only resorted
+to by the unskilful, who frequently destroy the tortoise-shell in the
+operation--_Journal Indian Archipel_. vol. iii. p. 227, 1849.]
+
+[Footnote 2: BENNETT'S _Ceylon, &c._, c. xxxiv.]
+
+An opportunity is afforded on the sea-shore of Ceylon for observing a
+remarkable illustration of instinct in the turtle, when about to deposit
+its eggs. As if conscious that if she went and returned by one and the
+same line across the sandy beach, her hiding place would be discovered
+at its farthest extremity, she resorts to the expedient of curving her
+course, so as to regain the sea by a different track; and after
+depositing the eggs, burying them about eighteen inches deep, she
+carefully smoothes over the surface to render the precise spot
+indiscernible. The Singhalese, aware of this device, sound her line of,
+march with a rod till they come upon the concealed nest.
+
+_Snakes_.--It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited by the ferocious
+expression and unusual action of serpents, combined with an instinctive
+dread of attack[1], that exaggerated ideas prevail both as to their
+numbers in Ceylon, and the danger to be apprehended from encountering
+them. The Singhalese profess to distinguish a great many kinds, of which
+they say not more than one half have as yet been scientifically
+identified[2]; but so cautiously do serpents make their appearance, that
+the surprise of persons long resident is invariably expressed at the
+rarity with which they are to be seen; and from my own journeys through
+the jungle, often of from two to five hundred miles, I have frequently
+returned without observing a single snake. Mr. Bennett, who resided much
+in the south-east of the island, ascribes the rarity of serpents in the
+jungle to the abundance of the wild peafowl, whose partiality to young
+snakes renders them the chief destroyers of these reptiles. It is
+likely, too, that they are killed by the jungle-cocks; for they are
+frequently eaten by the common barn-door fowl in Ceylon. This is
+rendered the more probable by the fact, that in those districts where
+the extension of cultivation, and the visits of sportsmen, have reduced
+the numbers of the jungle-cocks and pea-fowl, snakes have perceptibly
+increased. The deer also are enemies of the snakes, and the natives who
+have had opportunities of watching their encounters assert that they
+have seen deer rush upon a serpent and crush it by leaping on it with
+all its four feet. As to the venomous powers of snakes, DR. DAVY, whose
+attention was carefully directed to the poisonous serpents of Ceylon[3],
+came to the conclusion that but _four_, out of twenty species examined
+by him, were venomous, and that of these only two (the _tic-polonga_[4]
+and _cobra de capello_[5]) were capable of inflicting a wound likely to
+be fatal to man. The third is the _carawala_[6], a brown snake of about
+two feet in length; and for the fourth, of which only a few specimens
+have been procured, the Singhalese have no name in their vernacular--a
+proof that it is neither deadly nor abundant. But Dr. Davy's estimate of
+the venom of the _carawala_ is below the truth, as cases have been
+authenticated to me, in which death from its bite ensued within a few
+days. The effect, however, is not uniformly fatal; a circumstance which
+the natives explain by asserting that there are three varieties of the
+carawala, named the _hil-la_, the _dunu_, and the _mal_-carawala; the
+second being the largest and the most dreaded.
+
+[Footnote 1: Genesis iii. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 2: This is not likely to be true: in a very large collection
+of snakes made in Ceylon by Mr. C.R. Butler, and recently examined by
+Dr. Günther, of the British Museum, only a single-specimen proved to be
+new.
+
+There is, however, one venomous snake, of the existence of which I am
+assured by a native correspondent in Ceylon, no mention has yet been
+made by European naturalists. It is called M[=a]pil[=a] by the
+Singhalese; it is described to me as being about four feet in length, of
+the diameter of the little finger, and of a uniform dark brown colour.
+It is said to be often seen in company with another snake called in
+Singhalese _Lay Medilla_, a name which implies its deep red hue. The
+latter is believed to be venomous. It would be well if some collector in
+Ceylon would send home for examination the species which respectively
+bear these names.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See DAVY'S _Ceylon_, ch. xiv.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Daboia elegans, _Daud._]
+
+[Footnote 5: Naja tripudians, _Merr._]
+
+[Footnote 6: Trigonocephalus hypnale, _Merr._]
+
+In like manner, the _tic-polonga_, particularised by Dr. Davy, is said
+to be but one out of seven varieties of that formidable reptile. The
+word "tic" means literally the "spotted" polonga, from the superior
+clearness of the markings on its scales. Another, the _nidi_, or
+"sleeping" polonga, is so called from the fact that a person bitten by
+it is soon prostrated by a lethargy from which he never awakes.[1] These
+formidable serpents so infested the official residence of the District
+Judge of Trincomalie in 1858, as to compel his family to abandon it. In
+another instance, a friend of mine, going hastily to take a supply of
+wafers from an open tin case which stood in his office, drew back his
+hand, on finding the box occupied by a tic-polonga coiled within it.
+During my residence in Ceylon, I never heard of the death of a European
+which was caused by the bite of a snake; and in the returns of coroners'
+inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the natives
+appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the animal, having been
+surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in self-defence.[2] For
+these reasons the Singhalese, when obliged to leave their houses in the
+dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the noise[3] of which as they
+strike it on the ground is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their
+path.
+
+[Footnote 1: The other varieties are the _getta, lay, alu, kunu,_ and
+_nil-polongas._ I have heard of an eighth, the _palla-polonga_.
+
+Amongst the numerous pieces of folk-lore in Ceylon in connexion with
+snakes, is the belief that a deadly enmity subsists between the polonga
+and the cobra de capello, and that the latter, which is naturally shy
+and retiring, is provoked to conflicts by the audacity of its rival.
+Hence the proverb applied to persons at enmity, that "they hate like the
+polonga and cobra."
+
+The Singhalese believe the polonga to be by far the most savage and
+wanton of the two, and they illustrate this by a popular legend, that
+once upon a time a child, in the absence of its mother, was playing
+beside a tub of water, which a cobra, impelled by thirst during a
+long-continued drought, approached to drink, the unconscious child all
+the while striking it with its hands to prevent the intrusion. The
+cobra, on returning, was met by a tic-polonga, which seeing its scales
+dripping with delicious moisture, entreated to be told the way to the
+well. The cobra, knowing the vicious habits of the other snake, and
+anticipating that it would kill the innocent child which it had so
+recently spared, at first refused, and only yielded on condition that
+the infant was not to be molested. But the polonga, on reaching the tub,
+was no sooner obstructed by the little one, than it stung him to death.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In a return of 112 coroners' inquests, in cases of death
+from wild animals, held in Ceylon in five years, from 1851 to 1855
+inclusive, 68 are ascribed to the bites of serpents; and in almost every
+instance the assault is set down as having taken place _at night_. The
+majority of the sufferers were children and women.]
+
+[Footnote 3: PLINY notices that the serpent has the sense of hearing
+more acute than that of sight; and that it is more frequently put in
+motion by the sound of footsteps than by the appearance of the intruder,
+"excitatur pede sæpius."--Lib, viii. c. 36.]
+
+_Cobra de Capello._--The cobra de capello is the only one exhibited by
+the itinerant snake-charmers: and the truth of Davy's conjecture, that
+they control it, not by extracting its fangs, but by courageously
+availing themselves of its well-known timidity and extreme reluctance to
+use its fatal weapons, received a painful confirmation during my
+residence in Ceylon, by the death of one of these performers, whom his
+audience had provoked to attempt some unaccustomed familiarity with the
+cobra; it bit him on the wrist, and he expired the same evening. The
+hill near Kandy, on which the official residences of the Governor and
+Colonial Secretary are built, is covered in many places with the
+deserted nests of the white ants (_termites_), and these are the
+favourite retreats of the sluggish and spiritless cobra, which watches
+from their apertures the toads and lizards on which it preys. Here, when
+I have repeatedly come upon them, their only impulse was concealment;
+and on one occasion, when a cobra of considerable length could not
+escape, owing to the bank being nearly precipitous on both sides of the
+road, a few blows from my whip were sufficient to deprive it of life.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A Singhalese work, the _Sarpados[=a]_, enumerates four
+castes of the cobra;--the _raja_, or king: the _bamunu_, or Brahman; the
+_velanda_, or trader; and the _gori_, or agriculturist. Of these the
+raja, or "king of the cobras," is said to have the head and the anterior
+half of the body of so light a colour, that at a distance it seems like
+a silvery white. The work is quoted, but not correctly, in the _Ceylon
+Times_ for January, 1857. It is more than probable, as the division
+represents the four castes of the Hindus, Chastriyas, Brahmans Vaisyas,
+and Sudras; that the insertion of the _gori_ instead of the latter was a
+pious fraud of some copyist to confer rank upon the Vellales, the
+agricultural caste of Ceylon.]
+
+A gentleman who held a civil appointment at Kornegalle, had a servant
+who was bitten by a snake and he informed me that on enlarging a hole
+near the foot of the tree under which the accident occurred, he
+unearthed a cobra of upwards of three feet long, and so purely white as
+to induce him to believe that it was an albino. With the exception of
+the _rat-snake_[1], the cobra de capello is the only serpent which seems
+from choice to frequent the vicinity of human dwellings, doubtless
+attracted by the young of the domestic fowl and by the moisture of the
+wells and drainage.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Coryphodon Blumenbachii._ There is a belief in Ceylon that
+the bite of the rat-snake, though harmless to man, is fatal to black
+cattle. The Singhalese add that it would be equally so to man were the
+wound to be touched by cow-dung. WOLF, in the interesting story of his
+_Life and Adventures in Ceylon_, mentions that rat-snakes were often so
+domesticated by the native as to feed at their table. He says: "I once
+saw an example of this in the house of a native. It being meal time, he
+called his snake, which immediately came forth from the roof under which
+he and I were sitting. He gave it victuals from his own dish, which the
+snake took of itself from off a fig-leaf that was laid for it, and ate
+along with its host. When it had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss, and
+bade it go to its hole." Major SKINNER, writing to me 12th Dec., 1858,
+mentions the still more remarkable case of the domestication of the
+cobra de capello in Ceylon. "Did you ever hear," he says, "of tame
+cobras being kept and domesticated about a house, going in and out at
+pleasure, and in common with the rest of the inmates? In one family,
+near Negombo, cobras are kept as protectors, in the place of dogs, by a
+wealthy man who has always large sums of money in his house. But this is
+not a solitary case of the kind. I heard of it only the other day, but
+from undoubtedly good authority. The snakes glide about the house, a
+terror to thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates."]
+
+The young cobras, it is said, in the _Sarpa-dosa_, are not venomous till
+after the thirteenth day, when they shed their coat for the first time.
+
+The Singhalese remark that if one cobra be destroyed near a house, its
+companion is almost certain to be discovered immediately after,--a
+popular belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more than one
+occasion. Once, when a snake of this description was killed in a bath of
+the Government House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot the
+day after; and again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long,
+having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its escape,
+its companion of the same size was found the same morning in an
+adjoining drain.[1] On this occasion the snake, which had been several
+hours in the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood above
+water; and instances have repeatedly occurred of the cobra de capello
+voluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea. When the
+"Wellington," a government vessel employed in the conservancy of the
+pearl banks, was anchored about a quarter of a mile from the land, in
+the bay of Koodremalé, a cobra was seen, about an hour before sunset,
+swimming vigorously towards the ship. It came within twelve yards, when
+the sailors assailed it with billets of wood and other missiles, and
+forced it to return to land. The following morning they discovered the
+track which it had left on the shore, and traced it along the sand till
+it was lost in the jungle. On a later occasion, in the vicinity of the
+same spot, when the "Wellington" was lying at some distance from the
+shore, a cobra was found and killed on board, where it could only have
+gained access by climbing up the cable. It was first discovered by a
+sailor, who felt the chill as it glided over his foot.
+
+[Footnote 1: PLINY notices the affection that subsists between the male
+and female asp; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other
+seeks to avenge its death.--Lib. viii. c. 37.]
+
+One curious tradition in Ceylon embodies the popular legend, that the
+stomach of the cobra de capello occasionally contains a precious stone
+of such unapproachable brilliancy as to surpass all known jewels. This
+inestimable stone is called the _n[=a]ga-m[=a]nik-kya_; but not one
+snake in thousands is supposed to possess such a treasure. The cobra,
+before eating, is believed to cast it up and conceal it for the moment;
+else its splendour, like a flambeau, would attract all beholders. The
+tales of the peasantry, in relation to it, all turn upon the devices of
+those in search of the gem, and the vigilance and cunning of the cobra
+by which they are baffled; the reptile itself being more enamoured of
+the priceless jewel than even its most ardent pursuers.
+
+In BENNETT'S account of "_Ceylon and its Capabilities_," there is
+another curious piece of Singhalese folk-lore, to the effect, that the
+cobra de capello every time it expends its poison _loses a joint of its
+tail_, and eventually acquires a head resembling that of a toad. A
+recent addition to zoological knowledge has thrown light on the origin
+of this popular fallacy. The family of "false snakes" (_pseudo
+typhlops_, as Schlegel names the group) have till lately consisted of
+but three species, of which only one was known to inhabit Ceylon. They
+belong to a family intermediate between the serpents and that Saurian
+group-commonly called _Slow-worms_ or _Glass-snakes_; they in fact
+represent the slow-worms of the temperate regions in Ceylon. They have
+the body of a snake, but the cleft of their mouth is very narrow, and
+they are unable to detach the lateral parts of the lower jaw from each
+other, as the true snakes do when devouring a prey. The most striking
+character of the group, however, is the size and form of the tail; this
+is very short, and according to the observations of Professor Peters of
+Berlin[1], shorter in the female than in the male. It does not terminate
+in a point as in other snakes, but is truncated obliquely, the abrupt
+surface of its extremity being either entirely flat, or more or less
+convex, and always covered with rough keels. The reptile assists its own
+movements by pressing the rough end to the ground, and from this
+peculiar form of the tail, the family has received the name of
+_Uropeltidæ_, or "Shield-tails." Within a very recent period important
+additions have been made to this family. which now consists of four
+genera and eleven species. Those occurring in Ceylon are enumerated in
+the List appended to this chapter. One of these, the _Uropeltis grandis_
+of Kelaart[2], is distinguished by its dark brown colour, shot with a
+bluish metallic lustre, closely approaching the ordinary shade of the
+cobra; and the tail is abruptly and flatly compressed as though it had
+been severed by a knife. The form of this singular reptile will be best
+understood by a reference to the accompanying figure; and there can, I
+think, be little doubt that to its strange and anomalous structure is to
+be traced the fable of the transformation of the cobra de capello. The
+colour alone would seem to identify the two reptiles, but the head and
+mouth are no longer those of a serpent, and the disappearance of the
+tail might readily suggest the mutilation which the tradition asserts.
+
+[Illustration: THE UROPELTIS PHILIPPINUS.]
+
+[Footnote 1: PETERS, _De Serpentum familia Uropeltaceorum_. Berol, 4.
+1861.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The _Uropeltis grandis_ of Kelaart, which was at first
+supposed to be a new species, proves to be identical with _U.
+Phillippinus_ of Cuvier. It is doubtful, however, whether this species
+be found in the Phillippine Islands, as stated by Cuvier; and it is more
+than, probable that the typical specimen came from Ceylon--a further
+illustration of the affinity of the fauna of Ceylon to that of the
+Eastern Archipelago. The characteristics of this reptile, as given by
+Dr. GRAY, are as follows:--"Caudal disc subcircular, with large
+scattered tubercles; snout subacute, slightly produced. Dark brown,
+lighter below, with some of the scales dark brown in the centre near the
+posterior edge. GRAY, _Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1858, p. 262.]
+
+The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence from inflicting
+death on any creature, are accustomed, after securing a venomous snake,
+to enclose it in a basket woven of palm leaves, and to set it afloat on
+a river.
+
+_The Python._--The great python[1] (the "boa," as it is commonly
+designated by Europeans, the "anaconda" of Eastern story), which is
+supposed to crush the bones of an elephant, and to swallow the tiger, is
+found, though not of such portentous dimensions, in the cinnamon gardens
+within a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it feeds on hog-deer, and
+other smaller animals.
+
+[Footnote 1: Python reticulatus, _Gray_.]
+
+The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it to a pole expose
+it for sale as a curiosity. One that was brought to me tied in this way
+measured seventeen feet with a proportionate thickness: but one more
+fully grown, which crossed my path on a coffee estate on the Peacock
+Mountain at Pusilawa, considerably exceeded these dimensions. Another
+which I watched in the garden at Elie House, near Colombo, surprised me
+by the ease with which it erected itself almost perpendicularly in order
+to scale a wall upwards of ten feet high.
+
+The Singhalese assert that when it has swallowed a deer, or any animal
+of similarly inconvenient bulk, the python draws itself through the
+narrow aperture between two trees, in order to crush the bones and
+assist in the process of deglutition.
+
+It is a singular fact that the small and innocuous ground-snakes called
+_Calamariæ_, which abound on the continent of India and in the islands
+are not to be found in Ceylon; where they would appear to be replaced by
+two singular genera, the _Aspidura_ and _Haplocercus_, These latter have
+only one series of shields below the tail, whilst most other harmless
+snakes (_Calamaria_ included) have a double series of sub-candals. The
+_Aspidura_ has been known to naturalists for many years[1]; the
+_Haplocercus_ of Ceylon has only recently been described by Dr. Günther,
+and of it not more than three existing specimens are known: hence its
+habits and the extent of its distribution over the island are still left
+in uncertainty.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Boie in Isis 1827 p. 517.]
+
+[Footnote 2: GÜNTH. _Col. Snakes_, p. 14. In the hope that some inquirer
+in Ceylon will be able to furnish such information as may fill up this
+blank in the history of the haplocercus, the following particulars are
+here appended. The largest of the specimens in the British Museum is
+about twenty-five inches in length; the body thin, and much elongated;
+the head narrow, and not distinct from the neck, the tail of moderate
+length. Forehead covered by three shields, one anterior and two
+posterior frontals; no loreal shield; one small shield before, two
+behind the eye; seven shields along the upper lip, the eye being above
+the fourth. The scales are disposed in seventeen longitudinal series;
+they are lanceolate and strongly keeled. The upper parts are uniform
+blackish or brown, with two dorsal rows of small indistinct black spots;
+occiput with a whitish collar, edged with darker. The lower parts
+uniform yellowish.]
+
+Of ten species of snakes that ascend trees in Ceylon to search for
+squirrels and lizards, and to rifle the nests of birds, one half,
+including the green _carawala_, and the deadly _tic polonga_, are
+believed by the natives to be venomous; but the truth of this is very
+dubious. I have heard of the cobra being found on the crown of a
+coco-nut palm, attracted, it was said, by the toddy which was flowing at
+the time, it being the season for drawing it. Surrounding Elie House,
+near Colombo, in which I resided, were a number of tall _casuarinas_ and
+India-rubber trees, whose branches almost touched the lattices of the
+window of the room in which I usually sat. These were a favourite resort
+of the tree-snakes, and in the early morning the numbers which clung to
+them were sometimes quite remarkable. I had thus an opportunity of
+observing the action of these creatures, which seems to me one of
+vigilance rather than of effort, the tongue being in perpetual activity,
+as if it were an organ of feeling; and in those in which the nose is
+elongated, a similar mobility and restlessness, especially when alarmed,
+affords evidence of the same faculty.
+
+The general characteristic of the Tree-snake is an exceedingly thin and
+delicate body, often adorned with colours exquisite as those of the
+foliage amongst which they live concealed. In some of the South American
+species the tints vie in brilliancy with those of the humming-birds;
+whilst their forms are so flexible and slender as to justify the name
+conferred on them of "_whip-snakes_." The Siamese, to denote these
+combinations of grace and splendour, call them "Sun-beams." A
+naturalist[1], describing a bright green species in Brazil (_Philodryas
+viridissimus_), writes: "I am always delighted when I find that another
+tree-snake has settled in my garden. You look for a bird's nest, the
+young ones have gone, but you find their bed occupied by one of these
+beautiful creatures, which will coil up its body of two feet in length
+within a space no larger than the hollow of your hand. They appear to be
+always watchful; for at the instant you discover one, the quick playing
+of the long, black, forked tongue will show you that you too are
+observed. On perceiving the slightest sign of your intention to disturb
+it, the snake will dart upwards through the branches and over the leaves
+which scarcely appear to bend beneath the weight. A moment more, and you
+have lost sight of it. Whenever I return to Europe, you may be sure that
+in my hot-house those harmless, lovely creatures shall not be missing."
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. WUCHERER of Bahia.]
+
+[Illustration: TREE SNAKE. Passerita fusca.]
+
+Ceylon has several species of Tree-snakes, and one of the most common is
+the green _Passerita_, easily recognized from its bright colour and from
+the pointed moveable appendage, into which the snout is prolonged. The
+snakes of this genus being active chiefly during the night, the pupil of
+the eye is linear and horizontal. They never willingly descend from
+trees, but prey there upon nocturnal Saurians, geckoes, small birds and
+their young; and they are perfectly harmless, although they often try to
+bite. It is strange that none of the numerous specimens which it has
+been attempted to bring to Europe have ever fed in captivity; whilst in
+South America they take their food freely in confinement, provided that
+some green plants are placed in their cage.
+
+In Ceylon I have never seen any specimen of a larger size than three
+feet; whilst they are known to attain to more than five on the Indian
+Continent.
+
+The inference is obvious, that the green coloration of the majority of
+tree-snakes has more or less connection with their habits and mode of
+life. Indeed, whenever a green-coloured snake is observed, it may at
+once be pronounced, if slender or provided with a prehensile tail, to be
+of the kind which passes its life on trees; but if it be short-bodied
+then it lives on the prairies. There are nevertheless tree-snakes which
+have a very different coloration; and one of the most remarkable species
+is the _Passerita fusca_ or _Dryinus fuscus_, of which a figure is
+annexed. It closely resembles the green Passerita in form, so that
+naturalists have considered it to be a mere variety. It is entirely of a
+shining brown, shot with purple, and the yellow longitudinal stripe
+which runs along the side of the belly of the green species, is absent
+in this one. It is much more rare than the green one, and does not
+appear to be found in Hindostan: no intermediate forms have been
+observed in Ceylon.
+
+_Water-Snakes._--The fresh-water snakes, of which several species[1]
+inhabit the still waters and pools, are all harmless in Ceylon. A
+gentleman, who found near a river an agglutinated cluster of the eggs of
+one variety (_Tropidophis schistosus_), placed them under a glass shade
+on his drawing-room table, where one by one the young reptiles emerged
+from the shell to the number of twenty.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chersydrus granulatus, _Merr_.; Cerberus cinereus. _Daud._;
+Tropidophis schistosus, _Daud._]
+
+The _sea-snakes_ of the Indian tropics did not escape the notice of the
+early Greek mariners who navigated those seas; and amongst the facts
+collected by them, Ælian has briefly recorded that the Indian Ocean
+produces serpents _with flattened tails_[1], whose bite, he adds, is to
+be dreaded less for its venom than the laceration of its teeth. The
+first statement is accurate, but the latter is incorrect, as there is an
+all but unanimous concurrence of opinion that every species of this
+family of serpents is more or less poisonous. The compression of the
+tail noticed by Ælian is one of the principal characteristics of these
+reptiles, as their motion through the water is mainly effected by its
+aid, coupled with the undulating movement of the rest of the body. Their
+scales, instead of being imbricated like those of land-snakes, form
+hexagons; and those on the belly, instead of being scutate and enlarged,
+are nearly of the same size and form as on other parts of the body.
+
+[Footnote 1: "[Greek: Plateis tas ouras]." ÆLIAN, L. xvi. c. 8.
+
+Ælian speaks elsewhere of fresh-water snakes. His remark on the
+compression of the tail shows that his informants were aware of this
+speciality in those that inhabit the sea.]
+
+Sea-snakes (_Hydrophis_) are found on all the coasts of Ceylon. I have
+sailed through large shoals of them in the Gulf of Manaar, close to the
+pearl-banks of Aripo. The fishermen of Calpentyn on the west live in
+perpetual dread of them, and believe their bite to be fatal. In the
+course of an attempt which was recently made to place a lighthouse on
+the great rocks of the south-east coast, known by seamen as the
+Basses[1], or _Baxos_, the workmen who first landed found the portion of
+the surface liable to be covered by the tides, honeycombed, and hollowed
+into deep holes filled with water, in which were abundance of fishes and
+some molluscs. Some of these cavities also contained sea-snakes from
+four to five feet long, which were described as having the head "hooded
+like the cobra de capello, and of a light grey colour, slightly
+speckled. They coiled themselves like serpents on land, and darted at
+poles thrust in among them. The Singhalese who accompanied the party,
+said that they not only bit venomously, but crushed the limb of any
+intruder in their coils."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: The Basses are believed to be the remnants of the great
+island of Giri, swallowed up by the sea.--_Mahawanso_, ch. i. p. 4. They
+may possibly be the _Bassæ_ of Ptolemy's map of _Taprobane_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Official Report to the Governor of Ceylon.]
+
+Still, sea-snakes, though well-known to the natives, are not abundant
+round Ceylon, as compared with their numbers in other places. Their
+principal habitat is the ocean between the southern shores of China and
+the northern coast of New Holland; and their western limit appears to be
+about the longitude of Cape Comorin. It has long since been ascertained
+that they frequent the seas that separate the islands of the Pacific;
+but they have never yet been found in the Atlantic, nor even on the
+western shores of tropical America. And if, as has been stated[1], they
+have been seen on a late occasion in considerable numbers in the Bay of
+Panama, the fact can only be regarded as one of the rare instances, in
+which a change in the primary distribution of a race of animals has
+occurred, either by an active or a passive immigration. Being
+exclusively inhabitants of the sea, they are liable to be swept along by
+the influence of currents; but to compensate for this they have been
+endowed with a wonderful power of swimming. The individuals of all the
+groups of terrestrial serpents are observed to be possessed of this
+faculty to a greater or a less degree; and they can swim for a certain
+distance without having any organs specially modified for the purpose;
+except, perhaps, the lung, which is a long sac capable of taking in a
+sufficient quantity of air, to keep the body of the snake above water.
+Nor do we find any peculiar or specially adapted organs even in the
+freshwater-snakes, although they can catch frogs or fishes while
+swimming. But in the _hydrophids_, which are permanent inhabitants of
+the ocean, and which in an adult state, approach the beach only
+occasionally, and for very short times, the tail, which is rounded and
+tapering in the others, is compressed into a vertical rudder-like organ,
+similar to, and answering all the purposes of, the caudal fin in a fish.
+When these snakes are brought on shore or on the deck of a ship, they
+are helpless and struggle vainly in awkward attitudes. Their food
+consists exclusively of such fishes as are found near the surface; a
+fact which affords ample proof that they do not descend to great depths,
+although they can dive as well as swim. They are often found in groups
+during calm weather, sleeping on the sea; but owing to their extreme
+caution and shyness, attempts to catch them are rarely successful; on
+the least alarm, they suddenly expel the air from their lungs and
+descend below the surface; a long stream of rising air-bubbles marking
+the rapid course which they make below. Their poisonous nature has been
+questioned; but the presence of a strong perforated tooth and of a
+venomous gland sufficiently attest their dangerous powers, even if these
+had not been demonstrated by the effects of their bite. But fortunately
+for the fishermen, who sometimes find them unexpectedly among the
+contents of their nets, sea-snakes are unable, like other venomous
+serpents, to open the jaws widely, and in reality they rarely inflict a
+wound. Dr. Cantor believes, that, they are blinded by the light when
+removed from their own element; and he adds that they become sluggish
+and speedily die.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Catal. Mal. Rept_. p. 136.]
+
+[Illustration: SEA SNAKE Hydrophis subloevis]
+
+Those found near the coasts of Ceylon are generally small,--from one to
+three feet in length, and apparently immature; and it is certain that
+the largest specimens taken in the Pacific do not attain to greater
+length than eight feet. In colour they are generally of a greenish
+brown, in parts inclining to yellow, with occasionally cross bands of
+black. The species figured in the accompanying drawing is the _Hydrophis
+subloevis_ of Gray; or _Hydrus cyanocinctus_ of Boie.[1] The specimen
+from which the drawing is taken, was obtained by Dr. Templeton at
+Colombo.
+
+[Footnote 1: Its technical characteristics are as follows,--Body rather
+slender; ground colour yellowish with irregular black rings. Scales
+nearly smooth; ventral plates broad, six-sided, smooth, some divided
+into two, by a slight central groove. Occipital shields large,
+triangular, and produced, with a small central shield behind them; a
+series of four large temporal shields; chin shields in two pairs; eyes
+very small, over the fourth and fifth labials; one ante-and two
+post-oculars; the second upper labial shield elongated.]
+
+The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-stone, as a remedy in cases of
+wounds by venomous serpents, has probably been communicated to the
+Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island from
+the coast of Coromandel; and more than one well-authenticated instance
+of its successful application has been told to me by persons who had
+been eye-witnesses to what they described. On one occasion, in March,
+1854, a friend of mine was riding, with some other civil officers of the
+Government, along a jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he saw
+one of two Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart into
+the forest and return, holding in both hands a cobra de capello which he
+had seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion for
+assistance to place it in their covered basket, but, in doing this, he
+handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and retained
+its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract its fangs. The blood
+flowed, and intense pain appeared to follow almost immediately; but,
+with all expedition, the friend of the sufferer undid his waistcloth,
+and took from it two snake-stones, each of the size of a small almond,
+intensely black and highly polished, though of an extremely light
+substance. These he applied, one to each wound inflicted by the teeth of
+the serpent, to which they attached themselves closely; the blood that
+oozed from the bites being rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of the
+article applied. The stones adhered tenaciously for three or four
+minutes, the wounded man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing his arm
+downwards from the shoulder towards the fingers. At length the
+snake-stones dropped off of their own accord; the suffering of the man
+appeared to subside; he twisted his fingers till the joints cracked, and
+went on his way without concern. Whilst this had been going on, another
+Indian of the party who had come up took from his bag a small piece of
+white wood, which resembled a root, and passed it gently near the head
+of the cobra, which the latter immediately inclined close to the ground;
+he then lifted the snake without hesitation, and coiled it into a circle
+at the bottom of his basket. The root by which he professed to be
+enabled to perform this operation with safety he called the _Naya-thalic
+Kalanga_ (the root of the snake-plant), protected by which he professed
+his ability to approach any reptile with impunity.
+
+In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, then District Judge of
+Kandy, informed me that he saw a snake-charmer in the jungle, close by
+the town, search for a cobra de capello, and, after disturbing one in
+its retreat, the man tried to secure it, but, in the attempt, he was
+bitten in the thigh till blood trickled from the wound. He instantly
+applied the _Pamboo-Kaloo_, which adhered closely for about ten minutes,
+during which time he passed the root which he held in his hand backwards
+and forwards above the stone, till the latter dropped to the ground. He
+assured Mr. Lavalliere that all danger was then past. That gentleman
+obtained from him the snake-stone he had relied on, and saw him
+repeatedly afterwards in perfect health.
+
+The substances used on both these occasions are now in my possession.
+The roots employed by the several parties are not identical. One appears
+to be a bit of the stem of an Aristolochia; the other is so dried as to
+render its identification difficult, but it resembles the quadrangular
+stem of a jungle vine. Some species of Aristolochia, such as the _A.
+serpentaria_ of North America, are supposed to act as specifics in the
+cure of snakebites; and the _A. indica_ is the plant to which the
+ichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an antidote when bitten[1];
+but it is probable that the use of any particular plant by the
+snake-charmers is a pretence, or rather a delusion, the reptile being
+overpowered by the resolute action of the operator[2], and not by the
+influence of any secondary appliance. In other words, the confidence
+inspired by the supposed talisman enables its possessor to address
+himself fearlessly to his task, and thus to effect, by determination and
+will, what is popularly believed to be the result of charms and
+stupefaction. Still it is curious that, amongst the natives of Northern
+Africa, who lay hold of the _Cerastes_ without fear or hesitation,
+impunity is ascribed to the use of a plant with the juice of which they
+anoint themselves before touching the reptile[3]; and Bruce says of the
+people of Sennar, that they acquire exemption from the fatal
+consequences of the bite by chewing a particular root, and washing
+themselves with an infusion of certain plants. He adds that a portion of
+this root was given him, with a view to test its efficacy in his own
+person, but that he had not sufficient resolution to make the
+experiment.
+
+[Footnote 1: For an account of the encounter between the ichneumon and
+the venomous snakes of Ceylon, see Ch. I. p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The following narrative of the operations of a
+snake-charmer in Ceylon is contained in a note from Mr. Reyne, of the
+department of public works: "A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in
+1851, requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing. As I had
+frequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee if he would
+accompany me to the jungle, and catch a cobra, that I knew frequented
+the place. He was willing, and as I was anxious to test the truth of the
+charm, I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch over them until I
+returned with him. Before going I examined the man, and satisfied myself
+he had no snake about his person. When we arrived at the spot, he played
+on a small pipe, and after persevering for some time out came a large
+cobra from an ant hill, which I knew it occupied. On seeing the man it
+tried to escape, but he caught it by the tail and kept swinging it round
+until we reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long it
+bit him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the bite,
+and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He was in
+great pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually went away, the
+stone falling off just before he was relieved. When he recovered he held
+a cloth up which the snake flew at, and caught its fangs in it; while in
+that position, the man passed his hand up its back, and having seized it
+by the throat, he extracted the fangs in my presence and gave them to
+me. He then squeezed out the poison on to a leaf. It was a clear oily
+substance, and when rubbed on the hand produced a fine lather. I
+carefully watched the whole operation, which was also witnessed by my
+clerk and two or three other persons. _Colombo, 13th January_
+1860.--H.E. REYNE."]
+
+[Footnote 3: Hasselquist.]
+
+As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the application of which
+I have been describing, to Mr. Faraday, who has communicated to me, as
+the result of his analysis, his belief that it is "a piece of charred
+bone which has been filled with blood perhaps several times, and then
+carefully charred again. Evidence of this is afforded, as well by the
+apertures of cells or tubes on its surface as by the fact that it yields
+and breaks, under pressure; and exhibits an organic structure within.
+When heated slightly, water rises from it, and also a little ammonia;
+and, if heated still more highly in the air, carbon burns away, and a
+bulky white ash is left, retaining the shape and size of the stone."
+This ash, as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged toany
+vegetable substance, for it is almost entirely composed of phosphate of
+lime. Mr. Faraday adds that "if the piece of matter has ever been
+employed as a spongy absorbent, it seems hardly fit for that purpose in
+its present state: but who can say to what treatment it has been
+subjected since it was fit for use, or to what treatment the natives may
+submit it when expecting to have occasion to use it?"
+
+The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when instantaneously
+applied, may be sufficiently porous and absorbent to extract the venom
+from the recent wound, together with a portion of the blood, before it
+has had time to be carried into the system; and that the blood which Mr.
+Faraday detected in the specimen submitted to him was that of the Indian
+on whose person the effect was exhibited on the occasion to which my
+informant was an eye-witness. The snake-charmers from the coast who
+visit Ceylon profess to prepare the snake-stones for themselves, and to
+preserve the composition a secret. Dr. Davy[1], on the authority of Sir
+Alexander Johnston, says the manufacture of them is a lucrative trade,
+carried on by the monks of Manilla, who supply the merchants of
+India--and his analysis confirms that of Mr. Faraday. Of the three
+different kinds which he examined--one being of partially burnt bone,
+and another of chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of vegetable matter,
+resembled bezoar,--all of them (except the first, which possessed a
+slight absorbent power) were quite inert, and incapable of having any
+effect except on the imagination of the patient. Thunberg was shown the
+snake-stone used by the boers at the Cape in 1772, which was imported
+for them "from the Indies, especially from Malabar," at so high a price
+that few of the farmers could afford to possess themselves of it; he
+describes it as convex on one side, black and so porous that "when
+thrown into water, it caused bubbles to rise;" and hence, by its
+absorbent qualities, it served, if speedily applied, to extract the
+poison from the wound.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Account of the Interior of Ceylon_, ch. iii. p. 101.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Thunberg_, vol. i. p. 155. Since the foregoing account was
+published, I have received a note from Mr. HARDY, relative to the
+_piedra ponsona_, the snake-stone of Mexico, in which he gives the
+following account of the method of preparing and applying it: "Take a
+piece of hart's horn of any convenient size and shape; cover it well
+round with grass or hay, enclose both in a thin piece of sheet copper
+well wrapped round them, and place the parcel in a charcoal fire till
+the bone is sufficiently charred.
+
+"When cold, remove the calcined horn from its envelope, when it will be
+ready for immediate use. In this state it will resemble a solid black
+fibrous substance, of the same shape and size as before it was subjected
+to this treatment.
+
+"USE.--The wound being slightly punctured, apply the bone to the
+opening, to which it will adhere firmly for the space of two minutes;
+and when it falls, it should be received into a basin of water. It
+should then be dried in a cloth, and again applied to the wound. But it
+will not adhere longer than about one minute. In like manner it may be
+applied a third time; but now it will fall almost immediately, and
+nothing will cause it to adhere any more.
+
+"These effects I witnessed in the case of a bite of a rattle-snake at
+Oposura, a town in the province of Sonora, in Mexico, from whence I
+obtained my recipe; and I have given other particulars respecting it in
+my Travels in the Interior of Mexico, published in 1830. R.W.H. HARDY.
+_Bath_, 30_th January_, 1860."]
+
+_Coecilia_.--The rocky jungle, bordering the higher coffee estates,
+provides a safe retreat for a very singular animal, first introduced to
+the notice of European naturalists about a century ago by Linnæus, who
+gave it the name _Coecilia glutinosa_, to indicate two peculiarities
+manifest to the ordinary observer--an apparent defect of vision, from
+the eyes being so small and embedded as to be scarcely distinguishable;
+and a power of secreting from minute pores in the skin a viscous fluid,
+resembling that of snails, eels, and some salamanders. Specimens are
+rare in Europe owing to the readiness with which it decomposes, breaking
+down into a flaky mass in the spirits in which it is attempted to
+preserve it.
+
+The creature is about the length and thickness of an ordinary round desk
+ruler, a little flattened before and rounded behind. It is brownish,
+with a pale stripe along either side. The skin is furrowed into 350
+circular folds, in which are imbedded minute scales. The head is
+tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine curved teeth for seizing
+the insects and worms on which it is supposed to live.
+
+Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and metamorphoses of this
+creature should be carefully ascertained, for great doubts have been
+entertained as to the position it is entitled to occupy in the chain of
+creation.
+
+_Batrachians._--In the numerous marshes formed by the overflowing of the
+rivers in the plains of the low country, there are many varieties of
+frogs, which, both by their colours and by their extraordinary size, are
+calculated to excite the surprise of a stranger. In the lakes around
+Colombo and the still water near Trincomalie, there are huge creatures
+of this family, from six to eight inches in length[1], of an olive hue,
+deepening into brown on the back and yellow on the under side. A Kandyan
+species, recently described, is of much smaller dimensions, but
+distinguished by its brilliant colouring, a beautiful grass green above
+and deep orange underneath[2].
+
+[Footnote 1: A Singhalese variety of the _Rana cutipora?_ and the
+Malabar bull-frog, _Hylarana Malabarica_. A frog named by BLYTH _Rana
+robusta_ proves to be a Ceylon specimen of the _R. cutipora_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _R. Kandiana_, Kelaart.]
+
+In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the graceful little
+tree-frogs[1] were to be found in great numbers, sheltered under broad
+leaves to protect them from the scorching sun;--some of them utter a
+sharp metallic sound at night, similar to that produced by smacking the
+lips.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Polypedates maculatus,_ Gray.]
+
+In the gardens and grounds toads[1] crouch in the shade, and pursue the
+flies and minute coleoptera. In Ceylon, as in Europe, these creatures
+suffer from the bad renown of injecting a poison into the wound
+inflicted by their bite.[2] The main calumny is confuted by the fact
+that no toad has yet been discovered furnished with any teeth
+whatsoever; but the obnoxious repute still attaches to the milky
+exudation sometimes perceptible from glands situated on either side
+behind the head; nevertheless experiments have shown, that though acrid,
+the secretions of the toad are incapable of exciting more than a slight
+erythema on the most delicate skins. The smell is, however, fetid and
+offensive, and hence toads are less exposed to the attacks of
+carnivorous animals and of birds than frogs, in which such glands do not
+exist.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Bufo melanostictus_, Schneid.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In Ceylon this error is as old as the third century, B.C.,
+when, as the _Mahawanso_ tells us, the wife of "King Asoka attempted to
+destroy the great bo-tree (at Magadha) _with, the poisoned fang of a
+toad._"--Ch. xx. p. 122.]
+
+In the class of Reptiles, those only are included in the order of
+Batrachians which undergo a metamorphosis before attaining maturity; and
+as they offer the only example amongst Vertebrate animals of this
+marvellous transformation, they are justly considered as the lowest in
+the scale, with the exception of fishes, which remain during life in
+that stage of development which is only the commencement of existence to
+a frog.
+
+In undergoing this change, it is chiefly the organs of respiration that
+manifest alteration. In its earliest form the young batrachian, living
+in the water, breathes as a fish does by _gills_, either free and
+projecting as in the water-newt, or partially covered by integument as
+in the tadpole. But the gills disappear as the lungs gradually become
+developed: the duration of the process being on an average one hundred
+days from the time the eggs were first deposited. After this important
+change, the true batrachian is incapable any longer of living
+continuously in water, and either betakes itself altogether to the land,
+or seeks the surface from time to time to replenish its exhausted
+lungs.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A few Batrachians, such as the _Siren_ of Carolina, the
+_Proteus_ of Illyria, the _Axolotl_ of Mexico, and the _Menobranchus_ of
+the North American Lakes, retain their gills during life; but although
+provided with lungs in mature age, they are not capable of living out of
+the water. Such batrachians form an intermediate link between reptiles
+and fishes.]
+
+The change in the digestive functions during metamorphosis is scarcely
+less extraordinary; frogs, for example, which feed on animal substances
+at maturity, subsist entirely upon vegetable when in the condition of
+larvæ, and the subsidiary organs undergo remarkable development, the
+intestinal canal in the earlier stage being five times its length in the
+later one.
+
+Of the family of tailed batrachians, Ceylon does not furnish a single
+example; but of those without this appendage, the island, as above
+remarked, affords many varieties; seven distinguishable species
+pertaining to the genus _rana_, or true frogs with webs to the hind
+feet; two to the genus _bufo_, or true toads, and five to the
+_Polypedates_, or East Indian "tree-frogs;" besides a few others in
+allied genera. The "tree-frog," whose toes are terminated by rounded
+discs which assist it in climbing, possesses, in a high degree, the
+faculty of changing its hues; and one as green as a leaf to-day, will be
+found grey and spotted like the bark to-morrow. One of these beautiful
+little creatures, which had seated itself on the gilt pillar of a lamp
+on my dinner-table, became in a few minutes scarcely distinguishable in
+colour from the or-molu ornament to which it clung.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Reptiles._
+
+I am indebted to Dr. Gray and Dr. Günther, of the British Museum, for a
+list of the reptiles of Ceylon; but many of those new to Europeans have
+been carefully described by the late Dr. Kelaart in his _Prodromus Fauna
+Zeylanicæ_ and its appendices, as well as in the 13th vol. _Magaz. Nat.
+Hist._ (1854).
+
+
+
+      SAURA.
+
+  Hydrosaurus
+    salvator, _Wagler._
+  Monitor
+    dracæna, _Linn._
+  Riopa
+    punctata, _Linn._
+    Hardwickii, _Gray._
+  Brachymeles
+    Bonitæ, _Dum. & Bib._
+  Tiliqua
+    rufescens, _Shaw._
+  Eumeces
+    Taprobanius, _Kel._
+  Nessia
+    Burtoni, _Gray._
+  Acontias
+    Layardi, _Kelaart._
+  Argyrophis
+    bramicus, _Daud._
+  Lygosoma
+    fallax, _Peters._
+  Rhinophis
+    oxyrhynchus, _Schn._
+    punctatus, _J. Müll_
+    philippinus, _J. Müll_
+    homolepis, _Hempr._
+    planiceps, _Peters._
+    Blythii, _Kelaart._
+    melanogaster, _Gray._
+  Uropeltis
+    grandis, _Kelaart._
+    _saffragamus, Kelaart._
+  Silybura
+    Ceylonica, _Cuv._
+  Hemidactylus
+    frenatus, _Schleg._
+    Leschenaultii, _Dum. & Bib._
+    trihedrus, _Daud._
+    maculatus, _Dum. & Bib._
+    Piresii, _Kelaart._
+    Coctoei, _Dum. & Bib._
+    pustulatus, _Dum._
+    sublævis, _Cantor._
+  Peripia
+    Peronii, _Dum. & Bib._
+  Gymnodactylus
+    Kandianus, _Kelaart._
+  Sitana
+    Ponticereana, _Cuv._
+  Lyriocephalus
+    scutatus, _Linn._
+  Ceratophora
+    Stoddartii, _Gray._
+    Tennentii, _Günther._
+  Otocryptis
+    bivittata, _Wiegm._
+  _Salea Jerdoni, Gray._
+  Calotes
+    ophiomachus, _Merr._
+    nigrilabris, _Peters._
+    versicolor, _Daud._
+    Rouxii, _Dum. & Bib._
+    mystaceus, _Dum._
+  Chameleo
+    vulgaris, _Daud._
+
+
+      OPHIDIA.
+
+  Megæra
+    trigonocephala, _Latr._
+  Trigonocephalus
+    hypnalis, _Merr._
+  Daboia
+    elegans, _Daud._
+  _Pelamys_
+    _bicolor, Daud._
+  _Aturia_
+    _lapemoides, Gray._
+  Hydrophis
+    sublævis, _Gray._
+    cyanocinctus, _Daud._
+  Chersydrus
+    granulatus, _Schneid_.
+  Cerberus
+    cinereus, _Daud._
+  Tropidophis
+    schistosus, _Daud._
+  Python
+    reticulatus, _Gray._
+  Cylindrophis
+    rufa, _Schneid._
+    maculata, _Linn._
+  Aspidura
+    brachyorrhos, _Boie._
+    trachyprocta, _Cope._
+  Haplocercus
+    Ceylonensis, _Günth._
+  Oligodon
+    subquadratus, _Dum. & Bib._
+    subgriseus, _Dum. & Bib._
+    sublineatus, _Dum. & Bib._
+  Simotes
+    Russellii, _Daud._
+    purpurascens, _Schleg._
+  Ablabes
+    collaris, _Gray._
+  Tropidonotus
+    quincunciatus, _Schleg._
+      var. funebris.
+      var. carinatus.
+    stolatus, _Linn._
+    chrysargus, _Boie._
+  Cynophis
+    Helena, _Daud._
+  Coryphodon
+    Blumenbachii, _Merr._
+  Cyclophis
+    calamaria, _Günth._
+  Chrysopelea
+    ornata, _Shaw._
+  Dendrophis
+    picta, _Gm._
+  Passerita
+    mycterizans, _Linn._
+    fusca.
+  Dipsadomorphus
+    Ceylonensis, _Günth._
+  Lycodon
+    aulicus, _Linn._
+  Cercaspis
+    carinata, _Kuhl._
+  Bungarus
+    fasciatus, _Schneid._
+    var. Ceylonensis, _Gthr._
+  Naja
+    tripudians, _Merr._
+
+
+      CHELONIA.
+
+  Testudo
+    stellata, _Schweig._
+  Emys
+    Sebæ, _Gray._
+    trijuga, _Schweigg._
+  Caretta
+    imbricata, _Linn._
+  Chelonia
+    virgata, _Schweigg._
+
+
+      EMYDOSAURI.
+
+  Crocodilus
+    biporcatus. _Cuv._
+    palustris, _Less._
+
+
+      BATRACHIA.
+
+  Rana
+    hexadactyla, _Less._
+    Kuhlii, _Schleg._
+    cutipora, _Dum. & Bib._
+    tigrina, _Daud._
+    vittigera, _Wiegm._
+    Malabarica, _Dum. & Bib._
+    Kandiana, _Kelaart._
+    Neuera-elliana, _Kel._
+  Bufo
+    melanostictus, _Schneid._
+    Kelaartii, _Günth._
+  Ixalus
+    variabilis, _Günth._
+    leucorhinus, _Martens._
+    poecilopleurus, _Mart._
+    aurifasciatus, _Schleg._
+    schmardanus, _Kelaart._
+  Polypedates
+    maculatus, _Gray._
+    microtympanum, _Gth._
+    eques, _Günth._
+  Limnodytes
+    lividus, _Blyth._
+    macularis, _Blyth._
+    mutabilis, _Kelaart._
+    maculatus, _Kelaart._
+  Kaloula
+    pulchra, _Gray._
+    balteata, var. _Günth._
+    stellata, _Kelaart._
+  Adenomus
+    badioflavus, _Copr._
+  Pyxicephalus
+    fodiens, _Jerd._
+  Engystoma
+    rubrum, _Jerd._
+
+
+      PSEUDOPHIDIA.
+
+  Cæcilia
+    glutinosa, _Linn._
+
+
+NOTE.--The following species are peculiar to Ceylon (and the genera
+Ceratophora, Otocryptis, Uropeltis, Aspidura. Cercaspis, and Haplocercus
+would appear to be similarly restricted);--Lygosoma fallax; Trimesurus
+Ceylonensis, T. nigromarginatus; Megæra Trigonocephala; Trigonocephalus
+hypnalis; Daboia elegans; Rhinophis punctatus, Rh. homolepis, Rh.
+planiceps, Rh. Blythii, Rh. melanogaster; Uropeltis grandis; Silybura
+Ceylonica; Cylindrophis maculata; Aspidura brachyorrhos; Haplocercus
+Ceylonensis; Oligodon sublineatus; Cynophis Helena; Cyclophis calamaria;
+Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis; Cercaspis carinata; Ixalus variabilis, I.
+leucorhinus, I. poecilopleurus; Polypedates microtympanum. P. eques.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. X.
+
+FISHES.
+
+
+Hitherto no branch of the zoology of Ceylon has been so imperfectly
+investigated as its Ichthyology. Little has been done in the examination
+and description of its fishes, especially those which frequent the
+rivers and inland waters. Mr. BENNETT, who was for some years employed
+in the Civil Service, directed his attention to the subject, and
+published in 1830 some portions of a projected work on the marine fishes
+of the island[1], but it never proceeded beyond the description of
+thirty individuals. The great work of Cuvier and Valenciennes[2]
+particularises about one hundred species, specimens of which were
+procured from Ceylon by Reynard, Leschenault and other correspondents;
+but of these not more than half a dozen belong to fresh water.
+
+[Footnote 1: _A Selection of the most Remarkable and Interesting Fishes
+found on the Coast of Ceylon._ By J.W. BENNETT, Esp. London, 1830.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Histoire Naturelle des Poissons._]
+
+The fishes of the coast, as far as they have been examined, present few
+that are not in all probability common to the seas of Ceylon and India.
+A series of drawings, including upwards of six hundred species and
+varieties of Ceylon fish, all made from recently-captured specimens,
+have been submitted to Professor Huxley, and a notice of their general
+characteristics forms an interesting appendix to the present chapter.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See note B appended to this chapter.]
+
+Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far is the
+Seir-fish[1], a species of Scomberoids, which is called _Tora-malu_ by
+the natives. It is in size and form very similar to the salmon, to which
+the flesh of the female fish, notwithstanding its white colour, bears a
+very close resemblance both in firmness and flavour.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cybium_ (_Scomber_, Linn.) _guttatum_.]
+
+Mackerel, carp, whitings, mullet both red and striped, perches and soles
+are abundant, and a sardine (_Sardinella Neohowii_, Val.) frequents the
+southern and eastern coast in such profusion that in one instance in
+1839, a gentleman who was present saw upwards of four hundred thousand
+taken in a haul of the nets in the little bay of Goyapanna, east of
+Point-de-Galle. As this vast shoal approached the shore the broken water
+became as smooth as if a sheet of ice had been floating below the
+surface.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: These facts serve to explain the story told by the friar
+ODORIC of Friuli, who visited Ceylon about the year 1320 A.D., and says
+there are "fishes in those seas that come swimming towards the said
+country in such abundance that for a great distance into the sea nothing
+can be seen but the backs of fishes, which casting themselves on the
+shore, do suffer men for the space of three daies to come and to take as
+many of them as they please, and then they return again into the
+sea."--_Hakluyt_, vol. ii. p. 57.]
+
+_Poisonous Fishes._--The sardine has the reputation of being poisonous
+at certain seasons, and accidents ascribed to eating it are recorded in
+all parts of the island. Whole families of fishermen who have partaken
+of it have died. Twelve persons in the jail of Chilaw were thus
+poisoned, about the year 1829; and the deaths of soldiers have
+repeatedly been ascribed to the same cause. It is difficult in such
+instances to say with certainty whether the fish were in fault; whether
+there was not a peculiar susceptibility in the condition of the
+recipients; or whether the mischief may not have been occasioned by the
+wilful administration of poison, or its accidental occurrence in the
+brass cooking vessels used by the natives. The popular belief was,
+however, deferred to by an order passed by the Governor in Council in
+February, 1824, which, after reciting that "Whereas it appears by
+information conveyed to the Government that at three several periods at
+Trincomalie, death has been the consequence to several persons from
+eating the fish called Sardinia during the months of January and
+December," enacts that it shall not be lawful in that district to catch
+sardines during these months, under pain of fine and imprisonment. This
+order is still in force, but the fishing continues notwithstanding.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: There are other species of Sardine found at Ceylon besides
+the _S. Neohowii_; such as the _S. lineolata_, Cuv. and Val. and the _S.
+leiogaster_, Cuv. and Val. xx. 270, which was found by M. Reynaud at
+Trincomalie. It occurs also off the coast of Java. Another Ceylon fish
+of the same group, a Clupea, is known as the "poisonous sprat;" the
+bonito (_Thynnus affinis_, Cang.), the kangewena, or unicorn fish
+(_Balistes?_), and a number of others, are more or less in bad repute
+from the same imputation.]
+
+_Sharks._--Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and instances
+continually occur of persons being seized by them whilst bathing even in
+the harbours of Trincomalie and Colombo. In the Gulf of Manaar they are
+taken for the sake of their oil, of which they yield such a quantity
+that "shark's oil" is a recognised export. A trade also exists in drying
+their fins, for which, owing to the gelatine contained in them, a ready
+market is found in China; whither the skin of the basking shark is also
+sent, to be converted, it is said, into shagreen.
+
+_Saw Fish._--The huge _Pristis antiquorum_[1] infests the eastern coast
+of the island, where it attains a length of from twelve to fifteen feet,
+including the serrated rostrum from which its name is derived. This
+powerful weapon seems designed to compensate for the inadequacy of the
+ordinary maxillary teeth which are unusually small, obtuse, and
+insufficient to capture and kill the animals which form the food of this
+predatory shark. To remedy this, the fore part of the head and its
+cartilages are prolonged into a flattened plate, the length of which is
+nearly equal to one third of the whole body, its edges being armed with
+formidable teeth, that are never shed or renewed, but increase in size
+with the growth of the creature.
+
+[Footnote 1: Two other species are found in the Ceylon waters, _P.
+cuspidatus_ and _P. pectinatus_.]
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF THE SAWFISH (PRISTIS ANTIQUORUM)]
+
+The _Rays_ form a large tribe of cartilaginous fishes in which, although
+the skeleton is not osseous, the development of organs is so advanced
+that they would appear to be the highest of the class, approaching
+nearest to amphibians. They are easily distinguished from the sharks by
+their broad and flat body, the pectoral fins being expanded like wings
+on each side of the trunk. They are all inhabitants of the ocean, and
+some grow to a prodigious size. Specimens have been caught of twenty
+feet in breadth. These, however, are of rare occurrence, as such huge
+monsters usually retreat into the depths of the sea, where they are
+secure from the molestation of man. It is, generally speaking, only the
+young and the smaller species that approach the coasts, where they find
+a greater supply of those marine animals which form their food. The Rays
+have been divided into several generic groups, and the one of which a
+drawing (_Aëtobates narinari_[1]) is given, has very marked
+characteristics in its produced snout, pointed and winged-like pectoral
+fins, and exceedingly long, flagelliform tail. The latter is armed with
+a strong, serrated spine, which is always broken off by the fishermen
+immediately on capture, under the impression that wounds inflicted by it
+are poisonous. Their fears, however, are utterly groundless, as the ray
+has no gland for secreting any venomous fluid. The apprehension may,
+however, have originated in the fact that a lacerated wound such as
+would be produced by a serrated spine, is not unlikely to assume a
+serious character, under the influence of a tropical climate. The
+species figured on the last page is brownish-olive on the upper surface,
+with numerous greenish-white round spots, darkening towards the edges.
+The anterior annulations of the tail are black and white, the posterior
+entirely black. Its mouth is transverse and paved with a band of
+flattened teeth calculated to crush the hard shells of the animals on
+which it feeds. It moves slowly along the bottom in search of its food,
+which consists of crustacea and mollusca, and seems to be unable to
+catch fishes or other quickly moving animals. Specimens have been taken
+near Ceylon, of six feet in width. Like most deep-sea fishes, the ray
+has a wide geographical range, and occurs not only in all the Indian
+Ocean, but also in the tropical tracts of the Atlantic.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAY (AËTOBATES NARINARI).]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Raja narinari_, Bl. Schn. p. 361. _Aëtobates narinari_,
+Müll. und Henle., Plagiost. p. 179.]
+
+Another armed fish, renowned since the times of Ælian and Pliny for its
+courage in attacking the whale, and even a ship, is the sword-fish
+(_Xiphias gladius_).[1] Like the thunny and bonito, it is an inhabitant
+of the deeper seas, and, though known in the Mediterranean, is chiefly
+confined to the tropics. The dangerous weapon with which nature has
+equipped it is formed by the prolongation and intertexture of the bones
+of the upper jaw into an exceedingly compact cylindrical protuberance,
+somewhat flattened at the base, but tapering to a sharp point. In
+strange inconsistence with its possession of so formidable an armature,
+the general disposition of the sword-fish is represented to be gentle
+and inoffensive; and although the fact of its assaults upon the whale
+has been incontestably established, yet the motive for such conflicts,
+and the causes of its enmity, are beyond conjecture. Competition for
+food is out of the question, as the Xiphias can find its own supplies
+without rivalry on the part of its gigantic antagonist; and as to
+converting the whale itself into food, the sword-fish, from the
+construction of its mouth and the small size of its teeth, is quite
+incapable of feeding on animals of such dimensions.
+
+[Footnote 1: ÆLIAN tells a story of a ship in the Black Sea, the bottom
+of which was penetrated by the sword of a _Xiphias_ (L. xiv. c. 23); and
+PLINY (L. xxxii. c. 8) speaks of a similar accident on the coast of
+Mauritania. In the British Museum there is a specimen of a plank of oak,
+pierced by a sword-fish, and still retaining the broken weapon.]
+
+In the seas around Ceylon sword-fishes sometimes attain to the length of
+twenty feet, and are distinguished by the unusual height of the dorsal
+fin. Those both of the Atlantic and Mediterranean possess this fin in
+its full proportions, only during the earlier stages of their growth.
+Its dimensions even then are much smaller than in the Indian species;
+and it is a curious fact that it gradually decreases as the fish
+approaches to maturity; whereas in the seas around Ceylon, it retains
+its full size throughout the entire period of life. They raise it above
+the water, whilst dashing along the surface in their rapid course; and
+there is no reason to doubt that it occasionally acts as a sail.
+
+The Indian species (which are provided with two long and filamentous
+ventral fins) have been formed into the genus _Histiophorus_; to which
+belongs the individual figured on the next page. It is distinguished
+from others most closely allied to it, by having the immense dorsal fin
+of one uniform dark violet colour; whilst in its congeners, it is
+spotted with blue. The fish from which the engraving has been made, was
+procured by Dr. Templeton, near Colombo. The species was previously
+known only by a single specimen captured in the Red Sea, by Rüppell, who
+conferred upon it the specific designation of "_immaculatus_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Trans. Zool. Soc. ii. p. 71. Pl. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SWORD FISH (MISMOPHORUS IMMACULATUS).]
+
+Ælian, in his graphic account of the strange forms presented by the
+fishes inhabiting the seas around Ceylon, says that one in particular is
+so grotesque in its configuration, that no painter would venture to
+depict it; its main peculiarity being that it has feet or claws rather
+than fins.[1] The annexed drawing[2] may probably represent the creature
+to which the informants of Ælian referred. It is a cheironectes; one of
+a group in which the bones of the carpus form arms that support the
+pectoral fins, and enable these fishes to walk along the moist ground,
+almost like quadrupeds.
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: Podas ge mên chêlas ê pterygia.]--Lib. xvi. c. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The fish from which this drawing of the _Cheironectes_ was
+made, was taken near Colombo, and from the peculiarities which it
+presents it is in all probability a new and undescribed species. Dr.
+GÜNTHER has remarked, that in it, whilst the first and second dorsal
+spines are situated as usual over the eye (and form, one the angling
+bait of the fish, the other the crest above the nose), the third is at
+an unusual distance from the second, and is not separated, as in the
+other species, from the soft fin by a notch.]
+
+They belong to the family of _Lophiads_ or "anglers," not unfrequent on
+the English coast; which conceal themselves in the mud, displaying only
+the erectile ray, situated on the head, which bears an excrescence on
+its extremity resembling a worm; by agitating which, they attract the
+smaller fishes, that thus become an easy prey.
+
+[Illustration: CHEIRONECTES]
+
+On the rocks in Ceylon which are washed by the surf there are quantities
+of the curious little fish, _Salarius alticus_[1], which possesses the
+faculty of darting along the surface of the water, and running up the
+wet stones, with the utmost ease and rapidity. By aid of the pectoral
+and ventral fins and gill-cases, they move across the damp sand, ascend
+the roots of the mangroves, and climb up the smooth face of the rocks in
+search of flies; adhering so securely as not to be detached by repeated
+assaults of the waves. These little creatures are so nimble, that it is
+almost impossible to lay hold of them, as they scramble to the edge, and
+plunge into the sea on the slightest attempt to molest them. They are
+from three to four inches in length, and of a dark brown colour, almost
+undistinguishable from the rocks they frequent.
+
+[Footnote 1: Cuv. and VALEN., _Hist. Nat. des Poissons_, tom. xi. p.
+249. It is identical with _S. tridactylus,_ Schn.]
+
+But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are those fishes whose
+brilliancy of colouring has won for them the wonder even of the listless
+Singhalese. Some, like the Red Sea Perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_, Forsk)
+and the Great Fire Fish[1], are of the deepest scarlet and flame colour;
+in others purple predominates, as in the _Serranus flavo-cæruleus_; in
+others yellow, as in the _Choetodon Brownriggii_[2], and _Acanthurus
+vittatus_, of Bennett[3], and numbers, from the lustrous green of their
+scales, have obtained from the natives the appropriate name of
+_Giraway_, or _parrots_, of which one, the _Sparus Hardwickii_ of
+Bennett, is called the "Flower Parrot," from its exquisite colouring,
+being barred with irregular bands of blue, crimson, and purple, green,
+yellow, and grey, and crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Pterois muricata_, Cuv. and Val. iv. 363. _Scarpæna
+miles_, Bennett; named, by the Singhalese, "_Maharata-gini_," the Great
+Red Fire, a very brilliant red species spotted with black. It is very
+voracious, and is regarded on some parts of the coast as edible, while
+on others it is rejected.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Glyphisodon Brownriggii_, Cuv. and Val. v. 484; _Choetodon
+Brownriggii_, Bennett. A very small fish about two inches long, called
+_Kaha hartikyha_ by the natives. It is distinct from Choetodon, in which
+BENNETT placed it. Numerous species of this genus are scattered
+throughout the Indian Ocean. It derives its name from the fine hair-like
+character of its teeth. They are found chiefly among coral reefs, and,
+though eaten, are not much esteemed. In the French colonies they are
+called "Chauffe-soleil." One species is found on the shores of the New
+World (_G. saxatalis_), and it is curious that Messrs. QUOY and GAIMARD
+found this fish at the Cape de Verde Islands in 1827.]
+
+[Footnote 3: This fish has a sharp round spine on the side of the body
+near the tail; a formidable weapon, which is generally partially
+concealed within a scabbard-like incision. It raises or depresses this
+spine at pleasure. The fish is yellow, with several nearly parallel blue
+stripes on the back and sides; the belly is white, the tail and fins
+brownish green, edged with blue.
+
+It is found in rocky places; and according to BENNETT, who has figured
+it in his second plate, it is named _Seweya_. It has been known,
+however, to all the old ichthyologists, Valentyn, Renard, Seba, Artedi,
+and has been named _Chætodon lineatus_, by Linné. It is scarce on the
+southern coast of Ceylon.]
+
+Of these richly coloured fishes the most familiar in the Indian seas are
+the _Pteroids_. They are well known on the coast of Africa, and thence
+eastward to Polynesia; but they do not extend to the west coast of
+America, and are utterly absent from the Atlantic. The rays of the
+dorsal and pectoral fins are so elongated, that when specimens were
+first brought to Europe it was conjectured that these fishes have the
+faculty of flight, and hence the specific name of "_volitans_" But this
+is an error, for, owing to the deep incisions between the pectoral rays,
+the pteroids are wholly unable to sustain themselves in the air. They
+are not even bold swimmers, living close to the shore and never
+venturing into the deep sea. Their head is ornamented with a number of
+filaments and cutaneous appendages, of which one over each eye and
+another at the angles of the mouth are the most conspicuous. Sharp
+spines project on the crown and on the side of the gill-apparatus, as in
+the other sea-perches, _Scorpæna, Serranus_, &c., of which these are
+only a modified and ornate form. The extraordinary expansion of their
+fins is not, however, accompanied by a similar development of the bones
+to which they are attached, simply because they appear to have no
+peculiar function, as in flying fishes, or in those where the spines of
+the fins are weapons of offence. They attain to the length of twelve
+inches, and to a weight of about two pounds; they live on small marine
+animals, and by the Singhalese the flesh (of some at least) is
+considered good for table. Nine or ten species are known to occur in the
+East Indian Seas, and of these the one figured above is, perhaps, the
+most common.
+
+[Illustration: PTEROIS VOLITANS.]
+
+Another species known to occur on the coasts of Ceylon is the _Scorpæna
+miles_, Bennett, or _Pterois miles_, Günther[1], of which Bennett has
+given a figure[2], but it is not altogether correct in some particulars.
+
+[Footnote 1: The fish from the Sea of Pinang, described by Dr. CANTOR
+with this name (Catal. Mal. Fish. p. 42), is again different, and
+belongs to a third species.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Fishes of Ceylon_, Pl. ix.]
+
+In the fishes of Ceylon, however, beauty is not confined to the
+brilliancy of their tints. In some, as in the _/Scarus harid_, Forsk[1],
+the arrangement of the scales is so graceful, and the effect is so
+heightened by modifications of colour, as to present the appearance of
+tessellation, or mosaic work.
+
+[Footnote 1: This is the fish figured by BENNETT as _Sparus pepo_.
+_Fishes of Ceylon_, Plate xxviii.]
+
+[Illustration: SCARUS HARID. After Bennett.]
+
+_Fresh-water Fishes_.--Of the fresh-water fish, which inhabit the rivers
+and tanks, so very little has hitherto been known to naturalists[1],
+that of nineteen drawings sent home by Major Skinner in 1852, although
+specimens of well-known genera, Colonel Hamilton Smith pronounced nearly
+the whole to be new and undescribed species.
+
+[Footnote 1: In extenuation of the little that is known of the
+fresh-water fishes of Ceylon, it may be observed that very few of them
+are used at table by Europeans, and there is therefore no stimulus on
+the part of the natives to catch them. The burbot and grey mullet are
+occasionally eaten, but they taste of mud, and are not in request.
+
+Some years ago the experiment was made, with success, of introducing
+into Mauritius the _Osphromenus olfax_ of Java, which has also been
+taken to French Guiana. In both places it is now highly esteemed as a
+fish for table. As it belongs to a family which possesses the faculty,
+hereafter alluded to, of surviving in the damp soil after the subsidence
+of the water in the tanks and rivers, it might with equal advantage be
+acclimated in Ceylon. It grows to 20 lbs. weight and upwards.]
+
+Of eight of these, which were from the Mahawelliganga, and caught in the
+vicinity of Kandy, five were carps; two were _Leucisci_, and one a
+_Mastacembelus_ (_M. armatus_, Lacep); one was an _Ophiocephalus_, and
+one a _Polyacanthus_, with no serræ on the gills. Six were from the
+Kalanyganga, close to Colombo, of which two were _Helostoma_, in shape
+approaching the Chætodon; two _Ophiocephali_, one a _Silurus_, and one
+an _Anabas_, but the gills were without denticulation. From the still
+water of the lake, close to the walls of Colombo, there were two species
+of _Eleotris_, one _Silurus_ with barbels, and two _Malacopterygians_,
+which appear to be _Bagri_.
+
+The _fresh-water Perches_ of Europe and of the North of America are
+represented in Ceylon and India by several genera, which bear to them a
+great external similarity (_Lates, Therapon_). They have the same habits
+as their European allies, and their flesh is considered equally
+wholesome, but they appear to enter salt-water, or at least brackish
+water, more freely. It is, however, in their internal organisation that
+they differ most from the perches of Europe; their skeletons are
+composed of fewer vertebræ, and the air bladder of the _Therapon_ is
+divided into two portions, as in the carps. Four species at least of
+this genus inhabit the lakes and rivers of Ceylon, and one of them, of
+which a figure is given above, has been but imperfectly described in any
+ichthyological work[1]; it attains to the length of seven inches.
+
+[Footnote 1: Holocentrus quadrilineatus, _Bloch_. It is allied to
+_Helotes polytoenia_, Bleek., from Halmaheira which it can be readily
+distinguished by having only five or six blackish longitudinal bands,
+the black humeral spot being between the first and second; another
+blackish blotch is in the spinous dorsal fin. There are two specimens in
+the British Museum collection, one of which has recently arrived from
+Amoy; of the other the locality is unknown. See GÜNTHER, _Acanthopt.
+Fishes_, vol. i. p. 282, where mention of the black humeral spot has
+been omitted.]
+
+[Illustration: THERAPON QUADRILINEATUS.]
+
+In addition to marine eels, in which the Indian coasts abound, Ceylon
+has some true fresh-water eels, which never enter the sea. These are
+known to the natives under the name of _Theliya_, and to naturalists by
+that of _Mastacembelus_. They have sometimes in ichthyological systems
+been referred to the Scombridæ and other marine families, from the
+circumstance that the dorsal fin anteriorly is composed of spines. But,
+in addition to the general shape of the body, their affinity to the eel
+is attested, by their confluent fins, by the absence of ventral fins, by
+the structure of the mouth and its dentition, by the apparatus of the
+gills, which opens with an inferior slit, and above all by the formation
+of the skeleton itself.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See GÜNTHER'S _Acanthopt. Fishes_, vol. iii. (Family
+Mastacembelidæ).]
+
+Their skin is covered with minute scales, coated by a slimy exudation,
+and the upper jaw is produced into a soft tripartite tentacle, with
+which they are enabled to feel for their prey in the mud. They are very
+tenacious of life, and belong, without doubt, to those fishes which in
+Ceylon descend during the drought into the muddy soil.[1] Their flesh
+very much resembles that of the eel; and is highly esteemed.[2] They
+were first made known to European naturalists by Russell[3], who brought
+to Europe from the rivers round Aleppo specimens, some of which are
+still preserved in the collection of the British Museum. Aleppo is the
+most western point of their geographical range, the group being mainly
+confined to the East-Indian continent and its islands.
+
+In Ceylon only one species appears to occur, the
+
+[Footnote 1: See post, p. 351.]
+
+[Footnote 2: CUV. and VAL., _Hist. Poiss._ vol. iii. p. 459.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Nat. Hist. Aleppo_, 2nd edit. Lond. 1794, vol. ii. p. 208,
+pl. vi.]
+
+[Illustration: MASTACEMBELUS ARMATUS]
+
+_Mastacembelus armatus_.[1] The back is armed with from thirty-five to
+thirty-nine short, stout spines; there being three others before the
+anal fin. The ground colour of the fish is brown, and the head has two
+rather irregular longitudinal black bands; deep-brown spots run along
+the back as well as along the dorsal and anal fins; and the sides are
+ornamented with irregular and reticulated brown lines. This eel attains
+to the length of two feet. The old females do not show any markings,
+being of a uniform brown colour.
+
+[Footnote 1: Macrognathus armatus, _Lacép._; Mastacembelus armatus,
+_Cuv., Val._]
+
+In the collection of Major Skinner, before alluded to, brought together
+without premeditation, the naturalist will be struck by the
+preponderance of those genera which are adapted by nature to endure, a
+temporary privation of moisture; and this, taken in connection with the
+vicissitudes affecting the waters they inhabit, exhibits a surprising
+illustration of the wisdom of the Creator in adapting the organisation
+of his creatures to the peculiar circumstances under which they are
+destined to exist.
+
+So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that Knox says, not the
+running streams alone, but the reservoirs and ponds, "nay, every ditch
+and little plash of water but ankle deep hath fish in it."[1] But many
+of these reservoirs and tanks are, twice in each year, liable to be
+evaporated to dryness till the mud of the bottom is converted into dust,
+and the clay cleft by the heat into gaping apertures; yet within a very
+few days after the change of the monsoon, the natives are busily engaged
+in fishing in those very spots and in the hollows contiguous to them,
+although the latter are entirely unconnected with any pool or running
+streams. Here they fish in the same way which Knox described nearly 200
+years ago, with a funnel-shaped basket, open at bottom and top, "which,"
+as he says, "they jibb down, and the end sticks in the mud, which often
+happens upon a fish; which, when they feel beating itself against the
+sides, they put in their hands and take it out, and reive a ratan
+through their gills, and so let them drag after them."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Knox's _Historical Relation of Ceylon,_ Part i. ch. vii.
+The occurrence of fish in the most unlooked-for situations, is one of
+the mysteries of other eastern countries as well as Ceylon and India. In
+Persia irrigation is carried on to a great extent by means of wells sunk
+in line in the direction in which it is desired to lead a supply of
+water, and these are connected by channels, which are carefully arched
+over to protect them from evaporation. These _kanats,_ as they are
+called, are full of fish, although neither they nor the wells they unite
+have any connection with streams or lakes.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Knox, _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, Part i. ch vi.]
+
+[Illustration: FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, A.D. 1681]
+
+This operation may be seen in the lowlands, traversed by the high road
+leading from Colombo to Kandy. Before the change of the monsoon, the
+hollows on either side of the highway are covered with dust or stunted
+grass; but when flooded by the rains, they are immediately resorted to
+by the peasants with baskets, constructed precisely as Knox has stated,
+in which the fish are entrapped and taken out by the hand.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: As anglers, the native Singhalese exhibit little
+expertness; but for fishing the rivers, they construct with singular
+ingenuity fences formed of strong stakes, protected by screens of ratan,
+that stretch diagonally across the current; and along these the fish are
+conducted into a series of enclosures from which retreat is
+impracticable. MR. LAYARD, in the _Magazine of Natural History_ for May,
+1853, has given a diagram of one of these fish "corrals," as they are
+called, of which a copy is shown on the next page.]
+
+So singular a phenomenon as the sudden re-appearance of full-grown
+fishes in places that a few days before had been encrusted with hardened
+clay, has not failed to attract attention; but the European residents
+have been content to explain it by hazarding conjectures, either that
+the spawn must have lain imbedded in the dried earth till released by
+the rains, or that the fish, so unexpectedly discovered, fall from the
+clouds during the deluge of the monsoon.
+
+As to the latter conjecture; the fall of fish during showers, even were
+it not so problematical in theory, is too rare an event to account for
+the punctual appearance of those found in the rice-fields, at stated
+periods of the year. Both at Galle and Colombo in the south-west
+monsoon, fish are popularly believed to have fallen from the clouds
+during violent showers, but those found on the occasions that give rise
+to this belief, consist of the smallest fry, such as could be caught up
+by waterspouts, and vortices analogous to them, or otherwise blown on
+shore from the surf; whereas those which suddenly appear in the
+replenished tanks and in the hollows which they overflow, are mature and
+well-grown fish.[1] Besides, the latter are found, under the
+circumstances I have described, in all parts of the interior, whilst the
+prodigy of a supposed fall of fish from the sky has been noticed, I
+apprehend, only in the vicinity of the sea, or of some inland water.
+
+[Footnote 1: I had an opportunity, on one occasion only, of witnessing
+the phenomenon which gives rise to this popular belief. I was driving in
+the cinnamon gardens near the fort of Colombo, and saw a violent but
+partial shower descend at no great distance before me. On coming to the
+spot I found a multitude of small silvery fish from one and a half to
+two inches in length, leaping on the gravel of the high road, numbers of
+which I collected and brought away in my palankin. The spot was about
+half a mile from the sea, and entirely unconnected with any watercourse
+or pool.
+
+Mr. Whiting, who was many years resident in Trincomadie, writes me that
+he "had often been told by the natives on that side of the island that
+it sometimes rained fishes; and on one occasion" (he adds) "I was taken
+by them, in 1849, to a field at the village of Karrancotta-tivo, near
+Batticaloa, which was dry when I passed over it in the morning, but, had
+been covered in two hours by sudden rain to the depth of three inches,
+in which there was then a quantity of small fish. The water had no
+connection with any pond or stream whatsoever." Mr. Cripps, in like
+manner, in speaking of Galle, says: "I have seen in the vicinity of the
+fort, fish taken from rain-water that had accumulated in the hollow
+parts of land that in the hot season are perfectly dry and parched. The
+place is accessible to no running stream or tank; and either the fish or
+the spawn from which they were produced, must of necessity have fallen
+with the rain."
+
+Mr. J. PRINSEP, the eminent secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
+found a fish in the pulviometer at Calcutta, in 1838.--_Journ. Asiat.
+Soc. Bengal_, vol. vi. p. 465.
+
+A series of instances in which fishes have been found on the continent
+of India under circumstances which lead to the conclusion that they must
+have fallen from the clouds, have been collected by the late Dr. BUIST
+of Bombay, and will be found in the appendix to this chapter.]
+
+[Illustration: FISH CORRAL]
+
+The surmise of the buried spawn is one sanctioned by the very highest
+authority. Mr. Yarrell in his "_History of British Fishes_," adverting
+to the fact that ponds (in India) which had been previously converted
+into hardened mud, are replenished with small fish in a very few days
+after the commencement of each rainy season, offers this solution of the
+problem as probably the true one: "The impregnated ova of the fish of
+one rainy season are left unhatched in the mud through the dry season,
+and from their low state of organisation as ova, the vitality is
+preserved till the recurrence, and contact of the rain and oxygen in the
+next wet season, when vivification takes place from their joint
+influence."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: YARRELL, _History of British Fishes_, introd. vol. i. p.
+xxvi. This too was the opinion of Aristotle, _De Respiratione_, c. ix.]
+
+This hypothesis, however, appears to have been advanced upon imperfect
+data; for although some fish, like the salmon, scrape grooves in the
+sand and place their spawn in inequalities and fissures; yet as a
+general rule spawn is deposited not beneath but on the surface of the
+ground or sand over which the water flows, the adhesive nature of each
+egg supplying the means of attachment. But in the Ceylon tanks not only
+is the surface of the soil dried to dust after the evaporation of the
+water, but earth itself, twelve or eighteen inches deep, is converted
+into sun-burnt clay, in which, although the eggs of mollusca, in their
+calcareous covering, are in some instances preserved, it would appear to
+be as impossible for the ova of fish to be kept from decomposition as
+for the fish themselves to sustain life. Besides, moisture in such
+situations is only to be found at a depth to which spawn could not be
+conveyed by the parent fish, by any means with which we are yet
+acquainted.
+
+But supposing it possible to carry the spawn sufficiently deep, and to
+deposit it safely in the mud below, which is still damp, whence it could
+be liberated on the return of the rains, a considerable interval would
+still be necessary after the replenishing of the ponds with water to
+admit of vivification and growth. Yet so far from this interval being
+allowed to elapse, the rains have no sooner fallen than the taking of
+the fish commences, and those captured by the natives in wicker cages
+are mature and full grown instead of being "small fish" or fry, as
+supposed by Mr. Yarrell.
+
+Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the probability that,
+under favourable circumstances, the spawn in the tanks might be
+preserved during the dry season so as to contribute to the perpetuation
+of their breed, the fact is no longer doubtful, that adult fish in
+Ceylon, like some of those that inhabit similar waters both in the New
+and Old World, have been endowed by the Creator with the singular
+faculty of providing against the periodical droughts either by
+journeying overland in search of still unexhausted water, or, on its
+utter disappearance, by burying themselves in the mud to await the
+return of the rains.
+
+It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after the expedition
+of Alexander the Great, particulars connected with the natural history
+of India were sought for and arranged by the Greeks, that in the works
+both of ARISTOTLE and THEOPHRASTUS facts are recorded of the fishes in
+the Indian rivers migrating in search of water, of their burying
+themselves in the mud on its failure, of their being dug out thence
+alive during the dry season, and of their spontaneous reappearance on
+the return of the rains. The earliest notice is in ARISTOTLE'S treatise
+_De Respiratione_[1], where he mentions the strange discovery of living
+fish found beneath the surface of the soil, "[Greek: tôn ichthyôn oi
+polloi zôsin en tê gê, akinêtizontes mentoi, kai euriskontai
+oryttomenoi?]" and in his History of Animals he conjectures that in
+ponds periodically dried the ova of the fish so buried become vivified
+at the change of the season.[2] HERODOTUS had previously hazarded a
+similar theory to account for the sudden appearance of fry in the
+Egyptian marshes on the rising of the Nile; but the cases are not
+parallel. THEOPHRASTUS, the friend and pupil of Aristotle, gave
+importance to the subject by devoting to it his essay [Greek: Peri tês
+tôn ichthyôn en zêrô diamonês], _De Piscibus in sicco degentibus_. In
+this, after adverting to the fish called _exocoetus_, from its habit of
+going on shore to sleep, "[Greek: apo tês koitês,]" he instances the
+small fish ([Greek: ichthydia]), that leave the rivers of India to
+wander like frogs on the land; and likewise a species found near
+Babylon, which, when the Euphrates runs low, leave the dry channels in
+search of food, "moving themselves along by means of their fins and
+tail." He proceeds to state that at Heraclea Pontica there are places in
+which fish are dug out of the earth, "[Greek: oryktoi tôn ichthyôn],"
+and he accounts for their being found under such circumstances by the
+subsidence of the rivers, "when the water being evaporated the fish
+gradually descend beneath the soil in search of moisture; and the
+surface becoming hard they are preserved in the damp clay below it, in a
+state of torpor, but are capable of vigorous movements when disturbed."
+"In, this manner, too," adds Theophrastus, "the buried fish propagate,
+leaving behind them their spawn, which becomes vivified on the return of
+the waters to their accustomed bed." This work of Theophrastus became
+the great authority for all subsequent writers on this question.
+ATHENÆUS quotes it[3], and adds the further testimony of POLYBIUS, that
+in Gallia Narbonensis fish are similarly dug out of the ground.[4]
+STRABO repeats the story[5], and the Greek naturalists one and all
+received the statement as founded on reliable authority.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chap. ix.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Lib. vi. ch. 15, 16, 17.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Lib. viii. ch. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Ib._ ch. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Lib. iv. and xii.]
+
+Not so the Romans. LIVY mentions it as one of the prodigies which were
+to be "expiated" on the approach of a rupture with Macedon, that "in
+Gallico agro qua induceretur aratrum sub glebis pisces emersisse,"[1]
+thus taking it out of the category of natural occurrences. POMPONIUS
+MELA, obliged to notice the matter in his account of Narbon Gaul,
+accompanies it with the intimation that although asserted by both Greek
+and Roman authorities, the story was either a delusion or a fraud,
+JUVENAL has a sneer for the rustic--
+
+          "miranti sub aratro
+   Piscibus inventis."--_Sat_. xiii. 63.
+
+[Footnote 1: Lib. xlii. ch. 2.]
+
+And SENECA, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds ironically, that now we
+must go to fish with a _hatchet_ instead of a hook; "non cum hamis, sed
+cum dolabra ire piscatum." PLINY, who devotes the 35th chapter of his
+9th book to this subject, uses the narrative of Theophrastus, but with
+obvious caution, and universally the Latin writers treated the story as
+a fable.
+
+In later times the subject received more enlightened attention, and
+Beekman, who in 1736 published his commentary on the collection [Greek:
+Peri Thaumasiôn akousmatôn], ascribed to Aristotle, has given a list of
+the authorities about his own times,--GEORGIUS AGRICOLA, GESNER,
+RONDELET, DALECHAMP, BOMARE, and GRONOVIUS, who not only gave credence
+to the assertions of Theophrastus, but adduced modern instances in
+corroboration of his Indian authorities.
+
+As regards the fresh-water fishes of India and Ceylon, the fact is now
+established that certain of them possess the power of leaving the rivers
+and returning to them again after long migrations on dry land, and
+modern observation has fully confirmed their statements. They leave the
+pools and nullahs in the dry season, and led by an instinct as yet
+unexplained, shape their course through the grass towards the nearest
+pool of water. A similar phenomenon is observable in countries similarly
+circumstanced. The Doras of Guiana[1] have been seen travelling over
+land during the dry season in search of their natural element[2], in
+such droves that the negroes fill baskets with them during these
+terrestrial excursions. PALLEGOIX in his account of Siam, enumerates
+three species of fishes which leave the tanks and channels and traverse
+the damp grass[3]; and SIR JOHN BOWRING, in his account of his embassy
+to the Siamese kings in 1855, states, that in ascending and descending
+the river Meinam to Bankok, he was amused with the novel sight of fish
+leaving the river, gliding over the wet banks, and losing themselves
+amongst the trees of the jungle.[4]
+
+[Footnote 1: _D. Hancockii_, CUV. et VAL.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Sir R. Schomburgk's _Fishes of Guiana_, vol. i. pp. 113,
+151, 160. Another migratory fish was found by Bose very numerous in the
+fresh waters of Carolina and in ponds liable to become dry in summer.
+When captured and placed on the ground, "they _always, directed
+themselves towards the nearest water, which they could not possibly
+see_, and which they must have discovered by some internal index. They
+belong to the genus _Hydrargyra_ and are called Swampines.--KIRBY,
+_Bridgewater Treatise_, vol. i. p. 143.
+
+Eels kept in a garden, when August arrived (the period at which instinct
+impels them to go to the sea to spawn) were in the habit of leaving the
+pond, and were invariably found moving eastward _in the direction of the
+sea_.--YARRELL, vol. ii. p. 384. Anglers observe that fish newly caught,
+when placed out of sight of water, always struggle towards it to
+escape.]
+
+[Footnote 3: PALLEGOIX, vol. i. p. 144.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Sir J. BOWERING'S _Siam,_ &c., vol. i. p. 10.]
+
+The class of fishes endowed with this power are chiefly those with
+labyrinthiform pharyngeal bones, so disposed in plates and cells as to
+retain a supply of moisture, which, whilst they are crawling on land,
+gradually exudes so as to keep the gills damp.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: CUVIER and VALENCIENNES, _Hist. Nat. des Poissons_, tom.
+vii. p. 246.]
+
+The individual most frequently seen in these excursions in Ceylon is a
+perch called by the Singhalese _Kavaya_ or _Kawhy-ya_, and by the Tamils
+_Pannei-eri_, or _Sennal_. It is closely allied to the _Anabas scandens_
+of Cuvier, the _Perca scandens_ of Daldorf. It grows to about six inches
+in length, the head round and covered with scales, and the edges of the
+gill-covers strongly denticulated. Aided by the apparatus already
+adverted to in its head, this little creature issues boldly from its
+native pools and addresses itself to its toilsome march generally at
+night or in the early morning, whilst the grass is still damp with the
+dew; but in its distress it is sometimes compelled to move by day, and
+Mr. E.L. Layard on one occasion encountered a number of them travelling
+along a hot and dusty road under the midday sun.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist_., May, 1853, p. 390. Mr.
+Morris, the government-agent of Trincomalie, writing to me on this
+subject in 1856, says--"I was lately on duty inspecting the kind of a
+large tank at Nade-cadua, which, being out of repair, the remaining
+water was confined in a small hollow in the otherwise dry bed. Whilst
+there heavy rain came on, and, as we stood on the high ground, we,
+observed a pelican on the margin of the shallow pool gorging himself;
+our people went towards him and raised a cry of fish! fish! We hurried
+down, and found numbers of fish struggling upwards through the grass in
+the rills formed by the trickling of the rain. There was scarcely water
+enough to cover them, but nevertheless they made rapid progress up the
+bank, on which our followers collected about two bushels of them at a
+distance of forty yards from the tank. They were forcing their way up
+the knoll, and, had they not been intercepted first by the pelican and
+afterwards by ourselves, they would in a few minutes have gained the
+highest point and descended on the other side into a pool which formed
+another portion of the tank. They were chub, the same as are found in
+the mud after the tanks dry up." In a subsequent communication in July,
+1857, the same gentleman says--"As the tanks dry up the fish congregate
+in the little pools till at last you find them in thousands in the
+moistest parts of the beds, rolling in the blue mud which is at that
+time about the consistence of thick gruel."
+
+"As the moisture further evaporates the surface fish are left uncovered,
+and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In one place I saw
+hundreds diverging in every direction, from the tank they had just
+abandoned to a distance of fifty or sixty yards, and still travelling
+onwards. In going this distance, however, they must have used muscular
+exertion sufficient to have taken them half a mile on level ground, for
+at these places all the cattle and wild animals of the neighbourhood had
+latterly come to drink; so that the surface was everywhere indented with
+footmarks in addition to the cracks in the surrounding baked mud, into
+which the fish tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deep
+and the sides perpendicular they remained to die, and were carried off
+by kites and crows."
+
+"My impression is that this migration takes place at night or before
+sunrise, for it was only early in the morning that I have seen them
+progressing, and I found that those I brought away with me in chatties
+appeared quiet by day, but a large proportion managed to get out of the
+chatties at night--some escaped altogether, others were trodden on and
+killed."
+
+"One peculiarity is the large size of the vertebral column, quite
+disproportioned to the bulk of the fish. I particularly noticed that all
+in the act of migrating had their gills expanded."]
+
+Referring to the _Anabas scandens_, DR. HAMILTON BUCHANAN says, that of
+all the fish with which he was acquainted it is the most teliacious of
+life; and he has known boatmen on the Ganges to keep them for five or
+six days in an earthen pot without water, and daily to use what they
+wanted, finding them as lively and fresh as when caught.[1] Two Danish
+naturalists residing at Tranquebar, have contributed their authority to
+the fact of this fish ascending trees on the coast of Coromandel, an
+exploit from which it acquired its epithet of _Perca scandens_. DALDORF,
+who was a lieutenant in the Danish East India Company's service,
+communicated to Sir Joseph Banks, that in the year 1791 he had taken
+this fish from a moist cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, that grew
+near a lake. He saw it when already five feet above the ground
+struggling to ascend still higher;--"suspending itself by its
+gill-covers, and bending its tail to the left, it fixed its anal fin in
+the cavity of the bark, and sought by expanding its body to urge its way
+upwards, and its march was only arrested by the hand with which he
+seized it."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Fishes of the Ganges_, 4to. 1822.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Transactions Linn. Soc._ vol. iii. p. 63. It is
+remarkable, however, that this discovery of Daldorf, which excited so
+great an interest in 1791, had been anticipated by an Arabian voyager a
+thousand years before. Abou-zeyd, the compiler of the remarkable MS.
+known since Renaudot's translation by the title of the _Travels of the
+Two Mahometans_, states that Suleyman, one of his informants, who
+visited India at the close of the ninth century, was told there of a
+fish which, issuing from the waters, ascended the coco-nut palms to
+drink their sap, and returned to the sea. "On parle d'un poisson de mer
+qui, sortant de l'eau, monte sur la cocotier et boit le suc de la
+plante; ensuite il retourne á la mer." See REINAUD, _Rélations des
+Voyages faits par les Arabes et Persans dans le neuvième siècle_, tom.
+i. p, 21, tom. ii. p. 93.]
+
+There is considerable obscurity about the story of this ascent, although
+corroborated by M. JOHN. Its motive for climbing is not apparent, since
+water being close at hand it could not have gone for sake of the
+moisture contained in the fissures of the palm; nor could it be in
+search of food, as it lives not on fruit but on aquatic insects.[1] The
+descent, too, is a question of difficulty.
+
+[Footnote 1: Kirby says that it is "in pursuit of certain crustaceans
+that form its food" (_Bridgewater Treatise_, vol i. p. 144); but I am
+not aware of any crustaceans in the island which ascend the palmyra or
+feed upon its fruit. The _Birgus latro_, which inhabits Mauritius, and
+is said to climb the coco-nut for this purpose, has not been observed in
+Ceylon.]
+
+The position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-covers, might
+assist its journey upwards, but the same apparatus would prove anything
+but a facility in steadying its journey down. The probability is, as
+suggested by Buchanan, that the ascent which was witnessed by Daldorf
+was accidental, and ought not to be regarded as the habit of the animal.
+In Ceylon I heard of no instance of the perch ascending trees[1], but
+the fact is well established that both it, the _pullata_ (a species of
+_polyacanthus_), and others, are capable of long journeys on the level
+ground.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: This assertion must be qualified by a fact stated by Mr.
+E.A. Layard, who mentions that on visiting one of the fishing stations
+on a Singhalese river, where the fish are caught in staked enclosures,
+as described at p. 342, and observing that the chambers were covered
+with netting, he asked the reason, and was told "_that some of the fish
+climbed up the sticks and got over._"--Mag. Nat. Hist, for May 1823, p.
+390-1.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Strange accidents have more than once occurred at Ceylon
+arising from the habit of the native anglers; who, having neither
+baskets nor pockets in which to place what they catch, will seize a fish
+in their teeth whilst putting fresh bait on their hook. In August, 1853,
+a man was carried into the Pettah hospital at Colombo, having a climbing
+perch, which he thus attempted to hold, firmly imbedded in his throat.
+The spines of its dorsal fin prevented its descent, whilst those of the
+gill-covers equally forbade its return. It was eventually extracted by
+the forceps through an incision in the oesophagus, and the patient
+recovered. Other similar cases have proved fatal.]
+
+_Burying Fishes._--But a still more remarkable power possessed by some
+of the Ceylon fishes, is that already alluded to, of secreting
+themselves in the earth in the dry season, at the bottom of the
+exhausted ponds, and there awaiting the renewal of the water at the
+change of the monsoon. The instinct of the crocodile to resort to the
+same expedient has been already referred to[1], and in like manner the
+fish, when distressed by the evaporation of the tanks, seek relief by
+immersing first their heads, and by degrees their whole bodies, in the
+mud; sinking to a depth at which they find sufficient moisture to
+preserve life in a state of lethargy long after the bed of the tank has
+been consolidated by the intense heat of the sun. It is possible, too,
+that the cracks which reticulate the surface may admit air to some
+extent to sustain their faint respiration.
+
+[Footnote 1: See _ante_, p. 285.]
+
+The same thing takes place in other tropical regions, subject to
+vicissitudes of drought and moisture. The Protopterus[1], which inhabits
+the Gambia (and which though demonstrated by Professor Owen to possess
+all the essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless provided with
+true lungs), is accustomed in the dry season, when the river retires
+into its channel, to bury itself to the depth of twelve or sixteen
+inches in the indurated mud of the banks, and to remain in a state of
+torpor till the rising of the stream after the rains enables it to
+resume its active habits. At this period the natives of the Gambia, like
+those of Ceylon, resort to the river, and secure the fish in
+considerable numbers as they flounder in the still shallow water. A
+parallel instance occurs, in Abyssinia in relation to the fish of the
+Mareb, one of the sources of the Nile, the waters of which are partially
+absorbed in traversing the plains of Taka. During the summer its bed is
+dry, and in the slime at the depth of more than six feet is found a
+species of fish without scales, different from any known to inhabit the
+Nile.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Lepidosiren annectans_, Owen. See _Linn. Trans._ 1839.]
+
+[Footnote 2: This statement will be found in QUATREMERE'S Mémoires sur
+l'Egypte, tom. i. p. 17, on the authority of Abdullah ben Ahmed ben
+Solaim Assouany, in his _History of Nubia_, "Simon, héritier présomptif
+du royanme d'Alouah, m'a assuré que l'on trouve, dans la vase qui couvre
+fond de cette rivière, un grand poisson sans écailles, qui ne ressemble
+en rien aux poissons du Nil, et que, pour l'avoir, il faut creuser à une
+toise et plus de profondeur." To this passage, there is appended this
+note:--"Le patriarche Mendes, cité par Legrand (_Relation Hist. d'
+Abyssinie_, du P. LOBO, p. 212-3) rapporte que le fleuve Mareb, après
+avoir arrosé une étendue de pays considérable, se perd sous terre; et
+que quand les Portugais faisaient la guerre dans ce pays, ils
+fouilloient dans le sable, et y trouvoient de la bonne eau et du ban
+poisson. An rapport de l'auteur de _l' Ayin Akbery_ (tom. ii, p. 146,
+ed. 1800), dans le Soubah do Caschmir, pres du lieu nommé Tilahmoulah,
+est une grande pièce de terre qui est inondée pendant la saison des
+pluies. Lorsque les eaux se sont évaporées, et que la vase est presque
+séche, les habitans prennant des bâtons d'environ une aune do long,
+qu'ils enfoncent dans la vase, et ils y trouvent quantité de grands et
+petits poissons." In the library of the British Museum there is an
+unique MS. of MANOEL DE ALMEIDA, written in the sixteenth century, from
+which Balthasar Tellec compiled his _Historia General de Ethiopia alta_,
+printed at Coimbra in 1660, and in it the above statement of Mendes is
+corroborated by Almeida, who says that he was told by João Gabriel, a
+Creole Portuguese, born in Abyssinia, who had visited the Mareb, and who
+said that the "fish were to be found everywhere eight or ten palms down,
+and that he had eaten of them."]
+
+In South America the "round-headed hassar" of Guiana, _Callicthys
+littoralis_, and the "yarrow," a species of the family Esocidæ, although
+they possess no specially modified respiratory organs, are accustomed to
+bury themselves in the mud on the subsidence of water in the pools
+during the dry season.[1] The _Loricaria_ of Surinam, another Siluridan,
+exhibits a similar instinct, and resorts to the same expedient. Sir R.
+Schomburgk, in his account of the fishes of Guiana, confirms this
+account of the Callicthys, and says "they can exist in muddy lakes
+without any water whatever, and great numbers of them are sometimes dug
+up from such situations."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Paper "_on some Species of Fishes and Reptiles in
+Demerara_," by J. HANDCOCK, Esq., M.D., _Zoological Journal_, vol. iv.
+p. 243.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A curious account of the _borachung_ or "ground fish" of
+Bhootan, will be found in Note (C.) appended to this chapter.]
+
+In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat, and small tanks
+are extremely numerous, the natives are accustomed in the hot season to
+dig in the mud for fish. Mr. Whiting, the chief civil officer of the
+eastern province, informs me that, on two occasions, he was present
+accidentally when the villagers were so engaged, once at the tank of
+Malliativoe, within a few miles of Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie,
+and again at a tank between Ellendetorre and Arnitivoe, on the bank of
+the Vergel river. The clay was firm, but moist, and as the men flung out
+lumps of it with a spade, it fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nine
+to twelve inches long, which were full grown and healthy, and jumped on
+the bank when exposed to the sun light.
+
+[Illustration: THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS.]
+
+Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of fish so exhumed, I received
+from the Moodliar of Matura, A.B. Wickremeratne, a fish taken along with
+others of the same kind from a tank in which the water had dried up; it
+was found at a depth of a foot and a half where the mud was still moist,
+whilst the surface was dry and hard. The fish which the moodliar sent to
+me is an Anabas, closely resembling the _Perca scandens_ of Daldorf; but
+on minute examination it proves to be a species unknown in India, and
+hitherto found only in Boreno and China. It is the _A. oligolepis_ of
+Bleek.
+
+But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is not confined in
+Ceylon to the crocodile sand fishes;--it is also possessed by some of
+the fresh-water mollusca and aquatic coleoptera. One of the former, the
+_Ampullaria glauca_, is found in still water in all parts of the island,
+not alone in the tanks, but in rice-fields and the watercourses by which
+they are irrigated. When, during the dry season, the water is about to
+evaporate, it burrows and conceals itself[1] till the returning rains
+restore it to activity, and reproduce its accustomed food. There, at a
+considerable depth in the soft mud, it deposits a bundle of eggs with a
+white calcareous shell, to the number of one hundred or more in each
+group. The _Melania Paludina_ in the same way retires during the
+droughts into the muddy soil of the rice lands; and it can only be by
+such an instinct that this and other mollusca are preserved when the
+tanks evaporate, to re-appear in full growth and vigour immediately on
+the return of the rains.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: A knowledge of this fact was turned to prompt account by
+Mr. Edgar S. Layard, when holding a judicial office at Point Pedro in
+1849. A native who had been defrauded of his land complained before him
+of his neighbour, who, during his absence, had removed their common
+landmark, diverting the original watercourse and obliterating its traces
+by filling it up to a level with the rest of the field. Mr. Layard
+directed a trench to be sunk at the contested spot, and discovering
+numbers of the Ampullaria, the remains of the eggs, and the living
+animal which had been buried for months, the evidence was so resistless
+as to confound the wrong-doer, and terminate the suit.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For a similar fact relative to the shells and water beetles
+in the pools near Rio Janeiro, see DARWIN'S _Nat. Journal_, ch. v. p.
+99. BENSON, in the first vol. of _Gleanings of Science_, published at
+Calcutta in 1829, describes a species of _Paludina_ found in pools,
+which are periodically dried up in the hot season but reappear with the
+rains, p. 363. And in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ for
+Sept. 1832, Lieut. HUTTON, in a singularly interesting paper, has
+followed up the same subject by a narrative of his own observations at
+Mirzapore, wherein June, 1832, after a few heavy showers of rain, that
+formed pools on the surface of the ground near a mango grove, he saw the
+_Paludinæ_ issuing from the ground, "pushing aside the moistened earth
+and coming forth from their retreats; but on the disappearance of the
+water not one of them was to be seen above ground. Wishing to ascertain
+what had become of them he turned up the earth at the base of several
+trees, and invariably found the shells buried from an inch to two inches
+below the surface." Lieut. Hutton adds that the _Ampullariæ_ and
+_Planorbes_, as well as the _Paludinæ_ are found in similar situations
+during the heats of the dry season. The British _Pisidea_ exibit the
+same faculty (see a monograph in the _Camb. Phil. Trans._ vol. iv.). The
+fact is elsewhere alluded to in the present work of the power possessed
+by the land leech of Ceylon of retaining vitality even after being
+parched to hardness during the heat of the rainless season. LYELL
+mentions the instance of some snails in Italy which, when they
+hybernate, descend to the depth of five feet and more below the surface.
+_Princip. of Geology,_ &c, p. 373.]
+
+Dr. John Hunter[1] has advanced an opinion that hybernation, although a
+result of cold, is not its immediate consequence, but is attributable to
+that deprivation of food and other essentials which extreme cold
+occasions, and against the recurrence of which nature makes a timely
+provision by a suspension of her functions. Excessive heat in the
+tropics produces an effect upon animals and vegetables analogous to that
+of excessive cold in northern regions, and hence it is reasonable to
+suppose that the torpor induced by the one may be but the counterpart of
+the hybernation which results from the other. The frost that imprisons
+the alligator in the Mississippi as effectually cuts it off from food
+and action as the drought which incarcerates the crocodile in the
+sun-burnt clay of a Ceylon tank. The hedgehog of Europe enters on a
+period of absolute torpidity as soon as the inclemency of winter
+deprives it of its ordinary supply of slugs and insects; and the
+_tenrec_[2] of Madagascar, its tropical representative, exhibits the
+same tendency during the period when excessive heat produces in that
+climate a like result.
+
+[Footnote 1: HUNTER'S _Observations on parts of the Animal oeconomy_, p.
+88.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Centetes ecaudatus_, Illiger.]
+
+The descent of the _Ampullaria_, and other fresh-water molluscs, into
+the mud of the tanks, has its parallel in the conduct of the _Bulimi_
+and _Helices_ on land. The European snail, in the beginning of winter,
+either buries itself in the earth or withdraws to some crevice or
+overarching stone to await the returning vegetation of spring. So, in
+the season of intense heat, the _Helix Waltoni_ of Ceylon, and others of
+the same family, before retiring under cover, close the aperture of
+their shells with an impervious epiphragm, which effectually protects
+their moisture and juices from evaporation during the period of their
+æstivation. The Bulimi of Chili have been found alive in England in a
+box packed in cotton after an interval of two years, and the animal
+inhabiting a land-shell from Suez, which was attached to a tablet and
+deposited in the British Museum in 1846, was found in 1850 to have
+formed a fresh epiphragm, and on being immersed in tepid water, it
+emerged from its shell. It became torpid again on the 15th November,
+1851, and was found dead and dried up in March, 1852.[1] But exceptions
+serve to prove the accuracy of Hunter's opinion almost as strikingly as
+accordances, since the same genera of animals that hybernate in Europe,
+where extreme cold disarranges their oeconomy, evince no symptoms of
+lethargy in the tropics, provided their food be not diminished by the
+heat. Ants, which are torpid in Europe during winter, work all the year
+round in India, where sustenance is uniform.[2] The shrews of Ceylon
+(_Sorex montanus_ and _S. ferrugineus_ of Kelaart), like those at home,
+subsist upon insects, but as they inhabit a region where the equable
+temperature admits of the pursuit of their prey at all seasons of the
+year, unlike those of Europe, they never hybernate. A similar
+observation applies to bats, which are dormant during a northern winter
+when insects are rare, but never become torpid in any part of the
+tropics. The bear, in like manner, is nowhere deprived of its activity
+except when the rigour of severe frost cuts off its access to its
+accustomed food. On the other hand, the tortoise, which in Venezuela
+immerses itself in indurated mud during the hot months shows no tendency
+to torpor in Ceylon, where its food is permanent; and yet it is subject
+to hybernation when carried to the colder regions of Europe.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annals of Natural History_, 1860. See Dr. BAIRD'S _Account
+of Helix desertorum; Excelsior,_ &c., ch. i. p. 345.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Colonel SKYES has described in the _Entomological Trans._
+the operations of an ant in India which lays up a store of hay against
+the rainy season.]
+
+To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the heat, by exhausting
+the water, deprives them at once of motion and sustenance, the practical
+effect must be the same as when the frost of a northern winter encases
+them in ice. Nor is it difficult to believe that they can successfully
+undergo the one crisis when we know beyond question that they may
+survive the other.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: YARRELL, vol. i. p. 364, quotes the authority of Dr. J.
+Hunter in his _Animal oeconomy_, that fish, "after being frozen still
+retain so much of life as when thawed to resume their vital actions;"
+and in-the same volume (_Introd_. vol. i. p. xvii.) he relates from
+JESSE'S _Gleanings in Natural History_, the story of a gold fish
+(_Cyprinus auratus_), which, together with the a marble basin, was
+frozen into one solid lump of ice, yet, on the water being thawed, the
+fish became as lively as usual. Dr. RICHARDSON in the third vol of his
+_Fauna Borealis Americana_, says the grey sucking carp, found in the fur
+countries of North America, may be frozen and thawed again without being
+killed in the process.]
+
+_Hot-water Fishes_.--Another incident is striking in connection with the
+fresh-water fishes of Ceylon. I have described elsewhere the hot springs
+of Kannea[1], in the vicinity of Trincomalie, the water in which flows
+at a temperature varying at different seasons from 85° to 115°. In the
+stream formed by these wells M. Reynaud found and forwarded to Cuvier
+two fishes which he took from the water at a time when his thermometer
+indicated a temperature of 37° Reaumur, equal to 115° of Fahrenheit. The
+one was an Apogon, the other an Ambassis, and to each, from the heat of
+its habitat, he assigned the specific name of "thermalis."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: See SIR J. EMERSON TENNET's _Ceylon_, &c., vol. ii. p.
+496.]
+
+[Footnote 2: CUV. and VAL., vol. iii. p. 363. In addition to the two
+fishes above named, a loche _Cobitis thermalis_, and a carp, _Nuria
+thermoicos_, were found in the hot-springs of Kannea, at a heat 40°
+Cent., 114° Fahr., and a roach, _Leuciscus thermalis_, when the
+thermometer indicated 50° Cent, 122° Fahr.--_Ib_. xviii. p. 59, xvi. p.
+182, xvii. p. 94. Fish have been taken from a hot spring at Pooree when
+the thermometer stood at 112° Fahr., and as they belonged to a
+carnivorous genus, they must have found prey living in the same high
+temperature.--_Journ. Asiatic Soc. of Beng._ vol. vi. p. 465. Fishes
+have been observed in a hot spring at Manila which raises the
+thermometer to 187°, and in another in Barbary, the usual temperature of
+which is 172°; and Humboldt and Bonpland, when travelling in South
+America, saw fishes thrown up alive from a volcano, in water that raised
+the temperature to 210°, being two degrees below the boiling point.
+PATTERSON'S _Zoology_, Pt. ii. p. 211; YARRELL'S _History of British
+Fishes_, vol. i. In. p. xvi.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Fishes._
+
+In the following list, the Acanthopterygian fishes of Ceylon has been
+prepared for me by Dr. GÜNTHER, and will be found the most complete
+which has appeared of this order. I am also indebted to him for the
+correction of the list of Malacopterygians, which I hope ere long to
+render still more extended, as well as that of the Cartilaginous fishes.
+
+
+I. OSSEOUS.
+
+ACANTHOPTERYGII
+
+BERYCIDÆ, _Lowe_.
+  Myripristis murdjan, _Forsk_.
+  Holocentrum rubrum, _Forsk_.
+     spiniferum, _Forsk_.
+     diadema, _Lacép_.
+
+PERCIDÆ, _Günther_.
+ *Lates calcarifer, _Bl._
+  Serranus louti, _Forsk_.
+     pachycentrum, _C. & V._
+     guttatus, _Bl._
+     Sonneratii, _C. & V._
+     angularis, _C.& V._
+     marginalis, _Bl._
+     hexagonatis, _Forsk_.
+     flavocoeruleus, _Lacép_.
+     biguttatus, _C. & V._
+     lemniscatus, _C. & V._
+     Amboinensis, _Bleek_.
+     boenak, _C. & V._
+  Grammistes orientalis,  _Bl._
+  Genyoroge Sebæ, _C. & V._
+     Bengalensis, _C. & V._
+     marginata, _C. & V._
+     rivulata, _C. & V._
+     gibba, _Forsk_.
+     spilura, _Benn_.
+  Mesoprion aurolineatus, _C. & V._
+     rangus, _C. & V._
+     quinquelineatus, _Rüpp_.
+     Johnii, _Bl._
+     annularis, _C. & V._
+  ?Priacanthus Blochii, _Bleek_.
+  Ambassis n. sp., _Günth_.
+     Commersonii, _C. & V._
+     thermalis, _C. & V._
+  Apogon Ceylonicus, _C. & V._
+     thermalis, _C. & V._
+     annularis, _Rüpp_. Var. roseipinnis.
+  Chilodipterus quinquelineatus, _C. & V._
+
+PRISTIPOMATIDÆ, _Günther_.
+  Dules Bennettii, _Bleek_.
+ *Therapon servus, _Bloch_.
+    *trivittatus, _Buch. Ham_.
+     quadrilineatus, _Bl._
+ *Helotes polytænia, _Bleek_.
+  Pristipoma hasta, _Bloch_.
+     maculatum, _Bl._
+  Diagramma punctatum, _Ehrenb_.
+     orientale, _Bl._
+     poecilopterum, _C. & V._
+     Blochii, _C. & V._
+     lineatum, _Gm_.
+     Radja, _Bleek_.
+  Lobotes auctorum, _Günth_.
+  Gerres oblongus, _C & V._
+  Scolopsia Japonicus, _Bl._
+     bimaculatus, _Rüpp_.
+     monogramma, _k. & v. H._
+  Synagris furcosus, _C. & V._
+  Pentapus aurolineatus, _Lacép_.
+  Smaris balteatus, _C. & V._
+  Cæsio coerulaureus, _Lacép_.
+
+MULLIDÆ, _Gray_.
+  Upeneus tæniopterus, _C. & V._
+     Indicus, _Shaw_.
+     cyclostoma, _Lacép_.
+  Upe. trifasciatus, _Lacép_.
+     cinnabarinus, _C. & V._
+  Upeneoides vittatus, _Forsk._
+     tragula.
+     sulphureus, _C. & V._
+  Mulloides flavolineatus, _Lacép_.
+     Ceylonicus, _C. & V._
+
+SPARIDÆ, _Günther_.
+  Lethrinus frenatus, _C. & V._
+     cinereus, _C. & V._
+     fasciatus, _C. & V._
+    ?ramak, _Forsk._
+     opercularis, _C. & V._
+     erythrurus, _C. & V._
+  Pagrus spinifer, _Forsk_.
+  Crysophrys hasta, _Bl._
+ ?Pimelepterus Ternatensis, _Bleek_.
+
+SQUAMIPINNES, _Günthier_.
+  Chætodon Layardi, _Blyth_.
+     oligacanthus, _Bleek_.
+     setifer, _Bl._
+     vagabundus, _L._
+     guttatissimus, _Benn_.
+     pictus, _Forsk_.
+     xanthocephalus, _Benn_.
+     Sebæ, _C. & V._
+  Heniochus macrolepidotus, _Artedi_.
+  Holacanthus annularis, _Bl._
+     xanthurus, _Benn_.
+     imperator, _B1_.
+  Scatophagus argus, _Gm_.
+  Ephippus orbis, _Bl._
+  Drepane punctata, _Gm_.
+
+CIRRHITIDÆ, _Gray_.
+  Cirrhites Forsteri, _Schn_.
+
+CATAPHRACTI, _Cuv_.
+  Scorpæna polyprion, _Bleek_.
+  Pterois volitans, _L._
+     miles, _Benn_.
+  Tetraroge longispinis, _C. & V._
+  Platycephalus insidiator, _Forsk_.
+     punctatus, _C. & V._
+     serratus, _C. & V._
+     tuberculatus, _C. & V._
+     suppositus, _Trosch_.
+  Dactylopterus orientalis, _C. & V._
+
+TRACHINIDÆ, _Günther_.
+ ?Uranoscopus guttatus, _C. & V._
+  Percis millepunctata, _Günth_.
+  Sillago siliama, _Forsk_.
+
+SCIÆNIDÆ, _Günther_.
+  Sciæna diacantha, _Lacép_.
+     maculata, _Schn_.
+     Dussumieri, _C & V._
+  Corvina miles, _C. & V._
+  Otolithus argenteus, _k. & v. H._
+
+POLYNEMIDÆ, _Günther_.
+  Polynemus heptadactylus, _C. & V._
+     hexanemus, _C. & V._
+     Indicus, _Shaw_.
+     plebeius, _Gm._
+     tetradactylus, _Shaw_.
+
+SPHYRÆNIDÆ, _Agass_.
+  Sphyræna jello, _C. & V._
+     obtusata, _C. & V._
+
+TRICHIURIDÆ, _Günther_.
+  Trichiurus savala, _Cuv._
+
+SCOMBRIDÆ, _Günther_.
+ ?Thynnus affinis, _Cant._
+  Cybium Commersonii, _Lacép._
+     guttatum, _Schn._
+  Naucrates ductor, _L._
+  Elacate nigra, _Bl._
+    ?n. sp.
+  Echeneis remora, _L._
+     scutata, _Günth._
+     naucrates, _L._
+  Stromateus cinereus, _Bl._
+     niger, _Bl._
+  Coryphæna hippurus, _L._
+  Mene maculata, _Schn._
+
+CARANGIDÆ, _Günther._
+  Caranx Heberi, _Benn._
+  Rottleri, _Bl._
+     calla, _C.&V._
+     xanthurus, _K.&v.H._
+     talamparoides, _Bleek._
+     Malabaricus, _Schn._
+     speciosus, _Forsk._
+     carangus, _Bl._
+     hippos, _L._
+     armatus, _Forsk._
+     ciliaris, _Bl._
+     gallus, _L._
+  Micropteryx chrysurus, _L._
+  Seriola nigro-fasciata, _Rüpp._
+  Chorinemus lysan, _Forsk._
+     Sancti Petri, _C. & V._
+  Trachynotus oblongus, _C. & V._
+     ovatus, _L._
+  Psettus argenteus, _L._
+  Platax vespertilio, _Bl._
+     Raynaldi, _C.&V._
+  Zanclus sp. n.
+  Lactarius delicatulus, _C. & V._
+  Equula fasciata, _Lacép._
+     edentula, _Bl._
+     daura, _Cuv._
+     inlerrupta.
+  Gazza minuta, _Bl._
+     equulæformis, _Rüpp._
+  Pempheris sp.
+
+XIPHIIDÆ, _Agass._
+  Histiophorus immaculatus, _Rüpp._
+
+THEUTYIDÆ, _Günther._
+  Theutys Javus, _L._
+     stellata, _Forsk._
+     nebulosa, _A. & G._
+
+ACRONURIDÆ, _Günther._
+  Acanthurus triostegus, _L._
+     nigrofuscus, _Forsk._
+     lineatus, _L._
+     Tennentii, _Gthr._
+     leucosternon, _Bennett._
+     ctenodon, _C.&V._
+     rhombeus, _Kittl._
+     xanthurus, _Blyth._
+  Acronurus melas, _C. & V._
+     melanurus, _C. & V._
+  Naseus unicornis, _Forsk,_
+     brevirostris, _C. & V._
+     tuberosus, _Lacép._
+     lituratus, _Forster._
+
+AULOSTOMATA, _Cuvier._
+  Fistularia serrata, _Bl._
+
+BLENNIIDÆ, _Müll._
+  Salarias fasclatus, _Bl._
+  Sal. marmoratus, _Benn._
+     tridactylus, _Schn._
+     quadricornis, _C.&V._
+
+GOBIIDÆ, _Müll._
+  Gobius ornatus, _Rüpp._
+     giuris, _Buch. Ham._
+     albopunctatus, _C. & V._
+     grammepomus, _Bleek._
+  Apocryptes lanceolatus, _Bl._
+  Periophthalmus Koelreuteri, _Pall._
+  Eleotris ophiocephalus, _K. & v.H._
+     fusca, _Bl._
+     sexguttata, _C. & V._
+     muralis, _A. & G._
+
+MASTACEMBELIDÆ. _Günther._
+  Mastacembelus armatus, _Lacép._
+
+PEDICULATI, _Cuv._
+  Antennarius marmoratus, _Günth._
+     hispidus, _Schn._
+     pinniceps, _Commers._
+     Commersonii, _Lacép._
+     multiocellatus _Günth._
+     bigibbus, _Lacép._
+
+ATHERINIDÆ, _Günther._
+  Atherina Forskalii, _Rüpp._
+     duodecimalis, _C. & V._
+
+MUGILIDÆ, _Günther._
+  Mugil planiceps, _C. & V._
+     Waigiensis, _A.G._
+     Ceylonensis, _Günth._
+
+OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ, _Günther._
+  Ophiocephalus punctatus, _Bl._
+     Kelaartii, _Günth._
+     striatus, _Bl._
+     marulius, _Ham. Buch._
+  Channa orientalis, _Schn._
+
+LABYRINTHICI, _Cuv._
+  Anabas oligolepis, _Bleek._
+  Polyacanthus signatus, _Günth._
+
+PHARYNGOGNATHI.
+  Amphiprion Clarkii, _J. Benn._
+  Dascyllus aruanus, _C. & V._
+  trimaculatus, _Rüpp._
+  Glyphisodon septem-fasciatus, _C. & V._
+     Brownrigii, _Benn,_
+     coelestinus, _Sol._
+  Etroplus Suratensis, _Bl._
+  Julis lunaris _Linn._
+     decussatus, _W Benn._
+     formosus, _C.&V._
+     quadricolor. _Lesson._
+     dorsalis, _Quoy & Gaim._
+     aureomaculatus, _W. Benn._
+     Cellanicus, _E. Benn._
+     Finlaysoni, _C. & V._
+     purpureo-lineatus, _C. & V._
+     cingulum, _C. & V._
+  Gomphosus fuscus, _C. & V._
+     coeruleus, _Comm._
+     viridis, _W. Benn._
+  Scarus pepo, _W. Benn._
+     harid. _Forsk._
+  Tautoga fasciata, _Thunb._
+  Hemirhamphus Reynaldi, _C. & V._
+     Georgii _C.& V._
+  Exocoetus evolans. _Linn._
+  Belone annulata, _C. & V._
+
+MALACOPTERYGII (ABDOMINALES).
+  Bagrus gulio, _Buch_.
+     albilabris, _C. & V._
+  Plotosus lineatus, _C. & V._
+  Barbus tor, _C. & V._
+  Nuria thermoicos, _C. & V._
+  Leuciscus dandia, _C. & V._
+     scalpellus, _C. & V._
+     Ceylonicus, _E. Benn_.
+     thermalis, _C. & V._
+  Cobitis thermalis, _C. & V._
+  Chirocentrus dorab, _Forsk_.
+  Elops saurus, _L._
+  Megalops cundinga, _Buch_.
+  Engraulis Brownii, _Gm_.
+  Sardinella leiogaster, _C. & V._
+     lineolata, _C. & V._
+     Neohowii.
+  Saurus myops, _Val_.
+  Saurida tombil, _Bl._
+
+MALACOPTERYGII (SUB-BRANCHIATI).
+  Pleuronectes, _L._
+
+MALACOPTERYGII (APODA).
+  Muræna.
+
+LOPHOBRANCHI.
+  Syngnathus, _L._
+
+PLECTOGNATHII.
+  Tetraodon ocellatus, _W. Benn_.
+     tepa, _Buch_.
+     argyropleura, _E. Bennett_.
+     argentatus, _Blyth_.
+  Balistes biaculeatus, _W. Benn_.
+     lineatus, _Bl._
+  Triacanthus biaculeatus, _W. Benn_.
+  Alutarius lævis, _Bl._
+
+
+II. CARTILAGINOUS.
+
+  Pristis antiquorum, _Lath_.
+     cuspidatus, _Lath_.
+     pectinatus, _Lath_.
+  Chiloscyllium plagiosum, _Benn_.
+  Stegostoma fasciatum, _Bl._
+  Carcharias acutus, _Rüpp_.
+  Sphyrna zygæna, _L._
+  Rhynchobatus lævis, _Bl._
+  Trygon uarnak, _Forsk_.
+  Pteroplatea micrura, _Bl._
+  Tæniura lymna, _Forsk_.
+  Myliobatis Nieuhofii, _Bl._
+  Aëtobates narinari, _Bl._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE (A.)
+
+INSTANCES OF FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA.
+
+
+(_From the Bombay Times,_ 1856.)
+
+See Page 343.
+
+The late Dr. Buist, after enumerating cases in which fishes were said to
+have been thrown out from volcanoes in South America and precipitated
+from clouds in various parts of the world, adduced the following
+instances of similar occurrences in India. "In 1824," he says, "fishes
+fell at Meerut, on the men of Her Majesty's 14th Regiment, then out at
+drill, and were caught in numbers. In July, 1826, live fish were seen to
+fall on the grass at Moradabad during a storm. They were the common
+cyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian waters. On the 19th of February,
+1830, at noon, a heavy fall of fish occurred at the Nokulhatty factory,
+in the Daccah zillah; depositions on the subject were obtained from nine
+different parties. The fish were all dead; most of them were large; some
+were fresh, others were rotten and mutilated. They were seen at first in
+the sky, like a flock of birds, descending rapidly to the ground; there
+was rain drizzling, but no storm. On the 16th and 17th of May, 1833, a
+fall of fish occurred in the zillah of Futtehpoor, about three miles
+north of the Jumna, after a violent storm of wind and rain. The fish
+were from a pound and a half to three pounds in weight, and of the same
+species as those found in the tanks in the neighbourhood. They were all
+dead and dry. A fall of fish occurred at Allahabad, during a storm in
+May, 1835; they were of the chowla species, and were found dead and dry
+after the storm had passed over the district. On the 20th of September,
+1839, after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of live fish, about three
+inches in length and all of the same kind, fell at the Sunderbunds,
+about twenty miles south of Calcutta. On this occasion it was remarked
+that the fish did not fall here and there irregularly over the ground,
+but in a continuous straight line, not more than a span in breadth. The
+vast multitudes of fish, with which the low grounds round Bombay are
+covered, about a week or ten days after the first burst of the monsoon,
+appear to be derived from the adjoining pools or rivulets, and not to
+descend from the sky. They are not, so far as I know, found in the
+higher parts of the island. I have never seen them, (though I have
+watched carefully,) in casks collecting water from the roofs of
+buildings, or heard of them on the decks or awnings of vessels in the
+harbour, where they must have appeared had they descended from the sky.
+One of the most remarkable phenomena of this kind occurred during a
+tremendous deluge of rain at Kattywar, on the 25th of July, 1850, when
+the ground around Rajkote was found literally covered with fish; some of
+them were found on the tops of haystacks, where probably they had been
+drifted by the storm. In the course of twenty-four successive hours
+twenty-seven inches of rain fell, thirty-five fell in twenty-six hours,
+seven inches within one hour and a half, being the heaviest fall on
+record. At Poonah, on the 3rd of August, 1852, after a very heavy fall
+of rain, multitudes of fish were caught on the ground in the
+cantonments, full half a mile from the nearest stream. If showers of
+fish are to be explained on the assumption that they are carried up by
+squalls or violent winds, from rivers or spaces of water not far away
+from where they fall, it would be nothing wonderful were they seen to
+descend from the air during the furious squalls which occasionally occur
+in June."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOTE (B.)
+
+CEYLON FISHES.
+
+
+(_Memorandum by Professor Huxley._)
+
+See Page 324.
+
+The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the fishes of
+Ceylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, possesses an unusual
+value for several reasons.
+
+The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and even had those
+from other parts of Ceylon been added, the geographical area would not
+have been very extended. Nevertheless there are more than 600 drawings,
+and though it is possible that some of these represent varieties in
+different stages of growth of the same species, I have not been able to
+find definite evidence of the fact in any of those groups which I have
+particularly tested. If, however, these drawings represent _six hundred_
+distinct species of fish, they constitute, so far as I know, the largest
+collection of fish from one locality in existence.
+
+The number of known British fishes may be safely assumed to be less than
+250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr. Cantor's valuable work on
+Malayan fishes enumerates not more than 238, while Dr. Russell has
+figured only 200 from Coromandel. Even the enormous area of the Chinese
+and Japanese seas has as yet not yielded 800 species of fishes.
+
+The large extent of the collection alone, then, renders it of great
+importance: but its value is immeasurably enhanced by the two
+circumstances,--_first_, that every drawing was made while the fish
+retained all that vividness of colouring which becomes lost so soon
+after its removal from its native element; and _secondly_, that when the
+sketch was finished its subject was carefully labelled, preserved in
+spirits, and forwarded to England, so that at the present moment the
+original of every drawing can be subjected to anatomical examination,
+and compared with already named species.
+
+Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the collection
+is one of the most valuable in existence, and might, if properly worked
+out, become a large and secure foundation for all future investigation
+into the ichthyology of the Indian Ocean.
+
+It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the novelty or
+otherwise of the species and genera figured without the study of the
+specimens themselves, as the specific distinctions of fish are for the
+most part based upon character--the fin-rays, teeth, the operculum, &c.,
+which can only be made out by close and careful examination of the
+object, and cannot be represented in ordinary drawings however accurate.
+
+There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family traits are so
+marked as to render it almost impossible to mistake even their
+portraits, and hence I may venture, without fear of being far wrong,
+upon a few remarks as to the general features of the ichthyological
+fauna of Ceylon.
+
+In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of fishes belong
+to the cod tribe. I have not found one represented in these drawings,
+nor do either Russell or Cantor mention any in the surrounding seas, and
+the result is in general harmony with the known laws of distribution of
+these most useful of fishes.
+
+On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tunnies, the
+bonitas, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &c., which form not more than
+one sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but which are known to increase
+their proportion in hot climates, appear in wonderful variety of form
+and colour, and constitute not less than one fifth of the whole of the
+species of Ceylon fish. In Russell's catalogue they form less than one
+fifth, in Cantor's less than one sixth.
+
+Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the continent
+of Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country, constitute one
+twentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell's and Cantor's lists they
+form about one thirtieth of the whole.
+
+The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish fauna. They
+constitute about one tenth or one eleventh of Russell's and Cantor's
+lists, while among these Ceylon drawings I find not more than twenty, or
+about one thirtieth of the whole, which can be referred to this group of
+fishes. It must be extremely interesting to know whether this
+circumstance is owing to accident, or to the local peculiarities of
+Colombo, or whether the fauna of Ceylon really is deficient in such
+fishes.
+
+The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the proportion of the
+tribe of flat fishes, or _Pleuronectidæ_. Soles, turbots, and the like,
+form nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both Cantor and Russell give
+the flat fishes as making one twenty-second part of their collection,
+while in the whole 600 Ceylon drawings I can find but five
+_Pleuronectidæ_.
+
+When this great collection has been carefully studied, I doubt not that
+many more interesting distributional facts will be evolved.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the drawings in
+question have been submitted to Dr. Gray, of the British Museum. That
+eminent naturalist, after a careful analysis, has favoured me with the
+following memorandum of the fishes they represent, numerically
+contrasting them with those of China and Japan, so far as we are
+acquainted with the ichthyology of those seas:--
+
+
+  CARTILAGINEA.
+
+                         Ceylon.      China and Japan.
+
+  Squali                   12               15
+  Raiæ                     19               20
+  Sturiones                 0                1
+
+  OSTINOPTERYGII.
+
+  Plectognathi.
+       tetraodontidæ       10               21
+       balistidæ            9               19
+  Lophobranchii.
+       syngnathidæ          2                2
+       pegasidæ             0                3
+  Ctenobranchii.
+       lophidæ              1                3
+  Cyclopodi.
+       echeneidæ            0                1
+       cyclopteridæ         0                1
+       gobidæ               7               35
+  Percini.
+       callionymidæ         0                7
+       uranoscopidæ         0                7
+       cottidæ              0               13
+       triglidæ            11               37
+       polynemidæ          12                3
+       mullidæ              1                7
+       perecidæ            26               12
+       berycidæ             0                5
+       sillaginidæ          3                1
+       sciænidæ            19               13
+       hæmullinidæ          6               12
+       serranidæ           31               38
+       theraponidæ          8               20
+       cirrhitidæ           0                2
+       mænidiæ             37               25
+       sparidæ             16               17
+       acanthuridæ         14                6
+       chætodontidæ        25               21
+       fistularidæ          2                3
+  Periodopharyngi.
+       mugilidæ             5                7
+       anabantidæ           6               15
+       pomacentridæ        10               11
+  Pharyngognathi.
+       labridæ             16               35
+       scomberesocidæ      13                6
+       blenniidæ            3                8
+  Scomberina.
+       zeidæ                0                2
+       sphyrænidæ           5                4
+       scomberidæ         118               62
+       xiphlidæ             0                1
+       cepolidæ             0                5
+  Heterosomata.
+       platessoideæ         5               22
+       siluridæ            31               24
+       cyprinidæ           19               52
+       scopelinidæ          2                7
+       salmonidæ            0                1
+       clupeidæ            43               22
+       gadidæ               0                2
+       macruridæ            1                0
+  Apodes.
+       anguillidæ           8               12
+       murænidæ             8                6
+       sphagebranchidæ      8               10
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTE (C).
+
+ON THE BORA-CHUNG, OR "GROUND-FISH" OF BHOOTAN.
+
+
+See P. 353.
+
+In Bhootan, at the south-eastern extremity of the Himalayas, a fish is
+found, the scientific name of which is unknown to me, but it is called
+by the natives the _Bora-chung_, and by European residents the
+"ground-fish of Bhootan." It is described in the _Journal of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal for_ 1839, by a writer (who had seen it alive), as
+being about two feet in length, and cylindrical, with a thick body,
+somewhat shaped like a pike, but rounder, the nose curved upwards, the
+colour olive-green, with orange stripes, and the head speckled with
+crimson.[1] This fish, according to the native story, is caught not in
+the rivers in whose vicinity it is found, but "in perfectly dry places
+in the middle of grassy jungle, sometimes as far as two miles from the
+banks." Here, on finding a hole four or five inches in diameter, they
+commence to dig, and continue till they come to water; and presently the
+_bora-chung_ rises to the surface, sometimes from a depth of nineteen
+feet. In these extemporised wells these fishes are found always in
+pairs, and I when brought to the surface they glide rapidly over the
+ground with a serpentine motion. This account appeared in 1839; but some
+years later, Mr. Campbell, the Superintendent of Darjeeling, in a
+communication to the same journal[2], divested the story of much of its
+exaggeration, by stating, as the result of personal inquiry in Bhootan,
+that the _bora-chung_ inhabits the jheels and slow-running streams near
+the hills, but lives principally on the banks, into which it penetrates
+from one to five or six feet. The entrance to these retreats leading
+from the river into the bank is generally a few inches below the
+surface, so that the fish can return to the water at pleasure. The mode
+of catching them is by introducing the hand into these holes; and the
+_bora-chungs_ are found generally two in each chamber, coiled
+concentrically like snakes. It is not believed that they bore their own
+burrows, but that they take possession of those made by land-crabs. Mr.
+Campbell denies that they are more capable than other fish of moving on
+dry ground. From the particulars given, the _bora-chung_ would appear to
+be an _Ophiocephalus_, probably the _O. barka_ described by Buchanan, as
+inhabiting holes in the banks of rivers tributary to the Ganges.
+
+[Footnote 1: Paper by Mr. J.T. PEARSON, _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng._, vol.
+viii p. 551.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng._, vol. xi. p. 963.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XI.
+
+SHELLS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Mollusca.--Radiata, &c._
+
+Ceylon has long been renowned for the beauty and variety of the shells
+which abound in its seas and inland waters, and in which an active trade
+has been organised by the industrious Moors, who clean them with great
+expertness, arrange them in satin-wood boxes, and send them to Colombo
+and all parts of the island for sale. In general, however, these
+specimens are more prized for their beauty than valued for their rarity,
+though some of the "Argus" cowries[1] have been sold as high as _four
+guineas_ a pair.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cypræa Argus_.]
+
+One of the principal sources whence their supplies are derived is the
+beautiful Bay of Venloos, to the north of Batticaloa, formed by the
+embouchure of the Natoor river. The scenery at this spot is enchanting.
+The sea is overhung by gentle acclivities wooded to the summit; and in
+an opening between two of these eminences the river flows through a
+cluster of little islands covered with mangroves and acacias. A bar of
+rocks projects across it, at a short distance from the shore; and these
+are frequented all day long by pelicans, that come at sunrise to fish,
+and at evening return to their solitary breeding-places remote from the
+beach. The strand is literally covered with beautiful shells in rich
+profusion, and the dealers from Trincomalie know the proper season to
+visit the bay for each particular description. The entire coast,
+however, as far north as the Elephant Pass, is indented by little rocky
+inlets, where shells of endless variety may be collected in great
+abundance.[1] During the north-east monsoon a formidable surf bursts
+upon the shore, which is here piled high with mounds of yellow sand; and
+the remains of shells upon the water mark show how rich the sea is in
+mollusca. Amongst them are prodigious numbers of the ubiquitous
+violet-coloured _Ianthina_[2], which rises when the ocean is calm, and
+by means of its inflated vesicles floats lightly on the surface.
+
+[Footnote 1: In one of these beautiful little bays near Catchavelly,
+between Trincomalie and Batticaloa, I found the sand within the wash of
+the sea literally covered with mollusca and shells, and amongst others a
+species of _Bullia_ (B. vittata, I think), the inhabitant of which, has
+the faculty of mooring itself firmly by sending down its membranous foot
+into the wet sand, where, imbibing the water, this organ expands
+horizontally into a broad, fleshy disc, by which the animal anchors
+itself, and thus secured, collects its food in the ripple of the waves.
+On the slightest alarm, the water is discharged, the disc collapses into
+its original dimensions, and the shell and its inhabitant disappear
+together beneath the sand.]
+
+[Illustration: BULLIA VITTATA]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ianthina communis_, Krause and _I. prolongata_, Blainv.]
+
+[Illustration: IANTHINA.]
+
+The trade in shells is one of extreme antiquity in Ceylon. The Gulf of
+Manaar has been fished from the earliest times for the large chank
+shell, _Turbinella_ _rapa_, to be exported to India, where it is still
+sawn into rings and worn as anklets and bracelets by the women of
+Hindustan. Another use for these shells is their conversion into wind
+instruments, which are sounded in the temples on all occasions of
+ceremony. A chank, in which the whorls, instead of running from left to
+right, as in the ordinary shell, are reversed, and run from right to
+left, is regarded with such reverence that a specimen formerly sold for
+its weight in gold, but one may now be had for four or five pounds.
+COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, writing in the fifth century, describes a place
+on the west coast of Ceylon, which he calls Marallo, and says it
+produced "[Greek: kochlious]," which THEVENOT translates "oysters;" in
+which case Marallo might be conjectured to be Bentotte, near Colombo,
+which yields the best edible "oysters" in Ceylon.[1] But the shell in
+question was most probably the chank, and Marallo was Mantotte, off
+which it is found in great numbers.[2] In fact, two centuries later
+Abouzeyd, an Arab, who wrote an account of the trade and productions of
+India, speaks of these shells by the name they still bear, which he
+states to be _schenek_[3]; but "schenek" is not an Arabic word, and is
+merely an attempt to spell the local term, _chank_, in Arabic
+characters.
+
+[Footnote 1: COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, in Thevenot's ed. t i. p. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 2: At Kottiar, near Trincomalie, I was struck with the
+prodigious size of the edible oysters, which were brought to us at the
+rest-house. The shell of one of these measured a little more than eleven
+inches in length, by half as many broad: thus unexpectedly attesting the
+correctness of one of the stories related by the historians of
+Alexander's expedition, that in India they had found oysters a foot
+long. PLINY says: "In Indico mari Alexandri rerum auctores pedalia
+inveniri prodidere."--_Nat. Hist._ lib. xxxii. ch. 31. DARWIN says, that
+amongst the fossils of Patagonia, he found "a massive gigantic oyster,
+sometimes even a foot in diameter."--_Nat. Voy._, ch. viii.]
+
+[Footnote 3:--ABOUZEYD, _Voyages Arabes,_ &c., t. i. p. 6; REINAUD,
+_Mémoire sur l'Inde,_ &c p. 222.]
+
+BERTOLACCI mentions a curious local peculiarity[1] observed by the
+fishermen in the natural history of the chank. "All shells," he says,
+"found to the northward of a line drawn from a point about midway from
+Manaar to the opposite coast (of India) are of the kind called _patty_,
+and are distinguished by a short flat head; and all those found to the
+southward of that line are of the kind called _pajel_, and are known
+from having a longer and more pointed head than the former. Nor is there
+ever an instance of deviation from this singular law of nature. The
+_Wallampory_, or 'right-hand chanks,' are found of both kinds."
+
+[Footnote 1: See also the _Asiatic Journal for_ 1827, p. 469.]
+
+This tendency of particular localities to re-produce certain
+specialities of form and colour is not confined to the sea or to the
+instance of the chank shell. In the gardens which line the suburbs of
+Galle in the direction of Matura the stems of the coco-nut and jak trees
+are profusely covered with the shells of the beautiful striped _Helix
+hamastoma_. Stopping frequently to collect them, I was led to observe
+that each separate garden seemed to possess a variety almost peculiar to
+itself; in one the mouth of every individual shell was _red_; in
+another, separated from the first only by a wall, _black_; and in others
+(but less frequently) _pure white_; whilst the varieties of external
+colouring were equally local. In one enclosure they were nearly all red,
+and in an adjoining one brown.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: DARWIN, in his _Naturalist's Voyage_, mentions a parallel
+instance of the localised propagation of colours amoungst the cattle
+which range the pasturage of East Falkland Island: "Round Mount Osborne
+about half of some of the herds were mouse-coloured, a tint no common
+anywhere else,--near Mount Pleasant dark-brown prevailed; whereas south
+of Choiseul Sound white beasts with black heads and feet were
+common."--Ch. ix. p. 192.]
+
+A trade more ancient by far than that carried on in chanks, and
+infinitely more renowned, is the fishery of pearls on the west coast of
+Ceylon, bordering the Gulf of Manaar. No scene in Ceylon presents so
+dreary an aspect as the long sweep of desolate shore to which, from time
+immemorial, adventurers have resorted from the uttermost ends of the
+earth in search of the precious pearls for which this gulf is renowned.
+On approaching it from sea the only perceptible landmark is a building
+erected by Lord Guildford, as a temporary residence for the Governor,
+and known by the name of the "Doric," from the style of its
+architecture. A few coco-nut palms appear next above the low sandy
+beach, and presently are discovered the scattered houses which form the
+villages of Aripo and Condatchy.
+
+Between these two places, or rather between the Kalaar and Arrive river,
+the shore is raised to a height of many feet, by enormous mounds of
+shells, the accumulations of ages, the millions of oysters[1], robbed of
+their pearls, having been year after year flung into heaps, that extend
+for a distance of many miles.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is almost unnecessary to say that the shell fish which
+produces the true Oriental pearls is not an oyster, but belongs to the
+genus Avicula, or more correctly, Meleagrina. It is the _Meleagrina
+Margaritifera_ of Lamarck.]
+
+During the progress of a pearl-fishery, this singular and dreary expanse
+becomes suddenly enlivened by the crowds who congregate from distant
+parts of India; a town is improvised by the construction of temporary
+dwellings, huts of timber and cajans[1], with tents of palm leaves or
+canvas; and bazaars spring up, to feed the multitude on land, as well as
+the seamen and divers in the fleets of boats that cover the bay.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cajan_ is the local term for the plaited fronds of a
+coco-nut.]
+
+I visited the pearl banks officially in 1848 in company with Capt.
+Stenart, the official inspector. My immediate object was to inquire into
+the causes of the suspension of the fisheries, and to ascertain the
+probability of reviving a source of revenue, the gross receipts from
+which had failed for several years to defray the cost of conservancy. In
+fact, between 1837 and 1854, the pearl banks were an annual charge,
+instead of producing an annual income, to the colony. The conjecture,
+hastily adopted, to account for the disappearance of mature shells, had
+reference to mechanical causes; the received hypothesis being that the
+young broods had been swept off their accustomed feeding grounds, by the
+establishment of unusual currents, occasioned by deepening the narrow
+passage between Ceylon and India at Paumbam. It was also suggested, that
+a previous Governor, in his eagerness to replenish the colonial
+treasury, had so "scraped" and impoverished the beds as to exterminate
+the oysters. To me, neither of these suppositions appeared worthy of
+acceptance; for, in the frequent disruptions of Adam's Bridge, there was
+ample evidence that the currents in the Gulf of Manaar had been changed
+at former times without destroying the pearl beds: and moreover the
+oysters had disappeared on many former occasions, without any imputation
+of improper management on the part of the conservators; and returned
+after much longer intervals of absence than that which fell under my own
+notice, and which was then creating serious apprehension in the colony.
+
+A similar interruption had been experienced between 1820 and 1828: the
+Dutch had had no fishing for twenty-seven years, from 1768 till 1796[1];
+and they had been equally unsuccessful from 1732 till 1746. The Arabs
+were well acquainted with similar vicissitudes, and Albyronni (a
+contemporary of Avicenna), who served under Mahmoud of Ghuznee, and
+wrote in the eleventh century, says that the pearl fishery, which
+formerly existed in the Gulf of Serendib, had become exhausted in his
+time, simultaneously with the appearance of a fishery at Sofala, in the
+country of the Zends, where pearls were unknown before; and hence, he
+says, arose the conjecture that the pearl oyster of Serendib had
+migrated to Sofala.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: This suspension was in some degree attributable to disputes
+with the Nabob of Arcot and other chiefs, and the proprietors of temples
+on the opposite coast of India, who claimed, a right to participate in
+the fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Il y avait autrefois dans le Golfe de Serendyb, une
+pêcherie de perles qui s'est épuiseé de notre temps. D'un autre côté il
+s'est formé une pêcherie de Sofala dans le pays des Zends, là ou il n'en
+existait pas auparavant--on dit que c'est la pêcherie de Serendyb qui
+s'est transportée à Sofala."--ALBYROUNI, _in_ RENAUD'S _Fragmens Arabes,
+&c_, p. 125; see also REINAUD'S _Mémoire sur l'Inde_, p. 228.]
+
+It appeared to me that the explanation of the phenomenon was to be
+sought, not merely in external causes, but also in the instincts and
+faculties of the animals themselves, and, on my return to Colombo, I
+ventured to renew a recommendation, which had been made years before,
+that a scientific inspector should be appointed to study the habits and
+the natural history of the pearl-oyster, and that his investigations
+should be facilitated by the means at the disposal of the Government.
+
+Dr. Kelaart was appointed to this office, by Sir H.G. Ward, in 1857, and
+his researches speedily developed results of great interest. In
+opposition to the received opinion that the pearl-oyster is incapable of
+voluntary movement, and unable of itself to quit the place to which it
+is originally attached[1], he demonstrated, not only that it possesses
+locomotive powers, but also that their exercise is indispensable to its
+oeconomy when obliged to search for food, or compelled to escape from
+local impurities. He showed that, for this purpose, it can sever its
+byssus, and re-form it at pleasure, so as to migrate and moor itself in
+favourable situations.[2] The establishment of this important fact may
+tend to solve the mystery of the occasional disappearances of the
+oyster; and if coupled with the further discovery that it is susceptible
+of translation from place to place, and even from salt to brackish
+water, it seems reasonable to expect that beds may be formed with
+advantage in positions suitable for its growth and protection. Thus,
+like the edible oyster of our own shores, the pearl-oyster may be
+brought within the domain of pisciculture, and banks may be created in
+suitable places, just as the southern shores of France are now being
+colonised with oysters, under the direction of M. Coste.[3] The
+operation of sowing the sea with pearl, should the experiment succeed,
+would be as gorgeous in reality, as it is grand in conception: and the
+wealth of Ceylon, in her "treasures of the deep," might eclipse the
+renown of her gems when she merited the title of the "Island of Rubies."
+
+[Footnote 1: STEUART'S _Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon_, p. 27: CORDINER'S
+_Ceylon, &c_, vol. ii. p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See Dr. KELAART'S Report on the Pearl Oyster in the _Ceylon
+Calendar for 1858--Appendix_, p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Rapport de_ M. COSTE, Professeur d'Embryogénie, &c.,
+Paris, 1858.]
+
+On my arrival at Aripo, the pearl-divers, under the orders of their
+Adapanaar, put to sea, and commenced the examination of the banks.[1]
+The persons engaged in this calling are chiefly Tamils and Moors, who
+are trained for the service by diving for chanks. The pieces of
+apparatus employed to assist the diver in his operations are exceedingly
+simple in their character: they consist merely of a stone, about thirty
+pounds' weight, (to accelerate the rapidity of his descent,) which is
+suspended over the side of the boat, with a loop attached to it for
+receiving the foot; and of a net-work basket, which he takes down to the
+bottom and fills with the oysters as he collects them. MASSOUDI, one of
+the earliest Arabian geographers, describing, in the ninth century, the
+habits of the pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf, says that, before
+descending, each filled his ears with cotton steeped in oil, and
+compressed his nostrils by a piece of tortoise-shell.[2] This practice
+continues there to the present day[3]; but the diver of Ceylon rejects
+all such expedients; he inserts his foot in the "sinking stone" and
+inhales a full breath; presses his nostrils with his left hand; raises
+his body as high as possible above water, to give force to his descent:
+and, liberating the stone from its fastenings, he sinks rapidly below
+the surface. As soon as he has reached the bottom, the stone is drawn
+up, and the diver, throwing himself on his face, commences with alacrity
+to fill his basket with oysters. This, on a concerted signal, is hauled
+rapidly to the surface; the diver assisting his own ascent by springing
+on the rope as it rises.
+
+[Footnote 1: Detailed accounts of the pearl fishery of Ceylon and the
+conduct of the divers, will be found in PERCIVAL's _Ceylon_, ch. iii.:
+and in CORDINER'S _Ceylon_, vol. ii. ch. xvi. There is also a valuable
+paper on the same subject by Mr. LE BECK, in the _Asiatic Researches_,
+vol. v. p. 993; but by far the most able and intelligent description is
+contained in the _Account of the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon_, by JAMES
+STEUART, Esq., Inspector of the Pearl Banks, 4to. Colombo, 1843.]
+
+[Footnote 2: MASSOUDI says that the Persian divers, as they could not
+breathe through their nostrils, _cleft the root of the ear_ for that
+purpose: "_Ils se fendaient la racine de l'oreille pour respirer_; en
+effet, ils ne peuvent se servir pour cet objet des narines, vu qu'ils se
+les bouchent avec des morceaux d'écailles de tortue marine on bien avec
+des morceaux de corne ayant la forme d'un fer de lance. En même temps
+ils se mettent dans l'oreille du coton trempé dans de
+l'huile."--_Moroudj-al-Dzeheb,_ &c., REINAUD, _Mémoire sur l'Inde,_ p.
+228.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Colonel WILSON says they compress the nose with horn, and
+close the ears with beeswax. See _Memorandum on the Pearl Fisheries in
+Persian Gulf.--Journ. Geogr. Soc._ 1833, vol. iii. p. 283.]
+
+Improbable tales have been told of the capacity which these men acquire
+of remaining for prolonged periods under water. The divers who attended
+on this occasion were amongst the most expert on the coast, yet not one
+of them was able to complete a full minute below. Captain Steuart, who
+filled for many years the office of Inspector of the Pearl Banks,
+assured me that he had never known a diver to continue at the bottom
+longer than eighty-seven seconds, nor to attain a greater depth than
+thirteen fathoms; and on ordinary occasions they seldom exceeded
+fifty-five seconds in nine fathom water[1].
+
+[Footnote 1: RIBEYRO says that a diver could remain below whilst two
+_credos_ were being repeated: "Il s'y tient l'espace de deux
+_credo_."--Lib. i. ch. xxii. p. 169. PERCIVAL says the usual time for
+them to be under water was two minutes, but that some divers stayed
+_four_ or _five_, and one _six_ minutes,--_Ceylon_ p. 91; LE BECK says
+that in 1797 he saw a Caffre boy from Karical remain down for the space
+of seven minutes.--_Asiat. Res_ vol. v. p. 402.]
+
+The only precaution to which the Ceylon diver devotedly resorts, is the
+mystic ceremony of the shark-charmer, whose exorcism is an indispensable
+preliminary to every fishery. His power is believed to be hereditary;
+nor is it supposed that the value of his incantations is at all
+dependent upon the religious faith professed by the operator, for the
+present head of the family happens to be a Roman Catholic. At the time
+of our visit this mysterious functionary was ill and unable to attend;
+but he sent an accredited substitute, who assured me that although he
+himself was ignorant of the grand and mystic secret, the mere fact of
+his presence, as a representative of the higher authority, would be
+recognised and respected by the sharks.
+
+Strange to say, though the Gulf of Manaar abounds with these hideous
+creatures, not more than one well authenticated accident[1] is known to
+have occurred from this source during any pearl fishery since the
+British have had possession of Ceylon. In all probability the reason is
+that the sharks are alarmed by the unusual number of boats, the
+multitude of divers, the noise of the crews, the incessant plunging of
+the sinking stones, and the descent and ascent of the baskets filled
+with shells. The dark colour of the divers themselves may also be a
+protection; whiter skins might not experience an equal impunity.
+Massoudi relates that the divers of the Persian Gulf were so conscious
+of this advantage of colour, that they were accustomed to blacken their
+limbs, in order to baffle the sea monsters.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: CORDINER'S _Ceylon_, vol. ii p. 52.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Ils s'enduisaient les pieds et les jambes d'une substance
+noirâtre, atin de faire peur aux monstres marins, que, sans cela,
+seraient tentés de les dévorer."--_Moroudj-al-Dzekeb,_ REINAUD, _Mém.
+sur l'Inde_, p. 228.]
+
+The result of our examination of the pearl banks, on this occasion, was
+such as to discourage the hope of an early fishery. The oysters in point
+of number were abundant, but in size they were little more than "spat,"
+the largest being barely a fourth of an inch in diameter. As at least
+seven years are required to furnish the growth at which pearls may be
+sought with advantage[1], the inspection served only to suggest the
+prospect (which has since been realised) that in time the income from
+this source might be expected to revive;--and, forced to content
+ourselves with this anticipation, we weighed anchor from Condatchy, on
+the 30th March, and arrived on the following day at Colombo.
+
+[Footnote 1: Along with this two plates are given from drawings made for
+the Official Inspector, and exhibiting the ascertained size of the pearl
+oyster at every period of its growth, from the "spat" to the mature
+shell. The young "brood" are shown at Nos. 1 and 2. The shell at four
+months old, No. 3, No. 4. six months, No. 5. one year, No. 6, two years.
+The second plate exhibits the shell at its full growth.]
+
+The banks of Aripo are not the only localities, nor is the _acicula_ the
+only mollusc, by which pearls are furnished. The Bay of Tamblegam,
+connected with the magnificent harbour of Trincomalie, is the seat of
+another pearl fishery, and the shell which produces them is the thin
+transparent oyster (_Placuna placenta_). whose clear white shells are
+used, in China and elsewhere, as a substitute for window glass. They are
+also collected annually for the sake of the diminutive pearls contained
+in them. These are exported to the coast of India, to be calcined for
+lime, which the luxurious affect to chew with their betel. These pearls
+are also burned in the mouths of the dead. So prolific are the mollusca
+of the _Placuna_, that the quantity of shells taken by the licensed
+renter in the three years prior to 1858, could not have been less than
+eighteen millions.[1] They delight in brackish water, and on more than
+one recent occasion, an excess of either salt water or fresh has proved
+fatal to great numbers of them.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Report of_ Dr. KELAART, Oct. 1857.]
+
+[Illustration: PEARL OYSTER.
+
+1, 2. The young brood or spat.
+3. Four months old.
+4. Six months old.
+5. One year old.
+6. Two years old.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PEARL OYSTER. Full Growth.]
+
+On the occasion of a visit which I made to Batticaloa. in September,
+1848, I made some inquiries relative to a story which had reached me of
+musical sounds, said to be often heard issuing from the bottom of the
+lake, at several places, both above and below the ferry opposite the old
+Dutch Fort; and which the natives suppose to proceed from some fish
+peculiar to the locality. The report was confirmed in all its
+particulars, and one of the spots whence the sounds proceed was pointed
+out between the pier and a rock that intersects the channel, two or
+three hundred yards to the eastward. They were said to be heard at
+night, and most distinctly when the moon was nearest the full, and they
+were described as resembling the faint sweet notes of an Æolian harp. I
+sent for some of the fishermen, who said they were perfectly aware of
+the fact, and that their fathers had always known of the existence of
+the musical sounds, heard, they said, at the spot alluded to, but only
+during the dry season, as they cease when the lake is swollen by the
+freshes after the rain. They believed them to proceed not from a fish,
+but from a shell, which is known by the Tamil name of (_oorie cooleeroo
+cradoo_, or) the "crying shell," a name in which the sound seems to have
+been adopted as an echo to the sense. I sent them in search of the
+shell, and they returned bringing me some living specimens of different
+shells, chiefly _littorina_ and _cerithium._[1]
+
+[Illustration: CERITHIUM PALUSTRE.]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Littorina lævis. Cerithium palustre._ Of the latter the
+specimens brought to me were dwarfed and solid, exhibiting in this
+particular the usual peculiarities that distinguish (1) shells
+inhabiting a rocky locality from (2) their congeners in a sandy bottom.
+Their longitudinal development was less, with greater breadth, and
+increased strength and weight.]
+
+In the evening when the moon rose, I took a boat and accompanied the
+fishermen to the spot. We rowed about two hundred yards north-east of
+the jetty by the fort gate; there was not a breath of wind, nor a ripple
+except those caused by the dip of our oars. On coming to the point
+mentioned, I distinctly heard the sounds in question. They came up from
+the water like the gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint
+vibrations of a wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a moistened finger.
+It was not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny, sounds, each
+clear and distinct in itself; the sweetest treble mingling with the
+lowest bass. On applying the ear to the woodwork of the boat, the
+vibration was greatly increased in volume. The sounds varied
+considerably at different points, as we moved across the lake, as if the
+number of the animals from which they proceeded was greatest in
+particular spots; and occasionally we rowed out of hearing of them
+altogether, until on returning to the original locality the sounds were
+at once renewed.
+
+This fact seems to indicate that the causes of the sounds, whatever they
+may be, are stationary at several points; and this agrees with the
+statement of the natives, that they are produced by mollusca, and not by
+fish. They came evidently and sensibly from the depth of the lake, and
+there was nothing in the surrounding circumstances to support the
+conjecture that they could be the reverberation of noises made by
+insects on the shore conveyed along the surface of the water; for they
+were loudest and most distinct at points where the nature of the land,
+and the intervention of the fort and its buildings, forbade the
+possibility of this kind of conduction.
+
+Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some places on the
+western coast of India, especially in the harbour of Bombay.[1] At
+Caldera, in Chili, musical cadences are stated to issue from the sea
+near the landing-place; they are described as rising and falling fully
+four notes, resembling the tones of harp strings, and mingling like
+those at Batticaloa, till they produce a musical discord of great
+delicacy and sweetness. The same interesting phenomenon has been
+observed at the mouth of the Pascagoula, in the State of Mississippi,
+and of another river called the "Bayou coq del Inde," on the northern
+shore of the Gulf of Mexico. The animals from which they proceed have
+not been identified at either of these places, and the mystery remains
+unsolved, whether the sounds at Batticaloa are given forth by fishes or
+by molluscs.
+
+[Footnote 1: These sounds are thus described by Dr. BUIST in the _Bombay
+Times_ of January 1847: "A party lately crossing from the promontory in
+Salsette called the 'Neat's Tongue,' to near Sewree, were, about sunset,
+struck by hearing long distinct sounds like the protracted booming of a
+distant bell, the dying cadence of an Æolian harp, the note of a
+pitchpipe or pitch-fork, or any other long-drawn-out musical note. It
+was, at first, supposed to be music from Parell floating at intervals on
+the breeze; then it was perceived to come from all directions, almost in
+equal strength, and to arise from the surface of the water all around
+the vessel. The boatmen at once intimated that the sounds were produced
+by fish, abounding in the muddy creeks and shoals around Bombay and
+Salsette; they were perfectly well known, and very often heard.
+Accordingly, on inclining the ear towards the surface of the water; or,
+better still, by placing it close to the planks of the vessel, the notes
+appeared loud and distinct, and followed each other in constant
+succession. The boatmen next day produced specimens of the fish--a
+creature closely resembling, in size and shape the fresh-water perch of
+the north of Europe--and spoke of them as plentiful and perfectly well
+known. It is hoped they may be procured alive, and the means afforded of
+determining how the musical sounds are produced and emitted, with other
+particulars of interest supposed new in Ichthyology. We shall be
+thankful to receive from our readers any information they can give us in
+regard to a phenomenon which does not appear to have been heretofore
+noticed, and which cannot fail to attract the attention of the
+naturalist. Of the perfect accuracy with which the singular facts above
+related have been given, no doubt will be entertained when it is
+mentioned that the writer was one of a party of five intelligent
+persons, by all of whom they were most carefully observed, and the
+impressions of all of whom in regard to them were uniform. It is
+supposed that the fish are confined to particular localities--shallows,
+estuaries, and muddy creeks, rarely visited by Europeans; and that this
+is the reason why hitherto no mention, so far as we know, has been made
+of the peculiarity in any work on Natural History."
+
+This communication elicited one from Vizagapatam, relative to "musical
+sounds like the prolonged notes on the harp" heard to proceed from under
+water at that station. It appeared in the _Bombay Times_ of Feb. 13,
+1849.]
+
+Certain fishes are known to utter sounds when removed from the water[1],
+and some are capable of making noises when under it[2]; but all the
+circumstances connected with the sounds which I heard at Batticaloa are
+unfavourable to the conjecture that they were produced by either.
+
+[Footnote 1: The Cuckoo Gurnard (_Triglia cuculus_) and the maigre
+(_Sciæna aquila_) utter sounds when taken out of the water (YARRELL,
+vol. i. p. 44, 107); and herrings when the net has just been drawn have
+been observed to do the same. This effect has been attributed to the
+escape of air from the air bladder, but no air bladder has been found in
+the _Cottus_, which makes a similar noise.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The fishermen assert that a fish about five inches in
+length, found in the lake at Colombo, and called by them "_magoora_,"
+makes a grunt when disturbed under water. PALLEGOIX, in his account of
+Siam, speaks of a fish resembling a sole, but of brilliant colouring
+with black spots, which the natives call the "dog's tongue," that
+attaches itself to the bottom of a boat, "et fait entendre un bruit
+très-sonore et même harmonieux."--Tom. i. p. 194. A _Silurus_, found in
+the Rio Parana, and called the "armado," is remarkable for making a
+harsh grating noise when caught by hook or line, which can be distinctly
+heard when the fish is beneath the water. DARWIN, _Nat. Journ._ ch. vii.
+Aristotle and Ælian were aware of the existence of this faculty in some
+of the fishes of the Mediterranean. ARISTOTLE, _De Anim_., lib. iv. ch.
+ix.; ÆLIAN, _De Nat. Anim._, lib. x. ch. xi.; see also PLINY, lib. ix.
+ch. vii.. lib. xi. ch. cxiii.; ATHENÆUS, lib. vii. ch. iii. vi. I have
+heard of sounds produced under water at Baltimore, and supposed to be
+produced by the "cat-fish;" and at Swan River in Australia, where they
+are ascribed to the "trumpeter." A similar noise heard in the Tagus is
+attributed by the Lisbon fishermen to the "_Corvina_"--but what fish is
+meant by that name, I am unable to tell.]
+
+Organs of hearing have been clearly ascertained to exist, mot only in
+fishes[1], but in mollusca. In the oyster the presence of an acoustic
+apparatus of the simplest possible construction has been established by
+the discoveries of Siebold[2], and from our knowledge of the reciprocal
+relations existing between the faculties of hearing and of producing
+sounds, the ascertained existence of the one affords legitimate grounds
+for inferring the coexistence of the other in animals of the same
+class.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: AGASSIZ, _Comparative Physiology_, sec. ii. 158.]
+
+[Footnote 2: It consists of two round vesicles containing fluid, and
+crystalline or elliptical calcareous particles or otolites, remarkable
+for their oscillatory action in the living or recently killed animal.
+OWEN'S _Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the
+Invertebrate Animals_, 1855, p. 511-552.]
+
+[Footnote 3: I am informed that Professor MÜLLER read a paper on
+"Musical fishes" before the Academy of Berlin, in 1856. It will probably
+be found in the volume of MÜLLER'S _Archiv. für Physiologie_ for that
+year; but I have not had an opportunity of reading it.]
+
+Besides, it has been clearly established, that one at least of the
+gasteropoda is furnished with the power of producing sounds. Dr. Grant,
+in 1826, communicated to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society the fact,
+that on placing some specimens of the _Tritonia arborescens_ in a glass
+vessel filled with sea water, his attention was attracted by a noise
+which he ascertained to proceed from these mollusca. It resembled the
+"clink" of a steel wire on the side of the jar, one stroke only being
+given at a time, and repeated at short intervals.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Edinburgh Philosophical Journ_., vol. xiv. p. 188. See
+also the Appendix to this chapter.]
+
+The affinity of structure between the _Tritonia_ and the mollusca
+inhabiting the shells brought to me at Batticaloa, might justify the
+belief of the natives of Ceylon, that the latter are the authors of the
+sounds I heard; and the description of those emitted by the former as
+given by Dr. Grant, so nearly resemble them, that I have always
+regretted my inability, on the occasion of my visits to Batticaloa, to
+investigate the subject more narrowly. At subsequent periods I have
+since renewed my efforts, but without success, to obtain specimens or
+observations of the habits of the living mollusca.
+
+The only species afterwards sent to me were _Cerithia_; but no vigilance
+sufficed to catch the desired sounds, and I still hesitate to accept the
+dictum of the fishermen, as the same mollusc abounds in all the other
+brackish estuaries on the coast; and it would be singular, if true, that
+the phenomenon of its uttering a musical note should be confined to a
+single spot in the lagoon of Batticaloa.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The letter which I received from Dr. Grant on this subject,
+I have placed in a note to the present chapter, in the hope that it may
+stimulate some other inquirer in Ceylon to prosecute the investigation
+which I was unable to carry out successfully.]
+
+Although naturalists have long been familiar with the marine testacea of
+Ceylon, no successful attempt has yet been made to form a classified
+catalogue of the species; and I am indebted to the eminent conchologist,
+Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, for the list which accompanies this notice.
+
+In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it a task of more
+difficulty than would at first be surmised, owing to the almost total
+absence of reliable data from which to construct it. Three sources were
+available: collections formed by resident naturalists, the contents of
+the well-known satin-wood boxes prepared at Trincomalie, and the
+laborious elimination of locality from the habitats ascribed to all the
+known species in the multitude of works on conchology in general.
+
+But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious. There is no
+large collection in this country composed exclusively of Ceylon
+shells;--and as the very few cabinets rich in the marine treasures of
+the island have been filled as much by purchase as by personal exertion,
+there is an absence of the requisite confidence that all professing to
+be Singhalese have been actually captured in the island and its waters.
+
+The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though professing to
+contain the productions of Ceylon, include shells which have been
+obtained from other islands in the Indian seas; and the information
+contained in books, probably from these very circumstances, is either
+obscure or deceptive. The old writers content themselves with assigning
+to any particular shell the too-comprehensive habitat of "the Indian
+Ocean," and seldom discriminate between a specimen from Ceylon and one
+from the Eastern Archipelago or Hindustan. In a very few instances,
+Ceylon has been indicated with precision as the habitat of particular
+shells, but even here the views of specific essentials adopted by modern
+conchologists, and the subdivisions established in consequence, leave us
+in doubt for which of the described forms the collective locality should
+be retained.
+
+Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in detached papers, in
+periodicals, and in the scientific surveys of exploring voyages. The
+authentic facts embodied in the monographs of REEVE, KUSTER, SOWERBY,
+and KIENER, have greatly enlarged our knowledge of the marine testacea;
+and the land and fresh-water mollusca have been similarly illustrated by
+the contributions of BENSON and LAYARD to the _Annals of Natural
+History_.
+
+The dredge has been used, but only in a few insulated spots along the
+coasts of Ceylon; European explorers have been rare; and the natives,
+anxious only to secure the showy and saleable shells of the sea, have
+neglected the less attractive ones of the land and the lakes. Hence Mr.
+Hanley finds it necessary to premise that the list appended, although
+the result of infinite labour and research, is less satisfactory than
+could have been wished. "It is offered," he says, "with diffidence, not
+pretending to the merit of completeness as a shell-fauna of the island,
+but rather as a form, which the zeal of other collectors may hereafter
+elaborate and fill up."
+
+Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared with the vast and
+almost untried field which invites explorers, an assiduous collector may
+quadruple the species hitherto described. The minute shells especially
+may be said to be unknown; a vigilant examination of the corals and
+excrescences upon the spondyli and pearl-oysters would signally increase
+our knowledge of the Rissoæ, Chemnitziæ, and other perforating testacea,
+whilst the dredge from the deep water will astonish the amateur by the
+wholly new forms it can scarcely fail to display.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Shells._
+
+The arrangement here adopted is a modified Lamarckian one, very similar
+to that used by Reeve and Sowerby, and by Mr. HANLEY, in his
+_Illustrated Catalogue of Recent Shells_.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Below will be found a general reference to the Works or
+Papers in which are given descriptive notices of the shells contained in
+the following list; the names of the authors (in full or abbreviated)
+being, as usual, annexed to each species.
+
+ADAMS, _Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1853, 54, 56; _Thesaur. Conch._ ALBERS,
+_Zeitsch. Malakoz._ 1853. ANTON, _Wiegm. Arch. Nat._ 1837; _Verzeichn.
+Conch_. BECK in _Pfeiffer, Symbol. Helic._ BENSON, _Ann. Nat. Hist._
+vii. 1851; xii. 1853, xviii, 1856. BLAINVILLE, _Dict. Sc. Nat.; Nouv.
+Ann. Mus. His. Nat._ i. BOLTEN, _Mus._ BORN, _Test. Mus. Cæcs. Vind._
+BRODERIP, _Zool. Journ._ i. iii. BRUGUIERE, _Encyc. Méthod. Vers._
+CARPENTER, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1856. CHEMNITZ, _Conch. Cab._ CHENU,
+_Illus. Conch._ DESHAYES. _Encyc. Méth. Vers.; Mag. Zool. 1831; Voy.
+Belanger; Edit. Lam. An. s. Vert.; Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1853, 54, 55.
+DILLWYN. _Deser. Cat. Shells._ DOHRN, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1857, 58;
+_Malak. Blätter; Land and Fluviatile Shells of Ceylon._ DUCLOS, _Monog.
+of Oliva._ FABRICIUS, _in Pfeiffer Monog. Helic.; in Dohrn's MSS._
+FÉRUSSAC, _Hist. Mollusques._ FORSKAL, _Anim. Orient._ GMELIN, _Syst.
+Nat._ GRAY, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1834, 52; _Index Testaceologicus Suppl.;
+Spicilegia Zool.; Zool. Journ._ i.; _Zool. Beechey Voy._ GRATELOUP,
+_Act. Linn. Bordeaux,_ xi. GUERIN, _Rev. Zool._ 1847. HANLEY, _Thesaur.
+Conch,_ i.; _Recent Bivalves; Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1858. HINDS, _Zool. Voy.
+Sulphur; Proc. Zool. Soc._ HUTTON, _Journ. As. Soc._ KARSTEN, _Mus.
+Lesk._ KIENER, _Coquilles Vivantes._ KRAUSS, _Sud-Afrik Mollusk._
+LAMARCK, _An. sans Vertéb._ LAYARD, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1854. LEA,
+_Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1850. LINNÆUS, _Syst. Nat._ MARTINI, _Conch. Cab._
+MAWE. _Introd. Linn. Conch.; Index Test. Suppl._ MEUSCHEN, in _Gronor.
+Zoophylac._ MENKE, _Synop. Mollus._ MULLER, _Hist. Verm. Terrest._
+PETIT, _Pro. Zool. Soc._ 1842. PFEIFFER, _Monog. Helic.: Monog.
+Pneumon.; Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1852, 53, 54, 55. 56; _Zeitschr.
+Malacoz._ 1853. PHILIPPI, _Zeitsch. Mal._ 1846, 47: _Abbild. Neuer
+Conch._ POTIEZ et MICHAUD. _Galeric Douai._ RANG, _Mag. Zool._ ser. i.
+p. 100. RÉCLUZ, _Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1845; _Revue Zool. Cur._ 1841:
+_Mag. Conch._ REEVE, _Conch. Icon.; Proc. Zool. Soc_: 1842, 52.
+SCHUMACHER. _Syst._ SHUTTLEWORTH. SOLANDER. in _Dillwyn's Desc. Cat.
+Shells;_ SOWERBY, _Genera Shells; Species Conch.; Conch. Misc.; Thesaur.
+Conch.; Conch. Illus.; Proc. Zool. Soc.; App. to Tankerrille Cat._
+SPENGLER, _Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kiobenhav._ 1792. SWAINSON, _Zool.
+Illust._ ser. ii. TEMPLETON, _Ann. Nat. Hist._ 1858. TROSCHEL, in
+_Pfeiffer, Mon. Pneum; Zeitschr. Malak._ 1847; _Wiegm. Arch. Nat._ 1837.
+WOOD, _General Conch_.]
+
+Aspergillum Javanum. _Brug._ Enc. Mét.
+  sparsum, _Sowerby_, Gen. Shells.[1]
+  clavatum, _Chenu,_ lllust. Conch.
+
+Teredo nucivorus. _Sp_ Skr. Nat. Sels.[2]
+
+Solen truncatus. _Wood_, Gen. Couch.
+  linearis, _Wood_, Gen. Conch.
+  cultellus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  radiatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+
+Anatina subrostrata, _Lam._ Ani. s. Vert.
+
+Anatinella Nicobarica, _Gm._ Syst. Nat.
+
+Lutraria Egyptiaca, _Chemn._ Couch. Cab.
+
+Blainvillea vitrea, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[3]
+
+Scrobicularia angulata. _Chem._ Con. Cab.[4]
+
+Mactra complanata, _Desh._ Proc. Zl. Soc.[5]
+  tumida, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  antiquata, _Reeve_ (as of _Spengl._), C. Icon.
+  cygnea, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Corbiculoides, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zl. S. 1854.
+
+Mesodesma
+  Layardi, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  striata, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[6]
+
+Cras-atella rostrata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  sulcata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+Amphidesma
+  duplicatum, _Sowerby_. Species Conch.
+
+Pandora Ceylanica, _Sowerby_, Couch. Mis.
+
+Galeomma Layardi. _Desh._ Pr. Zl. S. 1856.
+
+Kellia peculiaris, _Adams_, Pr. Zl. S. 1856.
+
+Petricola cultellus, _Desh._ Pr. Zl. S. 1853.
+
+Sangumoiaria rosea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+Psammobia rostrata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  orcidens, _Gm._ Systems Naturæ.
+  Skinneri, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.[7]
+  Layardi, _Desh_. P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+
+[Footnote 1: A. dichotomum, _Chenu._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Fistulana gregata, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 3: Blainvillea, _Hupé._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Latraria tellinoides, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 5: I have also seen M. hians of Philippi
+in a Ceylon collection.]
+
+[Footnote 6: M. Taprobanensis, _Index Test. Suppl._]
+
+[Footnote 7: Psammotella Skinneri, _Reeve._]
+
+  lunulata, _Desh_. P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  amethystus, _Wood_, Gen. Conch.[1]
+  rugosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[2]
+Tellina virgata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[3]
+  rugosa, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
+  ostracea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ala, _Hanley_, Thesaur. Conch. i.
+  inæqualis, _Hanley_, Thesaur. Conch. i.
+  Layardi, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  callosa, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  rubra, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  abbreviata, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  foliacea, _Linn._ Systema Naturæ.
+  lingua-felis, _Linn._ Systema Naturæ.
+  vulsella, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[4]
+Lucina interrupta, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[5]
+  Layardi, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1855.
+Donax scortum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  cuneata,  _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  faba, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  spinosa, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  paxillus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Cyrena Ceylanica, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Tennentii, _Hanley_, P.Z. Soc. 1858.
+Cytherea Erycina, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[6]
+  meretrix, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[7]
+  castanea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  castrensis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  casta, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  costata, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  læta, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  trimaculata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Hebræa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  rugifera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  scripta, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  gibbia, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Meroe, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  testudinalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  seminuda, _Anton_. Wiegm. A. Nat. 1837.[8]
+Venus reticulata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[9]
+  pinguis, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  recens, _Philippi_, Abbild. Neuer Conch.
+  thiara, _Dillw_. Descriptive Cat. Shells.
+  Malabarica, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Bruguieri, _Hanley_, Recent Bivalves.
+  papilionacea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Indica, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. ii.
+  inflata, _Deshayes_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.[10]
+  Ceylonensis, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch. ii.
+  literata, _Linn._ Systema Naturæ.
+  textrix, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[11]
+Cardium unedo, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  maculosum, _Wood_, Gen. Con.
+  leucostomum, _Born_, Tt. M. Cæs. Vind.
+  rugosum, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  biradiatum, _Bruguiere_, En. Méth. Vers.
+  attenuatum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  enode, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  papyraceum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  ringiculum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  subrugosum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  latum, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
+  Asiaticum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+Cardita variegata, _Brug_. Enc. Méth. Vers.
+  bicolor, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Arca rhombea, _Born_, Test. Mus.
+  vellicata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  cruciata, _Philippi_, Ab. Neur Conch.
+  decussata, _Reeve_ (as of Sowerby), C.I.[12]
+  scapha, _Meuschen_, in Gronov. Zoo.
+Pectunculus nodosus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  pectiniformis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Nucula mitralis, _Hinds_, Zool. voy. Sul.
+  Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+  Mauritii (_Hanley_ as of _Hinds_), Rec. Biv.
+Unio
+  corrugatus, _Müller_, Hist. Verm. Ter.[13]
+  marginalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Lithodomus
+  cinnamoneus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Mytilus viridis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[14]
+  bilocularis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Pinna inflata, _Chamn_. Conch. Cab.
+  cancellata, _Mawe_, Intr. Lin. Conch.
+Malleus vulgaris, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  albus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Meleagrina margaritifera, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  vexillum, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.[15]
+Avicula macroptera, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Lima squamosa, _Linn._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Pecten plica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  radula, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  pleuronectes, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  pallium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  senator, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  histrionicus, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  Indicus, _Deshayes_, Voyage Belanger.
+  Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Spondylus Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  candidus, _Reeve_ (as of _Lam._) C. Icon.
+Ostrea hyotis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  glaucina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Mytiloides, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  cucullata? var., _Born_, Test. M. Vind.[16]
+Vulsella
+  Pholadiformis, _Reeve_, C. Icn. (immat.)
+Placuna placenta, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Lingula anatina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+[Footnote 1: P. cærulesens, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Sanguinolaria rugosa, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 3: T. striatula of Lamarck is also supposed to be indigenous
+to Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 4: T. rostrata, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 5: L. divaricata is found, also, in mixed Ceylon collections.]
+
+[Footnote 6: C. dispar of Chemnitz is occasionally found in Ceylon
+collections.]
+
+[Footnote 7: C. impudica. _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 8: As Donax.]
+
+[Footnote 9: V. corbis, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 10: As Tapes.]
+
+[Footnote 11: V. textile, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 12:?Arca Helblingii, _Chemn._]
+
+[Footnote 13: Mr. Cuming informs me that he has forwarded no less than
+six distinct _Uniones_ from Ceylon to Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, for
+determination or description.]
+
+[Footnote 14: M. smaragdinus, _Chemn._]
+
+[Footnote 15: As Avicula.]
+
+[Footnote 16: The specimens are not in a fitting state for positive
+determination. They are strong, extremely narrow, with the beak of the
+lower valve much produced, and the inner edge of the upper valve
+denticulated throughout. The muscular impressions are dusky brown.]
+
+Hyalæa tridentata, _For_. Anim. Orient.[1]
+Chiton, 2 species (_Layard_).
+Patella Reynaudii, _Deshayes_, Voy. Be.
+  testodinaria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Emarginula fissurata, _Ch_. C. Cab.[2] _Lam._
+Calyptræa (Crucibulum) violascens, _Carpenter_,
+  Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+Dentalium
+  octogonum, _Lam_ Anim. s. Vert.
+  aprinum. _Linn_ Syst. Nat.
+Bulla soluta, _Chemn_ Conch. Cab.[3]
+  vexillum, _Chemn_ Conch. Cab.
+  Bruguieri, _Adams_, Thes. Conch.
+  elongata, _Adams_, Thes. Conch.
+  ampulla, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Lamellaria (as Marsenia Indica, _Leach_.
+  in Brit. Mus.) allied to L. Mauritiana,
+  if not it.
+Vaginula maculata, _Templ._ An. Nat.
+Lunax, 2 sp.
+Parmacella Tennentii, _Templ._[4]
+Vitrina irradians, _Pfeiffer_, Mon. Helic.
+  Edgariana, _Ben._ Ann. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  membranacea, _Ben._ A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+Helix hæmastoma, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  vittata, _Müller_, Vermium Terrestrium.
+  bistrialis, _Beck_, in Pfeiff. Symb. Helic.
+  Tranquebarica, _Fabricius_, in _Pfeiff_.
+  Monog. Helic.
+  Juliana, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
+  Waltoni, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.
+  Skinneri. _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. vii.
+  corylus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. vii.
+  umbrina (_Reeve_, as of _Pfeiff._.), C. Ic. vii.
+  fallaciosa. _Férussac_, Hist. Mollus.
+  Rivolii, _Deshayes_. Enc. Méth. Vers. ii.
+  Charpentieri, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  erronea, _Albers. Zeitschr_. Mal. 18S3.
+  carneola, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  convexiuscula, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  gnoma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Chenui, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  semidecussata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  phoenix, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  superba, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Gardnerii, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  coriaria, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Layardi, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  concavospira, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  novella, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  verrucula, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  hyphasma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Emiliana, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Woodiana, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  partita, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  biciliata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Isabellina, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc.
+  trifilosa, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  politissima, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Sc. 1854.
+  Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  nepos, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.
+  subopaca, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+  subconoidea, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. S. 18S4.
+  ceraria, _Benson_, An. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)
+  vilipensa, _Benson_, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  perfucata, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  puteolus, _Benson_, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  mononema, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  marcida, _Benson_, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  galerus, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  albizonata. _Dohrn_, Proc. Zoo. Soc. 1858.
+  Nictneri, _Dohrn_, MS.[5]
+  Grevillei, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+Streptaxis Layardi, _Pfeiff._ Mon. Helic.
+  Cingalensis, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Helic.
+Pupa
+  muscerda, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  mimula, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+Bulimus
+  trifasciatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  pullus, _Gray._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
+  gracilis, _Hutton_, Journ. Asiat. Soc. iii.
+  punctatus, _Anton_, Verzeichn. Conch.
+  Ceylanicus, _Pfeiff_. (?Blævis, _iGray_, in
+  Index Testaceologicus.)
+  adumbratus, _Pfieff_. Monog. Helic.
+  intermedius, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  proletarius, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  albizonatus. _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Mavortius, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  luscoventris, _Ben_. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  rufopictus, _Ben_. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  panos, _Benson_, Ann. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)
+Achatina nitens, _Gray_, Spicilegia Zool.
+  inornata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  capillacea, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+  Punctogaliana. _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+  pachycheila, _Benson_
+  veruina, _Bens_, A. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)
+  parabilis, _Bens_, A.N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)
+Succinea Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+Auricula
+  Ceylanica, _Adams._ Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.[6]
+  Ceylanica, _Petit_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.[7]
+  Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[8]
+  pellucens, _Menke_, Synopsis Moll.
+Pythia
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Zeits. Malacoz. 1853.
+  ovata, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Truncatella
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+Cyclostoma (_Cyclophorus_) Ceylanicum,
+  _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch.
+  involvulum, _Müller_, Verm. Terrest.
+  Menkeanum, _Philippi_, Zeit. Mal. 1847.
+  punctatum, _Gratel_. A.L. Bordeaux (xi.)
+  loxostoma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Pneumon.
+
+[Footnote 1: As Anomia.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The fissurata of Humphreys and Dacosta, pl. 4.--E. rubra,
+_Lamarck_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: B. Ceylanica, _Brug_.]
+
+[Footnote 4: P. Tennentii. "Greyish brown, with longitudinal rows of
+rufous spots, forming interrupted bands along the sides. A singularly
+handsome species, having similar habits to _Limax_. Found in the valleys
+of the Kalany Ganga, near Ruanwellé."--_Templeton_ MSS.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Not far from bistrialis and Ceylanica. The manuscript
+species of Mr. Dohrn will shortly appear in his intended work upon the
+land and fluviatile shells of Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 6: As Ellobium.]
+
+[Footnote 7: As Melampus.]
+
+[Footnote 8: As Ophicardelis.]
+
+  alabastrum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  Bairdii, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  annulatum, _Trosch._ in Pfeiff. M. Pneum.
+  parapsis, _Bens._ An. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)
+  parma, _Bens._ An. Nat. His. 1856 (xviii.)
+  cratera, _Bens._ An. N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)
+  (_Leptopoma_) halophilum, _Benson_, Ann. Nat. Hist. (ser. 2 vii.) 1851.
+  orophilum, _Bens._ A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)
+  apicatum, _Bens._ A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  conulus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  flammeum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  semiclausum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  poecilum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  elatum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+Cyclostoma (_Aulopoma_).
+  Iteri, _Guérin_, Rev. Zool. 1847.
+  helicinum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Hoffmeisteri, _Troschel_, Zeit. Mat. 1847.
+  grande, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  spheroideum, _Dohrn_, Malak. Blätter.
+  (?) gradatum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+Cyclostoma (_Pterocyclos_).
+  Cingalense, _Bens._ A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)
+  Troscheli, _Bens._ Ann. Nat. Hist. 1851.
+  Cumingii, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  bifrons, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+Cataulus Templemani, _Pfeiff._ Mon. Pneu.
+  eurytrema, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  marginatus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+  duplicatus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  aureus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.
+  Layardi, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  Austenianus _Bens._ A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
+  Cumingii, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+  decorus, _Bens._ Ann. Nat. Hist. 1853.
+  hæmastoma, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zo. Soc. 1856.
+Planorbis
+  Coromandelianus, _Fab._ in _Dorhn's_ MS.
+  Stelzeneri, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  elegantulus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z. Soc. 1858.
+Limnæa
+  tigrina, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  pinguis, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+Melania
+  tuberculata, _Müller_, Verm. Ter.[1]
+  spinulosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  corrugata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  rudis, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
+  acanthica, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
+  Zeylanica, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
+  confusa, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  datura, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  Layardi, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+Paludomus
+  abbreviatus, _Reeve_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  clavatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  dilatatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  globulosus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  decussatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  nigricans, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  constrictus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
+  bicinctus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  phaslaninus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
+  lævis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  palustris, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  fulguratus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+  nasutus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  sphæricus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+  solidus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  distinguendus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
+  Cumingianus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
+  dromedarius, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
+  Skinneri, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  Swainsoni, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+  nodulosus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+Paludomus (_Tanalia_).
+  loricatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  erinaceus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  æreus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  Layardi, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  undatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Gardneri, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Tennentii, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Reevei, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  violaceus, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  similis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  funiculatus, _Layard_, Pr. Z. Soc. 1854.
+Paludomus (_Philopotamis_).
+  sulcatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  regalis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  Thwaitesii, _Layard_, P. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Pirena atra, _Linn._ Systema Naturæ.
+Paludina melanostoma, _Bens._
+  Ceylanica, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+Bythinia stenothyroides, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  modesta, _Dohrn_, MS.
+  inconspicua, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+Ampullaria Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  moesta, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  cinerea, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Woodwardi, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  Tischbeini, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  carinata, _Swainson_, Zool. Illus. ser. 2.
+  paludinoides, Cat. _Cristofori & Jan._[2]
+  Malabarica, _Philippi_, monog. Ampul.[2]
+  Luzonica, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.[2]
+  Sumatrensis, _Philippi_, monog. Ampul.[2]
+Navicella eximia, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  reticulata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Livesayi, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  squamata, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  depressa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Neritina
+  crepidularia, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  melanostoma, _Trosch._ W.A. Nat. 1837.
+  triserialis, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illustr.
+  Colombaria, _Recluz_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1845.
+  Perottetiana, _Recluz_, Rev. Z. Cuv. 1841.
+  Ceylanensis, _Recluz_, Mag. Conch. 1851.
+  Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  rostrata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  reticulata, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illustr.
+Nerita plicata, _Linn._ Systema Naturæ.
+  costata, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  plexa, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[3]
+Natica aurantia, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  mammilla, _Linn._ Systema Naturæ.
+  picta, _Reeve_, (as of _Recluz_), C. Icon.
+  arachnoidea, _Gm._ Systema Naturæ.
+  lineata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+[Footnote 1: M. fasciolata, _Olivier_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: These four species are included on the authority of Mr.
+Dohrn.]
+
+[Footnote 3: N. exuvia, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+  adusta, _Ch_. C. C. f. 1926-7, & _Karsten_.[1]
+  pellis-tigrina, _Karsten_, Mus. Lesk.[2]
+  didyma, _Bolten_, Mus.[3]
+Ianthina prolongata, _Blainv_., D.S.N. xxiv.
+  communis, _Kr_., (as of _L._ in part) S.A.M.
+Sigaretus, sp.[4]
+Stomatella
+  calliostoma, _Adams_, Thesaur. Conch.
+Haliotis varia, _Linn._ Systema Naturæ.
+  striata, _Martini_ (as of _Linn._), C. Cab. i.
+  semistriata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Tornatella solidula, _Linn._ Systema Nat.
+Pyramidella
+  maculosa, _Lam._, Anim. s. Vert.
+Eulima Martini, _Adams_, Thes. Conch, ii.
+Siliquaria
+  muricata, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
+Scalaria raricostata, _Lam._, Anim. s. Vert.
+Delphinula laciniata, _Lam._, Anim. s. Vert.
+  distorta, _Linn._, Syst. Nat.[5]
+Solarium perdix, _Hinds_., Proc. Zool. Soc.
+  Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[6]
+Rotella vestiaria, _Linn._, Syst. Nat.
+Phorus pallidulus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. i.
+Trochus
+  elegantulus, _Gray_, Index Tes. Suppl.
+  Niloticus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Monodonta labio, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  canaliculata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Turbo versicolor, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  princeps, _Philippi_.[7]
+Planaxis undulatus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[8]
+Littorina angulifera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  melanostoma, _Gray_, Zool., _Beech_. Voy.[9]
+Chemnitzia
+  trilineata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+  lirata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+Phasianella
+  lineolata, _Gray_, Index Test. Suppl.
+Turritella
+  bacillum, _Kiener_, Coquilles Vivantes.
+  columnaris, _Kiener_, Coquilies Vivantes.
+  duplicata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  attenuata, _Reeve_, Syst. Nat.
+Cerithium fluviatile, _Potrez & Michaud_, Galerie Douai.
+Layardi (Cerithidea), _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  palustre, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  aluco, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  asperula, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  telescopium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  palustre obeliscus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  fasciatum, _Brug_., Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  rubus, _Sower_. (as of _Mart_.), Thes. C. ii.
+  Sowerbyi, _Kiener_, Coquilles Vivantes (teste Sir E. Tennent).
+Pleurotoma Indica, _Deshayes_, Voyage Belanger.
+  virgo, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Turbinella pyrum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  rapa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert. (the Chank.)
+  cornigera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  spirillus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Cancellaria
+  trigonostoma, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[10]
+  scalata, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch.
+  articularis, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch.
+  Littoriniformis, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch.
+  contabulata, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch.
+Fasciolaria
+  filamentosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  trapezium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Fusus longissimus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  colus, _Linn._ Mus. Lud. Ulricæ.
+  toreuma, _Deshayes_, (as Mur. t. _Martyn_).[11]
+  laticostatus, _Deshayes_, Mag. Zool. 1831.
+  Blosvillei, _Deshayes_, E. Méth. Vers., ii.
+Pyrula rapa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[12]
+  citrina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  pugilina, _Born_, Test. Mus. Vind.[13]
+  ficus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  ficoides, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Ranella crumena, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  spinosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  rana, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[14]
+  margaritula, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belanger.
+Murex baustellum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  adustus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  microphyllus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  anguliferus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  palmarosæ, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ternispina, _Kiener_, (as of _Lam._), Coquilles Vivantes.
+  tenuispina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ferrugo, _Mawe_, Index. Test. Suppl.[15]
+  Reeveanus, _Shuttleworth_, (teste _Cuming_)
+Triton anus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[16]
+  mulus, _Dillwyn_, Descript. Cat. Shells.
+  retusus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  pyrum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  clavator, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Ceylonensis, _Sowerby_, Proc. Zool. Soc.
+  lotorium, _Lam._ (not _Linn_.), An. s. Vert.
+  lampas, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Pterocera lambis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  millepeda, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Strombus canarium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[17]
+  succinotus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  fasciatus, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
+
+[Footnote 1: Conch. Cab. f. 1926-7, and N. melanostoma, _Lam._ in part.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Chemn. Conch. Cab. 1892-3.]
+
+[Footnote 3: N. glauciua, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 4: A species (possibly Javanicus) is known to have been
+collected. I have not seen it.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Not of _Lamarck_. D. atrata. _Reeve_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Philippia L.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Zeit. Mal. 1846 for T. argyrostoma, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 8: Buccinum pyramidatum, _Gm_. in part: B. sulcatum, var. C.
+of _Brug_.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Teste Cuming.]
+
+[Footnote 10: As Delphinulat.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Ed. _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.]
+
+[Footnote 12: P. papyracea, _Lam._ In mixed collections I have seen the
+Chinese P. bezoar of _Lamarck_ as from Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 13: P. vespertilio, _Gm_.]
+
+[Footnote 14: R. albivaricosa, _Reeve_.]
+
+[Footnote 15: M. anguliferus var. _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 16: T. cynocephalus of _Lamarck_ is also met with in Ceylon
+collections.]
+
+[Footnote 17: S. incisus of the Index Testaceologicus (urceus, var.
+_Sow_. Thesaur.) is found in mixed Ceylon collections.]
+
+  Sibbaldii, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. t.
+  lentiginosus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  marginatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Lamarckii, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch.
+Cassis glauca, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[1]
+  canaliculata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Zeylanica, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  areola, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Ricinula albolabris, _Blainv_. Nouv. Ann. Mus. H. N. i.[2]
+  horrida, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  morus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Purpura tiscella, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Persica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  hystrix, _Lam._ (not _Linn._) An. s. Vert.
+  granatina, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belanger.
+  mancinella, _Lam._ (as of _Linn._) An. s.V.
+  buto, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  carinitera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Harpa conoldalis, _Lam._ Anim, s. Vert.
+  minor, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Dolium pomum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  olearium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  perdix, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  maculatum, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Nassa ornata, _Kiener_, Coq. Vivantes. [3]
+  verrucosa, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  crenulata, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  olivacea, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  glans, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  arcularia, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  papillosa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Phos virgatus, _Hinds_. Zool. Sul. Moll.
+  retecosus, _Hinds_, Zool. Sulphur, Moll.
+  senticosus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Buccinum melanostoma, _Sowerby_, App. to Tankerv. Cat.
+  erythrostoma, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Proteus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  rubiginosum, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Eburna spirata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[4]
+  canaliculata, _Schumacher_, S.A. s. V.[5]
+  Ceylanica, _Bruguiere_, En. Méth. Vers.
+Bullia vittata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  lineolata, _Sowerby_, Tankerv. Cat.[6]
+  Melanoides, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belan.
+Terebra chlorata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  muscaria, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  lævigata, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
+  maculata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  subulata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  concinna, _Deshayes_, ed. _Lam._ A. s. V.
+  myurus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  tigrina, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  cerithina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Columbella flavida, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  fulgurans, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  mendicaria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  scripta, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert. (Teste _Jay_).
+Mitra
+  episcopalis, _Dillwyn_, Des. Cat. Shells.
+  cardinalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  crebrilirata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  punctostriata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. So. 1854.
+  insculpta, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[7]
+Voluta vexillum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Lapponica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Melo Indicus, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+Marginella Sarda, _Kiener_, Coq. Vivantes.
+Ovulum ovum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  verrucosum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  pudicum, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Cypræa Argus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Arabica, _Linn._ Syst Nat.
+  Mauritiana, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  hirundo, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Lynx, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  asellus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  erosa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  vitellus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  stolida, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  mappa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  helvola, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  errones, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  cribraria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  globulus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  clandestina, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  ocellata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  caurica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  tabescens, _Soland_. in Dillwyn Des. C. Sh.
+  gangrenosa, _Soland_. in Dillw. D.C. Sh.
+  interrupta, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. i.
+  lentiginosa, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. i.
+  pyriformis, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. i.
+  nivosa, _Broderip_, Zool. Journ. iii.
+  poraria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  testudinaria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Terebellum
+  subulatum, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Ancillaria glabrata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  candida, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Oliva Maura, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert,
+  erythrostoma, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  gibbesa, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs.[8]
+  nebulosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Macleayana, _Duclos_, Monogr. of Oliva.
+  episcopalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  elegans, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ispidula, _Linn._ Syst. Nat. (partly).[9]
+  Zeilanica, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  undata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  irisans, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert. (teste _Duclos_).
+Conus miles, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  generalis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  betulinus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  stercus-muscarum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Hebræus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  virgo, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  geographicus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  aulicus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  figutinus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  striatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  senator, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[10]
+  literatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+
+[Footnote 1: C. plicaria of _Lamarck_, and C. coronulata of _Sowerby_,
+are also said to be found in Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 2: As Purpura.]
+
+[Footnote 3: N. suturalis, _Reeve_ (as of _Lam._), is met with in mixed
+Ceylon collections.]
+
+[Footnote 4: E. areolata, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 5: E. spirata, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 6: B. Belangeri, _Kiener_.]
+
+[Footnote 7: As Turricula L.]
+
+[Footnote 8: O. utriculus, _Dillwyn_.]
+
+[Footnote 9: C. planorbis, _Born_; C. vulpinus, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 10: Conus ermineus, _Born_, in part.]
+
+  imperialis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  textile, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  terebra, _Born_, Test. Must. Cæs. Vind.
+  tessellatus, _Born,_ Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
+  augur, _Bruguiere_, Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  obesus, _Bruguiere_, Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  araneosus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  gubernator, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  monite, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  nimbosus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  eburneus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  vitulinus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  quercinus _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  lividus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  Omaria, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  Maldivus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  nocturnus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  Ceylonensis, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  arenatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  Nicobaricus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  glans, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  Amadis, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  punctatus, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  minimus, _Reeve_. (as of _Linn_), C. Icon.
+  terminus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  lineatus, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  episcopus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  verriculum, _Reeve_. Conch. Cab.
+  zonatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  rattus. _Brug_. En. Mth. V. (teste _Chemn._)
+  pertusus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
+  Nussatella, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  lithoglyphus, _Brug_. En. Méth. Vers.[4]
+  tulipa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Ammiralis, var. _Linn._ teste _Brug_.
+Spirula Peronii, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Sepia Hieredda, _Rang_. M.Z., ser. i. p. 100.
+Sepioteuthis, _Sp_.
+Loligo, _Sp_.
+
+A conclusion not unworthy of observation may be deduced from this
+catalogue; namely, that Ceylon was the unknown, and hence
+unacknowledged, source of almost every extra-European shell which has
+been described by Linnæus without a recorded habitat. This fact gives to
+Ceylon specimens an importance which can only be appreciated by
+collectors and the students of Mollusca.
+
+
+
+2. RADIATA.
+
+The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated animals, but it is
+to be regretted that they have as yet received but little attention from
+English naturalists. Recently, however, Dr. Kelaart has devoted himself
+to the investigation of some of the Singhalese species, and has
+published his discoveries in the Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the
+Asiatic Society for 1856-8. Our information respecting the radiata on
+the confines of the island is, therefore, very scanty; with the
+exception of the genera[1] examined by him. Hence the notice of this
+extensive class of animals must be limited to indicating a few of those
+which exhibit striking peculiarities, or which admit of the most common
+observation.
+
+[Footnote 1: Actinia, 9 sp.; Anthea, 4 sp.; Actinodendron, 3 sp.;
+Dioscosoma, 1 sp.; Peechea, 1 sp.; Zoanthura, 1 sp.]
+
+_Star Fish_.--Very large species of _Ophiuridæ_ are to be met with at
+Trincomalie, crawling busily about, and insinuating their long
+serpentine arms into the irregularities and perforations in the rocks.
+To these they attach themselves with such a firm grasp, especially when
+they perceive that they have attracted attention, that it is almost
+impossible to procure unmutilated specimens without previously depriving
+them of life, or at least modifying their muscular tenacity. The upper
+surface is of a dark purple colour, and coarsely spined; the arms of the
+largest specimens are more than a foot in length, and very fragile.
+
+The star fishes, with immovable rays[1], are by no means rare; many
+kinds are brought up in the nets, or maybe extracted from the stomachs
+of the larger market fish. One very large species[2], figured by
+Joinville in the manuscript volume in the library at the India House, is
+not uncommon; it has thick arms, from which and the disc numerous large
+fleshy cirrhi of a bright crimson colour project downwards, giving the
+creature a remarkable aspect. No description of it, so far as I am
+aware, has appeared in any systematic work on zoology.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Asterias_, Linn.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Pentaceros?_]
+
+_Sea Slugs_.--There are a few species of _Holothuria_, of which the
+trepang is the best known example. It is largely collected in the Gulf
+of Manaar, and dried in the sun to prepare it for export to China. A
+good description and figures of its varieties are still desiderata.
+
+_Parasitic Worms_.--Of these entozoa, the _Filaria medinensis_, or
+Guinea-worm, which burrows in the cellular tissue under the skin, is
+well known in the north of the island, but rarely found in the damper
+districts of the south and west. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, the natives
+attribute its occurrence to drinking the waters of particular wells; but
+this belief is inconsistent with the fact that its lodgment in the human
+body is almost always effected just above the ankle. This shows that the
+minute parasites are transferred to the skin of the leg from the moist
+vegetation bordering the footpaths leading to wells. At this period the
+creatures are very small, and the process of insinuation is painless and
+imperceptible. It is only when they attain to considerable size, a foot
+or more in length, that the operation of extracting them is resorted to,
+when exercise may have given rise to inconvenience and inflammation.
+
+These pests in all probability received their popular name of
+_Guinea-worms_, from the narrative of Bruno or Braun, a citizen and
+surgeon of Basle, who about the year 1611 made several voyages to that
+part of the African coast, and on his return published, amongst other
+things, an account of the local diseases.[1] But Linschoten, the Dutch
+navigator, had previously observed the same worms at Ormus in 1584, and
+they are thus described, together with the method of removing them, in
+the English version of his voyage.
+
+[Footnote 1: In DE BRY'S, _Collect_, vol. i. p. 49.]
+
+"There is in Ormus a sickenesse or common plague of wormes, which growe
+in their legges, it is thought that they proceede of the water that they
+drink. These wormes are like, unto lute strings, and about two or three
+fadomes longe, which they must plucke out and winde them aboute a straw
+or a feather, everie day some part thereof, so longe as they feele them
+creepe; and when they hold still, letting it rest in that sort till the
+next daye, they bind it fast and annoynt the hole, and the swelling from
+whence it commeth foorth, with fresh butter, and so in ten or twelve
+dayes, they winde them out without any let, in the meanetime they must
+sit still with their legges, for if it should breake, they should not,
+without great paine get it out of their legge, as I have seen some men
+doe." [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: JOHN HUIGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN _his Discours of Voyages into
+the Easte and West Indies._ London, 1599, p, 16.]
+
+The worm is of a whitish colour, sometimes inclining to brown. Its
+thickness is from a half to two-thirds of a line, and its length has
+sometimes reached to ten or twelve feet. Small specimens have been found
+beneath the tunica conjunctiva of the eye; and one species of the same
+genus of _Nematoidea_ infests the cavity of the eye itself.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: OWEN'S _Lectures on the Invertebrata_, p. 96.]
+
+_Planaria_.--In the journal already mentioned, Dr. Kelaart has given
+descriptions of fifteen species of planaria, and four of a new genus,
+instituted by him for the reception of those differing from the normal
+kinds by some peculiarities which they exhibit in common. At Point
+Pedro, Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on the bark of trees, after heavy
+rain, which would appear to belong to the subgenus _geoplana_.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "A curious species, which is of a light brown above, white
+underneath; very broad and thin, and has a peculiarly shaped tail,
+half-moon-shaped in fact, like a grocer's cheese knife."]
+
+_Acalephæ_.--Acalephæ[1] are plentiful, so much so, indeed, that they
+occasionally tempt the larger cetacea into the Gulf of Manaar. In the
+calmer months of the year, when the sea is glassy, and for hours
+together undisturbed by a ripple, the minute descriptions are rendered
+perceptible by their beautiful prismatic tinting. So great is their
+transparency that they are only to be distinguished from the water by
+the return to the eye of the reflected light that glances from their
+delicate and polished surfaces. Less frequently they are traced by the
+faint hues of their tiny peduncles, arms, or tentaculæ; and it has been
+well observed that they often give the seas in which they abound the
+appearance of being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow. The larger
+kinds, when undisturbed in their native haunts, attain to considerable
+size. A faintly blue medusa, nearly a foot across, may be seen in the
+Gulf of Manaar, where, no doubt, others of still larger growth are to be
+found.
+
+[Footnote 1: Jelly-fish.]
+
+[Illustration: PHYSALUS URTICULUS.]
+
+Occasionally after storms, the beach at Colombo is strewn with the thin
+transparent globes of the "Portuguese Man of War," _Physalus urticulus_,
+which are piled upon the lines left by the waves, like globules of glass
+delicately tinted with purple and blue. They sting, as their trivial
+name indicates, like a nettle when incautiously touched.
+
+_Red infusoria_.--On both sides of the island (but most frequently on
+the west), during the south-west monsoon, a broad expanse of the sea
+assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter than brick-dust; and this is
+confined to a space so distinct that a line seems to separate it from
+the green water which flows on either side. Observing at Colombo that
+the whole area so tinged changed its position without parting with any
+portion of its colouring, I had some of the water brought on shore, and,
+on examination with the microscope, found it to be filled with
+_infusoria_, probably similar to those which have been noticed near the
+shores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted a name to the
+"Vermilion Sea" off the coast of California.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The late Dr. BUIST, of Bombay, in commenting on this
+statement, writes to the _Athenæum_ that: "The red colour with which the
+sea is tinged, round the shores of Ceylon, during a part of the S.W.
+monsoon is due to the _Proto-coccus nivalis_, or the Himatta-coccus,
+which presents different colours at different periods of the
+year--giving us the seas of milk as well as those of blood. The coloured
+water at times is to be seen all along the coast north to Kurrachee, and
+far out, and of a much more intense tint in the Arabian Sea. The
+frequency of its appearance in the Red Sea has conferred on it its
+name."]
+
+The remaining orders, including the corals, madrepores, and other
+polypi, have yet to find a naturalist to undertake their investigation,
+but in all probability the new species are not very numerous.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+TRITONIA ARBORESCENS.
+
+
+The following is the letter of Dr. Grant, referred to at page 385:--
+
+Sir,--I have perused, with much interest, your remarkable communication
+received yesterday, respecting the musical sounds which you heard
+proceeding from under water, on the east coast of Ceylon. I cannot
+parallel the phenomenon you witnessed at Batticaloa, as produced by
+marine animals, with anything with which my past experience has made me
+acquainted in marine zoology. Excepting the faint clink of the _Tritonia
+arborescens_, repeated only once every minute or two, and apparently
+produced by the mouth armed with two dense horny laminæ, I am not aware
+of any sounds produced in the sea by branchiated invertebrata. It is to
+be regretted that in the memorandum you have not mentioned your
+observations on the living specimens brought you by the sailors as the
+animals which produced the sounds. Your authentication of the hitherto
+unknown fact, would probably lead to the discovery of the same
+phenomenon in other common accessible paludinæ, and other allied
+branchiated animals, and to the solution of a problem, which is still to
+me a mystery, even regarding the _tritonia_.
+
+My two living _tritonia_, contained in a large clear colourless glass
+cylinder, filled with pure sea water, and placed on the central table of
+the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, around which many
+members were sitting, continued to clink audibly within the distance of
+twelve feet during the whole meeting. These small animals were
+individually not half the size of the last joint of my little finger.
+What effect the mellow sounds of millions of these, covering the shallow
+bottom of a tranquil estuary, in the silence of night, might produce, I
+can scarcely conjecture.
+
+In the absence of your authentication, and of all geological explanation
+of the continuous sounds, and of all source of fallacy from the hum and
+buzz of living creatures in the air or on the land, or swimming on the
+waters, I must say that I should be inclined to seek for the source of
+sounds so audible as those you describe rather among the pulmonated
+vertebrata, which swarm in the depths of these seas--as fishes, serpents
+(of which my friend Dr. Cantor has described about twelve species he
+found in the Bay of Bengal), turtles, palmated birds, pinnipedous and
+cetaceous mammalia, &c.
+
+The publication of your memorandum in its present form, though not quite
+satisfactory, will, I think, be eminently calculated to excite useful
+inquiry into a neglected and curious part of the economy of nature.
+
+I remain, Sir,
+
+Yours most respectfully,
+
+ROBERT E. GRANT.
+
+_Sir J. Emerson Tennent, &c. &c._
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XII.
+
+INSECTS.
+
+
+Owing to the favourable combination of heat, moisture, and vegetation,
+the myriads of insects in Ceylon form one of the characteristic features
+of the island. In the solitude of the forests there is a perpetual music
+from their soothing and melodious hum, which frequently swells to a
+startling sound as the cicada trills his sonorous drum on the sunny bark
+of some tall tree. At morning the dew hangs in diamond drops on the
+threads and gossamer which the spiders suspend across every pathway; and
+above the pool dragon-flies, of more than metallic lustre, flash in the
+early sunbeams. The earth teems with countless ants, which emerge from
+beneath its surface, or make their devious highways to ascend to their
+nests in the trees. Lustrous beetles, with their golden elytra, bask on
+the leaves, whilst minuter species dash through the air in circles,
+which the ear can follow by the booming of their tiny wings. Butterflies
+of large size and gorgeous colouring, flutter over the endless expanse
+of flowers, and at times the extraordinary sight presents itself of
+flights of these delicate creatures, generally of a white or pale yellow
+hue, apparently miles in breadth, and of such prodigious extension as to
+occupy hours, and even days, uninterruptedly in their passage--whence
+coming no one knows; whither going no one can tell.[1] As day declines,
+the moths issue from their retreats, the crickets add their shrill
+voices to swell the din; and when darkness descends, the eye is charmed
+with the millions of emerald lamps lighted up by the fire-flies amidst
+the surrounding gloom.
+
+[Footnote 1: The butterflies I have seen in these wonderful migrations
+in Ceylon were mostly _Callidryas Hilariæ, C. Alcmeone_, and _C.
+Pyranthe_, with straggling individuals of the genus _Euplæa, E. Coras_,
+and _E. Prothoe_. Their passage took place in April and May, generally
+in a north-easterly direction. The natives have a superstitious belief
+that their flight is ultimately directed to Adam's Peak, and that their
+pilgrimage ends on reaching the sacred mountain. A friend of mine
+travelling from Kandy to Kornegalle, drove for nine miles through a
+cloud of white butterflies, which were passing across the road by which
+he went.]
+
+As yet no attempt has been made to describe the insects of Ceylon
+systematically, much less to enumerate the prodigous number of species
+that abound in every locality. Occasional observers have, from time to
+time, contributed notices of particular families to the Scientific
+Associations of Europe, but their papers remain undigested, and the time
+has not yet arrived for the preparation of an Entomology of the island.
+
+What DARWIN remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is nearly as applicable
+to the same order of insects in Ceylon: "The number of minute and
+obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great; the cabinets of Europe
+can as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only of the larger species
+from tropical climates, and it is sufficient to disturb the composure of
+an entomologist to look forward to the future dimensions of a catalogue
+with any pretensions to completeness."[1] M. Nietner, a German
+entomologist, who has spent some years in Ceylon, has recently
+published, in one of the local periodicals, a series of papers on the
+Coleoptera of the island, in which every species introduced is stated to
+be previously undescribed.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Nat. Journal_, p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Republished in the _Ann. Nat. Hist._]
+
+COLEOPTERA.--_Buprestidæ; Golden Beetles_.--In the morning the
+herbaceous plants, especially on the eastern side of the island, are
+studded with these gorgeous beetles, whose golden wing-cases[1] are used
+to enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana, whilst the lustrous
+joints of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form necklaces and
+bracelets of singular brilliancy.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Sternocera Chrysis; S. sternicornis_.]
+
+These exquisite colours are not confined to one order, and some of the
+Elateridæ[1] and Lamellicorns exhibit hues of green and blue, that rival
+the deepest tints of the emerald and sapphire.
+
+[Footnote 1: Of the family of _Elateridæ_, one of the finest is a
+Singhalese species, the _Campsosternus Templetonii_, of an exquisite
+golden green colour, with blue reflections (described and figured by Mr.
+WESTWOOD in his _Cabinet of Oriental Entomology_, pl. 35, f. 1). In the
+same work is figured another species of large size, also from Ceylon,
+this is the _Alaus sordidus_.--WESTWOOD, l. c. pl. 35, f. 9.]
+
+_Scavenger Beetles_.--Scavenger beetles[1] are to be seen wherever the
+presence of putrescent and offensive matter affords opportunity for the
+display of their repulsive but most curious instincts; fastening on it
+with eagerness, severing it into lumps proportionate to their strength,
+and rolling it along in search of some place sufficiently soft in which
+to bury it, after having deposited their eggs in the centre. I had
+frequent opportunities, especially in traversing the sandy jungles in
+the level plains to the north of the island, of observing the unfailing
+appearance of these creatures instantly on the dropping of horse dung,
+or any other substance suitable for their purpose; although not one was
+visible but a moment before. Their approach on the wing is announced by
+a loud and joyous booming sound, as they dash in rapid circles in search
+of the desired object, led by their sense of smell, and evidently little
+assisted by the eye in shaping their course towards it. In these
+excursions they exhibit a strength of wing and sustained power of
+flight, such as is possessed by no other class of beetles with which I
+am acquainted, but which is obviously indispensable for the due
+performance of the useful functions they discharge.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ateuchus sacer; Copris sagax; C. capucinus_, &c. &c.]
+
+[Illustration: LONGHORN BEETLE (BATEROCERA RUBUS).]
+
+_The Coco-nut Beetle_.--In the luxuriant forests of Ceylon the extensive
+family of _Longicorns_[1] and _Passalidæ_ live in destructive abundance.
+To the coco-nut planters the ravages committed by beetles are painfully
+familiar.[2] The larva of one species of _Dynastida_, the _Oryctes
+rhinoceros_, called by the Singhalese "_Gascooroominiya_," makes its way
+into the younger trees, descending from the top, and after perforating
+them in all directions, forms a cocoon of the gnawed wood and sawdust,
+in which it reposes during its sleep as a pupa, till the arrival of the
+period when it emerges as a perfect beetle. Notwithstanding the
+repulsive aspect of the large pulpy larvæ of these beetles, they are
+esteemed a luxury by the Malabar coolies, who so far avail themselves of
+the privilege accorded by the Levitical law, which permitted the Hebrews
+to eat "the beetle after his kind."[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: The engraving on the preceding page represents in its
+various transformations one of the most familiar and graceful of the
+longicorn beetles of Ceylon, the _Batocera rubus_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: There is a paper in the _Journ. of the Asiat. Society of
+Ceylon_, May, 1845, by Mr. CAPPER, on the ravages perpetrated by these
+beetles. The writer had recently passed through several coco-nut
+plantations, "varying in extent from 20 to 150 acres, and about two to
+three years old: and in these he did not discover a single young tree
+untouched by the cooroominiya."--P. 49.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Leviticus, xi. 22.]
+
+Amongst the superstitions of the Singhalese arising out of their belief
+in demonology, one remarkable one is connected with the appearance of a
+beetle when observed on the floor of a dwelling-house after nightfall.
+The popular belief is that in obedience to a certain form of incantation
+(called _cooroominiya-pilli_) a demon in the shape of a beetle is sent
+to the house of some person or family whose destruction it is intended
+to compass, and who presently falls sick and dies. The only means of
+averting this catastrophe is, that some one, himself an adept in
+necromancy, should perform a counter-charm, the effect of which is to
+send back the disguised beetle to destroy his original employer; for in
+such a conjuncture the death of one or the other is essential to appease
+the demon whose intervention has been invoked. Hence the discomfort of a
+Singhalese on finding a beetle in his house after sunset, and his
+anxiety to expel but not to kill it.
+
+_Tortoise Beetles_.--There is one family of insects, the members of
+which cannot fail to strike the traveller by their singular beauty, the
+_Cassididæ_ or tortoise beetles, in which the outer shell overlaps the
+body, and the limbs are susceptible of being drawn entirely within it.
+The rim is frequently of a different tint from the centre, and one
+species which I have seen is quite startling from the brilliancy of its
+colouring, which gives it the appearance of a ruby enclosed in a frame
+of pearl; but this wonderful effect disappears immediately on the death
+of the insect.
+
+ORTHOPTERA. _Leaf-insects_.--But in relation to the insects of Ceylon
+the admiration of their colours is still less exciting than the
+astonishment created by the forms in which some of the families present
+themselves; especially the "soothsayers" (_Mantidæ_) and "walking
+leaves." The latter[1], exhibiting the most cunning of all nature's
+devices for the preservation of her creatures, are found in the jungle
+in all varieties of hues, from the pale yellow of an opening bud to the
+rich green of the full-blown leaf, and the withered tint of decay. So
+perfect is the imitation of a leaf in structure and articulation, that
+this amazing insect when at rest is almost undistinguishable from the
+foliage around: not only are the wings modelled to resemble ribbed and
+fibrous follicles, but every joint of the legs is expanded into a broad
+plait like a half-opened leaflet.
+
+[Footnote 1: Phyllium siccifolium.]
+
+[Illustration: STICK INSECT AND MANTIS]
+
+It rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it slowly along, and
+thus the flatness of its attitude serves still further to add to the
+appearance of a leaf. One of the most marvellous incidents connected
+with its organisation was exhibited by one which I kept under a glass
+shade on my table, it laid a quantity of eggs, that, in colour and
+shape, were not to be distinguished from _seeds_. They were brown, and
+pentangular, with a short stem, and slightly punctured at the
+intersections.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The "soothsayer," on the other hand (_Mantis superstitiosa._ Fab.[1]),
+little justifies by its propensities the appearance of gentleness, and
+the attitudes of sanctity, which have obtained for it the title of the
+"praying mantis." Its habits are carnivorous, and degenerate into
+cannibalism, as it preys on the weaker individuals of its own species.
+Two which I enclosed in a box were both found dead a few hours after,
+literally severed limb from limb in their encounter. The formation of
+the foreleg enables the tibia to be so closed on the sharp edge of the
+thigh as to amputate any slender substance grasped within it.
+
+[Footnote 1: _M. aridifolia_ and _M. extensicollis_, as well as _Empusa
+gongylodes_, remarkable for the long leaf-like head, and dilatations on
+the posterior thighs, are common in the island.]
+
+_The Stick-insect_.--The _Phasmidæ_ or spectres, another class of
+orthoptera, present as close a resemblance to small branches or leafless
+twigs as their congeners do to green leaves. The wing-covers, where they
+exist, instead of being expanded, are applied so closely to the body as
+to detract nothing from its rounded form, and hence the name which they
+have acquired of "_walking-sticks_." Like the _Phyllium_, the _Phasma_
+lives exclusively on vegetables, and some attain the length of several
+inches.
+
+Of all the other tribes of the _Orthoptera_ Ceylon possesses many
+representatives; in swarms of cockroaches, grasshoppers, locusts, and
+crickets.
+
+NEUROPTERA. _Dragon-flies_.--Of the _Neuroptera_, some of the
+dragon-flies are pre-eminently beautiful; one species, with rich
+brown-coloured spots upon its gauzy wings, is to be seen near every
+pool.[1] Another[2], which dances above the mountain streams in Oovah,
+and amongst the hills descending towards Kandy, gleams in the sun as if
+each of its green enamelled wings had been sliced from an emerald.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Libellula pulchella_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Euphæa splendens_.]
+
+_The Ant-Lion._--Of the ant-lion, whose larvæ have earned a bad renown
+from their predaceous ingenuity, Ceylon has, at least, four species,
+which seem peculiar to the island.[1] This singular creature,
+preparatory to its pupal transformation, contrives to excavate a conical
+pitfall in the dust to the depth of about an inch, in the bottom of
+which it conceals itself, exposing only its open mandibles above the
+surface; and here every ant and soft-bodied insect which curiosity
+tempts to descend, or accident may precipitate into the trap, is
+ruthlessly seized and devoured by its ambushed inhabitant.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Palpares contrarius_, Walker; _Myrmeleon gravis_, Walker;
+_M. dirus_, Walker; _M. barbarus_, Walker.]
+
+_The White Ant_.--But of the insects of this order the most noted are
+the _white ants_ or termites (which are ants only by a misnomer). They
+are, unfortunately, at once ubiquitous and innumerable in every spot
+where the climate is not too chilly, or the soil too sandy, for them to
+construct their domed edifices.
+
+These they raise from a considerable depth under ground, excavating the
+clay with their mandibles, and moistening it with tenacious saliva[1]
+until it assume the appearance, and almost the consistency, of
+sandstone. So delicate is the trituration to which they subject this
+material, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the powdered clay of the
+ant hills in preference to all other substances in the preparation of
+crucibles and moulds for their finer castings: and KNOX says, "the
+people use this finer clay to make their earthen gods of, it is so pure
+and fine."[2] These structures the termites erect with such perseverance
+and durability that they frequently rise to the height of ten or twelve
+feet from the ground, with a corresponding diameter. They are so firm in
+their texture that the weight of a horse makes no apparent indentation
+on their solidity; and even the intense rains of the monsoon, which no
+cement or mortar can long resist, fail to penetrate the surface or
+substance of an ant hill.[3] In their earlier stages the termites
+proceed with such energetic rapidity, that I have seen a pinnacle of
+moist clay, six inches in height and twice as large in diameter,
+constructed underneath a table between sitting down to dinner and the
+removal of the cloth.
+
+[Footnote 1: It becomes an interesting question whence the termites
+derive the large supplies of moisture with which they not only temper
+the clay for the construction of their long covered ways above ground,
+but for keeping their passages uniformly damp and cool below the
+surface. Yet their habits in this particular are unvarying, in the
+seasons of droughts as well as after rain; in the driest and least
+promising positions, in situations inaccessible to drainage from above,
+and cut off by rocks and impervious strata from springs from below. Dr.
+Livingstone, struck with this phenomenon in Southern Africa, asks: "Can
+the white ants possess the power of combining the oxygen and hydrogen of
+their vegetable food by vital force so as to form water?"--_Travels_, p.
+22. And he describes at Angola, an insect[A] resembling the _Aphrophora
+spumaria_; seven or eight individuals of which distil several pints of
+water every night.--P. 414. It is highly probable that the termites are
+endowed with some such faculty: nor is it more remarkable that an insect
+should combine the gases of its food to produce water, than that a fish
+should decompose water in order to provide itself with gas. FOURCROIX
+found the contents of the air-bladder in a carp to be pure
+nitrogen.--_Yarrell_, vol. i. p. 42. And the aquatic larva of the
+dragon-fly extracts air for its respiration from the water in which it
+is submerged. A similar mystery pervades the inquiry whence plants under
+peculiar circumstances derive the water essential to vegetation.]
+
+[Footnote A: _A. goudotti?_ Bennett.]
+
+[Footnote 2: KNOX'S _Ceylon_, Part i, ch. vi, p.24.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Dr. HOOKER, in his _Himalayan Journal_ (vol. i. p. 20) is
+of opinion that the nests of the termites are not independent
+structures, but that their nucleus is "the debris of clumps of bamboos
+or the trunks of large trees which these insects have destroyed." He
+supposes that the dead tree falls leaving the stump coated with sand,
+_which the action of the weather soon fashions into a cone_. But
+independently of the fact that the "action of the weather" produces
+little or no effect on the closely cemented clay of the white ants'
+nest, they may be daily seen constructing their edifices in the very
+form of a cone, which they ever after retain. Besides which, they appear
+in the midst of terraces and fields where no trees are to be seen: and
+Dr. Hooker seems to overlook the fact that the termites rarely attack a
+living tree; and although their nests may be built against one, it
+continues to flourish not the less for their presence.]
+
+As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried up from beneath the
+surface, a cave of corresponding dimensions is necessarily scooped out
+below, and here, under the multitude of miniature cupolas and pinnacles
+which canopy it above, the termites hollow out the royal chamber for
+their queen, with spacious nurseries surrounding it on all sides; and
+all are connected by arched galleries, long passages, and doorways of
+the most intricate and elaborate construction. In the centre and
+underneath the spacious dome is the recess for the queen--a hideous
+creature, with the head and thorax of an ordinary termite, but a body
+swollen to a hundred times its usual and proportionate bulk, and
+presenting the appearance of a mass of shapeless pulp. From this great
+progenitrix proceed the myriads that people the subterranean hive,
+consisting, like the communities of the genuine ants, of labourers and
+soldiers, which are destined never to acquire a fuller development than
+that of larvæ, and the perfect insects which in due time become invested
+with wings and take their departing flight from the cave. But their new
+equipment seems only destined to facilitate their dispersion from the
+parent nest, which takes place at dusk; and almost as quickly as they
+leave it they divest themselves of their ineffectual wings, waving them
+impatiently and twisting them in every direction till they become
+detached and drop off, and the swarm, within a few hours of their
+emancipation, become a prey to the night-jars and bats, which are
+instantly attracted to them as they issue in a cloud from the ground. I
+am not prepared to say that the other insectivorous birds would not
+gladly make a meal of the termites, but, seeing that in Ceylon their
+numbers are chiefly kept in check by the crepuscular birds, it is
+observable, at least as a coincidence, that the dispersion of the swarm
+generally takes place at _twilight_. Those that escape the _caprimulgi_
+fall a prey to the crows, on the morning succeeding their flight.
+
+The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages of the white ants is
+that they shrink from the light; in all their expeditions for providing
+food they construct a covered pathway of moistened clay, and their
+galleries above ground extend to an incredible distance from the central
+nest. No timber, except ebony and ironwood, which are too hard, and
+those which are strongly impregnated with camphor or aromatic oils,
+which they dislike, presents any obstacle to their ingress. I have had a
+case of wine filled, in the course of two days, with almost solid clay,
+and only discovered the presence of the white ants by the escape from
+the corks. I have had a portmanteau in my tent so peopled with them in
+the course of a single night that the contents were found worthless in
+the morning. In an incredibly short time a detachment of these pests
+will destroy a press full of records, reducing the paper to fragments;
+and a shelf of books will be tunnelled into a gallery if it happen to be
+in their line of march. The timbers of a house when fairly attacked are
+eaten from within till the beams are reduced to an absolute shell, so
+thin that it may be punched through with the point of the finger: and
+even kyanized wood, unless impregnated with an extra quantity of
+corrosive sublimate, appears to occasion them no inconvenience. The only
+effectual precaution for the protection of furniture is incessant
+vigilance--the constant watching of every article, and its daily removal
+from place to place, in order to baffle their assaults.
+
+They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of 4000 or 5000
+feet. One species of white ant, the _Termes Taprobanes_, was at one time
+believed by Mr. Walker to be peculiar to the island, but it has recently
+been found in Sumatra and Borneo, and in some parts of Hindustan.
+
+There is a species of Termes in Ceylon (_T. monoceros_), which always
+builds its nest in the hollow of an old tree; and, unlike the others,
+carries on its labours without the secrecy and protection of a covered
+way. A marching column of these creatures may be observed at early
+morning in the vicinity of their nest, returning laden with the spoils
+collected during their foraging excursions. These consist of comminuted
+vegetable matter, derived, it may be, from a thatched roof, if one
+happens to be within reach, or from the decaying leaves of a coco-nut.
+Each little worker in the column carries its tiny load in its jaws; and
+the number of individuals in one of these lines of march must be
+immense, for the column is generally about two inches in width, and very
+densely crowded. One was measured which had most likely been in motion
+for hours, moving in the direction of the nest, and was found to be
+upwards of sixty paces in length. If attention be directed to the mass
+in motion, it will be observed that flanking it on each side throughout
+its whole length are stationed a number of horned soldier termites,
+whose duty it is to protect the labourers, and to give notice of any
+danger threatening them. This latter duty they perform by a peculiar
+quivering motion of the whole body, which is rapidly communicated from
+one to the other for a considerable distance: a portion of the column is
+then thrown into confusion for a short time, but confidence soon
+returns, and the progress of the little creatures goes on with
+steadiness and order as before. The nest is of a black colour, and
+resembles a mass of scoriæ; the insects themselves are of a pitchy
+brown.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: For these particulars of the _termes monoceros_, I am
+indebted to Mr. Thwaites, of the Roy. Botanic Garden at Kandy.]
+
+HYMENOPTERA. _Mason Wasp_.--In Ceylon as in all other countries, the
+order of hymenopterous insects arrests us less by the beauty of their
+forms than the marvels of their sagacity and the achievements of their
+instinct. A fossorial wasp of the family of _Sphegidæ_,[1] which is
+distinguished by its metallic lustre, enters by the open windows, and
+converts irritation at its movements into admiration of the graceful
+industry with which it stops up the keyholes and similar apertures with
+clay in order to build in them a cell. Into this it thrusts the pupa of
+some other insect, within whose body it has previously introduced its
+own eggs. The whole is surrounded with moistened earth, through which
+the young parasite, after undergoing its transformations, gnaws its way
+into light, to emerge as a four-winged fly.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: It belongs to the genus _Pelopæus, P. Spinolæ_, of St.
+Fargean. The _Ampulex compressa_, which drags about the larvæ of
+cockroaches into which it has implanted its eggs, belongs, to the same
+family.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Mr. E.L. Layard has given an interesting account of this
+Mason wasp in the _Annals and Magazine of Nat. History_ for May, 1853.
+"I have frequently," he says, "selected one of these flies for
+observation, and have seen their labours extend over a period of a
+fortnight or twenty days; sometimes only half a cell was completed in a
+day, at others as much as two. I never saw more than twenty cells in one
+nest, seldom indeed that number, and whence the caterpillars were
+procured was always to me a mystery. I have seen thirty or forty brought
+in of a species which I knew to be very rare in the perfect state, and
+which I had sought for in vain, although I knew on what plant they fed.
+
+"Then again how are they disabled by the wasp, and yet not injured so as
+to cause their immediate death? Die they all do, at least all that I
+have ever tried to rear, after taking them from the nest.
+
+"The perfected fly never effects its egress from the closed aperture,
+through which the caterpillars were inserted, and when cells are placed
+end to end, as they are in many instances, the outward end of each is
+always selected. I cannot detect any difference in the thickness in the
+crust of the cell to cause this uniformity of practice. It is often as
+much as half an inch through, of great hardness, and as far as I can see
+impervious to air and light. How then does the enclosed fly always
+select the right end, and with what secretion is it supplied to
+decompose this mortar?"]
+
+A formidable species (_Sphex ferruginea_ of St. Fargeau), which is
+common to India and most of the eastern islands, is regarded with the
+utmost dread by the unclad natives, who fly precipitately on finding
+themselves in the vicinity[1] of its nests. These are of such ample
+dimensions, that when suspended from a branch, they often measure
+upwards of six feet in length.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: It ought to be remembered in travelling in the forests of
+Ceylon that sal volatile applied immediately is a specific for the sting
+of a wasp.]
+
+[Footnote 2: At the January (1839) meeting of the Entomological Society,
+Mr. Whitehouse exhibited portions of a wasps' nest from Ceylon, between
+seven and eight feet long and two feet in diameter, and showed that the
+construction of the cells was perfectly analogous to those of the hive
+bee, and that when connected each has a tendency to assume a circular
+outline. In one specimen where there were three cells united the outer
+part was circular, whilst the portions common to the three formed
+straight walls. From this Singhalese nest Mr. Whitehouse demonstrated
+that the wasps at the commencement of their comb proceed slowly, forming
+the bases of several together, whereby they assume the hexagonal shape,
+whereas, if constructed separately, he thought each single cell would be
+circular. See _Proc. Ent. Soc._, vol. iii. p. 16.]
+
+_Bees._--Bees of several species and genera, some unprovided with
+stings, and some in size scarcely exceeding a house-fly, deposit their
+honey in hollow trees, or suspend their combs from a branch. The spoils
+of their industry form one of the chief resources of the uncivilised
+Veddahs, who collect the wax in the upland forests, to be bartered for
+arrow points and clothes in the lowlands.[1] I have never heard of an
+instance of persons being attacked by the bees of Ceylon, and hence the
+natives assert, that those most productive of honey are destitute of
+stings.
+
+[Footnote 1: A gentleman connected with the department of the
+Surveyor-General writes to me that he measured a honey-comb which he
+found fastened to the overhanging branch of a small tree in the forest
+near Adam's Peak, and found it nine links of his chain or about six feet
+in length and a foot in breadth where it was attached to the branch, but
+tapering towards the other extremity. "It was a single comb with a layer
+of cells on either side, but so weighty that the branch broke by the
+strain."]
+
+_The Carpenter Bee._--The operations of one of the most interesting of
+the tribe, the Carpenter bee[1], I have watched with admiration from the
+window of the Colonial Secretary's official residence at Kandy. So soon
+as the day grew warm, these active creatures were at work perforating
+the wooden columns which supported the verandah. They poised themselves
+on their shining purple wings, as they made the first lodgment in the
+wood, enlivening the work with an uninterrupted hum of delight, which
+was audible to a considerable distance. When the excavation had
+proceeded so far that the insect could descend into it, the music was
+suspended, but renewed from time to time, as the little creature came to
+the orifice to throw out the chips, to rest, or to enjoy the fresh air.
+By degrees, a mound of saw-dust was formed at the base of the pillar,
+consisting of particles abraded by the mandibles of the bee. These, when
+the hollow was completed to the depth of several inches, were partially
+replaced in the excavation after being agglutinated to form partitions
+between the eggs, as they were deposited within. The mandibles[2] of
+these bees are admirably formed for the purpose of working out the
+tunnels required, being short, stout, and usually furnished at the tip
+with two teeth which are rounded somewhat into the form of
+cheese-cutters.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Xylocopa tenuiscapa_, Westw.; Another species found in
+Ceylon is the _X. latipes_, Drury.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See figure above.]
+
+[Illustration: THE CARPENTER BEE]
+
+These when brought into operation cut out the wood in the same way as a
+carpenter's double gouge, the teeth being more or less hollowed out
+within. The female alone is furnished with these powerful instruments.
+In the males the mandibles are slender as compared with those of the
+females. The bores of some of these bees are described as being from
+twelve to fourteen inches in length.
+
+_Ants_.--As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstanding their numbers and
+familiarity, information is very imperfect relative to the varieties and
+habits of these marvellous insects in Ceylon.[1] In point of multitude
+it is scarcely an exaggeration to apply to them the figure of "the sands
+of the sea." They are everywhere; in the earth, in the houses, and on
+the trees; they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and almost on
+every plant in the jungle. To some of the latter they are, perhaps,
+attracted by the sweet juices secreted by the aphides and coccidæ.[2]
+Such is the passion of the ants for sugar, and their wonderful faculty
+of discovering it, that the smallest particle of a substance containing
+it is quickly covered with them, though placed in the least conspicuous
+position, where not a single one may have been visible a moment before.
+But it is not sweet substances alone that they attack; no animal or
+vegetable matter comes amiss to them: no aperture appears too small to
+admit them; it is necessary to place everything which it may be
+desirable to keep free from their invasion, under the closest cover, or
+on tables with cups of water under every foot. As scavengers, they are
+invaluable; and as ants never sleep, but work without cessation during
+the night as well as by day, every particle of decaying vegetable or
+putrid animal matter is removed with inconceiveable speed and certainty.
+In collecting shells, I have been able to turn this propensity to good
+account; by placing them within their reach, the ants in a few days
+removed every vestige of the mollusc from the innermost and otherwise
+inaccessible whorls; thus avoiding all risk of injuring the enamel by
+any mechanical process.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. Jerdan, in a series of papers in the thirteenth volume
+of the _Annals of Natural History_, has described forty-seven species of
+ants in Southern India. But M. Nietner has recently forwarded to the
+Berlin Museum upwards of seventy species taken by him in Ceylon, chiefly
+in the western province and the vicinity of Colombo. Of these many are
+identical with those noted by Mr. Jerdan as belonging to the Indian
+continent. One (probably _Drepanognathus saltator_ of Jerdan) is
+described by M. Nietner as occasionally "moving by jumps of several
+inches at a spring."]
+
+[Footnote 2: Dr. DAVY, in a paper on Tropical Plants, has introduced the
+following passage relative to the purification of sugar by ants:
+
+"If the juice of the sugar-cane--the common syrup as expressed by the
+mill--be exposed to the air, it gradually evaporates, yielding a
+light-brown residue, like the ordinary muscovado sugar of the best
+quality. If not protected, it is presently attacked by ants, and in a
+short time is, as it were, converted into white crystalline sugar, the
+ants having refined it by removing the darker portion, probably
+preferring that part from it containing azotized matter. The negroes, I
+may remark, prefer brown sugar to white: they say its sweetening power
+is greater; no doubt its nourishing quality is greater, and therefore as
+an article of diet deserving of preference. In refining sugar as in
+refining salt (coarse bay salt containing a little iodine), an error may
+be committed in abstracting matter designed by nature for a useful
+purpose."]
+
+But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead animals alone,
+they attack equally such small insects as they can overcome, or find
+disabled by accidents or wounds; and it is not unusual to see some
+hundreds of them surrounding a maimed beetle, or a bruised cockroach,
+and hurrying it along in spite of its struggles. I have, on more than
+one occasion, seen a contest between, them and one of the viscous
+ophidians, _Cæcilia, glutinosa_[1], a reptile resembling an enormous
+earthworm, common in the Kandyan hills, of an inch in diameter, and
+nearly two feet in length. On these occasions it would seem as if the
+whole community had been summoned and turned out for such a prodigious
+effort; they surround their victim literally in tens of thousands,
+inflicting wounds on all parts, and forcing it along towards their nest
+in spite of resistance. In one instance to which I was a witness, the
+conflict lasted for the latter part of a day, but towards evening the
+Coecilia was completely exhausted, and in the morning it had totally
+disappeared, having been carried away either whole or piecemeal by its
+assailants.
+
+[Footnote 1: See _ante_, p. 317.]
+
+The species I here allude to is a very small ant, which the Singhalese
+call by the generic name of _Koombiya_. There is a species still more
+minute, and evidently distinct, which frequents the caraffes and toilet
+vessels. A third, probably the _Formica nidificans_ of Jerdan, is black,
+of the same size as that last mentioned, and, from its colour, called
+the _Kalu koombiga_ by the natives. In the houses its propensities and
+habits are the same as those of the others; but I have observed that it
+frequents the trees more profusely, forming small paper cells for its
+young, like miniature wasps' nests, in which it deposits its eggs,
+suspending them from a twig.
+
+The most formidable of all is the great red ant or Dimiya.[1] It is
+particularly abundant in gardens, and on fruit trees; it constructs its
+dwellings by glueing the leaves of such species as are suitable from
+their shape and pliancy into hollow balls, and these it lines with a
+kind of transparent paper, like that manufactured by the wasp. I have
+watched them at the interesting operation of forming these dwellings;--a
+line of ants standing on the edge of one leaf bring another into contact
+with it, and hold both together with their mandibles till their
+companions within attach them firmly by means of their adhesive paper,
+the assistants outside moving along as the work proceeds. If it be
+necessary to draw closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by the
+immediate workers, they form a chain by depending one from the other
+till the object is reached, when it is at length brought into contact,
+and made fast by cement.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Formica smaragdina,_ Fab.]
+
+Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual motion, forming lines
+on the ground along which they pass, in continual procession to and from
+the trees on which they reside. They are the most irritable of the whole
+order in Ceylon, biting with such intense ferocity as to render it
+difficult for the unclad natives to collect the fruit from the mango
+trees, which the red ants especially frequent. They drop from the
+branches upon travellers in the jungle, attacking them with venom and
+fury, and inflicting intolerable pain both upon animals and man. On
+examining the structure of the head through a microscope, I found that
+the mandibles, instead of merely meeting in contact, are so hooked as to
+cross each other at the points, whilst the inner line is sharply
+serrated throughout its entire length; thus occasioning the intense pain
+of their bite, as compared with that of the ordinary ant.
+
+To check the ravages of the coffee bug[1] (_Lecanium coffeæ_, Walker),
+which for some years past has devastated some of the plantations in
+Ceylon, the experiment was made of introducing the red ants, who feed
+greedily on the Coccus. But the remedy threatened to be attended with
+some inconvenience, for the Malabar Coolies, with bare and oiled skins,
+were so frequently and fiercely assaulted by the ants as to endanger
+their stay on the estates.
+
+[Footnote 1: For an account of this pest, see p. 437.]
+
+The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are generally, but not
+invariably, black, and some of them are of considerable size. One
+species, about the third of an inch in length, is abundant in the hills,
+and especially about the roots of trees, where they pile up the earth in
+circular heaps round the entrance to their nests, and in doing this I
+have observed a singular illustration of their instinct. To carry up
+each particle of sand by itself would be an endless waste of labour, and
+to carry two or more loose ones securely would be to them embarrassing,
+if not impossible. To overcome the difficulty they glue together with
+their saliva so much earth or sand as is sufficient for a burden, and
+each ant may be seen hurrying up from below with his load, carrying it
+to the top of the circular heap outside, and throwing it over, the mass
+being so strongly attached as to roll to the bottom without breaking
+asunder.
+
+The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, differing in this
+particular from the Dimiya and another of similar size and ferocity,
+which is called by the Singhalese _Kaddiya_. They have a legend
+illustrative of their alarm for the bites of the latter, to the effect
+that the cobra de capello invested the Kaddiya with her own venom in
+admiration of the singular courage displayed by these little
+creatures.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, pt. i. ch. vi. p.
+23.]
+
+LEPIDOPTERA. _Butterflies_.--In the interior of the island butterflies
+are comparatively rare, and, contrary to the ordinary belief, they are
+seldom to be seen in the sunshine. They frequent the neighbourhood of
+the jungle, and especially the vicinity of the rivers and waterfalls,
+living mainly in the shade of the moist foliage, and returning to it in
+haste after the shortest flights, as if their slender bodies were
+speedily dried up and exhausted by exposure to the intense heat.
+
+Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon Lepidoptera is the great
+black and yellow butterfly (_Ornithoptera darsius_, Gray); the upper
+wings of which measure six inches across, and are of deep velvet black,
+the lower ornamented by large particles of satiny yellow, through which
+the sunlight passes. Few insects can compare with it in beauty, as it
+hovers over the flowers of the heliotrope, which furnish the favourite
+food of the perfect fly, although the caterpillar feeds on the
+aristolochia and the _betel leaf_, and suspends its chrysalis from its
+drooping tendrils.
+
+Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often exceeding it in
+breadth, is the black and blue _Papilio Polymnestor_, which darts
+rapidly through the air, alighting on the ruddy flowers of the hibiscus,
+or the dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it deposits its eggs.
+The larvæ of this species are green with white bands, and have a hump on
+the fourth or fifth segment. From this hump the caterpillar, on being
+irritated, protrudes a singular horn of an orange colour, bifurcate at
+the extremity, and covered with a pungent mucilaginous secretion. This
+is evidently intended as a weapon of defence against the attack of the
+ichneumon flies, that deposit their eggs in its soft body, for when the
+grub is pricked, either by the ovipositor of the ichneumon, or by any
+other sharp instrument, the horn is at once protruded, and struck upon
+the offending object with unerring aim.
+
+Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies is the _P. Hector_,
+with gorgeous crimson spots set in the black velvet of the inferior
+wings; these, when fresh, are shot with a purple blush, equalling in
+splendour the azure of the European "_Emperor._"
+
+_The Spectre Butterfly._--Another butterfly, but belonging to a widely
+different group, is the "sylph" (_Hestia Jasonia_), called by the
+Europeans by the various names of _Floater, Spectre_, and _Silver-paper
+fly_, as indicative of its graceful flight. It is found only in the deep
+shade of the damp forest, usually frequenting the vicinity of pools of
+water and cascades, about which it sails heedless of the spray, the
+moisture of which may even be beneficial in preserving the elasticity of
+its thin and delicate wings, that bend and undulate in the act of
+flight.
+
+The _Lycanidæ_[1], a particularly attractive group, abound near the
+enclosures of cultivated grounds, and amongst the low shrubs edging the
+patenas, flitting from flower to flower, inspecting each in turn, as if
+attracted by their beauty, in the full blaze of sun-light; and shunning
+exposure less sedulously than the other diurnals. Some of the more
+robust kinds[2] are magnificent in the bright light, from the splendour
+of their metallic blues and glowing purples, but they yield in elegance
+of form and variety to their tinier and more delicately-coloured
+congeners.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Lycæna polyommatus, &c._]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Amblypodia pseudocentaurus, &c._]
+
+Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar forms, and the
+naturalist marks with interest the small, but strong, _Hesperidæ_[1],
+hurrying, by abrupt and jerking flights, to the scented blossoms of the
+champac or the sweet night-blowing moon-flower; and, when darkness
+gathers around, we can hear, though hardly distinguish amid the gloom,
+the humming of the powerful wings of innumerable hawk moths, which hover
+with their long proboscides inserted into the starry petals of the
+periwinkle.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Pamphila hesperia, &c._]
+
+Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the richly-coloured
+_Acherontia Satanas_, one of the Singhalese representatives of our
+Death's-head moth, which utters a sharp and stridulous cry when seized.
+This sound has been conjectured to be produced by the friction of its
+thorax against the abdomen;--Reaumur believed it to be caused by the
+rubbing of the palpi against the tongue. I have never been able to
+observe either motion, and Mr. E.L. Layard is of opinion that the sound
+is emitted from two apertures concealed by tufts of wiry bristles thrown
+out from each side of the inferior portion of the thorax.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: There is another variety of the same moth in Ceylon which
+closely resembles it in its markings, but in which I have never detected
+the uttering of this curious cry. It is smaller than the _A. Satanas_,
+and, like it, often enters dwellings at night, attracted by the lights;
+but I have not found its larvæ, although that of the other species is
+common on several widely different plants.]
+
+_Moths._--Among the strictly nocturnal _Lepidoptera_ are some gigantic
+species. Of these the cinnamon-eating _Atlas_, often attains the
+dimensions of nearly a foot in the stretch of its superior wings. It is
+very common in the gardens about Colombo, and its size, and the
+transparent talc-like spots in its wings, cannot fail to strike even the
+most careless saunterer. But little inferior to it in size is the famed
+Tusseh silk moth[1], which feeds on the country almond (_Terminalia
+catappa_) and the palma Christi or Castor-oil plant; it is easily
+distinguishable from the Atlas, which has a triangular wing, whilst its
+is falcated, and the transparent spots are covered with a curious
+thread-like division drawn across them.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Antheræa mylitta,_ Drury.]
+
+Towards the northern portions of the island this valuable species
+entirely displaces the other, owing to the fact that the almond and
+_palma Christi_ abound there. The latter plant springs up spontaneously
+on every manure-heap or neglected spot of ground; and might be
+cultivated, as in India, with great advantage, the leaf to be used as
+food for the caterpillar, the stalk as fodder for cattle, and the seed
+for the expression of castor-oil. The Dutch took advantage of this
+facility, and gave every encouragement to the cultivation of silk at
+Jaffna[1], but it never attained such a development as to become an
+article of commercial importance. Ceylon now cultivates no silkworms
+whatever, notwithstanding this abundance of the favourite food of one
+species; and the rich silken robes sometimes worn by the Buddhist
+priesthood are imported from China and the continent of India.
+
+[Footnote 1: The Portuguese had made the attempt previous to the arrival
+of the Dutch, and a strip of land on the banks of the Kalany river near
+Colombo, still bears the name of Orta Seda, the silk garden. The attempt
+of the Dutch to introduce the true silkworm, the _Bombyx mori_, took
+place under the governorship; of Ryklof Van Goens, who, on handing over
+the administration to his successor in A.D. 1663, thus apprises him of
+the initiation of the experiment:--"At Jaffna Palace a trial has been
+undertaken to feed silkworms, and to ascertain whether silk may be
+reared at that station. I have planted a quantity of mulberry trees,
+which grow well there, and they ought to be planted in other
+directions."--VALENTYN, chap. xiii. The growth of the mulberry trees is
+noticed the year after in a report to the governor-general of India, but
+the subject afterwards ceased to be attended to.]
+
+In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there are many other
+_Bombycidæ_; in Ceylon; and, though the silk of some of them, were it
+susceptible of being unwound from the cocoon, would not bear a
+comparison with that of the _Bombyx mori_, or even of the Tusseh moth,
+it might still prove to be valuable when carded and spun. If the
+European residents in the colony would rear the larvæ of these
+Lepidoptera, and make drawings of their various changes, they would
+render a possible service to commerce, and a certain one to
+entomological knowledge.
+
+_Stinging Caterpillars_.--The Dutch carried to their Eastern settlements
+two of their home propensities, which distinguish and embellish the
+towns of the Low Countries; they indulged in the excavation of canals,
+and they planted long lines of trees to diffuse shade over the sultry
+passages in their Indian fortresses. For the latter purpose they
+employed the Suriya (_Hibiscus populneus_), whose broad umbrageous
+leaves and delicate yellow flowers impart a delicious coolness, and give
+to the streets of Galle and Colombo the fresh and enlivening aspect of
+walks in a garden.
+
+In the towns, however, the suriya trees are productive of one serious
+inconvenience. They are the resort of a hairy greenish caterpillar[1],
+longitudinally striped, great numbers of which frequent them, and at a
+certain stage of growth descend by a silken thread to the ground and
+hurry away, probably in search of a suitable spot in which to pass
+through their metamorphoses. Should they happen to alight, as they often
+do, upon some lounger below, and find their way to his unprotected skin,
+they inflict, if molested, a sting as pungent, but far more lasting,
+than that of a nettle or a star-fish.
+
+[Footnote 1: The species of moth with which it is identified has not yet
+been determined, but it most probably belongs to a section of
+Boisduval's genus _Bombyx_ allied to _Cnethocampa_, Stephens.]
+
+Attention being thus directed to the quarter whence an assailant has
+lowered himself down, the caterpillars above will be found in clusters,
+sometimes amounting to hundreds, clinging to the branches and the bark,
+with a few straggling over the leaves or suspended from them by lines.
+These pests are so annoying to children as well as destructive to the
+foliage, that it is often necessary to singe them off the trees by a
+flambeau fixed on the extremity of a pole; and as they fall to the
+ground they are eagerly devoured by the crows and domestic fowls.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Another caterpillar which feeds on the jasmine flowering
+Carissa, stings with such fury that I have known a gentleman to shed
+tears while the pain was at its height. It is short and broad, of a pale
+green, with fleshy spines on the upper surface, each of which seems to
+be charged with the venom that occasions this acute suffering. The moth
+which this caterpillar produces, _Neæra lepida_, Cramer; _Limacodes
+graciosa_, Westw., has dark brown wings, the primary traversed by a
+broad green band. It is common in the western side of Ceylon. The larvæ
+of the genus _Adolia_ are also hairy, and sting with virulence.]
+
+_The Wood-carrying Moth_.--There is another family of insects, the
+singular habits of which will not fail to attract the traveller in the
+cultivated tracts of Ceylon--these are moths of the genus
+_Oiketicus_[1], of which the females are devoid of wings, and some
+possess no articulated feet. Their larvæ construct for themselves cases,
+which they suspend to a branch frequently of the pomegranate[2],
+surrounding them with the stems of leaves, and thorns or pieces of twigs
+bound together by threads, till the whole presents the appearance of a
+bundle of rods about an inch and a half long; and, from the resemblance
+of this to a Roman fasces, one African species has obtained the name of
+"Lictor." The German entomologists denominated the group _Sackträger_,
+the Singhalese call them _Dara-kattea_ or "billets of firewood," and
+regard the inmates as human beings, who, as a punishment for stealing
+wood in some former state of existence, have been condemned to undergo a
+metempsychosis under the form of these insects.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Eumeta_, Wlk.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The singular instincts of a species of Thecla, _Dipsas
+Isocrates_, Fab., in connection with the fruit of the pomegranate, were
+fully described by Mr. Westwood, in a paper read before the
+Entomological Society of London in 1835.]
+
+[Illustration: THE WOOD-CARRYING MOTH.]
+
+The male, at the close of the pupal rest, escapes from one end of this
+singular covering, but the female makes it her dwelling for life; moving
+about with it at pleasure, and entrenching herself within it, when
+alarmed, by drawing together the purse-like aperture at the open end. Of
+these remarkable creatures there are five ascertained species in Ceylon:
+_Psyche Doubledaii_, Westw.; _Metisa plana_; Walker; _Eumeta Cramerii_,
+Westw.; _E. Templetonii_, Westw.; and _Cryptothelea consorta_, Temp.
+
+All the other tribes of minute _Lepitoptera_ have abundant
+representatives in Ceylon; some of them most attractive from the great
+beauty of their markings and colouring. The curious little split-winged
+moth (_Pterophorus_) is frequently seen in the cinnamon gardens and in
+the vicinity of the fort, hid from the noon-day heat among the cool
+grass shaded by the coco-nut topes. Three species have been captured,
+all characterised by the same singular feature of having the wings
+fan-like, separated nearly their entire length into detached sections,
+resembling feathers in the pinions of a bird expanded for flight.
+
+HOMOPTERA. _Cicada._--Of the _Homoptera_, the one which will most
+frequently arrest attention is the cicada, which, resting high up on the
+bark of a tree, makes the forest re-echo with a long-sustained noise so
+curiously resembling that of a cutler's wheel that the creature
+producing it has acquired the highly-appropriate name of the
+"knife-grinder."
+
+[Illustration: CICADA--"THE KNIFE GRINDER."]
+
+In the jungle which adjoined the grounds attached to my official
+residence at Kandy, the shrubs were frequented by an insect covered
+profusely with a snow-white powder, arranged in delicate filaments that
+curl like a head of dressed celery. These it moves without dispersing
+the powder: but when dead they fall rapidly to dust. I regret that I did
+not preserve specimens, but I have reason to think that they are the
+larvæ of the _Flata limbata_, or of some other closely allied
+species[1], though I have not seen in Ceylon any of the wax produced by
+the _flata_.
+
+[Footnote 1: Amongst the specimens of this order which I brought from
+Ceylon, two proved to be new and undescribed, and have been named by Mr.
+A. WHITE _Elidiptera Emersoniana_ and _Poeciloptera Tennentina_.]
+
+HEMIPTERA. _Bugs_.--On the shrubs in his compound the newly-arrived
+traveller will be attracted by an insect of a pale green hue and
+delicately-thin configuration, which, resting from its recent flight,
+composes its scanty wings, and moves languidly along the leaf. But
+experience will teach him to limit his examination to a respectful view
+of its attitudes; it is one of a numerous family of bugs, (some of them
+most attractive[1] in their colouring,) which are inoffensive if
+unmolested, but if touched or irritated, exhale an odour that, once
+endured, is never afterwards forgotten.
+
+[Footnote 1: Such as _Cantuo ocellatus, Leptoscelis Marginalis, Callidea
+Stockerius_, &c. &c. Of the aquatic species, the gigantic _Belostoma
+Indicum_ cannot escape notice, attaining a size of nearly three inches.]
+
+APHANIPTERA. _Fleas_.--Fleas are equally numerous, and may be seen in
+myriads in the dust of the streets or skipping in the sunbeams which
+fall on the clay floors of the cottages. The dogs, to escape them,
+select for their sleeping places spots where a wood fire has been
+previously kindled; and here prone on the white ashes, their stomachs
+close to the earth, and their hind legs extended behind, they repose in
+comparative coolness, and bid defiance to their persecutors.
+
+[Illustration: POECILOPTERA TENNENTINA.]
+
+[Illustration: ELIDIPTERA EMERSONIANA.]
+
+DIPTERA. _Mosquitoes_.--But of all the insect pests that beset an
+unseasoned European the most provoking by far is the truculent
+mosquito.[1] Next to the torture which it inflicts, its most annoying
+peculiarities are the booming hum of its approach, its cunning, its
+audacity, and the perseverance with which it renews its attacks however
+frequently repulsed. These characteristics are so remarkable as fully to
+justify the conjecture that the mosquito, and not the ordinary fly,
+constituted the plague inflicted upon Pharaoh and the Egyptians.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Culex laniger?_ Wied. In Kandy Mr. Thwaites finds _C.
+fuscanns, C. circumcolans,_ &c., and one with a most formidable hooked
+proboscis, to which he has assigned the appropriate name _C. Regius_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The precise species of insect by means of which the
+Almighty signalised the plague of flies, remains uncertain, as the
+Hebrew term _arob_ or _oror_ which has been rendered in one place.
+"Divers sorts of flies," Ps. cv. 31; and in another, "swarms of flies,"
+Exod. viii. 21, &c., means merely "an assemblage." a "mixture" or a
+"swarm," and the expletive. "_of flies_" is an interpolation of the
+translators. This, however, serves to show that the fly implied was one
+easily recognisable by its habit of _swarming_; and the further fact
+that it _bites_, or rather stings, is elicited from the expression of
+the Psalmist, Ps. lxxviii. 45, that the insects by which the Egyptians
+were tormented "devoured them," so that here are two peculiarities
+inapplicable to the domestic fly, but strongly characteristic of gnats
+and mosquitoes.
+
+Bruce thought that the fly of the fourth plague was the "zimb" of
+Abyssinia which he so graphically describes: and WESTWOOD, in an
+ingenious passage in his _Entomologist's Text-book._ p. 17, combats the
+strange idea of one of the bishops, that it was a cockroach! and argues
+in favour of the mosquito. This view he sustains by a reference to the
+habits of the creature, the swarms in which it invades a locality, and
+the audacity with which it enters the houses; and he accounts for the
+exemption of "the land of Goshen in which the Isrælites dwelt," by the
+fact of its being sandy pasture above the level of the river; whilst the
+mosquitoes were produced freely in the rest of Egypt, the soil of which
+was submerged by the rising of the Nile.
+
+In all the passages in the Old Testament in which flies are alluded to,
+otherwise than in connection with the Egyptian infliction, the word used
+in the Hebrew is _zevor_, which the Septuagint renders by the ordinary
+generic term for flies in general, [Greek: muia], "_musca_" (Eccles. x.
+1, Isaiah vii. 10); but in every instance in which mention is made of
+the miracle of Moses, the Septuagint says that the fly produced was the
+[Greek: kunomyia], the "dog-fly." What insect was meant by this name it
+is not now easy to determine, but ÆLIAN intimates that the dogfly both
+inflicts a wound and emits a booming sound, in both of which particulars
+it accords with the mosquito (lib. iv, 51); and PHILO-JUDÆUS, in his
+_Vita Mosis_, lib. i. ch. xxiii., descanting on the plague of flies, and
+using the term of the Septuagint, [Greek: kunomyia], describes it as
+combining the characteristic of "the most impudent of all animals, the
+fly and the dog, exhibiting the courage and the cunning of both, and
+fastening on its victim with the noise and rapidity of an
+arrow"--[Greek: meta roizou kathaper belos]. This seems to identify the
+dog-fly of the Septuagint with the description of the Psalmist, Ps.
+lxxviii. 45, and to vindicate the conjecture that the tormenting
+mosquito, and not the house-fly, was commissioned by the Lord to humble
+the obstinacy of the Egyptian tyrant.]
+
+Even in the midst of endurance from their onslaughts one cannot but be
+amused by the ingenuity of their movements; as if aware of the risk
+incident to an open assault, a favourite mode of attack is, when
+concealed by a table, to assail the ankles through the meshes of the
+stocking, or the knees which are ineffectually protected by a fold of
+Russian duck. When you are reading, a mosquito will rarely settle on
+that portion of your hand which is within range of your eyes, but
+cunningly stealing by the underside of the book fastens on the wrist or
+little finger, and noiselessly inserts his proboscis there. I have
+tested the classical expedient recorded by Herodotus, who states that
+the fishermen inhabiting the fens of Egypt, cover their beds with their
+nets, knowing that the mosquitoes, although they bite through linen
+robes, will not venture through a net.[1] But, notwithstanding the
+opinion of Spence[2], that nets with meshes an inch square will
+effectually exclude them, I have been satisfied by painful experience
+that (if the theory be not altogether fallacious) at least the modern
+mosquitoes of Ceylon are uninfluenced by the same considerations which
+restrained those of the Nile under the successors of Cambyses.
+
+[Footnote 1: HERODOTUS, _Euterpe._ xcv.]
+
+[Footnote 2: KIRBY and SPENCE'S _Entomology_, letter iv.]
+
+_The Coffee-Bug_.--Allusion has been made in a previous passage to the
+coccus known in Ceylon as the "Coffee-Bug" (_Lecanium Caffeæ_, Wlk.),
+which of late years has made such destructive ravages in the plantations
+in the Mountain Zone.[1] The first thing that attracts attention on
+looking at a coffee tree infested by it, is the number of brownish
+wart-like bodies that stud the young shoots and occasionally the margins
+on the underside of the leaves.[2] Each of these warts or scales is a
+transformed female, containing a large number of eggs which are hatched
+within it.
+
+[Footnote 1: The following notice of the "coffee-bug," and of the
+singularly destructive effects produced by it on the plants, has been
+prepared chiefly from a memoir presented to the Ceylon Government by the
+late Dr. Gardner, in which he traces the history of the insect from its
+first appearance in the coffee districts, until it had established
+itself more or less permanently in all the estates in full cultivation
+throughout the island.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See the annexed drawing, Fig. 1.]
+
+When the young ones come out from their nest, they run about over the
+plant like diminutive wood-lice, and at this period there is no apparent
+distinction between male and female. Shortly after being hatched the
+males seek the underside of the leaves, while the females prefer the
+young shoots as a place of abode. If the under surface of a leaf be
+examined, it will be found to be studded, particularly on its basil
+half, with minute yellowish-white specks of an oblong form.[1] These are
+the larvæ of the males undergoing transformation into pupæ, beneath
+their own skins; some of these specks are always in a more advanced
+state than the others, the full-grown ones being whitish and scarcely a
+line long. Some of this size are translucent, the insect having escaped;
+the darker ones still retain it within, of an oblong form, with the
+rudiment of a wing on each side attached to the lower part of the thorax
+and closely applied to the sides; the legs are six in number, the four
+hind ones being directed backwards, the anterior forwards (a peculiarity
+not common in other insects); the two antennæ are also inclined
+backwards, and from the tail protrude three short bristles, the middle
+one thinner and longer than the rest.
+
+[Footnote 1: Figs. 2, and 3 and 5 in the engraving, where these and all
+the other figures are considerably enlarged.]
+
+When the transformation is complete, the mature insect makes its way
+from beneath the pellucid case[1], all its organs having then attained
+their full size: the head is sub-globular, with two rather prominent
+black eyes, and two antennæ, each with eleven joints, hairy throughout,
+and a tuft of rather longer hairs at the apices; the legs are also
+covered with hairs, the wings are horizontal, of an obovate oblong
+shape, membranous, and extending a little farther than the bristles of
+the tail. They have only two nerves, neither of which reaches so far as
+the tips; one of them runs close to the costal margin, and is much
+thicker than the other, which branches off from its base and skirts
+along the inner margin; behind the wings is attached a pair of minute
+halteres of peculiar form. The possession of wings would appear to be
+the cause why the full-grown male is more rarely seen on the coffee
+bushes than the female.
+
+[Footnote 1: Fig. 4. Mr. WESTWOOD, who observed the operation in one
+species, states that they escape backwards, the wings being extended
+flatly over the head.]
+
+The female, like the male, attaches herself to the surface of the plant,
+the place selected being usually the young shoots; but she is also to be
+met with on the margins of the undersides of the leaves (on the upper
+surface neither the male nor female ever attach themselves); but, unlike
+the male, which derives no nourishment from the juices of the tree (the
+mouth being obsolete in the perfect state), she punctures the cuticle
+with a proboscis (a very short three-jointed _promuscis_), springing as
+it were from the breast, but capable of being greatly porrected, and
+inserted in the cuticle of the plant, and through this she abstracts her
+nutriment. In the early pupa state the female is easily distinguishable
+from the male, by being more elliptical and much more convex. As she
+increases in size her skin distends and she becomes smooth and dry; the
+rings of the body become effaced; and losing entirely the form of an
+insect, she presents, for some time, a yellowish pustular shape, but
+ultimately assumes a roundish conical form, of a dark brown colour.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Figs. 6 and 7. There are many other species of the Coccus
+tribe in Ceylon, some (Pseudococcus?) never appearing as a scale, the
+female wrapping herself up in a white cottony exudation; many species
+nearly allied to the true Coccus infest common plants about gardens,
+such as the Nerium Oleander, Plumeria Acuminata, and others with milky
+juices; another subgenus (Ceroplastes?), the female of which produces a
+protecting waxy material, infests the Gendurassa Vulgaris, the Furrcæa
+Gigantea, the Jak Tree, Mango, and other common trees.]
+
+Until she has nearly reached her full size, she still possesses the
+power of locomotion, and her six legs are easily distinguishable in the
+under surface of her corpulent body; but at no period of her existence
+has she wings. It is about the time of her obtaining full size that
+impregnation takes place[1]; after which the scale becomes somewhat more
+conical, assumes a darker colour, and at length is permanently fixed to
+the surface of the plant, by means of a cottony substance interposed
+between it and the vegetable cuticle to which it adheres. The scale,
+when full grown, exactly resembles in miniature the hat of a Cornish
+miner[2], there being a narrow rim at the base, which gives increased
+surface of attachment. It is about 1/8 inch in diameter, by about 1/12
+deep, and it appears perfectly smooth to the naked eye; but it is in
+reality studded over with a multitude of very minute warts, giving it a
+dotted appearance. Except the margin, which is ciliated, it is entirely
+destitute of hairs. The number of eggs contained in one of the scales is
+enormous, amounting in a single one to 691. The eggs are of an oblong
+shape, of a pale flesh colour, and perfectly smooth.[3] In some of the
+scales, the eggs when laid on the field of the microscope resemble those
+masses of life sometimes seen in decayed cheese.[4] A few small
+yellowish maggots are sometimes found with them, and these are the
+larvæ[5] of insects, the eggs of which have been deposited in the female
+while the scale was soft. They escape when mature by cutting a small
+round hole in the dorsum of the scale.
+
+[Footnote 1: REAUMUR has described the singular manner in which this
+occurs. _Mem._ tom. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Fig. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Fig. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Figs. 10, 11.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Of the parasitic Chalcididiæ, many genera of which are well
+known to deposit their eggs in the soft Coccus, viz.: Encystus,
+Coccophagus, Pteromalus, Mesosela, Agonioneurus; besides Aphidius, a
+minutely sized genus of Ichneumonidæ. Most, if not all, of these genera
+are Singhalese.]
+
+[Illustration: THE COFFEE BUG. Lecanium Coffeæ.]
+
+It is not till after this pest has been on an estate for two or three
+years that it shows itself to an alarming extent. During the first year
+a few only of the ripe scales are seen scattered over the bushes,
+generally on the younger shoots; but that year's crop does not suffer
+much, and the appearance of the tree is little altered.
+
+The second year, however, brings a change for the worse; if the young
+shoots and the underside of the leaves he now examined, the scales will
+be found to have become much more numerous, and with them appear a
+multitude of white specks, which are the young scales in a more or less
+forward state. The clusters of berries now assume a black sooty look,
+and a great number of them fall off before coming to maturity; the
+general health of the tree also begins to fail, and it acquires a
+blighted appearance. A loss of crop is this year sustained, but to no
+great extent.
+
+The third year brings about a more serious change, the whole plant
+acquires a black hue, appearing as if soot had been thrown over it in
+great quantities; this is caused by the growth of a parasitic fungus[1]
+over the shoots and the upper surface of the leaves, forming a fibrous
+coating, somewhat resembling velvet or felt. This never makes its
+appearance till the insect has been a considerable time on the bush, and
+probably owes its existence there to an unhealthy condition of the
+juices of the leaf, consequent on the irritation produced by the coccus,
+since it never visits the upper surface of the leaf until the latter has
+fully established itself on the lower. At this period the young shoots
+have an exceedingly disgusting look from the dense mass of yellow
+pustular bodies forming on them, the leaves get shrivelled, and the
+infected trees become conspicuous in the row. The black ants are
+assiduous in their visits to them. Two-thirds of the crop is lost, and
+on many trees not a single berry forms.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Racodium?_ Species of this genus are not confined to the
+coffee plant alone in Ceylon, but follow the "bugs" in their attacks on
+other bushes. It appears like a dense interlaced mesh of fibres, each
+made up of a single series of minute oblong vesicles applied end to
+end.]
+
+This _Lecanium_, or a very closely allied species, has been observed in
+the Botanic Garden at Peradenia, on the _Citrus acida, Psidium
+pomiferum, Myrtus Zeylanica, Rosa Indica, Careya arborea, Vitex
+Negundo_, and other plants. The coffee coccus has generally been first
+observed in moist, hollow places sheltered from the wind; and thence it
+has spread itself even over the driest and most exposed parts of the
+island. On some estates, after attaining a maximum, it has generally
+declined, but has shown a liability to reappear, especially in low
+sheltered situations, and it is believed to prevail most extensively in
+wet seasons. While in its earlier stages, it is easily transmitted from
+one estate to another, on the clothes of human beings, and in various
+other ways, which will readily suggest themselves. Dr. Gardner, after a
+careful consideration and minute examination of estates, arrived at the
+conclusion, that all remedies suggested up to that time had utterly
+failed, and that none at once cheap and effectual was likely to be
+discovered. He seems also to have been of opinion that the insect was
+not under human control; and that even if it should disappear, it would
+only be when it should have worn itself out as other blighte have been
+known to do in some mysterious way. Whether this may prove to be the
+case or not, is still very uncertain, but every thing observed by Dr.
+Gardner tends to indicate the permanency of the pest.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+_List of Ceylon Insects._
+
+For the following list of the insects of the island, and the remarks
+prefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F. Walker, by whom it has been
+prepared after a careful inspection of the collections made by Dr.
+Templeton, Mr. E.L. Layard, and others: as well as of those in the
+British Museum and in the Museum of the East India Company.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The entire of the new species contained in this list have
+been described in a series of papers by Mr. WALKER in successive numbers
+of the _Annals of Natural History_ (1858-61): those, from Dr.
+TEMPLETON'S collection of which descriptions have been taken, have been
+at his desire transferred to the British Museum for future reference and
+comparison.]
+
+"A short notice of the aspect of the island will afford the best means
+of accounting, in some degree, for its entomological Fauna: first, as it
+is an island, and has a mountainous central region, the tropical
+character of its productions, as in most other cases, rather diminishes,
+and somewhat approaches that of higher latitudes.
+
+"The coast-region of Ceylon, and fully one-third of its northern part,
+have a much drier atmosphere than that of the rest of its surface; and
+their climate and vegetation are nearly similar to those of the
+Carnatic, with which this island may have been connected at no very
+remote period.[1] But if, on the contrary, the land in Ceylon is
+gradually rising, the difference of its Fauna from that of Central
+Hindustan is less remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then be
+conjectured to have been nearly or wholly separated from the central
+part of Hindustan, and confined to the range of mountains along the
+eastern coast; the insect-fauna of which is as yet almost unknown, but
+will probably be found to have more resemblance to that of Ceylon than
+to the insects of northern and western India--just as the insect-fauna
+of Malaya appears more to resemble the similar productions of
+Australasia than those of the more northern continent.
+
+[Footnote 1: On the subject of this conjecture see _ante_, p. 60.]
+
+"Mr. Layard's collection was partly formed in the dry northern province
+of Ceylon; and among them more Hindustan insects are to be observed than
+among those collected by Dr. Templeton, and found wholly in the district
+between Colombo and Kandy. According to this view the faunas of the
+Nilgherry Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of the peninsula of Malacca, and
+of Australasia would be found to form one group;--while those of
+Northern Ceylon, of the western Dekkan, and of the level parts of
+Central Hindustan would form another of more recent origin. The
+insect-fauna of the Carnatic is also probably similar to that of the
+lowlands of Ceylon; but it is still unexplored. The regions of Hindustan
+in which species have been chiefly collected, such as Bengal, Silbet,
+and the Punjaub, are at the distance of from 1300 to 1600 miles from
+Ceylon, and therefore the insects of the latter are fully as different
+from those of the above regions as they are from those of Australasia,
+to which Ceylon is as near in point of distance, and agrees more with
+regard to latitude.
+
+"Dr. Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the mountains of
+Ceylon to be quite different from that of the plains and of the shores.
+The south and west districts have a very moist climate, and as their
+vegetation is like that of Malabar, their insect-fauna will probably
+also resemble that of the latter region.
+
+"The insects mentioned in the following list are thus distributed:--
+
+"Order COLEOPTERA.
+
+"The recorded species of _Cicindelidæ_ inhabit the plains or the coast
+country of Ceylon, and several of them are also found in Hindustan.
+
+"Many of the species of _Carabidæ_ and of _Staphylinidæ_, especially
+those collected by Mr. Thwaites, near Kandy, and by M. Nietner at
+Colombo, have much resemblance to the insects of these two families in
+North Europe; in the _Scydmænid, Ptiliadæ, Phalacridæ, Nitidulidæ,
+Colydiadæ_, and _Lathridiadæ_ the northern form is still more striking,
+and strongly contrasts with the tropical forms of the gigantic _Copridæ,
+Buprestidæ, and Cerambycidæ_, and with the _Elateridæ, Lampyridæ,
+Tenebrionidæ, Helopidæ, Meloidæ, Curculionidæ, Prionidæ, Cerambycidæ,
+Lamiidæ_, and _Endomychidæ_.
+
+"The _Copridæ, Dynastidæ, Melolonthidæ, Cetoniadæ_, and _Passalidæ_ are
+well represented on the plains and on the coast, and the species are
+mostly of a tropical character.
+
+"The _Hydrophilidæ_ have a more northern aspect, as is generally the
+case with aquatic species.
+
+"The order _Strepsiptera_ is here considered as belonging to the
+_Mordellidæ_, and is represented by the genus _Myrmecolax_, which is
+peculiar, as yet, to Ceylon.
+
+"In the _Curculionidæ_ the single species of _Apion_ will recall to mind
+the great abundance of that genus in North Europe.
+
+"The _Prionidæ_ and the two following families have been investigated by
+Mr. Pascoe, and the _Hispidæ_, with the five following families, by Mr.
+Baly; these two gentlemen are well acquainted with the above tribes of
+beetles, and kindly supplied me with the names of the Ceylon species.
+
+
+
+Order ORTHOPTERA.
+
+"These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. The _Physapoda_,
+which will probably be soon incorporated with them, are likely to be
+numerous, though only one species has as yet been noticed.
+
+
+
+Order NEUROPTERA.
+
+"The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue published by
+Dr. Hagen, and containing descriptions of the species named by him or by
+M. Nietner. They were found in the most elevated parts of the island,
+near Rangbodde, and Dr. Hagen informs me that not less than 500 species
+have been noticed in Ceylon, but that they are not yet recorded, with
+the exception of the species here enumerated. It has been remarked that
+the _Trichoptera_ and other aquatic _Neuroptera_ are less local than the
+land species, owing to the more equable temperature of the habitation of
+their larvæ, and on account of their being often conveyed along the
+whole length of rivers. The species of _Psocus_ in the list are far more
+numerous than those yet observed in any other country, with the
+exception of Europe.
+
+
+
+Order HYMENOPTERA.
+
+"In this order the _Formicidæ_ and the _Poneridæ_ are very numerous, as
+they are in other damp and woody tropical countries. Seventy species of
+ants have been observed, but as yet few of them have been named. The
+various other families of aculeate _Hymenoptera_ are doubtless more
+abundant than the species recorded indicate, and it may be safely
+reckoned that the parasitic _Hymenoptera_ in Ceylon far exceed one
+thousand species in number, though they are yet only known by means of
+about two dozen kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites.
+
+
+
+Order LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+"The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order than in any
+other of the insect tribes, but as yet the _Lepidoptera_ alone in their
+class afford materials for a comparison of the productions of Ceylon
+with those of Hindustan and of Australasia; nine hundred and thirty-two
+species have been collected by Dr. Templeton and by Mr. Layard in the
+central, western, and northern parts of the island. All the families,
+from the _Papilionidæ_ to the _Tineidæ_, abound, and numerous species
+and several genera appear, as yet, to be peculiar to the island. As
+Ceylon is situate at the entrance to the eastern regions, the list in
+this volume will suitably precede the descriptive catalogues of the
+heterocerous _Lepidoptera_ of Hindustan, Java, Borneo, and of other
+parts of Australasia, which are being prepared for publication. In some
+of the heterocerous families several species are common to Ceylon and to
+Australasia, and in various cases the faunas of Ceylon and of
+Australasia seem to be more similar than those of Ceylon and of
+Hindustan. The long intercourse between those two regions may have been
+the means of conveying some species from one to the other. Among the
+_Pyralites, Hymenia recurvalis_ inhabits also the West Indies, South
+America, West Africa, Hindustan, China, Australasia, Australia, and New
+Zealand; and its food-plant is probably some vegetable which is
+cultivated in all those regions; so also _Desmia afflictalis_ is found
+in Sierra Leone, Abyssinia, Ceylon, and China.
+
+
+
+Order DIPTERA.
+
+"About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but most of those
+here recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at Kandy, and have a great
+likeness to North European species. The mosquitoes are very annoying on
+account of their numbers, as might be expected from the moisture and
+heat of the climate. _Culex laniger_ is the coast species, and the other
+kinds here mentioned are from Kandy. Humboldt observed that in some
+parts of South America each stream had its peculiar mosquitoes, and it
+yet remains to be seen whether the gnats in Ceylon are also thus
+restricted in their habitation. The genera _Sciara, Cecidomyia_, and
+_Simulium_, which abound so exceedingly in temperate countries, have
+each one representative species in the collection made by Mr. Thwaites.
+Thus an almost new field remains for the Entomologist in the study of
+the yet unknown Singhalese Diptera, which must be very numerous.
+
+
+Order HEMIPTERA.
+
+"The species of this order in the list are too few and too similar to
+those of Hindustan to need any particular mention. _Lecanium coffeæ_ may
+be noticed, on account of its infesting the coffee plant, as its name
+indicates, and the ravages of other species of the genus will be
+remembered, from the fact that one of them, in other regions, has put a
+stop to the cultivation of the orange as an article of commerce.
+
+
+"In conclusion, it may be observed that the species of insects in Ceylon
+may be estimated as exceeding 10,000 in number, of which about 2000 are
+enumerated in this volume.
+
+
+Class ARACHNIDA.
+
+"Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens cannot be
+satisfactorily described; one _Ixodes_ and one _Chelifer_ have been
+forwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr. Thwaites."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE.--The asterisk prefixed denotes the species discovered in Ceylon
+since Sir J.E. Tennent's departure from the Island in 1849.
+
+
+Order COLEOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. CICINDELIDÆ, _Steph._
+
+Cicindela, _Linn._
+  flavopunctata, _Aud._
+  discrepans, _Wlk._
+  aurofasciaca, _Guér._
+  quadrilineata, _Fabr._
+  biramosa, _Fabr._
+  catena, _Fabr._
+  *insignificans, _Dohrn._
+
+Tricondyla, _Latr._
+  femorata, _Wlk._
+  *tumidula, _Wlk._
+  *scitiscabra, _Wlk._
+  *concinna, _Dohrn._
+
+Fam. CARABIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Casnonia, _Latr._
+  *punctata, _Niet._
+  *pilifera, _Niet._
+
+Ophionea, _Klug._
+  *cyanocephala, _Fabr._
+
+Euplynes, _Niet._
+  Dohrni, _Niet._
+
+Heteroglossa, _Niet._
+  *elegans, _Niet._
+  *ruficollis, _Niet._
+  *bimaculata, _Niet._
+
+Zuphium, _Latr._
+  *pubescens, _Niet._
+
+Pheropsophos, _Solier._
+  Cateisei, _Dej._
+  bimaculatus, _Fabr._
+
+Cymindis, _Latr_
+  rufiventris, _Wlk._
+
+Anchisia, _Niet._
+  *modesta, _Niet._
+
+Dromius, _Bon._
+  marginiter, _Wlk._
+  repandens, _Wlk._
+
+Lebia, _Latr._
+  *bipars, _Wlk,_
+
+Creagris, _Niet._
+  labrosa, _Niet._
+
+Elliotia, _Niet._
+  paltipes, _Niet._
+
+Maraga, _Wlk._
+  planigera, _Wlk._
+
+Catascopus, _Kirby._
+  facialis, _Wied._
+  reductus, _Wlk._
+
+Scarites, _Fabr._
+  obliterans, _Wlk._
+  subsignans, _Wlk._
+  designans, _Wlk._
+  *minor, _Wlk._
+
+Clivina, _Latr._
+  *rugosifrons, _Niet._
+  *elongatula, _Niet._
+  *maculata, _Niet._
+  recta, _Wlk._
+
+Leistus, _Fræhl._
+  linearis, _Wlk._
+
+Isotarsus, _Laferlé_
+  quadrimaculatus, _Oliv._
+
+Panagæus, _Latr._
+  retractus, _Wlk._
+
+Chlænius, _Bon._
+  bimaculatus, _Dej._
+  diffinis, _Reiche._
+  *Ceylanicus, _Niet._
+  *quinque-maculatus, _Niet._
+  pulcher, _Niet._
+  cupricollis, _Niet._
+  ruginosus, _Niet._
+
+Anchomenus, _Bon._
+  illocatus, _Wlk._
+
+Agonum, _Bon._
+  placidulum, _Wlk._
+
+Corpodes?, _Macl._
+  marginicallis, _Wlk._
+
+Argutor, _Meg._
+  degener, _Wlk._
+  relinquens, _Wlk._
+
+Simphyus, _Niet._
+  *unicolor, _Niet._
+
+Bradytus, _Steph._
+  stolidus, _Wlk._
+ Curtonotus, _Wlk._
+
+Harpalus, _Latr._
+  *advolans, _Niet._
+  dispellens, _Wlk._
+
+Calodromus, _Niet._
+  *exornatus, _Niet._
+
+Megaristerus, _Niet._
+  *mandibularis, _Niet._
+  *stenolophoides, _Niet._
+  *Indicus, _Niet._
+
+Platysma, _Bon._
+  retinens, _Wlk._
+
+Morio, _Latr._
+  trogositoides, _Wlk._
+  cucujoides, _Wlk._
+
+Barysomus, _Dej._
+  *Gyllenhalii, _Dej._
+
+Oodes, _Bon._
+  *piceus, _Niet._
+
+Selenophorus, _Dej._
+  inuxus, _Wlk._
+
+Orthogonius, _Dej._
+  femoratus, _Dej._
+
+Helluodes, _Westw._
+  Taprobanæ, _Westw._
+
+Physocrotaphus, _Parry._
+  Ceylonicus, _Parry._
+  *minax, _West._
+
+Physodera, _Esch._
+  Eschscholtzii, _Parry._
+
+Omphra, _Latr._
+  *ovipennis, _Reiche._
+
+Planetes, _Macl._
+  bimaculatus, _Macleay._
+
+Cardiaderus, _Dej._
+  scitus, _Wlk._
+
+Distrigus, _Dej._
+  *costatus, _Niet._
+  *submetallicus, _Niet._
+  rufopiceus, _Niet._
+  *æneus, _Niet._
+  *Dejeani, _Niet._
+
+Drimostoma, _Dej._
+  *Ceylanicum, _Niet._
+  *marginale, _Wlk_.
+
+Cyclosomus, _Latr_.
+  flexuosus, _Fabr_.
+
+Ochthephilus, _Niet_.
+  *Ceylanicus, _Niet_.
+
+Spathinus, _Niet_.
+  *nigriceps, _Niet_.
+
+Acuparpus, _Latr_.
+  derogatus, _Wlk_.
+  extremus, _Wlk_.
+
+Bembidium, _Latr_.
+  finitimum, _Wlk_.
+  *opulentum, _Niet_.
+  *truncatum, _Niet_.
+  *tropicum, _Niet_.
+  *triangulare, _Niet_.
+  *Ceylanicum, _Niet_.
+  Klugii, _Niet_.
+  *ebeninum, _Niet_.
+  *orientale, _Niet_.
+  *emarginatum, _Niet_.
+  *ornatum, _Niet_.
+  *scydmænoides, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PAUSSIDÆ, _Westw_.
+
+Cerapterus, _Swed_.
+  latipes, _Swed_.
+
+Pleuropterus, _West_.
+  Westermanni, _West_.
+
+Paussus, _Linn._
+  pacificus, _West_.
+
+Fam. DYTISCIDÆ, _Macl_.
+
+Cybister, _Curt_.
+  limbatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Dytiscus, _Linn._
+  extenuans, _Wlk_.
+
+Eunectes, _Erich_.
+  griseus, _Fabr_.
+
+Hydaticus, _Leach_.
+  festivus, _Ill_.
+  vittatus, _Fabr_.
+  dislocans, _Wlk_.
+  fractifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Colymbetes, _Clairv_.
+  interclusus, _Wlk_.
+
+Hydroporus, _Clairv_.
+  interpulsus, _Wlk_.
+  intermixtus, _Wlk_.
+  lætabilis, _Wlk_.
+  *inefficiens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GYRINIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Dineutes, _Macl_.
+  spinosus, _Fabr_.
+
+Porrorhynchus, _Lap_.
+  indicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Gyretes, _Brullé_.
+  discifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Gyrinus, _Linn._
+  nitidulus, _Fabr_.
+  obliquus, _Wlk_.
+
+Orectochilus, _Esch_.
+  *lenocinium, _Dohrn_.
+
+Fam. STAPHILINIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Ocypus, _Kirby_.
+  longipennis, _Wlk_.
+  congruus, _Wlk_.
+  punctilinea, _Wlk_.
+  *lineatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Philonthus, _Leach_.
+  *pedestris, _Wlk_.
+
+Xantholinus, _Dahl_.
+  cinctus, _Wlk_.
+  *inclinans, _Wlk_.
+
+Sunius, _Leach_.
+  *obliquus, _Wlk_.
+
+Oedichirus, _Erich_.
+  *alatus, _Niet_.
+
+Poederus, _Fabr_.
+  alternans, _Wlk_.
+
+Stenus, _Latr_.
+  *barbatus, _Niet_.
+  *lærtoides, _Niet_.
+
+Osorius? _Leach_.
+  *compactus, _Wlk_.
+
+Prognatha, _Latr_.
+  decisi, _Wlk_.
+  *tenuis, _Wlk_.
+
+Leptochirus, _Perty_.
+  *piscinus, _Erich_.
+
+Oxytelus, _Grav_.
+  rudis, _Wlk_.
+  productus, _Wlk_.
+  *bicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Trogophloeus, _Mann_.
+  *Taprobanæ, _Wlk_.
+
+Omalium, _Grav_.
+  filiforme, _Wlk_.
+
+Aleochara, _Grav_.
+  postica, _Wlk_.
+  *translata, _Wlk_.
+  *subjecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Dinarda, _Leach_.
+  serricornis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PSELAPHIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Pselaphanax, _Wlk_.
+  setosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SCYDMÆNIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Erineus, _Wlk_.
+  monstrosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Scydmænus, _Latr_.
+  *megamelas, _Wlk_.
+  *alatus, _Niet_.
+  *femoralis, _Niet_.
+  *Ceylanicus, _Niet_.
+  *intermedius, _Niet_.
+  *pselaphoides, _Niet_.
+  *advolans, _Niet_.
+  *pubescens, _Niet_.
+  *pygmæus, _Niet_.
+  *glanduliferus, _Niet_.
+  *graminicola, _Niet_.
+  *pyriformis, _Niet_.
+  *angusticeps, _Niet_.
+  *ovatus, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PTILIADÆ, _Wo_.
+
+Trichopteryx, _Kirby_.
+  *cursitans, _Niet_.
+  *immatura, _Niet_.
+  *invisibilis, _Niet_.
+
+Ptilium, _Schüpp_.
+  *subquadratum, _Niet_.
+
+Ptenidium, _Erich_.
+  *macrocephalum, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PHALACRIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Phalacrus, _Payk_.
+  conjiciens, _Wlk_.
+  confectus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. NITUDULIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Nitidula, _Fabr_.
+  contigens, _Wlk_.
+  intendens, _Wlk_.
+  significans, _Wik_.
+  tomentifera, _Wlk_.
+  *submaculata, _Wlk_.
+  *glabricula, _Dohrn_.
+
+Nitidulopsis, _Wlk_.
+  æqualis, _Wlk_.
+
+Meligethes, _Kirby_.
+  *orientalis, _Niet_.
+  *respondens, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhizophagus, _Herbst_.
+  parallelus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. COLYDIADÆ, _Woll_.
+
+Lyctus, _Fabr_.
+  retractus, _Wlk_.
+  disputans, _Wlk_.
+
+Ditoma, _Illig_.
+  rugicollis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TROGOSITIDÆ, _Kirby_.
+
+Trogosita, _Oliv_.
+  insinuans, _Wlk_.
+  *rhyzophagoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CUCUJIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Loemophloeus, _Dej_.
+  ferrugineus, _Wlk_.
+
+Cucujus? _Fabr_.
+  *incommodus, _Wlk_.
+
+Silvanus, _Latr_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  *scuticollis, _Wlk_.
+  *Porrectus, _Wlk_.
+
+Brontes, _Fabr_.
+  *orientalis, _Dej_.
+
+Fam. LATHRIDIANÆ, _Wall_.
+
+Lathridius, _Herbst_.
+  perpusillus, _Wlk_.
+
+Corticaria, _Marsh_.
+  resecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Monotoma, _Herbst_.
+  concinnula, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DERMESTIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Dermestes, _Linn._
+  vulpinus, _Fabr_.
+
+Attagenus, _Latr_.
+  detectus, _Wlk_.
+  rufipes, _Wlk_.
+
+Trinodes, _Meg_.
+  hirtellus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BYRRHIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Inclica, _Wlk_.
+  solida, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HISTERIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Hister, _Linn._
+  Bengalensis, _Weid_.
+  encaustus, _Mars._
+  orientalis, _Payk_.
+  bipustulatus, _Fabr._
+  *mundissimus, _Wlk._
+
+Saprinus, _Erich_.
+  semipunctatus, _Fabr._
+
+Platysoma, _Leach._
+  atratum? _Erichs._
+  desmens, _Wlk._
+  restoratum, _Wlk._
+
+Dendrophilus, _Leach._
+  finitimus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. APHODIADÆ, _Macl._
+
+Aphodius, _Illig._
+  robustus, _Wlk._
+  dynastoides, _Wlk._
+  pallidicornis, _Wlk._
+  mutans, _Wlk_.
+  sequens, _Wlk._
+
+Psammodius, _Gyll._
+  inscitus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. TROGIDÆ, _Macl._
+
+Trox, _Fabr._
+  inclusus, _Wlk._
+  cornutus, _Fabr._
+
+Fam. COPRIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Ateuchus, _Weber._
+  sacer, _Linn._
+
+Gymnopleurus, _Illig_
+  smaragdifer, _Wlk._
+  Koenigii, _Fabr._
+
+Sisyphus, _Latr._
+  setosulus _Wlk._
+  subsideus, _Wlk._
+
+Orepanocerus, _Kirby._
+  Taprobanæ, _West._
+
+Cobris, _Geoffr._
+  Pirmal, _Fabr._
+  sagax, _Quens._
+  capucinus, _Fabr._
+  cribricollis, _Wlk._
+  repertus, _Wlk._
+  sodalis, _Wlk._
+  signatus, _Wlk._
+  diminutivus, _Wlk._
+
+Onthophagus, _Latr._
+  Bonassus, _Fabr._
+  cervicornis, _Fabr._
+  prolixus, _Wlk._
+  gravis, _Wlk._
+  difficilis, _Wlk._
+  lucens, _Wlk._
+  negligens, _Wlk._
+  moerens, _Wlk._
+  turbatus. _Wlk._
+
+Onitis, _Fabr._
+  Philemon, _Fabr._
+
+Fam. DYNASTIDÆ, _Macl._
+
+Oryctes, _Illig._
+  rhinoceros, _Linn._
+
+Xylotrupes, _Hope._
+  Gideon, _Linn._
+  reductus, _Wlk._
+  solidipes, _Wlk._
+
+Phileurus, _Latr._
+  detractus, _Wlk._
+
+Orphnus, _Macl._
+  detegens, _Wlk._
+  scitissimus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. GECTRUPIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Bolboceras, _Kirby_.
+  lineatus, _Westw_.
+
+Fam. MELOLONTHIDÆ, _Macl_.
+
+Melolontha, _Fabr_.
+  nummicudens, _Newm_.
+  rubiginosa, _Wlk_.
+  ferruginosa, _Wlk_.
+  seriata, _Hope_.
+  pinguis, _Wlk_.
+  setosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhizotrogus, _Latr_.
+  hirtipectus, _Wlk_.
+  æqualis, _Wlk_.
+  costatus, _Wlk_.
+  inductus, _Wlk_.
+  exactus, _Wlk_.
+  sulcifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Phyllopertha, _Kirby_.
+  transversa, _Burm_.
+
+Silphodes, _Westw_.
+  Indica, _Westw_.
+
+Trigonostoma, _Dej_.
+  assimile, _Hope_.
+  compressum? _Weid_.
+  nanum, _Wlk_.
+
+Serica, _Macl_.
+  pruinosa, _Hope_.
+
+Popilia, _Leach_.
+  marginicollis, _Newm_.
+  cyanella, _Hope_.
+  discalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Scricesthis, _Dej_.
+  rotundata, _Wlk_.
+  subsignata, _Wlk_.
+  mollis, _Wlk_.
+  confirmata, _Wlk_.
+
+Plectris, _Lep. & Serv_.
+  solida, _Wlk_.
+  punctigera, _Wlk_.
+  glabsilinea, _Wlk_.
+
+Isonychus, _Mann_.
+  ventralis, _Wlk_.
+  pectoralis, _Wlk_.
+
+Omaloplia, _Meg_.
+  fracta, _Wlk_.
+  interrupta, _Wlk_.
+  semicincta, _Wlk_.
+  *hamifera, _Wlk_.
+  *picta, _Dohrn_.
+  *nana, _Dohrn_.
+
+Apogenia, _Kirby_.
+  nigricans, _Hope_.
+
+Phytalos _Erich_.
+  eurystomus, _Burm_.
+
+Ancylon cha. _Dej_.
+  Reynaudii, _Blanch_.
+
+Leucopholis, _Dej_.
+  Mellei, _Guer_.
+  pinguis, _Burm_.
+
+Anomala, _Meg_.
+  elata, _Fabr_.
+  humeralis, _Wlk_.
+  discalis, _Wlk_.
+  varicolor, _Sch_.
+  conformis, _Wlk_.
+  similis, _Hope_.
+  punctatissima, _Wlk_.
+  infixa, _Wlk_.
+
+Mimela, _Kirby_.
+  variegata, _Wlk_.
+  mundissima, _Wlk_.
+
+Parastasia, _Westw_.
+  rufopic a. _Westw_.
+
+Euchlora, _Macl_.
+  viridis, _Fabr_.
+  perplexa, _Hope_.
+
+Fam. CETONIADÆ, _Kirby_.
+
+Glycyphana, _Burm_.
+  versicolor, _Fabr_.
+  luctuosa, _Gory_.
+  variegata, _Fabr_.
+  marginicollis, _Gory_.
+
+Clinteria, _Burm_.
+  imperalis, _Schaum_.
+  incerta, _Parry_.
+  chloronota, _Blanch_.
+
+Tæniodera, _Burm_.
+  Malabariensis, _Gory_.
+  quadrivittata, _White_.
+  alboguttata, _Vigors_.
+
+Protætia, _Burm_.
+  maculata, _Fabr_.
+  Whitehousii, _Parry_.
+
+Agestrata, _Erich_.
+  nigrita, _Fabr_.
+  orichalcea, _Linn._
+
+Coryphocera, _Burm_.
+  elegans, _Fabr_.
+
+Nacronota, _Hoffm_.
+  quadrivittata, _Sch_.
+
+Fam. TRICHIADÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Valgus, _Scriba_.
+  addendus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LUCANIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Odontolabis, _Burm_.
+  Bengalensis, _Parry_.
+  emarginatus, _Dej_.
+
+Ægus, _Macl_.
+  acuminatus, _Fabr_.
+  lunatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Singuala, _Blanch_.
+  tenella, _Blanch_.
+
+Fam. PASSALIDÆ, _Macl_.
+
+Passalus, _Fabr_.
+  transversus, _Dohrn_.
+  interstitialis, _Perch_.
+  punctiger? _Lefeb_.
+  bicolor, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. SPHÆRIDIADÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Sphæridium, _Fabr_.
+  tricolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Cercyon, _Leach_.
+  *vicinale, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. HYDROPHILIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Hydrous, _Leach_.
+  *rufiventris, _Niet_.
+  *inconspicuus, _Niet._
+
+Hydrobius, _Leach._
+  stultus, _Wlk._
+
+Philydrus, _Solier._
+  esurieus, _Wlk._
+
+Berosus, _Leach._
+  *decrescens, _Wlk._
+
+Hydrochus, _Germ._
+  *lacustris, _Niet._
+
+Georyssus, _Latr._
+  *gemma, _Niet._
+  *insularis, _Dohrn._
+
+Dastareus, _Wlk._
+  porosus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. BUPRESTIDIE, _Steph._
+
+Sternocera, _Esch._
+  chrysis, _Linn._
+  sternicornis, _Linn._
+
+Chrysochroa, _Solier._
+  ignita, _Linn._
+  Chinensis, _Lap._
+  Rajah, _Lap._
+  *cyaneocephala, _Fabr._
+
+Chyrsodema, _Lap_
+  sulcata, _Thunb._
+
+Belionota, _Esch._
+  scutellaris, _Fabr._
+  *Petiri, _Gory._
+
+Chrysobothris, _Esch._
+  suturalis, _Wlk._
+
+Agrilus, _Meg._
+  sulcicollis, _Wlk._
+  *cupreiceps, _Wlk._
+  *cupreicollis, _Wlk._
+  *armatus, _Fabr._
+
+Fam. ELATERIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Campsosternos, _Latr._
+  Templetonii, _Westw._
+  aureolus, _Hope._
+  Bohemannii, _Cand._
+  venustulus, _Cand._
+  pallidipes, _Cand._
+
+Agrypnus, _Esch._
+  fuscipes, _Fabr._
+
+Alaus, _Esch._
+  speciosus, _Linn._
+  sordidus, _Westw._
+
+Cardiophorus, _Esch._
+  humerifer, _Wlk._
+
+Corymbites, _Latr._
+  dividens, _Wlk._
+  divisa, _Wlk._
+  *bivittava, _Wlk._
+
+Lacon, _Lap._
+  *obesus, _Cand._
+
+Athous, _Esch._
+  punctosus, _Wlk._
+  inapertus, _Wlk._
+  decretus, _Wlk._
+  inefficiens, _Wlk._
+
+Ampedus, _Meg._
+  *acutifer, _Wlk._
+  *discicollis, _Wlk._
+
+Legna, _Wlk._
+  idonea, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. LAMPYRIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Lycus, _Fabr_.
+  triangularis, _Hope._
+  geminus, _Wlk._
+  astutus, _Wlk._
+  fallix, _Wlk._
+  planicornis, _Wlk._
+  melanopterus, _Wlk._
+  pubicornis, _Wlk._
+  duplex, _Wlk._
+  costifer, _Wlk._
+  revocans, _Wlk._
+  dispellens, _Wlk._
+  *pubipennis, _Wlk._
+  *humerifer, _Wlk._
+  expansicornis, _Wlk._
+  divisus, _Wlk._
+
+Dictyopterus, _Latr._
+  internexus, _Wlk._
+
+Lampyris, _Geoff._
+  tenebrosa, _Wlk._
+  diffinis, _Wlk._
+  lutescens, _Wlk._
+  *vitrifera, _Wlk._
+
+Colophotia, _Dej._
+  humeralis, _Wlk._
+  [vespertina, _Febr._
+  perplexa, _Wlk._?]
+  intricata, _Wlk._
+  extricans, _Wlk._
+  promelas, _Wlk._
+
+Harmatelia, _Wlk._
+  discalis, _Wlk_
+  bilinea, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. TELEPHORIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Telephorus, _Schäff._
+  dimidiatus, _Fabr._
+  malthinoides, _Wlk._
+
+Eugeusis, _Westw._
+  palpator, _Westw._
+  gryphus, _Hope._
+  olivaceus, _Hope._
+
+Fam. CEBRIONIDÆ, _Steph._
+
+Callirhipis, _Latr._
+  Templetonii, _Westw._
+  Championii, _Westw._
+
+Fam. MERLYRIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Malachius, _Fabr._
+  plagiatus, _Wlk._
+
+Malthinus, _Latr._
+  *forticornis, _Wlk._
+  *retractus, _Wlk._
+  fragilis, _Dohrn._
+
+Enciopus, _Steph._
+  proficiens, _Wlk._
+
+Honosca, _Wlk._
+  necrobioides, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. CLERIDÆ, _Kirby._
+
+Cylidrus, _Lap._
+  sobrinus, _Dohrn._
+
+Stigmatium, _Gray._
+  elaphroides, _Westw._
+
+Necrobia, _Latr._
+  rufipes, _Fabr._
+  aspera, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. PTINIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Ptinus, _Linn._
+  *nigerrimus, _Boield._
+
+Fam. DIAPERIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Diaperis, _Geoff._
+  velutina, _Wlk._
+  fragilis, _Dohrn._
+
+Fam. TENEBRIONIDÆ, _Leach._
+
+Zophobas, _Dej._
+  errans? _Dej._
+  clavipes, _Wlk._
+  ?solidus, _Wlk._
+
+Pseudoblaps, _Guer._
+  nigrita, _Fabr._
+
+Tenebrio, _Linn._
+  rubripes, _Hope._
+  retenta, _Wlk._
+
+Trachyscelis, _Latr._
+  brunnea, _Dohrn._
+
+Fam. OPATRIDÆ, _Shuck._
+
+Opatrum, _Fabr._
+  contrahens, _Wlk._
+  bilineatum, _Wlk._
+  planatum, _Wlk._
+  serricolle, _Wlk._
+
+Asida, _Latr._
+  horrida, _Wlk._
+
+Crypticus, _Latr._
+  detersus, _Wlk._
+  longipennis, _Wlk._
+
+Phaleria, _Latr._
+  rutipes, _Wlk._
+
+Toxicum, _Latr._
+  oppugnans, _Wlk._
+  biluna, _Wlk._
+
+Boletophagus, _Ill._
+  *inorosus, _Dohrn._
+  *exasperatus, _Dohrn._
+
+Uloma, _Meg._
+  scita, _Wlk._
+
+Alphitophagus, _Steph._
+  subFascia, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. HELOPIDÆ, _Steph._
+
+Osdara, _Wlk._
+  picipes, _Wlk._
+
+Cholipus, _Dej._
+  brevicornis, _Dej._
+  parabolicus, _Wlk._
+  læviusculus, _Wlk._
+
+Helops, _Fabr._
+  ebeninus, _Wlk._
+
+Camaria, _Lep. & Serv._
+  amethystina, _L.&S._
+
+Amarygmus, _Dalm._
+  chrysomeloides, _Dej._
+
+Fam. MELOIDÆ, _Woll._
+
+Epicanta, _Dej._
+  nigrifinis, _Wlk._
+
+Cissites, _Latr._
+  testaceus, _Febr._
+
+Mylabris, _Fabr._
+  humeralis, _Wlk._
+  alterna, _Wlk._
+  *recognita, _Wlk._
+
+Atratocerus, _Pal., Bv._
+  debilis, _Wlk._
+  reversus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. OEDEMERIDÆ, _Steph._
+
+Cistela, _Fabr_.
+  congrua, _Wlk_.
+  *falsifica, _Wlk_.
+
+Allecula, _Fabr_.
+  fusiformis, _Wlk_.
+  elegans, _Wlk_.
+  *flavifemur, _Wlk_.
+
+Sora, _Wlk_.
+  *marginata, _Wlk_.
+
+Thaceona, _Wlk_.
+  dimelas, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. MORDELLIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Acosmas, _Dej_.
+  languidus, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhipiphorus, _Fabr_.
+  *tropicus, _Niet_.
+
+Mordella, _Linn._
+  composita, _Wlk_.
+  *detectiva, _Wlk_.
+
+Myrmecolax, _Westir_.
+  *Nietneri, _Westir_.
+
+Fam. ANTHICIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Anthicus, _Payk_.
+  *quisquilairius, _Niet_.
+  *insularius, _Niet_.
+  *sticticollis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CISSIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Cis, _Latr_.
+  contendens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TOMICIDÆ, _Shuck_.
+
+Apate, _Fabr_.
+  submedia, _Wlk_.
+
+Bostrichus, _Geoff_.
+  mutuatus, _Wlk_.
+  *vertens, _Wlk_.
+  *moderatus, _Wlk_..
+  *testaceus, _Wlk_.
+  *exiguns, _Wlk_.
+
+Platypus, _Herbst_.
+  minex, _Wlk_.
+  solidus, _Wlk_.
+  *latifinis, _Wlk_.
+
+Hylurgus, _Latr_.
+  determinans, _Wlk_.
+  *concinnulus, _Wlk_.
+
+Hylesinus, _Fahr_.
+  curvifer, _Wlk_.
+  despectus, _Wlk_.
+  irresolutus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CURCULIONIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Bruchus, _Linn._
+  scutellaris, _Fabr_.
+
+Spermophagus, _Steven_.
+  convolvuli, _Thunb_.
+  figuratus, _Wlk_.
+  Cisti, _Fabr_.
+  incertus, _Wlk_.
+  decretus, _Wlk_.
+
+Dendropemon, _Schön_.
+  *melancholicus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Dendrotrogus, _Jek_.
+  Dohrnii, _Jek_.
+  discrepans, _Dohrn_.
+
+Eucorynus, _Schön_.
+  colligendus, _Wlk_.
+  colligens, _Wlk_.
+
+Basitropis, _Jek_.
+  *disconotatus, _Jek_.
+
+Litocerus, _Schön_.
+  punctulatus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Tropideres, _Sch_.
+  punctulifer, _Dohrn_.
+  tragilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cedus, _Waterh_.
+  *cancellatus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Xylinades, _Latr_.
+  sobrinulus, _Dohrn_.
+  indignus, _Wlk_.
+
+Xenocerus, _Germ_.
+  anguliterus, _Wlk_.
+  revocans, _Wlk_.
+  *anchoralis, _Dohrn_.
+
+Callistocerus, _Dohrn_.
+  *Nietneri, _Dohrn_.
+
+Anthribus, _Geoff_.
+  longicornis, _Fabr_.
+  apicalis, _Wlk_.
+  facilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Aræcerus, _Schön_.
+  coffeæ, _Fabr_.
+  *insidiosus, _Fabr_.
+  *musculus, _Dohrn_.
+  *intangens, _Wlk_.
+  *bifovea, _Wlk_.
+
+Dipieza, _Pasc_.
+  *insignis, _Dohrn_.
+
+Apolecta, _Pasc_.
+  *Nietneri, _Dohrn_.
+  *musculus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Arrhenodes, _Steven_.
+  miles, _Sch_.
+  pilicornis, _Sch_.
+  dentirosiris, _Jek_.
+  approximans, _Wlk_.
+  Veneris, _Dohrn_.
+
+Cerobates, _Schön_.
+  thrasco, _Dohrn_.
+  aciculatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ceocephalus, _Schön_.
+  cavus, _Wlk_.
+  reticulatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Nemocephalus, _Latr_.
+  sulcirostris, _De Haan_.
+  planicollis, _Wlk_.
+  spinirostris, _Wlk_.
+
+Apoderus, _Oliv_.
+  longicollis? _Fabr_.
+  Tranquebaricus, _Fabr_.
+  cygneus, _Fabr_.
+  scitulus, _Wlk_.
+  *triangularis, _Fabr_.
+  *echinatus, _Sch_.
+
+Rhynchites, _Herbst_.
+  suffundens, _Wlk_.
+  *restituens, _Wlk_.
+
+Apion, _Herbst_.
+  *Cingalense, _Wlk_.
+
+Strophosomus, _Bilbug_.
+  *suturalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Piazomias, _Schön_.
+  æqualis, _Wlk_.
+
+Astycus, _Schön_.
+  lateralis, _Fabr_.?
+  ebeninus, _Wlk_.
+  *immunis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cleonus, _Schön_.
+  inducens, _Wlk_.
+
+Myllocerus, _Schön_.
+  transmarinus, _Herbst_.?
+  spurcatus, _Wlk_.
+  *retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  *posticus, _Wlk_.
+
+Phyllobius, _Schön_.
+  *mimicus, _Wlk_.
+
+Episomus, _Schön_.
+  pauperatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Lixus, _Fabr_.
+  nebulitascia, _Wlk_.
+
+Aclees, _Schön_.
+  cribratus, _Dej_.
+
+Alcides, _Dalm_.
+  signatus, _Boh_.
+  obliquus, _Wlk_.
+  transversus, _Wlk_.
+  *clausus, _Wlk_.
+
+Acienemis, _Fairm_.
+  Ceylonicus, _Jek_.
+
+Apotomorhinus, _Schön_.
+  signatus, _Wlk_.
+  alboater, _Wlk_.
+
+Cryptorhynchus, _Illig_.
+  ineffectus, _Wlk_.
+  assimilans, _Wlk_.
+  declaratus, _Wlk_.
+  notabilis, _Wlk_.
+  vexatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Camptorhinus, _Schön_.?
+  reversus, _Wlk_.
+  *indiscretus, _Wlk_.
+
+Desmidophorus, _Chevr_.
+  hebes, _Fabr_.
+  communicans, _Wlk_.
+  strenuus, _Wlk_.
+  *discriminans, _Wlk_.
+  inexpertus, _Wlk_.
+  fasciculicollis, _Wlk_.
+
+Sipaius, _Schön_.
+  granulatus, _Fabr_.
+  porosus, _Wlk_.
+  tinctus, _Wlk_.
+
+Mecopus, _Dalm_.
+  *Waterhousei, _Dohrn_.
+
+Rhynchophorus, _Herbst_.
+  ferrugineus, _Fabr_.
+  introducens, _Wlk_.
+
+Protocerus, _Schön_.
+  molossus? _Oliv_.
+
+Sphænophorus, _Schön_.
+  glabridiscus, _Wlk_.
+  exquisitus, _Wlk_.
+  Debaani?, _Jek_.
+  cribricollis, _Wlk_.
+  ?panops, _Wlk_.
+
+Cossonus, _Clairv_.
+  *quadrimacula, _Wlk_.
+  ?hebes, _Wlk_.
+  ambiguus, _Sch_.?
+
+Scitophilus, _Schön_.
+  orizæ, _Linn._
+  disciferus, _Wlk_.
+
+Mecinus, Germ.
+  *?relictus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PRIONIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Trictenotoma, _G.R. Gray_.
+  Templetoni, _Westw_.
+
+Prionomina, _White_.
+  orientalis, _Oliv_.
+
+Acanthophorus, _Serv_.
+  serraticornis, _Oliv_.
+
+Cnemoplites, _Newm_.
+  Rhesus, _Motch_.
+
+Ægosoma, _Serv_.
+  Cingalense, _White_.
+
+Fam. CERAMBYCIDÆ, _Kirby_.
+
+Cerambyx, _Linn._
+  indutus, _Newm_.
+  vernicosus, _Pasc_.
+  consocius, _Pasc_.
+  versutus, _Pasc_.
+  nitidus, _Pasc_.
+  macilentus, _Pasc_.
+  venustus, _Pasc_.
+  torticollis, _Dohrn_.
+
+Sebasmia, _Pasc_.
+  Templetoni, _Pasc_.
+
+Callichroma, _Latr_.
+  trogoninum, _Pasc_.
+  telephoroides, _Westw_.
+
+Homalomelas, _White_.
+  gracilipes, _Parry_.
+  zonatus, _Pasc_.
+
+Colobus, _Serv_.
+  Cingalensis, _White_.
+
+Thramus, _Pasc_.
+  gibbosus, _Pasc_.
+
+Deuteromina, _Pasc_.
+  mutica, _Pasc_.
+
+Obrium, _Meg_.
+  laterale, _Pasc_.
+  moestum, _Pasc_.
+
+Psilomerus, _Blanch_.
+  macilentus, _Pasc_.
+
+Clytus, _Fabr_.
+  vicinus, _Hope_.
+  ascendens, _Pasc_.
+  Walkeri, _Pasc_.
+  annularis, _Fabr_.
+  *aurilinea, _Dohrn_.
+
+Rhaphuma, _Pasc_.
+  leucoscutellata, _Hope_.
+
+Ceresium, _Newm_.
+  cretatum, _White_.
+  Zeylanicum, _White_.
+
+Stromatium, _Serv_.
+  barbatum, _Fabr_.
+  maculatum, _White_.
+
+Hespherophanes, _Muls_.
+  simplex, _Gyll_.
+
+Fam. LAMIDIÆ, _Kirby_.
+
+Nyphona, _Muls_.
+  cylindracea, _White_.
+
+Mesosa, _Serv_.
+  columba, _Pasc_.
+
+Coptops, _Serv_.
+  bidens, _Fabr_.
+
+Xylorhiza, _Dej_.
+  adusta, _Wied_.
+
+Cacia, _Newm_.
+  triloba, _Pasc_.
+
+Batocera, _Blanch_.
+  rubus, _Fabr_.
+  ferruginea, _Blanch_.
+
+Monohammus, _Meg_.
+  tistulator, _Germ_.
+  crucifer, _Fabr_.
+  nivosus, _White_.
+  commixtus, _Pasc_.
+
+Cereposius, _Dup_.
+  patronus, _Pasc_.
+
+Pelargoderus, _Serv_.
+  tigrinus, _Chevr_.
+
+Olenocamptus, _Chevr_.
+  bilobus, _Fabr_.
+
+Praonetha, _Dej_.
+  annulata, _Chevr_.
+  posticalis, _Pasc_.
+
+Apomecyna, _Serv_.
+  histrio, _Fabr_., var.?
+
+Ropica, _Pasc_.
+  præusta, _Pasc_.
+
+Hathlia, _Serv_.
+  procera, _Pasc_.
+
+Iolea, _Pasc_.
+  proxima, _Pasc_.
+  histrio, _Pasc_.
+
+Glenea, _Newm_.
+  sulphurella, _White_.
+  commissa, _Pasc_.
+  scapitera, _Pasc_.
+  vexator, _Pasc_.
+
+Stibara, _Hope_.
+  nigricornis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. HISPIDÆ, _Kirby_.
+
+Oncocephala, _Dohrn_.
+  deltoides, _Dohrn_.
+
+Leptispa, _Baly_.
+  pygmæa, _Baly_.
+
+Amplistea, _Baly_.
+  Döhrnii, _Baly_.
+
+Estigmena, _Hope_.
+  Chinensis, _Hope_.
+
+Hispa, _Linn._
+  hystrix, _Fabr_.
+  erinacea, _Fabr_.
+  nigrina, _Dohrn_.
+  *Walkeri, _Baly_.
+
+Platypria, _Guér_.
+   echidna, _Guér_.
+
+Fam. CASSIDIDÆ, _Westw_.
+
+Episticia, _Boh_.
+  matronula, _Boh_.
+
+Hoplionota, _Hope_.
+  tetraspilota, _Baly_.
+  rubromarginata, _Boh_.
+  horrifica, _Boh_.
+
+Aspidomorpha, _Hope_.
+  St. crucis, _Fabr_.
+  miliaris, _Fabr_.
+  pallidimarginata, _Baly_.
+  dorsata, _Fabr_.
+  calligera, _Boh_.
+  micans, _Fabr_.
+
+Cassida, _Linn._
+  clathrata, _Fabr_.
+  timefacta, _Boh_.
+  farinosa, _Boh_.
+
+Laccoptera, _Boh_.
+  14-notata, _Boh_.
+
+Coptcycla, _Chevr_.
+  sex-notata, _Fabr_.
+  13-signata, _Boh_.
+  13-notata, _Boh_.
+  ornata, _Fabr_.
+  Ceylonica, _Boh_.
+  Balyi, _Boh_.
+  trivittata, _Fabr_.
+  15-punctuata, _Boh_.
+  catenata, _Dej_.
+
+Fam. SAGRIDÆ, _Kirby_.
+
+Sagra, _Fabr_.
+  nigrita, _Oliv_.
+
+Fam. DONACIDÆ, _Lacord_.
+
+Donacia, _Fabr_.
+  Delesserti, _Guér_.
+
+Coptocephala, _Chev_.
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+
+Fam. EUMOLFIDÆ, _Baly_.
+
+Corynodes, _Hope_.
+  cyaneus, _Hope_.
+  æneus, _Baly_.
+
+Glyptoscelis, _Chevr_.
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+  pyrospilotus, _Baly_.
+  micans, _Baly_.
+  cupreus, _Baly_.
+
+Eumolpus, _Fabr_.
+  lemoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CRYPTOCEPHALIDÆ, _Kirby_.
+
+Cryptocephalus, _Geoff_.
+  sex-punctatus, _Fabr_.
+  Walkeri, _Baly_.
+
+Diapromorpha, _Lac_.
+  Turcica, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. CHRYSOMELIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Chalcolampa, _Baly_.
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+
+Lina, _Meg_.
+  convexa, _Baly_.
+
+Chrysomela, _Linn._
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+
+Fam. GALERUCIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Galeruca, _Geoff_.
+  *pectinata, _Dohrn_.
+
+Graphodera, _Chevr_.
+  cyanea, _Fabr_.
+
+Monolepta, _Chevr_.
+  pulchella, _Baly_.
+
+Thyamis, _Steph_.
+  Ceylonicus, _Baly_.
+
+Fam. COCCINELLIDÆ, _Latr_.
+
+Epilachna, _Chevr_.
+  28-punctata, _Fabr_.
+  Delessortii, _Guér_.
+  pubescens, _Hope_.
+  innuba, _Oliv_.
+
+Coccinella, _Linn._
+  tricincta, _Fabr_.
+  *repanda, _Muls_.
+  tenuilinea, _Wlk_.
+  rejiciens, _Wlk_.
+  interrumpens, _Wlk_.
+  quinqueplaga, _Wlk_.
+  simplex, _Wlk_.
+  antica, _Wlk_.
+  flaviceps, _Wlk_.
+
+Neda, _Muls_.
+  tricolor, _Fabr_.
+
+Coelophora, _Muls_.
+  9-maculata, _Fabr_.?
+
+Chilocorus, _Leach_.
+  opponens, _Wlk_.
+
+Scymnus, _Kug_.
+  varibilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EROTYLIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Fatua, _Dej_.
+  Nepalensis, _Hope_.
+
+Triplax, _Payk_.
+  decorus, _Wlk_.
+
+Tritoma, _Fabr_.
+  *bilactes, _Wlk_.
+  *preposita, _Wlk_.
+
+Ischyrus, _Cherz_.
+  grandis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. ENDOMYCHIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Eugonius, _Gerst_.
+  annularis, _Gerst_.
+  lunulatus, _Gerst_.
+
+Eumorphus, _Weber_.
+  pulcripes, _Gerst_.
+  *tener, _Dohrn_.
+
+Stenotarsus, _Perty_.
+  Nietneri, _Gerst_.
+  *castaneus, _Gerst_.
+  *tormentosus, _Gerst_.
+  *vallatus, _Gerst_.
+
+Lycoperdina, _Latr_.
+  glabrata, _Wlk_.
+
+Ancylopus, _Gerst_.
+  melanocephalus, _Oliv_.
+
+Saula, _Gerst_.
+  *nigripes, _Gerst_.
+  *ferruginea, _Gerst_.
+
+Mycerina, _Gerst_.
+  castanea, _Gerst_.
+
+
+Order ORTHOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. FORFICULIDÆ, _Steph_.
+  Forficula, _Linn._
+       ------?
+
+Fam. BLATTIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Panesthia, _Serv_.
+  Javanica, _Serv_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+
+Polyxosteria, _Burm_.
+  larva.
+
+Corydia, _Serv_.
+  Petiveriana, _Linn._
+
+Fam. MANTIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Empusa, _Illig_.
+  gongylodes, _Linn._
+
+Harpax, _Serv_.
+  signiter, _Wlk_.
+
+Schizocephala, _Serv_.
+  bicornis, _Linn._
+
+Mantis, _Linn._
+  superstitiosa, _Fabr_.
+  aridifolia, _Stoll_.
+  extensicollis, ? _Serv_.
+
+Fam. PHASMIDÆ, _Serv_.
+
+Acrophylla, _Gray_.
+  systropedon, _Westw_.
+
+Phasma, _Licht_.
+  sordidium, _DeHaan_.
+
+Phyllium, _Illig_.
+ siccifolium, _Linn._
+
+Fam. GRYLLIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Acheta, _Linn._
+  bimaculata, _Deg_.
+  supplicans, _Wlk_.
+  æqualis, _Wlk_.
+  confirmata, _Wlk_.
+
+Platydactylus, _Brull_.
+  crassipes, _Wlk_.
+
+Steirodon, _Serv_.
+  lanceolatum, _Wlk_.
+
+Phyllophora, _Thunb_.
+  falsifolia, _Wlk_.
+
+Acanthodis, _Serv_.
+  rugosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Phaneroptera, _Serv_.
+  attenuata, _Wlk_.
+
+Phymateus, _Thunb_.
+  miliaris, _Linn._
+
+Truxalis, _Linn._
+  exaltata, _Wlk_.
+  porrecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Acridium, _Geoffr_.
+  extensum, _Wlk_.
+  deponens, _Wlk_.
+  rutitibia, _Wlk_.
+  cinctifemur, _Wlk_.
+  respondens, _Wlk_.
+  nigrifascia, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order PHYSAPODA, _Dum_.
+
+Thrips, _Linn._
+  stenomeras, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order NEUROPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. SERICOSTOMIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Mormonia, _Curt_.
+  *ursina, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. LEPTOCERIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Macronema, _Pict_.
+   multifarium, _Wlk_.
+  *splendidum, _Hagen_.
+  *nebulosum, _Hagen_.
+  *obliquum, _Hagen_.
+  *Ceylanicum, _Niet_.
+  *annulicorne, _Niet_.
+
+Molanna, _Curt_.
+  mixta, _Hagen_.
+
+Setodes, _Ramb_.
+  *Iris, _Hagen_.
+  *Ino, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. PSYCHOMIDÆ, _Curt_.
+
+Chimarra, _Leach_.
+  *aurieps, _Hagen_.
+  *tunesta, _Hagen_.
+  *sepulcralis, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. HYDROPSYCHIDÆ, _Curt_.
+
+Hydropsyche, _Pict_.
+  *Taprobanes, _Hagen_.
+  *mitis, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. RHYACOPHILIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Rhyacophila, _Pict_.
+  *castanea, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. PERLIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Perla, _Geoffr_.
+  angulata, _Wlk_.
+  *testacea, _Hagen_.
+  *limosa, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. SILIDÆ, _Westw_.
+
+Dilar, _Ramb_.
+  *Nietneri, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. HEMEROBIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Mantispa, _Illig_.
+  *Indica, _Westw_.
+  mutata, _Wlk_.
+
+Chrysopa, _Leach_.
+  invaria, _Wlk_.
+  *tropica, _Hagen_.
+  auritera, _Wlk_.
+  *punctata, _Hagen_.
+
+Micromerus, _Ramb_.
+  *linearis, _Hagen_.
+  *australis, _Hagen_.
+
+Hemerobius, _Linn._
+  *frontalis, _Hagen_.
+
+Coniopteryx, _Hal_.
+  *cerata, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. MYRMELEONIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Palpares, _Ramb_.
+  contrarius, _Wlk_.
+
+Acanthoclisis, _Ramb_.
+  *--n. s. _Hagen_.
+  *molestus, _Wlk_.
+
+Myrmeleon, _Linn._
+  gravis, _Wlk_.
+  nirus, _Wlk_.
+  barbarus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ascalaphus, _Fabr_.
+  nugax, _Wlk_.
+  incusans, _Wlk_.
+  *cervinus, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PSOCIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Psocus, _Latr_.
+  *Taprobanes, _Hagen_.
+  *oblitus, _Hagen_.
+  *consitus, _Hagen_.
+  *trimaculatus, _Hagen_.
+  *obtusus, _Hagen_.
+  *elongatus, _Hagen_.
+  *chloroticus, _Hagen_.
+  *aridus, _Hagen_.
+  *coleoptratus, _Hagen_.
+  *dolabratus, _Hagen_.
+  *infelix, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. TERMITIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Termes, _Linn._
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+  fatalis, _Koen_.
+  monocerous, _Koen_.
+  *umbilicatus, _Hagen_.
+  *n. s., _Jouv_.
+  *n. s., _Jouv_.
+
+Fam. EMBIDÆ, _Hagen_.
+
+Oligotoma, _Westw_.
+  *Saundersii, _Westw_.
+
+Fam. EPHEMERIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Bætis, _Leach_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Potamanthus, _Pict_.
+  *fasciatus, _Hagen_.
+  *annulatus, _Hagen_.
+  *femoralis, _Hagen_.
+
+Cloe, _Burm_.
+  *tristis, _Hagen_.
+  *consueta, _Hagen_.
+  *solida, _Hagen_.
+  *sigmata, _Hagen_.
+  *marginalis, _Hagen_.
+
+Cænis, _Steph_.
+  perpusida, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LIBELLULIDÆ.
+
+Calopteryx, _Leach_.
+  Chinensis, _Linn._
+
+Euphoea, _Selys_.
+  splendens, _Hagen_.
+
+Micromerus, _Ramb_.
+   lineatus, _Burm_.
+
+Trichoenemys, _Selys_.
+  *serapica, _Hagen_.
+
+Lestes, _Leach_.
+  *elata, _Hagen_.
+  *gracilis, _Hagen_.
+
+Agrion, _Fabr_.
+  *Coromandelianum, _F._
+  *tenax, _Hagen_.
+  *hilare, _Hagen_.
+  *velare, _Hagen_.
+  *delicatum, _Hagen_.
+
+Gynacantha, _Ramb_.
+  subinterrupta, _Ramb_.
+
+Epophthalmia, _Burm_.
+  vittata, _Burm_.
+
+Zyxomma, _Ramb_.
+  petiolatum, _Ramb_.
+
+Acisoma, _Ramb_.
+  panorpoides, _Ramb_.
+
+Libellula, _Linn._
+  Marcia, _Drury_.
+  Tillarga, _Fabr_.
+  variegata, _Linn._
+  flavescens, _Fabr_.
+  Sabina, _Drury_.
+  viridula, _Pal. Beauv_.
+  congener, _Ramb_.
+  soror, _Ramb_.
+  Aurora, _Burm_.
+  violacea, _Niet_.
+  perla, _Hagen_.
+  sanguinea, _Burm_.
+  trivialis, _Ramb_.
+  contaminata, _Fabr_.
+  equestris, _Fabr_.
+  nebulosa, _Fabr_.
+
+
+Order HYMENOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. FORMICIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Formica, _Linn._
+  smaragdina, _Fabr_.
+  mitis, _Smith_.
+  *Taprobane, _Smith_.
+  *variegata, _Smith_.
+  *exercita, _Wlk_.
+  *exundans, _Wlk_.
+  *meritans, _Wlk_.
+  *latebrosa, _Wlk_.
+  *pangens, _Wlk_.
+  *ingruens, _Wlk_.
+  *detorquens, _Wlk_.
+  *diffidens, _Wlk_.
+  *obscurans, _Wlk_.
+  *indeflexa, _Wlk_.
+  consultans, _Wlk_.
+
+Polyrhachis, _Smith_.
+  *illandatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PONERIDÆ, _Smith_.
+
+Odontomachus, _Latr_.
+  simillimus, _Smith_.
+
+Typhlopone, _Westw_.
+  Curtisii, _Shuck_.
+
+Myrmica, _Latr_.
+  basalis, _Smith_.
+  contigua, _Smith_.
+  glyciphila, _Smith_.
+  *consternens, _Wlk_.
+
+Crematogaster, _Lund_.
+  *pellens, _Wlk_.
+  *deponens, _Wlk_.
+  *forticulus, _Wlk_.
+
+Pseudomyrma, _Guré_.
+  *atrata, _Smith_.
+  allaborans, _Wlk_.
+
+Atta, _St. Farg_.
+  didita, _Wlk_.
+
+Pheidole, _Westw_.
+  Janus, _Smith_.
+  *Taprobanæ, _Smith_.
+  *rugosa, _Smith_.
+
+Meranopius, _Smith_.
+  *dimicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Cataulacus, _Smith_.
+  Taprobanæ, _Smith_.
+
+Fam. MUTILLIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Mutilla, _Linn._
+  *Sibylla, _Smith_.
+
+Tiphia, _Fabr_.
+  *decrescens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EUMENIDÆ, _Westw_.
+
+Odynerus, _Latr_.
+  *tinctipennis, _Wlk_.
+  *intendens, _Wlk_.
+  *intendens, _Wlk_.
+
+Scolia, _Fabr_.
+  auricollis, _St. Farg_.
+
+Fam. CRABRONIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Philanthus, _Fabr_.
+  basalis, _Smith_.
+
+Stigmus, _Jur_.
+  *congruus, _Wilk_.
+
+Fam. SPHEGIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Ammophila, _Kirby_.
+  atripes, _Smith_.
+
+Pelopæus, _Latr_.
+  spinolæ, _St. Farg_.
+
+Sphex, _Fabr_.
+  ferruginea, _St. Farg_.
+
+Ampulex, _Jur_.
+  compressa, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. LARRIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Larrada, _Smith_.
+  *extensa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. POMPILIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Pompilus, _Fabr_.
+  analis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. APIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Andrena, _Fabr_.
+  *exagens, _Wlk_.
+
+Nomia, _Latr_.
+  rustica, _Westw_.
+  *vincta, _Wlk_.
+
+Allodaps, _Smith_.
+  *marginata, _Smith_.
+
+Ceratina, _Latr_.
+  viridis, _Guér_.
+  picta, _Smith_.
+  *similliana, _Smith_.
+
+Coelioxys, _Latr_.
+  capitata, _Smith_.
+
+Croeisa, _Jur_.
+  *ramosa, _St. Farg_.
+
+Stelis, _Panz_.
+  carbonaria, _Smith_.
+
+Anthophora, _Latr_.
+  zonarta, _Smith_.
+
+Xylocopa, _Latr_.
+  tenuiscatia, _Westw_.
+  latipes, _Drury_.
+
+Apis, _Linn._
+  Indica, _Smith_.
+
+Trigona, _Jur_.
+  iridipennis, _Smith_.
+  *præterita, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHRYSIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Stilbum, _Spin_.
+  splendidum, _Dahl_.
+
+Fam. DORYLIDÆ, _Shuck_.
+
+Enictus, _Shuck_.
+  porizonoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ICHNEUONIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Cryptus, _Fabr_.
+  *onustus, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemiteles?, _Grav_.
+  *varius, _Wlk_.
+
+Porizon, _Fabr_.
+  *dominans, _Wlk_.
+
+Pimpla, _Fabr_.
+  albopicta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BRACONIDÆ, _Hal_.
+
+Microgaster, _Latr_.
+  *recusans, _Wlk_.
+  *significans, _Wlk_.
+  *subducens, _Wlk_.
+  *detracta, _Wlk_.
+
+Spathius, _Nees_.
+  *bisignatus, _Wlk_.
+  *signipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Heratemis, _Wlk_.
+  *tilosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Nebartha, _Wlk_.
+  *macropoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Psyttalia, _Wlk_.
+  *testacea, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHALCIDIÆ, _Spin_.
+
+Chalcis, _Fabr_.
+  *dividens, _Wlk_.
+  *pandens, _Wlk_.
+
+Halticella, _Spin_.
+  *rufimanus, _Wlk_.
+  *inticiens, _Wlk_.
+
+Dirrhinus, _Dalm_.
+  *anthracia, _Wlk_.
+
+Eurytoma, _Ill_.
+  *contraria, _Wlk_.
+  indefensa, _Wlk_.
+
+Eucharis, _Latr_.
+  *convergens, _Wlk_.
+  *deprivata, _Wlk_.
+
+Pteromalus, _Swed_.
+  *magniceps, _Wlk_.
+
+Encyrtus, _Latr_.
+  *obstructus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DIAPRIDÆ, _Hal_.
+
+Diapria, _Latr_.
+  apicalis, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order LEPIDOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. PAPILIONIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Ornithoptera, _Boisd_.
+  Darsius, _G.R. Gray_.
+
+Papilio, _Linn._
+  Diphilus, _Esp_.
+  Jophon, _G.R. Gray_.
+  Hector, _Linn._
+  Romulus, _Cram_.
+  Polymnestor, _Cram_.
+  Crino, _Fabr_.
+  Helenus, _Linn._
+  Pammon, _Linn._
+  Polytes, _Linn._
+  Erithonius, _Cram_.
+  Antipathis, _Cram_.
+  Agamemnon, _Linn._
+  Eurypilus, _Linn._
+  Bathycles, _Zinck-Som_.
+  Sarpedon, _Linn._
+  dissimilis, _Linn._
+
+Pontia, _Fabr_.
+  Nina, _Fabr_.
+
+Pleris, _Schr_.
+  Eucharis, _Drury_.
+  Coronis, _Cram_.
+  Epicharis, _Godt_.
+  Nama, _Doubl_.
+  Remba, _Moore_.
+  Mesentina, _Godt_.
+  Severina, _Cram_.
+  Namouna, _Doubl_.
+  Phryne, _Fabr_.
+  Paulina, _Godt_.
+  Thestylis, _Doubl_.
+
+Callosune, _Doubl_.
+  Eucharis, _Fabr_.
+  Danaë, _Fabr_.
+  Etrida, _Boisd_.
+
+Idmais, _Boisd_.
+  Calais, _Cram_.
+
+Thestias, _Boisd_.
+  Marianne, _Cram_.
+  Pirene, _Linn._
+
+Hebomoia, _Hübn_.
+  Glaucippe, _Linn._
+
+Eronia, _Hübn_.
+  Valeria, _Cram_.
+
+Callidryas, _Boisd_.
+  Philippina, _Boisd_.
+  Pyranthe, _Linn._
+  Hilaria, _Cram_.
+  Alcmeone, _Cram_.
+  Thisorella, _Boisd_.
+
+Terias, _Swain_.
+  Drona, _Horsf_.
+  Hecabe, _Linn._
+
+Fam. NYMPHALIDÆ, _Swain_.
+
+Euploea, _Fabr_.
+  Prothoe, _Godt_.
+  Core, _Cram_.
+  Alcathoë, _Godt_.
+
+Danais, _Latr_.
+  Chrysippus, _Linn._
+  Plexippus, _Linn._
+  Aglæ, _Cram_.
+  Melissa, _Cram_.
+  Limniacæ, _Cram_.
+  Juventa, _Cram_.
+
+Hestia, _Hübn_.
+  Jasonia, _Westw_.
+
+Telchinia, _Hübn_.
+  violæ, _Fabr_.
+
+Cethosia, _Fabr_.
+  Cyane, _Fabr_.
+
+Messarus, _Doubl_.
+  Erymanthis, _Drury_.
+
+Atella, _Doubl_.
+  Phalanta, _Drury_.
+
+Argychis, _Fabr_.
+  Niphe, _Linn._
+  Clagia, _Godt_.
+
+Ergolis, _Boisd_.
+  Taprobana, _West_.
+
+Vanessa, _Fabr_.
+  Charonia, _Drury_.
+
+Libythea, _Fabr_.
+  Medhavina, _Wlk_.
+  Pushcara, _Wlk_.
+
+Pyrameis, _Hübn_.
+  Charonia, _Drury_.
+  Cardui, _Linn._
+  Callirhoë, _Hübn_.
+
+Junonia, _Hübn_.
+  Limomas, _Linn._
+  Oenone, _Linn._
+  Orithia, _Linn._
+  Laomedia, _Linn._
+  Asterie, _Linn._
+
+Precis, _Hübn_.
+  Iphita, _Cram_.
+
+Cynthia, _Fabr_.
+  Arsinoe, _Cram_.
+
+Parthenos, _Hübn_.
+  Gambrisius, _Fabr_.
+
+Limenitis, _Fabr_.
+  Calidusa, _Moore_.
+
+Neptis, _Fabr_.
+  Heliodore, _Fabr_.
+  Columelia, _Cram_.
+  aceris, _Fabr_.
+  Jumbah, _Moore_.
+  Hordonia, _Stoll_.
+
+Diadema, _Boisd_.
+  Auge, _Cram_.
+  Bolina, _Linn._
+
+Symphædra, _Hubn_.
+  Thyelia, _Fabr_.
+
+Adolias, _Boisd_.
+  Evelina, _Stoll_.
+  Lutentina, _Fabr_.
+  Vasanta, _Moore_.
+  Garuda, _Moore_.
+
+Nymphalis, _Latr_.
+  Psaphon, _Westw_.
+  Bernardus, _Fabr_.
+  Athamas, _Cram_.
+  Fabius, _Fabr_.
+  Katlima, _Doubl_.
+  Philarchus, _Westw_.
+  Melanitis, _Fabr_.
+  Banksia, _Fabr_.
+  Leda, _Linn._
+  Casiphone, _G.R. Gray_.
+  undularis, _Boisd_.
+
+Ypththima, _Hübn_.
+  Lysandra, _Cram_.
+  Parthalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cyllo, _Boisd_.
+  Gorya, _Wlk_.
+  Cathæna, _Wlk_.
+  Embolima, _Wlk_.
+  Neilgherriensis, _Guér_.
+  Purimata, _WLk_.
+  Pushpamitra, _Wlk_.
+
+Mycalesis, _Hübn_.
+  Patnia, _Moore_.
+  *Gamaliba, _Wlk_.
+  Dosaron, _Wlk_.
+  Samba, _Moore_.
+
+Cænonympha, _Hübn_.
+  Euaspla, _Wlk_.
+
+Emesis, _Fabr_.
+  Echerius, _Stoll_.
+
+Fam. LYCÆNIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Anops, _Boisd_.
+  Bulis, _Boisd_.
+  Thetys, _Drury_.
+
+Loxura, _Horsf_.
+  Atymnus, _Cram_.
+
+Myrina, _Godt_.
+  Schumous, _Doubled_.
+  Triopas, _Cram_.
+
+Amblypodia, _Horsf_.
+  Longinus, _Fabr_.
+  Narada, _Horsf_.
+  pseudocentaurus, _Do_.
+  quercetorum, _Boisd_.
+
+Aphnæus, _Hübn_.
+  Pindarus, _Fabr_.
+  Etolus, _Cram_.
+  Hephæstos, _Doubled_.
+  Crotus, _Doubled_.
+
+Dipsas, _Doubled_.
+  chrysomallus, _Hübn_.
+  Isocrates, _Fabr_.
+
+Lycæna, _Fabr_.
+  Alexis, _Stoll_.
+  Boetica, _Linn._
+  Chejus, _Horsf_.
+  Rosimon, _Fabr_.
+  Theophrasius, _Fabr_.
+  Pluto, _Fabr_.
+  Parana, _Horsf_.
+  Nyseus, _Guér_.
+  Ethion, _Basd_.
+  Celeno, _Cram_.
+  Kandarpa, _Horsf_.
+  Elpis, _Godt_.
+  Chimonas, _Wlk_.
+  Gandara, _Wlk_.
+  Chorienis, _Wlk_.
+  Geria, _Wlk_.
+  Doanas, _Wlk_.
+  Sunya, _Wlk_.
+  Audhra, _Wlk_.
+
+Polyommatus, _Latr_.
+  Akasa, _Horsf_.
+  Puspa, _Horsf_.
+  Laius, _Cram_.
+  Ethion, _Boisd_.
+  Cataigara, _Wlk_.
+  Gorgippia, _Wlk_.
+
+Lucia, _Westw_.
+  Epius, _Westw_.
+
+Pithecops, _Horsf_.
+  Hylax, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. HESPERIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Goniloba, _Westw_.
+  Iapetus, _Cram_.
+
+Pyrgus, _Hübn_.
+  Superna, _Moore_.
+  Danna, _Moore_.
+  Genta, _Wlk_.
+  Sydrus, _Wlk_.
+
+Nisoniades, _Hübn_.
+  Diocles, _Boisd_.
+  Salsala, _Moore_.
+  Toides, _Wlk_.
+
+Pamphila, _Fabr_.
+  Angias, _Linn._
+
+Achylodes, _Hübn_.
+  Temata, _Wlk_.
+
+Hesperia, _Fabr_.
+  Indrani, _Moore_.
+  Chaya, _Moore_.
+  Cinnara, _Moore_.
+  gremius, _Latr_.
+  Ceodochates, _Wlk_.
+  Tiagara, _Wlk_.
+  Cetiaris, _Wlk_.
+  Sigala, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SPHINGIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Sesia, _Fabr_.
+  Hylas, _Linn._
+
+Macroglossa, _Ochs_.
+  Stenatarum, _Linn._
+  gyrans, _Borsd_.
+  Corythus, _Borsd_.
+  divergens, _Wlk_.
+
+Calymina, _Borsd_.
+  Panopus, _Cram_.
+
+Choerocampa, _Dup_.
+  Thyslia, _Linn._
+  Nyssus, _Drury_.
+  Clotho, _Drury_.
+  Oldenlandiæ, _Fabr_.
+  Lycetus, _Cram_.
+  Silhetensis, _Boisd_.
+
+Pergesa, _Wlk_.
+  Acteus, _Cram_.
+
+Panacia, _Wlk_.
+  vigil, _Guér_.
+
+Daphnis, _Hübn_.
+  Nern, _Linn._
+
+Zonitia, _Boisd_.
+  Morpheus, _Cram_.
+
+Macrosila, _Boisd_.
+  ordiqua, _Wlk_.
+  discistriga, _Wlk_.
+
+Sphinx, _Linn._
+  convolvuli, _Linn._
+
+Acherontia, _Ochs_.
+  Satanas, _Boisd_.
+
+Smerintinis, _Latr_.
+  Dryas, _Boisd_.
+
+Fam. CASTNIIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Eusemia, _Dalm_.
+  beliatrix, _Westw_.
+
+Ægocera, _Latr_.
+  Venuia, _Cram_.
+  bimacula, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ZYGÆNIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Syntomis, _Ochs_.
+  Schoenherri, _Boisd_.
+  Creusa, _Linn._
+  Imaoa, _Cram_.
+
+Glaucopis, _Fabr_.
+  subaurata, _Wlk_.
+
+Enchiomia, _Hübn_.
+  Polymena, _Cram_.
+  diminuta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LITHOSIIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Scaptesyle, _Wlk_.
+  bicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Nyctemera, _Hübn_.
+  lacticima, _Cram_.
+  latistriga, _Wlk_.
+  Coleta, _Cram_.
+
+Euschema, _Hübn_.
+  subrepleta, _Wlk_.
+  transversa, _Wlk_.
+  vilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Chalcosia, _Hübn_.
+  Tiberina, _Cram_.
+  venosa, _Anon_.
+
+Eterusia, _Hope_.
+  Ædea, _Linn._
+
+Trypanophora, _Koll_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Heteropan, _Wlk_.
+  scintillans, _Wlk_.
+
+Hypsa, _Hübn_.
+  plana, _Wlk_.
+  caricæ, _Fabr_.
+  ficus, _Fabr_.
+
+Vitessa, _Moor_.
+  Zeinire, _Cram_.
+
+Lithosia, _Fabr_.
+  autica, _Wlk_.
+  brevipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Setina, _Schr_.
+  semitascia, _Wlk_.
+  solita, _Wlk_.
+
+Doliche, _Wlk_.
+  hilaris, _Wlk_.
+
+Pitane, _Wlk_.
+  conserta, _Wlk_.
+
+Æmene, _Wlk_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Dirade, _Wlk_.
+  attacoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Cyllene, _Wlk_.
+  transversa, _Wlk_.
+  *spoliata, _Wlk_.
+
+Bizone, _Wlk_.
+  subornata, _Wlk_.
+  peregrina, _Wlk_.
+
+Delopeia, _Steph_.
+  pulcella, _Linn._
+  Astrea, _Drury_.
+  Argus, _Kodar_.
+
+Fam. ARCHTIIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Alope, _Wlk_.
+  ocellitera, _Wlk_.
+  Sangalida, _Cram_.
+
+Tinolius, _Wlk_.
+  eburneigutta, _Wlk_.
+
+Creatonotos, _Hübn_.
+  interrupta, _Linn._
+  emitteus, _Wlk_.
+
+Acmonia, _Wlk_.
+  Etnosioides, _Wlk_.
+
+Spilosoma, _Steph_.
+  subtascia, _Wlk_.
+
+Cycnia, _Hübn_.
+  rubida, _Wlk_.
+  sparsigutta, _Wlk_.
+
+Antheua, _Wlk_.
+  discalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Atoa, _Wlk_.
+  lactmea, _Cram_.
+  candidula, _Wlk_.
+  erisa, _Wlk_.
+
+Amerila, _Wlk_.
+  Melipithus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ammotho, _Wlk_.
+  cunionotatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LIPARIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Artaxa, _Wlk_.
+  guttata, _Wlk_.
+  *varians, _Wlk_.
+  atomaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Acyphas, _Wlk_.
+  viridescens, _Wlk_.
+
+Lacida, _Wlk_.
+  rotundata, _Wlk_.
+  antica, _Wlk_.
+  subnotata, _Wlk_.
+  complens, _Wlk_.
+  promittens, _Wlk_.
+  strigulitera, _Wlk_.
+
+Amsacta? _Wlk_.
+  tenebrosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Antipha, _Wlk_.
+  costalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Anaxila, _Wlk_.
+  norata, _Wlk_.
+
+Procodeca, _Wlk_.
+  angulifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Redoa, _Wlk_.
+  submarginata, _Wlk_.
+
+Euproctis, _Hübn_.
+  virguncula, _Wlk_.
+  bimaculata, _Wlk_.
+  lunata, _Wlk_.
+  tinctifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Cispia, _Wlk_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+
+Dasychira, _Hübn_.
+  pudibunda, _Linn._
+
+Lymantria, _Hühn_.
+  grandis, _Wlk_.
+  marginata, _Wlk_.
+
+Enome, _Wlk_.
+  ampla, _Wlk_.
+
+Dreata, _Wlk_.
+  plumipes, _Wlk_.
+  geminata, _Wlk_.
+  mutans, _Wlk_.
+  mollifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Pandala, _Wlk_.
+  dolosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Charnidas, _Wlk_.
+  junctifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PSYCHIDÆ, _Bru_.
+
+Psyche, _Schr_.
+  Doubledaii, _Westw_.
+
+Metisa, _Wlk_.
+  plana, _Wlk_.
+
+Eumeta, _Wlk_.
+  Cramerii, _Westw_.
+  Templetonii, _Westw_.
+
+Cryptothelea, _Templ_.
+  consorta, _Templ_.
+
+Fam. NOTODONTIDÆ, _St_.
+
+Cerura, _Schr_.
+  liturata, _Wlk_.
+
+Stauropus, _Germ_.
+  alternans, _Wlk_.
+
+Nioda, _Wlk_.
+  fusiformis, _Wlk_.
+  transversa, _Wlk_.
+
+Rilia, _Wlk_.
+  lanceolata, _Wlk_.
+  basivitta, _Wlk_.
+
+Ptilomacra, _Wlk_.
+  juvenis, _Wlk_.
+
+Elavia, _Wlk_.
+  metaphæa, _Wlk_.
+
+Notodonta, _Ochs_.
+  ejecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Ichthyura, _Hübn_.
+  restituens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LIMACODIDÆ, _Dup_.
+
+Scopelodes, _Westw_.
+  unicolor, _Westw_.
+
+Messata, _Wlk_.
+  rubiginosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Miresa, _Wlk_.
+  argeutifera, _Wlk_.
+  aperiens, _Wlks_.
+
+Nyssia, _Herr Sch_.
+  læta, _Westw_.
+
+Neæra, _Herr. Sch_.
+  graciosa, _Westw_.
+
+Narosa, _Wlk_.
+  conspersa, _Wlk_.
+
+Naprepa, _Wlk_.
+  varians, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DREPANULIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Oreta, _Wlk_.
+  suffusa, _Wlk_.
+  extensa, _Wlk_.
+
+Arna, _Wlk_.
+  apicaus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ganisa, _Wlk_.
+  postica, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SATURINIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Attacus, _Linn._
+  Atlas, _Linn._
+  lunula, _Anon_.
+
+Antheræa, _Hübn_.
+  Mylitta, _Drury_.
+  Assama, _Westw_.
+
+Tropæa, _Hübn_.
+  Selene, _Hübn_.
+
+Fam. BOMBYCIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Trabala, _Wlk_.
+  basalis, _Wlk_.
+  prasina, _Wlk_.
+
+Lasiocampa, _Schr_.
+  trifascia, _Wlk_.
+
+Megasoma, _Boisd_.
+  venustum, _Wlk_.
+
+Lebeda, _Wlk_.
+  repanda, _Wlk_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+  bimaculata, _Wlk_.
+  scriptiplaga, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. COSSIDÆ, _Newm_.
+
+Cossus, _Fabr_.
+  quadrinotatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Zeuzera, _Latr_.
+  leuconota, _Steph_.
+  pusilla, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HEPIALIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Phassus, _Steph_.
+  signifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CYMATOPHORIDÆ, _Herr. Sch_.
+
+Thyatira, _Ochs_.
+  repugnans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BRYOPHILIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Bryophila, _Treit_.
+  semipars, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BOMBYGOIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Diphtera, _Ochs_.
+  deceptura, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LEUCANIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Leucania, _Ochs_.
+  confusa, _Wlk_.
+  exempta, _Wlk_.
+  interens, _Wlk_.
+  collecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Brada, _Wlk_.
+  truncata, _Wlk_.
+
+Crambopsis, _Wlk_.
+  excludens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GLOTTULIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Polytela, _Guén_.
+  gloriosa, _Fabr_.
+
+Glottula, _Guén_.
+  Dominic, _Cram_.
+
+Chasmma, _Wlk_.
+  pavo, _Wlk_.
+  cygnus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. APAMIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Laphygma, _Guér_.
+  obstans, _Wlk_.
+  trajiciens, _Wlk_.
+
+Prodenia, _Guén_.
+  retina, _Friv_.
+  glaucistriga, _Wlk_.
+  apertura, _Wlk_.
+
+Calogramma, _Wlk_.
+  festiva, _Don_.
+
+Heliophobus, _Boisd_.
+  discrepans, _Wlk_.
+
+Hydræcia, _Guér_.
+  lampadifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Apamea, _Ochs_.
+  undecilia, _Wlk_.
+
+Celæna, _Steph_.
+  serva, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CARADRINIDÆ, _Guér_.
+
+Amyna, _Guér_.
+  selenampha, _Guér_.
+
+Fam. NOCTUIDÆ, _Guér_.
+
+Agrotis, _Ochs_.
+  aristifera, _Guér_.
+  congrua, _Wlk_.
+  punctipes, _Wlk_.
+  mundata, _Wlk_.
+  transducta, _Wlk_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+  plagifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HADENIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Eurois, _Hübn_.
+  auriplena, _Wlk_.
+  inclusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Epiceia, _Wlk_.
+  subsignata, _Wlk_.
+
+Hadena, _Treit_.
+  subcurva, _Wlk_.
+  postica, _Wlk_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  confundens, _Wlk_.
+  congressa, _Wlk_.
+  ruptistriga, _Wlk_.
+
+Ansa, _Wlk_.
+  filipalpis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. XYLINIDÆ, _Guén._
+
+Ragada, _Wlk_.
+  pyrorchroma, _Wlk._
+
+Cryassa, _Wlk_.
+  bifacies, _Wlk_.
+
+Egelista, _Wlk_.
+ rudivitta, _Wlk_.
+
+Xylina, _Ochs_.
+  deflexa, _Wlk_.
+  inchoans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HELIOTHIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Heliothis, _Ochs_.
+  armigera, _Hübn_.
+
+Fam. HEMEROSIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Ariola, _Wlk_.
+  coelisigna, _Wlk_.
+  dilectissima, _Wlk_.
+  saturata, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ACONTIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Xanthodes, _Guén_.
+  intersepta, _Guén_.
+
+Acontia, _Ochs_.
+  tropica, _Guén_.
+  olivacea, _Wlk_.
+  fasciculosa, _Wlk_.
+  signifera, _Wlk_.
+  turpis, _Wlk_.
+  mianöides, _Wlk_.
+  approximans, _Wlk_.
+  divulsa, _Wlk_.
+  *egens, _Wlk_.
+  plenicosta, _Wlk_.
+  determinata, _Wlk_.
+  hypætroides, _Wlk_.
+
+Chlumetia, _Wlk_.
+  multilinea, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ANTHOPILIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Micra, _Guén_.
+  destituta, _Wlk_.
+  derogata, _Wlk_.
+  simplex, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ERIOPIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Callopistria, _Hübn_.
+  exotiac, _Guén_.
+  rivularis, _Wlk_.
+  duplicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EURHIPIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Penicillaria, _Guén_.
+  nugatrix, _Guén_.
+  resoluta, _Wlk_.
+  solida, _Wlk_.
+  lodatrix, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhesala, _Wlk_.
+  imparata, _Wlk_.
+
+Eutelia, _Hübn_.
+  favillatrix, _Wlk_.
+  thermesiides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PLUSIIDÆ, _Boisd_.
+
+Abrostola, _Ochs_.
+  transfixa, _Wlk_.
+
+Plusia, _Ochs_.
+  aurilera, _Hübn_.
+  verticillata, _Guén_.
+  agramma, _Guén_.
+  obtusisigna, _Wlk_.
+  nigriluna, _Wlk_.
+  signata, _Wlk_.
+  dispellens, _Wlk_.
+  propulsa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CALPIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Calpe, _Treit_.
+  minuticornis, _Guén_.
+
+Oroesia, _Guén_.
+  emarginata, _Fabr_.
+
+Deva, _Wlk_.
+  conducens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HEMICERIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Westermannia, _Hübn_.
+  supberba, _Hübn_.
+
+Fam. HYBLÆIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Hyblæa, _Guén_.
+  Puera, _Cram_.
+  constellica, _Guén_.
+
+Nolasena, _Wlk_.
+  ferrifervens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GONOPTERIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Cosmophila, _Boisd_.
+  Indica, _Guén_.
+  xanthindvina, _Boisd_.
+
+Anomis, _Hübn_.
+  fulvida, _Guén_.
+  icomea, _Wlk_.
+
+Gonitis, _Guén_.
+  combinans, _Wlk_.
+  albitibia, _Wlk_.
+  mesogona, _Wlk_.
+  guttanivis, _Wlk_.
+  involuta, _Wlk_.
+  basalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Eporedia, _Wlk_.
+  damnipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Rusicada, _Wlk_.
+  nigritarsis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pasipeda, _Wlk_.
+  rutipalpis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TOXOCAMPIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Toxocampa, _Guén_.
+  metaspila, _Wlk_.
+  sexlinea, _Wlk_.
+  quinquelina, _Wlk_.
+
+Albonica, _Wlk_.
+  reversa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. POLYDESMIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Polydesma, _Boisd_.
+  boarmoides, _Wlk_.
+  erubescens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HOMOPTERIDÆ, _Bois_.
+
+Alamis, _Guén_.
+  spoliata, _Wlk_.
+
+Homoptera, _Boisd_.
+  basipallens, _Wlk_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  costifera, _Wlk_.
+  divisistriga, _Wlk_.
+  procumbens, _Wlk_.
+
+Diacuista, _Wlk_.
+  homopteroides, _Wlk_.
+
+Daxata, _Wlk_.
+  bijungens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYPOGRAMMIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Briarda, _Wlk_.
+  precedens, _Wlk_.
+
+Brana, _Wlk_.
+  calopasa, _Wlk_.
+
+Corsa, _Wlk_.
+  lignicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Avatha, _Wlk_.
+  includens, _Wlk_.
+
+Gadirtha, _Wlk_.
+  decrescens, _Wlk_.
+  impingens, _Wlk_.
+  spurcata, _Wlk_.
+  rectifera, _Wlk_.
+  duplicans, _Wlk_.
+  intrusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Ercheia, _Wlk_.
+  diversipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Plotheia, _Wlk_.
+  frontalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Diomea, _Wlk_.
+  rotundata, _Wlk_.
+  chloromela, _Wlk_.
+  orbicularis, _Wlk_.
+  muscosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Dinumma, _Wlk_.
+  placens, _Wlk_.
+
+Lusia, _Wlk_.
+  geometroids, _Wlk_.
+  perficita, _Wlk_.
+  replusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Abunis, _Wlk_.
+  trimesa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CATEPHIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Cocytodes, _Guén_.
+  coerula, _Guén_.
+  modesta, _Wlk_.
+
+Catephia, _Ochs_.
+  linteola, _Guén_.
+
+Anophia, _Guén_.
+  acronyctoids, _Guén_.
+
+Steiria, _Wlk_.
+  subobliqua, _Wlk_.
+  trajiciens, _Wlk_.
+
+Aucha, _Wlk_.
+  velans, _Wlk_.
+
+Ægilia, _Wlk_.
+  describens, _Wlk_.
+
+Maceda, _Wlk_.
+  mansueta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYPOCALIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Hypocala, _Guén_.
+  efflorescens, _Guén_.
+  subsatura, _Guén_.
+
+Fam. CATOCALIDÆ, _Boisd_.
+
+Blenina, _Wlk_.
+  donans, _Wlk_.
+  accipiens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. OPHIDERIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Ophideres, _Boisd_.
+  Materna, _Linn._
+  fullonica, _Linn._
+  Cajeta, _Cram_.
+  Ancilla, _Cram_.
+  Salaminia, _Cram_.
+  Hypermnestra, _Cram_.
+  multiscripta, _Wlk_.
+  bilineosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Potamophera, _Guén_.
+  Maulia, _Cram_.
+
+Lygniodes, _Guén_.
+  reducens, _Wlk_.
+  disparans, _Wlk_.
+  hypolenca, _Guén_.
+
+Fam. EREBIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Oxyodes, _Guén_.
+  Clytia, _Cram_.
+
+Fam. OMMATOPHORIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Speiredonia, _Hübn_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+
+Sericia, _Guén_.
+  atrops, _Guén_.
+  parvipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Patula, _Guén_.
+  macrops, _Linn._
+
+Argiva, _Hübn_.
+  hieroglyphica, _Drury_.
+
+Beregra, _Wlk_.
+  replenens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYPOPYRIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Spiramia, _Guén_.
+  Heliconia, _Hübn_.
+  triloba, _Guén_.
+
+Hypopyra, _Guén_.
+  vespertilio, _Fabr_.
+
+Ortospana, _Wlk_.
+  connectens, _Wlk_.
+
+Entomogramma, _Guén_.
+  fautrix, _Guén_.
+
+Fam. BENDIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Homæa, _Guén_.
+  clathrum, _Guén_.
+
+Hulodes, _Guén_.
+  caranea, _Cram_.
+  palumba, _Guén_.
+
+Fam. OPHIUSIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Sphingomorpha, _Guén_.
+  Chlorea, _Cram_.
+
+Lagoptera, _Guén_.
+  honesta, _Hübn_.
+  magica, _Hübn_.
+  dotata, _Fabr_.
+
+Ophiodes, _Guén_.
+  discriminans, _Wlk_.
+  basistigma, _Wlk_.
+
+Cerbia, _Wlk_.
+  fugitiva, _Wlk_.
+
+Ophisma, _Guén_.
+  lætabilis, _Guén_.
+  deficiens, _Wlk_.
+  gravata, _Wlk_.
+  circumferens, _Wlk_.
+  terminans, _Wlk_.
+
+Achæa, _Hübn_.
+  Melicerta, _Drury_.
+  Mezentia, _Cram_.
+  Cyllota, _Guén_.
+  Cyllaria, _Cram_.
+  fusifera, _Wlk_.
+  signivitta, _Wlk_.
+  reversa, _Wlk_.
+  combinans, _Wlk_.
+  expectans, _Wlk_.
+
+Serrodes, _Guén_.
+  campana, _Guén_.
+
+Naxia, _Guén_.
+  absentimacula, _Guén_.
+  Onelia, _Guén_.
+  calefaciens, _Wlk_.
+  calorifica, _Wlk_.
+
+Catesia, _Guén_.
+  hoemorrhoda, _Guén_.
+
+Hypætra, _Guén_.
+  trigonifera, _Wlk_.
+  curvifera, _Wlk_.
+  condita, _Wlk_.
+  complacens, _Wlk_.
+  divisa, _Wlk_.
+
+Ophiusa, _Ochs_.
+  myops, _Guén_.
+  albivitta, _Guén_.
+  Achatina, _Sulz_.
+  fulvotænia, _Guén_.
+  simillima, _Guén_.
+  festinata, _Wlk_.
+  pallidilinea, _Wlk_.
+  luteipalpis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fodina, _Guén_.
+  stola, _Guén_.
+
+Grammodes, _Guén_.
+  Ammonia, _Cram_.
+  Mygdon, _Cram_.
+  stolida, _Fabr_.
+  mundicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EUCLIDIDÆ, _Guén_.
+Trigonodes, _Guén_.
+  Hippasia, _Cram_.
+
+Fam. REMIGIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Remigia, _Guén_.
+  Archesia, _Cram_.
+  frugalis, _Fabr_.
+  pertendens, _Wlk_.
+  congregata, _Wlk_.
+  opturata, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. FOCILLIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Focilla, _Guén_.
+  submemorans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. AMPHIGANIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Lacera, _Guén_.
+  capella, _Guén_.
+
+Amphigonia, _Guén_.
+  hepatizans, _Guén_.
+
+Fam. THERMISIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Sympis, _Guén_.
+  rutibasis, _Guén_.
+
+Thermesia, _Hübn_.
+  finipalpis, _Wlk_.
+  soluta, _Wlk_.
+
+Azazia, _Wlk_.
+  rubricans, _Boisd_.
+
+Selenis, _Guén_.
+  nivisapex, _Wlk_.
+  multiguttata, _Wlk_.
+  semilux, _Wlk_.
+
+Ephyrodes, _Guén_.
+  excipiens, _Wlk_.
+  crististera, _Wlk_.
+  lineitera, _Wlk_.
+
+Capnodes, _Guén_.
+  *maculicosta, _Wlk_.
+
+Ballatha, _Wlk_.
+  atrotumens, _Wlk_.
+
+Daranissa, _Wlk_.
+  digramma, _Wlk_.
+
+Darsa, _Wlk_.
+  detectissima, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. URAPTERYDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Lagyra, _Wlk_.
+  Talaca, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ENNOMIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Hyperythra, _Guén_.
+  limbolaria, _Guén_.
+
+Orsonoba, _Wlk_.
+  Rajaca, _Wlk_.
+
+Fascelima, _Wlk_.
+  chromataria, _Wlk_.
+
+Laginia, _Wlk_.
+  bractiaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BOARMIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Amblychia, _Guén_.
+  angeronia, _Guén_.
+  poststrigaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Boarmia, _Treit_.
+  sublavaria, _Guén_.
+  admissaria, _Guén_.
+  raptaria, _Wlk_.
+  Medasina, _Wlk_.
+  Bhurmitra, _Wlk_.
+  Suiasasa, _Wlk_.
+  diffluaria, _Wlk_.
+  caritaria, _Wlk_.
+  exclusaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Hypochroma, _Guén_.
+  minimaria, _Guén_.
+
+Gnophos, _Treit_.
+  Pulinda, _Wlk_.
+  Culataria, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemerophila, _Steph_.
+  vidhisara, _Wlk_.
+
+Agathia, _Guén_.
+  blandiaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Bulonga, _Wlk_.
+  Ajaia, _Wlk_.
+  Chacoraca, _Wlk_.
+  Chandubija, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GEOMETRIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Geometra, _Linn._
+  specularia, _Guén_.
+  Nanda, _Wlk_.
+
+Nemoria, _Hubn_.
+  caudularia, _Guên_.
+  solidaria, _Guén_.
+
+Thalassodes, _Guén_.
+  quadraria, _Guén_.
+  catenaria, _Wlk_.
+  immissaria, _Wlk_.
+  Sisunaga, _Wlk_.
+  adornataria, _Wlk_.
+  meritaria, _Wlk_.
+  coelataria, _WlK_.
+  gratularia, _Wlk_.
+  chlorozonaria, _Wlk_.
+  læsaria, _Wlk_.
+  simplicaria, _Wlk_.
+  immissaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Comibæna, _Wlk_.
+  Divapala, _Wlk_.
+  impulsaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Celenna, _Wlk_.
+  saturaturia, _Wlk_.
+
+Pseudoterpna, _Wlk_.
+  Vivilaca, _Wlk_.
+
+Amaurima, _Guén_.
+  rubrolimbaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PALYADÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Eumelea, _Dunc_.
+  ludovicata, _Guén_.
+  aureliata, _Guén_.
+  *carnearia, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EPHYRIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Ephyra, _Dap_.
+  obrinaria, _Wlk_.
+  decursaria, _Wlk_.
+  Cacavena, _Wlk_.
+  abhadraca, _Wlk_.
+  Vasudeva, _Wlk_.
+  Susarmana, _Wlk_.
+  Vutumana, _Wlk_.
+  inæquata, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ACIDALIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Drapetodes, _Guén_.
+  mitaria, _Guén_.
+
+Pomasia, _Guén_.
+  Psylaria, _Guén_.
+  Sunandaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Acidaria, _Treit_.
+  obliviaria, _Wlk_.
+  adeptaria, _Wlk_.
+  nexiaria, _Wlk_.
+  addictaria, _Wlk_.
+  actiosaria, _Wlk_.
+  defamataria, _Wlk_.
+  negataria, _Wlk_.
+  actuaria, _Wlk_.
+  cæsaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Cabera, _Steph_.
+  falsaria, _Wlk_.
+  decussaria, _Wlk_.
+  famularia, _Wlk_.
+  nigrarenaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Hyria, _Steph_.
+  elataria, _Wlk_.
+  marcidaria, _Wlk_.
+  oblataria, _Wlk_.
+  grataria, _Wlk_.
+  rhodinaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Timandra, _Dup_.
+  Ajura, _Wlk_.
+  Vijura, _Wlk_.
+
+Agyris, _Guén_.
+  deharia, _Guén_.
+
+Zanclopteryx, _Herr. Sch_.
+  saponaria, _Herr. Sch_.
+
+Fam. MICRONIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Micronia, _Guén_.
+  caudata, _Fabr_.
+  aculeata, _Guén_.
+
+Fam. MACARIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Macaria, _Curt_.
+  Eleonora, _Cram_.
+  Varisara, _Wlk_.
+  Rhagivata, _Wlk_.
+  Palaca, _Wlk_.
+  honestaria, _Wlk_.
+  Sangata, _Wlk_.
+  honoraria, _Wlk_.
+  cessaria, _Wlk_.
+  subcandaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Doava, _Wlk_.
+  adjutaria, _Wlk_.
+  figuraria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LARENTIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Sauris, _Guén_.
+  hirudinata, _Guén_.
+
+Camptogramma, _Steph_.
+  baceata, _Guén_.
+
+Blemyia, _Wlk_.
+  Bataca, _Wlk_.
+  blitiaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Corenna, _Guén_.
+  Comatina, _Wlk_.
+
+Lobophora, _Curt_.
+  Salisnea, _Wlk_.
+  Ghosha, _Wlk_.
+  contributaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Mesogramma, _Steph_.
+  lactularia, _Wlk_.
+  scitaria, _WLk_.
+
+Eupithecia, _Curt_.
+  recensitaria, _Wlk_.
+  admixtaria, _Wlk_.
+  immixtaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Gathynia, _Wlk_.
+  miraria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PLATYDIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Trigonia, _Guén_.
+  Cydoniatis, _Cram_.
+
+Fam. HYPENIDÆ, _Herr_.
+
+Dichromia, _Guén_.
+  Orosialis, _Cram_.
+
+Hypena, _Schr_.
+  rhombalis, _Guén_.
+  jocosalis, _Wlk_.
+  mandatalis, _Wlk_.
+  quæsitalis, _Wlk_.
+  laceratalis, _Wlk_.
+  iconicalis, _Wlk_.
+  labatalis, _Wlk_.
+  obacerralis, _Wlk_.
+  pactalis, _Wlk_.
+  raralis, _Wlk_.
+  paritalis, _Wlk_.
+  surreptalis, _Wlk_.
+  detersalis, _Wlk_.
+  ineffectalis, _Wlk_.
+  incongrualis, _Wlk_.
+  rubripunctum, _Wlk_.
+
+Gesonia, _Wlk_.
+ *obeditalis, _Wlk_.
+  duplex, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HERMINIDÆ, _Dup_.
+
+Herminia, _Latr_.
+  Timonaris, _Wlk_.
+  diffusalis, _Wlk_.
+  interstans, _Wlk_.
+
+Adrapsa, _Wlk_.
+  ablualis, _Wlk_.
+
+Bertula, _Wlk_.
+  abjudicalis, _Wlk_.
+  raptatalis, _Wlk_.
+  contigens, _Wlk_.
+
+Bocana, _Wlk_.
+  jutalis, _Wlk_.
+  manifestalis, _Wlk_.
+  ophinsalis, _Wlk_.
+  vagalis, _Wlk_.
+  turpatalis, _Wlk_.
+  hypernalis, _Wlk_.
+  gravatalis, _Wlk_.
+  tomodalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Orthaga, _Wlk_.
+  Euadrusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Hipoepa, _Wlk_.
+  lapsalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Lamura, _Wlk_.
+  oberratans, _Wlk_.
+
+Echana, _Wlk_.
+  abavalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Dragana, _Wlk_.
+  pansalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pingrasa, _Wlk_.
+  accuralis, _Wlk_.
+
+Egnasia, _Wlk_.
+  ephiradalis, _Wlk_.
+  accingalis, _Wlk_.
+  participalis, _Wlk_.
+  usurpatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Berresa, _Wlk_.
+  natalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Imma, _Wlk_.
+  rugosalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Chusaris, _Wlk_.
+  retatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Corgatha, _Wlk_.
+  zonalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Catada, _Wlk_.
+  glomeralis, _Wlk_.
+  captiosalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PYRALADÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Pyralis, _Linn._
+  igniflualis, _Wlk_.
+  Palesalis, _Wlk_.
+  reconditalis, _Wlk_.
+  Idahalis, _Wlk_.
+  Janassalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Aglossa, _Latr_.
+  Guidusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Labanda, _Wlk_.
+  herbealis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ENNYCHIDÆ, _Dup._
+
+Pyrausta. _Schr._
+  *absistalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ASOPIDÆ, _Guén_
+
+Desmia, _Westw_.
+  afflictalis, _Guén_.
+  concisalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Ædiodes, _Guén._.
+  flavibasalis. _Guén_.
+  effertalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Samea, _Guén_.
+  gratiosalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Asopia. _Guén_.
+  vulgalis, _Guén_.
+  falsidicalis, _Wlk_.
+  abruptalis, _Wlk_.
+  latim orginalis, _Wlk_.
+  præteritalis, _Wlk_.
+  Eryxelis, _Wlk_.
+  rofidalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Agathodes, _Guén_.
+  ostentalis, _Geyer_.
+
+Leucinades, _Guén_.
+  orbonalis, _Guén_.
+
+Hymenia, _Hübn_.
+  recurvalis, _Fabr_.
+
+Agrotera, _Schr_.
+  suffusalis, _Wlk_.
+  decessalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Isopteryx, _Guén_.
+  *melaleucalis, _Wlk_.
+  *impulsalis, _Wlk_.
+  *spromelalis, _Wlk_.
+  acclaralis, _Wlk_.
+  abnegatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYDROCAMPIDÆ, _Guén_.
+Oligostigma, _Guén_.
+  obitalis, _Wlk_.
+  votalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cataclysia, _Herr Sch_.
+  diaicidalis, _Guén_.
+  bisectalis, _Wlk_.
+  blaudialis, _Wlk_.
+  elutalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SPILOMELIDÆ, _Guén_.
+Lepyrodes, _Guén_.
+  geometralis, _Guén_.
+  lepidalis, _Wlk_.
+  peritalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Phalangiodes, _Guén_.
+  Neptisalis, _Cram_.
+
+Spilomela, _Guén_.
+  meritalis, _Wlk_.
+  abdicatis, _Wlk_.
+  decussalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Nistra, _Wlk_.
+  coelatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pagyda. _Wlk_.
+  salvalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Massepha, _Wlk_.
+  absolutalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. MARGORODIDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Glyphodes, _Guén_.
+  diurnalis, _Guén_.
+  decretalis, _Guén_.
+  coesalis, _Wlk_.
+  univocalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Phakellura, _L. Guild_.
+  gazorialis, _Guén_.
+
+Margarodes, _Guén_.
+  psittæalis, _Hübn_.
+  pomonalis, _Guén_.
+  hilaralis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pygospila, _Guén_.
+  Tyresalis, _Cram_.
+
+Neurina, _Guén_.
+  Procopalis, _Cram_.
+  ignibasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Hurgia, _Wlk_.
+  detamalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Maruca, _Wlk_.
+  ruptalis, _Wlk_.
+  caritalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BOTYDÆ, _Guén_.
+
+Botys, _Latr_.
+  marginalis, _Cram_.
+  sillalis, _Guén_.
+  multilineatis, _Guén_.
+  admensalis, _Wlk_.
+  abjungalis, _Wlk_.
+  rutilalis, _Wlk_.
+  admixtalis, _Wlk_.
+  celatalis, _Wlk_.
+  deductalis, _Wlk_.
+  celsalis, _Wlk_.
+  vulsalis, _Wlk_.
+  ultimalis, _Wlk_.
+  tropicalis, _Wlk_.
+  abstrusalis, _Wlk_.
+  ruralis, _Wlk_.
+  adhoesalis, _Wlk_.
+  illisalis, _Wlk_.
+  stultalis, _Wlk_.
+  adductalis, _Wlk_.
+  histricalis, _Wlk_.
+  illectalis, _Wlk_.
+  suspictalis, _Wlk_.
+  Janassalis, _Wlk_.
+  Cynaralis, _Wlk_.
+  Dialis, _Wlk_.
+  Thaisalis, _Wlk_.
+  Dryopealis, _Wlk_.
+  Myrinalis, _Wlk_.
+  phycidalis, _Wlk_.
+  annulalis, _Wlk_.
+  brevilinealis, _Wlk_.
+  plagiatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Ebulea, _Guén_.
+  aberratalis, _Wlk_.
+  Camillalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pionea, _Guén_.
+  actualis, _Wlk_.
+  Optiletalis, _Wlk_.
+  Jubesalis, _Wlk_.
+  brevialis, _Wlk_.
+  suffusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Scopula, _Schr_.
+  revocatalis, _Wlk_.
+  turgidalis, _Wlk_.
+  volutatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Godara, _Wlk_.
+  pervasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Herculia, _Wlk_.
+  bractialis, _Wlk_.
+
+Mecyna. _Guén_.
+  deprivalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SCOPARIDÆ, _Guén_.
+Scoparia. _Haw_.
+  murificalis, _Wlk_.
+  congestalis, _Wlk_.
+  Alconalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Davana. _Wlk_.
+  Phalantalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Darsania, _Wlk_.
+  Niobesalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Dosara. _Wlk_.
+  coelatella, _Wlk_.
+  lapsalis, _Wlk_.
+  immeritalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHOREUTIDÆ, _Staint_.
+
+Niaccaba. _Wlk_.
+  sumptialis, _Wlk_.
+
+Simæthis. _Leach_.
+  Clatella, _Wlk_.
+  Damonella, _Wlk_.
+  Bathusella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PHYCIDÆ, _Staint_.
+
+Myelois, _Hübn_.
+  actiosella, _Wlk_.
+  bractiatella, _Wlk_.
+  cantella, _Wlk_.
+  adaptella, _Wlk_.
+  illusella, _Wlk_.
+  basifuscella, _Wlk_.
+  Ligeralis, _Wlk_.
+  Marsyasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Dascusa, _Wlk_.
+  Valensalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Daroma, _Wlk_.
+  Zeuxoalis, _Wlk_.
+  Epulusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Timeusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Homoesoma, _Curt_.
+  gratella, _Wlk_.
+ Getusella, _Wlk_.
+
+Nephopteryx, _Hübn_.
+  Etolusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Cyllusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Hylasalis, _Wlk_.
+  Acisalis, _Wlk_.
+  Harpaxalis, _Wlk_.
+  Æolusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Argiadesalis, _Wlk_.
+  Philiasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pempelia, _Hübn_.
+  laudatella, _Wlk_.
+
+Prionapteryx, _Steph_.
+  Lincusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pindicitora, _Wlk_.
+  Acreonalis, _Wlk_.
+  Annusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Thysbesalis, _Wlk_.
+  Linceusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Lacipea, _Wlk_.
+  muscosella, _Wlk_.
+
+Araxes, _Steph_.
+  admotella, _Wlk_.
+  decusella, _Wlk_.
+  celsella, _Wlk_.
+  admigratella, _Wlk_.
+  coesella, _Wlk_.
+  candidatella, _Wlk_.
+Catagela, _Wlk_.
+  adjurella, _Wlk_.
+  acricuella, _Wlk_.
+  lunulella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CRAMBIDÆ, _Dup_.
+
+Crambus, _Fabr_.
+  concinellus, _Wlk_.
+
+Darbhaca, _Wlk_.
+  inceptella, _Wlk_.
+
+Jartheza, _Wlk_.
+  honosella, _Wlk_.
+
+Bulina, _Wlk_.
+  solitella, _Wlk_.
+
+Bembina, _Wlk_.
+  Cyanusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Chilo, _Zinck_.
+  dodatella, _Wlk_.
+  gratiosella, _Wlk_.
+  aditella, _Wlk_.
+  blitella, _Wlk_.
+
+Dariausa, _Wlk_.
+  Eubusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Arrhade, _Wlk_.
+  Ematheonalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Darnensis, _Wlk_.
+  Strephonella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHLOEPHORIDÆ. _Staint_.
+
+Thagora, _Wlk_.
+  tigurans, _Wlk_.
+
+Earias, _Hübn_.
+  chromatana, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TORTRICIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Lozotænia, _Steph_.
+  retractana, _Wlk_.
+
+Peronea, _Curt_.
+  divisana, _Wlk_.
+
+Lithogramma, _Steph_.
+  flexilineana, _Wlk_.
+
+Dictyopteryx, _Steph_.
+  punctana, _Wlk_.
+
+Homona, _Wlk_.
+  fasciculana, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemonia, _Wlk_.
+  obiterana, _Wlk_.
+
+Achroia, _Hübn_.
+  tricingulana, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. YPONOMEUTIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Atteva, _Wlk_.
+  niveigutta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GELICHIDÆ, _Staint_.
+
+Depressaria, _Haw_.
+  obligatella, _Wlk_.
+  fimbriella, _Wlk_.
+
+Decuaria, _Wlk_.
+  mendicella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gelechia, _Hübn_.
+  nugatella, _Wlk_.
+  calatella, _Wlk_.
+  deductella, _Wlk_.
+  Perionella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gizama, _Wlk_.
+  blandiella, _Wlk_.
+
+Enisima, _Wlk_.
+  falsella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gapharia, _Wlk_.
+  recitatella, _Wlk_.
+
+Goesa. _Wlk_.
+  decusella, _Wlk_.
+
+Cimitra, _Wlk_.
+  secinsella, _Wlk_.
+
+Ficulea, _Wlk_.
+  blandinella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fresilia, _Wlk_.
+  nesciatella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gesontha, _Wlk_.
+  cantiosella, _Wlk_.
+
+Aginis, _Wlk_.
+  hilariella, _Wlk_.
+
+Cadra, _Wlk_.
+  delectella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GLYPHYPTIDÆ, _Staint_.
+
+Glyphyteryx, _Hübn_.
+  scitulella, _Wlk_.
+
+Hybele, _Wlk_.
+  mansuetella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TINEIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Tinea, _Linn._
+  tapetzella, _Linn._
+  receptella, _Wlk_.
+  pelionella, _Linn._
+  plagiferella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LYONETIDÆ, _Staint_.
+
+Cachura, _Wlk_.
+  objectella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PTEROPHORIDÆ, _Zell_.
+
+Pterophorus, _Geoffr_.
+  leucadacivius, _Wlk_.
+  oxydactylus, _Wlk_.
+  anisodactylus, _Wlk_.
+
+
+
+Order DIPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. MYCETOPHILIDÆ, _Hal_.
+
+Sciara, _Meig_.
+  *valida, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CECIDOMYZIDÆ, _Hal_.
+
+Cecidomyia, _Latr_.
+  *primaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SIMULIDÆ, _Hal_.
+
+Simulium, _Latr_.
+  *destinatum, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHIRONOMIDÆ, _Hal_.
+
+Ceratopogon, _Meig_.
+  *albocinctus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CULICIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Culex, _Linn._
+  regius, _Thwaites_.
+  fuscanns, _Wlk_.
+  circumvolans, _Wlk_.
+  contrahens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TIPULIDÆ, _Hal_.
+
+Ctenophora, _Fabr_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Gymnoplistia? _Westw_.
+  hebes, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. STRATIOMIDÆ, _Latr_.
+
+Ptilocera, _Wied_.
+  quadridentata, _Fabr_.
+  tastuosa, _Geist_.
+
+Pachygaster, _Meig_.
+  rutitarsis, _Macq_.
+
+Acanthina, _Wied_.
+  azurea, _Geist_.
+
+Fam. TABANIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Pangonia, _Latr_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Fam. ASILIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Trupanea, _Macq_.
+  Ceylanica _Macq_.
+
+Asilus, _Linn._
+  flavicornis, _Macq_.
+  Barium, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Fam. DOLICHOPIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Psilopus, _Meig_.
+  *procuratus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. MUSCIDÆ, _Latr_.
+
+Tachina? _Fabr_.
+ *tenebrosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Musca. _Linn._
+  domestica, _Linn._
+
+Dacus, _Fabr_.
+  *interclusus, _Wlk_.
+  *nigroæneus, _Wlk_.
+  *detentus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ortalis, _*Fall_.
+  *confundens, _Wlk_.
+
+Sciomyza, _Fall_.
+  eucotelus, _Wlk_.
+
+Drosophila, _*Fall_.
+  *restituens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. NYCTERIBIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Nycteribia, _Latr_.
+   ----? a species
+     parasitic on Scatophilus
+     Coromandelicus,
+     _Bligh_.
+
+
+
+Order HEMIPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. PACHYCORIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Cantuo, _Amyot & Serv_.
+  ocellatus, _Thunb_.
+
+Callidea, _Lap_.
+  superba, _Dall_.
+  Stockerus, _Linn._
+
+Fam. EURYGASTERIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Trigonosoma, _Lap_.
+  Destontainii, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. PLATASPIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Coptosoma, _Lap_.
+  laticeps, _Dall_.
+
+Fam. HALYDIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Halys, _Fabr_.
+  dentata, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. PENTATOMIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Pentatoma, _Oliv_.
+  Timorensis, _Hope_.
+  Taprobanensis, _Dall_.
+
+Catacanthus, _Spin_.
+  Incarnatus, _Drury_.
+
+Rhaphigaster, _Lap_.
+  congrua, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EDESSIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Aspongopus, _Lap_.
+  anus, _Fabr_.
+
+Tesseratoma, _Lep. & Serv_.
+  papillosa, _Drury_.
+
+Cyclopelta, _Am. & Serv_.
+  siccifolia, _Hope_.
+
+Fam. PHYLLOCEPHALIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Phyllocephala, _Lap_.
+  Ægyptiaca, _Lefeb_.
+
+Fam. MICTIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Mictis, _Leach_.
+  castanea, _Dall_.
+  valida, _Dall_.
+  punctum, _Hope_.
+
+Crinocerus, _Burm_.
+  ponderosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ANISOSCELIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Leptoscelis, _Lap_.
+  ventralis, _Dall_.
+  turpis, _Wlk_.
+  marginalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Serinetha, _Spin_.
+  Taprobanensis, _Dall_.
+  abdominalis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. ALYDIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Alydus, _Fabr_.
+  linearis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. STENOCEPHALIDÆ, _Dall_.
+
+Leptocorisa, _Latr_.
+  Chinensis, _Dall_.
+
+Fam. COREIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Rhopalus, _Schill_.
+  interruptus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LYGÆIDÆ, _Westw_.
+
+Lygæus, _Fabr_.
+  lutescens, _Wlk_.
+  figuratus, _Wlk_.
+  discifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhyparochromus, _Curt_.
+  testacelpes, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ARADIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Piestosoma, _Lap_.
+  pierpes, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TINGIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Calloniana, _Wlk_.
+  *elegans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CIMICIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Cimex, _Linn._
+  lectularius, _Linn._?
+
+Fam. REDUVIIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Pirates, _Burm_.
+  marginatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Acanthaspis, _Am. & Serv_.
+  sanguimpes, _Wlk_.
+ fulvispina, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYDROMETRIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Ptilomera, _Am. & Serv_.
+  laticanda, _Hardw_.
+
+Fam. NEPIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Belostoma, _Latr_.
+  Indicum, _St. Farg_.
+
+Nepa, _Linn._
+  minor, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. NOTONECTIDÆ, _Steph_.
+
+Notonecta, _Linn._
+  abbreviata, _Wlk_.
+  simplex, _Wlk_.
+
+Corixa, _Geoff._
+  *subjacens, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order HOMOPTERA, _Latr_.
+
+Fam. CICADIDÆ, _Westw_.
+
+Dundubia, _Am. & Serv_.
+  stipata, _Wlk_.
+  Clonia, _Wlk_.
+  Larus, _Wlk_.
+
+Cicada, _Linn._
+  limitaris, _Wlk_.
+  nubifurca, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. FULGORIDÆ, _Schaum_.
+
+Hotinus, _Am. & Serv_.
+  maculatus, _Oliv_.
+  fulvirostris, _Wlk_.
+  coccineus, _Wlk_.
+
+Pyrops, _Spin_.
+  punctata, _Oliv_.
+
+Aphæna, _Guér_.
+  sanguinalis, _Westw_.
+
+Elidiptera, _Spin_.
+  Emersoniana, _White_.
+
+Fam. CIXIIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Eurybrachys, _Guér_.
+  tomentosa, _Fabr_.
+  dilatata, _Wlk_.
+  crudelis, _Westw_.
+
+Cixius, _Latr_.
+  *nubilus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ISSIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemisphærius, _Schaum_.
+  *Schaumi, _Staf_.
+  *bipustulatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DERBIDÆ, _Schaum_.
+
+Thracia, _Westw_.
+  pterophorides, _Westw_.
+
+Derbe, _Fabr_.
+  *furcato-vittata, _Stal_.
+
+Fam. FLATTIDÆ, _Schaum_.
+
+Flatoides, _Guér_.
+  hyalinus, _Fabr_.
+  tenebrosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ricania, _Germ_.
+  Hemerobii, _Wlk_.
+
+Poeciloptera, _Latr_.
+  pulvernlenta, _Guér_.
+  stellaris, _Wlk_.
+  Tennentina, _White_.
+
+Fam. MEMBRACIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Oxyrhachis, _Germ_.
+  *indicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Centrotus, _Fabr_.
+  *reponens, _Wlk_.
+  *malleus, _Wlk_.
+  substitutus, _Wlk_.
+  *decipiens, _Wlk_.
+  *relinquens, _Wlk_.
+  *imitator, _Wlk_.
+  *repressus, _Wlk_.
+  *terminalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CERCOPIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Cercopis, _Fabr_.
+  inclusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Ptyelus, _Lep. & Serv_.
+  costalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TETTIGONIIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Tettigonia, _Latr_.
+  paulula, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SCARIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Ledra, _Fabr_.
+  rugosa, _Wlk_.
+  conica, _Wlk_.
+
+Gypona, _Germ_.
+  prasina, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. IASSIDÆ, _Wlk_.
+
+Acocephalus, _Germ_.
+  porrectus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PSYLLIDÆ, _Latr_.
+
+Psylla, _Goff_.
+  *marginalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. COCCIDÆ, _Leach_.
+
+Lecanium, _Illig_.
+  Coffeæ, _Wlk_.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XIII.
+
+ARTICULATA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Arachinida--Myriopoda--Crustacea, etc._
+
+With a few striking exceptions, the true _spiders_ of Ceylon resemble in
+oeconomy and appearance those we are accustomed to see at home;--they
+frequent the houses, the gardens, the rocks and the stems of trees, and
+along the sunny paths, where the forest meets the open country, the
+_Epeira_ and her congeners, the true net-weaving spiders, extend their
+lacework, the grace of the designs being even less attractive than the
+beauty of the creatures that elaborate them.
+
+Such of them as live in the woods select with singular sagacity the
+bridle-paths and narrow passages for expanding their nets; perceiving no
+doubt that the larger insects frequent these openings for facility of
+movement through the jungle; and that the smaller ones are carried
+towards them by currents of air. Their nets are stretched across the
+path from four to eight feet above the ground, suspended from projecting
+shoots, and attached, if possible, to thorny shrubs; and they sometimes
+exhibit the most remarkable scenes of carnage and destruction. I have
+taken down a ball as large as a man's head consisting of successive
+layers rolled together, in the heart of which was the original den of
+the family, whilst the envelope was formed, sheet after sheet, by coils
+of the old web filled with the wings and limbs of insects of all
+descriptions, from large moths and butterflies to mosquitoes and minute
+coleoptera. Each layer appeared to have been originally hung across the
+passage to intercept the expected prey; and, when it had become
+surcharged with carcases, to have been loosened, tossed over by the wind
+or its own weight, and wrapped round the nucleus in the centre, the
+spider replacing it by a fresh sheet, to be in turn detached and added
+to the mass within.
+
+[Illustration: Spider]
+
+Separated by marked peculiarities both of structure and instinct, from
+the spiders which live in the open air, and busy themselves in providing
+food during the day, the _Mygale fasciata_ is not only sluggish in its
+habits, but disgusting in its form and dimensions. Its colour is a
+gloomy brown, interrupted by irregular blotches and faint bands (whence
+its trivial name); it is sparingly sprinkled with hairs, and its limbs,
+when expanded, stretch over an area of six to eight inches in diameter.
+It is familiar to Europeans in Ceylon, who have given it the name, and
+ascribed to it the fabulous propensities, of the Tarentula.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Species of the true _Tarentula_ are not uncommon in Ceylon;
+they are all of very small size, and perfectly harmless.]
+
+The Mygale is found abundantly in the northern and eastern parts of the
+island, and occasionally in dark unfrequented apartments in the western
+province; but its inclinations are solitary, and it shuns the busy
+traffic of towns.
+
+The largest specimens I have seen were at Gampola in the vicinity of
+Kandy, and one taken in the store-room of the rest-house there, nearly
+covered with its legs an ordinary-sized breakfast plate.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Plate opposite.]
+
+This hideous creature does not weave a broad web or spin a net like
+other spiders, but nevertheless it forms a comfortable mansion in the
+wall of a neglected building, the hollow of a tree, or under the eave of
+an overhanging stone. This it lines throughout with a tapestry of silk
+of a tubular form; and of a texture so exquisitely fine and closely
+woven, that no moisture can penetrate it. The extremity of the tube is
+carried out to the entrance, where it expands into a little platform,
+stayed by braces to the nearest objects that afford a firm hold. In
+particular situations, where the entrance is exposed to the wind, the
+mygale, on the approach of the monsoon, extends the strong tissue above
+it so as to serve as an awning to prevent the access of rain.
+
+The construction of this silken dwelling is exclusively designed for the
+domestic luxury of the spider; it serves no purpose in trapping or
+securing prey, and no external disturbance of the web tempts the
+creature to sally out to surprise an intruder, as the epeira and its
+congeners would.
+
+By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it issues at night to
+feed on larvæ and worms, devouring cockroaches and their pupæ, and
+attacking the millepeds, gryllotalpæ, and other fleshy insects.
+
+Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD has described[1] an encounter between a Mygale and a
+cockroach, which he witnessed in the madua of a temple at Alittane,
+between Anarajapoora and Dambool. When about a yard apart, each
+discerned the other and stood still, the spider with his legs slightly
+bent and his body raised, the cockroach confronting him and directing
+his antennæ with a restless undulation towards his enemy. The spider, by
+stealthy movements, approached to within a few inches and paused, both
+parties eyeing each other intently; then suddenly a rush, a scuffle, and
+both fell to the ground, when the blatta's wings closed, the spider
+seized it under the throat with his claws, and dragged it into a corner,
+when the action of his jaws was distinctly audible. Next morning Mr.
+Layard found that the soft parts of the body had been eaten, nothing but
+the head, thorax, and clytra remaining.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ May, 1853.]
+
+But, in addition to minor and ignoble prey, the Mygale rests under the
+imputation of seizing small birds and feasting on their blood. The
+author who first gave popular currency to this story was Madame MERIAN,
+a zoological artist of the last century, many of whose drawings are
+still preserved in the Museums of St. Petersburg, Holland, and England.
+In a work on the Insects of Surinam, published in 1705[1], she figured
+the _Mygale aricularia_, in the act of devouring a humming-bird. The
+accuracy of her statement has since been impugned[2] by a correspondent
+of the Zoological Society of London, on the ground that the mygale makes
+no net, but lives in recesses, to which no humming-bird would resort;
+and hence, the writer somewhat illogically declares, that he
+"disbelieves the existence of any bird-catching spider."
+
+[Footnote 1: _Dissertatio de Generatione et Metamorphosibus Insectorum
+Surinamensium_, Amst. 1701. Fol.]
+
+[Footnote 2: By Mr. MACLEAY in a paper communicated to the Zoological
+Society of London, _Proc._ 1834, p. 12.]
+
+Some years later, however, the same writer felt it incumbent on him to
+qualify this hasty conclusion[1], in consequence of having seen at
+Sydney an enormous spider, the _Epeira diadema_, in the act of sucking
+the juices of a bird (the _Zosterops dorsalis_ of Vigors and Horsfield),
+which, it had caught in the meshes of its geometrical net. This
+circumstance, however, did not in his opinion affect the case of the
+_Mygale_; and even as regards the _Epeira_, Mr. MacLeay, who witnessed
+the occurrence, was inclined to believe the instance to be accidental
+and exceptional; "an exception indeed so rare, that no other person had
+ever witnessed the fact."
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist._ for 1842, vol. viii. p.
+324.]
+
+Subsequent observation has, however, served to sustain the story of
+Madame Merian.[1] Baron Walckenær and Latreille both corroborated it by
+other authorities; and M. Moreau da Jonnès, who studied the habits of
+the Mygale in Martinique, says it hunts far and wide in search of its
+prey, conceals itself beneath leaves for the purpose of surprising them,
+and climbs the branches of trees to devour the young of the
+humming-bird, and of the _Certhia flaveola_. As to its mode of attack,
+M. Jonnès says that when it throws itself on its victim it clings to it
+by the double hooks of its tarsi, and strives to reach the back of the
+head, to insert its jaws between the skull and the vertebræ.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: See authorities quoted by Mr. SHUCKARD in the _Ann. and
+Mag. of Nat. Hist._ 1842, vol. viii. p. 436, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 2: At a meeting of the Entomological Society, July 20, 1855, a
+paper was read by Mr. H.W. BATES, who stated that in 1849 at Cameta in
+Brazil, he "was attracted by a curious movement of the large grayish
+brown Mygale on the trunk of a vast tree: it was close beneath a deep
+crevice or chink in the tree, across which this species weaves a dense
+web, at one end open for its exit and entrance. In the present instance
+the lower part of the web was broken, and two small finches were
+entangled in its folds. The finch was about the size of the common
+Siskin of Europe, and he judged the two to be male and female; one of
+them was quite dead, but secured in the broken web; the other was under
+the body of the spider, not quite dead, and was covered in parts with a
+filthy liquor or saliva exuded by the monster. "The species of spider,"
+Mr. Bates says, "I cannot name; it is wholly of a gray brown colour, and
+clothed with coarse pile." "If the Mygales," he adds, "did not prey upon
+vertebrated animals, I do not see how they could find sufficient
+subsistence."--_The Zoologist_, vol. xiii. p. 480.]
+
+For my own part, no instance came to my knowledge in Ceylon of a mygale
+attacking a bird; but PERCIVAL, who wrote his account of the island in
+1805, describes an enormous spider (possibly an Epeirid) thinly covered
+with hair which "makes webs strong enough to entangle and hold even
+small birds that form its usual food."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: PERCIVAL'S _Ceylon_, p. 313.]
+
+The fact of its living on millepeds, blattæ, and crickets, is
+universally known; and a lady who lived at Marandahn, near Colombo, told
+me that she had, on one occasion, seen a little house-lizard (_gecko_)
+seized and devoured by one of these ugly spiders.
+
+Walckenær has described a spider of large size, under the name of _Olios
+Taprobanius_, which is very common in Ceylon, and conspicuous from the
+fiery hue of the under surface, the remainder being covered with gray
+hair so short and fine that the body seems almost denuded. It spins a
+moderate-sized web, hung vertically between two sets of strong lines,
+stretched one above the other athwart the pathways. Some of the threads
+thus carried horizontally from tree to tree at a considerable height
+from the ground are so strong as to cause a painful check across the
+face when moving quickly against them; and more than once in riding I
+have had my hat lifted off my head by one of these cords.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Over the country generally are scattered species of
+_Gasteracantha_, remarkable for their firm shell-covered bodies, with
+projecting knobs arranged in pairs. In habit these anomalous-looking
+_Epeirdæ_ appear to differ in no respect from the rest of the family,
+waylaying their prey in similar situations and in the same manner.
+
+Another very singular subgenus, met with in Ceylon, is distinguished by
+the abdomen being dilated behind, and armed with two long spines,
+arching obliquely backwards. These abnormal kinds are not so handsomely
+coloured as the smaller species of typical form.]
+
+An officer in the East India Company's Service[1], in a communication to
+the Asiatic Society of Bengal, describes the gigantic web of a black and
+red spider six inches in diameter, (his description of which, both in
+colour and size, seems to point to some species closely allied to the
+_Olios Taprobanius_,) which he saw near Monghyr on the Ganges; in this
+web "a bird was entangled, and the young spiders, eight in number, and
+entirely of a brick red colour, were feeding on the carcase."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Capt. Sherwill.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, 1850, vol. xix. p. 475.]
+
+The voracious _Galeodes_ has not yet been noticed in Ceylon; but its
+carnivorous propensities are well known in those parts of Hindustan,
+where it is found, and where it lives upon crickets, coleoptera and
+other insects, as well as small lizards and birds. This "tiger of the
+insect world," as it has aptly been designated by a gentleman who was a
+witness to its ferocity[1], was seen to attack a young sparrow half
+grown, and seize it by the thigh, _which it sawed through_. The "savage
+then caught the bird by the throat, and put an end to its sufferings by
+cutting off its head." "On another occasion," says the same authority,
+"Dr. Baddeley confined one of these spiders under a glass wall-shade
+with two young musk-rats (_Sorex Indicus_), both of which it destroyed."
+It must be added, however, that neither in the instance of the bird, of
+the lizard, or the rats, did the galeodes devour its prey after killing
+it.
+
+[Footnote 1: Capt. Hutton. See a paper on the _Galeodes voræ_ in the
+_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. xi. Part 11. p. 860.]
+
+In the hills around Pusilawa, I have seen the haunts of a curious
+species of long-legged spiders[1], popularly called "harvest-men," which
+congregate in hollow trees and in holes in the banks by the roadside, in
+groups of from fifty to a hundred, that to a casual observer look like
+bunches of horse-hair. This appearance is produced by the long and
+slender legs of these creatures, which are of a shining black, whilst
+their bodies, so small as to be mere specks, are concealed beneath them.
+The same spider is found in the low country near Galle, but there it
+shows no tendency to become gregarious. Can it be that they thus
+assemble in groups in the hills for the sake of accumulated warmth at
+the cool altitude of 4000 feet?
+
+[Footnote 1: _Phalangium bisignatum_.]
+
+_Ticks_.--Ticks are to be classed among the intolerable nuisances to the
+Ceylon traveller. They live in immense numbers in the jungle[1], and
+attaching themselves to the plants by the two forelegs, lie in wait to
+catch at unwary animals as they pass. A shower of these diminutive
+vermin will sometimes drop from a branch, if unluckily shaken, and
+disperse themselves over the body, each fastening on the neck, the ears,
+and eyelids, and inserting a barbed proboscis. They burrow, with their
+heads pressed as far as practicable under the skin, causing a sensation
+of smarting, as if particles of red hot sand had been scattered over the
+flesh. If torn from their hold, the suckers remain behind and form an
+ulcer. The only safe expedient is to tolerate the agony of their
+penetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the juice of a lime can be
+applied, when these little furies drop off without further ill
+consequences. One very large species, dappled with grey, attaches itself
+to the buffaloes.
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. HOOKER, in his _Himalayan Journal_, vol. i. p. 279, in
+speaking of the multitude of those creatures in the mountains of Nepal,
+wonders what they tend to feed on, as in these humid forests in which
+they literally swarmed, there was neither pathway nor animal life. In
+Ceylon they abound everywhere in the plains on the low brush-wood; and
+in the very driest seasons they are quite as numerous as at other times.
+In the mountain zone, which is more humid, they are less prevalent. Dogs
+are tormented by them: and they display something closely allied to
+cunning in always fastening on an animal in those parts where they
+cannot be torn off by his paws; on his eye-brows, the tips of his ears,
+and the back of his neck. With a corresponding instinct I have always
+observed in the gambols of the Pariah dogs, that they invariably
+commence their attentions by mutually gnawing each other's ears and
+necks, as if in pursuit of ticks from places from which each is unable
+to expel them for himself. Horses have a similar instinct; and when they
+meet, they apply their teeth to the roots of the ears of their
+companions, to the neck and the crown of the head. The buffaloes and
+oxen are relieved of ticks by the crows which rest on their backs as
+they browse, and free them from these pests. In the low country the same
+acceptable office is performed by the "cattle-keeper heron" (_Ardea
+bubulcus_), which is "sure to be found in attendance on them while
+grazing; and the animals seem to know their benefactors, and stand
+quietly, while the birds peck their tormentors from their
+flanks."--_Mag. Nat. Hist._ p. 111, 1844.]
+
+_Mites_.--The _Trombidium tinctorum_ of Hermann is found about Aripo,
+and generally over the northern provinces,--where after a shower of rain
+or heavy night's dew, they appear in countless myriads. It is about half
+an inch long, like a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts its colouring
+matter readily to any fluid in which it may be immersed. It feeds on
+vegetable juices, and is perfectly innocuous. Its European
+representative, similarly tinted, and found in garden mould, is commonly
+called the "Little red pillion."
+
+MYRIAPODS.--The certainty with which an accidental pressure or unguarded
+touch is resented and retorted by a bite, makes the centipede, when it
+has taken up its temporary abode, within a sleeve or the fold of a
+dress, by far the most unwelcome of all the Singhalese assailants. The
+great size, too (little short of a foot in length), to which it
+sometimes attains, renders it formidable, and, apart from the
+apprehension of unpleasant consequences from a wound, one shudders at
+the bare idea of such a hideous creature crawling over the skin, beneath
+the innermost folds of one's garments.
+
+[Illustration: CERMATIA.]
+
+At the head of the _Myriapods_, and pre-eminent from a
+superiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus _Cermatia_:
+singular-looking objects; mounted upon slender legs, of gradually
+increasing length from front to rear, the hind ones in some species
+being amazingly prolonged, and all handsomely marked with brown annuli
+in concentric arches. These myriapods are harmless, excepting to
+woodlice, spiders, and young cockroaches, which form their ordinary
+prey. They are rarely to be seen; but occasionally at daybreak, after a
+more than usually abundant repast, they may be observed motionless, and
+resting with their regularly extended limbs nearly flat against the
+walls. On being disturbed they dart away with a surprising velocity, to
+conceal themselves in chinks until the return of night.
+
+But the species to be really dreaded are the true _Scolopendræ_, which
+are active and carnivorous, living in holes in old walls and other
+gloomy dens. One species[1] attains to nearly the length of a foot, with
+corresponding breadth; it is of a dark purple colour, approaching black,
+with yellowish legs and antennæ, and in its whole aspect repulsive and
+frightful. It is strong and active, and evinces an eager disposition to
+fight when molested. The _Scolopendræ_ are gifted by nature with a rigid
+coriaceous armour, which does not yield to common pressure, or even to a
+moderate blow; so that they often escape the most well-deserved and
+well-directed attempts to destroy them, seeking refuge in retreats which
+effectually conceal them from sight.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Scolopendra crassa_, Temp.]
+
+There is a smaller species[1], that frequents dwelling-houses; it is
+about one quarter the size of the preceding, and of a dirty olive
+colour, with pale ferruginous legs. It is this species that generally
+inflicts the wound, when persons complain of being bitten by a scorpion;
+and it has a mischievous propensity for insinuating itself into the
+folds of dress. The bite at first does not occasion more suffering than
+would arise from the penetration of two coarsely-pointed needles; but
+after a little time the wound swells, becomes acutely painful, and if it
+be over a bone or any other resisting part, the sensation is so
+intolerable as to produce fever. The agony subsides after a few hours'
+duration. In some cases the bite is unattended by any particular degree
+of annoyance, and in these instances it is to be supposed that the
+contents of the poison gland had become exhausted by previous efforts,
+since, if much tasked, the organ requires rest to enable it to resume
+its accustomed functions and to secrete a supply of venom.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Scolopendra pallipes_.]
+
+_The Fish-insect_.--The chief inconvenience of a residence in Ceylon,
+both on the coast and in the mountains, is the prevalence of damp, and
+the difficulty of protecting articles liable to injury from this cause.
+Books, papers, and manuscripts rapidly decay; especially during the
+south-west monsoon, when the atmosphere is saturated with moisture.
+Unless great precautions are taken, the binding fades and yields, the
+leaves grow mouldy and stained, and letter-paper, in an incredibly short
+time, becomes so spotted and spongy as to be unfit for use. After a very
+few seasons of neglect, a book falls to pieces, and its decomposition
+attracts hordes of minute insects, that swarm to assist in the work of
+destruction. The concealment of these tiny creatures during daylight
+renders it difficult to watch their proceedings, or to discriminate the
+precise species most actively engaged; but there is every reason to
+believe that the larvæ of the death-watch and numerous acari are amongst
+the most active. As nature seldom peoples a region supplied with
+abundance of suitable food, without, at the same time, taking measures
+of precaution against the disproportionate increase of individuals; so
+have these vegetable depredators been provided with foes who pursue and
+feed greedily upon them. These are of widely different genera; but
+instead of their services being gratefully recognised, they are
+popularly branded as accomplices in the work of destruction. One of
+these ill-used creatures is a tiny, tail-less scorpion (_Chelifer_[1]),
+and another is the pretty little silvery creature (_Lepisma_), called by
+Europeans the "fish-insect."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Of the first of these, three species have been noticed in
+Ceylon, all with the common characteristics of being nocturnal, very
+active, very minute, of a pale chesnut colour, and each armed with a
+crab-like claw. They are
+
+  _Chelifer Librorum_, Temp.
+  _Chelifer oblongus_, Temp.
+  _Chelifer acaroides_, Hermann.
+
+Dr. Templeton appears to have been puzzled to account for the appearance
+of the latter species in Ceylon, so far from its native country, but it
+has most certainly been introduced from Europe, in Dutch or Portuguese
+books.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Lepisma niveo-fasciata_, Templeton, and _L. niger_, Temp.
+It was called "Lepisma" by Fabricius, from its fish-like scales. It has
+six legs, filiform antenna, and the abdomen terminated by three
+elongated setæ, two of which are placed nearly at right angles to the
+central one. LINNÆUS states that the European species, with which book
+collectors are familiar, was first brought in sugar ships from America.
+Hence, possibly, these are more common in seaport towns in the South of
+England and elsewhere, and it is almost certain that, like the chelifer,
+one of the species found on book-shelves in Ceylon, has been brought
+thither from Europe.]
+
+The latter, which is a familiar genus, comprises several species, of
+which only two have as yet been described; one is of a large size, most
+graceful in its movements, and singularly beautiful in appearance, owing
+to the whiteness of the pearly scales from which its name is derived.
+These, contrasted with the dark hue of the other parts, and its
+tri-partite tail, attract the eye as the insect darts rapidly along.
+Like the chelifer, it shuns the light, hiding in chinks till sunset, but
+is actively engaged throughout the night feasting on the acari and
+soft-bodied insects which assail books and papers.
+
+_Millepeds_.--In the hot dry season, and more especially in the northern
+portions of the island, the eye is attracted along the edges of the
+sandy roads by fragments of the dislocated rings of a huge species of
+millepede[1], lying in short curved tubes, the cavity admitting the tip
+of the little finger. When perfect the creature is two-thirds of a foot
+long, of a brilliant jet black, and with above a hundred yellow legs,
+which, when moving onward, present the appearance of a series of
+undulations from rear to front, bearing the animal gently forwards. This
+_Julus_ is harmless, and may be handled with perfect impunity. Its food
+consists chiefly of fruits and the roots and stems of succulent
+vegetables, its jaws not being framed for any more formidable purpose.
+Another and a very pretty species[2], quite as black, but with a bright
+crimson band down the back, and the legs similarly tinted, is common in
+the gardens about Colombo and throughout the western province.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Julus ater_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Julus carnifex_, Fab.]
+
+CRUSTACEA.--The seas around Ceylon abound with marine articulata; but a
+knowledge of the crustacea of the island is at present a desideratum;
+and with the exception of the few commoner species that frequent the
+shores, or are offered in the markets, we are literally without
+information, excepting the little that can be gleaned from already
+published systematic works.
+
+[Illustration: CALLING CRAB OF CEYLON.]
+
+In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are exposed for sale; and
+amongst the delicacies at the tables of Europeans, curries made from
+prawns and lobsters are the triumphs of the Ceylon cuisine. Of these
+latter the fishermen sometimes exhibit specimens[1] of extraordinary
+dimensions and of a beautiful purple hue, variegated with white. Along
+the level shore north and south of Colombo, and in no less profusion
+elsewhere, the nimble little Calling Crabs[2] scamper over the moist
+sands, carrying aloft the enormous hand (sometimes larger than the rest
+of the body), which is their peculiar characteristic, and which, from
+its beckoning gesture has suggested their popular name. They hurry to
+conceal themselves in the deep retreats which they hollow out in the
+banks that border the sea.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Palinurus ornatus_, Fab. P--n. s.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Gelasimus tetragonon_? Edw.; _G. annulipes_? Edw.; _G.
+Dussumieri_? Edw.]
+
+_Sand Crabs_.--In the same localities, or a little farther inland, the
+_Ocypode_[1] burrows in the dry soil, making deep excavations, bringing
+up literally armfulls of sand; which with a spring in the air, and
+employing its other limbs, it jerks far from its burrows, distributing
+it in a circle to the distance of several feet.[2] So inconvenient are
+the operations of these industrious pests that men are kept regularly
+employed at Colombo in filling up the holes formed by them on the
+surface of the Galle face. This, the only equestrian promenade of the
+capital, is so infested by these active little creatures that accidents
+often occur through horses stumbling in their troublesome excavations.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ocypode ceratophthamus_. Pall.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ann. Nat. Hist_. April, 1852. Paper by Mr. EDGAR L.
+LAYARD.]
+
+_Painted Crabs_.--On the reef of rocks which lies to the south of the
+harbour at Colombo, the beautiful little painted crabs[1], distinguished
+by dark red markings on a yellow ground, may be seen all day long
+running nimbly in the spray, and ascending and descending in security
+the almost perpendicular sides of the rocks which are washed by the
+waves. _Paddling Crabs_[2], with the hind pair of legs terminated by
+flattened plates to assist them in swimming, are brought up in the
+fishermen's nets. _Hermit Crabs_ take possession of the deserted shells
+of the univalves, and crawl in pursuit of garbage along the moist beach.
+Prawns and shrimps furnish delicacies for the breakfast table; and the
+delicate little pea crab, _Pontonia inflata_[3], recalls its
+Mediterranean congener[4], which attracted the attention of Aristotle,
+from taking up its habitation in the shell of the living pinna.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Grapsus strigosus_, Herbst.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Neptunus pelagicus_, Linn.; _N. sanguinolentus_, Herbst,
+&c. &c.]
+
+[Footnote 3: MILNE EDW., _Hist. Nat. Crust_., vol. ii. p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Pinnotheres veterum_.]
+
+ANNELIDÆ.--The marine _Annelides_ of the island have not as yet been
+investigated; a cursory glance, however, amongst the stones, on the
+beach at Trincomalie and in the pools that afford convenient basins for
+examining them, would lead to the belief that the marine species are not
+numerous; tubicole genera, as well as some nereids, are found, but there
+seems to be little diversity, though it is not impossible that a closer
+scrutiny might be repaid by the discovery of some interesting forms.
+
+_Leeches_.--Of all the plagues which beset the traveller in the rising
+grounds of Ceylon, the most detested are the land leeches.[1] They are
+not frequent in the plains. which are too hot and dry for them; but
+amongst the rank vegetation in the lower ranges of the hill country,
+which is kept damp by frequent showers, they are found in tormenting
+profusion. They are terrestrial, never visiting ponds or streams. In
+size they are about an inch in length, and as fine as a common knitting
+needle; but they are capable of distension till they equal a quill in
+thickness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their structure is
+so flexible that they can insinuate themselves through the meshes of the
+finest stocking, not only seizing on the feet and ankles, but ascending
+to the back and throat and fastening on the tenderest parts of the body.
+In order to exclude them, the coffee planters, who live amongst these
+pests, are obliged to envelope their legs in "leech gaiters" made of
+closely woven cloth. The natives smear their bodies with oil, tobacco
+ashes, or lemon juice[2]; the latter serving not only to stop the flow
+of blood, but to expedite the healing of the wounds. In moving, the land
+leeches have the power of planting one extremity on the earth and
+raising the other perpendicularly to watch for their victim. Such is
+their vigilance and instinct, that on the approach of a passer-by to a
+spot which they infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen
+leaves on the edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for
+their attack on man and horse. On descrying their prey they advance
+rapidly by semi-circular strides, fixing one end firmly and arching the
+other forwards, till by successive advances they can lay hold of the
+traveller's foot, when they disengage themselves from the ground and
+ascend his dress in search of an aperture to enter. In these encounters
+the individuals in the rear of a party of travellers in the jungle
+invariably fare worst, as the leeches, once warned of their approach,
+congregate with singular celerity. Their size is so insignificant, and
+the wound they make is so skilfully punctured, that both are generally
+imperceptible, and the first intimation of their onslaught is the
+trickling of the blood or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins to
+hang heavily on the skin from being distended by its repast. Horses are
+driven wild by them, and stamp the ground in fury to shake them from
+their fetlocks, to which they hang in bloody tassels. The bare legs of
+the palankin bearers and coolies are a favourite resort; and, as their
+hands are too much engaged to be spared to pull them off, the leeches
+hang like bunches of grapes round their ankles; and I have seen the
+blood literally flowing over the ledge of a European's shoe from their
+innumerable bites. In healthy constitutions the wounds, if not
+irritated, generally heal, occasioning no other inconvenience than a
+slight inflammation and itching; but in those with a bad state of body,
+the punctures, if rubbed, are liable to degenerate into ulcers, which
+may lead to the loss of limb or even of life. Both Marshall and Davy
+mention, that during the march of troops in the mountains, when the
+Kandyans were in rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and especially the
+Madras sepoys, with the pioneers and coolies, suffered so severely from
+this cause that numbers perished.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Hæmadipsa Ceylanica_. Bose. Blainv. These pests are not,
+however, confined to Ceylon, they infest the lower ranges of the
+Himalaya.--HOOKER, vol. i. p. 107; vol. ii. p. 54. THUNBERG, who records
+(_Travels_, vol. iv. p. 232) having seen them in Ceylon, likewise met
+with them in the forests and slopes of Batavia. MARSDEN (_Hist_. p. 311)
+complains of them dropping on travellers in Sumatra. KNORR found them at
+Japan; and it is affirmed that they abound in islands farther to the
+eastward. M. GAY encountered them in Chili.--(MOQUIN-TANDON,
+_Hirudinées_, p. 211, 346). It is very doubtful, however, whether all
+these are to be referred to one species. M. DE BLAINVILLE, under _H.
+Ceylanica_, in the _Dict. de Scien. Nat_. vol. xlvii. p. 271, quotes M.
+Bosc as authority for the kind, which that naturalist describes being
+"rouges et tachetées;" which is scarcely applicable to the Singhalese
+species. It is more than probable therefore, considering the period at
+which M. BOSC wrote, that he obtained his information from travellers to
+the further east, and has connected with the habitat universally
+ascribed to them from old KNOX'S work (Part 1. chap. vi.) a meagre
+description, more properly belonging to the land leech of Batavia or
+Japan. In all likelihood, therefore, there may be a _H. Boscii_,
+distinct from the _H. Ceylanica_. That which is found in Ceylon is
+round, a little flattened on the inferior surface, largest at the anal
+extremity, thence gradually tapering forward, and with the anal sucker
+composed of four rings, and wider in proportion than in other species.
+
+[Illustration: EYES AND TEETH OF THE LAND LEECH OF CEYLON]
+
+It is of a clear brown colour, with a yellow stripe the entire length of
+each side, and a greenish dorsal one. The body is formed of 100 rings;
+the eyes, of which there are five pairs, are placed in an arch on the
+dorsal surface; the first four pairs occupying contiguous rings (thus
+differing from the water-leeches, which have an unoccupied ring betwixt
+the third and fourth); the fifth pair are located on the seventh ring,
+two vacant rings intervening. To Mr. Thwaites, Director of the Botanic
+Garden at Peradenia, who at my request examined their structure
+minutely, I am indebted for the following most interesting particulars
+respecting them. "I have been giving a little time to the examination of
+the land leech. I find it to have five pairs of ocelli, the first four
+seated on corresponding segments, and the posterior pair on the seventh
+segment or ring, the fifth and sixth rings being eyeless (_fig_. A). The
+mouth is very retractile, and the aperture is shaped as in ordinary
+leeches. The serratures of the teeth, or rather the teeth themselves,
+are very beautiful. Each of the three 'teeth,' or cutting instruments,
+is principally muscular, the muscular body being very clearly seen. The
+rounded edge in which the teeth are set appears to be cartilaginous in
+structure; the teeth are very numerous, (_fig_. B); but some near the
+base have a curious appendage, apparently (I have not yet made this out
+quite satisfactorily) set upon one side. I have not yet been able to
+detect the anal or sexual pores. The anal sucker seems to be formed of
+four rings, and on each side above is a sort of crenated flesh-like
+appendage. The tint of the common species is yellowish-brown or
+snuff-coloured, streaked with black, with a yellow-greenish dorsal, and
+another lateral line along its whole length. There is a larger species
+to be found in this garden with a broad green dorsal fascia; but I have
+not been able to procure one although I have offered a small reward to
+any coolie who will bring me one." In a subsequent communication Mr.
+Thwaites remarks "that the dorsal longitudinal fascia is of the same
+width as the lateral ones, and differs only in being perhaps slightly
+more green; the colour of the three fasciæ varies from brownish-yellow
+to bright green." He likewise states "that the rings which compose the
+body are just 100, and the teeth 70 to 80 in each set, in a single row,
+except to one end, where they are in a double row."]
+
+[Illustration: LAND LEECHES IN PURSUIT]
+
+[Footnote 2: The Minorite friar, ODORIC of Portenau. writing in A.D.
+1320, says that the gem-finders who sought the jewels around Adam's
+Peak, "take lemons which they peel, anointing themselves with the juice
+thereof, so that the leeches may not be able to hurt them."--HAKLUYT,
+_Voy._ vol. ii. p. 58.]
+
+[Footnote 3: DAVY'S _Ceylon_, p. 104; MARSHALL'S _Ceylon_, p. 15.]
+
+One circumstance regarding these land leeches is remarkable and
+unexplained; they are helpless without moisture, and in the hills where
+they abound at all other times, they entirely disappear during long
+droughts;--yet re-appear instantaneously on the very first fall of rain;
+and in spots previously parched, where not one was visible an hour
+before, a single shower is sufficient to reproduce them in thousands,
+lurking beneath the decaying leaves, or striding with rapid movements
+across the gravel. Whence do they re-appear? Do they, too, take a
+"summer sleep," like the reptiles, molluscs, and tank fishes? or may
+they, like the _Rotifera_, be dried up and preserved for an indefinite
+period, resuming their vital activity on the mere recurrence of
+moisture?[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See an account of the _Rotifera_ and their faculty of
+repeated vivifaction, in the note appended to this chapter.]
+
+Besides a species of the medicinal leech, which[1] is found in Ceylon,
+nearly double the size of the European one, and with a prodigious
+faculty of engorging blood, there is another pest in the low country,
+which is a source of considerable annoyance, and often of loss, to the
+husbandman. This is the cattle leech[2], which infests the stagnant
+pools, chiefly in the alluvial lands around the base of the mountain
+zone, whither the cattle resort by day, and the wild animals by night,
+to quench their thirst and to bathe. Lurking amongst the rank vegetation
+that fringes these deep pools, and hid by the broad leaves, or concealed
+among the stems and roots covered by the water, there are quantities of
+these pests in wait to attack the animals on their approach to drink.
+Their natural food consists of the juices of lumbrici and other
+invertebrata; but they generally avail themselves of the opportunity
+afforded by the dipping of the muzzles of the animals in the water to
+fasten on their nostrils, and by degrees to make their way to the deeper
+recesses of the nasal passages, and the mucous membranes of the throat
+and gullet. As many as a dozen have been found attached to the
+epiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing such irritation and
+submucous effusion that death has eventually ensued; and so tenacious
+are the leeches that even after death they retain their hold for some
+hours.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Hirudo sanguisorba_. The paddi-field leech of Ceylon, used
+for surgical purposes, has the dorsal surface of blackish olive, with
+several longitudinal striæ, more or less defined; the crenated margin
+yellow. The ventral surface is fulvous, bordered laterally with olive;
+the extreme margin yellow. The eyes are ranged as in the common
+medicinal leech of Europe; the four anterior ones rather larger than the
+others. The teeth are 140 in each series, appearing as a single row; in
+size diminishing gradually from one end, very close set, and about half
+the width of a tooth apart. When full grown, these leeches are about two
+inches long, but reaching to six inches when extended. Mr. Thwaites, to
+whom I am indebted for these particulars, adds that he saw in a tank at
+Kolona Korle leeches which appeared to him flatter and of a darker
+colour than those described above, but that he had not an opportunity of
+examining them particularly.
+
+[Illustration: DORSAL.]
+
+[Illustration: VENTRAL.]
+
+Mr. Thwaites states that there is a smaller tank leech of an olive-green
+colour, with some indistinct longitudinal striæ on the upper surface;
+the crenated margin of a pale yellowish-green; ocelli as in the
+paddi-field leech; length, one inch at rest, three inches when extended.
+
+Mr. E.L. LAYARD informs us, _Mag. Nat. Hist_. p. 225, 1853, that a
+bubbling spring at the village of Tonniotoo, three miles S.W. of
+Moeletivoe, supplies most of the leeches used in the island. Those in
+use at Colombo are obtained in the immediate vicinity.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Hæmopsis paludum_. In size the cattle leech of Ceylon is
+somewhat larger than the medicinal leech of Europe: in colour it is of a
+uniform brown without bands, unless a rufous margin may be so
+considered. It has dark striæ. The body is somewhat rounded, flat when
+swimming, and composed of rather more than ninety rings. The greatest
+dimension is a little in advance of the anal sucker; the body thence
+tapers to the other extremity, which ends in an upper lip projecting
+considerably beyond the mouth. The eyes, ten in number, are disposed as
+in the common leech. The mouth is oval, the biting apparatus with
+difficulty seen, and the teeth not very numerous. The bite is so little
+acute that the moment of attachment, and the incision of the membrane is
+scarcely perceived by the sufferer from its attack.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Even men, when stooping to drink at a pool, are not safe
+from the assault of the cattle leeches. They cannot penetrate the human
+skin, but the delicate membrane of the mucous passages is easily
+ruptured by their serrated jaws. Instances have come to my knowledge of
+Europeans into whose nostrils they had gained admission and caused
+serious disturbance.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARTICULATA.
+
+_APTERA_.
+
+
+THYSANURA.
+
+Podura _albicollis_.
+  _atricollis_.
+  _viduata_.
+  _pilosa_.
+
+Archoreutes _coccinea_.
+
+Lepisma nigrofasciara, _Temp_.
+  _nigra._
+
+
+ARACHNIDA.
+
+Buthus afer. _Linn_.
+  Ceylonicus, _Koch_.
+
+Scorpio _linearis_.
+
+Chelifer librorum.
+  _oblongus_.
+
+Obisium _crassifemur_.
+
+Phrynus lunatus, _Pall_.
+
+Thelyphonus caudatus, _Linn._
+
+Phalangium _bisignatum_.
+
+Mygale fasciata, _Walck_.
+
+Olios taprobanius, _Walck_.
+
+Nephila ... ?
+
+Trombidium tinctorum, _Herm_.
+
+Oribata ... ?
+
+Ixodes ... ?
+
+
+MYRIAPODA.
+
+Cermatia _dispar_.
+
+Lithobius _umbratilis_.
+
+Scolopendra _crassa_.
+  spinosa, _Newp_.
+  _pallipes_.
+  _Grayii_? _Newp_.
+  tuberculidens, _Newp_.
+  Ceylonensis, _Newp_.
+  flava, _Newp_.
+  _olivacea_.
+  _abdominalis_,
+
+Cryptops _sordidus_.
+  _assimilis_.
+
+Geophilus _tegularius_.
+  _speciosus_.
+
+Julus _ater_.
+  carnifex, _Fabr_.
+  _pallipes_.
+  _fiaviceps_.
+  _pallidus_.
+
+Craspedosoma _juloides_.
+  _præusta_.
+
+Polydesmus _granulatus_.
+
+Cambala _catenulata_.
+
+Zephronia _conspicua_.
+
+
+_CRUSTACEA_.
+
+DECAPODA BHACHTUEA.
+
+_Polybius_.
+
+Neptunus pelagicus, _Linn._
+  sanguinolentus, _Herbst_.
+
+Thalamlta ... ?
+
+Thelphusa _Indica, Latr_.
+
+_Cardisoma_ ... ?
+
+Ocypoda ceratophthalmus, _Pall_,
+  _macrocera, Edw_.
+
+Gelasimus _tetragonon, Edw_.
+  _annulipes, Edw_.
+
+Macrophthalmus _carinimanus, Latr_.
+
+Grapsus _messor, Forsk_.
+  strigosus, _Herbst_.
+
+Plagusia depressa, _Fabr_.
+
+Calappa philargus, _Linn._
+  _tuberculata, Fabr_.
+
+Matota victor, _Fabr_.
+
+Leucosia _fugax, Fabr_.
+
+_Dorippe_.
+
+DECAPODA ANOMURA.
+
+_Dromia_ ... ?
+
+Hippa Asiatica, _Edw_.
+
+Pagurus affinis, _Edw_.
+  _punctulatus, Oliv_.
+
+_Porcellana_ ... ?
+
+DECAPODA MACRURA.
+
+Scyllarus _orientalis, Fabr_.
+
+Palinurus ornatus, _Fabr_.
+  affinis, _N.S._
+
+_Crangon_ ... ?
+
+_Alpheus_ ... ?
+
+Pomonia inflata, _Edw_.
+
+Palæmon carcinus, _Fabr_.
+
+Steaopus ... ?
+
+Peneus ...?
+
+STOMATOPODA.
+
+_Squilla_ ... ?
+
+Gonodactylus chiragra, _Fabr_.
+
+
+_CIRRHIPEDIA_.
+
+_Lepas_.
+
+_Balanus_.
+
+
+_ANNELIDA_.
+
+Tubicolæ.
+
+Dorsibranchiata.
+
+Abranchia.
+  Hirudo _sanguisorba_.
+    _Thwaitesii_.
+  Hæmopsis _paludum_.
+  Hæmadipsa Ceylana. _Blainv_.
+
+Lumbricus ... ?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE
+
+ON THE FACULTY OF REPEATED RE-VIVIFICATION POSSESSED BY THE _ROTIFERA_,
+ETC.
+
+
+The _Rotifer_, a singular creature, although it can only truly live in
+water, inhabits the moss on house-tops, dying each time the sun dries up
+its place of retreat, to revive as often as a shower of rain supplies it
+with the moisture essential to its existence; thus employing several
+years to exhaust the eighteen days of life which nature has allotted to
+it. These creatures were discovered by LEUWENHOECK, and have become the
+types of a class already numerous, which undergo the same conditions of
+life, and possess the same faculty. Besides the _Rotifera_, the
+_Tardigrades_, (which belong to the _Acari_,) and certain paste-eels,
+all exhibit a similar phenomenon. But although these different species
+may die and be resuscitated several times in succession, this power has
+its limits, and each successive experiment generally proves fatal to one
+or more individuals. SPALLANZANI, in his experiments on the _Rotifera_,
+did not find that any survived after the sixteenth alternation of
+desiccation and damping, but paste-eels bore seventeen of those
+vicissitudes.
+
+SPALLANZANI, after thoroughly drying sand rich in _Rotifera_, kept it
+for more than three years, moistening portions taken from it every five
+or six months. BAKER went further still in his experiments on
+paste-eels, for he kept the paste from which they had been taken,
+without moistening it in any way, for twenty-seven years, and at the end
+of that time the eels revived on being immersed in a drop of water. _If
+they had exhausted their lives all at once and without these
+intermissions, these Rotifera and paste-eels would not have lived beyond
+sixteen or eighteen consecutive days._
+
+To remove all doubt as to the complete desiccation of the animalcules
+experimented on by SPALLANZANI and BAKER, M. DOYÈRE has published, in
+the _Annales des Sciences Naturales_ for 1842, the results of his own
+observation, in cases in which the mosses containing the insects were
+dried under the receiver of an air-pump and left there for a week; after
+which they were placed in a stove heated to 267° Fahr., and yet, when
+again immersed in water, a number of the _Rotifera_ became as lively as
+ever.
+
+Further particulars of these experiments will be found in the Appendix
+to the _Rambles of a Naturalist, &c._, by M. QUARTREFAGE.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ABOU-ZEYD, his account of fish on dry land, 350 n.
+Abyssinia, fishes of, 352.
+_Acalephæ_, 398. _See_ Radiata.
+Acanthopterygii, 360.
+Accipitres, 245.
+_Acherontia Sathanas_, 427
+Adam's Peak, elephants on the summit, 109.
+Ælian's account of the mermaid, 69.
+his statement as to the export of elephants from Ceylon, 77 _n_., 209 _n_.
+  error as to the shedding of the elephant's tusks, 79 _n_.
+  describes elephants killing criminals with their knees. 87 _n_.
+  error as to elephants' joints, 102.
+  his account of Ceylon tortoises, 293.
+  his account of the superiority of the elephants of Ceylon, 209 _n_.
+  his description of the performances of the trained elephants at
+    Rome, 237.
+  his account of the sword-fish, 328.
+  describes a _Cheironectes_, 331.
+African elephant, its peculiarities, 65.
+  not inferior to the Indian in tractability, 208.
+Albino buffalo, 57.
+  deer, 59.
+Albyrouni, on the pearl oyster, 375.
+Alce, described by Pliny and Cæsar, 101 _n_.
+Alexandria, story of the dogs at, 34.
+Alligator, 283. _See_ Crocodile.
+Almeida, Manoel de, on burying fishes, 353 _n_.
+Amboina, mermaids at, 70.
+Ampullaria, its faculty of burying itself, 355.
+_Anabas_, 354.
+  Daldorf's account of, doubted, 349, 350.
+  accidents from, 351 n.
+Angling bad in Ceylon, 335 _n_., 341.
+_Annelidæ_, leeches, 479.
+  land-leech, its varieties, 482.
+  land-leech, its teeth and eyes, 480.
+  its tormenting bite, 482.
+  list of, 485.
+Anseres, 260.
+Ansted, Prof., on the geology of Ceylon, 61.
+  his statement as to the height of Indian elephants, 100 _n_.
+Antiochus, elephants used by, 208.
+Antipater, the first to bring the Indian elephant to Europe, 207.
+Ant-lion, 411. _See_ Insects.
+Ants, 420 _See_ Insects.
+  red, 420, 422.
+  white, 412. _See Termites_.
+  their faculty in discovering food, 421.
+Armandi's work on the use of elephants in war, 208 _n_.
+Aphaniptera, 433.
+_Arachnidæ_, spiders, 464.
+  extraordinary webs, _ib_.
+  _Olios Taprobanius_, 470.
+  _Mygale fasciata_, 465.
+  erroneously called "tarentula," _ib_.
+  anecdote of, 466.
+  spiders, the Mygale, 465.
+  birds killed by it, 468.
+  Galeodes, 470.
+  ticks, their multitude, 471.
+  mites, 472.
+  _Trombidium tinctorum_, 472.
+  list of, 485.
+Argus cowrie, 369.
+Aripo, the sea-shore, 373.
+Aristotle, account of fishes migrating overland, 344.
+  sounds made by elephants, 97.
+  his error as to the elephant's knees, 101.
+Armitage, Mr., story of an elephant on his estate, 139.
+Articulata, list of, 485.
+Athenæus, anecdotes of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Avicula, 373. _See_ Pearl Fishery.
+Avitchia, story of, 244. _See_ Jackdaw.
+Ayeen Akbery, elephant stomach described in, 128.
+
+Baker, Mr., his theory of the passion for sporting, 142 n.
+  its accuracy questionable, 142 _n_.
+Badger, the Ceylon, 38. _See_ Mongoos.
+Bandicoot rat, 44.
+Barbezieux, on the elephant, 104.
+_Batocera rubus_, 406.
+Batrachia, 318.
+Bats, 13 _See_ Mammalia _and_ Cheiroptera.
+  orange-coloured bats, 14.
+  bats do not hybernate in Ceylon, 18.
+  horse-shoe bat, 19.
+  sense of smell and touch, 19.
+  small bat, _Scotophilus Coromandelicus_, 20.
+  their parasite (Nycteribia), 20-22.
+Batticaloa, musical fish, 380.
+Bears, 22. _See_ Mammalia.
+  ferocity of, 23.
+  charm to protect from, 25 _n_.
+Beaters for elephants, 150.
+Beaver, on African elephant, 234.
+Beckman's account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Bees, 419. _See_ Insects.
+Beetles, 405. _See_ Insects.
+  instincts of the scavenger beetle, 405.
+  coco-nut beetle, 407.
+  tortoise beetle, 408.
+Bell, Sir Charles, on the elephant's shoulder, 108.
+Benary, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 _n_.
+Bengal mode of taking elephants, 164.
+Bennett's account of Ceylon, _Introd_.
+  work on its Ichthyology, 323.
+Bernier, on the Ceylon elephant, 209.
+Bertolacci, on form of _chank shell_, 372.
+Bestiaries, 104.
+Bicho de Mar. _See_ Holothuria.
+Birds of Ceylon, 241.
+  their number and character, _ib_.
+  few songsters, 242.
+  pea-fowl, 244.
+  eagles and hawks, 245.
+  owls, devil bird, 246, 247.
+  swallows, 248.
+  edible bird' nests, 248.
+  kingfisher, sun birds, 249.
+  bulbul, tailor bird, weaver bird, 251.
+  crows, anecdotes of, 253.
+  paroquets, 256.
+  pigeons, 257.
+  jungle-fowl, 259.
+  _grallæ_, flamingoes, 260.
+  list of Ceylon birds, 265.
+Bird-eating spiders, 469.
+Birds' nests, edible, 248.
+Blainville, De, on the age of the elephant, 232.
+Blair, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_.
+Bles, Marcellus, on the elephants of Ceylon. 113 _n_., 215 _n_.
+Blood-suckers, 275.
+Blyth, Mr., of Calcutta, his cultivation of zoology, 4.
+  his revision of this work, _Introd_.
+Boa, 303. _See_ Python.
+Boar, wild, 59.
+Bochart, 68.
+  his derivation of the word "elephant," 76 _n_.
+Bora-chung, a curious fish, 367.
+Bosquez, Demas, account of a mermaid, 70.
+Bowring, Sir John, on the fishes of Siam, 348.
+Broderip, on the elephant, 122.
+Browne, Sir Thomas, _vulgar errors_, 100, 105.
+  error as to elephants' joints, 102.
+Brun, Le, account of the elephants at Colombo, 77 _n_.
+Bruno _or_ Braun, his account of the Guinea worm, 397.
+Buchanan, story of buffalo "rogues," 115 _n_.
+Buffalo, 54. _See_ Mammalia.
+  its temper, 54.
+  sporting buffaloe, 55.
+  peculiar structure of its foot, 56.
+  rogue buffalo, 115 _n_.
+  buffalo's stomach and its water-cells, 129 _n_.
+Buffon, on the elephant, 113 _n_., 215.
+Bugs, 433. _See_ Insects _and_ Coffee-bug.
+Buist, Dr., account of fish fallen from clouds, 362.
+Bulbul, 251. _See_ Birds.
+_Bulimi_, their vitality, 357.
+_Bullia_, curious property of, 370.
+Bullocks for draught, 50.
+Burying fishes, 351.
+Butterflies, 403, 425. _See_ Insects.
+  migration of, 403 _n_.
+  the spectre butterfly, 426.
+
+Cæcilia, 317. _See_ Reptiles.
+Cæsar's description of the "_alce_," 100 _n_.
+Cajan, 373 _n_.
+Caldera, in Chili, musical sounds under water, 383.
+Calotes, the green, 276.
+Camel, attempt to domesticate in Ceylon, 53 _n_.
+  stomach of, 128.
+  antipathy to the horse, 83 _n_.
+Camper, on the anatomy of the elephant's stomach, 125.
+Carawala, 296. _See_ Reptiles.
+Carnivora, 74.
+Carpenter bee, 418. _See_ Insects.
+Caterpillars, stings of, 429.
+Cats attracted by the _Cuppa-may-niya,_ 33.
+Centipede, 474. _See_ Myriapoda _and_ Scolopendræ.
+_Ceratophora_, 279.
+_Cerithia_, 381.
+  probably musical, 381 _n._
+_Cermatia_, 473. _See_ Myriapoda.
+Cetacea, 68, 74.
+  described by Megasthenes and Ælian, 69.
+Chameleon, 278. _See_ Reptiles.
+Chank shell, Turbinella rapa, 371. _See_ [Greek: Kochlious] and
+  _Schenek_.
+Cheetah, 26. _See_ Leopard.
+Cheironectes, described by Ælian, 331.
+Cheiroptera, 13, 74.
+_Chelifer_, 475.
+Chelonia, 322.
+Chena cultivation, 130.
+Cicada, 432. _See_ Insects.
+_Cirrhipeda_, 486.
+Cissa, 252.
+Civet, 32. _See_ Genette.
+Climbing fish (_Anabas scandens_), 349.
+Cluverius, 68.
+Cobra de Capello, anecdotes of, 297.
+  legend of, 297 _n_.
+  a white cobra, 298 _n_.
+  a tame cobra, 299 _n_.
+  cobra crossing the sea, 300.
+  curious belief as to the cobra, 300, 301.
+  worship of, 303.
+Cobra-tel, poison, 272. _See_ Kabara-tel.
+Coecilia glutinosa, 317.
+  attacked and killed by ants, 422.
+Coco-nut beetle, 407.
+Coffee-bug, _Lecanium Caffeæ_, 436.
+Coffee rat, 43.
+Coleoptera, 405.
+Columbidæ, 257.
+Conchology. _See_ Shells.
+Cooroowe, elephant catchers, 181.
+Corral for taking elephants, 156, 164. _See_ Elephant.
+  process of its construction, 170.
+  mode of conducting the capture, 156, 169.
+Corse, Mr., account of elephants, 114.
+Cosmas Indico pleustes, his reference to chanks at Marallo, 371.
+Cotton-thief, 250. _See_ Tchitrea.
+Crabs, 477. _See_ Crustacea.
+Cripps, Mr., on sounds produced by elephants, 98.
+  his story of an elephant which feigned death, 135.
+  his account of fishes after rain, 343.
+Crocodile, 282. _See_ Reptiles.
+  its sensibility to tickling, 285.
+  habit of the crocodile to bury itself in the mud, 286.
+  its flesh eaten, 284 _n._
+  their vitality, 288 _n_.
+  one killed at Batticaloa, 287.
+Crows, 233. _See_ Birds.
+  anecdotes of, 254.
+  story of a crow and a dog, 255.
+Cruelty to turtle, &c., 291.
+_Crustacea_, calling crabs, 477.
+  Sand crabs (ocypode), 478.
+  Painted crabs, 478.
+  Paddling crabs, 478.
+  Hermit crabs, 478.
+  Pea crabs, 479.
+  List of Ceylon Crustacea, 486.
+Ctesias' error as to the elephant's knee, 101.
+Cumming, Mr. Gordon, on the power of the elephant in overturning trees,
+  218 _n_.
+_Cuppa-moy niya_ plant, its attraction for cats, 33 _n_.
+Cuvier, on the elephant, 133.
+  on the structure of its tusks, 228.
+  on the elephant's age, 232.
+
+Daldorf's account of climbing fish, 350.
+   his story doubted, 350.
+Darwin, burying-place of llamas and goats,
+  236 _n_.
+  on the coleoptera of Brazil, 405.
+Davy, Dr. John, describes the reptiles of
+  Ceylon, 3.
+  stimulates study of natural history, 3.
+  operation on a diseased elephant, 224.
+Dawson, Captain, story of an elephant, 107.
+Deafness frequent in elephants, 98.
+Death's-head moth, 427.
+Decoy elephants, 157.
+_Decapoda brachyura_, 486.
+  _anomura_, 486.
+  _macrura_, 486.
+Deer, 57.
+  meminna, 58.
+  Ceylon elk, 59.
+  milk-white, 59 _n_.
+Demon-worship, anecdote of, 408.
+Denham, error as to height of elephants, 99.
+Devil-bird, 246. _See_ Owls.
+  Mr. Mitford's account of, 247 _n_.
+Diard, M., sends home an elephant for dissection, 123 _n_.
+Dicuil on the elephant, 103.
+Diptera, 434.
+Dogs, 33.
+  device of, to escape fleas, 433, 434.
+  dog-tax, 33.
+  republican instincts, 34.
+  disliked by elephants, 82, 84.
+Donne, on the elephant, 105.
+Doras, fish of Guiana, 347.
+Dragon-flies, 411. _See_ Insects.
+Dugong, 68, 69.
+  abundant at Manaar, 69.
+  origin of the fable of the mermaid, 69.
+Dutch belief in the mermaid, 70.
+
+Eagles, 245. _See_ Birds.
+Edentata, 46, 74.
+Edrisi, the Arabian geographer, his account of musk, 32 _n_.
+Eels, 337, 347 _n_.
+Eginhard, life of Charlemagne, 103.
+Elephant, 64, 75.
+  Sumatran species, 64.
+  points of distinction, 65.
+  those of Ceylon extolled, 209.
+  elephants on Adam's Peak, 109.
+  numbers in Ceylon, 76.
+  [Greek: Elephas], derivation of the word, 76 _n_.
+  antiquity of the trade in, 77.
+  numbers diminishing, 77.
+  mode of poisoning, 77 _n_.
+  tusks and their uses, 78.
+  disposition gentle, 81.
+  accidents from, 81.
+  antipathy to other animals, 82; to the horse, 83.
+  jealousy of each other, 86.
+  mode of attacking man, 87.
+  anecdote of a tame elephant, 89.
+  African elephant differs from that of Ceylon, 64.
+  skin, 91.
+  white elephant, 92.
+  love of shade, 94.
+  water, not heat, essential to them, 94.
+  sight limited--smell acute, 95.
+  anatomy of the brain, 95.
+  power of smell, 96.
+  sounds uttered by, 96.
+  subject to deafness, 98.
+  exaggeration as to size, 98.
+  source of this mistake, 98 _n_.
+  stealthy motions, 100.
+  error as to the elephant's want of joints, 100.
+  probable origin of this mistake, 106.
+  mode of lying down, 107.
+  ability to climb acclivities, 108.
+  mode of descending a mountain, 110.
+  a herd is a family, 111.
+  attachment to young, 112.
+  young suckled by all the females in a herd, 113.
+  theory of this, according to White, 113 _n_.
+  a rogue, what, 114.
+  savage attacks of rogues, 116.
+  character of the rogues, 116, 147.
+  habits of the herd, 117.
+  anecdote of, 118.
+  elephant's mode of drinking, 120.
+  their method of swimming, 121.
+  wells sunk by, 122.
+  receptacle in the stomach, 122.
+  stomach, anatomy of, 124.
+  food of the elephant, 129.
+  instinct in search of food, 130.
+  dread of fences, 131.
+  their caution exaggerated, 132.
+  spirit of curiosity in elephants, 132.
+  anecdote of Col. Hardy, 132, 133.
+  sagacity in freedom over-estimated, 134.
+  leave the forests during thunder, 134.
+  cunning, feign death, 135.
+  stories of encounters with wild elephants, 136.
+  sporting, numbers shot, 142.
+  butchery by expert shots, 142 _n_.
+  fatal spots in the head, 144, 145.
+  peculiar actions of elephants, 148.
+  love of retirement, 149.
+  elephant-trackers, 150.
+  herd charging, 151.
+  carcase useless 153.
+  remarkable recovery from a wound, 154. _See Lieut_. Fretz.
+  mode of taking in India, 157-162.
+  height measured by the circumference of the foot, 159.
+  mode of shipping elephants at Manaar, 162.
+  mode of shipping elephants at Galle, in 1701, 163 _n_.
+  _keddah_ for taking elephants in Bengal, 164.
+  a corral (kraal) described, 165, 166.
+  derivation of the word _corral_, 165 _n_.
+  corral, its construction, 167, 172.
+  corral, driving in the elephants, 173.
+  the capture, 177.
+  mode of securing, 181.
+  the "cooroowe," or noosers, 181.
+  tame elephants, their conduct, 182, 191.
+  captives, their resistance and demeanour, 184.
+  dread of white rods, 186.
+  their contortions, 190.
+  a young one, 206.
+  conduct in captivity, 207.
+  mode of training, 211.
+  their employment in ancient warfare, 207.
+  superiority of Ceylon, a fallacy, 209.
+  elephant driver's crook (hendoo), 212.
+  hairy elephants in Ceylon, 215 _n_.
+Elephants, capricious disposition of, 215.
+  first labour intrusted to them, 217.
+  his comprehension of his duties, 218.
+  exaggeration of his strength in uprooting trees, 218 _n_.
+  Mahouts and their duties, 221.
+  Their cry of _urre!_ 222 _n_.
+  elephant's sense of musical notes, 223.
+  its endurance of pain, 224.
+  diseases in captivity, 225.
+  subject to tooth-ache, 227.
+  questionable economy of keeping trained elephants for labour, 229.
+  their cost, 230.
+  their food, 230 _n_.
+  fallacy of their alleged reluctance to breed in captivity, 231.
+  duration of life in the elephant, 232.
+  theory of M. Fleurens, 232.
+  instances of very old elephants in Ceylon, 233.
+  dead elephant never found, 234.
+  Sinbad's story, 236.
+  passage from Ælian regarding the, 237.
+Elk, 59. _See_ Deer; Mammalia.
+Emydosauri, 321.
+Emys trijuga, 290.
+Englishman, anonymous, his story of a fight between elephants and horses,
+84.
+
+Falconer, Dr., height of Indian elephant, 99 _n_.
+Falkland Islands, peculiarity in the cattle there, 372 _n_.
+Fauna of Ceylon, not common to India, _Introd_. 62.
+  peculiar and independent, _Introd_. 62.
+  have received insufficient attention, 3.
+  first study due to Dr. Davy, 3.
+  subsequent, due to Templeton, Layard, and Kelaart, 3, 4.
+Fishes of Ceylon, little known, 323.
+  seir fish, and others for table, 324.
+  abundance of perch, soles, and sardines, 324.
+  explanation of Odoric's statement, 324 _n_.
+  sardines, said to be poisonous, 324.
+  shark, and sawfish, 325.
+  sawfish, 325.
+  ray, 326.
+  swordfish, 328.
+  cheironectes of Ælian, 331.
+  fishes of rare forms, and of beautiful colours, 332.
+  fresh-water fishes, their peculiarities, 335.
+  fresh-water, little known, _ib_.; reason, 335 _n_.
+  eels, 337.
+  reappearance of fishes after the dry season, 340.
+Fishes, similar mysterious re-appearances elsewhere, 342 _n_.
+  method of taking them by hand, 340.
+  a fish decoy, 342.
+  fish filling from clouds, 342 _n_., 362.
+  buried alive in mud, 347.
+  Mr. Yarrell's theory controverted, 344.
+  travelling overland, 345.
+  the fact was known to the Greeks and Romans, 345.
+  instances in Guiana and Siam, 347.
+  faculty of all migratory fish for discovering water, 347 _n_.
+  on dry land in Ceylon, 348.
+  fish ascending trees, 349.
+  excerpt from letter by Mr. Morris, 348 _n_.
+  Anabas scandens, 349, 350.
+  Daldorf's statement, anticipated by Abou-zeyd, 350 _n_.
+  accidents when fishing, 351 _n_.
+  burying fishes and travelling fish, 351.
+  occurrence of similar fish in Abyssinia and elsewhere, 352.
+  statement of the patriarch Mendes, 553 _n_.
+knowledge of habits of Melania employed judicially by E.L. Layard, 355
+_n_.
+  illustrations of æstivating fish and animals, 356.
+  æstivating shell-fish and water-beetlea, 351.
+  fish in hot water, 358.
+  list of Ceylon fishes, 359.
+  Professor Huxley's memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364.
+  Dr. Gray's memorandum, 366.
+  _Note_ on the _Bora-chung_, 367.
+Fishing, native mode of, 340.
+Fish insect, 475.
+Flamingoes, 261. _See_ Birds.
+Fleas, 433. _See_ Insects.
+Fleurens, on the duration of life in the elephant, 232.
+Flies, their instinct in discovering carrion, 196 _n_.
+  mosquitoes, the plague of, 434.
+Flowers, fondness of monkeys for, 7.
+Flying Fox. _Pteropus Edwardsii_, 14. _See_ Mammalia.
+  its sizes, 14.
+  skeleton of, 15.
+  food, 16.
+  habits, 16.
+  numbers, 16.
+  strange attitudes, 17.
+  food and habits, 18.
+  drinking toddy, 18.
+Flying squirrels, 41.
+Fresh-water fishes, 335.
+Fretz, Lieut., his singular wound, 154.
+Frogs, 318.
+  tree frogs, 319, 320.
+
+Galle, elephants shipped in 1701, 163 _n_.
+Gallinæ, 259.
+Galloperdix bicalcaratus, 259.
+Gallwey, Capt. P.P., great number of elephants shot by him, 142.
+Game birds, 265.
+Gardner, Dr., his account of the coffee bug, 436-441.
+Gaur, 49 _See_ Mammalia.
+  Knox's account of the gaur, 49.
+Geckoes, 281.
+Gemma Frisius, 68.
+Genette, 32.
+Geology of Ceylon, errors as to, 60.
+  previous accounts, 61.
+  traditions of ancient submersion, 61, 67.
+  Ceylon has a fauna distinct from India, 62.
+"Golden Meadows," 211 _n_. _See_ Massoude.
+Golunda rat, 43.
+_Goondah_, 114. _See_ Rogue.
+Gooneratne, Mr., _Introd_.
+  his story of the jackal, 35.
+Gordon Cumming, his butchery of elephants in Africa, 146 _n_.
+Gowra-ellia, 49.
+Grallæ, 260.
+Gray, Dr. J.E., Brit. Mus., _Introd_.
+  notice of Ceylon fishes, 366.
+Great fire-fish, 332.
+Guinea worm, 397.
+Günther, Dr. A., on Ceylon reptiles, 275 _n_., 304.
+Gwillim's Heraldry, error as to elephants, 105 _n_.
+
+Hambangtotte, elephants of, 99.
+Hardy, Col, anecdote of, when chased by an elephant, 133.
+Hardy, Rev. Spence, describes a white monkey, 8.
+Haroun Alraschid, sends an elephant to Charlemagne, 103.
+Harrison, Dr., 95.
+  his anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_., 126.
+  his account of elephant's head, 142.
+  of the elephant's ear, 223.
+Hastisilpe, a work on elephants, 87 _n_., 91.
+Hawking, 246.
+Hawks. _See_ Birds, 246.
+Hedge-hog, 46.
+Helix hæmastoma, its colouring, 372.
+Hemiptera, 433, 462.
+Hendoo, crook for driving elephants, 212.
+Herd, a, of elephants, is a family, 111.
+  its mode of electing a leader, 117.
+Herodotus, on mosquitoes, 435.
+  antipathy of the elephant to the camel, 83 _n_.
+Herpestes, 38.
+Herport, Albrecht, his work on India, 71 _n_.
+_Hesperidæ_, 426.
+Hill, Sir John, error as to elephants, 98.
+Hippopotamus rogues, 115 _n_.
+Histiophorus, 330. _See_ Sword-fish.
+Holland, Dr., his theory as to the formation of tusks, 89 _n_.
+_Holothurin_, sea-slug and Trepang, 396.
+Home, Sir Everard, on the elephant's stomach, 124.
+  error as to the elephant's ear, 223.
+Home, Randal, error as to elephant, 105 _n_.
+Homoptera, 462, 463.
+Honey-comb, great size of, 418.
+Hooker, Dr. J.D., on the elephants of the Himalaya, 110 _n_.
+  error as to white ants' nests, 413.
+  on ticks in Nepal, 471 _n_., 472.
+_Hora_, 115. _See_ Rogue.
+Horace, alludes to a white elephant, 92 _n_.
+Hornbill, _Buceros_, 242, 243.
+Horse, alleged antipathy to the elephant, 83.
+  to the camel, 83 _n_.
+  story of, and an elephant, 89.
+  horses taught to fight with elephants, 84.
+Hotambeya, 40. _See_ Mongoos.
+Hot-water fishes, 358.
+Hunt, mode of conducting an elephant-hunt, 157.
+Hunter, Dr. John, his theory of æstivation, 356.
+Hurra! 223 _n_.
+Huxley, Prof., _Introd_.
+  his memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364.
+Hydrophobia in jackals, 36.
+Hymenoptera, 416.
+
+_Ianthina_, 370.
+Ichneumon, 39. _See_ Mongoos.
+Iguana, 271. _See_ Reptiles.
+_Infusoria_, Red, in the Ceylon seas, 400.
+Insects of Ceylon, 403.
+  their profusion and beauty, 403.
+  hitherto imperfectly described, 404.
+  coleoptera, 405.
+  Beetles, scavengers, 405.
+  coco-nut beetle, tortoise beetle, 407.
+  tortoise beetle, 408.
+  Orthoptera, 408.
+  the soothsayer, leaf-insect, 410.
+  Neuroptera, 411.
+  dragon-flies, 411.
+  ant-lion, 411.
+  white ant, termites, 411.
+Insects, _Hymenoptera_, mason-wasp, 416.
+  wasps, bees, wasps' nest, 418.
+  carpenter bee, 418.
+  ants, 420.
+  value of scavenger ants to conchologists, 421.
+  dimiya or red ant, 422.
+  introduced to destroy coffee-bug, 423.
+  _Lepidoptera_, butterflies, 424.
+  _lycænidæ, hesperidæ_, 426.
+  _acherontia sathanas_, 427.
+  moths, silk-worm, 427.
+  stinging caterpillars, 429.
+  oiketicus, 430.
+  _Homoptera, cicada_, the "knife-grinder," 432.
+  Flata, 433.
+  _Aphaniptera_--fleas, 433.
+  _Diptera_--mosquitoes, 434.
+  Coffee bug, 436-441.
+  Mr. Walker's memorandum on Ceylon insects, 442.
+  list, 447.
+Ivory, annual consumption, 78 _n_.
+  superiority of Chinese, _ib_.
+
+Jackal, 35.
+  its cunning, 35.
+  probably the "fox" of Scripture, 35.
+  its sagacity in hunting, 36.
+  subject to hydrophobia, 36.
+  jackal's horn, the _narric comboo_, 37.
+  superstitions connected with, 37.
+Jackdaw, fable of, 244. _See_ Avitchia.
+Jardine, Sir W., error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_.
+Jay, the mountain, 252. _See_ Cissa.
+Joinville, on the parasite of the bat, 20.
+_Julus_, 477.
+Jungle fowl, 259. _See_ Birds.
+Juvenal's allusion to fishes on land, 346.
+
+Kabragoya, 272, 273. _See_ Iguana.
+  Kabara-tel, poison, 274.
+  Kanats in Persia, 339 _n_.
+Keddah, for taking elephants, 164.
+Kelaart, Dr., work on the Zoology of Ceylon, 4.
+  examination of the Radiata, 395.
+  discoveries as to the pearl oyster, 375.
+Kingfisher, 249. _See_ Birds.
+Kinnis, Dr., cultivates zoology, 4.
+Kite, on Egyptian sculpture, 246 _n_.
+Knife-grinder, 432. _See_ Cicada.
+Knox, R., account of Ceylon fauna, _Introd_.
+  his description of the Wanderoo, 5.
+  of elephants executing criminals, 87.
+  of the mode of catching elephants, 157.
+Knox, his description of natives fishing, 340.
+[Greek: Kochlious], 371.
+Kombook tree, its bark, 170.
+_Korahl_, 165. _See_ Kraal _and_ Corral.
+  derivation of the word, 165 _n_.
+Kornegalle, beauty of the place, 167.
+Kottiar, immense oysters, 371 _n_. _See_ Cottiar.
+Kraal, 165. _See_ Corral _and_ Korahl.
+Krank-bezoeker, 71 _n_.
+
+Layard, E.A., his knowledge of Ceylon zoology, 4.
+  his collections of Ceylon birds, 241.
+  story of fish on dry land, 318.
+  anecdote of burying molluscs, 355.
+Leaf insect. 408-410. _See_ Insects.
+Leaping fish, 332. _See Salarias alticus_.
+_Lecanium Caffeæ_, 436.
+Leeches, 479. _See Annelidæ_.
+  land leech, 479.
+  medicinal leech, 483.
+  cattle leech, 344.
+Leopard, 25.
+  in Ceylon confounded with the _cheetah_, 26.
+  superstitions regarding, 26.
+  anecdotes of their ferocity, 27.
+  attracted by the small-pox, 28.
+  story of Major Skinner, 29.
+  monkeys killed by leopards, 31.
+Lepidoptera, 424.
+_Lepisma_, the fish insect, 474.
+Lima, General de, his account of the weight of elephants' tusks at
+Mozambique, 79 _n_.
+Livingstone's account of the "rogue" hippopotamus, 115 _n_.
+Llama of the Andes, its stomach, 128 _n_.
+Livy, account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Lizards, 271. _See_ Reptiles.
+Lophobranchi, 362.
+_Loris_, 12. _See_ Mammalia.
+  two varieties in Ceylon, 12.
+  torture inflicted on it, 13.
+Lucan, description of the ichneumon, 39.
+_Lycænidæ_, 426.
+Lyre-headed lizard, 277.
+
+Macabbees iii. Book, allusion to elephants, 87 _n_., 211 _n_.
+Macacus monkey, 5.
+Machlis described by Cæsar, 101.
+Macready, Major, account of a noise made by elephants, 97.
+his opinion as to the vulnerable point in the elephant's head. 145
+_n_.
+Mahawanso, mentions a white elephant, 93.
+Mahout, an elephant driver, 181. _See_ Ponnekella.
+Mahout, alleged short life, 222.
+_Malacopterygii abdominales_, 362.
+  _sub-branchiati_, 362.
+  _apoda_, 362.
+Mammalia, 3.
+  Monkeys, 5.
+  Rilawa,5.
+  Wanderoo, 6.
+  error as to the Ceylon Wanderoo, 6, _n_.
+  Wanderoo, mode of flight among trees, 9.
+  monkeys never found dead, 11.
+  _Loris_, 12.
+  tortures inflicted on it, 13.
+  Bat, flying fox, 14.
+  skeleton of, 14.
+  attracted by toddy to the coco-nut palms, 18.
+  horse-shoe bat, 18.
+  parasite of the bat, Nycteribia, 20, 21.
+  bears, 22.
+  bears dreaded in Ceylon, 24.
+  leopards, 25.
+  attracted by the odour of small pox, 28.
+  anecdote of a leopard, 29.
+  lesser felines, 32.
+  dogs, Pariah, 34.
+  jackal, 34.
+  the jackal's horn, 36.
+  Mongoos, 37.
+  assaults of Mongoos on the serpent, 38.
+  squirrels, 41.
+  the flying squirrel, 41.
+  rats, the rat snake, 42.
+  coffee rat, 43, 44.
+  bandicoot, 44, 45.
+  porcupine, 45.
+  pengolin, 46-48.
+  the gaur, 49.
+  the ox, 50.
+  anecdote of, 51.
+  draft oxen, 51-53.
+  the buffalo, 54.
+  sporting buffaloes, 55.
+  peculiarity of the buffalo's foot, 56.
+  deer, 57.
+  meminna, 57, 58.
+  Ceylon elk, 59.
+  wild boar, 59.
+  elephant, 69, 75.
+  whale and dugong, 68, 69.
+  peculiarities of Ceylon mammalia, 73.
+  list of, 73.
+Manaar, mermaid taken at, 69.
+  elephants shipped at, 162.
+  pearl fishery, 373.
+Manis. _See_ Pengolin, 46.
+Mantis, 410.
+Massoudi, on the use of elephants in war, 211 _n_.
+  his account of pearl-diving, 377 _n_.
+_Mastacembelus_, 338. _See_ Eels.
+Megasthenes' account of the mermaid, 69.
+Mehemet Ali, story of, 34.
+_Melania Paludina_, its habit of burying itself, 355.
+  its hybernation, 355.
+Melania, story of a law suit decided by, 355 _n_.
+Meleagrina, 373 _n_. _See_ Pearl fishery.
+Meminna deer, 58.
+Mercator, 68.
+Mercer, Mr., his story of an elephant fight, 86.
+Mermaid, 68. _See_ Dugong.
+Mermaids, at Manaar, 69.
+  at Amboina, 70.
+  at Booro, 71.
+  at Edam, 72.
+Millipeds, _Julus_, 477.
+Mites, 472.
+Mollusca. _See_ Shells.
+Molyneux, on the anatomy of the elephant, 122 _n_.
+Mongoos, 38. _See_ Ichneumon.
+  species at Neuera-ellia, _Herpestes Vitticollis_, 38.
+  story of its antidote against the bite of serpents, 39.
+  its mode of killing snakes, 39.
+Monkeys, 5.
+  never found dead, 11.
+  a white monkey, 8.
+Moors of Galle, make ornaments of the elephant's teeth, 153.
+Moors, as caravan drivers, 53.
+Moose deer, 58. _See_ Meminna.
+Morris, Mr., account of fishes on land, 348.
+Mosquitoes, their cunning, 434.
+  Herodotus, account of, 436.
+  probably the plague of flies, 434 _n_.
+Moths, 427. _See_ Insects.
+Munster, Sebastian, 68.
+Musical fishes, 380.
+  account of, at Batticaloa, 380.
+  similar phenomena at other places, 383 _n_.
+  fishes known to utter sounds, 384.
+  _Tritonia arborescens_, 385.
+Musk, 32.
+Mygale, spider, 465.
+Myriapods, 472.
+
+Narric-comboo, 37. _See_ Jackal's Horn.
+Natural history neglected in Ceylon, 3.
+Neela-cobeya, pigeon, 258.
+Neuroptera, 411.
+Nietner, on Ceylon insects, _Introd_.
+_Nycteribia_, parasite of the bat, 20, 21.
+  its extraordinary structure, 22.
+
+Odoric of Portenau, his cure for leech bites, 481.
+  his account of birds with two heads, 243.
+  his account of fishes in Ceylon, 324 _n_.
+_Oiketicus_, 430.
+Oil-bird, 269.
+Ophidia, 321.
+Ortelius, 68.
+Orthoptera, 408.
+Ouanderoo. _See_ Wanderoo.
+Owen, Professor, on the structure of the elephant's tusk, 228.
+  on the Protopterus of the Gambia, 352.
+Owls. _See_ Birds.
+Oxen, their uses and diseases, 50.
+  anecdote of a cow and a leopard, 51.
+  white, eight feet high, seen by Wolf, 52 _n_.
+Oysters at Bentotte, 371.
+  immense, at Kottiar, 371 _n_.
+
+Pachydermata, 59, 74.
+Padivil, the great tank, 262.
+Pallegoix, on the elephants of Siam, 98 _n_.
+  on the fishes of Siam, 347.
+Palm-cat, 32.
+Panickeas, elephant catchers, 150, 158.
+  their skill, 159.
+Pariah dogs, 33.
+Paris, Matthew, on the elephant, 103.
+Paroquets, their habits; anecdote of, 256.
+Passeres, 248.
+Patterson, R., Esq., _Introd_.
+Pea-fowl, 244. _See_ Birds.
+  fable of the jackdaw, 244.
+Pearl fishery of Ceylon, its antiquity, 373.
+  dreary scenery of Aripo, 373.
+  disappearances of the pearl-oyster, 374.
+  capable of transplantation, 376.
+  operation of diving, 377.
+  endurance of the divers under water, 377.
+  growth of the pearl-oyster, 379.
+  pearls of Tamblegam, 380.
+Pelicans, 262.
+  strange scene at their breeding place, 263.
+Pengolin, 46.
+  its habits and food, 47.
+  skeleton of, 48.
+Phile, his account of the elephant, 103.
+  error as to its joints, 107.
+  describes its drinking, 121 _n_.
+  its dispositions, 216 _n_.
+  on the elephant's ear, 224.
+  on elephants burying their dead, 235.
+Phillipe, on the elephant of Ceylon, 209.
+Phyllium, 410. _See_ Leaf Insect.
+Physalus urticulus, 400. _See_ Portuguese Man-of-war.
+Pictet, Mon., his derivation of the word "elephant," 76 _n_.
+Pigeons, 257. _See_ Birds.
+Pigeons, Lady Torrington's pigeon, 258.
+_Placuna placenta_, pearls of, 380.
+_Planaria_, 398. _See Radiata_.
+Pliny's nereids, 72 _n_.
+  error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_.
+  error as to their antipathy to other animals, 85.
+  error as to elephant's joints, 100.
+  account of the _machlis_, 101 _n_.
+  his knowledge of the vulnerability of the elephant's head, 144 _n_.
+  of fishes on dry land, 346.
+  Ponnekella. _See_ Mahout.
+Polybius' account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Pomponius, Mela, account of fishes on land, 346.
+Porcupine, 45.
+Portuguese belief in the mermaid, 69.
+  Man-of-war, 400.
+Pott, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 _n_.
+Presbytes _cephalopterus_, 7.
+  _ursinus_, 6, 9.
+  _Thersites_, 6, 10.
+  its fondness of attention, 10.
+  _Priamus_, 10.
+  its curiosity, 11.
+Protopterus of the Gambia, 352.
+Pseudophidia, 322.
+Pterois volitans, 333.
+_Pterophorus_, 430. _See_ Insects.
+Pteropus, 14. _See_ Flying Fox.
+Pyrard de Laval, on the Ceylon elephant, 209.
+Python, its great size, 303.
+
+Quadrumana, 5, 74.
+Quatrefage on the Rotifera, 487.
+
+_Radiata_, star-fish, 395.
+  sea-slugs, holothuria, 396.
+  parasitic worms, 396.
+  Guinea worm, 397.
+  _planaria_, 398.
+  _acalephæ_, 398.
+  Portuguese Man-of-war, 400.
+  Red infusoria, 400.
+Raja-kariya, forced labour, in elephant hunts, 170.
+Raja-welle estate, story of an elephant at, 133 _n_.
+Ramayana, Ceylon elephants mentioned in, 210.
+Rats, 42.
+  eaten as food in Oovah and Bintenne, 43.
+  liable to hydrophobia, 43.
+  coffee rat, 43.
+  bandicoot, 44.
+Rat snake, anecdote of, 43.
+Rat-snake, domesticated, 299 _n_.
+Ray, 326, 327.
+Reinaud, on the ancient use of the elephant in Indian wars, 205 _n_.
+Reptiles of Ceylon described by Dr. Davy, _Introd_.
+  lizards, iguana, 271.
+  kabara-tel, poison, 272.
+  blood-suckers, 275.
+  calotes, the green, 276.
+  lyre-headed lizard, 277.
+  chameleon, 278.
+  _ceratophora_, 279.
+  gecko, anecdotes of, 281, 282.
+  crocodile, anecdotes of, 282, 283.
+  crocodile and alligator, skulls of, 283.
+  tortoises, 289.
+  parasites of the tortoise, 289.
+  Terrapins, 290.
+  cruel mode of cutting up turtle, 291.
+  turtle, said to be poisonous, 292.
+  hawk's-bill turtle, 293.
+  cruel mode of taking tortoise-shell, 293.
+  snakes, few poisonous, 294.
+  tic-polonga, 296.
+  cobra de capello, 297.
+  legends of the cobra, 297-298 _n_.
+  _uropeltis_, 301.
+  the python, 303.
+  haplocercus, 304.
+  tree-snakes, 305.
+  water snakes, 308.
+  sea snakes, 308.
+  the snake-stone and its composition, 312-317.
+  _cæcilia_, 317.
+  frogs, 318.
+  tree frogs, 319.
+  list of Ceylon reptiles, 321.
+  snakes peculiar to Ceylon, 322.
+Rhinolophus, 19. _See_ Horse-shoe Bat.
+Ribeyro's account of pearl-diving, 378.
+Rilawa monkey, 5.
+Rodentia, 41, 74.
+Rogers, Major, story of his horse, 84.
+  his death by lightning, 84 _n_.
+  anecdote of an elephant killed by him, 107.
+  great numbers of elephants shot by him, 142.
+"A Rogue" elephant. _See_ Elephant, 114.
+  derivation of the term "Rogue," 114.
+_Ronkedor_, 114. _See_ "Rogue."
+_Ronquedue_, 114. _See_ "Rogue."
+  dangerous encounters with, 136.
+Rotifera, marvellous faculty in, 486.
+Rousette. _See_ Flying-fox _and_ Pteropus, 14.
+Ruminantia, 49, 74.
+
+_Salarias Alticus_, 332.
+  almasius, 68.
+Sardines, said to be poisonous, 324.
+Saw fish, 325. _See_ Fishes.
+Scaliger, Julius, 68.
+Scansores, 256.
+_Scarus harid_, 335.
+_Schenck_, 371. _See_ Chank.
+Schlegel's essay on the elephant, 208 _n_.
+Schlegel, Prof., of Leyden, his account of the Sumatran elephant, 66.
+Schmarda, Prof., 5.
+Schomburgk, Sir R., on the fishes of Guiana, 347.
+Sciurus Tennentii, 41 _n_.
+_Scolopiendræ_, centipede, 474.
+Scorpions, 474.
+Sea slugs, _holothuria_, 397.
+Sea snakes, 308.
+Seir-fish, 324.
+Seneca, account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Septuagint, allusion to elephants in, 87, 210 _n_.
+Serpents, 294. _See_ Reptiles.
+Shakspeare, on the elephant, 105.
+  describes its capture in pit-falls, 157 _n_.
+Sharks, 325.
+Shark charmer, 378.
+Shaw, error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_.
+Shells of Ceylon, 369.
+  lanthina, 370.
+  Bullia vittata, 370.
+  chanks, 371.
+  oysters, immense, 371 _n_.
+  Helix hæmastoma, 372.
+  Pearl fishery, 373.
+  Musical shells, 381.
+  Mr. Henley's memorandum, 386.
+  uncertainty as to species, 387.
+  list of Ceylon shells, 388.
+Siam, fishes on dry land, 347.
+Silk, cultivated by the Dutch, 429.
+Silkworm. _See_ Insects.
+Sindbad's story of the elephants burying-place, 236.
+Skinner, Major, knowledge of Ceylon. _Introd_. _n_.
+  adventure with a leopard, 30.
+  great number of elephants killed by him, 142.
+  description of the Panickeas or elephant catchers, 158, 159 _n_.
+  anecdotes of elephants, 118.
+  collection of Ceylon fish, 339.
+Small-pox attracts the leopard, 28.
+  native superstition, 29.
+Snakes, 294. _See_ Reptiles.
+  few venomous, 296.
+  tic-polonga, 296.
+  cobra de capello, 297.
+  legends of, 297 _n_.
+  stories of, 298.
+Snakes, tamed snakes, 299 _n_.
+  snakes crossing the sea, 300.
+  curious tradition of the cobra-de-capello, 300.
+  uropeltis, and explanation of the popular belief, 302.
+  reluctance of Buddhists to kill snakes, 303.
+  python or "boa," 303.
+  tree snakes, 305.
+  the _Passerita fusca_, 306.
+  water snakes, 308.
+  sea snakes, 308.
+  their geographical distribution, 309.
+  their habits, 310.
+  cæcilia, 317.
+Snake-stone, its alleged virtue, 312.
+  anecdotes of its use, 312.
+  analysis of, by Professor Faraday, 315.
+Sofala, pearls at, 375 _n_.
+Solinus, on the elephant, 103.
+Soothsayer insect, 410.
+Spectre butterfly, 426.
+Spiders. _See Arachnida_, 464.
+  at Gampola, 465.
+  at Pusilawa, 471.
+Squirrel, 41.
+  the flying squirrel, 44.
+Star-fish, 396. _See Radiata_.
+Stick insect, 410. _See_ Insects.
+Stinging caterpillars, 429.
+Strabo, his account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Strachan, Mr., account of the elephants shipped at Ceylon, 163 _n_,
+  210 _n_.
+Stuckley, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_.
+Sumatra confounded with Ceylon, 67.
+  elephant of, 64.
+  points in which it differs from that of India, 65.
+Sun bird, 249. _See_ Birds.
+Superstitions:--Singhalese folk-lore regarding bears, 24 _n_.
+  leopards, 27, 29.
+  mongoos, 38.
+  kabra-goya, 273.
+  cobra-de-capello, 300.
+  use of snake-stones, 315.
+  elephants' burial-place, 236.
+Suriya trees, caterpillars on, 429.
+Syrnum Indranee, 246. _See_ Devil-bird.
+Swallows, 248. _See_ Birds.
+Sword-fish, 328.
+
+Tailor-bird, 251. _See_ Birds;
+Tamblegam, lake of, 380.
+  pearls, 380.
+Tarentula, _Mygale fasciata_, 465.
+  fight with a cockroach, 467.
+  numerous at Gampola, 465.
+Tavalam, a caravan of bullocks, 53.
+Tavernier, error as to Ceylon elephants, 203, 214.
+Taylor, the translator of Aristotle, his error as to elephants' joints,
+  102.
+Tchitrea paradisi, 250.
+Temminck, his discovery of the Sumatran elephant, 64.
+  his account of it, 65.
+Templeton, Dr. R.A., his knowledge of Ceylon, _Introd_.
+  his valuable aid in the present work, _ib_.
+  his cultivation of zoology, 4.
+  notice of Ceylon monkeys, 6.
+_Termites_, white ants, their ravages, 412.
+  whence comes their moisture, 412 _n_.
+Terrapins, 290.
+Terrier, attacks an elephant, 85.
+Testudinata, 289.
+Thaun, Philip de, on the elephant, 104.
+Theobaldus' _Physiologus_, 104.
+Theophrastus' account of fishes on dry land, 344, 345.
+Thevenot, on the Ceylon elephant, 203.
+Thomson's "_Seasons_," error as to the elephant, 106.
+Thunberg, account of the snake-stone, 317.
+_Thysdnura_, 464.
+Ticks, 475.
+Tic-polonga, 296. See Reptiles.
+Tiger at Trincomalie, 25 _n_.
+Toad, 319.
+Torrington, Viscount, his tax on dogs, 33.
+Tortoises, 289, 291. _See_ Turtle.
+  parasite of, 289.
+  fresh-water tortoises, 290. _See_ Terrapins.
+Tortoise-shell, cruel mode of taking, 293.
+Tree frogs, 320.
+Tree snakes, 304.
+Trepang, 396. _See_ Sea-slug.
+_Tritonia arborescens_, 385. _See_ Musical Fish.
+  letter on, 401.
+_Trombidium tinctorum. See_ Mites.
+Trumpeting of elephants, 97, 201.
+Trunk, elephant's, origin of the name, 97 _n_.
+Tsetse fly of Africa, 40.
+Turbinella rapa, 371. _See_ Chank.
+Turtle, 291. _See_ Reptiles.
+  barbarous treatment of, 291.
+Tushes, 79.
+Tusks, 79. _See_ Elephant; Ivory.
+  fallacy that they are shed, 79.
+  weight of, 80.
+  their uses, 80.
+  singular shapes of, 88 _n_.
+Tusks, Dr. Holland's theory of their formation, 88 _n_.
+Tytler, Mr., story of an elephant, 133 _n_.
+
+_Uropeltis_, 301.
+Urré! cry of the elephant drivers, 222.
+
+Valentyn's account of the mermaid, 70.
+  Dutch mode of taking elephants, 164.
+Venloos Bay, its profusion of shells, 369.
+Vossius, Isaac, 68.
+
+Waloora. _See_ Wild-boar, 59.
+  dreaded by the Singhalese, 59.
+Wanderoo monkey, 5.
+Wasps, wasps' nest, 418.
+  mason-wasp, 416.
+Water-fowl, 260, 262.
+Water snakes, 308.
+Weaver-bird, 251.
+Whales, 68. _See_ Cetacea.
+White, Adam, Esq., Brit Mus., _Introd_.
+White, of Selbourne, his theory of animals suckled by strange mothers, 113
+  _n_.
+White ants, 411. _See_ Termites.
+Whiting, Mr., account of buried fishes, 342 _n_., 354.
+Wild-boar, 59.
+Wolf, Jo. Christian, travels in Ceylon, 99 _n_., 115 _n_.
+  his account of elephants there, 99.
+  describes pitfalls for elephants, 157 _n_.
+Wood-carrying moth, 430. See Insects.
+Worms, parasite, 396. _See Radiata_.
+Wound when elephant shooting, 154.
+Wright, Thomas, Esq., F.S.A., 104.
+
+
+Yarrell's theory of buried fish, 342.
+Yule's embassy to Ava, 216 _n_.
+
+Zimb fly, 434.
+Zoology neglected in Ceylon, 3. _See_ Natural History.
+  partial extent to which it has been cultivated, _Introd_.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+LONDON
+PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.
+NRW-STREET SQUARE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+by J. Emerson Tennent
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 13325-8.txt or 13325-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/3/2/13325/
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Leonard Johnson and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team from images generously made available by the
+Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/old/13325-8.zip b/old/13325-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1370ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-8.zip
diff --git a/old/13325-h.zip b/old/13325-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38b1562
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h.zip
diff --git a/old/13325-h/13325-h.htm b/old/13325-h/13325-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..760dae2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/13325-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,32561 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+<head>
+<meta name="generator" content=
+"HTML Tidy for Linux/x86 (vers 1st August 2004), see www.w3.org" />
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+"text/html; charset=us-ascii" />
+<title>SKETCHES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON</title>
+
+<style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[*/
+
+  <!--
+
+  li                   {list-style-type: none}
+
+  body                 {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+  p                    {font-size: 1.0em; text-align: justify;}
+  blockquote           {text-align: justify;}
+  h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6    {text-align: center;}
+  h2                   {margin-top:    5em;}
+
+  hr                   {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+  html>body hr         {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;}
+  hr.full              {width: 100%;}
+  html>body hr.full    {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;}
+  hr.short             {text-align: center; width: 20%;}
+  html>body hr.short   {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;}
+
+  .note
+  {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+
+  span.pagenum
+  {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt;}
+
+  .poem
+  {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;}
+  .poem .stanza        {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+  .poem p              {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+  .poem p.i2           {margin-left: 1em;}
+  .poem p.i4           {margin-left: 2em;}
+  .poem p.i6           {margin-left: 3em;}
+  .poem p.i8           {margin-left: 4em;}
+  .poem p.i10          {margin-left: 5em;}
+
+  .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft
+  {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 1.5em;}
+  .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img
+                       {border: none;}
+  .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p
+                       {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;}
+  .figcenter           {margin: auto;}
+  .figright            {float: right;}
+  .figleft             {float: left;}
+
+  .footnote            {font-size: 0.9em; margin-right: 10%; margin-left: 10%;}
+
+  .side { float:right;
+          font-size: 75%;
+          width: 25%;
+          padding-left:10px;
+          border-left: dashed thin;
+          margin-left: 10px;
+          text-align: left;
+          text-indent: 0;
+          font-weight: bold;
+          font-style: italic;}
+
+  -->
+
+/*]]>*/
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+by J. Emerson Tennent
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+
+Author: J. Emerson Tennent
+
+Release Date: August 29, 2004 [EBook #13325]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Leonard Johnson and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team from images generously made available by the
+Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<h3>SKETCHES</h3>
+<h5>OF THE</h5>
+<h1>NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON</h1>
+<h5>WITH</h5>
+<h3>NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES</h3>
+<h5>Illustrative of the Habits and Instincts of the</h5>
+<h3>MAMMALIA, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES, INSECTS, &amp;c.</h3>
+<h4>INCLUDING A MONOGRAPH OF</h4>
+<h2>THE ELEPHANT</h2>
+<h5>AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE MODES OF CAPTURING AND TRAINING
+IT</h5>
+<h4>WITH ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS</h4>
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<h3>SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &amp;c.</h3>
+<h5>1861</h5>
+<a name="front" id="front"></a>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"><a href=
+"images/002.png"><img width="100%" src="images/002.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<h2><a name="Intro" id="Intro">INTRODUCTION.</a></h2>
+<hr />
+<p>A considerable portion of the contents of the present volume
+formed the zoological section of a much more comprehensive work
+recently published, on the history and present condition of
+Ceylon.<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a> But its inclusion there was a matter
+of difficulty; for to have altogether omitted the chapters on
+Natural History would have impaired the completeness of the plan on
+which I had attempted to describe the island; whilst to insert them
+as they here appear, without curtailment, would have encroached
+unduly on the space required for other essential topics. In this
+dilemma, I was obliged to adopt the alternative of so condensing
+the matter as to bring the whole within the prescribed
+proportions.</p>
+<p>But this operation necessarily diminished the general interest
+of the subjects treated, as well by the omission of incidents which
+would otherwise have been retained, as by the exclusion of
+anecdotes calculated to illustrate the habits and instincts of the
+animals described.</p>
+<p>A suggestion to re-publish these sections in an independent form
+has afforded an opportunity for repairing some of these defects by
+revising the entire, restoring omitted passages, and introducing
+fresh materials collected in Ceylon; the additional matter
+occupying a very large portion of the present volume.</p>
+<p>I have been enabled, at the same time, to avail myself of the
+corrections and communications of scientific friends; and thus to
+compensate, in some degree for what is still incomplete, by
+increased accuracy in minute particulars.</p>
+<p>In the Introduction to the First Edition of the original work I
+alluded, in the following terms, to that portion of it which is now
+reproduced in an extended form:&mdash;</p>
+<p>"Regarding the <i>fauna</i> of Ceylon, little has been published
+in any collective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr.
+KELAART entitled <i>Prodromus Faun&aelig; Zeilanic&aelig;</i>;
+several valuable papers by Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD in the <i>Annals and
+Magazine of Natural History</i> for 1852 and 1853; and some very
+imperfect lists appended to PRIDHAM'S compiled account of the
+island.<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2"><sup>2</sup></a> KNOX, in the charming narrative of
+his captivity, published in the feign of Charles II., has devoted a
+chapter to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. DAVY has described some
+of the reptiles: but with these exceptions the subject is almost
+untouched in works relating to the colony. Yet a more than ordinary
+interest attaches to the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of
+presenting, as is generally assumed, an identity between its
+<i>fauna</i> and that of Southern India, exhibits a remarkable
+diversity, taken in connection with the limited area over which the
+animals included in it are distributed. The island, in fact, may be
+regarded as the centre of a geographical circle, possessing within
+itself forms, whose allied species radiate far into the temperate
+regions of the north, as well as in to Africa, Australia, and the
+isles of the Eastern Archipelago.</p>
+<p>"In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation, I have
+endeavoured to interest others in the subject, by describing my own
+observations and impressions, with fidelity, and with as much
+accuracy as may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no
+greater knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than
+is ordinarily possessed by any educated gentleman. It was my good
+fortune, however, in my journeys to have the companionship of
+friends familiar with many branches of natural science: the late
+Dr. GARDNER, Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, an accomplished zoologist, Dr.
+TEMPLETON, and others; and I was thus enabled to collect on the
+spot many interesting facts relative to the structure and habits of
+the numerous tribes. These, chastened by the corrections of my
+fellow-travellers, and established by the examination of
+collections made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison with
+specimens contained in museums at home, I have ventured to submit
+as faithful outlines of the <i>fauna</i> of Ceylon.</p>
+<p>"The sections descriptive of the several classes are accompanied
+by lists, prepared with the assistance of scientific friends,
+showing the extent to which each particular branch had been
+investigated by naturalists, up to the period of my departure from
+Ceylon at the close of 1849. These, besides their inherent
+interest, will, I trust, stimulate others to engage in the same
+pursuit, by exhibiting chasms, which it remains for future industry
+and research to fill up;&mdash;and the study of the zoology of
+Ceylon may thus serve as a preparative for that of Continental
+India, embracing, as the former does, much that is common to both,
+as well as possessing a <i>fauna</i> peculiar to the island, that
+in itself will amply repay more extended scrutiny.</p>
+<p>"From these lists have been excluded all species regarding the
+authenticity of which reasonable doubts could be entertained<a id=
+"footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3"><sup>3</sup></a>, and of some of them, a very few have
+been printed in <i>italics</i>, in order to denote the desirability
+of more minute comparison with well-determined specimens in the
+great national depositories before finally incorporating them with
+the Singhalese catalogues.</p>
+<p>"In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts embodied in
+these sections, I cannot too warmly express my thanks for the aid I
+have received from gentlemen interested in similar studies in
+Ceylon: from Dr. KELAART<a id="footnotetag4" name=
+"footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4"><sup>4</sup></a> and Mr.
+EDGAR L. LAYARD, as well as from officers of the Ceylon Civil
+Service; the Hon. GERALD C. TALBOT, Mr. C.R. BULLER, Mr. MERCER,
+Mr. MORRIS, Mr. WHITING, Major SKINNER, and Mr. MITFORD.</p>
+<p>"Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work to the
+press, I have had the advantage of having portions of them read by
+Professor HUXLEY, Mr. MOORE, of the East India House Museum; Mr. R.
+PATTERSON, F.R.S., author of the <i>Introduction to Zoology</i>;
+and by Mr. ADAM WHITE, of the British Museum; to each of whom I am
+exceedingly indebted for the care they have bestowed. In an
+especial degree I have to acknowledge the kindness of Dr. J.E.
+GRAY, F.R.S., for valuable additions and corrections in the list of
+the Ceylon Reptilia; and to Professor FARADAY for some notes on the
+nature and qualities of the "Serpent Stone,"<a id="footnotetag5"
+name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5"><sup>5</sup></a>
+submitted to him.</p>
+<p>"The extent to which my observations on <i>the Elephant</i> have
+been carried, requires some explanation. The existing notices of
+this noble creature are chiefly devoted to its habits and
+capabilities <i>in captivity</i>; and very few works, with which I
+am acquainted, contain illustrations of its instincts and functions
+when wild in its native woods. Opportunities for observing the
+latter, and for collecting facts in connection with them, are
+abundant in Ceylon; and from the moment of my arrival, I profited
+by every occasion afforded to me for observing the elephant in a
+state of nature, and obtaining from hunters and natives correct
+information as to its oeconomy and disposition. Anecdotes in
+connection with this subject, I received from some of the most
+experienced residents in the island; amongst others, from Major
+SKINNER, Captain PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY, Mr. FAIRHOLME, Mr. CRIPPS,
+and Mr. MORRIS. Nor can I omit to express my acknowledgments to
+Professor OWEN, of the British Museum, to whom this portion of my
+manuscript was submitted previous to its committal to the
+press."</p>
+<p>To the foregoing observations I have little to add beyond my
+acknowledgment to Dr. ALBERT G&amp;&Uuml;NTHER, of the British
+Museum, for the communication of important facts in illustration of
+the ichthyology of Ceylon, as well as of the reptiles of the
+island.</p>
+<p>Mr. BLYTH, of the Calcutta Museum, has carefully revised the
+Catalogue of Birds, and supplied me with much useful information in
+regard to their geographical distribution. To his experienced
+scrutiny is due the perfected state in which the list is now
+presented. It will be seen, however, from the italicised names
+still retained, that inquiry is far from being exhausted.</p>
+<p>Mr. THWAITES, the able Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at
+Peradenia, near Kandy, has forwarded to me many valuable
+observations, not only in connection with the botany, but the
+zoology of the mountain region. The latter I have here embodied in
+their appropriate places, and those relating to plants and
+vegetation will appear in a future edition of my large work.</p>
+<p>To M. NIETNER, of Colombo, I am likewise indebted for many
+particulars regarding Singhalese Entomology, a department to which
+his attention has been given, with equal earnestness and
+success.</p>
+<p>Through the Hon. RICHARD MORGAN, acting Senior Puisne Judge of
+the Supreme Court at Colombo, I have received from his Interpreter,
+M.D. DE SILVA GOONERATNE MODLIAR, a Singhalese gentleman of
+learning and observation, many important notes, of which I have
+largely availed myself, in relation to the wild animals, and the
+folk-lore and superstitions of the natives in connection with
+them.</p>
+<p>Of the latter I have inserted numerous examples; in the
+conviction that, notwithstanding their obvious errors in many
+instances, these popular legends and traditions occasionally embody
+traces of actual observation, and may contain hints and materials
+deserving of minuter inquiry.</p>
+<p>I wish distinctly to disclaim offering the present volume as a
+compendium of the Natural History of Ceylon. I present it merely as
+a "m&eacute;moire pour servir," materials to assist some future
+inquirer in the formation of a more detailed and systematic account
+of the <i>fauna</i> of the island. My design has been to point out
+to others the extreme richness and variety of the field, the
+facility of exploring it, and the charms and attractions of the
+undertaking. I am eager to show how much remains to do by
+exhibiting the little that has as yet been done.</p>
+<p>The departments of <i>Mammalia</i> and <i>Birds</i> are the only
+two which can be said to have as yet undergone tolerably close
+investigation; although even in these it is probable that large
+additions still remain to be made to the ascertained species. But,
+independently of forms and specific characteristics, the more
+interesting inquiry into habits and instincts is still open for
+observation and remark; and for the investigation of these no
+country can possibly afford more inviting opportunities than
+Ceylon.</p>
+<p>Concerning the <i>Reptilia</i> a considerable amount of
+information has been amassed. The Batrachians and smaller Lizards
+have, I apprehend, been imperfectly investigated; but the Tortoises
+are well known, and the Serpents, from the fearful interest
+attaching to the race, and stimulating their destruction, have been
+so vigilantly pursued, that there is reason to believe that few, if
+any, varieties exist which have not been carefully examined. In a
+very large collection, made by Mr. CHARLES REGINALD BULLER during
+many years' residence in Kandy, and recently submitted by him to
+Dr. G&uuml;nther, only one single specimen proved to be new or
+previously unknown to belong to the island.</p>
+<p>Of the <i>Ichthyology</i> of Ceylon I am obliged to speak ill
+very different terms; for although the materials are abundant
+almost to profusion, little has yet been done to bring them under
+thoroughly scientific scrutiny. In the following pages I have
+alluded to the large collection of examples of Fishes sent home by
+officers of the Medical Staff, and which still remain unopened, in
+the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham; but I am not without hope that
+these may shortly undergo comparison with the drawings which exist
+of each, and that this branch of the island <i>fauna</i> may at
+last attract the attention to which its richness so eminently
+entitles it.</p>
+<p>In the department of Entomology much has already been achieved;
+but an extended area still invites future explorers; and one which
+the Notes of Mr. Walker prefixed to the List of Insects in this
+volume, show to be of extraordinary interest, from the unexpected
+convergence in Ceylon of characteristics heretofore supposed to
+have been kept distinct by the broad lines of geographical
+distribution.</p>
+<p>Relative to the inferior classes of <i>Invertebrata</i> very
+little has as yet been ascertained. The Mollusca, especially the
+lacustrine and fluviatile, have been most imperfectly investigated;
+and of the land-shells, a large proportion have yet to be submitted
+to scientific examination.</p>
+<p>The same may be said of the <i>Arachnida</i> and
+<i>Crustacea</i>. The jungle is frequented by spiders,
+<i>phalangia</i><a id="footnotetag6" name=
+"footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6"><sup>6</sup></a>, and
+acarids, of which nothing is known with certainty; and the
+sea-shore and sands have been equally overlooked, so far as
+concerns the infinite variety of lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and all
+their minor congeners. The <i>polypi, echini, asterias</i>, and
+other <i>radiata</i> of the coast, as well as the
+<i>acaleph&aelig;</i> of the deeper waters, have shared the same
+neglect: and literally nothing has been done to collect and
+classify the infusori&aelig; and minuter zoophytes, the labours of
+Dr. Kelaart amongst the Diatomace&aelig; being the solitary
+exception.</p>
+<p>Nothing is so likely to act as a stimulant to future research as
+an accurate conception of what has already been achieved. With
+equal terseness and truth Dr. Johnson has observed that the
+traveller who would bring back knowledge from any country must
+carry knowledge with him at setting out: and I am not without hope
+that the demonstration I now venture to offer, of the little that
+has already been done for zoology in Ceylon, may serve to inspire
+others with a desire to resume and complete the inquiry.</p>
+<p>J. EMERSON TENNENT</p>
+<p>London: November 1st, 1861.</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1" name=
+"footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ceylon: An Account of the Island, Physical, Historical, and
+Typographical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiquities,
+and Productions.</i> By Sir JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S., LL.D.,
+&amp;c. Illustrated by Maps. Plans, and Drawings. 2 vols. 8vo.
+Longman and Co., 1859.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2" name=
+"footnote2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2">(return)</a>
+<p><i>An Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of Ceylon
+and its Dependencies</i>, by C. PRIDHAM, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo., London,
+1849.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3" name=
+"footnote3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3">(return)</a>
+<p>An exception occurs in the list of shells, prepared by Mr.
+SYLVANUS HANLEY, in which some whose localities are doubtful have
+been admitted for reasons adduced. (See p. 387.)</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4" name=
+"footnote4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4">(return)</a>
+<p>It is with deep regret that I have to record the death of this
+accomplished gentleman, which occurred in 1860.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5" name=
+"footnote5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag5">(return)</a>
+<p>See p. 312.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6" name=
+"footnote6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag6">(return)</a>
+<p>Commonly called "harvest-men."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<hr />
+<h3><a href="#chap1">CHAPTER I.</a></h3>
+<h4>MAMMALIA.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Neglect of zoology in Ceylon <a href="#page3">3</a></li>
+<li>Labours of Dr. Davy<a href="#page3">3</a></li>
+<li>Followed by Dr. Templeton and others <a href=
+"#page4">4</a></li>
+<li>Dr. Kelaart and Mr. E.L. Layard <a href="#page4">4</a></li>
+<li>Monkeys <a href="#page5">5</a>
+<ul>
+<li>The Rilawa, <i>Macacus pileatus</i> <a href="#page5">5</a></li>
+<li>Wanderoos<a href="#page5">5</a></li>
+<li>Knox's account of them <a href="#page5">5</a></li>
+<li>Error regarding the <i>Silenus Veter (note)</i> <a href=
+"#page6">6</a></li>
+<li>Presbytes Cephalopterus <a href="#page7">7</a></li>
+<li>Fond of eating flowers <a href="#page7">7</a></li>
+<li>A white monkey <a href="#page8">8</a></li>
+<li>Method of the flight of monkeys <a href="#page9">9</a></li>
+<li>P. Ursinus in the Hills <a href="#page9">9</a></li>
+<li>P. Thersites in the Wanny <a href="#page10">10</a></li>
+<li>P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie <a href=
+"#page10">10</a></li>
+<li>No dead monkey ever found <a href="#page11">11</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Loris <a href="#page12">12</a></li>
+<li>Bats <a href="#page13">13</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Flying Fox, <i>Pteropus Edwardsii</i> <a href=
+"#page14">14</a></li>
+<li>Their numbers at Peradenia <a href="#page16">16</a></li>
+<li>Singularity of their attitudes <a href="#page17">17</a></li>
+<li>Food and mode of eating <a href="#page18">18</a></li>
+<li>Horse-shoe bat, <i>Rhinolophus</i> <a href=
+"#page19">19</a></li>
+<li>Faculty of smell in bat <a href="#page19">19</a></li>
+<li>A tiny bat, <i>Scotophilus foromandelicus</i> <a href=
+"#page20">20</a></li>
+<li>Extraordinary parasite of the bat, the <i>Nycteribia</i>
+<a href="#page20">20</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Carnivora</i>.&mdash;Bears <a href="#page22">22</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Their ferocity <a href="#page23">23</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (<i>note</i>)
+<a href="#page24">24</a></li>
+<li>Leopards <a href="#page25">25</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Erroneously confounded with the Indian <i>cheetah</i> <a href=
+"#page25">25</a></li>
+<li>Curious belief <a href="#page26">26</a></li>
+<li>Anecdotes of leopards <a href="#page27">27</a></li>
+<li>Their attraction by the smallpox <a href="#page28">28</a></li>
+<li>Native superstition <a href="#page28">28</a></li>
+<li>Encounter with a leopard <a href="#page29">29</a></li>
+<li>Monkeys killed by leopards <a href="#page31">31</a></li>
+<li>Alleged peculiarity of the claws <a href="#page32">32</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Palm-cat <a href="#page32">32</a></li>
+<li>Civet <a href="#page32">32</a></li>
+<li>Dogs <a href="#page33">33</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Cruel mode of destroying dogs<a href="#page33">33</a></li>
+<li>Their republican instincts<a href="#page34">34</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Jackal <a href="#page34">34</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Cunning, anecdotes of <a href="#page35">35</a></li>
+<li>The horn of the jackal <a href="#page36">36</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mungoos <a href="#page37">37</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Its fights with serpents<a href="#page38">38</a></li>
+<li>Theory of its antidote <a href="#page40">40</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Squirrels <a href="#page41">41</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Flying squirrel <a href="#page41">41</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tree-rat <a href="#page42">42</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Story of a rat and a snake <a href="#page43">43</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coffee-rat <a href="#page43">43</a></li>
+<li>Bandicoot <a href="#page44">44</a></li>
+<li>Porcupine <a href="#page45">45</a></li>
+<li>Pengolin <a href="#page46">46</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Its habits and gentleness <a href="#page47">47</a></li>
+<li>Its skeleton <a href="#page48">48</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Ruminantia</i>.&mdash;The Gaur <a href="#page49">49</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Oxen <a href="#page50">50</a></li>
+<li>Humped cattle <a href="#page51">51</a></li>
+<li>Encounter of a cow and a leopard <a href="#page51">51</a></li>
+<li>Draft oxen <a href="#page52">52</a></li>
+<li>Their treatment <a href="#page53">53</a></li>
+<li>A <i>Tavalam</i> <a href="#page53">53</a></li>
+<li>Attempt to introduce the camel (note) <a href=
+"#page53">53</a></li>
+<li>Buffaloes <a href="#page54">54</a></li>
+<li>Sporting buffaloes <a href="#page55">55</a></li>
+<li>Peculiar structure of the foot <a href="#page56">56</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Deer <a href="#page57">57</a></li>
+<li>Meminna <a href="#page57">57</a></li>
+<li>Elk <a href="#page59">59</a></li>
+<li>Wild-boar <a href="#page59">59</a></li>
+<li>Elephants <a href="#page60">60</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Recent discovery of a new species <a href="#page60">60</a></li>
+<li>Geological speculations as to the island of Ceylon <a href=
+"#page61">61</a></li>
+<li>Ancient tradition <a href="#page61">61</a></li>
+<li>Opinion of Professor Ansted <a href="#page61">61</a></li>
+<li>Peculiarities in Ceylon mammalia <a href=
+"#page63">63</a></li>
+<li>The same in Ceylon birds and insects <a href=
+"#page63">63</a></li>
+<li>Temminck's discovery of a new species of elephant in Sumatra
+<a href="#page64">64</a></li>
+<li>Points of distinction between it and the elephant of India
+<a href="#page65">65</a></li>
+<li>Professor Schlegel's description <a href="#page66">66</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Cetacea</i> <a href="#page68">68</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Whales <a href="#page68">68</a></li>
+<li>The Dugong <a href="#page69">69</a></li>
+<li>Origin of the fable of the mermaid <a href=
+"#page70">70</a></li>
+<li>Credulity of the Portuguese <a href="#page70">70</a></li>
+<li>Belief of the Dutch <a href="#page70">70</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Testimony of Valentyn <a href="#page71">71</a></li>
+<li>List of Ceylon mammalia <a href="#page73">73</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap2">CHAP. II</a></h3>
+<h4>THE ELEPHANT</h4>
+<hr />
+<p><i>Its Structure</i>.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Vast numbers in Ceylon <a href="#page75">75</a></li>
+<li>Derivation of the word "elephant" (note) <a href=
+"#page76">76</a></li>
+<li>Antiquity of the trade in elephants <a href=
+"#page77">77</a></li>
+<li>Numbers now diminishing <a href="#page77">77</a></li>
+<li>Mischief done by them to crops <a href="#page77">77</a></li>
+<li>Ivory scarce in Ceylon <a href="#page78">78</a></li>
+<li>Conjectures as to the absence of tusks <a href=
+"#page79">79</a></li>
+<li>Elephant a harmless animal <a href="#page81">81</a></li>
+<li>Alleged antipathies to other animals <a href=
+"#page82">82</a></li>
+<li>Fights with each other <a href="#page86">86</a></li>
+<li>The foot its chief weapon <a href="#page87">87</a></li>
+<li>Use of the tusks in a wild state doubtful <a href=
+"#page88">88</a></li>
+<li>Anecdote of sagacity in an elephant at Kandy <a href=
+"#page89">89</a></li>
+<li>Difference between African and Indian species <a href=
+"#page90">90</a></li>
+<li>Native ideas of perfection in an elephant <a href=
+"#page91">91</a></li>
+<li>Blotches on the skin <a href="#page92">92</a></li>
+<li>White elephants not unknown in Ceylon <a href=
+"#page93">93</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap3">CHAP. III.</a></h3>
+<h4>THE ELEPHANT</h4>
+<hr />
+<p><i>Its Habits</i>.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Water, but not heat, essential to elephants <a href=
+"#page94">94</a></li>
+<li>Sight limited <a href="#page95">95</a></li>
+<li>Smell acute <a href="#page96">96</a></li>
+<li>Caution <a href="#page96">96</a></li>
+<li>Hearing, good <a href="#page96">96</a></li>
+<li>Cries of the elephant <a href="#page97">97</a></li>
+<li>Trumpeting <a href="#page97">97</a></li>
+<li>Booming noise <a href="#page98">98</a></li>
+<li>Height, exaggerated <a href="#page99">99</a></li>
+<li>Facility of stealthy motion <a href="#page100">100</a></li>
+<li>Ancient delusion as to the joints of the leg <a href=
+"#page100">100</a></li>
+<li>Its exposure by Sir Thos. Browne <a href=
+"#page100">100</a></li>
+<li>Its perpetuation by poets and others <a href=
+"#page102">102</a></li>
+<li>Position of the elephant in sleep <a href=
+"#page105">105</a></li>
+<li>An elephant killed on its feet <a href="#page107">107</a></li>
+<li>Mode of lying down <a href="#page107">107</a></li>
+<li>Its gait a shuffle <a href="#page108">108</a></li>
+<li>Power of climbing mountains <a href="#page109">109</a></li>
+<li>Facilitated by the joint of the knee <a href=
+"#page110">110</a></li>
+<li>Mode of descending declivities <a href="#page111">111</a></li>
+<li>A "herd" is a family <a href="#page112">112</a></li>
+<li>Attachment to their young <a href="#page113">113</a></li>
+<li>Suckled indifferently by the females <a href=
+"#page113">113</a></li>
+<li>A "rogue" elephant <a href="#page114">114</a></li>
+<li>Their cunning and vice <a href="#page115">115</a></li>
+<li>Injuries done by them <a href="#page115">115</a></li>
+<li>The leader of a herd a tusker <a href="#page117">117</a></li>
+<li>Bathing and nocturnal gambols, description of a scene by Major
+Skinner <a href="#page118">118</a></li>
+<li>Method of swimming <a href="#page121">121</a></li>
+<li>Internal anatomy imperfectly known <a href=
+"#page122">122</a></li>
+<li>Faculty of storing water <a href="#page124">124</a></li>
+<li>Peculiarity of the stomach <a href="#page125">125</a></li>
+<li>The food of the elephant <a href="#page129">129</a></li>
+<li>Sagacity in search of it <a href="#page130">130</a></li>
+<li>Unexplained dread of fences <a href="#page131">131</a></li>
+<li>Its spirit of inquisitiveness <a href="#page132">132</a></li>
+<li>Anecdotes illustrative of its curiosity <a href=
+"#page132">132</a></li>
+<li>Estimate of sagacity <a href="#page133">133</a></li>
+<li>Singular conduct of a herd during thunder <a href=
+"#page134">134</a></li>
+<li>An elephant feigning death <a href="#page135">135</a></li>
+<li><i>Appendix</i>.&mdash;Narratives of natives, as to encounters
+with rogue elephants <a href="#page136">136</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap4">CHAP. IV.</a></h3>
+<h4>THE ELEPHANT</h4>
+<hr />
+<p><i>Elephant Shooting</i>.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Vast numbers shot in Ceylon <a href="#page142">142</a></li>
+<li>Revolting details of elephant killing in Africa <a href=
+"#page142">142</a></li>
+<li>Fatal spots at which to aim <a href="#page143">143</a></li>
+<li>Structure of the bones of the head <a href=
+"#page144">144</a></li>
+<li>Wounds which are certain to kill <a href=
+"#page145">145</a></li>
+<li>Attitudes when surprised <a href="#page148">148</a></li>
+<li>Peculiar movements when reposing <a href=
+"#page148">148</a></li>
+<li>Habits when attacked <a href="#page150">150</a></li>
+<li>Sagacity of native trackers <a href="#page150">150</a></li>
+<li>Courage and agility of the elephants in escape <a href=
+"#page151">151</a></li>
+<li>Worthlessness of the carcass <a href="#page153">153</a></li>
+<li>Singular recovery from a wound (note) <a href=
+"#page154">154</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap5">CHAP. V.</a></h3>
+<h4>THE ELEPHANT.</h4>
+<hr />
+<p><i>An Elephant Corral</i>.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Early method of catching elephants <a href=
+"#page156">156</a></li>
+<li>Capture in pit-falls <a href="#page156">156</a></li>
+<li>By means of decoys <a href="#page157">157</a></li>
+<li>Panickeas&mdash;their courage and address <a href=
+"#page158">158</a></li>
+<li>Their sagacity in following the elephant <a href=
+"#page159">159</a></li>
+<li>Mode of capture by the noose <a href="#page160">160</a></li>
+<li>Mode of taming <a href="#page161">161</a></li>
+<li>Method of leading the elephants to the coast <a href=
+"#page162">162</a></li>
+<li>Process of embarking them at Manaar <a href=
+"#page162">162</a></li>
+<li>Method of capturing a whole herd <a href=
+"#page163">163</a></li>
+<li>The "keddah" in Bengal described <a href=
+"#page164">164</a></li>
+<li>Process of enclosing a herd <a href="#page165">165</a></li>
+<li>Process of capture in Ceylon <a href="#page165">165</a></li>
+<li>An elephant corral and its construction <a href=
+"#page166">166</a></li>
+<li>An elephant hunt in Ceylon, 1847 <a href=
+"#page167">167</a></li>
+<li>The town and district of Kornegalle <a href=
+"#page167">167</a></li>
+<li>The rock of &AElig;tagalla <a href="#page168">168</a></li>
+<li>Forced labour of the corral in former times <a href=
+"#page170">170</a></li>
+<li>Now given voluntarily <a href="#page171">171</a></li>
+<li>Form of the enclosure <a href="#page172">172</a></li>
+<li>Method of securing a wild herd <a href="#page173">173</a></li>
+<li>Scene when driving them into the corral <a href=
+"#page174">174</a></li>
+<li>A failure <a href="#page176">176</a></li>
+<li>An elephant drove by night <a href="#page177">177</a></li>
+<li>Singular scene in the corral <a href="#page178">178</a></li>
+<li>Excitement of the tame elephants (note) <a href=
+"#page178">178</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap6">CHAP. VI.</a></h3>
+<h4>THE ELEPHANT.</h4>
+<hr />
+<p><i>The Captives</i>.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>A night scene <a href="#page180">180</a></li>
+<li>Morning in the corral <a href="#page181">181</a></li>
+<li>Preparations for securing the captives <a href=
+"#page181">181</a></li>
+<li>The "cooroowe," or noosers <a href="#page181">181</a></li>
+<li>The tame decoys <a href="#page182">182</a></li>
+<li>First captive tied up <a href="#page183">183</a></li>
+<li>Singular conduct of the wild elephants <a href=
+"#page184">184</a></li>
+<li>Furious attempts of the herd to escape <a href=
+"#page186">186</a></li>
+<li>Courageous conduct of the natives <a href=
+"#page187">187</a></li>
+<li>Variety of disposition exhibited by the herd <a href=
+"#page189">189</a></li>
+<li>Extraordinary contortions of the captives <a href=
+"#page190">190</a></li>
+<li>Water withdrawn from the stomach <a href=
+"#page191">191</a></li>
+<li>Instinct of the decoys <a href="#page191">191</a></li>
+<li>Conduct of the noosers <a href="#page194">194</a></li>
+<li>The young ones and their actions <a href=
+"#page194">194</a></li>
+<li>Noosing a "rogue." and his death <a href=
+"#page196">196</a></li>
+<li>Instinct of flies in search of carrion (<i>note</i>) <a href=
+"#page196">196</a></li>
+<li>Strange scene <a href="#page197">197</a></li>
+<li>A second herd captured <a href="#page199">199</a></li>
+<li>Their treatment of a solitary elephant <a href=
+"#page200">200</a></li>
+<li>A magnificent female elephant <a href="#page201">201</a></li>
+<li>Her extraordinary attitudes <a href="#page201">201</a></li>
+<li>Wonderful contortions <a href="#page203">203</a></li>
+<li>Taking the captives out of the corral <a href=
+"#page204">204</a></li>
+<li>Their subsequent treatment and training <a href=
+"#page205">205</a></li>
+<li>Grandeur of the scene <a href="#page205">205</a></li>
+<li>Story of young pet elephant <a href="#page206">6</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap7">CHAP. VII.</a></h3>
+<h4>THE ELEPHANT.</h4>
+<hr />
+<p><i>Conduct in Captivity</i>.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Alleged superiority of the Indian to the African
+elephant&mdash;not true <a href="#page207">207</a></li>
+<li>Ditto of Ceylon elephant to Indian <a href=
+"#page209">209</a></li>
+<li>Process of training in Ceylon <a href="#page211">211</a></li>
+<li>Allowed to bathe <a href="#page213">213</a></li>
+<li>Difference of disposition <a href="#page214">214</a></li>
+<li>Sudden death of "broken heart" <a href="#page216">216</a></li>
+<li>First employment treading clay <a href="#page217">217</a></li>
+<li>Drawing a waggon <a href="#page217">217</a></li>
+<li>Dragging timber <a href="#page218">218</a></li>
+<li>Sagacity in labour <a href="#page218">218</a></li>
+<li>Mode of raising stones <a href="#page218">218</a></li>
+<li>Strength in throwing down trees exaggerated <a href=
+"#page219">219</a></li>
+<li>Piling timber <a href="#page219">219</a></li>
+<li>Not uniform in habits of work <a href="#page220">220</a></li>
+<li>Lazy if not watched <a href="#page220">220</a></li>
+<li>Obedience to keeper from affection, not fear <a href=
+"#page221">221</a></li>
+<li>Change of keeper&mdash;story of child <a href=
+"#page222">222</a></li>
+<li>Ear for sounds and music <a href="#page223">223</a></li>
+<li><i>Hurra! (note)</i> <a href="#page223">223</a></li>
+<li>Endurance of pain <a href="#page224">224</a></li>
+<li>Docility <a href="#page225">225</a></li>
+<li>Working elephants, delicate <a href="#page225">225</a></li>
+<li>Deaths in government stud <a href="#page226">226</a></li>
+<li>Diseases <a href="#page227">227</a></li>
+<li>Subject to tooth-ache <a href="#page227">227</a></li>
+<li>Question of the value of labour of an elephant <a href=
+"#page229">229</a></li>
+<li>Food in captivity, and cost <a href="#page230">230</a></li>
+<li>Breed in captivity <a href="#page231">231</a></li>
+<li>Age <a href="#page232">232</a></li>
+<li>Theory of M. Fleurens <a href="#page232">232</a></li>
+<li>No dead elephants found <a href="#page234">234</a></li>
+<li>Sindbad's story <a href="#page236">236</a></li>
+<li>Passage from &AElig;lian <a href="#page237">237</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap8">CHAP. VIII.</a></h3>
+<h4>BIRDS.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Their numbers <a href="#page241">241</a></li>
+<li>Songsters <a href="#page241">241</a></li>
+<li>Hornbills, the "bird with two heads" <a href=
+"#page242">242</a></li>
+<li>Pea fowl <a href="#page244">244</a></li>
+<li>Sea birds, their number <a href="#page245">245</a></li>
+<li>I. <i>Accipitres</i>.&mdash;Eagles <a href="#page245">245</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Falcons and hawks <a href="#page246">246</a></li>
+<li>Owls&mdash;the devil bird <a href="#page247">247</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>II. <i>Passeres</i>.&mdash;Swallows <a href="#page248">248</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Kingfishers&mdash;sunbirds <a href="#page249">249</a></li>
+<li>The cotton-thief <a href="#page250">250</a></li>
+<li>Bul-bul&mdash;tailor bird&mdash;and weaver <a href=
+"#page251">251</a></li>
+<li>The mountain jay <a href="#page253">253</a></li>
+<li>Crows, anecdotes of <a href="#page253">253</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>III. <i>Scansores</i>.&mdash;Parroquets <a href=
+"#page256">256</a></li>
+<li>IV. <i>Columbid&aelig;</i>.&mdash;Pigeons <a href=
+"#page257">257</a></li>
+<li>V. <i>Gallin&aelig;</i>.&mdash;Jungle-fowl <a href=
+"#page259">259</a></li>
+<li>VI. <i>Grall&aelig;</i>.&mdash;Ibis, stork, &amp;c. <a href=
+"#page260">260</a></li>
+<li>VII. <i>Anseres</i>.&mdash;Flamingoes <a href=
+"#page261">261</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Pelicans <a href="#page262">262</a></li>
+<li>Strange scene <a href="#page263">263</a></li>
+<li>Game&mdash;Partridges, &amp;c. <a href="#page265">265</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>List of Ceylon birds <a href="#page265">265</a></li>
+<li>List of birds peculiar to Ceylon <a href=
+"#page269">269</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap9">CHAP. IX.</a></h3>
+<h4>REPTILES.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Lizards</i>.&mdash;Iguana <a href="#page271">271</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Kabara-goya, barbarous custom in preparing the kabara-tel
+poison <a href="#page272">272</a></li>
+<li>Blood-suckers <a href="#page275">275</a></li>
+<li>The green calotes <a href="#page276">276</a></li>
+<li>The lyre-headed lizard <a href="#page277">277</a></li>
+<li>Chameleon <a href="#page278">278</a></li>
+<li>Ceratophora <a href="#page279">279</a></li>
+<li>Geckoes,&mdash;their power of reproducing limbs <a href=
+"#page281">281</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Crocodiles <a href="#page282">282</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Their sensitiveness to tickling <a href="#page285">285</a></li>
+<li>Anecdotes of crocodiles <a href="#page286">286</a></li>
+<li>Their power of burying themselves in the mud <a href=
+"#page286">286</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Tortoises</i>.&mdash;Curious parasite <a href=
+"#page289">289</a>x
+<ul>
+<li>Terrapins <a href="#page290">290</a></li>
+<li>Edible turtle <a href="#page291">291</a></li>
+<li>Cruel mode of cutting it up alive <a href=
+"#page291">291</a></li>
+<li>Huge Indian tortoises (<i>note</i>) <a href=
+"#page293">293</a></li>
+<li>Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the
+tortoise-shell <a href="#page293">293</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Serpents</i>.&mdash;Venomous species rare <a href=
+"#page294">294</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Tic polonga and carawala <a href="#page296">296</a></li>
+<li>Cobra de capello <a href="#page297">297</a></li>
+<li>Tame snakes (<i>note</i>) <a href="#page298">298</a></li>
+<li>Anecdotes of the cobra de capello <a href=
+"#page298">298</a></li>
+<li>Legends concerning it <a href="#page299">299</a></li>
+<li>Instance of land snakes found at sea <a href=
+"#page300">300</a></li>
+<li>Singular tradition regarding the robra de capello <a href=
+"#page300">300</a></li>
+<li>Uropeltid&aelig;.&mdash;New species discovered in Ceylon
+<a href="#page302">302</a></li>
+<li>Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello <a href=
+"#page303">303</a></li>
+<li>The Python <a href="#page303">303</a></li>
+<li>Tree snakes <a href="#page305">305</a></li>
+<li>Water snakes <a href="#page306">306</a></li>
+<li>Sea snakes <a href="#page306">306</a></li>
+<li>Snake stones <a href="#page312">312</a></li>
+<li>Analysis of one <a href="#page315">315</a></li>
+<li>C&aelig;cilia <a href="#page317">317</a></li>
+<li>Frogs <a href="#page317">317</a></li>
+<li>Tree frogs <a href="#page320">320</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>List of Ceylon reptiles <a href="#page321">321</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap10">CHAP. X.</a></h3>
+<h4>FISHES.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known <a href=
+"#page323">323</a></li>
+<li>Fish for table, seir fish <a href="#page324">324</a></li>
+<li>Sardines, poisonous? <a href="#page324">324</a></li>
+<li>Sharks <a href="#page325">325</a></li>
+<li>Saw-fish <a href="#page325">325</a></li>
+<li>Fish of brilliant colours <a href="#page326">326</a></li>
+<li>The ray <a href="#page326">326</a></li>
+<li>The sword-fish <a href="#page328">328</a></li>
+<li>Curious fish described by &AElig;lian <a href=
+"#page330">330</a></li>
+<li><i>Salarias alticus</i> <a href="#page332">332</a></li>
+<li>Beautifully coloured fishes <a href="#page332">332</a></li>
+<li>Fresh-water fish, little known,&mdash;not much eaten <a href=
+"#page335">335</a></li>
+<li>Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake <a href=
+"#page336">336</a></li>
+<li>Perches <a href="#page336">336</a></li>
+<li>Eels <a href="#page337">337</a></li>
+<li>Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes <a href=
+"#page339">339</a></li>
+<li>Their re-appearance after rain <a href="#page340">340</a></li>
+<li>Mode of fishing in the ponds <a href="#page340">340</a></li>
+<li>Showers of fish <a href="#page341">341</a></li>
+<li>Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable <a href=
+"#page342">342</a></li>
+<li>Fish moving on dry land <a href="#page344">344</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Ancient authorities, Greek and Roman <a href=
+"#page345">345</a></li>
+<li>Aristotle and Theophrastus <a href="#page346">346</a></li>
+<li>Athen&aelig;us and Polybius <a href="#page346">346</a></li>
+<li>Livy, Pompomus, Mela, and Juvenal <a href=
+"#page346">346</a></li>
+<li>Seneca and Pliny <a href="#page346">346</a></li>
+<li>Georgius Agricola, Gesner, &amp;c. <a href=
+"#page347">347</a></li>
+<li>Instances in Guiana (<i>note</i>) <a href=
+"#page347">347</a></li>
+<li><i>Perca Scandens</i>, ascends trees <a href=
+"#page348">348</a></li>
+<li>Doubts as to the story of Daldorf <a href=
+"#page350">350</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fishes burying themselves daring the dry season <a href=
+"#page351">351</a>
+<ul>
+<li>The <i>protopterus</i> of the Gambia <a href=
+"#page352">352</a></li>
+<li>Instances in the fish of the Nile <a href=
+"#page352">352</a></li>
+<li>Instances in the fish of South America <a href=
+"#page353">353</a></li>
+<li>Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon
+<a href="#page354">354</a></li>
+<li>Molluscs that bury themselves <a href="#page355">355</a></li>
+<li>The animals that so bury themselves in India <a href=
+"#page357">357</a></li>
+<li>Analogous case of <a href="#page8">8</a></li>
+<li>Theory of &aelig;stivation and hybernation <a href=
+"#page358">358</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fish in hot water in Ceylon <a href="#page358">358</a></li>
+<li>List of Ceylon fishes <a href="#page359">359</a></li>
+<li>Instances of fishes falling from the clouds <a href=
+"#page362">362</a></li>
+<li><i>Note</i> on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley <a href=
+"#page364">364</a></li>
+<li>Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus. <a href=
+"#page366">366</a></li>
+<li><i>Note</i> on the Bora-chung <a href="#page367">367</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap11">CHAP. XI.</a></h3>
+<h4>MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPH&AElig;.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>I. <i>Conchology</i>.&mdash;General character of Ceylon shells
+<a href="#page369">369</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections
+<a href="#page369">369</a></li>
+<li>Ancient export of shells from Ceylon <a href=
+"#page370">370</a></li>
+<li>Special forms confined to particular localities <a href=
+"#page372">372</a></li>
+<li>The pearl fishery of Aripo <a href="#page373">373</a></li>
+<li>Frequent suspensions of <a href="#page374">374</a></li>
+<li>Experiment to create beds of the pearl oyster <a href=
+"#page375">375</a></li>
+<li>Process of diving for pearls <a href="#page377">377</a></li>
+<li>Danger from sharks <a href="#page379">379</a></li>
+<li>The transparent pearl oyster (<i>Placuna placenta</i>) <a href=
+"#page380">380</a></li>
+<li>The "musical fish" at Ballicaloa <a href=
+"#page381">381</a></li>
+<li>A similar phenomenon at other places <a href=
+"#page383">383</a></li>
+<li>Faculty of uttering sounds in fishes <a href=
+"#page384">384</a></li>
+<li>Instance in the <i>Tritonia arborescens</i> <a href=
+"#page385">385</a></li>
+<li>Difficulty in forming a list of Ceylon shells <a href=
+"#page386">386</a></li>
+<li>List of Ceylon shells <a href="#page388">388</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>II. <i>Radiata</i>.&mdash;Star fish <a href="#page395">395</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Sea slugs <a href="#page396">396</a></li>
+<li>Parasitic worms <a href="#page396">396</a></li>
+<li>Planaria <a href="#page398">398</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>III. <i>Acaleph&aelig;</i>, abundant <a href="#page398">398</a>
+<ul>
+<li>The Portuguese man-of-war <a href="#page400">400</a></li>
+<li>Red infusoria <a href="#page400">400</a></li>
+<li><i>Note</i> on the <i>Tritonia arborescens</i> <a href=
+"#page401">401</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap12">CHAP. XII.</a></h3>
+<h4>INSECTS.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Profusion of insects in Ceylon <a href="#page403">403</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Imperfect knowledge of <a href="#page404">404</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>I. <i>Coleoptera</i>.&mdash;Beetles <a href="#page405">405</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Scavenger beetles <a href="#page405">405</a></li>
+<li>Coco-nut beetles <a href="#page407">407</a></li>
+<li>Tortoise beetles <a href="#page408">408</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>II. <i>Orthoptera</i>.&mdash;Mantis and leaf-insects <a href=
+"#page408">408</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Stick-insects <a href="#page410">410</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>III. <i>Neuroptera</i>.&mdash;Dragon flies <a href=
+"#page411">411</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Ant-lion <a href="#page411">411</a></li>
+<li>White ants <a href="#page411">411</a></li>
+<li>Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages <a href=
+"#page412">412</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>IV. <i>Hymenoptera</i>.&mdash;Mason wasps <a href=
+"#page416">416</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Wasps <a href="#page417">417</a></li>
+<li>Bees <a href="#page418">418</a></li>
+<li>Carpenter Bee <a href="#page418">418</a></li>
+<li>Ants <a href="#page410">420</a></li>
+<li>Burrowing ants <a href="#page424">424</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>V. <i>Lepidoptera</i>.&mdash;Butterflies <a href=
+"#page424">424</a>
+<ul>
+<li>The spectre <a href="#page426">426</a></li>
+<li>Lyc&aelig;nid&aelig; <a href="#page426">426</a></li>
+<li>Moths <a href="#page427">427</a></li>
+<li>Silk worms <a href="#page428">428</a></li>
+<li>Stinging caterpillars <a href="#page429">429</a></li>
+<li>Wood-carrying moths <a href="#page430">430</a></li>
+<li>Pterophorus <a href="#page432">432</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>VI. <i>Homoptera</i> <a href="#page432">432</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Cicada <a href="#page432">432</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>VII. <i>Hemiptera</i> <a href="#page433">433</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Bugs <a href="#page433">433</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>VIII. <i>Aphaniptera</i> <a href="#page433">433</a></li>
+<li>IX. <i>Diptera</i>.&mdash;Mosquitoes <a href="#page434">434</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Mosquitoes the "plague of flies" <a href=
+"#page434">434</a></li>
+<li>The coffee bug <a href="#page436">436</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>General character of Ceylon insects <a href=
+"#page442">442</a></li>
+<li>List of insects in Ceylon <a href="#page442">442</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h3><a href="#chap13">CHAP. XIII.</a></h3>
+<h4>ARACHNID&AElig;, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTAC&AElig;, ETC.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Spiders <a href="#page464">464</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Strange nets of the wood spiders <a href=
+"#page464">464</a></li>
+<li>The mygale <a href="#page465">465</a></li>
+<li>Birds killed by it <a href="#page467">467</a></li>
+<li><i>Olios Taprobanius</i> <a href="#page469">469</a></li>
+<li>The galeodes <a href="#page470">470</a></li>
+<li>Gregarious spiders <a href="#page471">471</a></li>
+<li>Ticks <a href="#page471">471</a></li>
+<li>Mites.&mdash;<i>Trombidium tinctorum</i> <a href=
+"#page472">472</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Myriapods</i>.&mdash;Centipedes <a href="#page472">472</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Cermatia <a href="#page473">473</a></li>
+<li>Scolopendra crassa <a href="#page474">474</a></li>
+<li>S. pollippes <a href="#page474">474</a></li>
+<li>The fish insect <a href="#page474">474</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Millipeds</i>.&mdash;Julus <a href="#page476">476</a></li>
+<li><i>Crustac&aelig;</i> <a href="#page477">477</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Calling crabs <a href="#page477">477</a></li>
+<li>Sand crabs <a href="#page478">478</a></li>
+<li>Painted crabs <a href="#page478">478</a></li>
+<li>Paddling crabs <a href="#page478">478</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Annelid&aelig;</i>, Leeches.&mdash;The land leech <a href=
+"#page479">479</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Medicinal leech <a href="#page483">483</a></li>
+<li>Cattle leech <a href="#page484">484</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>List of Articulata, &amp;c. <a href="#page485">485</a></li>
+<li><i>Note</i>.&mdash;On the revivification of the Rotifera and
+Paste-eels <a href="#page486">486</a></li>
+</ul>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+<ul>
+<li>View of an Elephant Corral <a href=
+"#front">Frontispiece</a></li>
+<li>Group of Ceylon Monkeys to face <a href="#page5">5</a></li>
+<li>The Loris (<i>Loris gracilis</i>) <a href="#page12">12</a></li>
+<li>Group of Flying Foxes (<i>Pteropus Edwardsii</i>) to face
+<a href="#page14">14</a></li>
+<li>Head of the Horse-shoe Bat (<i>Rhynulophus</i>) <a href=
+"#page19">19</a></li>
+<li>Nycteribia <a href="#page21">21</a></li>
+<li>Indian Bear (<i>Prochylus labiatus</i>) <a href=
+"#page23">23</a></li>
+<li>Ceylon Leopard and Indian Cheetah <a href="#page26">26</a></li>
+<li>Jackal's Skull and "Horn" <a href="#page36">36</a></li>
+<li>Mongoos of Neura-ellia (<i>Herpestes vitticollis</i>) <a href=
+"#page38">38</a></li>
+<li>Flying Squirrel (<i>Pteromys oral</i>) <a href=
+"#page41">41</a></li>
+<li>Coffee Rat (<i>Golunda Elliotti</i>) <a href=
+"#page44">44</a></li>
+<li>Bandicoot Rat (<i>Mus bandicota</i>) <a href=
+"#page45">45</a></li>
+<li>Pengolin (<i>Manis pentadactylus</i>) <a href=
+"#page47">47</a></li>
+<li>Skeleton of the Pengolin <a href="#page48">48</a></li>
+<li>Moose-deer (<i>Moschus meminna</i>) <a href=
+"#page59">59</a></li>
+<li>The Dugong (<i>Halicore dugung</i>) <a href=
+"#page69">69</a></li>
+<li>The Mermaid, from Valentyn <a href="#page72">72</a></li>
+<li>Brain of the Elephant <a href="#footnote951">95n</a></li>
+<li>Bones of the Fore-leg <a href="#page108">108</a></li>
+<li>Elephant descending a Hill <a href=
+"#footnote1102">110n</a></li>
+<li>Elephant's Well <a href="#page122">122</a></li>
+<li>Elephant's Stomach, showing the Water-cells <a href=
+"#page125">125</a></li>
+<li>Elephant's Trachea <a href="#page126">126</a></li>
+<li>Water-cells in the Stomach of the Camel <a href=
+"#page128">128</a></li>
+<li>Section of the Elephant's Skull <a href="#page145">145</a></li>
+<li>Fence and Ground-plan of a Corral <a href=
+"#page172">172</a></li>
+<li>Mode of tying an Elephant <a href="#page184">184</a></li>
+<li>His Struggles for Freedom <a href="#page185">185</a></li>
+<li>Impotent Fury <a href="#page188">188</a></li>
+<li>Obstinate Resistance <a href="#page189">189</a></li>
+<li>Attitude for Defence <a href="#page203">203</a></li>
+<li>Singular Contortions of an Elephant <a href=
+"#page204">204</a></li>
+<li>Figures of the African and Indian Elephants on Greek and Roman
+Coins <a href="#footnote2071">207n</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Medal of Numidia <a href="#footnote2121">212n</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Modern "Hendoo" <a href="#footnote2121">212n</a></li>
+<li>The Horn-bill (<i>Buceros pica</i>) <a href=
+"#page243">243</a></li>
+<li>The "Devil-bird" (<i>Syrnium Indranec</i>) <a href=
+"#page246">246</a></li>
+<li>The "Cotton-thief" (<i>Tchitrea paradisi</i>) <a href=
+"#page250">250</a></li>
+<li>Layard Mountain Jay (<i>Cissa puella</i>) <a href=
+"#page251">251</a></li>
+<li>The "Double-spur" (<i>Gallo-perdix bicalcaratus</i>) <a href=
+"#page260">260</a></li>
+<li>The Flamingo (<i>Phoenicopterus roseus</i>) <a href=
+"#page261">261</a></li>
+<li>The Kabara-goya Lizard (<i>Hydrosaurus salvator</i>) <a href=
+"#page274">274</a></li>
+<li>The Green Calotes (<i>Calotes ophiomachus</i>) <a href=
+"#page276">276</a></li>
+<li>Tongue of the Chameleon <a href="#page278">278</a></li>
+<li><i>Ceratophora</i> <i>to face</i> <a href=
+"#page280">280</a></li>
+<li>Skulls of the Crocodile and Alligator <a href=
+"#page283">283</a></li>
+<li>Terrapin (<i>Emys trijuga</i>) <a href="#page290">290</a></li>
+<li>Shield-tailed Serpent (<i>Uropeltis grandis</i>) <a href=
+"#page303">303</a></li>
+<li>Tree Snake (<i>Passerita fusca</i>) <i>to face</i> <a href=
+"#page307">307</a></li>
+<li>Sea Snake (<i>Hydrophis subloevisis</i>) <i>to face</i>
+<a href="#page311">311</a></li>
+<li>Saw of the Saw-fish (<i>Pristis antiquorum</i>) <i>to face</i>
+<a href="#page326">326</a></li>
+<li>Ray (<i>A&euml;tobates narinari</i>) <a href=
+"#page327">327</a></li>
+<li>Sword-fish (<i>Histiophorus immaculatus</i>) <a href=
+"#page330">330</a></li>
+<li>Cheironectes <a href="#page331">331</a></li>
+<li><i>Pterois volitans</i> <a href="#page334">334</a></li>
+<li><i>Scarus harid</i> <a href="#page335">335</a></li>
+<li>Perch (<i>Therapon quadrilineatus</i>) <a href=
+"#page337">337</a></li>
+<li>Eel (<i>Mastacembelus armatus</i>) <a href=
+"#page338">338</a></li>
+<li>Mode of Fishing, after Rain <a href="#page340">340</a></li>
+<li>Plan of a Fish Decoy <a href="#page342">342</a></li>
+<li>The Anabas of the dry Tanks <a href="#page354">354</a></li>
+<li>The Violet Ianthina and its Shell <a href=
+"#page370">370</a></li>
+<li><i>Bullia vittata</i> <a href="#page370">370</a></li>
+<li>Pearl Oysters, in various Stages of Growth <i>to face</i>
+<a href="#page381">381</a></li>
+<li>Pearl Oyster, full grown <i>to face</i> <a href=
+"#page381">381</a></li>
+<li><i>Cerithium palustre</i> <a href="#page381">381</a></li>
+<li>The Portuguese Man-of-war (<i>Physalus urticulus</i>) <a href=
+"#page399">399</a></li>
+<li>Longicorn Beetle (<i>Batocera rubus</i>) <a href=
+"#page405">405</a></li>
+<li>Leaf Insects, &amp;c <a href="#page409">409</a></li>
+<li>Eggs of the Leaf Insect (<i>Phyllium siccifolium</i>) <a href=
+"#page410">410</a></li>
+<li>The Carpenter Bee (<i>Xylocapa tenniscapa</i>) <a href=
+"#page419">419</a></li>
+<li>Wood-carrying Moths <a href="#page431">431</a></li>
+<li>The "Knife, grinder" (<i>Cicada</i>) <a href=
+"#page432">432</a></li>
+<li>Flata (<i>Elidiptera Emersoniana and Poeciloptera
+Tennentii</i>) <a href="#page433">433</a></li>
+<li>The "Coffee-bug" (<i>Lecanium caffe&aelig;</i>) <i>to face</i>
+<a href="#page438">438</a></li>
+<li>Spider (<i>Mygate fasciata</i>) <i>to face</i> <a href=
+"#page465">465</a></li>
+<li>Cermatia <a href="#page473">473</a></li>
+<li>The Calling Crab (<i>Gelusimus</i>) <a href=
+"#page477">477</a></li>
+<li>Eyes and Teeth of the Leech <a href=
+"#footnote4793">479n</a></li>
+<li>Land Leeches preparing to attack <a href=
+"#page479">479</a></li>
+<li>Medicinal Leech of Ceylon <a href="#footnote4833">483n</a></li>
+</ul>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap1" id="chap1"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+<h3>MAMMALIA.</h3>
+<p>With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the fauna of
+Ceylon has, up to the present, failed to receive that systematic
+attention to which its richness and variety most amply entitle it.
+The Singhalese themselves, habitually indolent, and singularly
+unobservant of nature and her operations, are at the same time
+restrained from the study of natural history by the tenet of their
+religion which forbids the taking of life under any circumstances.
+From the nature of their avocations, the majority of the European
+residents, engaged in planting and commerce, are discouraged by
+want of leisure from cultivating the taste; and it is to be
+regretted that, with few exceptions, the civil servants of the
+government, whose position and duties would have afforded them
+influence and extended opportunities for successful investigation,
+have never seen the importance of encouraging such studies.</p>
+<p>The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural
+science in Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when connected with
+the medical staff<a id="footnotetag31" name=
+"footnotetag31"></a><a href="#footnote31"><sup>31</sup></a> of the
+army from 1816 to 1820, and his example stimulated some of the
+assistant-surgeons of Her Majesty's forces to make collections
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span>
+in illustration of the productions of the colony. Of these the late
+Dr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and successful. He was
+seconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal Artillery, who engaged
+assiduously in the investigation of various orders, and commenced
+an interchange of specimens with Mr. Blyth<a id="footnotetag41"
+name="footnotetag41"></a><a href="#footnote41"><sup>41</sup></a>,
+the distinguished naturalist and curator of the Calcutta Museum.
+The birds and rarer vertebrata of the island were thus compared
+with their peninsular congeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those
+belonging to the island, so far as regards the higher classes of
+animals, has been the result. The example so set was perseveringly
+followed by Mr. E.L. Layard and the late Dr. Kelaart, and infinite
+credit is due to Mr. Blyth for the zealous and untiring energy with
+which he has devoted his attention and leisure to the
+identification of the specimens forwarded from Ceylon, and to their
+description in the Calcutta Journal. To him, and to the gentlemen I
+have named, we are mainly indebted for whatever accurate knowledge
+we now possess of the zoology of the colony.</p>
+<p>The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first
+scientific description in an able work published in 1852 by Dr.
+Kelaart of the army medical staff<a id="footnotetag42" name=
+"footnotetag42"></a><a href="#footnote42"><sup>42</sup></a>, which
+is by far the most valuable that has yet appeared on the Singhalese
+fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard has supplied a fund of
+information especially in ornithology and conchology. The zoophytes
+and Crustacea have I believe been partially investigated by
+Professor Harvey, who visited Ceylon in 1852, and more
+recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>[pg
+5]</span> by Professor Schmarda, of the University of Prague. From
+the united labours of these gentlemen and others interested in the
+same pursuits, we may hope at an early day to obtain such a
+knowledge of the zoology of Ceylon as will to some extent
+compensate for the long indifference of the government
+officers.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/028.png"><img width="100%" src="images/028.png" alt=
+"Ceylon Monkeys" /></a>
+<p>CEYLON MONKEYS.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>1. <i>Presbytes cephalopterus.</i></p>
+<p>2. <i>P. thersites</i></p>
+<p>3. <i>P. Priamus</i></p>
+<p>4. <i>Macacus pileatus</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>I. QUADRUMANA. 1. <i>Monkeys</i>.&mdash;To a stranger in the
+tropics, among the most attractive creatures in the forests are the
+troops of <i>monkeys</i> that career in ceaseless chase among the
+loftiest trees. In Ceylon there are five species, four of which
+belong to one group, the Wanderoos, and the other is the little
+graceful grimacing <i>rilawa</i><a id="footnotetag51" name=
+"footnotetag51"></a><a href="#footnote51"><sup>51</sup></a>, which
+is the universal pet and favourite of both natives and Europeans.
+The Tamil conjurors teach it to dance, and in their wanderings
+carry it from village to village, clad in a grotesque dress, to
+exhibit its lively performances. It does not object to smoke
+tobacco. The Wanderoo is too grave and melancholy to be trained to
+these drolleries.</p>
+<p>KNOX, in his captivating account of the island, gives an
+accurate description of both; the Rilawas, with "no beards, white
+faces, and long hair on the top of their heads, which parteth and
+hangeth down like a man's, and which do a deal of mischief to the
+corn, and are so impudent that they will come into their gardens
+and eat such fruit as grows there. And the Wanderoos, some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span>
+as large as our English spaniel dogs, of a darkish grey colour, and
+black faces with great white beards round from ear to ear, which
+makes them show just like old men. This sort does but little
+mischief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and buds of
+trees, but when they are catched they will eat anything."<a id=
+"footnotetag61" name="footnotetag61"></a><a href=
+"#footnote61"><sup>61</sup></a></p>
+<p>KNOX, whose experience during his long captivity was confined
+almost exclusively to the hill country around Kandy, spoke in all
+probability of one large and comparatively powerful species,
+<i>Presbytes ursinus</i>, which inhabits the lofty forests, and
+which, as well as another of the same group, <i>P. Thersites</i>,
+was, till recently, unknown to European naturalists. The Singhalese
+word <i>Ouandura</i> has a generic sense, and being in every
+respect the equivalent for our own term of "monkey" it necessarily
+comprehends the low country species, as well as those which inhabit
+other parts of the island. In point of fact, there are no less than
+four animals in the island, each of which is entitled to the name
+of "wanderoo."<a id="footnotetag62" name=
+"footnotetag62"></a><a href="#footnote62"><sup>62</sup></a> Each
+separate species has appropriated <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page7" id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span> to itself a different district
+of the wooded country, and seldom encroaches on the domain of its
+neighbours.</p>
+<p>1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most numerous in the
+island, and the one best known in Europe, is the Wanderoo of the
+low country, the <i>P. cephalopterus</i> of Zimmerman.<a id=
+"footnotetag71" name="footnotetag71"></a><a href=
+"#footnote71"><sup>71</sup></a> Although common in the southern and
+western provinces, it is never found at a higher elevation than
+1300 feet. It is an active and intelligent creature, little larger
+than the common bonneted Macaque, and far from being so mischievous
+as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it is
+remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for an air of
+melancholy in its expression and movements which are completely in
+character with its snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition
+it is gentle and confiding, sensible in the highest degree of
+kindness, and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low
+plaintive cry when its sympathies are excited. It is particularly
+cleanly in its habits when domesticated, and spends much of its
+time in trimming its fur, and carefully divesting its hair of
+particles of dust.</p>
+<p>Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed
+upon plantains and bananas, but for nothing did they evince a
+greater partiality than the rose-coloured flowers of the red
+hibiscus (H. <i>rosa-sinensis</i>). <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page8" id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span> These they devoured with
+unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished the leaves of many other
+trees, and even the bark of a few of the more succulent ones. A
+hint might possibly be taken from this circumstance for improving
+the regimen of monkeys in menageries, by the occasional admixture
+of a few fresh leaves and flowers with their solid and substantial
+dietary.</p>
+<p>A white monkey, taken between Ambepusse and Kornegalle, where
+they are said to be numerous, was brought to me to Colombo. Except
+in colour, it had all the characteristics of <i>Presbytes
+cephalopterus</i>. So striking was its whiteness that it might have
+been conjectured to be an albino, but for the circumstance that its
+eyes and face were black. I have heard that white monkeys have been
+seen near the Ridi-galle Wihara in Seven Korles and also at
+Tangalle; but I never saw another specimen. The natives say they
+are not uncommon, and KNOX that they are "milk-white both in body
+and face; but of this sort there is not such plenty."<a id=
+"footnotetag81" name="footnotetag81"></a><a href=
+"#footnote81"><sup>81</sup></a> The Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY mentions,
+in his learned work on <i>Eastern Monachism</i>, that on the
+occasion of his visit to the great temple of Dambool, he
+encountered a troop of white monkeys on the rock in which it is
+situated&mdash;which were, doubtless, a variety of the
+Wanderoo.<a id="footnotetag82" name="footnotetag82"></a><a href=
+"#footnote82"><sup>82</sup></a> PLINY was aware of the fact that
+white monkeys are occasionally found in India.<a id="footnotetag83"
+name="footnotetag83"></a><a href=
+"#footnote83"><sup>83</sup></a></p>
+<p>When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty
+of these creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for
+berries and buds. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, except
+when <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>[pg
+9]</span> they may have descended to recover seeds or fruit which
+have fallen at the foot of their favourite trees. When disturbed,
+their leaps are prodigious: but, generally speaking, their progress
+is made not so much by <i>leaping</i> as by swinging from branch to
+branch, using their powerful arms alternately; and when baffled by
+distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower
+boughs of an opposite tree, the momentum acquired by their descent
+being sufficient to cause a rebound of the branch, that carries
+them upwards again, till they can grasp a higher and more distant
+one, and thus continue their headlong flight. In these perilous
+achievements, wonder is excited less by the surpassing agility of
+these little creatures, frequently encumbered as they are by their
+young, which cling to them in their career, than by the quickness
+of their eye and the unerring accuracy with which they seem almost
+to calculate the angle at which a descent will enable them to cover
+a given distance, and the recoil to attain a higher altitude.</p>
+<p>2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills by the
+larger species, <i>P. ursinus</i>, which inhabits the mountain
+zone. The natives, who designate the latter the <i>Maha</i> or
+Great Wanderoo, to distinguish it from the <i>Kaloo</i>, or black
+one, with which they are familiar, describe it as much wilder, and
+more powerful than its congener of the lowland forests. It is
+rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the country having till
+very recently been but partially opened; and even now it is
+difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the few
+roads which wind through these deep solitudes. At early morning,
+ere the day begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which
+consists of a quick repetition <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page10" id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span> of the sounds <i>how
+how!</i> maybe frequently heard in the mountain jungles, and forms
+one of the characteristic noises of these lofty situations. It was
+first captured by Dr. Kelaart in the woods near Nuera-ellia, and
+from its peculiar appearance it has been named <i>P. ursinus</i> by
+Mr. Blyth.<a id="footnotetag101" name="footnotetag101"></a><a href=
+"#footnote101"><sup>101</sup></a></p>
+<p>3. The <i>P. Thersites</i>, which is chiefly distinguished from
+the others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was for
+some time doubtful whether the single specimen procured by Dr.
+Templeton from the Nuera-kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which
+Mr. Blyth conferred this new name, was in reality native; but the
+occurrence of a second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has
+established its existence as a separate species. Like the common
+wanderoo, the one obtained by Dr. Templeton was partial to fresh
+vegetables, plantains, and fruit; but he ate freely boiled rice,
+beans, and gram. He was fond of being noticed and petted,
+stretching out his limbs in succession to be scratched, drawing
+himself up so that his ribs might be reached by the finger, closing
+his eyes during the operation, and evincing his satisfaction by
+grimaces irresistibly ludicrous.</p>
+<p>4. The <i>P. Priamus</i> inhabits the northern and eastern
+provinces, and the wooded hills which occur in these portions of
+the island. In appearance it differs both in size and in colour
+from the common wanderoo, being larger and more inclined to grey;
+and in habits it is much less reserved. At Jaffna, and in other
+parts of the island where the population is comparatively numerous,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>[pg
+11]</span> these monkeys become so familiarised with the presence
+of man as to exhibit the utmost daring and indifference. A flock of
+them will take possession of a Palmyra palm; and so effectually can
+they crouch and conceal themselves among the leaves that, on the
+slightest alarm, the whole party becomes invisible in an instant.
+The presence of a dog, however, excites such an irrepressible
+curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they never fail to
+betray themselves. They may be frequently seen congregated on the
+roof of a native hut: and, some years ago, the child of a European
+clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been left on the ground by
+the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as to cause its
+death.</p>
+<p>The Singhalese have the impression that the remains of a monkey
+are never to be found in the forest; a belief which they have
+embodied in the proverb that "he who has seen a white crow, the
+nest of a paddi bird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey,
+is certain to live for ever." This piece of folk-lore has evidently
+reached Ceylon from India, where it is believed that persons
+dwelling on the spot where a hanum&acirc;n monkey, <i>Semnopithecus
+entellus</i>, has been killed, will die, that even its bones are
+unlucky, and that no house erected where they are hid under ground
+can prosper. Hence when a dwelling is to be built, it is one of the
+employments of the Jyotish philosophers to ascertain by their
+science that none such are concealed; and Buchanan observes that
+"it is, perhaps, owing to this fear of ill-luck that no native will
+acknowledge his having seen a dead hanum&acirc;n."<a id=
+"footnotetag111" name="footnotetag111"></a><a href=
+"#footnote111"><sup>111</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>[pg
+12]</span>
+<p>The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon is the little
+loris<a id="footnotetag121" name="footnotetag121"></a><a href=
+"#footnote121"><sup>121</sup></a>, which, from its sluggish
+movements, nocturnal habits, and consequent inaction during the
+day, has acquired the name of the "Ceylon Sloth."</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/036.png"><img width="100%" src="images/036.png" alt=
+"The Loris" align="left" /></a> THE LORIS.</div>
+<p>There are two varieties in the island; one of the ordinary
+fulvous brown, and another larger, whose fur is entirely black. A
+specimen of the former was sent to me from Chilaw, on the western
+coast, and lived for some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, fruit,
+and vegetables. It was partial to ants and, other insects, and was
+always eager for milk or the bone of a fowl. The naturally slow
+motion of its limbs enables the loris to <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> approach
+its prey so stealthily that it seizes birds before they can be
+alarmed by its presence. The natives assert that it has been known
+to strangle the pea-fowl at night, to feast on the brain. During
+the day the one which I kept was usually asleep in the strange
+position represented on the last page; its perch firmly grasped
+with both hands, its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and its
+head hidden deep between its legs. The singularly-large and intense
+eyes of the loris have attracted the attention, of the Singhalese,
+who capture the creature for the purpose of extracting them as
+charms and love-potions, and this they are said to effect by
+holding the little animal to the fire till its eyeballs burst. Its
+Tamil name is <i>thaxangu</i>, or "thin-bodied;" and hence a
+deformed child or an emaciated person has acquired in the Tamil
+districts the same epithet. The light-coloured variety of the loris
+in Ceylon has a spot on its forehead, somewhat resembling the
+<i>namam</i>, or mark worn by the worshippers of Vishnu; and, from
+this peculiarity, it is distinguished as the
+<i>Nama-thavangu</i>.<a id="footnotetag131" name=
+"footnotetag131"></a><a href="#footnote131"><sup>131</sup></a></p>
+<p>II. CHEIROPTERA. <i>Bats</i>.&mdash;The multitude of <i>bats</i>
+is one of the features of the evening landscape; they abound in
+every cave and subterranean passage, in the tunnels on the
+highways, in the galleries of the fortifications, in the roofs of
+the bungalows, and the ruins of every temple and building. At
+sunset they are seen issuing from their diurnal retreats to roam
+through the twilight in search of crepuscular insects, and as night
+approaches and the lights in the rooms attract the night-flying
+lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table and <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span> carry off
+their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps. Including the
+frugivorous section about sixteen species have been identified in
+Ceylon; and remarkable varieties of two of these are peculiar to
+the island. The colours of some of them are as brilliant as the
+plumage of a bird, bright yellow, deep orange, and a rich
+ferruginous brown inclining to red.<a id="footnotetag141" name=
+"footnotetag141"></a><a href="#footnote141"><sup>141</sup></a></p>
+<p>But of all the bats, the most conspicuous from its size and
+numbers, and the most interesting from its habits, is the rousette
+of Ceylon<a id="footnotetag142" name="footnotetag142"></a><a href=
+"#footnote142"><sup>142</sup></a>;&mdash;the "flying fox," as it is
+called by Europeans, from the similarity to that animal in its head
+and ears, its bright eyes, and intelligent little face. In its
+aspect it has nothing of the disagreeable and repulsive look so
+common amongst the ordinary vespertilionid&aelig;; it likewise
+differs from them in the want of the nose-leaf, as well as of the
+tail. In the absence of the latter, its flight is directed by means
+of a membrane attached to the inner side of each of the hind legs,
+and kept distended at the lower extremity by a projecting bone,
+just as a fore-and-aft sail is distended by a "gaff."</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/039.png"><img width="100%" src="images/039.png" alt=
+"Flying Foxes" /></a> FLYING FOXES.</div>
+<p>In size the body measures from ten to twelve inches in length,
+but the arms are prolonged, and especially the metacarpal bones and
+phalanges of the four fingers over which the leathery wings are
+distended, till the alar expanse measures between four and five
+feet. Whilst the function of these metamorphosed limbs in
+sustaining flight entitles them to the designation of "wings," they
+are endowed with another faculty, the existence of <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> which
+essentially distinguishes them from the feathery wings of a bird,
+and vindicates the appropriateness of the term
+<i>Cheiro-ptera</i><a id="footnotetag151" name=
+"footnotetag151"></a><a href="#footnote151"><sup>151</sup></a>, or
+"winged hands," by which the bats are designated. Over the entire
+surface of the thin membrane of which they are formed, sentient
+nerves of the utmost delicacy are distributed, by means of which
+the animal is enabled during the darkness to direct its motions
+with security, avoiding objects against contact with which at such
+times its eyes and other senses would be insufficient to protect
+it.<a id="footnotetag152" name="footnotetag152"></a><a href=
+"#footnote152"><sup>152</sup></a> Spallanzani ascertained the
+perfection of this faculty by a series of cruel experiments, by
+which he demonstrated that bats, even after their eyes had been
+destroyed, and their external organs, of smell and hearing
+obliterated, were still enabled to direct their flight with
+unhesitating confidence, avoiding even threads suspended to
+intercept them. But after ascertaining the fact, Spallanzani was
+slow to arrive at its origin; and ascribed the surprising power to
+the existence of some sixth supplementary sense, the enjoyment of
+which was withheld from other animals. Cuvier, however, dissipated
+the obscurity by showing the seat of this extraordinary endowment
+to be in the wings, the superficies of which retains the exquisite
+sensitiveness to touch that is inherent in the palms of the human
+hand and the extremities of the fingers, as well as in the feet of
+some of the mammalia.<a id="footnotetag153" name=
+"footnotetag153"></a><a href="#footnote153"><sup>153</sup></a> The
+face and head of the <i>Pteropus</i> are covered with brownish-grey
+hairs, the neck and chest are dark ferruginous grey, and the rest
+of the body brown, inclining to black.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>[pg
+16]</span>
+<p>These active and energetic creatures, though chiefly
+frugivorous, are to some extent insectivorous also, as attested by
+their teeth<a id="footnotetag161" name=
+"footnotetag161"></a><a href="#footnote161"><sup>161</sup></a>, as
+well as by their habits. They feed, amongst other things, on the
+guava, the plantain, the rose-apple, and the fruit of the various
+fig-trees. Flying foxes are abundant in all the maritime districts,
+especially at the season when the <i>pulum-imbul</i><a id=
+"footnotetag162" name="footnotetag162"></a><a href=
+"#footnote162"><sup>162</sup></a>, one of the silk-cotton trees, is
+putting forth its flower-buds, of which they are singularly fond.
+By day they suspend themselves from the highest branches, hanging
+by the claws of the hind legs, with the head turned upwards, and
+pressing the chin against the breast. At sunset taking wing, they
+hover, with a murmuring sound occasioned by the beating of their
+broad membranous wings, around the fruit trees, on which they feed
+till morning, when they resume their pensile attitude as
+before.</p>
+<p>A favourite resort of these bats is to the lofty india-rubber
+trees, which on one side overhang the Botanic Gardens of Paradenia
+in the vicinity of Kandy. Thither for some years past, they have
+congregated, chiefly in the autumn, taking their departure when the
+figs of the <i>ficus elastica</i> are consumed. Here they hang in
+such prodigious numbers, that frequently, large branches give way
+beneath their accumulated weight. Every forenoon, generally between
+the hours of 9 and 11 A.M., they take to wing, apparently for
+exercise, and possibly to sun their wings and fur, and dry them
+after the dews of the early morning. On these occasions, their
+numbers are quite surprising, flying in clouds as thick as bees or
+midges. After these recreations, they hurry back to their favourite
+trees, chattering and screaming like monkeys, and always wrangling
+and contending angrily for the most shady and comfortable places in
+which to hang for the rest of the day protected from the sun. The
+branches they resort to soon become almost divested of leaves,
+these being stripped off by the action of the bats, attaching and
+detaching themselves by means of their hooked feet. At sunset, they
+fly off to their feeding-grounds, probably at a considerable
+distance, as it requires a large area to furnish sufficient food
+for such multitudes.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>[pg
+17]</span>
+<p>In all its movements and attitudes, the action of the
+<i>Pteropus</i> is highly interesting. If placed upon the ground,
+it is almost helpless, none of its limbs being calculated for
+progressive motion; it drags itself along by means of the hook
+attached to each of its extended thumbs, pushing at the same time
+with those of its hind feet. Its natural position is exclusively
+pensile; it moves laterally from branch to branch with great ease,
+by using each foot alternately, and climbs, when necessary, by
+means of its claws.</p>
+<p>When at rest, or asleep, the disposition of the limbs is most
+curious. At such times it suspends itself by one foot only,
+bringing the other close to its side, and thus it is enabled to
+wrap itself in the ample folds of its wings, which envelop it like
+a mantle, leaving only its upturned head uncovered. Its fur is thus
+protected from damp and rain, and to some extent its body is
+sheltered from the sun.</p>
+<p>As it collects its food by means of its mouth, either when on
+the wing, or when suspended within reach of it, the flying-fox is
+always more or less liable to <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page18" id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span> have the spoil wrested from
+it by its intrusive companions, before it can make good its way to
+some secure retreat in which to devour it unmolested. In such
+conflicts they bite viciously, tear each other with their hooks,
+and scream incessantly, till, taking to flight, the persecuted one
+reaches some place of safety, where he hangs by one foot, and
+grasping the fruit he has secured in the claws and opposable thumb
+of the other, he hastily reduces it to lumps, with which he stuffs
+his cheek pouches till they become distended like those of a
+monkey; then suspended in safety, he commences to chew and suck the
+pieces, rejecting the refuse with his tongue.</p>
+<p>To drink, which it does by lapping, the <i>Pteropus</i> suspends
+itself head downwards from a branch above the water.</p>
+<p>Insects, caterpillars, birds' eggs, and young birds are devoured
+by them; and the Singhalese say that the flying-fox will even
+attack a tree snake. It is killed by the natives for the sake of
+its flesh, which, I have been told by a gentleman who has eaten of
+it, resembles that of the hare.<a id="footnotetag181" name=
+"footnotetag181"></a><a href="#footnote181"><sup>181</sup></a> It
+is strongly attracted to the coconut trees during the period when
+toddy is drawn for distillation, and exhibits, it is said, at such
+times, symptoms resembling intoxication.</p>
+<p>Neither the flying-fox, nor any other bat that I know of in
+Ceylon, ever hybernates.</p>
+<p>There are several varieties (one of them peculiar to the island)
+of the horse-shoe-headed <i>Rhinolophus</i>, with the strange
+leaf-like appendage erected on the extremity of the nose.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>[pg
+19]</span>
+<p>It has been suggested that the insectivorous bats, though
+nocturnal, are deficient in that keen vision characteristic of
+animals which take their prey by night.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/044.png"><img width="100%" src="images/044.png" alt=
+"" /></a>RHINOLOPHUS.</div>
+<p>I doubt whether this conjecture be well founded; it certainly
+does not apply to the <i>Pteropus</i> and the other frugivorous
+species, in which the faculty of sight is singularly clear. As
+regards the others, it is possible that in their peculiar
+&aelig;conomy some additional power may be required to act in
+concert with that of vision, as in insects, touch is superadded, in
+its most sensitive development, to that of sight. It is probable
+that the noseleaf, which forms an extended screen stretched behind
+the nostrils in some of the bats, may be intended by nature to
+facilitate the collection and conduction of odours, just as the
+vast expansion of the shell of the ear in the same family is
+designed to assist in the collection of sounds&mdash;and thus to
+supplement their vision when in pursuit of prey in the dusk by the
+superior sensitiveness of the organs of hearing and smell.</p>
+<p>One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humble
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>[pg
+20]</span> bee<a id="footnotetag201" name=
+"footnotetag201"></a><a href="#footnote201"><sup>201</sup></a>, and
+of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be seen about Colombo. It
+is so familiar and gentle that it will alight on the cloth during
+dinner, and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes any
+effort to escape before a wine glass can be inverted to secure
+it.</p>
+<p>Although not strictly in order, this seems not an inappropriate
+place to notice one of the most curious peculiarities connected
+with the bats&mdash;their singular parasite, the Nycteribia.<a id=
+"footnotetag202" name="footnotetag202"></a><a href=
+"#footnote202"><sup>202</sup></a> On cursory observation this
+creature appears to have neither head, antenn&aelig;, eyes, nor
+mouth; and the earlier observers of its structure satisfied
+themselves that the place of the latter was supplied by a
+cylindrical sucker, which, being placed between the shoulders, the
+insect had no option but to turn on its back to feed. Another
+anomaly was thought to compensate for this apparent
+inconvenience;&mdash;its three pairs of legs, armed with claws, are
+so arranged that they seem to be equally distributed over its upper
+and under sides, the creature being thus enabled to use them like
+hands, and to grasp the strong hairs above it while extracting its
+nourishment.</p>
+<p>It moves, in fact, by rolling itself rapidly along, rotating
+like a wheel on the extremities of its spokes, or like the clown in
+a pantomime, hurling himself forward on hands and feet alternately.
+Its celerity is so great that Colonel Montague, who was one of the
+first to describe it minutely<a id="footnotetag203" name=
+"footnotetag203"></a><a href="#footnote203"><sup>203</sup></a>,
+says its speed exceeds that of any known insect, and as its joints
+are so flexible as to yield in every direction (like what mechanics
+call a "ball and socket"), its motions are exceedingly grotesque as
+it tumbles through the fur of the bat.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>[pg
+21]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/046.png"><img width="100%" src="images/046.png" alt=
+"" /></a> NYCTERBIA.</div>
+<p>To enable it to attain its marvellous velocity, each foot is
+armed with two sharp hooks, with elastic opposable pads, so that
+the hair can not only be rapidly seized and firmly held, but as
+quickly disengaged, as the creature whirls away in its headlong
+career.</p>
+<p>The insects to which it bears the nearest affinity, are the
+<i>Hippoboscid&aelig;</i>, or "spider flies," that infest birds and
+horses; but, unlike them, the Nycteribia is unable to fly.</p>
+<p>Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to the
+belief that it was headless, is its faculty when at rest of
+throwing back its head and pressing it close between its shoulders
+till the under side becomes uppermost, not a vestige of head being
+discernible where we would naturally look for it, and the whole
+seeming but a casual inequality on its back.</p>
+<p>On closer examination this, apparent tubercle is found to have a
+leathery attachment like a flexible neck, and by a sudden jerk the
+little creature is enabled to project it forward into its normal
+position, when it is discovered to be furnished with a mouth,
+antenn&aelig;, and four eyes, two on each side.</p>
+<p>The organisation of such an insect is a marvellous adaptation of
+physical form to special circumstances. As the nycteribia has to
+make its way through fur and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"
+id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> hairs, its feet are furnished with
+prehensile hooks that almost convert them into hands; and being
+obliged to conform to the sudden flights of its patron, and
+accommodate itself to inverted positions, all attitudes are
+rendered alike to it by the arrangement of its limbs, which enables
+it, after every possible gyration, to find itself always on its
+feet.</p>
+<p>III. CARNIVORA.&mdash;<i>Bears</i>.&mdash;Of the
+<i>carnivora</i>, the one most dreaded by the natives of Ceylon,
+and the only one of the larger animals that makes the depths of the
+forest its habitual retreat, is the bear<a id="footnotetag221"
+name="footnotetag221"></a><a href=
+"#footnote221"><sup>221</sup></a>, attracted chiefly by the honey
+which is found in the hollow trees and clefts of the rocks.
+Occasionally spots of fresh earth are observed which have been
+turned up by the bears in search of some favourite root. They feed
+also on the termites and ants. A friend of mine traversing the
+forest, near Jaffna, at early dawn, had his attention attracted by
+the growling of a bear, that was seated upon a lofty branch,
+thrusting portions of a red-ants' nest into his mouth with one paw,
+whilst with the other he endeavoured to clear his eyebrows and lips
+of the angry inmates, which bit and tortured him in their rage. The
+Ceylon bear is found in the low and dry districts of the northern
+and south-eastern coast, and is seldom met with on the mountains or
+the moist and damp plains of the west. It is furnished with a bushy
+tuft of hair on the back, between the shoulders, by which the young
+are accustomed to cling till sufficiently strong to provide for
+their own safety. During a severe drought that prevailed in the
+northern province in 1850, the district of Caretchy was so infested
+by bears that the Oriental custom of the women resorting to the
+wells was altogether suspended, as it was a common occurrence to
+find one of these animals in the water, unable to climb up the
+yielding and slippery soil, down which its thirst had impelled it
+to slide during the night.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>[pg
+23]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/048.png"><img width="100%" src="images/048.png" alt=
+"" /></a> INDIAN BEAR.</div>
+<p>Although the structure of the bear shows him to be naturally
+omnivorous, he rarely preys upon flesh in Ceylon, and his solitary
+habits whilst in search of honey and fruits render him timid and
+retiring. Hence he evinces alarm on the approach of man or other
+animals, and, unable to make a rapid retreat, his panic, rather
+than any vicious disposition, leads him to become an assailant in
+self-defence. But so furious are his assaults under such
+circumstances that the Singhalese have a terror of his attack
+greater than that created by any <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page24" id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> other beast of the forest.
+If not armed with a gun, a native, in the places where bears
+abound, usually carries a light axe, called "kodelly," with which
+to strike them on the head. The bear, on the other hand, always
+aims at the face, and, if successful in prostrating his victim,
+usually commences by assailing the eyes. I have met numerous
+individuals on our journeys who exhibited frightful scars from such
+encounters, the white seams of their wounds contrasting hideously
+with the dark colour of the rest of their bodies.</p>
+<p>The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose principal stores consist of
+honey, live in dread of the bears, because, attracted by the
+perfume, they will not hesitate to attack their rude dwellings,
+when allured by this irresistible temptation. The Post-office
+runners, who always travel by night, are frequently exposed to
+danger from these animals, especially along the coast from Putlam
+to Aripo, where they are found in considerable numbers; and, to
+guard against surprise, they are accustomed to carry flambeaux, to
+give warning to the bears, and enable them to shuffle out of the
+path.<a id="footnotetag241" name="footnotetag241"></a><a href=
+"#footnote241"><sup>241</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>[pg
+25]</span>
+<p>Leopards<a id="footnotetag251" name=
+"footnotetag251"></a><a href="#footnote251"><sup>251</sup></a> are
+the only formidable members of the tiger race in Ceylon<a id=
+"footnotetag252" name="footnotetag252"></a><a href=
+"#footnote252"><sup>252</sup></a>, and they are neither very
+numerous nor very dangerous, as they seldom attack man. By the
+Europeans, the Ceylon leopard is erroneously called a
+<i>cheetah</i>, but the true "cheetah" (<i>felis jubata</i>),' the
+hunting leopard of India, does not exist in the island.<a id=
+"footnotetag253" name="footnotetag253"></a><a href=
+"#footnote253"><sup>253</sup></a></p>
+<p>There is a rare variety of the leopard which has been found in
+various parts of the island, in which the skin, instead of being
+spotted, is of a uniform black.<a id="footnotetag254" name=
+"footnotetag254"></a><a href="#footnote254"><sup>254</sup></a>
+Leopards frequent the vicinity of pasture hinds in quest of the
+deer and other peaceful animals which resort to them; and the
+villagers often complain of the destruction <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span> of their
+cattle by these formidable marauders. In relation to them, the
+natives have a curious but firm conviction that when a bullock is
+killed by a leopard, and, in expiring, falls so that <i>its right
+side is undermost</i>, the leopard will not return to devour it. I
+have been told by English sportsmen (some of whom share in the
+popular belief), that sometimes, when they have proposed to watch
+by the carcase of a bullock recently killed by a leopard, in the
+hope of shooting the spoiler on his return in search of his prey,
+the native owner of the slaughtered animal, though earnestly
+desiring to be avenged, has assured them that it would be in vain,
+as the beast having fallen on its right side, the leopard not
+return.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/051.png"><img width="100%" src="images/051.png" alt=
+"" /></a> LEOPARD AND CHEETAH.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>[pg
+27]</span>
+<p>The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their extremely
+beautiful skins, but prefer taking them in traps and pitfalls, and
+occasionally in spring cages formed of poles driven firmly into the
+ground, within which a kid is generally fastened as a bait; the
+door being held open by a sapling bent down by the united force of
+several men, and so arranged as to act as a spring, to which a
+noose is ingeniously attached, formed of plaited deer's hide. The
+cries of the kid attract the leopard, which being tempted to enter,
+is enclosed by the liberation of the spring, and grasped firmly
+round the body by the noose.</p>
+<p>Like the other carnivora, leopards are timid and cowardly in the
+presence of man, never intruding on him voluntarily, and making a
+hasty retreat when approached. Instances have, however, occurred of
+individuals having been slain by them; and it is believed, that,
+having once tasted human blood, they, like the tiger, acquire an
+habitual relish for it. A peon, on duty by night at the court-house
+of Anarajapoora, was some years ago carried off by a leopard from a
+table in the verandah on which he had laid down his head to sleep.
+At Batticaloa a "cheetah" in two instances in succession was known
+to carry off men placed on a stage erected in a tree to drive away
+elephants from rice-land: but such cases are rare, and, as compared
+with their dread of the bear, the natives of Ceylon entertain but
+slight apprehensions of the "cheetah." It is, however, the dread of
+sportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the jungle are especially
+exposed to its attacks: and I am aware of an instance in which a
+party having tied their dogs to the tent-pole for security, and
+fallen asleep round them, a leopard sprang into the tent and
+carried <span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>[pg
+28]</span> off a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters. On
+one occasion being in the mountains near Kandy, a messenger
+despatched to me through the jungle excused his delay by stating
+that a "cheetah" had seated itself in the only practicable path,
+and remained quietly licking its fore paws and rubbing them over
+its face, till he was forced to drive it, with stones, into the
+forest.</p>
+<p>Leopards are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour which
+accompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the natives to submit
+themselves or their children to vaccination exposes the island to
+frightful visitations of this disease; and in the villages in the
+interior it is usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle
+to serve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the leopards are
+certain to be allured; and the medical officers are obliged to
+resort to increased precautions in consequence. This fact is
+connected with a curious native superstition. Amongst the avenging
+scourges sent direct from the gods, the Singhalese regard both the
+ravages of the leopard, and the visitation of the small-pox. The
+latter they call <i>par excellence "maha ledda</i>," the great
+"sickness;" they look upon it as a special manifestation of
+<i>devidosay</i>, "the displeasure of the gods;" and the attraction
+of the cheetahs to the bed of the sufferer they attribute to the
+same indignant agency. A few years ago, the capua, or demon-priest
+of a "dewale," at Oggalbodda, a village near Caltura, when
+suffering under small-pox, was devoured by a cheetah, and his fate
+was regarded by those of an opposite faith as a special judgment
+from heaven.</p>
+<p>Such is the awe inspired by this belief in connection with the
+small-pox, that a person afflicted with it is <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> always
+approached as one in immediate communication with the deity; his
+attendants, address him as "my lord," and "your lordship," and
+exhaust on him the whole series of honorific epithets in which
+their language abounds for approaching personages of the most
+exalted rank. At evening and morning, a lamp is lighted before him,
+and invoked with prayers to protect his family from the dire
+calamity which has befallen himself. And after his recovery, his
+former associates refrain from communication with him until a
+ceremony shall have been performed by the capua, called
+<i>awasara-pandema</i>, or "the offering of lights for permission,"
+the object of which is to entreat permission of the deity to regard
+him as freed from the divine displeasure, with liberty to his
+friends to renew their intercourse as before.</p>
+<p>Major SKINNER, who for upwards of forty years has had
+occasionally to live for long periods in the interior, occupied in
+the prosecution of surveys and the construction of roads, is
+strongly of opinion that the disposition of the leopard towards man
+is essentially pacific, and that, when discovered, its natural
+impulse is to effect its escape. In illustration of this I insert
+an extract from one of his letters, which describes an adventure
+highly characteristic of this instinctive timidity:&mdash;</p>
+<p>"On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam's Peak, in the
+prosecution of my military reconnoissances of the mountain zone, I
+fixed on a pretty little patena (<i>i.e.</i>, meadow) in the midst
+of an extensive and dense forest in the southern segment of the
+Peak Range, as a favourable spot for operations. It would have been
+difficult, after descending from the cone of the peak, to have
+found one's way to this point, in the midst of so <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> vast a
+wilderness of trees, had not long experience assured me that good
+game tracks would be found leading to it, and by one of them I
+reached it. It was in the afternoon, just after one of those
+tropical sunshowers that decorate every branch and blade with
+pendant brilliants, and the little patena was covered with game,
+either driven to the open space by the drippings from the leaves or
+tempted by the freshness of the pasture: there were several pairs
+of elk, the bearded antlered male contrasting finely with his mate;
+and other varieties of game in a profusion not to be found in any
+place frequented by man. It was some time before I would allow them
+to be disturbed by the rude fall of the axe, in our necessity to
+establish our bivouac for the night, and they were so unaccustomed
+to danger that it was long before they took alarm at our
+noises.</p>
+<p>"The following morning, anxious to gain a height for my
+observations in time to avail myself of the clear atmosphere of
+sunrise, I started off by myself through the jungle, leaving orders
+for my men, with my surveying instruments, to follow my track by
+the notches which I cut in the bark of the trees. On leaving the
+plain, I availed myself of a fine wide game track which lay in my
+direction, and had gone, perhaps, half a mile from the camp, when I
+was startled by a slight rustling in the nilloo<a id=
+"footnotetag301" name="footnotetag301"></a><a href=
+"#footnote301"><sup>301</sup></a> to my right, and in another
+instant, by the spring of a magnificent leopard, which, in a bound
+of full eight feet in height over the lower brushwood, lighted at
+my feet within eighteen inches of the spot whereon I stood, and lay
+in a crouching position, his fiery gleaming eyes fixed on me.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>[pg
+31]</span>
+<p>"The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had no weapon of
+defence, and with one spring or blow of his paw the beast could
+have annihilated me. To move I knew would only encourage his
+attack. It occurred to me at the moment that I had heard of the
+power of man's eye over wild animals, and accordingly I fixed my
+gaze as intently as the agitation of such a moment enabled me on
+his eyes: we stared at each other for some seconds, when, to my
+inexpressible joy, the beast turned and bounded down the straight
+open path before me. This scene occurred just at that period of the
+morning when the grazing animals retired from the open patena to
+the cool shade of the forest: doubtless, the leopard had taken my
+approach for that of a deer, or some such animal. And if his spring
+had been at a quadruped instead of a biped, his distance was so
+well measured, that it must have landed him on the neck of a deer,
+an elk, or a buffalo; as it was, one pace more would have done for
+me. A bear would not have let his victim off so easily."</p>
+<p>Notwithstanding the unequalled agility of the monkey, it falls a
+prey, and not unfrequently, to the leopard. The latter, on
+approaching a tree on which a troop of monkeys have taken shelter,
+causes an instant and fearful excitement, which they manifest by
+loud and continued screams, and incessant restless leaps from
+branch to branch. The leopard meanwhile walks round and round the
+tree, with his eyes firmly fixed upon his victims, till at last
+exhausted by terror, and prostrated by vain exertions to escape,
+one or more falls a prey to his voracity. So rivetted is the
+attention of both during the struggle, that a sportsman, on one
+occasion, attracted by the noise, was enabled to approach within an
+uncomfortable <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id=
+"page32"></a>[pg 32]</span> distance of the leopard, before he
+discovered the cause of the unusual dismay amongst the monkeys
+overhead.</p>
+<p>It is said, but I have never been able personally to verify the
+fact, that the leopard of Ceylon exhibits a peculiarity in being
+unable entirely to retract its claws within their sheaths.</p>
+<p>There is another piece of curious folk lore, in connexion with
+the leopard. The natives assert that it devours the <i>kaolin</i>
+clay called by them <i>kiri-mattie</i><a id="footnotetag321" name=
+"footnotetag321"></a><a href="#footnote321"><sup>321</sup></a> in a
+very peculiar way. They say that the cheetah places it in lumps
+beside him, and then gazes intently on the sun, till on turning his
+eyes on the clay, every piece appears of a red colour like flesh,
+when he instantly devours it.</p>
+<p>They likewise allege that the female cheetah never produces more
+than one litter of whelps.</p>
+<p>Of the <i>lesser feline species</i>, the number and variety in
+Ceylon is inferior to those of India. The Palm-cat<a id=
+"footnotetag322" name="footnotetag322"></a><a href=
+"#footnote322"><sup>322</sup></a> lurks by day among the fronds of
+the coco-nut palms, and by night makes destructive forays on the
+fowls of the villagers; and, in order to suck the blood of its
+victim, inflicts a wound so small as to be almost imperceptible.
+The glossy genette<a id="footnotetag323" name=
+"footnotetag323"></a><a href="#footnote323"><sup>323</sup></a>, the
+"<i>Civet</i>" of Europeans, is common in the northern province,
+where the Tamils confine it in cages for the sake of its musk,
+which they collect from the wooden bars on which it rubs itself.
+Edrisi, the Moorish geographer, writing in the twelfth century,
+enumerates musk as one of the productions then exported from
+Ceylon.<a id="footnotetag324" name="footnotetag324"></a><a href=
+"#footnote324"><sup>324</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>[pg
+33]</span>
+<p><i>Dogs</i>.&mdash;There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but
+every village and town is haunted by mongrels of European descent,
+that are known by the generic description of <i>Pariahs</i>. They
+are a miserable race, lean, wretched, and mangy, acknowledged by no
+owners, living on the garbage of the streets and sewers, and if
+spoken to unexpectedly they shrink with an almost involuntary cry.
+Yet in these persecuted outcasts there survives that germ of
+instinctive affection which binds the dog to the human race, and a
+gentle word, even a look of compassionate kindness, is sufficient
+foundation for a lasting attachment.</p>
+<p>The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to taking away
+life in any form, permit the increase of these desolate creatures
+till in the hot season they become so numerous as to be a nuisance;
+and the only expedient hitherto devised by the civil government to
+reduce their numbers, is once in each year to offer a reward for
+their destruction, when the Tamils and Malays pursue them in the
+streets with clubs (guns being forbidden by the police for fear of
+accidents), and the unresisting dogs are beaten to death on the
+side-paths and door-steps where they had been taught to resort for
+food. Lord Torrington, during his government of Ceylon, attempted
+the more civilised experiment of putting some check on their
+numbers, by imposing a dog-tax, the effect of which would have been
+to lead to the drowning of puppies; whereas there is reason to
+believe that dogs <span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id=
+"page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> are at present <i>bred</i> by the
+horse-keepers to be killed for sake of the reward.</p>
+<p>The Pariahs of Colombo exhibit something of the same instinct,
+by which the dogs in other eastern cities partition the towns into
+districts, each apportioned to a separate pack, by whom it is
+jealously guarded from the encroachments of all intruders.
+Travellers at Cairo and Constantinople are often startled at night
+by the racket occasioned by the demonstrations made by the rightful
+possessors of a locality in repelling its invasion by some
+straggling wanderer. At Alexandria, in 1844, the dogs had
+multiplied to such an inconvenient extent, that Mehemet Ali, to
+abate the nuisance, caused them to be shipped in boats and conveyed
+to one of the islands at the mouth of the Nile. But the streets,
+thus deprived of their habitual patroles, were speedily infested by
+dogs from the suburbs, in such numbers that the evil became greater
+than before, and in the following year, the legitimate denizens
+were recalled from their exile in the Delta, and speedily drove
+back the intruders within their original boundary. May not this
+disposition of the dog be referable to the impulse by which, in a
+state of nature, each pack appropriates its own hunting-fields
+within a particular area? and may not the impulse which, even in a
+state of domestication, they still manifest to attack a passing dog
+upon the road, be a remnant of this localised instinct, and a
+concomitant dislike of intrusion?</p>
+<p><i>Jackal</i>.&mdash;The Jackal<a id="footnotetag341" name=
+"footnotetag341"></a><a href="#footnote341"><sup>341</sup></a> in
+the low country of Ceylon hunts thus in packs, headed by a leader,
+and these audacious prowlers have been seen to assault and pull
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>[pg
+35]</span> down a deer. The small number of hares in the districts
+they infest is ascribed to their depredations. In the legends of
+the natives, and in the literature of the Buddhists, the jackal in
+Ceylon is as essentially the type of cunning as the fox is the
+emblem of craft and adroitness in the traditions of Europe. In
+fact, it is more than doubtful whether the jackal of the East be
+not the creature alluded to, in the various passages of the Sacred
+Writings which make allusion to the artfulness and subtlety of the
+"fox."</p>
+<p>These faculties they display in a high degree in their hunting
+expeditions, especially in the northern portions of the island,
+where they are found in the greatest numbers. In these districts,
+where the wide sandy plains are thinly covered with brushwood, the
+face of the country is diversified by patches of thick jungle and
+detached groups of trees, that form insulated groves and topes. At
+dusk, or after nightfall, a pack of jackals, having watched a hare
+or a small deer take refuge in one of these retreats, immediately
+surround it on all sides; and having stationed a few to watch the
+path by which the game entered, the leader commences the attack by
+raising the unearthly cry peculiar to their race, and which
+resembles the sound <i>okkay!</i> loudly and rapidly repeated. The
+whole party then rush into the jungle, and drive out the victim,
+which generally falls into the ambush previously laid to entrap
+it.</p>
+<p>A native gentleman<a id="footnotetag351" name=
+"footnotetag351"></a><a href="#footnote351"><sup>351</sup></a>, who
+had favourable opportunities of observing the movements of these
+animals, informed me, that when a jackal has brought down his game
+and killed it, his first impulse is to hide it in the nearest
+jungle, whence he issues with an air of easy indifference
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>[pg
+36]</span> to observe whether anything more powerful than himself
+may be at hand, from which he might encounter the risk of being
+despoiled of his capture. If the coast be clear, he returns to the
+concealed carcase, and carries it away, followed by his companions.
+But if a man be in sight, or any other animal to be avoided, my
+informant has seen the jackal seize a coco-nut husk in his mouth,
+or any similar substance, and fly at full speed, as if eager to
+carry off his pretended prize, returning for the real booty at some
+more convenient season.</p>
+<p>They are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are frequent in
+Ceylon of cattle being bitten by them and dying in consequence.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/061.png"><img width="100%" src="images/061.png" alt=
+"" /></a> JACKAL'S SKULL AND HORN</div>
+<p>An excrescence is sometimes found on the head of the jackal,
+consisting of a small horny cone about half an inch in length, and
+concealed by a tuft of hair. This the natives call
+<i>narrie-comboo</i>; and they aver that this "Jackal's Horn" only
+grows on the head of the leader of the pack.<a id="footnotetag361"
+name="footnotetag361"></a><a href="#footnote361"><sup>361</sup></a>
+Both the Singhalese and the Tamils regard it as a talisman, and
+believe that its fortunate <span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"
+id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span> possessor can command by its
+instrumentality the realisation of every wish, and that if stolen
+or lost by him, it will invariably return of its own accord. Those
+who have jewels to conceal rest in perfect security if along with
+them they can deposit a narri-comboo, fully convinced that its
+presence is an effectual safeguard against robbers.</p>
+<p>One fabulous virtue ascribed to the <i>narrie-comboo</i> by the
+Singhalese is absurdly characteristic of their passion for
+litigation, as well as of their perceptions of the "glorious
+uncertainty of the law." It is the popular belief that the
+fortunate discoverer of a jackal's horn becomes thereby invincible
+in every lawsuit, and must irresistibly triumph over every
+opponent. A gentleman connected "with the Supreme Court of Colombo
+has repeated to me a circumstance, within his own knowledge, of a
+plaintiff who, after numerous defeats, eventually succeeded against
+his opponent by the timely acquisition of this invaluable charm.
+Before the final hearing of the cause, the mysterious horn was duly
+exhibited to his friends; and the consequence was, that the adverse
+witnesses, appalled by the belief that no one could possibly give
+judgment against a person so endowed, suddenly modified their
+previous evidence, and secured an unforeseen victory for the happy
+owner of the <i>narrie-comboo!</i></p>
+<p><i>The Mongoos</i>.&mdash;Of the Mongoos or Ichneumon four
+species have been described; and one, that frequents the hills near
+Neuera-ellia<a id="footnotetag371" name=
+"footnotetag371"></a><a href="#footnote371"><sup>371</sup></a>, is
+so remarkable from its bushy <span class="pagenum"><a name="page38"
+id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> fur, that the invalid soldiers in
+the sanatarium there, to whom it is familiar, have given it the
+name of the "Ceylon Badger."</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/063.png"><img width="100%" src="images/063.png" alt=
+"" /></a> HERPESTES VITTICOLLIS.</div>
+<p>I have found universally that the natives of Ceylon attach no
+credit to the European story of the Mongoos (<i>H. griseus</i>)
+resorting to some plant, which no one has yet succeeded in
+identifying, as an antidote against the bite of the venomous
+serpents on which it preys: There is no doubt that, in its
+conflicts with the cobra de capello and other poisonous snakes,
+which it attacks with as little hesitation as the harmless ones, it
+may be seen occasionally to retreat, and even to retire into the
+jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable; but a gentleman,
+who has been a frequent observer of its exploits, assures me that
+most usually the herb it resorted to was <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span> grass;
+and if this were not at hand, almost any other plant that grew near
+seemed equally acceptable. Hence has probably arisen the long list
+of plants, such as the <i>Ophioxylon serpentinum</i> and
+<i>Ophiorhiza mungos</i>, the <i>Aristolochia Indica</i>, the
+<i>Mimosa octandria</i>, and others, each of which has been
+asserted to be the ichneumon's specific; whilst their multiplicity
+is demonstrative of the non-existence of any one in particular on
+which the animal relies as an antidote. Were there any truth in the
+tale as regards the mongoos, it would be difficult to understand
+why creatures, such as the secretary bird and the falcon, and
+others, which equally destroy serpents, should be left defenceless,
+and the ichneumon alone provided with a prophylactic. Besides, were
+the ichneumon inspired by that courage which would result from the
+consciousness of security, it would be so indifferent to the bite
+of the serpent that we might conclude that, both in its approaches
+and its assault, it would be utterly careless as to the precise
+mode of its attack. Such, however, is far from being the case: and
+next to its audacity, nothing can be more surprising than the
+adroitness with which it escapes the spring of the snake under a
+due sense of danger, and the cunning with which it makes its
+arrangements to leap upon the back and fasten its teeth in the head
+of the cobra. It is this display of instinctive ingenuity that
+Lucan<a id="footnotetag391" name="footnotetag391"></a><a href=
+"#footnote391"><sup>391</sup></a> celebrates where he paints the
+ichneumon diverting the attention of the asp, by the motion of his
+bushy tail, and then seizing it in the midst of its
+confusion:&mdash;</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>"Aspidas ut Pharias caud&acirc; solertior hostis</p>
+<p>Ludit, et iratas incert&acirc; provocat umbr&acirc;:</p>
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>[pg
+40]</span>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Obliquusque caput vanas serpentis in auras</p>
+<p>Effuse toto comprendit guttura morsu</p>
+<p>Letiferam citra saniem; tunc irrita pestis</p>
+<p>Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno."</p>
+<p class="i10"><i>Pharsalia</i>, lib. iv. v. 729.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has been referred to
+the supposition that there may be some peculiarity in its
+organisation which renders it <i>proof against</i> the poison of
+the serpent. It remains for future investigation to determine how
+far this conjecture is founded in truth; and whether in the blood
+of the mongoos there exists any element or quality which acts as a
+prophylactic. Such exceptional provisions are not without precedent
+in the animal oeconomy: the hornbill feeds with impunity on the
+deadly fruit of the strychnos; the milky juice of some species of
+euphorbia, which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal to the
+zebra; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa, whose bite is
+mortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse, is harmless to man and
+the untamed creatures of the forest.<a id="footnotetag401" name=
+"footnotetag401"></a><a href="#footnote401"><sup>401</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos, which they
+designate "<i>Hotambeya</i>" and which they assert never preys upon
+serpents. A writer in the <i>Ceylon Miscellany</i> mentions, that
+they are often to be seen "crossing rivers and frequently
+mud-brooks near Chilaw; the adjacent thickets affording them
+shelter, and their food consisting of aquatic reptiles, crabs, and
+mollusca."<a id="footnotetag402" name="footnotetag402"></a><a href=
+"#footnote402"><sup>402</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>[pg
+41]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/066.png"><img width="100%" src="images/066.png" alt=
+"Flying Squirrel" /></a> FLYING SQUIRREL.</div>
+<p><b>IV. RODENTIA.</b> <i>Squirrels</i>.&mdash;Smaller animals in
+great numbers enliven the forests and lowland plains with their
+graceful movements. Squirrels<a id="footnotetag411" name=
+"footnotetag411"></a><a href="#footnote411"><sup>411</sup></a>, of
+which there are a great variety, make their shrill metallic call
+heard <span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>[pg
+42]</span> at early morning in the woods; and when sounding their
+note of warning on the approach of a civet or a tree-snake, the
+ears tingle with the loud trill of defiance, which rings as clear
+and rapid as the running down of an alarum, and is instantly caught
+up and re-echoed from every side by their terrified playmates.</p>
+<p>One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied subgenus, is
+known as the "Flying Squirrel,"<a id="footnotetag421" name=
+"footnotetag421"></a><a href="#footnote421"><sup>421</sup></a> from
+its being assisted, in its prodigious leaps from tree to tree, by a
+parachute formed by the skin of the flanks, which, on the extension
+of the limbs front and rear, is laterally expanded from foot to
+foot. Thus buoyed up in its descent, the spring which it is enabled
+to make from one lofty tree to another resembles the flight of a
+bird rather than the bound of a quadruped.</p>
+<p>Of these pretty creatures there are two species, one common to
+Ceylon and India, the other (<i>Sciuropterus Layardii</i>, Kelaart)
+is peculiar to the island, and by far the most beautiful of the
+family.</p>
+<p><i>Rats</i>.&mdash;Among the multifarious inhabitants to which
+the forest affords at once a home and provender is the tree
+rat<a id="footnotetag422" name="footnotetag422"></a><a href=
+"#footnote422"><sup>422</sup></a>, which forms its nest on the
+branches, and by turns makes its visits to the dwellings of the
+natives, frequenting the ceilings in preference to the lower parts
+of houses. Here it is incessantly followed by the rat-snake<a id=
+"footnotetag423" name="footnotetag423"></a><a href=
+"#footnote423"><sup>423</sup></a>, whose domestication is
+encouraged by the servants, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"
+id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span> in consideration of its services in
+destroying vermin. I had one day an opportunity of surprising a
+snake that had just seized on a rat of this description, and of
+covering it suddenly with a glass shade, before it had time to
+swallow its prey. The serpent, appeared stunned by its own capture,
+and allowed the rat to escape from its jaws, which cowered at one
+side of the glass in the most pitiable state of trembling terror.
+The two were left alone for some moments, and on my return to them
+the snake was as before in the same attitude of sullen stupor. On
+setting them at liberty, the rat bounded towards the nearest fence;
+but quick as lightning it was followed by its pursuer, which seized
+it before it could gain the hedge, through which I saw the snake
+glide with its victim in its jaws. In parts of the central
+province, at Oovah and Bintenne, the house-rat is eaten as a common
+article of food. The Singhalese believe it and the mouse to be
+liable to hydrophobia.</p>
+<p>Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which made its
+appearance for the first time in the coffee plantations on the
+Kandyan hills in the year 1847; and in such swarms does it continue
+to infest them, at intervals, that as many as a thousand have been
+killed in a single day on one estate. In order to reach the buds
+and blossoms of the coffee, it cuts such of the slender branches as
+would not sustain its weight, and feeds on them when fallen to the
+ground; and so delicate and sharp are its incisors, that the twigs
+thus destroyed are detached by as clean a cut as if severed with a
+knife.</p>
+<p>The coffee-rat<a id="footnotetag431" name=
+"footnotetag431"></a><a href="#footnote431"><sup>431</sup></a> is
+an insular variety of the <i>Mus hirsutus</i> of W. Elliot, found
+in Southern India. They inhabit <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page44" id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span> the forests, making their
+nests among the roots of the trees, and feeding, in the season, on
+the ripe seeds of the nilloo. Like the lemmings of Norway and
+Lapland, they migrate in vast numbers on the occurrence of a
+scarcity of their ordinary food. The Malabar coolies are so fond of
+their flesh, that they evince a preference for those districts in
+which the coffee plantations are subject to their incursions, where
+they fry the rats in coco-nut oil, or convert them into curry.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/069.png"><img width="100%" src="images/069.png" alt=
+"" /></a> COFFEE RAT.</div>
+<p><i>Bandicoot</i>.&mdash;Another favourite article of food with
+the coolies is the pig-rat or Bandicoot<a id="footnotetag441" name=
+"footnotetag441"></a><a href="#footnote441"><sup>441</sup></a>,
+which attains on those hills the weight of two or three pounds, and
+grows to nearly the length of two feet. As it feeds on grain and
+roots, its flesh is said to be delicate, and much resembling young
+pork.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>[pg
+45]</span>
+<p>Its nests, when rifled, are frequently found to contain
+considerable quantities of rice, stored up against the dry
+season.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/070.png"><img width="100%" src="images/070.png" alt=
+"" /></a> BANDICOOT.</div>
+<p><i>Porcupine</i>.&mdash;The Porcupine<a id="footnotetag451"
+name="footnotetag451"></a><a href="#footnote451"><sup>451</sup></a>
+is another of the <i>rodentia</i> which has drawn down upon itself
+the hostility of the planters, from its destruction of the young
+coconut palms, to which it is a pernicious and persevering, but
+withal so crafty, a visitor, that it is with difficulty any trap
+can be so disguised, or any bait made so alluring, as to lead to
+its capture. The usual expedient in Ceylon is to place some of its
+favourite food at the extremity of a trench, so narrow as to
+prevent the porcupine turning, whilst the direction of his quills
+effectually bars his retreat backwards. On a newly planted coconut
+tope, at Hang-welle, within a few miles of Colombo, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> I have
+heard of as many as twenty-seven being thus captured in a single
+night; but such success is rare. The more ordinary expedient is to
+smoke them out by burning straw at the apertures of their burrows.
+At Ootacamund, on the continent of the Dekkan, spring-guns have
+been used with great success by the Superintendent of the
+Horticultural Gardens; placing them so as to sweep the runs of the
+porcupines. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon, and in
+consistency, colour, and flavour it very much resembles young
+pork.</p>
+<p>V. EDENTATA. <i>Pengolin</i>.&mdash;Of the Edentata the only
+example in Ceylon is the scaly ant-eater, called by the Singhalese,
+Caballaya, but usually known by its Malay name of
+<i>Pengolin</i><a id="footnotetag461" name=
+"footnotetag461"></a><a href="#footnote461"><sup>461</sup></a>, a
+word indicative of its faculty, when alarmed, of "rolling itself
+up" into a compact ball, by bending its head towards its stomach,
+arching its back into a circle, and securing all by a powerful fold
+of its mail-covered tail. The feet of the pengolin are armed with
+powerful claws, which in walking they double in, like the ant-eater
+of Brazil. These they use in extracting their favourite food from
+ant-hills and decaying wood. When at liberty, they burrow in the
+dry ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, where they reside in
+pairs, and produce annually one or two young.<a id="footnotetag462"
+name="footnotetag462"></a><a href=
+"#footnote462"><sup>462</sup></a></p>
+<p>Of two specimens which I kept alive at different times, one,
+about two feet in length, from the vicinity of Kandy, was a gentle
+and affectionate creature, which, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page47" id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> after wandering over the
+house in search of ants, would attract attention to its wants by
+climbing up my knee, laying hold of my leg with its prehensile
+tail. The other, more than double that length, was caught in the
+jungle near Chilaw, and brought to me in Colombo. I had always
+understood that the pengolin was unable to climb trees; but the one
+last mentioned frequently ascended a tree in my garden, in search
+of ants; and this it effected by means of its hooked feet, aided by
+an oblique grasp of the tail. The ants it seized by extending its
+round and glutinous tongue along their tracks; and in the stomach
+of one which was opened after death, I found a quantity of small
+stones and gravel, which had been taken to facilitate digestion. In
+both specimens in my possession the scales of the back <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> were a
+cream-coloured white, with a tinge of red in that which came from
+Chilaw, probably acquired by the insinuation of the Cabook dust
+which abounds along the western coast of the island.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50%;"><a href=
+"images/072.png"><img width="100%" src="images/072.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE PENGOLIN.</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/073.png"><img width="100%" src="images/073.png" alt=
+"" /></a> SKELETON OF PENGOLIN.</div>
+<p>Of the habits of the pengolin I found that very little was known
+by the natives, who regard it with aversion, one name given to it
+being the "Negombo Devil." Those kept by me were, generally
+speaking, quiet during the day, and grew restless and active as
+evening and night approached. Both had been taken near rocks, in
+the hollows of which they had their dwelling, but owing to their
+slow power of motion, they were unable to reach their hiding place
+when overtaken. When frightened, they rolled themselves instantly
+into a rounded ball; and such was the powerful force of muscle,
+that the strength of a man was insufficient to uncoil it. In
+reconnoitring they made important use of the tail, resting upon it
+and their hind legs, and holding themselves nearly erect, to
+command a view of their object. The strength of this powerful limb
+will be perceived from the accompanying drawing of <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> the
+skeleton of the Manis; in which it will be seen that the tail is
+equal in length to all the rest of the body, whilst the
+vertebr&aelig; which compose it are stronger by far than those of
+the back.</p>
+<p>From the size and position of the bones of the leg, the pengolin
+is endued with prodigious power; and its faculty of exerting this
+vertically, was displayed in overturning heavy cases, by
+insinuating itself under them, between the supports, by which it is
+customary in Ceylon to raise trunks a few inches above the floor,
+in order to prevent the attacks of white ants.</p>
+<p>VI. RUMINANTIA. <i>The Gaur</i>.&mdash;Besides the deer, and
+some varieties of the humped ox, that have been introduced from the
+opposite continent of India, Ceylon has probably but one other
+indigenous bovine <i>ruminant</i>, the buffalo.<a id=
+"footnotetag491" name="footnotetag491"></a><a href=
+"#footnote491"><sup>491</sup></a> There is a tradition that the
+gaur, found in the extremity of the Indian peninsula, was at one
+period a native of the Kandyan Mountains; but as Knox speaks of one
+which in his time "was kept among the king's creatures" at
+Kandy<a id="footnotetag492" name="footnotetag492"></a><a href=
+"#footnote492"><sup>492</sup></a>, and his account of it tallies
+with that of the <i>Bos Gaurus</i> of Hindustan, it would appear
+even then to have been a rarity. A place between Neuera-ellia and
+Adam's Peak bears the name of "Gowra-ellia," and it is not
+impossible that the animal may yet be discovered in some of the
+imperfectly explored regions of the island.<a id="footnotetag493"
+name="footnotetag493"></a><a href="#footnote493"><sup>493</sup></a>
+I have heard of an instance in which a very old Kandyan, residing
+in the mountains near the Horton Plains, asserted that when young
+he had seen what he believed to have been a gaur, and he described
+it as between an elk and a buffalo in size, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> dark
+brown in colour, and very scantily provided with hair.</p>
+<p><i>Oxen</i>.&mdash;Oxen are used by the peasantry both in
+ploughing and in tempering the mud in the wet paddi fields before
+sowing the rice; and when the harvest is reaped they "tread out the
+corn," after the immemorial custom of the East. The wealth of the
+native chiefs and landed proprietors frequently consists in their
+herds of bullocks, which they hire out to their dependents during
+the seasons for agricultural labour; and as they already supply
+them with land to be tilled, and lend the seed which is to crop it,
+the further contribution of this portion of the labour serves to
+render the dependence of the peasantry on the chiefs and headmen
+complete.</p>
+<p>The cows are often worked as well as the oxen; and as the calves
+are always permitted to suck them, milk is an article which the
+traveller can rarely hope to procure in a Kandyan village. From
+their constant exposure at all seasons, the cattle in Ceylon, both
+those employed in agriculture and those on the roads, are subject
+to devastating murrains, that sweep them away by thousands. So
+frequent is the recurrence of these calamities, and so extended
+their ravages, that they exercise a serious influence upon the
+commercial interests of the colony, by reducing the facilities of
+agriculture, and augmenting the cost of carriage during the most
+critical periods of the coffee harvest.</p>
+<p>A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, frequently carries
+off the cattle in Assam and other hill countries on the continent
+of India; and there, as in Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the
+lungs and throat, and the internal derangement and external
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg
+51]</span> eruptive appearances, seem to indicate that the disease
+is a feverish influenza, attributable to neglect and exposure in a
+moist and variable climate; and that its prevention might be hoped
+for, and the cattle preserved, by the simple expedient of more
+humane and considerate treatment, especially by affording them
+cover at night.</p>
+<p>During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred at
+Neuera-ellia, which invested one of these pretty animals with an
+heroic interest. A little cow, belonging to an English gentleman,
+was housed, together with her calf, near the dwelling of her owner,
+and being aroused during the night by her furious bellowing, the
+servants, on hastening to the stall, found her goring a leopard,
+which had stolen in to attack the calf. She had got it into a
+corner, and whilst lowing incessantly to call for help, she
+continued to pound it with her horns. The wild animal, apparently
+stupified by her unexpected violence, was detained by her till
+despatched by a bullet.</p>
+<p>The number of bullock-carts encountered between Colombo and
+Kandy, laden with coffee from the interior, or carrying up rice and
+stores for the supply of the plantations in the hill-country, is
+quite surprising. The oxen thus employed on this single road, about
+seventy miles long, are estimated at upwards of twenty thousand.
+The bandy to which they are yoked is a barbarous two-wheeled
+waggon, with a covering of plaited coco-nut leaves, in which a pair
+of strong bullocks will draw from five to ten hundred weight,
+according to the nature of the country; and with this load on a
+level they will perform a journey of twenty miles a day.</p>
+<p>A few of the large humped cattle of India are annually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>[pg
+52]</span> imported for draught; but the vast majority of those in
+use are small and dark-coloured, with a graceful head and neck, and
+elevated hump, a deep silky dewlap, and limbs as slender as a deer.
+They appear to have neither the strength nor weight requisite for
+this service; and yet the entire coffee crop of Ceylon, amounting
+annually to upwards of half a million hundred weight, is year after
+year brought down from the mountains to the coast by these
+indefatigable little creatures, which, on returning, carry up
+proportionally heavy loads, of rice and implements for the
+estates.<a id="footnotetag521" name="footnotetag521"></a><a href=
+"#footnote521"><sup>521</sup></a> There are two varieties of the
+native bullock; one a somewhat coarser animal, of a deep red
+colour; the other, the high-bred black one I have just described.
+So rare was a white one of this species, under the native kings,
+that the Kandyans were compelled to set them apart for the royal
+herd.<a id="footnotetag522" name="footnotetag522"></a><a href=
+"#footnote522"><sup>522</sup></a></p>
+<p>Although bullocks may be said to be the only animals of draught
+and burden in Ceylon (horses being rarely used except in spring
+carriages), no attempt has been made to improve the breed, or even
+to better the condition and treatment of those in use. Their food
+is indifferent, pasture in all parts of the island being rare, and
+cattle are seldom housed under any vicissitudes of weather.</p>
+<p>The labour for which they are best adapted, and in which, before
+the opening of roads, these cattle were formerly employed, is in
+traversing the jungle paths of <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page53" id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span> the interior, carrying
+light loads as pack-oxen in what is called a
+"<i>tavalam</i>"&mdash;a term which, substituting bullocks for
+camels, is equivalent to a "caravan."<a id="footnotetag531" name=
+"footnotetag531"></a><a href="#footnote531"><sup>531</sup></a> The
+class of persons engaged in this traffic in Ceylon resemble in
+their occupations the "Banjarees" of Hindustan, who bring down to
+the coast corn, cotton, and oil, and take back to the interior
+cloths and iron and copper utensils. In the unopened parts of the
+island, and especially in the eastern provinces, this primitive
+practice still continues. When travelling in these districts I have
+often encountered long files of pack-bullocks toiling along the
+mountain paths, their bells tinkling musically as they moved; or
+halting during the noonday heat beside some stream in the forests,
+their burdens piled in heaps near the drivers, who had lighted
+their cooking fires, whilst the bullocks were permitted to bathe
+and browse.</p>
+<p>The persons engaged in this wandering trade are chiefly Moors,
+and the business carried on by them consists in bringing up salt
+from the government depots on the coast to be bartered with the
+Kandyans in the hills for "native coffee," which is grown in small
+quantities round every house, but without systematic cultivation.
+This they carry down to the maritime towns, and the proceeds are
+invested in cotton cloths and brass utensils, dried fish, and other
+commodities, with which the <i>tavalams</i> supply the secluded
+villages of the interior.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>[pg
+54]</span>
+<p><i>The Buffalo</i>.&mdash;Buffaloes abound in all parts of
+Ceylon, but they are only to be seen in their native wildness in
+the vast solitudes of the northern and eastern provinces, where
+rivers, lagoons, and dilapidated tanks abound. In these they
+delight to immerse themselves, till only their heads appear above
+the surface; or, enveloped in mud to protect themselves from the
+assaults of insects, they luxuriate in the long sedges by the water
+margins. When the buffalo is browsing, a crow will frequently be
+seen stationed on its back, engaged in freeing it from the ticks
+and other pests which attach themselves to its leathery hide, the
+smooth brown surface of which, unprotected by hair, shines with an
+unpleasant polish in the sunlight. When in motion a buffalo throws
+back its clumsy head till the huge horns rest on its shoulders, and
+the nose is presented in a line with the eyes.</p>
+<p>The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain, and such
+is its strength and courage that in the Hindu epic of the Ramayana
+its onslaught is compared to that of the tiger.<a id=
+"footnotetag541" name="footnotetag541"></a><a href=
+"#footnote541"><sup>541</sup></a> It is never quite safe to
+approach them, if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from their
+repose in the shallow lakes. On such occasions they hurry into
+line, draw up in defensive array, with a few of the oldest bulls in
+advance; and, wheeling in circles, their horns clashing with a loud
+sound as they clank them together in their rapid evolutions, they
+prepare for attack; but generally, after a menacing display the
+herd betake themselves to flight; then forming again at a safer
+distance, they halt as before, elevating their nostrils, and
+throwing back their heads to take a defiant survey of the
+intruders. The true sportsman rarely molests them, so huge a
+creature affording no worthy mark for <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span> his
+skill, and their wanton slaughter adds nothing to the supply of
+food for their assailant.</p>
+<p>In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese domesticate
+buffaloes, and use them to assist in the labour of the rice lands,
+the villagers are much annoyed by the wild ones, that mingle with
+the tame when sent out to the woods to pasture; and it constantly
+happens that a savage stranger, placing himself at the head of the
+tame herd, resists the attempts of the owners to drive them
+homewards at sunset. In the districts of Putlam and the Seven
+Corles, buffaloes are generally used for draught; and in carrying
+heavy loads of salt from the coast towards the interior, they drag
+a cart over roads which would defy the weaker strength of
+bullocks.</p>
+<p>In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie I found the
+natives making an ingenious use of them when engaged in shooting
+water-fowl in the vast salt marshes and muddy lakes. Being an
+object to which the birds are accustomed, the Singhalese train the
+buffalo to the sport, and, concealed behind, the animal browsing
+listlessly along, they guide it by ropes attached to its horns, and
+thus creep undiscovered within shot of the flock. The same practice
+prevails, I believe, in some of the northern parts of India, where
+they are similarly trained to assist the sportsman in approaching
+deer. One of these "sporting buffaloes" sells for a considerable
+sum.</p>
+<p>In the thick forests which cover the Passdun Corle, to the east,
+and south of Caltura, the natives use the sporting buffalo in
+another way, to assist in hunting deer and wild hogs. A bell is
+attached to its neck, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"
+id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span> a box or basket with one side open
+is securely strapped on its back. This at nightfall is lighted by
+flambeaux of wax, and the buffalo bearing it, is driven slowly into
+the jungle. The huntsmen, with their fowling pieces, keep close
+under the darkened side, and as it moves slowly onwards, the wild
+animals, startled by the sound, and bewildered by the light, steal
+cautiously towards it in stupified fascination. Even the snakes, I
+am assured, will be attracted by this extraordinary object; and the
+leopard too falls a victim to curiosity.</p>
+<p>There is a peculiarity in the formation of the buffalo's foot,
+which, though it must have attracted attention, I have never seen
+mentioned by naturalists. It is equivalent to the arrangement which
+distinguishes the foot of the reindeer from that of the stag and
+the antelope. In the latter, the hoofs, being constructed for
+lightness and flight, are compact and vertical; but, in the
+reindeer, the joints of the tarsal bones admit of lateral
+expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards, while the two
+secondary ones behind (which are but slightly developed in the
+fallow deer and others of the same family) are prolonged vertically
+till, in certain positions, they are capable of being applied to
+the ground, thus adding to the circumference and sustaining power
+of the foot. It has been usually suggested as the probable design
+of this structure, that it is to enable the reindeer to shovel away
+the snow in order to reach the lichens beneath it; but I apprehend
+that another use of it has been overlooked, that of facilitating
+its movements in search of food by increasing the difficulty of its
+sinking in the snow.</p>
+<p>A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems to point to
+a corresponding design. The ox, whose life <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span> is spent
+on firm ground, has the bones of the foot so constructed as to
+afford the most solid support to an animal of its great weight; but
+in the buffalo, which delights in the morasses on the margins of
+pools and rivers, the construction of the foot resembles that of
+the reindeer. The tarsi in front extend almost horizontally from
+the upright bones of the leg, and spread apart widely on touching
+the ground; the hoofs are flattened and broad, with the extremities
+turned upwards; and the false hoofs behind descend till they make a
+clattering sound as the animal walks. In traversing the marshes,
+this combination of abnormal incidents serves to give extraordinary
+breadth to the foot, and not only prevents the buffalo from sinking
+inconveniently in soft ground<a id="footnotetag571" name=
+"footnotetag571"></a><a href="#footnote571"><sup>571</sup></a>, but
+at the same time presents no obstacle to the withdrawal of its foot
+from the mud.</p>
+<p>The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in Ceylon as an
+albino, with purely white hair and a pink iris.</p>
+<p><i>Deer</i>.&mdash;"Deer," says the truthful old chronicler,
+Robert Knox, "are in great abundance in the woods, from the
+largeness of a cow to the smallness of a hare, for here is a
+creature in this land no bigger than the latter, though every part
+rightly resembleth a deer: it is called <i>meminna</i>, of a grey
+colour, with white spots and good meat."<a id="footnotetag572"
+name="footnotetag572"></a><a href="#footnote572"><sup>572</sup></a>
+The little creature which thus dwelt in the recollection of the old
+man, as one of the memorials <span class="pagenum"><a name="page58"
+id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> of his long captivity, is the small
+"musk deer"<a id="footnotetag581" name=
+"footnotetag581"></a><a href="#footnote581"><sup>581</sup></a> so
+called in India, although neither sex is provided with a musk-bag.
+The Europeans in Ceylon know it by the name of the "moose deer;"
+and in all probability the terms <i>musk</i> and <i>moose</i> are
+both corruptions of the Dutch word "<i>muis</i>," or "mouse" deer,
+a name particularly applicable to the timid and crouching attitudes
+and aspect of this beautiful little creature. Its extreme length
+never reaches two feet; and of those which were domesticated about
+my house, few exceeded ten inches in height, their graceful limbs
+being of proportionate delicacy. It possesses long and extremely
+large tusks, with which it can inflict a severe bite. The
+interpreter moodliar of Negombo had a <i>milk white</i> meminna in
+1847, which he designed to send home as an acceptable <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span> present
+to Her Majesty, but it was unfortunately killed by an
+accident.<a id="footnotetag591" name="footnotetag591"></a><a href=
+"#footnote591"><sup>591</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/083.png"><img width="100%" src="images/083.png" alt=
+"" /></a> "MOOSE" DEER (MOSCHUS MEMINNA)</div>
+<p><i>Ceylon Elk</i>.&mdash;In the mountains, the Ceylon elk<a id=
+"footnotetag592" name="footnotetag592"></a><a href=
+"#footnote592"><sup>592</sup></a>, which reminds one of the red
+deer of Scotland, attains the height of four or five feet; it
+abounds in all shady places that are intersected by rivers; where,
+though its chase affords an endless resource to the sportsman, its
+venison scarcely equals in quality the inferior beef of the lowland
+ox. In the glades and park-like openings that diversify the great
+forests of the interior, the spotted Axis troops in herds as
+numerous as the fallow deer in England: but, in journeys through
+the jungle, when often dependent on the guns of our party for the
+precarious supply of the table, we found the flesh of the
+Axis<a id="footnotetag593" name="footnotetag593"></a><a href=
+"#footnote593"><sup>593</sup></a> and the Muntjac<a id=
+"footnotetag594" name="footnotetag594"></a><a href=
+"#footnote594"><sup>594</sup></a> a sorry substitute for that of
+the pea-fowl, the jungle-cock, and flamingo. The occurrence of
+albinos is very frequent in troops of the axis. Deer's horns are an
+article of export from Ceylon, and considerable quantities are
+annually sent to the United Kingdom.</p>
+<p>VII. PACHYDERMATA.&mdash;<i>The Elephant</i>.&mdash;The
+elephant, and the wild boar, the Singhalese "waloora,"<a id=
+"footnotetag595" name="footnotetag595"></a><a href=
+"#footnote595"><sup>595</sup></a> are the only representatives of
+the <i>pachydermatous</i> order. The latter, which differs somewhat
+from the wild boar of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id=
+"page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> India, is found in droves in all parts
+of the island where vegetation and water are abundant.</p>
+<p>The elephant, the lord paramount of the Ceylon forests, is to be
+met with in every district, on the confines of the woods, in the
+depths of which he finds concealment and shade during the hours
+when the sun is high, and from which he emerges only at twilight to
+wend his way towards the rivers and tanks, where he luxuriates till
+dawn, when he again seeks the retirement of the deep forests. This
+noble animal fills so dignified a place both in the zoology and
+oeconomy of Ceylon, and his habits in a state of nature have been
+so much misunderstood, that I shall devote a separate section to
+his defence from misrepresentation, and to an exposition of what,
+from observation and experience, I believe to be his genuine
+character when free in his native domains. But this seems the
+proper place to allude to a recent discovery in connexion with the
+elephant, which strikingly confirms a conjecture which I ventured
+to make elsewhere<a id="footnotetag601" name=
+"footnotetag601"></a><a href="#footnote601"><sup>601</sup></a>,
+relative to the isolation of Ceylon and its distinctness, in many
+remarkable particulars, from the great continent of India. Every
+writer who previously treated of the island, including the
+accomplished Dr. Davy and the erudite Lassen, was contented, by a
+glance at its outline and a reference to its position on the map,
+to assume that Ceylon was a fragment, which in a very remote age
+had been torn from the adjacent mainland, by some convulsion of
+nature. Hence it was taken for granted that the vegetation which
+covers and the races of animals which inhabit it, must be identical
+with those of Hindustan; to which <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page61" id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> Ceylon was alleged to bear
+the same relation as Sicily presents to the peninsula of Italy.
+MALTE BRUN<a id="footnotetag611" name="footnotetag611"></a><a href=
+"#footnote611"><sup>611</sup></a> and the geographers generally,
+declared the larger animals of either to be common to both. I was
+led to question the soundness of this dictum;&mdash;and from a
+closer examination of its geological conformation and of its
+botanical and zoological characteristics I came to the conclusion
+that not only is there an absence of sameness between the
+formations of the two localities; but that plants and animals,
+mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects exist in Ceylon, which are
+not to be found in the flora and fauna of the Dekkan; but which
+present a striking affinity, and occasionally an actual identity,
+with those of the Malayan countries and some of the islands of the
+Eastern Archipelago. Startling as this conclusion appeared to be,
+it was strangely in unison with the legends of the Singhalese
+themselves, that at an infinitely remote period Ceylon formed an
+integral portion of a vast continent, known in the mythical epics
+of the Brahmans by the designation of "<i>Lanka</i>;" so immense
+that its southern extremity fell below the equator, whilst in
+breadth it was prolonged till its western and eastern boundaries
+touch at once upon the shores of Africa and China.</p>
+<p>Dim as is this ancient tradition, it is in consistency with the
+conclusions of modern geology, that at the commencement of the
+tertiary period northern Asia and a considerable part of India were
+in all probability covered by the sea but that south of India land
+extended eastward and westward connecting Malacca with Arabia.
+PROFESSOR ANSTED has propounded this view. His opinion is, that the
+Himalayas then existed only as a chain of islands, and did not till
+a much later age become <span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id=
+"page62"></a>[pg 62]</span> elevated into mountain ranges,&mdash;a
+change which took place during the same revolution that raised the
+great plains of Siberia and Tartary and many parts of north-western
+Europe. At the same time the great continent whose position between
+the tropics has been alluded to, and whose previous existence is
+still indicated by the Coral islands, the Laccadives, the Maldives,
+and the Chagos group, underwent simultaneous depression by a
+counteracting movement.<a id="footnotetag621" name=
+"footnotetag621"></a><a href="#footnote621"><sup>621</sup></a></p>
+<p>But divested of oriental mystery and geologic conjecture, and
+brought to the test of "geographical distribution," this once
+prodigious continent would appear to have connected the distant
+Islands of Ceylon and Sumatra and possibly to have united both to
+the Malay peninsula, from which the latter is now severed by the
+Straits of Malacca. The proofs of physical affinity between these
+scattered localities are exceedingly curious.</p>
+<p>A striking dissimilarity presents itself between some of the
+Mammalia of Ceylon and those of the continent of India. In its
+general outline and feature, this branch of the island fauna, no
+doubt, exhibits a general resemblance to that of the mainland,
+although many of the larger animals of the latter are unknown in
+Ceylon: but, on the other hand, some species discovered there are
+peculiar to the island. A deer<a id="footnotetag622" name=
+"footnotetag622"></a><a href="#footnote622"><sup>622</sup></a> as
+large as the Axis, but differing from it in the number and
+arrangement of its spots, has been described by Dr. Kelaart, to
+whose vigilance the natural history of Ceylon is indebted, amongst
+others, for the identification of two new species of monkeys<a id=
+"footnotetag623" name="footnotetag623"></a><a href=
+"#footnote623"><sup>623</sup></a>, a number of curious shrews<a id=
+"footnotetag624" name="footnotetag624"></a><a href=
+"#footnote624"><sup>624</sup></a>, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page63" id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span> and an orange-coloured
+ichneumon<a id="footnotetag631" name="footnotetag631"></a><a href=
+"#footnote631"><sup>631</sup></a>, before unknown. There are also
+two squirrels<a id="footnotetag632" name=
+"footnotetag632"></a><a href="#footnote632"><sup>632</sup></a> that
+have not as yet been discovered elsewhere, (one of them belonging
+to those equipped with a parachute<a id="footnotetag633" name=
+"footnotetag633"></a><a href="#footnote633"><sup>633</sup></a>,) as
+well as some local varieties of the palm squirrel (Sciurus
+penicillatus, <i>Leach</i>).<a id="footnotetag634" name=
+"footnotetag634"></a><a href="#footnote634"><sup>634</sup></a></p>
+<p>But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a number of minor
+animals found in the Indian peninsula, cannot boast such a ruminant
+as the majestic Gaur<a id="footnotetag635" name=
+"footnotetag635"></a><a href="#footnote635"><sup>635</sup></a>,
+which inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya;
+and, providentially, the island is equally free of the formidable
+tiger and the ferocious wolf of Hindustan. The Hyena and
+Cheetah<a id="footnotetag636" name="footnotetag636"></a><a href=
+"#footnote636"><sup>636</sup></a>, common in Southern India, are
+unknown in Ceylon; and, though abundant in deer, the island
+possesses no example of the Antelope or the Gazelle.</p>
+<p>Amongst the Birds of Ceylon, the same abnormity is apparent.
+About thirty-eight species will be presently particularised<a id=
+"footnotetag637" name="footnotetag637"></a><a href=
+"#footnote637"><sup>637</sup></a>, which, although some of them may
+hereafter be discovered to have a wider geographical range, are at
+present believed to be unknown in continental India. I might
+further extend this enumeration, by including the Cheela eagle of
+Ceylon, which, although I have placed it in my list as identical
+with the <i>Hematornis cheela</i> of the Dekkan, is, I have since
+been assured, a different bird, and is most probably the <i>Falco
+bido</i> of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id=
+"page64"></a>[pg 64]</span> Horsfield, known to us by specimens
+obtained from Java and Sumatra.</p>
+<p>As to the Fishes of Ceylon, they are of course less distinct;
+and besides they have hitherto been very imperfectly compared. But
+the Insects afford a remarkable confirmation of the view I have
+ventured to propound; so much so that Mr. Walker, by whom the
+elaborate lists appended to this work have been prepared, asserts
+that some of the families have a less affinity to the entomology of
+India than to that of Australia.<a id="footnotetag641" name=
+"footnotetag641"></a><a href="#footnote641"><sup>641</sup></a></p>
+<p>But more conclusive than all, is the discovery to which I have
+alluded, in relation to the elephant of Ceylon. Down to a very
+recent period it was universally believed that only two species of
+the elephant are now in existence, the African and the Asiatic;
+distinguished by certain peculiarities in the shape of the cranium,
+the size of the ears, the ridges of the teeth, the number of
+vertebr&aelig;, and, according to Cuvier, in the number of nails on
+the hind feet. The elephant of Ceylon was believed to be identical
+with the elephant of India. But some few years back, TEMMINCK, in
+his survey of the Dutch possessions in the Indian Archipelago<a id=
+"footnotetag642" name="footnotetag642"></a><a href=
+"#footnote642"><sup>642</sup></a>, announced the fact that the
+elephant which abounds in Sumatra (although unknown in the adjacent
+island of Java), and which had theretofore been regarded as the
+same species with the Indian one, has been recently found to
+possess peculiarities, in which it differs as much from the
+elephant of India, as the latter from its African congener. On this
+new species of elephant, to which the natives give the name of
+<i>gadjah</i>, TEMMINCK has conferred the scientific designation of
+the <i>Elephas Sumatranus</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>[pg
+65]</span>
+<p>The points which entitle it to this distinction he enumerated
+minutely in the work<a id="footnotetag651" name=
+"footnotetag651"></a><a href="#footnote651"><sup>651</sup></a>
+before alluded to, but they have been summarized as follows by
+Prince Lucien Bonaparte.</p>
+<p>"This species is perfectly intermediate between the Indian and
+African, especially in the shape of the skull, and will certainly
+put an end to the distinction between <i>Elephas</i> and
+<i>Loxodon</i>, with those who admit that anatomical genus; since
+although the crowns of the teeth of <i>E. Sumatranus</i> are more
+like the Asiatic animal, still the less numerous undulated ribbons
+of enamel are nearly quite as wide as those forming the lozenges of
+the African. The number of pairs of false ribs (which alone vary,
+the true ones being always six) is fourteen, one less than in the
+<i>Africanus</i>, <i>one</i> more than in the <i>Indicus</i>; and
+so it is with the dorsal vertebr&aelig;, which are twenty in the
+<i>Sumatranus</i> (<i>twenty-one</i> and <i>nineteen</i>, in the
+others), whilst the new species agrees with <i>Africanus</i> in the
+number of sacral vertebr&aelig; (<i>four</i>), and with
+<i>Indicus</i> in that of the caudal ones, which are
+<i>thirty-four</i>."<a id="footnotetag652" name=
+"footnotetag652"></a><a href="#footnote652"><sup>652</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>[pg
+66]</span>
+<p>PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL of Leyden, in a paper lately submitted by him
+to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Holland, (the substance of
+which he has obligingly communicated to me, through Baron Bentinck
+the Netherlands Minister at this Court), has confirmed the identity
+of the Ceylon elephant with that found in the Lampongs of Sumatra.
+The osteological comparison of which TEMMINCK has given the results
+was, he says, conducted by himself with access to four skeletons of
+the latter. And the more recent opportunity of comparing a living
+Sumatran elephant with one from Bengal, has served to establish
+other though minor points of divergence. The Indian species is more
+robust and powerful: the proboscis longer and more slender; and the
+extremity, (a point, in which the elephant of Sumatra resembles
+that of Africa,) is more flattened and provided with coarser and
+longer hair than that of India.</p>
+<p>PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL, adverting to the large export of elephants
+from Ceylon to the Indian continent, which has been carried on from
+time immemorial, suggests the caution with which naturalists, in
+investigating this question, should first satisfy themselves
+whether the elephants they examine are really natives of the
+mainland, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id=
+"page67"></a>[pg 67]</span> or whether they have been brought to it
+from the islands.<a id="footnotetag671" name=
+"footnotetag671"></a><a href="#footnote671"><sup>671</sup></a> "The
+extraordinary fact," he observes in his letter to me, "of the
+identity thus established between the elephants of Ceylon and
+Sumatra; and the points in which they are found to differ from that
+of Bengal, leads to the question whether all the elephants of the
+Asiatic continent belong to one single species; or whether these
+vast regions may not produce in some quarter as yet unexplored the
+one hitherto found only in the two islands referred to? It is
+highly desirable that naturalists who have the means and
+opportunity, should exert themselves to discover, whether any
+traces are to be found of the Ceylon elephant in the Dekkan; or of
+that of Sumatra in Cochin China or Siam."</p>
+<p>To me the establishment of a fact so conclusively confirmatory
+of the theory I had ventured to broach, is productive of great
+satisfaction. But it is not a little remarkable that the
+distinction should not long before have been discovered between the
+elephant of India and that of Ceylon. Nor can it be regarded
+otherwise than as a singular illustration of "geographical
+distribution" that two remote islands should be thus shown to
+possess in common a species unknown in any other quarter of the
+globe. As bearing on the ancient myth which represents both
+countries as forming parts of a submerged continent, the discovery
+is curious&mdash;and it is equally interesting in connection with
+the circumstance alluded to by Gibbon, that amongst the early
+geographers and even down to a comparatively modern date, Sumatra
+and Ceylon were confounded; and grave doubts were entertained as to
+which of the two was the "Taprobane" of antiquity. GEMMA FRISIUS,
+SEBASTIAN MUNSTER, JULIUS SCALIGER, ORTELIUS and MERCATOR contended
+for the former; SALMASIUS, BOCHART, CLUVERIUS, and VOSSIUS for
+Ceylon: and the controversy did not cease till it was terminated by
+DELISLE about the beginning of the last century.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>[pg
+68]</span>
+<p>VIII. CETACEA.&mdash;Whales are so frequently seen that they
+have been captured within sight of Colombo, and more than once
+their carcases, after having been flinched by the whalers, have
+floated on shore near the lighthouse, tainting the atmosphere
+within the fort by their rapid decomposition.</p>
+<p>Of this family, one of the most remarkable animals on the coast
+is the dugong<a id="footnotetag681" name=
+"footnotetag681"></a><a href="#footnote681"><sup>681</sup></a>, a
+phytophagous cetacean, numbers of which are attracted to the
+inlets, from the bay of Calpentyn to Adam's Bridge, by the still
+water and the abundance of marine alg&aelig; in these parts of the
+gulf. One which was killed at Manaar and sent to me to
+Colombo<a id="footnotetag682" name="footnotetag682"></a><a href=
+"#footnote682"><sup>682</sup></a> in 1847, measured upwards of
+seven feet in length; but specimens considerably larger have been
+taken at Calpentyn, and their flesh is represented as closely
+resembling veal.</p>
+<p>The rude approach to the human outline, observed in the shape of
+the head of this creature, and the attitude of the mother when
+suckling her young, clasping it to her breast with one flipper,
+while swimming with the other, holding the heads of both above
+water; and when disturbed, suddenly diving and displaying her
+fish-like tail,&mdash;these, together with her habitual
+demonstrations of strong maternal affection, probably gave rise to
+the fable of the "mermaid;" and thus that earliest invention of
+mythical physiology may be traced to the Arab seamen and the
+Greeks, who had watched the movements of the dugong in the waters
+of Manaar.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>[pg
+69]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/094.png"><img width="100%" src="images/094.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE DUGONG.</div>
+<p>Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the ocean,
+near Taprobane, with the aspect of a woman<a id="footnotetag691"
+name="footnotetag691"></a><a href=
+"#footnote691"><sup>691</sup></a>; and &AElig;lian, adopting and
+enlarging on his information, peoples the seas of Ceylon with
+fishes having the heads of lions, panthers, and rams, and, stranger
+still, <i>cetaceans in the form of satyrs</i>. Statements such as
+these must have had their origin in the hairs, which are set round
+the mouth of the dugong, somewhat resembling a beard, which
+&AElig;lian and Megasthenes both particularise, from their
+resemblance to the hair of a woman: "[Greek: kai gynaik&ocirc;n
+opsin echousin aisper anti plokam&ocirc;n akanthai
+pros&ecirc;rt&ecirc;ntai"]<a id="footnotetag692" name=
+"footnotetag692"></a><a href="#footnote692"><sup>692</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>[pg
+70]</span>
+<p>The Portuguese cherished the belief in the mermaid, and the
+annalist of the exploits of the Jesuits in India, gravely records
+that seven of these monsters, male and female, were captured at
+Manaar in 1560, and carried to Goa, where they were dissected by
+Demas Bosquez, physician to the Viceroy, and "their internal
+structure found to be in all respects conformable to the
+human."<a id="footnotetag701" name="footnotetag701"></a><a href=
+"#footnote701"><sup>701</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Dutch were no less inclined to the marvellous, and they
+propagated the belief in the mermaid with earnestness and
+particularity. VALENTYN, one of their chaplains, in his account of
+the Natural History of Amboina, embodied in his great work on the
+Netherlands' Possessions in India, published so late as 1727<a id=
+"footnotetag702" name="footnotetag702"></a><a href=
+"#footnote702"><sup>702</sup></a>, has devoted the first section of
+his chapter on the Fishes of that island to a minute description of
+the "Zee-Menschen, Zee-Wyven," and mermaids. As to the dugong he
+admits its resemblance to the mermaid, but repudiates the idea of
+its having given rise to the fable, by being mistaken for one. This
+error he imagines must have arisen at a time when observations on
+such matters were made with culpable laxity; but now more recent
+and minute attention has established the truth beyond cavil.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>[pg
+71]</span>
+<p>For instance, he states that in 1653, when a lieutenant in the
+Dutch service was leading a party of soldiers along the sea-shore
+in Amboina, he and all his company saw the mermen swimming at a
+short distance from the beach with long and flowing hair, of a
+colour between gray and green&mdash;and six weeks afterwards, the
+creatures were again seen by him and more than fifty witnesses, at
+the same place, by clear daylight.<a id="footnotetag711" name=
+"footnotetag711"></a><a href="#footnote711"><sup>711</sup></a></p>
+<p>"If any narrative in the world," adds VALENTYN, "deserves
+credit, it is this; since <i>not only one but two mermen</i>
+together were seen by so many eye-witnesses. Should the stubborn
+world, however, hesitate to believe it, it matters nothing; as
+there are people who would even deny that such cities as Rome,
+Constantinople or Cairo, exist, merely because they themselves have
+not happened to see them."</p>
+<p>But what are such incredulous persons, he continues, to make of
+the circumstance recorded by Albert Herport in his account of
+India<a id="footnotetag712" name="footnotetag712"></a><a href=
+"#footnote712"><sup>712</sup></a>, that a sea-man was seen in the
+water near the Church of Taquan, on the morning of the 29th of
+April 1661, and a mermaid at the same spot the same
+afternoon?&mdash;or what do they say to the fact that in 1714, a
+mermaid was not only seen but captured near the island of Booro?
+"five feet Rhineland measure in height, which lived four days and
+seven hours, but refusing all food, died without leaving any
+intelligible account of herself."</p>
+<p>Valentyn, in support of his own faith in the mermaid, cites
+numerous other instances in which both "sea-men and women" were
+seen and taken at Amboina; especially one by an office-bearer in
+the Church of Holland<a id="footnotetag713" name=
+"footnotetag713"></a><a href="#footnote713"><sup>713</sup></a>, by
+whom it was surrendered to the Governor Vanderstel.</p>
+<p>Of this well-authenticated specimen he gives an elaborate
+engraving amongst those of the authentic fishes of the
+island&mdash;together with a minute ichthyological description of
+each for the satisfaction of men of science.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>[pg
+72]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/097.png"><img width="100%" src="images/097.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE MERMAID (From VALENTYN)</div>
+<p>The fame of this creature having reached Europe, the British
+Minister in Holland wrote to Valentyn on the 28th December 1716,
+whilst the Emperor, Peter the Great of Russia, was his guest at
+Amsterdam; to communicate the desire of the Czar, that the mermaid
+should be brought home from Amboina for his Imperial
+inspection.</p>
+<p>To complete his proofs of the existence of mermen and women,
+Valentyn points triumphantly to the historical fact, that in
+Holland in the year 1404, a mermaid was driven during a tempest,
+through a breach in the dyke of Edam, and was taken alive in the
+lake of Purmer. Thence she was carried to Harlem, where the Dutch
+women taught her to spin; and where, several years after, she died
+in the Roman Catholic faith;&mdash;"but this," <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>[pg 73]</span> says the
+pious Calvinistic chaplain, "in no way militates against the truth
+of her story."<a id="footnotetag731" name=
+"footnotetag731"></a><a href="#footnote731"><sup>731</sup></a></p>
+<p>Finally Valentyn winds up his proofs, by the accumulated
+testimony of Pliny <a id="footnotetag732" name=
+"footnotetag732"></a><a href="#footnote732"><sup>732</sup></a>,
+Theodore Gaza, George of Trebisond, and Alexander ab Alexandro, to
+show that mermaids had in all ages been known in Gaul, Naples,
+Epirus, and the Morea. From these and a multitude of more modern
+instances he comes to the conclusion, that as there are "sea-cows,"
+"sea-horses," and "sea-dogs;" as well as "sea-trees" and
+"sea-flowers" which he himself had seen, what grounds in reason are
+there to doubt that there may also be "sea-maidens" and
+"sea-men!"</p>
+<h4><i>List of Ceylon Mammalia.</i></h4>
+<p>A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In framing it, as
+well as the lists appended to the other chapters on the Fauna of
+the island, the principal object in view has been to exhibit the
+extent to which the Natural History of the island had been
+investigated, and collections made up to the period of my leaving
+the colony in 1850. It has been considered expedient to exclude a
+few individuals which have not had the advantage of a direct
+comparison with authentic specimens, either at Calcutta or in
+England. This will account for the omission of a number that have
+appeared in other catalogues, but of which many, though ascertained
+to exist, have not been submitted to this rigorous process of
+identification.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>[pg
+74]</span>
+<p>The greater portion of the species of mammals and birds
+contained in these lists will be found, with suitable references to
+the most accurate descriptions, in the admirable catalogue of the
+collection at the India House, published under the care of the late
+Dr. Horsfield. This work cannot be too highly extolled, not alone
+for the scrupulous fidelity with which the description of each
+species is referred to its first discoverer, but also for the pains
+which have been taken to elaborate synonymes and to collate from
+local periodicals and other sources, (little accessible to ordinary
+inquirers,) such incidents and traits as are calculated to
+illustrate characteristics and habits.</p>
+<p>QUADRUMANA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Presbytes
+<ul>
+<li>cephalopterus, <i>Zimm</i>.</li>
+<li>ursinus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>Priamus, <i>Elliot &amp; Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>Thersites, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Macacus pileatus, <i>Shaw &amp; Desm</i>.</li>
+<li>Loris gracilis, <i>Geoff</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>CHEIROPTERA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Pteropus Edwardsii, <i>Geoff</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Leschenaultii, <i>Dum</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cynopterus
+<ul>
+<li>marginatus, <i>Ham</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Megaderma spasma, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>lyra, <i>Geoff</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhinolophus <i>affinis</i>, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Hipposideros
+<ul>
+<li>murinus, <i>Elliot</i>.</li>
+<li>speoris, <i>Elliot</i>.</li>
+<li>armiger, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li>
+<li>vulgaris, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Kerivoula picta, <i>Pall</i>.</li>
+<li>Taphozous
+<ul>
+<li>longimanus, <i>Har</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scotophilus Coromandelicus, <i>F. Cuv.</i>
+<ul>
+<li><i>adversus</i>, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Temminkii, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Tickelli, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>Heathii.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>CARNIVORA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Sorex coerulescens, <i>Shaw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ferrugineus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+<li>serpentarius, <i>Is. Geoff.</i></li>
+<li>montanus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Feroculus macropus, <i>Kel</i>.</li>
+<li>Ursus labiatus, <i>Blainv</i>.</li>
+<li>Lutra nair, <i>F. Cuv</i>.</li>
+<li>Canis aureus. <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Viverra Indica, <i>Geoff</i>., <i>Hod</i>.</li>
+<li>Herpestes vitticollis, <i>Benn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>griseus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>Smithii, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+<li>fulvescens, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Paradoxurus typus, <i>F. Cuv.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonicus, <i>Pall</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Felis pardus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>chaus, <i>Guldens</i>.</li>
+<li>viverrinus, <i>Benn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>RODENTIA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Sciurus macrurus, <i>Forst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Tennentii, <i>Layard</i>.</li>
+<li>penicillatus. <i>Leach</i>.</li>
+<li>trilineatus, <i>Waterh</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sciuropterus Layardi, <i>Kel</i>.</li>
+<li>Pteromys petaurista, <i>Pall</i>.</li>
+<li>Mus bandicota, <i>Bechst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Kok, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mus rufescens. <i>Gray</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nemoralis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Geoff</i>.</li>
+<li>fulvidiventris, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nesoki <i>Hardwickii</i>, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+<li>Golunda Neuera, <i>Kelaart</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ellioti, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gerbillus Indicus, <i>Hardw</i>.</li>
+<li>Lepus nigricollis, <i>F. Cuv.</i></li>
+<li>Hystrix leucurus, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>EDENTATA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Manis pentadactyla, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+<p>PACHYDERMATA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Elephas Sumatranus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Sus Indicus, <i>Gray</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>Zeylonicus</i>, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>RUMINANTIA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Moschus meminna, <i>Eral</i>.</li>
+<li>Stylocerus muntjac, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Axis maculata, <i>H. Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>Rusa Aristotelis, <i>Cuv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>CETACEA.</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Halicore dugung, <i>F. Cuv.</i></li>
+</ul>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote31" name=
+"footnote31"></a><b>Footnote 31:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag31">(return)</a>
+<p>Dr. DAVY, brother to the illustrious Sir Humphry Davy,
+published, in 1821, his <i>Account of the Interior of Ceylon and
+its Inhabitants</i>, which contains the earliest notice of the
+Natural History of the island, and especially of its ophidian
+reptiles.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote41" name=
+"footnote41"></a><b>Footnote 41:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag41">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xv. p. 280, 314.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote42" name=
+"footnote42"></a><b>Footnote 42:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag42">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Prodromus Faun&aelig; Zeylanic&aelig;; being Contributions to
+the Zoology of Ceylon</i>, by F. KELAART, Esq., M.D., F.L.S.,
+&amp;c. &amp;c. 2 vols. Colombo and London, 1852.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote51" name=
+"footnote51"></a><b>Footnote 51:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag51">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Macacus pileatus</i>, Shaw and Desmarest. The "bonneted
+Macaque" is common in the south and west; it is replaced on the
+neighbouring coast of the Peninsula of India by the Toque, <i>M.
+radiatus</i>, which closely resembles it in size, habit, and form,
+and in the peculiar appearance occasioned by the hairs radiating
+from the crown of the head. A spectacled monkey is <i>said</i> to
+inhabit the low country near to Bintenne; but I have never seen one
+brought thence. A paper by Dr. TEMPLETON, in the <i>Mag. Nat.
+Hist.</i> n. s. xiv. p. 361, contains some interesting facts
+relative to the Rilawa of Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote61" name=
+"footnote61"></a> <b>Footnote 61:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag61">(return)</a>
+<p>KNOX, <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in the East
+Indies</i>.&mdash;P. i. ch. vi. p. 25. Fol. Lond. 1681. See an
+account of his captivity in SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S <i>Ceylon</i>,
+etc., Vol. II. p. 66 n.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote62" name=
+"footnote62"></a><b>Footnote 62:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag62">(return)</a>
+<p>Down to a very late period, a large and somewhat
+repulsive-looking monkey, common to the Malabar coast, the Silenus
+veter, <i>Linn.</i>, was, from the circumstance of his possessing a
+"great white beard," incorrectly assumed to be the "wanderoo" of
+Ceylon, described by KNOX; and under that usurped name it has
+figured in every author from Buffon to the present time. Specimens
+of the true Singhalese species were, however, received in Europe;
+but in the absence of information in this country as to their
+actual habitat, they were described, first by Zimmerman, on the
+continent, under the name of, <i>Leucoprymnus cephalopterus</i>,
+and subsequently by Mr. E. Bennett, under that of <i>Semnopithecus
+Nestor</i> (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> pt. i. p. 67: 1833); the
+generic and specific characters being on this occasion most
+carefully pointed out by that eminent naturalist. Eleven years
+later Dr. Templeton forwarded to the Zoological Society a
+description, accompanied by drawings, of the wanderoo of the
+western maritime districts of Ceylon, and noticed the fact that the
+wanderoo of authors (<i>S. veter</i>) was not to be found in the
+island except as an introduced species in the custody of the Arab
+horse-dealers, who visit the port of Colombo at stated periods. Mr.
+Waterhouse, at the meeting (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> p. 1: 1844) at
+which this communication was read, recognised the identity of the
+subject of Dr. Templeton's description with that already laid
+before them by Mr. Bennett; and from this period the species in
+question was believed to truly represent the wanderoo of Knox. The
+later discovery, however, of the <i>P. ursinus</i> by Dr. Kelaart,
+in the mountains amongst which we are assured that Knox spent so
+many years of captivity, reopens the question, but at the same time
+appears to me clearly to demonstrate that in this latter we have in
+reality the animal to which his narrative refers.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote71" name=
+"footnote71"></a><b>Footnote 71:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag71">(return)</a>
+<p>Leucoprymnus Nestor, <i>Bennett</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote81" name=
+"footnote81"></a><b>Footnote 81:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag81">(return)</a>
+<p>KNOX, pt. i.e. vi. p. 25.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote82" name=
+"footnote82"></a><b>Footnote 82:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag82">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Eastern Monachism</i>. c: xix; p. 204.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote83" name=
+"footnote83"></a><b>Footnote 83:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag83">(return)</a>
+<p>PLINY, Nat. Hist. I. viii. c. xxxii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote101" name=
+"footnote101"></a><b>Footnote 101:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag101">(return)</a>
+<p>Mr. Blyth quotes as authority for this trivial name a passage
+from MAJOR FORBES' <i>Eleven Years in Ceylon;</i> and I can vouch
+for the graphic accuracy of the remark.&mdash;"A species of very
+large monkey, that passed some distance before me, when resting on
+all fours, looked so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly took him for
+one."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote111" name=
+"footnote111"></a><b>Footnote 111:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag111">(return)</a>
+<p>BUCHANAN'S <i>Survey of Bhagulpoor</i>, p. 142. At Gibraltar it
+is believed that the body of a <i>dead monkey</i> has never been
+found on the rock.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote121" name=
+"footnote121"></a><b>Footnote 121:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag121">(return)</a>
+<p>Loris gr&aelig;ilis, <i>Geof</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote131" name=
+"footnote131"></a><b>Footnote 131:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag131">(return)</a>
+<p>There is an interesting notice of the Loris of Ceylon by Dr.
+TEMPLETON, in the <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> 1844, ch. xiv. p. 362.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote141" name=
+"footnote141"></a><b>Footnote 141:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag141">(return)</a>
+<ul>
+<li>Rhinolophus affinis? <i>var</i>. rubidus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+<li>Hipposideros murinus, <i>var</i>. fulvus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+<li>Hipposideros speoris, <i>var</i>. aureus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+<li>Kerivoula picta, <i>Pallas</i>.</li>
+<li>Scotophilus Heathii, <i>Horsf</i></li>
+</ul>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote142" name=
+"footnote142"></a><b>Footnote 142:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag142">(return)</a>
+<p>Pteropus Edwardsii, <i>Geoff</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote151" name=
+"footnote151"></a><b>Footnote 151:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag151">(return)</a>
+<p>[Greek: cheir] the "hand," and [Greek: pteron] a "wing."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote152" name=
+"footnote152"></a><b>Footnote 152:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag152">(return)</a>
+<p>See BELL <i>On the Hand</i>, ch. iii. p. 70;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote153" name=
+"footnote153"></a><b>Footnote 153:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag153">(return)</a>
+<p>See article on <i>Cheiroptera</i>, in TODD'S <i>Cyclopiadia of
+Anatomy and Physiology</i>, vol. i. p. 599.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote161" name=
+"footnote161"></a><b>Footnote 161:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag161">(return)</a>
+<p>Those which I have examined have four minute incisors in each
+jaw, with two canines and a very minute pointed tooth behind each
+canine. They have six molars in the upper jaw and ten in the lower,
+longitudinally grooved, and with a cutting edge directed
+backwards.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote162" name=
+"footnote162"></a><b>Footnote 162:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag162">(return)</a>
+<p>Eriodendron Orientale, <i>Stead</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote181" name=
+"footnote181"></a><b>Footnote 181:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag181">(return)</a>
+<p>In Western India the native Portuguese eat the flying-fox, and
+pronounce it delicate, and far from disagreeable in flavour.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote201" name=
+"footnote201"></a><b>Footnote 201:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag201">(return)</a>
+<p>It is a <i>very</i> small Singhalese variety of Scotophilus
+Coromandelicus, <i>F. Cuv.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote202" name=
+"footnote202"></a><b>Footnote 202:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag202">(return)</a>
+<p>This extraordinary creature had formerly been discovered only on
+a few European bats. Jo&iacute;nville figured one which he found on
+the large roussette (the flying-fox), and says he had seen another
+on a bat of the same family. Dr. Templeton observed them in Ceylon
+in great abundance on the fur of the <i>Scotophilus
+Coromandelicus</i>, and they will, no doubt, be found on many
+others.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote203" name=
+"footnote203"></a><b>Footnote 203:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag203">(return)</a>
+<p>Celeripes vespertilionis, <i>Mont. Lin. Trans.</i> xi. p.
+11.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote221" name=
+"footnote221"></a><b>Footnote 221:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag221">(return)</a>
+<p>Prochilus labiatus, <i>Blainville</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote241" name=
+"footnote241"></a><b>Footnote 241:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag241">(return)</a>
+<p>Amongst the Singhalese there is a belief that certain charms are
+efficacious in protecting them from the violence of bears, and
+those whose avocations expose them to encounters of this kind are
+accustomed to carry a talisman either attached to their neck or
+enveloped in the folds of their luxuriant hair. A friend of mine,
+writing of an adventure which occurred at Anarajapoora, thus
+describes an occasion on which a Moor, who attended him, was
+somewhat, rudely disabused of his belief in the efficacy of charms
+upon bears:&mdash;"Desiring to change the position of a herd of
+deer, the Moorman (with his charm) was sent across some swampy land
+to disturb them. As he was proceeding, we saw him suddenly turn
+from an old tree and run back with all speed, his hair becoming
+unfastened and like his clothes streaming in the wind. It soon
+became evident that he was flying from some terrific object, for he
+had thrown down his gun, and, in his panic, he was taking the
+shortest line towards us, which lay across a swamp covered with
+sedge and rushes that greatly impeded his progress, and prevented
+us approaching him, or seeing what was the cause of his flight.
+Missing his steps from one hard spot to another he repeatedly fell
+into the water, but he rose and resumed his flight. I advanced as
+far as the sods would bear my weight, but to go further was
+impracticable. Just within ball-range there was an open space, and,
+as the man gained it. I saw that he was pursued by a bear and two
+cubs. As the person of the fugitive covered the bear, it was
+impossible to fire without risk. At last he fall exhausted, and the
+bear being close upon him, I discharged both barrels. The first
+broke the bear's shoulder, but this only made her more savage, and
+rising on her hind legs she advanced with ferocious prowls, when
+the second barrel, though I do not think it took effect, served to
+frighten her, for turning round she retreated, followed by the
+cubs. Some natives then waded through the mud to the Moorman, who
+was just exhausted, and would have been drowned but that he fell
+with his head upon a tuft of grass: the poor man was unable to
+speak, and for several weeks his intellect seemed confused. The
+adventure sufficed to satisfy him that he could not again depend
+upon a charm to protect him, from bears, though he always insisted
+that but for its having fallen from his hair where he had fastened
+it under his turban, the bear would not have ventured to attack
+him."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote251" name=
+"footnote251"></a><b>Footnote 251:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag251">(return)</a>
+<p>Felis pardus, <i>Linn.</i> What is called a leopard, or a
+cheetah, in Ceylon, is in reality the true panther.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote252" name=
+"footnote252"></a><b>Footnote 252:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag252">(return)</a>
+<p>A belief is prevalent at Trincomalie that a Bengal tiger
+inhabits the jungle in its vicinity; and the story runs that it
+escaped from the wreck of a vessel on which it had been embarked
+for England. Officers of the Government state positively that they
+have more than once come on it whilst hunting; and one gentleman of
+the Royal Engineers, who had seen it, assured me that he could not
+be mistaken as to its being a tiger of India, and one of the
+largest description.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote253" name=
+"footnote253"></a><b>Footnote 253:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag253">(return)</a>
+<p>Mr. BAKER, in his <i>Eight Years in Ceylon</i>, has stated that
+there are two species of leopard in the island, one of which he
+implies is the Indian cheetah. But although he specifies
+discrepancies in size, weight, and marking between the varieties
+which he has examined, his data are not sufficient to identify any
+of them with the true <i>felis jubata</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote254" name=
+"footnote254"></a><b>Footnote 254:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag254">(return)</a>
+<p>F. melas, <i>Peron</i> and <i>Leseur</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote301" name=
+"footnote301"></a><b>Footnote 301:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag301">(return)</a>
+<p>A species of one of the suffruticose <i>Acanthacc&aelig;</i>
+(Strobilanthes), which grows, abundantly in the mountain ranges of
+Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote321" name=
+"footnote321"></a><b>Footnote 321:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag321">(return)</a>
+<p>See Sir J.E. TENNENT'S <i>Ceylon</i>, vol. i. p. 31.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote322" name=
+"footnote322"></a><b>Footnote 322:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag322">(return)</a>
+<p>Paradoxurus typus, <i>F. Cuv.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote323" name=
+"footnote323"></a><b>Footnote 323:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag323">(return)</a>
+<p>Viverra Indica, <i>Geoffr., Hodgs.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote324" name=
+"footnote324"></a><b>Footnote 324:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag324">(return)</a>
+<p>EDRISI, <i>G&eacute;ogr.</i> sec. vii. Jauberts's translation,
+t. ii. p. 72. In connexion with cats, a Singhalese gentleman has
+described to me a plant in Ceylon, called <i>Cuppa-mayniya</i> by
+the natives; by which he says cats are so enchanted, that they play
+with it as they would with, a captured mouse; throwing if into the
+air, watching it till it falls, and crouching to see if it will
+move. It would be worth inquiring into the truth of this; and the
+explanation of the attraction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote341" name=
+"footnote341"></a><b>Footnote 341:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag341">(return)</a>
+<p>Canis Aureus, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote351" name=
+"footnote351"></a><b>Footnote 351:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag351">(return)</a>
+<p>Mr. D. de Silva Gooneratn&eacute;.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote361" name=
+"footnote361"></a><b>Footnote 361:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag361">(return)</a>
+<p>In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London (No. 4362 A),
+there is a cranium of a jackal which exhibits this strange osseous
+process on the super-occipital; and I have placed along with it a
+specimen of the horny sheath, which was presented to me by Mr.
+Lavalliere, the late district judge of Kandy.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote371" name=
+"footnote371"></a><b>Footnote 371:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag371">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Herpestes vitticollis</i>. Mr. W. ELLIOTT, in his
+<i>Catalogue of Mammalia found in the Southern Maharata
+Country</i>, Madras, 1840, says, that "One specimen of this
+Herpestes was procured by accident in the Gh&acirc;t forests in
+1829, and is now deposited in the British Museum; it is very rare,
+inhabiting only the thickest woods, and its habits are very little
+known," p. 9. In Ceylon it is comparatively common.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote391" name=
+"footnote391"></a><b>Footnote 391:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag391">(return)</a>
+<p>The passage in Lucan is a versification of the same narrative
+related by Pliny, lib. viii. ch. 53; and &AElig;lian, lib. iii. ch.
+22.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote401" name=
+"footnote401"></a><b>Footnote 401:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag401">(return)</a>
+<p>Dr. LIVINGSTONE, <i>Tour in S. Africa</i>, p. 80. Is it a fact
+that, in America, pigs extirpate the rattlesnakes with
+impunity?</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote402" name=
+"footnote402"></a><b>Footnote 402:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag402">(return)</a>
+<p>This is possibly the "musbilai" or mouse-cat of Behar, which
+preys upon birds and fish. Can it be the Urva of the Nepalese
+(<i>Urva cancrivora</i>, Hodgson), which Mr. Hodgson describes as
+dwelling in burrows, and being carnivorous and
+ranivorous?&mdash;Vide <i>Journ. As. Soc. Beng.</i> vol. vi. p.
+56.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote411" name=
+"footnote411"></a><b>Footnote 411:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag411">(return)</a>
+<p>Of two kinds which frequent the mountains, one which is peculiar
+to Ceylon was discovered by Mr. Edgar L. Layard, who has done me
+the honour to call it the <i>Sciurus Tennentii</i>. Its dimensions
+are large, measuring upwards of two feet from head to tail. It is
+distinguished from the <i>S. macrurus</i> by the predominant black
+colour of the upper surface of the body, with the exception of a
+rusty spot at the base of the ears.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote421" name=
+"footnote421"></a><b>Footnote 421:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag421">(return)</a>
+<p>Pteromys oral., <i>Tickel</i>. P. petaurista, <i>Pallas</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote422" name=
+"footnote422"></a><b>Footnote 422:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag422">(return)</a>
+<p>There are two species of the tree rat in Ceylon: M. rufescens,
+<i>Gray</i>; (M. flavescens, <i>Elliot</i>;) and Mus nemoralis,
+<i>Blyth</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote423" name=
+"footnote423"></a><b>Footnote 423:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag423">(return)</a>
+<p>Coryphodon Blumenbachii, <i>Merr</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote431" name=
+"footnote431"></a><b>Footnote 431:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag431">(return)</a>
+<p>Golunda Ellioti, <i>Gray</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote441" name=
+"footnote441"></a><b>Footnote 441:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag441">(return)</a>
+<p>Mus bandicota, <i>Beckst.</i> The English term bandicoot is a
+corruption of the Telinga name <i>pandikoku</i>, literally
+<i>pig-rat</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote451" name=
+"footnote451"></a><b>Footnote 451:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag451">(return)</a>
+<p>Hystrix leucurus, <i>Sykes</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote461" name=
+"footnote461"></a><b>Footnote 461:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag461">(return)</a>
+<p>Manis pentadactyla, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote462" name=
+"footnote462"></a><b>Footnote 462:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag462">(return)</a>
+<p>I am assured that there is a hedge-hog in Ceylon; but as I have
+never seen it, I cannot tell whether it belongs to either of the
+two species known in India (<i>Erinaceus mentalis</i> and <i>E.
+collaris</i>)&mdash;nor can I vouch for its existence there at all.
+But the fact was told to me, in connexion with the statement, that
+its favourite dwelling is in the same burrow with the pengolin. The
+popular belief in this is attested by a Singhalese proverb, in
+relation to an intrusive personage; the import of which is that he
+is like "<i>a hedge-hog in the den of a pengolin</i>."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote491" name=
+"footnote491"></a><b>Footnote 491:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag491">(return)</a>
+<p>Bubalus buffelus, <i>Gray</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote492" name=
+"footnote492"></a><b>Footnote 492:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag492">(return)</a>
+<p>KNOX, <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon, &amp;c.</i>, A.D. 1681.
+Book i. c. 6.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote493" name=
+"footnote493"></a><b>Footnote 493:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag493">(return)</a>
+<p>KELAART, <i>Fauna Zeylan</i>., p. 87.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote521" name=
+"footnote521"></a><b>Footnote 521:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag521">(return)</a>
+<p>A pair of these little bullocks carry up about twenty bushels of
+rice to the hills, and bring down from fifty to sixty bushels of
+coffee to Colombo.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote522" name=
+"footnote522"></a><b>Footnote 522:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag522">(return)</a>
+<p>WOLF says that, in the year 1763, he saw in Ceylon two white
+oxen, each of which measured upwards of eight feet high. They were
+sent as a present from the King of Atchin.&mdash;<i>Life and
+Adventures</i>, p. 172.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote531" name=
+"footnote531"></a><b>Footnote 531:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag531">(return)</a>
+<p>Attempts have been made to domesticate the camel in Ceylon; but,
+I am told, they died of ulcers in the feet, attributed to the too
+great moisture of the roads at certain seasons. This explanation
+seems insufficient if taken in connection with the fact of the
+camel living in perfect health in climates equally, if not more,
+exposed to rain. I apprehend that sufficient justice has not been
+done to the experiment.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote541" name=
+"footnote541"></a><b>Footnote 541:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag541">(return)</a>
+<p>CAREY and MARSHMAN'S Transl. vol. i. p. 430, 447.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote571" name=
+"footnote571"></a><b>Footnote 571:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag571">(return)</a>
+<p>PROFESSOR OWEN has noticed a similar fact regarding the
+rudiments of the second and fifth digits in the instance of the elk
+and bison, which have them largely expanded where they inhabit
+swampy ground; whilst they are nearly obliterated in the camel and
+dromedary, that traverse arid deserts.&mdash;OWEN <i>on Limbs</i>,
+p. 34; see also BELL <i>on the Hand</i>, ch. iii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote572" name=
+"footnote572"></a><b>Footnote 572:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag572">(return)</a>
+<p>KNOX'S <i>Relation, &amp;c.</i>, book i. c. 6.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote581" name=
+"footnote581"></a><b>Footnote 581:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag581">(return)</a>
+<p>Moschus meminna.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote591" name=
+"footnote591"></a><b>Footnote 591:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag591">(return)</a>
+<p>When the English look possession of Kandy, in 1803, they found
+"five beautiful milk-white deer in the palace, which was noted as a
+very extraordinary thing."&mdash;<i>Letter</i> in Appendix to
+PERCIVAL'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p. 428. The writer does not say of what
+species they were.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote592" name=
+"footnote592"></a><b>Footnote 592:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag592">(return)</a>
+<p>Rusa Aristotelis. Dr. GRAY has lately shown that this is the
+great <i>axis</i> of Cuvier.&mdash;<i>Oss. Foss.</i> 502. t. 39; f.
+10: The Singhalese, on following the elk, frequently effect their
+approaches by so imitating the call of the animal as to induce them
+to respond. An instance occurred during my residence in Ceylon, in
+which two natives, whose mimicry had mutually deceived them, crept
+so close together in the jungle that one shot the other, supposing
+the cry to proceed from the game.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote593" name=
+"footnote593"></a><b>Footnote 593:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag593">(return)</a>
+<p>Axis maculata, <i>H. Smith</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote594" name=
+"footnote594"></a><b>Footnote 594:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag594">(return)</a>
+<p>Stylocerus muntjac, <i>Horss</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote595" name=
+"footnote595"></a><b>Footnote 595:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag595">(return)</a>
+<p>Mr. BLYTH of Calcutta has distinguished, from the hog, common in
+India, a specimen sent to him from Ceylon, the skull of which
+approaches in form, that of a species from Borneo, the
+<i>susbarbatus</i> of S. M&uuml;ller.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote601" name=
+"footnote601"></a><b>Footnote 601:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag601">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ceylon, &amp;c.</i>, by Sir J. EMERSON TENNENT, vol. i. pp.
+7, 13, 85, 160, 183, n., 205, 270, &amp;c.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote611" name=
+"footnote611"></a><b>Footnote 611:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag611">(return)</a>
+<p>MALTE BRUN, <i>Geogr. Univ.</i>, l. xlix.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote621" name=
+"footnote621"></a><b>Footnote 621:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag621">(return)</a>
+<p><i>The Ancient World</i>, by D.T. ANSTED, M.A., &amp;c., pp.
+322-324.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote622" name=
+"footnote622"></a><b>Footnote 622:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag622">(return)</a>
+<p>Cervus orizus, KELAART, <i>Prod. F. Zeyl.,</i> p. 83.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote623" name=
+"footnote623"></a><b>Footnote 623:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag623">(return)</a>
+<p>Presbytes ursinus, <i>Blyth</i>, and P. Thersites,
+<i>Elliot</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote624" name=
+"footnote624"></a><b>Footnote 624:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag624">(return)</a>
+<p>Sorex montanus, S. ferrugineus, and Feroculus macropus.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote631" name=
+"footnote631"></a><b>Footnote 631:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag631">(return)</a>
+<p>Herpestes fulvescens, KELAART, <i>Prod. Faun. Zeylan</i>.. App.
+p. 42.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote632" name=
+"footnote632"></a><b>Footnote 632:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag632">(return)</a>
+<p>Sciurus Tennentii, <i>Layard</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote633" name=
+"footnote633"></a><b>Footnote 633:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag633">(return)</a>
+<p>Sciuropterus Layardi, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote634" name=
+"footnote634"></a><b>Footnote 634:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag634">(return)</a>
+<p>There is a rat found only in the Cinnamon Gardens at Colombo,
+Mus Ceylonus, <i>Kelaart</i>; and a mouse which Dr. Kelaart
+discovered at Trincomalie, M. fulvidiventris, <i>Blyth</i>, both
+peculiar to Ceylon. Dr. TEMPLETON has noticed a little shrew
+(Corsira purpurascens, <i>Mag. Nat. Hist</i>. 1855, p. 238) at
+Neuera-ellia, not as yet observed elsewhere.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote635" name=
+"footnote635"></a><b>Footnote 635:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag635">(return)</a>
+<p>Bos cavifrons, <i>Hodgs</i>.; B. frontalis, <i>Lamb</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote636" name=
+"footnote636"></a><b>Footnote 636:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag636">(return)</a>
+<p>Felis jubata, <i>Schreb</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote637" name=
+"footnote637"></a><b>Footnote 637:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag637">(return)</a>
+<p>See Chapter on the Birds of Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote641" name=
+"footnote641"></a><b>Footnote 641:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag641">(return)</a>
+<p>See Chapter on the Insects of Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote642" name=
+"footnote642"></a><b>Footnote 642:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag642">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Coup d'Oeil G&eacute;n&eacute;ral sur les Possessions
+N&eacute;erlandaises dans l'Inde Archip&eacute;lagique</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote651" name=
+"footnote651"></a><b>Footnote 651:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag651">(return)</a>
+<p>TEMMINCK, <i>Coup-d'oeil, &amp;c</i>., t. i. c. iv. p. 328.; t.
+ii. c. iii. p. 91.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote652" name=
+"footnote652"></a><b>Footnote 652:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag652">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Proceed. Zool. Soc. London</i>, 1849. p. 144, <i>note</i>.
+The original description of TEMMINCK is as follows:</p>
+<p>"Elephas Sumatranus, <i>Nob</i>. ressemble, par la forme
+g&eacute;n&eacute;rale du cr&acirc;ne &agrave;
+l'&eacute;l&eacute;phant du continent de l'Asie; mais la partie
+libre des intermaxillaires est beaucoup plus courte et plus
+&eacute;troite; les cavit&eacute;s nasales sont beaucoup moins
+larges; l'espace entre les orbites des yeux est plus &eacute;troit;
+la partie post&eacute;rieur du cr&acirc;ne au contraire est plus
+large que dans l'esp&egrave;ce du continent.</p>
+<p>"Les macheli&egrave;res se rapprochent, par la forme de leur
+couronne, plut&ograve;t de l'esp&egrave;ce As&iacute;atique que do
+celle qui est propre &agrave; l'Afrique; c'est-&agrave;-dire que
+leur couronne offre la forme de rubans ondoy&eacute;s et non pas en
+losange; mais ces rubans sont de la largeur de ceux qu'on voit
+&agrave; la couronne des dents de l'&eacute;l&eacute;phant
+d'Afrique; ils sont cons&eacute;quemment moins nombreux que dans
+celu&iacute; du continent de l'Asie. Les dimensions de ces rubans,
+dans la direction d'avant en arri&egrave;re, compar&eacute;es
+&agrave; celle prises dans la direction transversale et
+lat&eacute;rale, sont en raison de 3 ou 4 &agrave; 1; tandis que
+dans l'&eacute;l&eacute;phant du continent elles sont comme 4 ou 6
+&agrave; 1. La longueur totale de six de ces rubans, dans
+l'esp&egrave;ce nouvelle de Sumatra, ainsi que dans celle
+d'Afrique, est d'environ 12 centim&egrave;tres, tandis que cette
+longueur n'est que de 8 &agrave; 10 centim&egrave;tres dans
+l'esp&egrave;ce du continent de l'Asie.</p>
+<p>"Les autres formes ost&eacute;ologiques sont &agrave; peu
+pr&egrave;s les m&ecirc;mes dans les trois esp&egrave;ces; mais il
+y a diff&eacute;rence dans le nombre des os dont le squelette se
+compose, ainsi que le tableau comparatif ci-joint
+l'&eacute;prouve.</p>
+<p>"<i>L'elephas Africanus</i> a 7 vert&egrave;bres du cou, 21
+vert. dorsales, 3 lombaires, 4 sacr&eacute;es, et 26 caudales; 21
+paires de c&ocirc;tes, dont 6 vraies, et 15 fausses. <i>L'elephas
+Indicus</i> a 7 vert&egrave;bres du cou, 19 dorsales, 3 lombaires,
+5 sacr&eacute;es, et 34 caudales, 19 paires de c&ocirc;tes, dont 6
+vraies, et 3 fausses. <i>L'elephas Sumatranus</i> a 7
+vert&egrave;bres du cou, 20 dorsales, 3 lombaires, 4
+sacr&eacute;es, et 34 caudales; 20 paires du c&ocirc;tes, dont 6
+vraies, et 14 fausses.</p>
+<p>"Ces caract&egrave;res ont &eacute;t&eacute; constat&eacute;s
+sur trois squelettes de l'esp&egrave;ce nouvelle, un m&acirc;le et
+une femelle adultes et un jeune m&acirc;le. Nous n'avons pas encore
+&eacute;t&eacute; &agrave; m&ecirc;me de nous procurer la
+d&eacute;pouille de cette esp&egrave;ce."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote671" name=
+"footnote671"></a><b>Footnote 671:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag671">(return)</a>
+<p>A further inquiry suggests itself, how far the intermixture of
+the breed may have served to confound specific differences, in the
+case of elephants bred on the continent of India, from stock
+partially imported from Ceylon?</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote681" name=
+"footnote681"></a><b>Footnote 681:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag681">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Halicore dugung</i>, F. Cuv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote682" name=
+"footnote682"></a><b>Footnote 682:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag682">(return)</a>
+<p>The skeleton is now in the Museum of the Natural History Society
+of Belfast.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote691" name=
+"footnote691"></a><b>Footnote 691:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag691">(return)</a>
+<p>MEGASTHENES, <i>Indica</i>, fragm. lix. 34,</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote692" name=
+"footnote692"></a><b>Footnote 692:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag692">(return)</a>
+<p>&AElig;LIAN, <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, lib. xvi. ch. xviii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote701" name=
+"footnote701"></a><b>Footnote 701:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag701">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Hist, de la Compagnie de J&eacute;sus</i>, quoted in the
+<i>Asiat. Journ.</i> vol. xiv. p. 461; and in FORBES' <i>Orient.
+Memoirs</i>, vol. i. p. 421.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote702" name=
+"footnote702"></a><b>Footnote 702:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag702">(return)</a>
+<p>FRAN. VALENTYN, <i>Beschryving van Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien</i>,
+&amp;c. 5 vol. fol. Dordrecht and Amsterdam, MDCCXXVII. vol. iii.
+p. 330.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote711" name=
+"footnote711"></a><b>Footnote 711:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag711">(return)</a>
+<p>VALENTYN, <i>Beschryving, &amp;c.</i>, vol. iii. p. 331.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote712" name=
+"footnote712"></a><b>Footnote 712:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag712">(return)</a>
+<p>Probably the <i>Itinerarium Indicum</i> of ALBRECHT HERPORT.
+Berne, 1669.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote713" name=
+"footnote713"></a><b>Footnote 713:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag713">(return)</a>
+<p>A "krank-bezoeker" or visitant of the sick.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote731" name=
+"footnote731"></a><b>Footnote 731:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag731">(return)</a>
+<p>VALENTYN, <i>Beschryving, &amp;c</i>., p. 333.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote732" name=
+"footnote732"></a><b>Footnote 732:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag732">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Nat. Hist</i>. l. ix. c. 5, where Pliny speaks of the
+Nereids.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>[pg
+75]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap2" id="chap2"></a>CHAP. II.</h2>
+<h3>THE ELEPHANT.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>Structure and Functions.</i></h4>
+<p>During my residence at Kandy, I had twice the opportunity of
+witnessing the operation on a grand scale, of capturing wild
+elephants, intended to be trained for the public service in the
+establishment of the Civil Engineer;&mdash;and in the course of my
+frequent journeys through the interior of the island, I succeeded
+in collecting so many facts relative to the habits of these
+interesting animals in a state of nature, as enable me not only to
+add to the information previously possessed, but to correct many
+fallacies popularly received regarding their instincts and
+disposition. These particulars I am anxious to place on record
+before proceeding to describe the scenes of which I was a
+spectator, during the progress of the elephant hunts in the
+district of the Seven Korles, at which I was present in 1846, and
+again in 1847.</p>
+<p>With the exception of the narrow but densely inhabited belt of
+cultivated land, that extends along the seaborde of the island from
+Chilaw on the western coast to Tangalle on the south-east, there is
+no part of Ceylon <span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id=
+"page76"></a>[pg 76]</span> in which elephants may not be said to
+abound; even close to the environs of the most populous localities
+of the interior. They frequent both the open plains and the deep
+forests; and their footsteps are to be seen wherever food and
+shade, vegetation and water<a id="footnotetag761" name=
+"footnotetag761"></a><a href="#footnote761"><sup>761</sup></a>,
+allure <span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>[pg
+77]</span> them, alike on the summits of the loftiest mountains,
+and on the borders of the tanks and lowland streams.</p>
+<p>From time immemorial the natives have been taught to capture and
+tame them and the export of elephants from Ceylon to India has been
+going on without interruption from the period of the first Punic
+War.<a id="footnotetag771" name="footnotetag771"></a><a href=
+"#footnote771"><sup>771</sup></a> In later times all elephants were
+the property of the Kandyan crown; and their capture or slaughter
+without the royal permission was classed amongst the gravest
+offences in the criminal code.</p>
+<p>In recent years there is reason to believe that their numbers
+have become considerably reduced. They have entirely disappeared
+from localities in which they were formerly numerous<a id=
+"footnotetag772" name="footnotetag772"></a><a href=
+"#footnote772"><sup>772</sup></a>; smaller herds have been taken in
+the periodical captures for the government service, and hunters
+returning from the chase report them to be growing scarce. In
+consequence of this diminution the peasantry in some parts of the
+island have even suspended the ancient practice of keeping watchers
+and fires by night to drive away the elephants from their growing
+crops.<a id="footnotetag773" name="footnotetag773"></a><a href=
+"#footnote773"><sup>773</sup></a> The opening of roads and the
+clearing of the mountain forests of Kandy for the cultivation of
+coffee, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>[pg
+78]</span> have forced the animals to retire to the low country,
+where again they have been followed by large parties of European
+sportsmen; and the Singhalese themselves, being more freely
+provided with arms than in former times, have assisted in swelling
+the annual slaughter.<a id="footnotetag781" name=
+"footnotetag781"></a><a href="#footnote781"><sup>781</sup></a></p>
+<p>Had the motive that incites to the destruction of the elephant
+in Africa and India prevailed in Ceylon, that is, had the elephants
+there been provided with tusks, they would long since have been
+annihilated for the sake of their ivory.<a id="footnotetag782"
+name="footnotetag782"></a><a href="#footnote782"><sup>782</sup></a>
+But it is a curious fact that, whilst in Africa and India both
+sexes have tusks<a id="footnotetag783" name=
+"footnotetag783"></a><a href="#footnote783"><sup>783</sup></a>,
+with some slight disproportion in the size of those of the females:
+not one elephant in a hundred is found with tusks in Ceylon, and
+the few that possess them are exclusively males. Nearly all,
+however, have those stunted processes called <i>tushes</i>, about
+ten or twelve inches in length and one or two in diameter. These I
+have observed them to use in loosening earth, stripping off bark,
+and snapping asunder small branches and climbing <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>[pg 79]</span> plants;
+and hence tushes are seldom seen without a groove worn into them
+near their extremities.<a id="footnotetag791" name=
+"footnotetag791"></a><a href="#footnote791"><sup>791</sup></a></p>
+<p>Amongst other surmises more ingenious than sound, the general
+absence of tusks in the elephant of Ceylon has been associated with
+the profusion of rivers and streams in the island; whilst it has
+been thrown out as a possibility that in Africa, where water is
+comparatively scarce, the animal is equipped with these implements
+in order to assist it in digging wells in the sand and in raising
+the juicy roots of the mimosas and succulent plants for the sake of
+their moisture. In support of this hypothesis, it has been
+observed, that whilst the tusks of the Ceylon species, which are
+never required for such uses, are slender, graceful and curved,
+seldom exceeding fifty or sixty pounds' weight, those of the
+African elephant are straight and thick, weighing occasionally one
+hundred and fifty, and even three hundred pounds.<a id=
+"footnotetag792" name="footnotetag792"></a><a href=
+"#footnote792"><sup>792</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>[pg
+80]</span>
+<p>But it is manifestly inconsistent with the idea that tusks were
+given to the elephant to assist him in digging for his food, to
+find that the females are less bountifully supplied with them than
+the males, whilst the necessity for their use extends equally to
+both sexes. The same argument serves to demonstrate the fallacy of
+the conjecture, that the tusks of the elephant were given to him as
+weapons of offence, for if such were the case the vast majority in
+Ceylon, males as well as females, would be left helpless in
+presence of an assailant. But although in their conflicts with one
+another, those which are provided with tusks may occasionally push
+with them clumsily at their opponents; it is a misapprehension to
+imagine that tusks are designed specially to serve "in warding off
+the attacks of the wily tiger and the furious rhinoceros, often
+securing the victory by one blow which transfixes the assailant to
+the earth."<a id="footnotetag801" name=
+"footnotetag801"></a><a href="#footnote801"><sup>801</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>[pg
+81]</span>
+<p>So harmless and peaceful is the life of the elephant, that
+nature appears to have left it unprovided with any weapon of
+offence: its trunk is too delicate an organ to be rudely employed
+in a conflict with other animals, and although on an emergency it
+may push or gore with its tusks (to which the French have hastily
+given the term "<i>d&eacute;fenses</i>"), their almost vertical
+position, added to the difficulty of raising its head above the
+level of the shoulder, is inconsistent with the idea of their being
+designed for attack, since it is impossible for the elephant to
+strike an effectual blow, or to "wield" its tusks as the deer and
+the buffalo can direct their horns. Nor is it easy to conceive
+under what circumstances an elephant could have a hostile encounter
+with either a rhinoceros or a tiger, with whose pursuits in a state
+of nature its own can in no way conflict.</p>
+<p>Towards man elephants evince shyness, arising from their love of
+solitude and dislike of intrusion; any alarm they exhibit at his
+appearance may be reasonably traced to the slaughter which has
+reduced their numbers; and as some evidence of this, it has always
+been observed that an elephant exhibits greater impatience of the
+presence of a white man than of a native. Were its instincts to
+carry it further, or were it influenced by any feeling of animosity
+or cruelty, it must be apparent that, as against the prodigious
+numbers that inhabit the forests of Ceylon, man would wage an
+unequal contest, and that of the two one or other must long since
+have been reduced to a helpless minority.</p>
+<p>Official testimony is not wanting in confirmation of this
+view;&mdash;in the returns of 108 coroners' inquests in Ceylon,
+during five years, from 1849 to 1855 inclusive, held in cases of
+death occasioned by wild animals; 16 <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page82" id="page82"></a>[pg 82]</span> are recorded as having been
+caused by elephants, 15 by buffaloes, 6 by crocodiles, 2 by boars,
+1 by a bear, and 68 by serpents (the great majority of the last
+class of sufferers being women and children, who had been bitten
+during the night). Little more than <i>three</i> fatal accidents
+occurring annually on the average of five years, is certainly a
+very small proportion in a population estimated at a million and a
+half, in an island abounding with elephants, with which,
+independently of casual encounters, voluntary conflicts are daily
+stimulated by the love of sport or the hope of gain. Were the
+elephants instinctively vicious or even highly irritable in their
+temperament, the destruction of human life under the circumstances
+must have been infinitely greater. It must also be taken into
+account, that some of the accidents recorded may have occurred in
+the rutting season, when elephants are subject to fits of temporary
+fury, known in India by the term <i>must</i>, in Ceylon
+<i>mudda</i>,&mdash;a paroxysm which speedily passes away, but
+during the fury of which it is dangerous even for the mahout to
+approach those ordinarily the gentlest and most familiar.</p>
+<p>But, then, the elephant is said to "entertain an extraordinary
+dislike to all quadrupeds; that dogs running near him produce
+annoyance; that he is alarmed if a hare start from her form;" and
+from Pliny to Buffon every naturalist has recorded its supposed
+aversion to swine.<a id="footnotetag821" name=
+"footnotetag821"></a><a href="#footnote821"><sup>821</sup></a>
+These alleged antipathies are in a great degree, if not entirely,
+imaginary. The habits of the elephant are essentially harmless, its
+wants lead to no rivalry with other animals, and the food to which
+it is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>[pg
+83]</span> most attached flourishes in such abundance that it is
+obtained without an effort. In the quiet solitudes of Ceylon,
+elephants may constantly be seen browsing peacefully in the
+immediate vicinity of other animals, and in close contact with
+them. I have seen groups of deer and wild buffaloes reclining in
+the sandy bed of a river in the dry season, and elephants plucking
+the branches close beside them. They show no impatience in the
+company of the elk, the bear, and the wild hog; and on the other
+hand, I have never discovered an instance in which these animals
+have evinced any apprehension of elephants. The elephant's natural
+timidity, however, is such that it becomes alarmed on the
+appearance in the jungle of any animal with which it is not
+familiar. It is said to be afraid of the horse; but from my own
+experience, I should say it is the horse that is alarmed at the
+aspect of the elephant. In the same way, from some unaccountable
+impulse, the horse has an antipathy to the camel, and evinces
+extreme impatience, both of the sight and the smell of that
+animal.<a id="footnotetag831" name="footnotetag831"></a><a href=
+"#footnote831"><sup>831</sup></a> When enraged, an elephant will
+not hesitate to charge a rider on horseback; but it is against the
+man, not against the horse, that his fury is directed; and no
+instance has been ever known of his wantonly assailing a horse. A
+horse, belonging to the late Major <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page84" id="page84"></a>[pg 84]</span> Rogers<a id=
+"footnotetag841" name="footnotetag841"></a><a href=
+"#footnote841"><sup>841</sup></a>, had run away from his groom, and
+was found some considerable time afterwards grazing quietly with a
+herd of elephants. In DE BRY'S splendid collection of travels,
+however, there is included "<i>The voyage of a Certain Englishman
+to Cambay</i>;" in which the author asserts that at Agra, in the
+year 1607, he was present at a spectacle given by the Viceregent of
+the great Mogul, in the course of which he saw an elephant destroy
+two horses, by seizing them in its trunk, and crushing them under
+foot.<a id="footnotetag842" name="footnotetag842"></a><a href=
+"#footnote842"><sup>842</sup></a> But the display was avowedly an
+artificial one, and the creature must have been cruelly tutored for
+the occasion.</p>
+<p>Pigs are constantly to be seen feeding about the stables of the
+tame elephants, which manifest no repugnance to them. As to the
+smaller animals, the elephant undoubtedly evinces uneasiness at the
+presence of a dog, but this is referable to the same cause as its
+impatience of a horse, namely, that neither is habitually seen by
+it in the forest; but it would be idle to suppose that this feeling
+could amount to hostility against a creature incapable of
+inflicting on it the slightest injury.<a id="footnotetag843" name=
+"footnotetag843"></a><a href="#footnote843"><sup>843</sup></a> The
+truth I apprehend to be that, when they meet, the impudence and
+impertinences of the dog are offensive to <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>[pg 85]</span> the
+gravity of the elephant, and incompatible with his love of solitude
+and ease. Or may it be assumed as an evidence of the sagacity of
+the elephant, that the only two animals to which it manifests an
+antipathy, are the two which it has seen only in the company of its
+enemy, man? One instance has certainly been attested to me by an
+eye-witness, in which the trunk of an elephant was seized in the
+teeth of a Scotch terrier, and such was the alarm of the huge
+creature that it came at once to its knees. The dog repeated the
+attack, and on every renewal of it the elephant retreated in
+terror, holding its trunk above its head, and kicking at the
+terrier with its fore feet. It would have turned to flight, but for
+the interference of its keeper.</p>
+<p>Major Skinner, formerly commissioner of roads in Ceylon, whose
+official duties in constructing highways involved the necessity of
+his being in the jungle for months together, always found that, by
+night or by day, the barking of a dog which accompanied him, was
+sufficient to put a herd to flight. On the whole, therefore, I am
+of opinion that the elephant lives on terms of amity with every
+quadruped in the forest, that it neither regards them as its foes,
+nor provokes their hostility by its acts; and that, with the
+exception of man, <i>its greatest enemy is a fly</i>!</p>
+<p>The current statements as to the supposed animosity of the
+elephant to minor animals originated with &AElig;lian and Pliny,
+who had probably an opportunity of seeing, what may at any time be
+observed, that when a captive elephant is picketed beside a post,
+the domestic animals, goats, sheep, and cattle, will annoy and
+irritate him by their audacity in making free with his provender;
+but this is an evidence in itself of the little instinctive dread
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>[pg
+86]</span> which such comparatively puny creatures entertain of one
+so powerful and yet so gentle.</p>
+<p>Amongst elephants themselves, jealousy and other causes of
+irritation frequently occasion contentions between individuals of
+the same herd; but on such occasions it is their habit to strike
+with their trunks, and to bear down their opponents with their
+heads. It is doubtless correct that an elephant, when prostrated by
+the force and fury of an antagonist of its own species, is often
+wounded by the downward pressure of the tusks, which in any other
+position it would be almost impossible to use offensively.<a id=
+"footnotetag861" name="footnotetag861"></a><a href=
+"#footnote861"><sup>861</sup></a></p>
+<p>Mr. Mercer, who in 1846 was the principal civil officer of
+Government at Badulla, sent me a jagged fragment of an elephant's
+tusk, about five inches in diameter, and weighing between twenty
+and thirty pounds, which had been brought to him by some natives,
+who, being attracted by a noise in the jungle, witnessed a combat
+between a tusker and one without tusks, and saw the latter with his
+trunk seize one of the tusks of his antagonist and wrench from it
+the portion in question, which measured two feet in length.</p>
+<p>Here the trunk was shown to be the more powerful offensive
+weapon of the two; but I apprehend that the chief reliance of the
+elephant for defence is on its ponderous weight, the pressure of
+its foot being sufficient to crush any minor assailant after being
+prostrated by means of its trunk. Besides, in using its feet for
+this purpose, it derives a wonderful facility from the peculiar
+formation of the knee-joint in the hind leg, which, enabling
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>[pg
+87]</span> it to swing the hind feet forward close to the ground,
+assists it to toss the body alternately from foot to foot, till
+deprived of life.<a id="footnotetag871" name=
+"footnotetag871"></a><a href="#footnote871"><sup>871</sup></a></p>
+<p>A sportsman who had partially undergone this operation, having
+been seized by a wounded elephant but rescued from its fury,
+described to me his sufferings as he was thus flung back and
+forward between the hind and fore feet of the animal, which
+ineffectually attempted to trample him at each concussion, and
+abandoned him without inflicting serious injury.</p>
+<p>KNOX, in describing the execution of criminals by the state
+elephants of the former kings of Kandy, says, "they will run their
+teeth (<i>tusks</i>) through the body, and then tear it in pieces
+and throw it limb from limb;" but a Kandyan chief, who was witness
+to such scenes, has assured me that the elephant never once applied
+its tusks, but, placing its foot on the prostrate victim, plucked
+off his limbs in succession by a sudden movement of the trunk. If
+the tusks were designed to be employed offensively, some alertness
+would naturally be exhibited in using them; but in numerous
+instances where sportsmen have fallen into the power of a wounded
+elephant, they have escaped through the failure of the enraged
+animal to strike them with its tusks, even when stretched upon the
+ground.<a id="footnotetag872" name="footnotetag872"></a><a href=
+"#footnote872"><sup>872</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>[pg
+88]</span>
+<p>Placed as the elephant is in Ceylon, in the midst of the most
+luxuriant profusion of its favourite food, in close proximity at
+all times to abundant supplies of water, and with no enemies
+against whom to protect itself, it is difficult to conjecture any
+probable utility which it could derive from such appendages. Their
+absence is unaccompanied by any inconvenience to the individuals in
+whom they are wanting; and as regards the few who possess them, the
+only operations in which I am aware of their tusks being employed
+in relation to the oeconomy of the animal, is to assist in ripping
+open the stem of the jaggery palms and young palmyras to extract
+the farinaceous core; and in splitting the juicy shaft of the
+plantain. Whilst the tuskless elephant crushes the latter under
+foot, thereby soiling it and wasting its moisture; the other, by
+opening it with the point of his tusk, performs the operation with
+delicacy and apparent ease.</p>
+<p>These, however, are trivial and almost accidental advantages: on
+the other hand, owing to irregularities in their growth, the tusks
+are sometimes an impediment in feeding<a id="footnotetag881" name=
+"footnotetag881"></a><a href="#footnote881"><sup>881</sup></a>; and
+in more than one instance in the Government studs, tusks which had
+so grown as to approach and cross one another at the extremities,
+have had to be removed by the saw; the contraction of space between
+them so impeding the free action of the trunk as to prevent the
+animal from conveying branches to its mouth.<a id="footnotetag882"
+name="footnotetag882"></a><a href=
+"#footnote882"><sup>882</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>[pg
+89]</span>
+<p>It is true that in captivity, and after a due course of
+training, the elephant discovers a new use for its tusks when
+employed in moving stones and piling timber; so much so that a
+powerful one will raise and carry on them a log of half a ton
+weight or more. One evening, whilst riding in the vicinity of
+Kandy, towards the scene of the massacre of Major Davie's party in
+1803, my horse evinced some excitement at a noise which approached
+us in the thick jungle, and which consisted of a repetition of the
+ejaculation <i>urmph! urmph!</i> in a hoarse and dissatisfied tone.
+A turn in the forest explained the mystery, by bringing me face to
+face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by any attendant. He was
+labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber, which he
+balanced across his tusks, but the pathway being narrow, he was
+forced to bend his head to one side to permit it to pass endways;
+and the exertion and this inconvenience combined led him to utter
+the dissatisfied sounds which disturbed the composure of my horse.
+On seeing us halt, the elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us
+for a moment, then flung down the timber, and voluntarily forced
+himself backwards among the brushwood so as to leave a passage, of
+which he expected us to avail <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page90" id="page90"></a>[pg 90]</span> ourselves. My horse
+hesitated: the elephant observed it, and impatiently thrust himself
+deeper into the jungle, repeating his cry of <i>urmph!</i> but in a
+voice evidently meant to encourage us to advance. Still the horse
+trembled; and anxious to observe the instinct of the two sagacious
+animals, I forbore any interference: again the elephant of his own
+accord wedged himself further in amongst the trees, and manifested
+some impatience that we did not pass him. At length the horse moved
+forward; and when we were fairly past, I saw the wise creature
+stoop and take up its heavy burthen, trim and balance it on its
+tusks, and resume its route as before, hoarsely snorting its
+discontented remonstrance.</p>
+<p>Between the African elephant and that of Ceylon, with the
+exception of the striking peculiarity of the infrequency of tusks
+in the latter, the distinctions are less apparent to a casual
+observer than to a scientific naturalist. In the Ceylon species the
+forehead is higher and more hollow, the ears are smaller, and, in a
+section of the teeth, the grinding ridges, instead of being
+lozenge-shaped, are transverse bars of uniform breadth.</p>
+<p>The Indian elephant is stated by Cuvier to have four nails on
+the hind foot, the African variety having only three: but amongst
+the perfections of a high-bred elephant of Ceylon, is always
+enumerated the possession of <i>twenty</i> nails, whilst those of a
+secondary class have but eighteen in all.<a id="footnotetag901"
+name="footnotetag901"></a><a href=
+"#footnote901"><sup>901</sup></a></p>
+<p>So conversant are the natives with the structure and "points" of
+the elephant, that they divide them readily into castes, and
+describe with particularity their distinctive excellences and
+defects. In the <i>Hastisilpe</i>, a</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>[pg
+91]</span>
+<p>Singhalese work which treats of their management, the marks of
+inferior breeding are said to be "eyes restless like those of a
+crow, the hair of the head of mixed shades; the face wrinkled; the
+tongue curved and black; the nails short and green; the ears small;
+the neck thin, the skin freckled; the tail without a tuft, and the
+fore-quarter lean and low:" whilst the perfection of form and
+beauty is supposed to consist in the "softness of the skin, the red
+colour of the mouth and tongue, the forehead expanded and hollow,
+the ears broad and rectangular, the trunk broad at the root and
+blotched with pink in front; the eyes bright and kindly, the cheeks
+large, the neck full, the back level, the chest square, the fore
+legs short and convex in front, the hind quarter plump, and five
+nails on each foot, all smooth, polished, and round.<a id=
+"footnotetag911" name="footnotetag911"></a><a href=
+"#footnote911"><sup>911</sup></a> An elephant with these
+perfections," says the author of the <i>Hastisilpe</i>, "will
+impart glory and magnificence to the king; but he cannot be
+discovered amongst thousands, yea, there shall never be found an
+elephant clothed at once with <i>all</i> the excellences herein
+described." The "points" of an elephant are to be studied with the
+greatest advantage in those attached to the temples, which are
+always of the highest caste, and exhibit the most perfect
+breeding.</p>
+<p>The colour of the animal's skin in a state of nature is
+generally of a lighter brown than that of those in captivity; a
+distinction which arises, in all probability, not so much from the
+wild animal's propensity to cover itself with mud and dust, as from
+the superior care which is taken in repeatedly bathing the tame
+ones, and in rubbing <span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id=
+"page92"></a>[pg 92]</span> their skins with a soft stone, a lump
+of burnt clay, or the coarse husk of a coco-nut. This kind of
+attention, together with the occasional application of oil, gives
+rise to the deeper black which the hides of the latter present.</p>
+<p>Amongst the native Singhalese, however, a singular preference is
+evinced for elephants that exhibit those flesh-coloured blotches
+which occasionally mottle the skin of an elephant, chiefly about
+the head and extremities. The front of the trunk, the tips of the
+ears, the forehead, and occasionally the legs, are thus diversified
+with stains of a yellowish tint, inclining to pink. These are not
+natural; nor are they hereditary, for they are seldom exhibited by
+the younger individuals in a herd, but appear to be the result of
+some eruptive affection, the irritation of which has induced the
+animal in its uneasiness to rub itself against the rough bark of
+trees, and thus to destroy the outer cuticle.<a id="footnotetag921"
+name="footnotetag921"></a><a href=
+"#footnote921"><sup>921</sup></a></p>
+<p>To a European these spots appear blemishes, and the taste that
+leads the natives to admire them is probably akin to the feeling
+that has at all times rendered a <i>white elephant</i> an object of
+wonder to Asiatics. The rarity of the latter is accounted for by
+regarding this peculiar appearance as the result of albinism; and
+notwithstanding the exaggeration of Oriental historians, who
+compare the fairness of such creatures to the whiteness of snow,
+even in its utmost perfection, I apprehend that the tint of a white
+elephant is little else than a flesh-colour, rendered somewhat more
+conspicuous by the blanching of the skin, and the lightness of the
+colourless hairs by <span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id=
+"page93"></a>[pg 93]</span> which it is sparsely covered. A white
+elephant is mentioned in the <i>Mahawanso</i> as forming part of
+the retinue attached to the "Temple of the Tooth" at Anarajapoora,
+in the fifth century after Christ<a id="footnotetag931" name=
+"footnotetag931"></a><a href="#footnote931"><sup>931</sup></a>; but
+it commanded no religious veneration, and like those in the stud of
+the kings of Siam, it was tended merely as an emblem of
+royalty<a id="footnotetag932" name="footnotetag932"></a><a href=
+"#footnote932"><sup>932</sup></a>; the sovereign of Ceylon being
+addressed as the "Lord of Elephants."<a id="footnotetag933" name=
+"footnotetag933"></a><a href="#footnote933"><sup>933</sup></a> In
+1633 a white elephant was exhibited in Holland<a id=
+"footnotetag934" name="footnotetag934"></a><a href=
+"#footnote934"><sup>934</sup></a>; but as this was some years
+before the Dutch had established themselves firmly in Ceylon, it
+was probably brought from some other of their eastern
+possessions.</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote761" name=
+"footnote761"></a><b>Footnote 761:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag761">(return)</a>
+<p>M. AD. PICTET has availed himself of the love of the elephant
+for water, to found on it a solution of the long-contested question
+as to the etymology of the word "elephant,"-a term which, whilst it
+has passed into almost every dialect of the West, is scarcely to be
+traced in any language of Asia. The Greek [Greek: elephas], to
+which we are immediately indebted for it, did not originally mean
+the animal, but, as early as the time of Homer, was applied only to
+its tusks, and signified <i>ivory</i>. BOCHART has sought for a
+Semitic origin, and seizing on the Arabic <i>fil</i>, and prefixing
+the article <i>al</i>, suggests <i>alfil</i>, akin to [Greek:
+eleph]; but rejecting this, BOCHART himself resorts to the Hebrew
+<i>eleph</i>, an "ox"&mdash;and this conjecture derives a certain
+degree of countenance from the fact that the Romans, when they
+obtained their first sight of the elephant in the army of Pyrrhus,
+in Lucania, called it the <i>Luca bos</i>. But the [Greek: antos]
+is still unaccounted for; and POTT has sought to remove the
+difficulty by introducing the Arabic <i>hindi</i>, Indian, s thus
+making <i>eleph-hindi</i>, "<i>bos Indicus</i>." The conversion of
+<i>hindi</i> into [Greek: antos] is an obstacle, but here the
+example of "tamarind" comes to aid; <i>tamar hindi</i>, the "Indian
+date," which in medi&aelig;val Greek forms [Greek: tamarenti]. A
+theory of Benary, that helhephas might be compounded of the Arabic
+<i>al</i>, and <i>ibha</i>, a Sanskrit name for the elephant, is
+exposed to still greater etymological exception. PICTET'S solution
+is, that in the Sanskrit epics "the King of Elephants," who has the
+distinction of carrying the god Indra, is called <i>airarata</i> or
+<i>airavana</i>, a modification of <i>airavanta</i>, "son of the
+ocean," which again comes from <i>iravat</i>, "abounding in water."
+"Nous aurions done ainsi, comme corr&eacute;latif du gree [Greek:
+elephanto], une ancienne forme, <i>&acirc;ir&acirc;vanta</i> ou
+<i>&acirc;il&acirc;vanta</i>, affaiblie plus tard en
+<i>&acirc;ir&acirc;vata</i> ou <i>&acirc;ir&acirc;vana</i>.... On
+conna&icirc;t la pr&eacute;dilection de l'&eacute;l&eacute;phant
+pour le voisinage des fleuves, et son amour pour l'eau, dont
+l'abondance est n&eacute;cessaire &agrave; son bien-&ecirc;tre."
+This Sanskrit name, PICTET supposes, may have been carried to the
+West by the Phoenicians, who were the purveyors of ivory from
+India; and, from the Greek, the Latins derived <i>elephas</i>,
+which passed into the modern languages of Italy, Germany, and
+France. But it is curious that the Spaniards acquired from the
+Moors their Arabic term for ivory, <i>marfil</i>, and the
+Portuguese <i>marfim</i>; and that the Scandinavians, probably from
+their early expeditions to the Mediterranean, adopted <i>fill</i>
+as their name for the elephant itself, and <i>fil-bein</i> for
+ivory; in Danish, <i>fils-ben</i>. (See <i>Journ. Asiat.</i> 1843,
+t. xliii. p. 133.) The Spaniards of South America call the palm
+which produces the vegetable ivory (<i>Phytelephas macrocarpa</i>)
+<i>Palma de marfil</i>, and the nut itself, <i>marfil
+vegetal</i>.</p>
+<p>Since the above was written Gooneratn&eacute; Modliar, the
+Singhalese Interpreter to the Supreme Court at Colombo, has
+supplied me with another conjecture, that the word elephant may
+possibly be traced to the Singhalese name of the animal,
+<i>alia</i>, which means literally, "the huge one." <i>Alia</i>, he
+adds, is not a derivation from Sanskrit or Pali, but belongs to a
+dialect more ancient than either.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote771" name=
+"footnote771"></a><b>Footnote 771:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag771">(return)</a>
+<p>&AElig;LIAN, <i>de Nat. Anim.</i> lib. xvi. c. 18; COSMAS
+INDICOPL., p. 128.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote772" name=
+"footnote772"></a><b>Footnote 772:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag772">(return)</a>
+<p>LE BRUN, who visited Ceylon A.D. 1705, says that in the district
+round Colombo, where elephants are now never seen, they were then
+so abundant, that 160 had been taken in a single corral.
+(<i>Voyage</i>, &amp;c., tom. ii. ch. lxiii. p. 331.)</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote773" name=
+"footnote773"></a><b>Footnote 773:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag773">(return)</a>
+<p>In some parts of Bengal, where elephants were formerly
+troublesome (especially near the wilds of Ramgur), the natives got
+rid of them by mixing a preparation of the poisonous Nepal root
+called <i>dakra</i> in balls of grain, and other materials, of
+which the animal is fond. In Cuttack, above fifty years ago,
+mineral poison was laid for them in the same way, and the carcases
+of eighty were found which had been killed by it. (<i>Asiat.
+Res.</i>, xv. 183.)</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote781" name=
+"footnote781"></a><b>Footnote 781:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag781">(return)</a>
+<p>The number of elephants has been similarly reduced throughout
+the south of India.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote782" name=
+"footnote782"></a><b>Footnote 782:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag782">(return)</a>
+<p>The annual importation of ivory into Great Britain alone, for
+the last few years, has been about <i>one million</i> pounds;
+which, taking the average weight of a tusk at sixty pounds, would
+require the slaughter of 8,333 male elephants.</p>
+<p>But of this quantity the importation from Ceylon has generally
+averaged only five or six hundred weight; which, making allowance
+for the lightness of the tusks, would not involve the destruction
+of more than seven or eight in each year. At the same time, this
+does not fairly represent the annual number of tuskers shot in
+Ceylon, not only because a portion of the ivory finds its way to
+China and to other places, but because the chiefs and Buddhist
+priests have a passion for collecting tusks, and the finest and
+largest are to be found ornamenting their temples and private
+dwellings. The Chinese profess that for their exquisite carvings
+the ivory of Ceylon excels all other, both in density of texture
+and in delicacy of tint; but in the European market, the ivory of
+Africa, from its more distinct graining and other causes, obtains a
+higher price.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote783" name=
+"footnote783"></a><b>Footnote 783:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag783">(return)</a>
+<p>A writer in the <i>India Sporting Review</i> for October 1857
+says, "In Malabar a tuskless male elephant is rare; I have seen but
+two."&mdash;p. 157.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote791" name=
+"footnote791"></a><b>Footnote 791:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag791">(return)</a>
+<p>The old fallacy is still renewed, that the elephant sheds his
+tusks. &AElig;LIAN says he drops them once in ten years (lib. xiv.
+c. 5): and PLINY repeats the story, adding that, when dropped, the
+elephants hide them under ground (lib. viii.) whence SHAW says, in
+his <i>Zoology</i>, "they are frequently found in the woods," and
+exported from Africa (vol. i. p. 213): and Sir W. JARDINE in the
+<i>Naturalist's Library</i> (vol. ix. p. 110), says, "the tusks are
+shed about the twelfth or thirteenth year." This is erroneous:
+after losing the first pair, or, as they are called, the "milk
+tusks," which drop in consequence of the absorption of their roots,
+when the animal is extremely young, the second pair acquire their
+full size, and become the "permanent tusks," which are never
+shed.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote792" name=
+"footnote792"></a><b>Footnote 792:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag792">(return)</a>
+<p>Notwithstanding the inferiority in weight of the Ceylon tusks,
+as compared with those of the elephant of India, it would, I think,
+be precipitate to draw the inference that the size of the former
+was uniformly and naturally less than that of the latter. The
+truth, I believe to be, that if permitted to grow to maturity, the
+tusks of the one would, in all probability, equal those of the
+other; but, so eager is the search for ivory in Ceylon, that a
+tusker, when once observed in a herd, is followed up with such
+vigilant impatience, that he is almost invariably shot before
+attaining his full growth. General DE LIMA, when returning from the
+governorship of the Portuguese settlements at Mozambique, told me,
+in 1848, that he had been requested to procure two tusks of the
+largest size, and straightest possible shape, which were to be
+formed into a cross to surmount the high altar of the cathedral at
+Goa: he succeeded in his commission, and sent two, one of which was
+180 pounds, and the other 170 pounds' weight, with the slightest
+possible curve. In a periodical, entitled <i>The Friend</i>,
+published in Ceylon, it is stated in the volume for 1837 that the
+officers belonging to the ships Quorrah and Alburhak, engaged in
+the Niger Expedition, were shown by a native king two tusks, each
+two feet and a half in circumference at the base, eight feet long,
+and weighing upwards of 200 pounds. (Vol. i. p. 225.) BRODERIP, in
+his <i>Zoological Recreations</i>, p. 255, says a tusk of 350
+pounds' weight was sold at Amsterdam, but he does not quote his
+authority.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote801" name=
+"footnote801"></a><b>Footnote 801:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag801">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries, &amp;c.</i>, published by the Society for the
+Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. i. p. 68: "The Elephant," ch.
+iii. It will be seen that I have quoted repeatedly from this
+volume, because it is the most compendious and careful compilation
+with which I am acquainted of the information previously existing
+regarding the elephant. The author incorporates no speculations of
+his own, but has most diligently and agreeably arranged all the
+facts collected by his predecessors. The story of antipathy between
+the elephant and rhinoceros is probably borrowed from &AElig;LIAN
+<i>de Nat.</i>, lib. xvii. c. 44.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote821" name=
+"footnote821"></a><b>Footnote 821:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag821">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries, &amp;c.</i>, "The Elephant," ch. iii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote831" name=
+"footnote831"></a><b>Footnote 831:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag831">(return)</a>
+<p>This peculiarity was noticed by the ancients, and is recorded by
+Herodotus: [Greek: "kam&ecirc;lon hippos phobeetai, kai ouk
+anechetai oute t&ecirc;n ide&ecirc;n aut&ecirc;s ore&ocirc;n oute
+t&ecirc;n odm&ecirc;n osphrainomenos"] (Herod. ch. 80). Camels have
+long been bred by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, at his establishment
+near Pisa, and even there the same instinctive dislike to them is
+manifested by the horse, which it is necessary to train and
+accustom to their presence in order to avoid accidents. Mr.
+BRODERIP mentions, that, "when the precaution of such training has
+not been adopted, the sudden and dangerous terror with which a
+horse is seized in coming unexpectedly upon one of them is
+excessive."&mdash;<i>Note-book of a Naturalist</i>, ch. iv. p.
+113.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote841" name=
+"footnote841"></a><b>Footnote 841:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag841">(return)</a>
+<p>Major ROGERS was many years the chief civil officer of
+Government in the district of Oovah, where he was killed by
+lightning, 1845.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote842" name=
+"footnote842"></a><b>Footnote 842:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag842">(return)</a>
+<p>"Quidam etiam cum equis silvestribus pugnant. S&aelig;pe unus
+elephas cum sex equis committitur; atque ipse adeo interfui cum
+unus elephas duos equos cum primo impetu protinus
+prosternerit;&mdash;injecta enim jugulis ipsorum longa proboscide,
+ad se protractos, dentibus porro comminuit ac protrivit." <i>Angli
+Cujusdam in Cambayam Navigatio</i>. DE BRY, <i>Coll., &amp;c.</i>,
+vol. iii. ch. xvi. p. 31.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote843" name=
+"footnote843"></a><b>Footnote 843:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag843">(return)</a>
+<p>To account for the impatience manifested by the elephant at the
+presence of a dog, it has been suggested that he is alarmed lest
+the latter should attack <i>his feet</i>, a portion of his body of
+which the elephant is peculiarly careful. A tame elephant has been
+observed to regard with indifference a spear directed towards his
+head, but to shrink timidly from the same weapon when pointed at
+his foot.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote861" name=
+"footnote861"></a><b>Footnote 861:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag861">(return)</a>
+<p>A writer in the <i>India Sporting Review</i> for October 1857
+says a male elephant was killed by two others close to his camp:
+"the head was completely smashed in; there was a large hole in the
+side, and the abdomen was ripped open. The latter wound was given
+probably after it had fallen."&mdash;P. 175.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote871" name=
+"footnote871"></a><b>Footnote 871:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag871">(return)</a>
+<p>In the Third Book of Maccabees, which is not printed in our
+Apocrypha, but appears in the series in the Greek Septuagint, the
+author, in describing the persecution of the Jews by Ptolemy
+Philopater, B.C. 210, states that the king swore vehemently that he
+would send them into the other world, "foully trampled to death by
+the knees and feet of elephants" ([Greek: pempsein eis had&ecirc;n
+en gonasi kai posi th&ecirc;rion h&ecirc;kismenous.] 3 Mac. v. 42).
+&AElig;LIAN makes the remark, that elephants on such occasions use
+their <i>knees</i> as well as their feet to crush their
+victims.&mdash;<i>Hist Anim.</i> viii. 10.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote872" name=
+"footnote872"></a><b>Footnote 872:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag872">(return)</a>
+<p>The <i>Hastisilpe</i>, a Singhalese work which treats of the
+"Science of Elephants," enumerates amongst those which it is not
+desirable to possess, "the elephant which will fight with a stone
+or a stick in his trunk."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote881" name=
+"footnote881"></a><b>Footnote 881:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag881">(return)</a>
+<p>Among other eccentric forms, an elephant was seen in 1844, in
+the district of Bintenne, near Friar's-Hood Mountain, one of whose
+tusks was so bent that it took what sailors term a "round turn,"
+and resumed its curved direction as before. In the Museum of the
+College of Surgeons, London, there is a specimen, No. 2757, of a
+<i>spira</i> tusk.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote882" name=
+"footnote882"></a><b>Footnote 882:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag882">(return)</a>
+<p>Since the foregoing remarks were written relative to the
+undefined use of tusks to the elephant, I have seen a speculation
+on the same subject in Dr. HOLLAND'S "<i>Constitution of the Animal
+Creation, as expressed in structural Appendages</i>;" but the
+conjecture of the author leaves the problem scarcely less obscure
+than before. Struck with the mere <i>supplemental</i> presence of
+the tusks, the absence of all apparent use serving to distinguish
+them from the essential organs of the creature, Dr. HOLLAND
+concludes that their production is a process incident, but not
+ancillary, to other important ends, especially connected with the
+vital functions of the trunk and the marvellous motive powers
+inherent to it; his conjecture is, that they are "a species of
+safety valve of the animal oeconomy,"&mdash;and that "they owe
+their development to the predominance of the senses of touch and
+smell, conjointly with the muscular motions of which the exercise
+of these is accompanied." "Had there been no proboscis," he thinks,
+"there would have been no supplementary appendages,&mdash;the
+former creates the latter."&mdash;Pp. 246, 271.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote901" name=
+"footnote901"></a><b>Footnote 901:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag901">(return)</a>
+<p>See Chapter on Mammalia, p. 60.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote911" name=
+"footnote911"></a><b>Footnote 911:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag911">(return)</a>
+<p>A native of rank informed me, that "the tail of a high-caste
+elephant will sometimes touch the ground, but such are very
+rare."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote921" name=
+"footnote921"></a><b>Footnote 921:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag921">(return)</a>
+<p>This is confirmed by the fact that the scar of the ancle wound,
+occasioned by the rope on the legs of those which have been
+captured by noosing, presents precisely the same tint in the healed
+parts.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote931" name=
+"footnote931"></a><b>Footnote 931:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag931">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xxxviii. p. 254, A.D. 433.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote932" name=
+"footnote932"></a><b>Footnote 932:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag932">(return)</a>
+<p>PALLEGOIX, <i>Siam, &amp;c.</i>, vol. i. p. 152.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote933" name=
+"footnote933"></a><b>Footnote 933:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag933">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. xviii. p. 111. The Hindu sovereigns of
+Orissa, in the middle ages, bore the style of <i>Gaja-pati</i>,
+"powerful in elephants."&mdash;<i>Asiat. Res</i>. xv. 253.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote934" name=
+"footnote934"></a><b>Footnote 934:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag934">(return)</a>
+<p>ARMANDI, <i>Hist. Milit. des Elephants</i>, lib. ii. c. x. p.
+380. HORACE mentions a white elephant as having been exhibited at
+Rome: "Sive elephas albus vulgi converteret ora."&mdash;HOR.
+<i>Ep</i>. II. 196.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>[pg
+94]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap3" id="chap3"></a>CHAP. III.</h2>
+<h3>THE ELEPHANT.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>Habits when Wild</i>.</h4>
+<p>Although found generally in warm and sunny climates, it is a
+mistake to suppose that the elephant is partial either to heat or
+to light. In Ceylon, the mountain tops, and not the sultry valleys,
+are its favourite resort. In Oovah, where the elevated plains are
+often crisp with the morning frost, and on Pedura-talla-galla, at
+the height of upwards of eight thousand feet, they are found in
+herds, whilst the hunter may search for them without success in the
+hot jungles of the low country. No altitude, in fact, seems too
+lofty or too chill for the elephant, provided it affords the luxury
+of water in abundance; and, contrary to the general opinion that
+the elephant delights in sunshine, it seems at all times impatient
+of glare, and spends the day in the thickest depth of the forests,
+devoting the night to excursions, and to the luxury of the bath, in
+which it also indulges occasionally by day. This partiality for
+shade is doubtless ascribable to the animal's love of coolness and
+solitude; but it is not altogether unconnected with the position of
+the eye, and the circumscribed use which its peculiar mode of life
+permits it to make of the faculty of sight.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>[pg
+95]</span>
+<p>All the elephant hunters and natives to whom I have spoken on
+the subject, concur in opinion that its range of vision is
+circumscribed, and that it relies more on its ear and sense of
+smell than on its sight, which is liable to be obstructed by dense
+foliage; besides which, from the formation of its short neck, the
+elephant is incapable of directing the range of the eye much above
+the level of the head.<a id="footnotetag951" name=
+"footnotetag951"></a><a href="#footnote951"><sup>951</sup></a></p>
+<p>The elephant's small range of vision is sufficient to account
+for its excessive caution, its alarm at unusual noises, and the
+timidity and panic exhibited at trivial <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>[pg 96]</span> objects
+and incidents which, imperfectly discerned, excite suspicions for
+its safety.<a id="footnotetag961" name=
+"footnotetag961"></a><a href="#footnote961"><sup>961</sup></a> In
+1841 an officer<a id="footnotetag962" name=
+"footnotetag962"></a><a href="#footnote962"><sup>962</sup></a> was
+chased by an elephant that he had slightly wounded. Seizing him
+near the dry bed of a river, the animal had its forefoot already
+raised to crush him; but its forehead being caught at the instant
+by the tendrils of a climbing plant which had suspended itself from
+the branches above, it suddenly turned and fled; leaving him badly
+hurt, but with no limb broken. I have heard similar instances,
+equally well attested, of this peculiarity in the elephant.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, the power of smell is so remarkable as almost
+to compensate for the deficiency of sight. A herd is not only
+apprised of the approach of danger by this means, but when
+scattered in the forest, and dispersed out of range of sight, they
+are enabled by it to reassemble with rapidity and adopt precautions
+for their common safety. The same necessity is met by a delicate
+sense of hearing, and the use of a variety of noises or calls, by
+means of which elephants succeed in communicating with each other
+upon all emergencies. "The sounds which they utter have been
+described by the African hunters as of three kinds: the first,
+which is very shrill, produced by blowing through the trunk, is
+indicative of pleasure; the second, produced by the mouth, is
+expressive of want; and the third, proceeding from the throat, is a
+terrific roar of anger or revenge."<a id="footnotetag963" name=
+"footnotetag963"></a><a href="#footnote963"><sup>963</sup></a>
+These words convey but an imperfect idea of the variety of noises
+made by the elephant in Ceylon; and the shrill cry produced by
+blowing through his trunk, so far <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page97" id="page97"></a>[pg 97]</span> from being regarded as an
+indication of "pleasure," is the well-known cry of rage with which
+he rushes to encounter an assailant. ARISTOTLE describes it as
+resembling the hoarse sound of a "trumpet."<a id="footnotetag971"
+name="footnotetag971"></a><a href="#footnote971"><sup>971</sup></a>
+The French still designate the proboscis of an elephant by the same
+expression "trompe," (which we have unmeaningly corrupted into
+<i>trunk</i>,) and hence the scream of the elephant is known as
+"trumpeting" by the hunters in Ceylon. Their cry when in pain, or
+when subjected to compulsion, is a grunt or a deep groan from the
+throat, with the proboscis curled upwards and the lips wide
+apart.</p>
+<p>Should the attention of an individual in the herd be attracted
+by any unusual appearance in the forest, the intelligence is
+rapidly communicated by a low suppressed sound made by the lips,
+somewhat resembling the twittering of a bird, and described by the
+hunters by the word "<i>prut</i>."</p>
+<p>A very remarkable noise has been described to me by more than
+one individual, who has come unexpectedly upon a herd during the
+night, when the alarm of the elephants was apparently too great to
+be satisfied with the stealthy note of warning just described. On
+these occasions the sound produced resembled the hollow booming of
+an empty tun when struck with a wooden mallet or a muffled sledge.
+Major MACREADY, Military Secretary in Ceylon in 1836, who heard it
+by night amongst the wild elephants in the great forest of
+Bintenne, describes it as "a sort of banging noise like a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>[pg
+98]</span> cooper hammering a cask;" and Major SKINNER is of
+opinion that it must be produced by the elephant striking his sides
+rapidly and forcibly with his trunk. Mr. CRIPPS informs me that he
+has more than once seen an elephant, when surprised or alarmed,
+produce this sound by striking the ground forcibly with the flat
+side of the trunk; and this movement was instantly succeeded by
+raising it again, and pointing it in the direction whence the alarm
+proceeded, as if to ascertain by the sense of smell the nature of
+the threatened danger. As this strange sound is generally mingled
+with the bellowing and ordinary trumpeting of the herd, it is in
+all probability a device resorted to, not alone for warning their
+companions of some approaching peril, but also for the additional
+purpose of terrifying unseen intruders.<a id="footnotetag981" name=
+"footnotetag981"></a><a href="#footnote981"><sup>981</sup></a></p>
+<p>Elephants are subject to deafness; and the Singhalese regard as
+the most formidable of all wild animals, a "rogue"<a id=
+"footnotetag982" name="footnotetag982"></a><a href=
+"#footnote982"><sup>982</sup></a> afflicted with this
+infirmity.</p>
+<p>Extravagant estimates are recorded of the height of the
+elephant. In an age when popular fallacies in relation to him were
+as yet uncorrected in Europe by the actual inspection of the living
+animal, he was supposed to grow to the height of twelve or fifteen
+feet. Even within the last century in popular works on natural
+history, the elephant, when full grown, was said to measure from
+seventeen to twenty feet from the ground to the shoulder.<a id=
+"footnotetag983" name="footnotetag983"></a><a href=
+"#footnote983"><sup>983</sup></a> At a still later period, so
+imperfectly had <span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id=
+"page99"></a>[pg 99]</span> the facts been collated, that the
+elephant of Ceylon was believed "to excel that of Africa in size
+and strength."<a id="footnotetag991" name=
+"footnotetag991"></a><a href="#footnote991"><sup>991</sup></a> But
+so far from equalling the size of the African species, that of
+Ceylon seldom exceeds the height of nine feet; even in the
+Hambangtotte country, where the hunters agree that the largest
+specimens are to be found, the tallest of ordinary herds do not
+average more than eight feet. WOLF, in his account of the Ceylon
+elephant<a id="footnotetag992" name="footnotetag992"></a><a href=
+"#footnote992"><sup>992</sup></a>, says he saw one taken near
+Jaffna, which measured twelve feet and one inch high. But the truth
+is, that the general bulk of the elephant so far exceeds that of
+the animals which we are accustomed to see daily, that the
+imagination magnifies its unusual dimensions; and I have seldom or
+ever met with an inexperienced spectator who did not unconsciously
+over-estimate the size of an elephant shown to him, whether in
+captivity or in a state of nature. Major DENHAM would have guessed
+some which he saw in Africa to be sixteen feet in height, but</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>[pg
+100]</span>
+<p>the largest when killed was found to measure nine feet six, from
+the foot to the hip-bone.<a id="footnotetag1001" name=
+"footnotetag1001"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1001"><sup>1001</sup></a></p>
+<p>For a creature of such extraordinary weight it is astonishing
+how noiselessly and stealthily the elephant can escape from a
+pursuer. When suddenly disturbed in the jungle, it will burst away
+with a rush that seems to bear down all before it; but the noise
+sinks into absolute stillness so suddenly, that a novice might well
+be led to suppose that the fugitive had only halted within a few
+yards of him, when further search will disclose that it has stolen
+silently away, making scarcely a sound in its escape; and, stranger
+still, leaving the foliage almost undisturbed by its passage.</p>
+<p>The most venerable delusion respecting the elephant, and that
+which held its ground with unequalled tenacity, is the ancient
+fallacy which is explained by SIR THOMAS BROWNE in his
+<i>Pseudodoxia Epidemica</i>, that "it hath no joynts; and this
+absurdity is seconded by another, that being unable to lye downe it
+sleepeth against a tree, which the hunters observing doe saw almost
+asunder, whereon the beast relying, by the fall of the tree falls
+also downe it-selfe and is able to rise no more."<a id=
+"footnotetag1002" name="footnotetag1002"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1002"><sup>1002</sup></a> Sir THOMAS is disposed to think
+that "the hint and ground of this opinion might be the grosse and
+somewhat cylindricall composure of the legs of the elephant, and
+the equality and lesse perceptible disposure of the joynts,
+especially in the forelegs of this animal, they <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>[pg 101]</span>
+appearing, when he standeth, like pillars of flesh;" but he
+overlooks the fact that PLINY has ascribed the same peculiarity to
+the Scandinavian beast somewhat resembling a horse, which he calls
+a "machlis,"<a id="footnotetag1011" name=
+"footnotetag1011"></a><a href="#footnote1011"><sup>1011</sup></a>
+and that C&AElig;SAR in describing the wild animals in the
+Hercynian forests, enumerates the <i>alce</i>, "in colour and
+configuration approaching the goat, but surpassing it in size, its
+head destitute of horns <i>and its limbs of joints</i>, whence it
+can neither lie down to rest, nor rise if by any accident it should
+fall, but using the trees for a resting-place, the hunters by
+loosening their roots bring the <i>alce</i> to the ground, so soon
+as it is tempted to lean on them."<a id="footnotetag1012" name=
+"footnotetag1012"></a><a href="#footnote1012"><sup>1012</sup></a>
+This fallacy, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE says, is "not the daughter of
+latter times, but an old and grey-headed errour, even in the days
+of ARISTOTLE," who deals with the story as he received it from
+CTESIAS, by whom it <span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id=
+"page102"></a>[pg 102]</span> appears to have been embodied in his
+lost work on India. But although ARISTOTLE generally receives the
+credit of having exposed and demolished the fallacy of CTESIAS, it
+will be seen by a reference to his treatise <i>On the Progressive
+Motions of Animals</i>, that in reality he approached the question
+with some hesitation, and has not only left it doubtful in one
+passage whether the elephant has joints <i>in his knee</i>,
+although he demonstrates that it has joints in the shoulders<a id=
+"footnotetag1021" name="footnotetag1021"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1021"><sup>1021</sup></a>; but in another he distinctly
+affirms that on account of his weight the elephant cannot bend his
+forelegs together, but only one at a time, and reclines to sleep on
+that particular side.<a id="footnotetag1022" name=
+"footnotetag1022"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1022"><sup>1022</sup></a></p>
+<p>So great was the authority of ARISTOTLE, that &AElig;LIAN, who
+wrote two centuries later and borrowed many of his statements from
+the works of his predecessor, perpetuates this error; and, after
+describing the exploits of the trained elephants exhibited at Rome,
+adds the expression of his surprise, that an animal without joints
+([Greek: anarthron]) should yet be able to dance.<a id=
+"footnotetag1023" name="footnotetag1023"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1023"><sup>1023</sup></a> The fiction was too agreeable
+to be readily abandoned by the poets <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page103" id="page103"></a>[pg 103]</span> of the Lower Empire and
+the Romancers of the middle ages; and PHILE, a contemporary of
+PETRARCH and DANTE, who in the early part of the fourteenth
+century, addressed his didactic poem on the elephant to the Emperor
+Andronicus II., untaught by the exposition of ARISTOTLE, still
+clung to the old delusion,</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>[Greek:</p>
+<p>"Podes de toutps thauma kai saphes teras,</p>
+<p>Ous, ou kathaper talla t&ocirc;n z&ocirc;&ocirc;n
+gen&ecirc;,</p>
+<p>Ei&ocirc;the kinein ex anarthr&ocirc;n klasmat&ocirc;n,</p>
+<p>Kai gar stibarois syntethentes osteois,</p>
+<p>Kai t&ecirc; pladara t&ocirc;n sphyr&ocirc;n katastasei,</p>
+<p>Kai t&ecirc; pros arthra t&ocirc;n skel&ocirc;n hypokrisei,</p>
+<p>Nyn eis tonous agousi, nyn eis hypheseis,</p>
+<p>Tas pantodapas ekdromas tou th&ecirc;riou.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Brachyterous ontas de ton opisthi&ocirc;n</p>
+<p>'Anamphilekt&ocirc;s oida tous emprosthious</p>
+<p>Toutois elephas entatheis osper stylois</p>
+<p>'Orthostad&ecirc;n akamptos hypn&ocirc;tt&ocirc;n menei."]</p>
+<p class="i10">v. 106, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>SOLINUS introduced the same fable into his <i>Polyhistor</i>;
+and DICUIL, the Irish commentator of the ninth century, who had an
+opportunity of seeing the elephant sent by Haroun Alraschid as a
+present to Charlemagne<a id="footnotetag1031" name=
+"footnotetag1031"></a><a href="#footnote1031"><sup>1031</sup></a>
+in the year 802, corrects the error, and attributes its
+perpetuation to the circumstance that the joints in the elephant's
+leg are not very apparent, except when he lies down.<a id=
+"footnotetag1032" name="footnotetag1032"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1032"><sup>1032</sup></a></p>
+<p>It is a strong illustration of the vitality of error, that the
+delusion thus exposed by Dicuil in the ninth century, was revived
+by MATTHEW PARIS in the thirteenth; and stranger still, that
+Matthew not only saw <span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id=
+"page104"></a>[pg 104]</span> but made a drawing of the elephant
+presented to King Henry III. by the King of France in 1255, in
+which he nevertheless represents the legs as without joints.<a id=
+"footnotetag1041" name="footnotetag1041"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1041"><sup>1041</sup></a></p>
+<p>In the numerous medi&aelig;val treatises on natural history,
+known under the title of <i>Bestiaries</i>, this delusion regarding
+the elephant is often repeated; and it is given at length in a
+metrical version of the <i>Physiologus</i> of THEOBALDUS, amongst
+the Arundel Manuscripts in the British Museum.<a id=
+"footnotetag1042" name="footnotetag1042"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1042"><sup>1042</sup></a></p>
+<p>With the Proven&ccedil;al song writers, the helplessness of the
+fallen elephant was a favourite simile, and amongst others RICHARD
+DE BARBEZIEUX, in the latter half of the twelfth century,
+sung<a id="footnotetag1043" name="footnotetag1043"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1043"><sup>1043</sup></a>,</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>[pg
+105]</span>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"Atressi cum l'olifans</p>
+<p class="i2">Que quan chai no s'pot levar."</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>As elephants were but rarely seen in Europe prior to the
+seventeenth century, there were but few opportunities of correcting
+the popular fallacy by ocular demonstration. Hence SHAKSPEARE still
+believed that,</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"The elephant hath joints; but none for courtesy:</p>
+<p class="i2">His legs are for necessity, not flexure:"<a id=
+"footnotetag1051" name="footnotetag1051"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1051"><sup>1051</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>and DONNE sang of</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"Nature's great masterpiece, an Elephant;</p>
+<p class="i2">The only harmless great thing:</p>
+<p class="i2">Yet Nature hath given him no knee to bend:</p>
+<p class="i2">Himself he up-props, on himself relies;</p>
+<p class="i2">Still sleeping stands."<a id="footnotetag1052" name=
+"footnotetag1052"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1052"><sup>1052</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Sir THOMAS BROWNE, while he argues against the delusion, does
+not fail to record his suspicion, that "although the opinion at
+present be reasonably well suppressed, yet from the strings of
+tradition and fruitful recurrence of errour, it was not improbable
+it might revive in the next generation;"<a id="footnotetag1053"
+name="footnotetag1053"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1053"><sup>1053</sup></a>&mdash;an anticipation which has
+proved singularly correct; for the heralds still continued to
+explain that the elephant is the emblem of watchfulness, "<i>nec
+jacet in somno,"</i><a id="footnotetag1054" name=
+"footnotetag1054"></a><a href="#footnote1054"><sup>1054</sup></a>
+and poets almost of our own times paint the scene when</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>[pg
+106]</span>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"Peaceful, beneath primeval trees, that cast</p>
+<p class="i2">Their ample shade on Niger's yellow stream,</p>
+<p class="i2">Or where the Ganges rolls his sacred waves,</p>
+<p class="i2"><i>Leans</i> the huge Elephant."<a id=
+"footnotetag1061" name="footnotetag1061"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1061"><sup>1061</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>It is not difficult to see whence this antiquated delusion took
+its origin; nor is it, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE imagined, to be traced
+exclusively "to the grosse and cylindricall structure" of the
+animal's legs. The fact is, that the elephant, returning in the
+early morning from his nocturnal revels in the reservoirs and
+water-courses, is accustomed to rub his muddy sides against a tree,
+and sometimes against a rock if more convenient. In my rides
+through the northern forests, the natives of Ceylon have often
+pointed out that the elephants which had preceded me must have been
+of considerable size, from the height at which their marks had been
+left on the trees against which they had been rubbing. Not
+unfrequently the animals themselves, overcome with drowsiness from
+the night's gambolling, are found dosing and resting against the
+trees they had so visited, and in the same manner they have been
+discovered by sportsmen asleep, and leaning against a rock.</p>
+<p>It is scarcely necessary to explain that the position is
+accidental, and that it is taken by the elephant not from any
+difficulty in lying at length on the ground, but rather from the
+coincidence that the structure of his legs affords such support in
+a standing position, that reclining scarcely adds to his enjoyment
+of repose; and elephants in a state of captivity have been known
+for <span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>[pg
+107]</span> months together to sleep without lying down.<a id=
+"footnotetag1071" name="footnotetag1071"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1071"><sup>1071</sup></a> So distinctive is this
+formation, and so self-sustaining the configuration of the limbs,
+that an elephant shot in the brain, by Major Rogers in 1836, was
+killed so instantaneously that it died literally <i>on its
+knees</i>, and remained resting on them. About the year 1826,
+Captain Dawson, the engineer of the great road to Kandy, over the
+Kaduganava pass, shot an elephant at Hangwelle on the banks of the
+Kalany Ganga; <i>it remained on its feet</i>, but so motionless,
+that after discharging a few more balls, he was induced to go close
+to it, and found it dead.</p>
+<p>The real peculiarity in the elephant in lying down is, that he
+extends his hind legs backwards as a man does when he kneels,
+instead of bringing them under him like the horse or any other
+quadruped. The wise purpose of this arrangement must be obvious to
+any one who observes the struggle with which the horse <i>gets
+up</i> from the ground, and the violent efforts which he makes to
+raise himself erect. Such an exertion in the case of the elephant,
+and the force requisite to apply a similar movement to raise his
+weight (equal to four or five tons) would be attended with a
+dangerous strain upon the muscles, and hence the simple
+arrangement, which by enabling him to draw the hind feet gradually
+under him, assists him to rise without a perceptible effort.</p>
+<p>The same construction renders his gait not a "gallop,"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>[pg
+108]</span> as it has been somewhat loosely described<a id=
+"footnotetag1081" name="footnotetag1081"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1081"><sup>1081</sup></a>, which would be too violent a
+motion for so vast a body; but a shuffle, that he can increase at
+pleasure to a pace as rapid as that of a man at full speed, but
+which he cannot maintain for any considerable distance.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/133.png"><img width="100%" src="images/133.png" alt=
+"Horses leg joint structure" /></a></div>
+<p>It is to the structure of the knee-joint that the elephant is
+indebted for his singular facility in ascending and descending
+steep activities, climbing rocks and traversing precipitous ledges,
+where even a mule dare not <span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"
+id="page109"></a>[pg 109]</span> venture; and this again leads to
+the correction of another generally received error, that his legs
+are "formed more for strength than flexibility, and fitted to bear
+an enormous weight upon a level surface, without the necessity of
+ascending or descending great acclivities."<a id="footnotetag1091"
+name="footnotetag1091"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1091"><sup>1091</sup></a> The same authority assumes
+that, although the elephant is found in the neighbourhood of
+mountainous ranges, and will even ascend rocky passes, such a
+service is a violation of its natural habits.</p>
+<p>Of the elephant of Africa I am not qualified to speak, nor of
+the nature of the ground which it most frequents; but certainly the
+facts in connection with the elephant of India are all
+irreconcilable with the theory mentioned above. In Bengal, in the
+Nilgherries, in Nepal, in Burmah, in Siam, Sumatra, and Ceylon, the
+districts in which the elephants most abound, are all hilly and
+mountainous. In the latter, especially, there is not a range so
+elevated as to be inaccessible to them. On the very summit of
+Adam's Peak, at an altitude of 7,420 feet, and on a pinnacle which
+the pilgrims climb with difficulty, by means of steps hewn in the
+rock, Major Skinner, in 1840, found the spoor of an elephant.</p>
+<p>Prior to 1840, and before coffee-plantations had been
+extensively opened in the Kandyan ranges, there was not a mountain
+or a lofty feature of land of Ceylon which they had not traversed,
+in their periodical migrations in search of water; and the sagacity
+which they display in "laying out roads" is almost incredible. They
+generally keep along the <i>backbone</i> of a chain of hills,
+avoiding steep gradients: and one curious observation was not lost
+upon the government surveyors, that in crossing <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>[pg 110]</span> the
+valleys from ridge to ridge, through forests so dense as altogether
+to obstruct a distant view, the elephants invariably select the
+line of march which communicates most judiciously with the opposite
+point, by means of <i>the safest ford</i>.<a id="footnotetag1101"
+name="footnotetag1101"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1101"><sup>1101</sup></a> So sure-footed are they, that
+there are few places where man can go that an elephant cannot
+follow, provided there be space to admit his bulk, and solidity to
+sustain his weight.</p>
+<p>This faculty is almost entirely derived from the unusual
+position, as compared with other quadrupeds, of the knee joint of
+the hind leg; arising from the superior length of the thigh-bone,
+and the shortness of the metatarsus: the heel being almost where it
+projects in man, instead of being lifted up as a "hock." It is this
+which enables him, in descending declivities, to depress and adjust
+the weight of his hinder portions, which would otherwise
+overbalance and force him headlong.<a id="footnotetag1102" name=
+"footnotetag1102"></a><a href="#footnote1102"><sup>1102</sup></a>
+It is by the same arrangement that he is <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>[pg 111]</span>
+enabled, on uneven ground, to lift his feet, which are tender and
+sensitive, with delicacy, and plant them with such precision as to
+ensure his own safety as well as that of objects which it is
+expedient to avoid touching.</p>
+<p>A <i>herd</i> of elephants is a family, not a group whom
+accident or attachment may have induced to associate together.
+Similarity of features and caste attest that, among the various
+individuals which compose it, there is a common lineage and
+relationship. In a herd of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page112"
+id="page112"></a>[pg 112]</span> twenty-one elephants, captured in
+1844, the trunks of each individual presented the same peculiar
+formation,&mdash;long, and almost of one uniform breadth
+throughout, instead of tapering gradually from the root to the
+nostril. In another instance, the eyes of thirty-five taken in one
+corral were of the same colour in each. The same slope of the back,
+the same form of the forehead, is to be detected in the majority of
+the same group.</p>
+<p>In the forest several herds will browse in close contiguity, and
+in their expeditions in search of water they may form a body of
+possibly one or two hundred; but on the slightest disturbance each
+distinct herd hastens to re-form within its own particular circle,
+and to take measures on its own behalf for retreat or defence.</p>
+<p>The natives of any place which may chance to be frequented by
+elephants, observe that the numbers of the same herd fluctuate very
+slightly; and hunters in pursuit of them, who may chance to have
+shot one or more, always reckon with certainty the precise number
+of those remaining, although a considerable interval may intervene
+before they again encounter them. The proportion of males is
+generally small, and some herds have been seen composed exclusively
+of females; possibly in consequence of the males having been shot.
+A herd usually consists of from ten to twenty individuals, though
+occasionally they exceed the latter number; and in their frequent
+migrations and nightly resort to tanks and water-courses, alliances
+are formed between members of associated herds, which serve to
+introduce new blood into the family.</p>
+<p>In illustration of the attachment of the elephant to its young,
+the authority of KNOX has been quoted, that "the shees are alike
+tender of any one's young ones as <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page113" id="page113"></a>[pg 113]</span> of their own."<a id=
+"footnotetag1131" name="footnotetag1131"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1131"><sup>1131</sup></a> Their affection in this
+particular is undoubted, but I question whether it exceeds that of
+other animals; and the trait thus adduced of their indiscriminate
+kindness to all the young of the herd,&mdash;of which I have myself
+been an eye-witness,&mdash;so far from being an evidence of the
+strength of parental attachment individually, is, perhaps, somewhat
+inconsistent with the existence of such a passion to any
+extraordinary degree.<a id="footnotetag1132" name=
+"footnotetag1132"></a><a href="#footnote1132"><sup>1132</sup></a>
+In fact, some individuals, who have had extensive facilities for
+observation, doubt whether the fondness of the female elephants for
+their offspring is so great as that of many other animals; as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>[pg
+114]</span> instances are not wanting in Ceylon, in which, when
+pursued by the hunters, the herd has abandoned the young ones in
+their flight, notwithstanding the cries of the latter for help.</p>
+<p>In an interesting paper on the habits of the Indian elephant,
+published in the <i>Philosophical Transactions for</i> 1793, Mr.
+CORSE says: "If a wild elephant happens to be separated from its
+young for only two days, though giving suck, she never after
+recognises or acknowledges it," although the young one evidently
+knows its dam, and by its plaintive cries and submissive approaches
+solicits her assistance.</p>
+<p>If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly separated from
+his own herd, he is not permitted to attach himself to any other.
+He may browse in the vicinity, or frequent the same place to drink
+and to bathe; but the intercourse is only on a distant and
+conventional footing, and no familiarity or intimate association is
+under any circumstances permitted. To such a height is this
+exclusiveness carried, that even amidst the terror and stupefaction
+of an elephant corral, when an individual, detached from his own
+party in the <i>m&ecirc;l&eacute;e</i> and confusion, has been
+driven into the enclosure with an unbroken herd, I have seen him
+repulsed in every attempt to take refuge among them, and driven off
+by heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted to
+insinuate himself within the circle which they had formed for
+common security. There can be no reasonable doubt that this jealous
+and exclusive policy not only contributes to produce, but mainly
+serves to perpetuate, the class of solitary elephants which are
+known by the term <i>goondahs</i>, in India, and which from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>[pg
+115]</span> their vicious propensities and predatory habits are
+called <i>Hora</i>, or <i>Rogues</i>, in Ceylon.<a id=
+"footnotetag1151" name="footnotetag1151"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1151"><sup>1151</sup></a></p>
+<p>It is believed by the Singhalese that these are either
+individuals, who by accident have lost their former associates and
+become morose and savage from rage and solitude; or else that being
+naturally vicious they have become daring from the yielding habits
+of their milder companions, and eventually separated themselves
+from the rest of the herd which had refused to associate with them.
+Another conjecture is, that being almost universally males, the
+death or capture of particular females may have detached them from
+their former companions in search of fresh alliances.<a id=
+"footnotetag1152" name="footnotetag1152"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1152"><sup>1152</sup></a> It is also believed that a tame
+elephant escaping from captivity, unable to rejoin its former herd,
+and excluded from any other, becomes a "<i>rogue</i>" from
+necessity. In Ceylon it is generally believed that the
+<i>rogues</i> are all males (but of this I am not certain), and so
+sullen is their disposition that</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>[pg
+116]</span>
+<p>although two may be in the same vicinity, there is no known
+instance of their associating, or of a <i>rogue</i> being seen in
+company with another elephant.</p>
+<p>They spend their nights in marauding, often about the dwellings
+of men, destroying their plantations, trampling down their gardens,
+and committing serious ravages in rice grounds and young coco-nut
+plantations. Hence from their closer contact with man and his
+dwellings, these outcasts become disabused of many of the terrors
+which render the ordinary elephant timid and needlessly cautious;
+they break through fences without fear; and even in the daylight a
+<i>rogue</i> has been known near Ambogammoa to watch a field of
+labourers at work in reaping rice, and boldly to walk in amongst
+them, seize a sheaf from the heap, and retire leisurely to the
+jungle. By day they generally seek concealment, but are frequently
+to be met with prowling about the by-roads and jungle paths, where
+travellers are exposed to the utmost risk from their savage
+assaults. It is probable that this hostility to man is the result
+of the enmity engendered by those measures which the natives, who
+have a constant dread of their visits, adopt for the protection of
+their growing crops. In some districts, especially in the low
+country of Badulla, the villagers occasionally enclose their
+cottages with rude walls of earth and branches to protect them from
+nightly assaults. In places infested by them, the visits of
+European sportsmen to the vicinity of their haunts are eagerly
+encouraged by the natives, who think themselves happy in lending
+their services to track the ordinary herds in consideration of the
+benefit conferred on the village communities by the destruction of
+a rogue. In 1847 one of these formidable creatures frequented for
+some months the Rangbodde Pass on the <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>[pg 117]</span> great
+mountain road leading to the sanatarium, at Neuera-ellia; and
+amongst other excesses, killed a Caffre belonging to the corps of
+Caffre pioneers, by seizing him with its trunk and beating him to
+death against the bank.</p>
+<p>To return to the herd: one member of it, usually the largest and
+most powerful, is by common consent implicitly followed as leader.
+A tusker, if there be one in the party, is generally observed to be
+the commander; but a female, if of superior energy, is as readily
+obeyed as a male. In fact, in this promotion there is no reason to
+doubt that supremacy is almost unconsciously assumed by those
+endowed with superior vigour and courage rather than from the
+accidental possession of greater bodily strength; and the devotion
+and loyalty which the herd evince to their leader are very
+remarkable. This is more readily seen in the case of a tusker than
+any other, because in a herd he is generally the object of the
+keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such occasions the others do
+their utmost to protect him from danger: when driven to extremity
+they place their leader in the centre and crowd so eagerly in front
+of him that the sportsmen have to shoot a number which they might
+otherwise have spared. In one instance a tusker, which was badly
+wounded by Major ROGERS, was promptly surrounded by his companions,
+who supported him between their shoulders, and actually succeeded
+in covering his retreat to the forest.</p>
+<p>Those who have lived much in the jungle in Ceylon, and who have
+had constant opportunities of watching the habits of wild
+elephants, have witnessed instances of the submission of herds to
+their leaders, that suggest an inquiry of singular interest as to
+the means adopted by <span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id=
+"page118"></a>[pg 118]</span> the latter to communicate with
+distinctness, orders which are observed with the most implicit
+obedience by their followers. The following narrative of an
+adventure in the great central forest toward the north of the
+island, communicated to me by Major SKINNER, who was engaged for
+some time in surveying and opening roads through the thickly-wooded
+districts there, will serve better than any abstract description to
+convey an idea of the conduct of a herd on such
+occasions:&mdash;</p>
+<p>"The case you refer to struck me as exhibiting something more
+than ordinary brute instinct, and approached nearer to reasoning
+powers than any other instance I can now remember. I cannot do
+justice to the scene, although it appeared to me at the time to be
+so remarkable that it left a deep impression in my mind.</p>
+<p>"In the height of the dry season in Neuera-Kalawa, you know the
+streams are all dried up, and the tanks nearly so. All animals are
+then sorely pressed for water, and they congregate in the vicinity
+of those tanks in which there may remain ever so little of the
+precious element.</p>
+<p>"During one of those seasons I was encamped on the bund or
+embankment of a very small tank, the water in which was so dried
+that its surface could not have exceeded an area of 500 square
+yards. It was the only pond within many miles, and I knew that of
+necessity a very large herd of elephants, which had been in the
+neighbourhood all day, must resort to it at night.</p>
+<p>"On the lower side of the tank, and in a line with the
+embankment, was a thick forest, in which the elephants sheltered
+themselves during the day. On the upper side and all around the
+tank there was a considerable <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page119" id="page119"></a>[pg 119]</span> margin of open ground.
+It was one of those beautiful bright, clear, moonlight nights, when
+objects could be seen almost as distinctly as by day, and I
+determined to avail myself of the opportunity to observe the
+movements of the herd, which had already manifested some uneasiness
+at our presence. The locality was very favourable for my purpose,
+and an enormous tree projecting over the tank afforded me a secure
+lodgement in its branches. Having ordered the fires of my camp to
+be extinguished at an early hour, and all my followers to retire to
+rest, I took up my post of observation on the overhanging bough;
+but I had to remain for upwards of two hours before anything was to
+be seen or heard of the elephants, although I knew they were within
+500 yards of me. At length, about the distance of 300 yards from
+the water, an unusually large elephant issued from the dense cover,
+and advanced cautiously across the open ground to within 100 yards
+of the tank, where he stood perfectly motionless. So quiet had the
+elephants become (although they had been roaring and breaking the
+jungle throughout the day and evening), that not a movement was now
+to be heard. The huge vidette remained in his position, still as a
+rock, for a few minutes, and then made three successive stealthy
+advances of several yards (halting for some minutes between each,
+with ears bent forward to catch the slightest sound), and in this
+way he moved slowly up to the water's edge. Still he did not
+venture to quench his thirst, for though his fore-feet were
+partially in the tank and his vast body was reflected clear in the
+water, he remained for some minutes listening in perfect stillness.
+Not a motion could be perceived in himself or his shadow. He
+returned cautiously and slowly to <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page120" id="page120"></a>[pg 120]</span> the position he had at
+first taken up on emerging from the forest. Here in a little while
+he was joined by five others, with which he again proceeded as
+cautiously, but less slowly than before, to within a few yards of
+the tank, and then posted his patrols. He then re-entered the
+forest and collected around him the whole herd, which must have
+amounted to between 80 and 100 individuals,&mdash;led them across
+the open ground with the most extraordinary composure and
+quietness, till he joined the advanced guard, when he left them for
+a moment and repeated his former reconnoissance at the edge of the
+tank. After which, having apparently satisfied himself that all was
+safe, he returned and obviously gave the order to advance, for in a
+moment the whole herd rushed into the water with a degree of
+unreserved confidence, so opposite to the caution and timidity
+which had marked their previous movements, that nothing will ever
+persuade me that there was not rational and preconcerted
+co-operation throughout the whole party, and a degree of
+responsible authority exercised by the patriarch leader.</p>
+<p>"When the poor animals had gained possession of the tank (the
+leader being the last to enter), they seemed to abandon themselves
+to enjoyment without restraint or apprehension of danger. Such a
+mass of animal life I had never before seen huddled together in so
+narrow a space. It seemed to me as though they would have nearly
+drunk the tank dry. I watched them with great interest until they
+had satisfied themselves as well in bathing as in drinking, when I
+tried how small a noise would apprise them of the proximity of
+unwelcome neighbours. I had but to break a little twig, and the
+solid mass instantly took to flight like a herd of frightened
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>[pg
+121]</span> deer, each of the smaller calves being apparently
+shouldered and carried along between two of the older ones."<a id=
+"footnotetag1211" name="footnotetag1211"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1211"><sup>1211</sup></a></p>
+<p>In drinking, the elephant, like the camel, although preferring
+water pure, shows no decided aversion to it when discoloured with
+mud<a id="footnotetag1212" name="footnotetag1212"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1212"><sup>1212</sup></a>; and the eagerness with which
+he precipitates himself into the tanks and streams attests his
+exquisite enjoyment of the fresh coolness, which to him is the
+chief attraction. In crossing deep rivers, although his rotundity
+and buoyancy enable him to swim with a less immersion than other
+quadrupeds, he generally prefers to sink till no part of his huge
+body is visible except the tip of his trunk, through which he
+breathes, moving beneath the surface, and only now and then raising
+his head to look that he is keeping the proper direction.<a id=
+"footnotetag1213" name="footnotetag1213"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1213"><sup>1213</sup></a> In the dry season the scanty
+streams which, during the rains, are sufficient to convert the
+rivers of the low country into torrents, often entirely disappear,
+leaving only broad expanses of dry sand, which they have swept down
+with them from the hills. In this the elephants contrive to sink
+wells for their own use by scooping out the sand to the depth of
+four or five feet, and leaving a hollow for the percolation of the
+spring. But as the weight of the elephant would force in the side
+if left perpendicular, one approach is always formed with such a
+gradient that he can reach</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>[pg
+122]</span>
+<p>the water with his trunk without disturbing the surrounding
+sand.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/147.png"><img width="100%" src="images/147.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>I have reason to believe, although the fact has not been
+authoritatively stated by naturalists, that the stomach of the
+elephant will be found to include a section analogous to that
+possessed by some of the ruminants, calculated to contain a supply
+of water as a provision against emergencies. The fact of his being
+enabled to retain a quantity of water and discharge it at pleasure
+has been long known to every observer of the habits of the animal;
+but the proboscis has always been supposed to be "his
+water-reservoir,"<a id="footnotetag1221" name=
+"footnotetag1221"></a><a href="#footnote1221"><sup>1221</sup></a>
+and the theory of an internal receptacle has not been discussed.
+The truth is that the anatomy of the elephant is even yet but
+imperfectly understood<a id="footnotetag1222" name=
+"footnotetag1222"></a><a href="#footnote1222"><sup>1222</sup></a>,
+and, although some peculiarities of his</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>[pg
+123]</span>
+<p>stomach were observed at an early period, and even their
+configuration described, the function of the abnormal portion
+remained undetermined, and has been only recently conjectured. An
+elephant which belonged to Louis XIV. died at Versailles in 1681 at
+the age of seventeen, and an account of its dissection was
+published in the <i>M&eacute;moires pour servir &agrave; l'Histoire
+Naturelle</i>, under the authority of the Academy of Sciences, in
+which the unusual appendages of the stomach are pointed out with
+sufficient particularity, but no suggestion is made as to their
+probable uses."<a id="footnotetag1231" name=
+"footnotetag1231"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1231"><sup>1231</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>[pg
+124]</span>
+<p>A writer in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> for December 1850, says
+that "CAMPER and other comparative anatomists have shown that the
+left, or cardiac end of the stomach in the elephant is adapted, by
+several wide folds of lining membrane, to serve as a receiver for
+water;" but this is scarcely correct, for although CAMPER has
+accurately figured the external form of the stomach, he disposes of
+the question of the interior functions with the simple remark that
+its folds "semblent en faire une esp&egrave;ce de division
+particuli&egrave;re."<a id="footnotetag1241" name=
+"footnotetag1241"></a><a href="#footnote1241"><sup>1241</sup></a>
+In like manner SIR EVERARD HOME, in his <i>Lectures on Comparative
+Anatomy</i>, has not only carefully described the form of the
+elephant's stomach, and furnished a drawing of it even more
+accurate than CAMPER; but he has equally omitted to assign any
+purpose to so strange a formation, contenting himself with
+observing that the structure is a peculiarity, and that one of the
+remarkable folds nearest the orifice of the diaphragm appears to
+act as a valve, so that the portion beyond may be considered as an
+appendage similar to that of the hog and the <i>peccary</i>.<a id=
+"footnotetag1242" name="footnotetag1242"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1242"><sup>1242</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>[pg
+125]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/150.png"><img width="100%" src="images/150.png" alt=
+"" /></a> ELEPANT'S STOMACH.</div>
+<p>The appendage thus alluded to by Sir EVERARD HOME is the grand
+"cul-de-sac," noticed by the Acad&eacute;mic des Sciences, and the
+"division particuli&egrave;re," figured by CAMPER. It is of
+sufficient dimensions to contain ten gallons of water, and by means
+of the valve above alluded to, it can be shut off from the chamber
+devoted to the process of digestion. Professor OWEN is probably the
+first who, not from an autopsy, but from the mere inspection of the
+drawings of CAMPER and HOME, ventured to assert (in lectures
+hitherto unpublished), that the uses of this section of the
+elephant's stomach may be analogous to those ascertained to belong
+to a somewhat similar arrangement in the stomach of the camel, one
+cavity of which is exclusively employed as a reservoir for water,
+and performs no function the preparation of food.<a id=
+"footnotetag1251" name="footnotetag1251"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1251"><sup>1251</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>[pg
+126]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/151.png"><img width="100%" src="images/151.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>Whilst Professor OWEN was advancing this conjecture, another
+comparative anatomist, from the examination of another portion of
+the structure of the elephant, was led to a somewhat similar
+conclusion. Dr. HARRISON of Dublin had, in 1847, an opportunity of
+dissecting the body of an elephant which had suddenly died; and in
+the course of his examination of the thoracic viscera, he observed
+that an unusually close connection existed between the trachea and
+oesophagus, which he found to depend on a muscle unnoticed by any
+previous anatomist, connecting the back of the former with the
+forepart of the latter, along which the fibres descend and can be
+distinctly traced to the cardiac orifice of the stomach.
+Imperfectly acquainted with the habits and functions of the
+elephant in a state of nature, Dr. HARRISON found it difficult to
+pronounce as to the use of this very peculiar <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>[pg 127]</span>
+structure; but looking to the intimate connection between the
+mechanism concerned in the functions of respiration and
+deglutition, and seeing that the proboscis served in a double
+capacity as an instrument of voice and an organ for the prehension
+of food, he ventured (apparently without adverting to the abnormal
+form of the stomach) to express the opinion that this muscle,
+viewing its attachment to the trachea, might either have some
+influence in raising the diaphragm, and thereby assisting in
+expiration, "<i>or that it might raise the cardiac orifice of the
+stomach, and so aid this organ to regurgitate a portion of its
+contents into the oesophagus</i>."<a id="footnotetag1271" name=
+"footnotetag1271"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1271"><sup>1271</sup></a></p>
+<p>Dr. HARRISON, on the reflection that "we have no satisfactory
+evidence that the animal ever ruminates," thought it useless to
+speculate on the latter supposition as to the action of the newly
+discovered muscle, and rather inclined to the surmise that it was
+designed to assist the elephant in producing the remarkable sound
+through his proboscis known as "trumpeting;" but there is little
+room to doubt that of the two the rejected hypothesis was the more
+correct one. I have elsewhere described the occurrence to which I
+was myself a witness<a id="footnotetag1272" name=
+"footnotetag1272"></a><a href="#footnote1272"><sup>1272</sup></a>,
+of elephants inserting their proboscis in their mouths, and
+withdrawing gallons of water, which could only have been contained
+in the receptacle figured by CAMPER and HOME, and of which the true
+uses were discerned by the clear intellect of Professor OWEN. I was
+not, till very recently, aware that a similar observation as to the
+remarkable habit of the elephant, had been made by the author of
+the <i>Ayeen Akbery</i>, in his account of the <i>Feel</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>[pg
+128]</span> <i>Kaneh</i>, or elephant stables of the Emperor Akbar,
+in which he says, "an elephant frequently with his trunk takes
+water out of his stomach and sprinkles himself with it, and it is
+not in the least offensive."<a id="footnotetag1281" name=
+"footnotetag1281"></a><a href="#footnote1281"><sup>1281</sup></a>
+FORBES, in his Oriental Memoirs, quotes this passage of the
+<i>Ayeen Akbery</i>, but without a remark; nor does any European
+writer with whose works I am acquainted appear to have been
+cognisant of the peculiarity in question.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/153.png"><img width="100%" src="images/153.png" alt=
+"" /></a> WATER-CELLS IN THE STOMACH OF THE CAMEL.</div>
+<p>It is to be hoped that Professor OWEN'S dissection of the young
+elephant, recently arrived, may serve to decide this highly
+interesting point.<a id="footnotetag1282" name=
+"footnotetag1282"></a><a href="#footnote1282"><sup>1282</sup></a>
+Should scientific investigation hereafter more clearly establish
+the fact that, in this particular, the structure of the elephant is
+assimilated to that of the llama and the camel, it will be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>[pg
+129]</span> regarded as more than a common coincidence, that an
+apparatus, so unique in its purpose and action, should thus have
+been conferred by the Creator on the three animals which in sultry
+climates are, by this arrangement, enabled to traverse arid regions
+in the service of man.<a id="footnotetag1291" name=
+"footnotetag1291"></a><a href="#footnote1291"><sup>1291</sup></a>
+To show this peculiar organization where it attains its fullest
+development, I have given a sketch of the water-cells, in the
+stomach of the camel on the preceding page.</p>
+<p>The <i>food</i> of the elephant is so abundant, that in feeding
+he never appears to be impatient or voracious, but rather to play
+with the leaves and branches on which he leisurely feeds. In riding
+by places where a herd has recently halted, I have sometimes seen
+the bark peeled curiously off the twigs, as though it had been done
+in mere dalliance. In the same way in eating grass the elephant
+selects a tussac which he draws from the ground by a dexterous
+twist of his trunk, and nothing can be more graceful than the ease
+with which, before conveying it to his mouth, he beats the earth
+from its roots by striking it gently upon his fore-leg. A coco-nut
+he first rolls under foot, to detach the strong outer bark, then
+stripping off with his trunk the thick layer of fibre within, he
+places the shell in his mouth, and swallows with evident relish the
+fresh liquid which flows as he crushes it between his grinders.</p>
+<p>The natives of the peninsula of Jaffna always look for the
+periodical appearance of the elephants, at the precise</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>[pg
+130]</span>
+<p>time when the fruit of the palmyra palm begins to fall to the
+ground from ripeness. In like manner in the eastern provinces where
+the custom prevails of cultivating what is called <i>chena</i> land
+(by clearing a patch of forest for the purpose of raising a single
+crop, after which the ground is abandoned, and reverts to jungle
+again), although a single elephant may not have been seen in the
+neighbourhood during the early stages of the process, the Moormen,
+who are the cultivators of this class, will predict their
+appearance with almost unerring confidence so soon as the grains
+shall have begun to ripen; and although the crop comes to maturity
+at different periods in different districts, herds are certain to
+be seen at each in succession, as soon as it is ready to be cut. In
+these well-timed excursions, they resemble the bison of North
+America, which, by a similarly mysterious instinct, finds its way
+to portions of the distant prairies, where accidental fires have
+been followed by a growth of tender grass. Although the fences
+around these <i>chenas</i> are little more than lines of reeds
+loosely fastened together, they are sufficient, with the presence
+of a single watcher, to prevent the entrance of the elephants, who
+wait patiently till the rice and <i>coracan</i> have been removed,
+and the watcher withdrawn; and, then finding gaps in the fence,
+they may be seen gleaning among the leavings and the stubble; and
+they take their departure when these are exhausted, apparently in
+the direction of some other <i>chena</i>, which they have
+ascertained to be about to be cut.</p>
+<p>There is something still unexplained in the dread which an
+elephant always exhibits on approaching a fence, and the reluctance
+which he displays to face the slightest artificial obstruction to
+his passage. In the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id=
+"page131"></a>[pg 131]</span> fine old tank of Tissa-weva, close by
+Anarajapoora, the natives cultivate grain, during the dry season,
+around the margin where the ground has been left bare by the
+subsidence of the water. These little patches of rice they enclose
+with small sticks an inch in diameter and five or six feet in
+height, such as would scarcely serve to keep out a wild hog if he
+attempted to force his way through. Passages of from ten to twenty
+feet wide are left between each field, to permit the wild
+elephants, which abound in the vicinity to make their nocturnal
+visits to the water still remaining in the tank. Night after night
+these open pathways are frequented by immense herds, but the
+tempting corn is never touched, nor is a single fence disturbed,
+although the merest, movement of a trunk would be sufficient to
+demolish the fragile structure. Yet the same spots, the fences
+being left open as soon as the grain has been cut and carried home,
+are eagerly entered by the elephants to glean amongst the
+stubble.</p>
+<p>Sportsmen observe that an elephant, even when enraged by a
+wound, will hesitate to charge an assailant across an intervening
+hedge, but will hurry along it to seek for an opening. It is
+possible that, on the part of the elephant, there may be some
+instinctive consciousness, that owing to his superior bulk, he is
+exposed to danger from sources that might be perfectly harmless in
+the case of lighter animals, and hence his suspicion that every
+fence may conceal a snare or pitfall. Some similar apprehension is
+apparent in the deer, which shrinks from attempting a fence of
+wire, although it will clear without hesitation a solid wall of
+greater height.</p>
+<p>At the same time, the caution with which the elephant is
+supposed to approach insecure ground and places of <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>[pg 132]</span>
+doubtful<a id="footnotetag1321" name="footnotetag1321"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1321"><sup>1321</sup></a> solidity, appears to me, so far
+as my own observation and experience extend, to be exaggerated, and
+the number of temporary bridges which are annually broken down by
+elephants in all parts of Ceylon, is sufficient to show that,
+although in captivity, and when familiar with such structures, the
+tame ones may, and doubtless do, exhibit all the wariness
+attributed to them; yet, in a state of liberty, and whilst
+unaccustomed to such artificial appliances, their instincts are not
+sufficient to ensure their safety. Besides, the fact is adverted to
+elsewhere<a id="footnotetag1322" name=
+"footnotetag1322"></a><a href="#footnote1322"><sup>1322</sup></a>,
+that the chiefs of the Wanny, during the sovereignty of the Dutch,
+were accustomed to take in pitfalls the elephants which they
+rendered as tribute to government.</p>
+<p>A fact illustrative at once of the caution and the spirit of
+curiosity with which an elephant regards an unaccustomed object has
+been frequently mentioned to me by the officers engaged in opening
+roads through the forest. On such occasions the wooden "tracing
+pegs" which they are obliged to drive into the ground to mark the
+levels taken during the day, will often be withdrawn by the
+elephants during the night, to such an extent as frequently to
+render it necessary to go over the work a second time, in order to
+replace them.<a id="footnotetag1323" name=
+"footnotetag1323"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1323"><sup>1323</sup></a></p>
+<p>Colonel HARDY, formerly Deputy Quarter-Master-General in Ceylon,
+when proceeding, about the year 1820, to a military out-post in the
+south-east of the island, imprudently landed in an uninhabited part
+of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>[pg
+133]</span> the coast, intending to take a short cut through the
+forest, to his destination. He not only miscalculated the distance,
+but, on the approach of nightfall, he was chased by a vicious rogue
+elephant. The pursuer was nearly upon him, when, to gain time, he
+flung down a small dressing-case, which he happened to be carrying.
+The device was successful; the elephant halted and minutely
+examined its contents, and thus gave the colonel time to effect his
+escape.<a id="footnotetag1331" name="footnotetag1331"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1331"><sup>1331</sup></a></p>
+<p>As regards the general sagacity of the elephant, although it has
+not been over-rated in the instances of those whose powers have
+been largely developed in captivity, an undue estimate has been
+formed in relation to them whilst still untamed. The difference of
+instincts and habits renders it difficult to institute a just
+comparison between them and other animals. CUVIER<a id=
+"footnotetag1332" name="footnotetag1332"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1332"><sup>1332</sup></a> is disposed to ascribe the
+exalted idea that prevails of their intellect to the feats which an
+elephant performs with that unique instrument, its trunk, combined
+with an imposing expression of countenance: but he records his own
+conviction that in sagacity it in no way excels the dog, and some
+other species of Carnivora. If there be a superiority, I am
+disposed to award it to the dog, not from any excess of natural
+capacity, but from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id=
+"page134"></a>[pg 134]</span> higher degree of development
+consequent on his more intimate domestication and association with
+man.</p>
+<p>One remarkable fact was called to my attention by a gentleman
+who resided on a coffee plantation at Rassaw&eacute;, one of the
+loftiest mountains of the Ambogammoa range. More than once during
+the terrific thunder-bursts that precede the rains at the change of
+each monsoon, he observed that the elephants in the adjoining
+forest hastened from under cover of the trees and took up their
+station in the open ground, where I saw them on one of these
+occasions collected into a group; and here, he said, it was their
+custom to remain till the lightning had ceased, when they retired
+again into the jungle.<a id="footnotetag1341" name=
+"footnotetag1341"></a><a href="#footnote1341"><sup>1341</sup></a>
+It must be observed, however, that showers, and especially light
+drizzling rain, are believed to bring the elephants from the jungle
+towards pathways or other openings in the forest;&mdash;and hence,
+in places infested by them, timid persons are afraid to travel in
+the afternoon during uncertain weather.</p>
+<p>When free in its native woods the elephant evinces rather
+simplicity than sagacity, and its intelligence seldom exhibits
+itself in cunning. The rich profusion in which nature has supplied
+its food, and anticipated its every want, has made it independent
+of those devices by which carnivorous animals provide for their
+subsistence; and, from the absence of all rivalry between it and
+the other denizens of the plains, it is never required to resort to
+artifice for self-protection. For these reasons, in its tranquil
+and harmless life, it may appear to casual observers to exhibit
+even less than <span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id=
+"page135"></a>[pg 135]</span> ordinary ability; but when danger and
+apprehension call for the exertion of its powers, those who have
+witnessed their display are seldom inclined to undervalue its
+sagacity.</p>
+<p>Mr. CRIPPS has related to me an instance in which a recently
+captured elephant was either rendered senseless from fear, or, as
+the native attendants asserted, <i>feigned death</i> in order to
+regain its freedom. It was led from the corral as usual between two
+tame ones, and had already proceeded far towards its destination;
+when night closing in, and the torches being lighted, it refused to
+go on, and finally sank to the ground, apparently lifeless. Mr.
+CRIPPS ordered the fastenings to be removed from its legs, and when
+all attempts to raise it had failed, so convinced was he that it
+was dead, that he ordered the ropes to be taken off and the carcase
+abandoned. While this was being done he and a gentleman by whom he
+was accompanied leaned against the body to rest. They had scarcely
+taken their departure and proceeded a few yards, when, to their
+astonishment, the elephant rose with the utmost alacrity, and fled
+towards the jungle, screaming at the top of its voice, its cries
+being audible long after it had disappeared in the shades of the
+forest.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>[pg
+136]</span>
+<h2>APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.</h2>
+<hr />
+<h3>NARRATIVES OF THE NATIVES OF CEYLON RELATIVE TO ENCOUNTERS WITH
+ROGUE ELEPHANTS.</h3>
+<p>The following narratives have been taken down by a Singhalese
+gentleman, from the statements of the natives by whom they are
+recounted;&mdash;and they are here inserted, in order to show the
+opinion prevalent amongst the people of Ceylon as to the habits and
+propensities of the rogue elephant. The stories are given in words
+of my correspondent, who writes in English, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+<p>1. "We," said my informant, who was a native trader of Caltura,
+"were on our way to Badulla, by way of Ratnapoora and Balangodde,
+to barter our merchandize for coffee. There were six in our party,
+myself, my brother-in-law, and four coolies, who carried on
+pingoes<a id="footnotetag1361" name="footnotetag1361"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1361"><sup>1361</sup></a> our merchandize, which
+consisted of cloth and brass articles. About 4 o'clock, P.M., we
+were close to Idalgasinna, and our coolies were rather unwilling to
+go further for fear of elephants, which they said were sure to be
+met with at that noted place, especially as there had been a slight
+drizzling of rain during the whole afternoon. I was as much afraid
+of elephants as the coolies themselves; but I was anxious to
+proceed, and so, after a few words of encouragement addressed to
+them, and a prayer or two offered up to <i>Saman dewiyo</i><a id=
+"footnotetag1362" name="footnotetag1362"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1362"><sup>1362</sup></a>, we resumed our journey. I also
+took the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id=
+"page137"></a>[pg 137]</span> further precaution of hanging up a
+few leaves.<a id="footnotetag1371" name=
+"footnotetag1371"></a><a href="#footnote1371"><sup>1371</sup></a>
+As the rain was coming down fast and thick, and I was anxious to
+get to our halting-place before night, we moved on at a rapid pace.
+My brother-in-law was in the van of the party, I myself was in the
+rear, and the four coolies between us, all moving along on a
+rugged, rocky, and difficult path; as the road to Badulla till
+lately was on the sloping side of a hill, covered with jungle,
+pieces of projecting rock, and brushwood. It was about five o'clock
+in the evening, or a little later, and we had hardly cleared the
+foot of the hill and got to the plain below, when a rustling of
+leaves and a crackling of dry brushwood were heard on our right,
+followed immediately by the trumpeting of a <i>hora allia</i><a id=
+"footnotetag1372" name="footnotetag1372"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1372"><sup>1372</sup></a>, which was making towards us.
+We all fled, followed by the elephant. I, who was in the rear of
+the party, was the first to take to flight; the coolies threw away
+their pingoes, and my brother-in-law his umbrella, and all ran in
+different directions. I hid myself behind a large boulder of
+granite nearly covered by jungle: but as my place of concealment
+was on high ground, I could see all that was going on below. The
+first thing I observed was the elephant returning to the place
+where one of the pingoes was lying: he was carrying one of the
+coolies in a coil of his trunk. The body of the man was dangling
+with the head downward. I cannot say whether he was then alive or
+not; I could not perceive any marks of blood or bruises on his
+person: but he appeared to be lifeless. The elephant placed him
+down on the ground, put the pingo on his (the man's) shoulder,
+steadying both the man and the pingo with his trunk and fore-legs.
+But the man of course did not move or stand up with his pingo.
+Seeing this, the elephant again raised the cooly and dashed him
+against the ground, and then trampled <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>[pg 138]</span> the
+body to a very jelly. This done, he took up the pingo and moved
+away from the spot; but at the distance of about a fathom or two,
+laid it down again, and ripping open one of the bundles, took out
+of it all the contents, <i>somans</i><a id="footnotetag1381" name=
+"footnotetag1381"></a><a href="#footnote1381"><sup>1381</sup></a>,
+<i>camb&#257;yas</i><a id="footnotetag1382" name=
+"footnotetag1382"></a><a href="#footnote1382"><sup>1382</sup></a>,
+handkerchiefs, and several pieces of white cambrick cloth, all
+which he tore to small pieces, and flung them wildly here and
+there. He did the same with all the other pingoes. When this was
+over the elephant quietly walked away into the jungle, trumpeting
+all the way as far as I could hear. When danger was past I came out
+of my concealment, and returned to the place where we had halted
+that morning. Here the rest of my companions joined me soon after.
+The next morning we set out again on our journey, our party being
+now increased by some seven or eight traders from Salpity Corle:
+but this time we did not meet with the elephant. We found the
+mangled corpse of our cooly on the same spot where I had seen it
+the day before, together with the torn pieces of my cloths, of
+which we collected as fast as we could the few which were
+serviceable, and all the brass utensils which were quite uninjured.
+That elephant was a noted rogue. He had before this killed many
+people on that road, especially those carrying pingoes of coco-nut
+oil and ghee. He was afterwards killed by an Englishman. The
+incidents I have mentioned above, took place about twenty years
+ago."</p>
+<p>The following also relates to the same locality. It was narrated
+to me by an old Moorman of Barberyn, who, during his earlier years,
+led the life of a pedlar.</p>
+<p>2. "I and another," said he, "were on our way to Badulla, one
+day some twenty-five or thirty years ago. We were quietly moving
+along a path which wound round a hill, when all of a sudden, and
+without the slightest previous intimation either by the rustling of
+leaves or by any other sign, a huge elephant with short tusks
+rushed to the path. Where he had been before I can't say; I believe
+he must have been lying in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"
+id="page139"></a>[pg 139]</span> wait for travellers. In a moment
+he rushed forward to the road, trumpeting dreadfully, and seized my
+companion. I, who happened to be in the rear, took to flight,
+pursued by the elephant, which had already killed my companion by
+striking him against the ground. I had not moved more than seven or
+eight fathoms, when the elephant seized me, and threw me up with
+such force, that I was carried high into the air towards a
+<i>Cahata</i> tree, whose branches caught me and prevented my
+falling to the ground. By this I received no other injury than the
+dislocation of one of my wrists. I do not know whether the elephant
+saw me after he had hurled me away through the air; but certainly
+he did not come to the tree to which I was then clinging: even if
+he had come, he couldn't have done me any more harm, as the branch
+on which I was far beyond the reach of his trunk, and the tree
+itself too large for him to pull down. The next thing I saw was the
+elephant returning to the corpse of my companion, which he again
+threw on the ground, and placing one of his fore feet on it, he
+tore it with his trunk limb after limb; and dabbled in the blood
+that flowed from the shapeless mass of flesh which he was still
+holding under his foot."</p>
+<p>3. "In 1847 or '46," said another informant, "I was a
+superintendent of a coco-nut estate belonging to Mr. Armitage,
+situated about twelve miles from Negombo. A rogue elephant did
+considerable injury to the estate at that time; and one day,
+hearing that it was then on the plantation, a Mr. Lindsay, an
+Englishman, who was proprietor of the adjoining property, and
+myself, accompanied by some seven or eight people of the
+neighbouring village, went out, carrying with us six rifles loaded
+and primed. We continued to walk along a path which, near one of
+its turns, had some bushes on one side. We had calculated to come
+up with the brute where it had been seen half an hour before; but
+no sooner had one of our men, who was walking foremost, seen the
+animal at the distance of some fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he
+exclaimed, 'There! there!' and immediately took to his heels, and
+we all <span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>[pg
+140]</span> followed his example. The elephant did not see us until
+we had run some fifteen or twenty paces from the spot where we
+turned, when he gave us chase, screaming frightfully as he came on.
+The Englishman managed to climb a tree, and the rest of my
+companions did the same; as for myself I could not, although I made
+one or two superhuman efforts. But there was no time to be lost.
+The elephant was running at me with his trunk bent down in a curve
+towards the ground. At this critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out
+his foot to me, with the help of which and then of the branches of
+the tree, which were three or four feet above my head, I managed to
+scramble up to a branch. The elephant came directly to the tree and
+attempted to force it down, which he could not. He first coiled his
+trunk round the stem, and pulled it with all his might, but with no
+effect. He then applied his head to the tree, and pushed for
+several minutes, but with no better success. He then trampled with
+his feet all the projecting roots, moving, as he did so, several
+times round and round the tree. Lastly, failing in all this, and
+seeing a pile of timber, which I had lately cut, at a short
+distance from us, he removed it all (thirty-six pieces) one at a
+time to the root of the tree, and piled them up in a regular
+business-like manner; then placing his hind feet on this pile, he
+raised the fore part of his body, and reached out his trunk, but
+still he could not touch us, as we were too far above him. The
+Englishman then fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on the
+elephant's head, but did not kill him. It made him only the more
+furious. The next shot, however, levelled him to the ground. I
+afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo, and it is
+still to be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage."</p>
+<p>4. "One night a herd of elephants entered a village in the Four
+Corles. After doing considerable injury to plaintain bushes and
+young coco-nut trees, they retired, the villagers being unable to
+do anything to protect their fruit trees from destruction. But one
+elephant was left behind, who continued to scream the whole night
+through at the same spot. It was <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page141" id="page141"></a>[pg 141]</span> then discovered that the
+elephant, on seeing a jak fruit on a tree somewhat beyond the reach
+of his trunk, had raised himself on his hind legs, placing his fore
+feet against the stem, in order to lay hold of the fruit, but
+unluckily for him there happened to be another tree standing so
+close to it that the vacant space between the two stems was only a
+few inches. During his attempts to take hold of the fruit one of
+his legs happened to get in between the two trees, where, on
+account of his weight and his clumsy attempts to extricate himself,
+it got so firmly wedged that he could not remove it, and in this
+awkward position he remained for some days, till he died on the
+spot."</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote951" name=
+"footnote951"></a><b>Footnote 951:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag951">(return)</a>
+<p>After writing the above, I was permitted by the late Dr.
+HARRISON, of Dublin, to see some accurate drawings of the brain of
+an elephant, which he had the opportunity of dissecting in 1847;
+and on looking to that of the base, I have found a remarkable
+verification of the information which I collected in Ceylon.</p>
+<p>The small figure A is the ganglion of the fifth nerve, showing
+the small motor and large sensitive portion.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/120.png"><img width="100%" src="images/120.png" alt=
+"Brain of an elephant" /></a></div>
+<p>The <i>olfactory lobes</i>, from which the olfactory nerves
+proceed, are large, whilst the <i>optic and muscular nerves of the
+orbit are singularly small</i> for so vast an animal; and one is
+immediately struck by the prodigious size of the fifth nerve, which
+supplies the proboscis with its exquisite sensibility, as well as
+by the great size of the motor portion of the seventh, which
+supplies the same organ with its power of movement and action.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote961" name=
+"footnote961"></a><b>Footnote 961:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag961">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries, &amp;c.</i>, "The Elephant," p. 27.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote962" name=
+"footnote962"></a><b>Footnote 962:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag962">(return)</a>
+<p>Major ROGERS. An account of this singular adventure will be
+found in the <i>Ceylon Miscellany</i> for 1842, vol. i. p. 221.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote963" name=
+"footnote963"></a><b>Footnote 963:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag963">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries, &amp;c.</i>, "The Elephant," ch. iii. p. 68.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote971" name=
+"footnote971"></a><b>Footnote 971:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag971">(return)</a>
+<p>ARISTOTLE, <i>De Anim</i>., lib. iv. c. 9. "[Greek: homoion
+salpingi]." See also PLINY, lib. x. ch. cxiii. A manuscript in the
+British Museum, containing the romance of "<i>Alexander</i>" which
+is probably of the fifteenth century, is interspersed with drawings
+illustrative of the strange animals of the East. Amongst them are
+two elephants, whose trunks are literally in form of <i>trumpets
+with expanded mouths</i>. See WRIGHT'S <i>Arch&aelig;ological
+Album</i>, p. 176.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote981" name=
+"footnote981"></a><b>Footnote 981:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag981">(return)</a>
+<p>PALLEGOIX, in his <i>Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam</i>,
+adverts to a sound produced by the elephant when weary: "quand il
+est fatigu&eacute;, <i>il frappe la terre avec sa</i> trompe, et en
+tire un son semblable &agrave; celui du cor."&mdash;Tom. i. p.
+151.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote982" name=
+"footnote982"></a><b>Footnote 982:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag982">(return)</a>
+<p>For an explanation of the term "rogue" as applied to an
+elephant, see p. 115.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote983" name=
+"footnote983"></a><b>Footnote 983:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag983">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Natural History of Animals</i>. By Sir JOHN HILL, M.D.
+London, 1748-52, p. 565. A probable source of these false estimates
+is mentioned by a writer in the <i>Indian Sporting Review</i> for
+Oct. 1857. "Elephants were measured formerly, and even now, by
+natives, as to their height, by throwing a rope over them, the ends
+brought to the ground on each side, and half the length taken as
+the true height. Hence the origin of elephants fifteen and sixteen
+feet high. A rod held at right angles to the measuring rod, and
+parallel to the ground, will rarely give more than ten feet, the
+majority being under nine."&mdash;P. 159.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote991" name=
+"footnote991"></a><b>Footnote 991:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag991">(return)</a>
+<p>SHAW'S <i>Zoology</i>. Lond. 1806. vol. i. p. 216; ARMANDI,
+<i>Hist. Milit. des El&eacute;phans</i>, liv. i. ch. i. p. 2.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote992" name=
+"footnote992"></a><b>Footnote 992:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag992">(return)</a>
+<p>WOLF'S <i>Life and Adventures, &amp;c</i>., p. 164. Wolf was a
+native of Mecklenburg, who arrived in Ceylon about 1750, as
+chaplain in one of the Dutch East Indiamen, and having been taken
+into the government employment, he served for twenty years at
+Jaffna, first as Secretary to the Governor, and afterwards in an
+office the duties of which he describes to be the examination and
+signature of the "writings which served to commence a suit in any
+of the Courts of justice." His book embodies a truthful and
+generally accurate account of the northern portion of the island,
+with which alone he was conversant, and his narrative gives a
+curious insight into the policy of the Dutch Government, and of the
+condition of the natives under their dominion.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1001" name=
+"footnote1001"></a><b>Footnote 1001:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1001">(return)</a>
+<p>DENHAM'S <i>Travels, &amp;c</i>., 4to p. 220. The fossil remains
+of the Indian elephant have been discovered at Jabalpur, showing a
+height of fifteen feet.&mdash;<i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng</i>. vi.
+Professor ANSTED in his <i>Ancient World</i>, p. 197, says he was
+informed by Dr. Falconer "that out of eleven hundred elephants from
+which the tallest were selected and measured with care, on one
+occasion in India, there was not one whose height equalled eleven
+feet."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1002" name=
+"footnote1002"></a><b>Footnote 1002:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1002">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Vulgar Errors</i>, book iii. chap. 1.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1011" name=
+"footnote1011"></a><b>Footnote 1011:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1011">(return)</a>
+<p>Machlis (said to be derived from <i>a</i>, priv., and [Greek:
+klin&ocirc;], <i>cubo</i>, quod non cubat). "Moreover in the island
+of Scandinavia there is a beast called <i>Machlis</i>, that hath
+neither ioynt in the hough, nor pasternes in his hind legs, and
+therefore he never lieth down, but sleepeth leaning to a tree,
+wherefore the hunters that lie in wait for these beasts cut downe
+the trees while they are asleepe, and so take them; otherwise they
+should never be taken, they are so swift of foot that it is
+wonderful."&mdash;PLINY, <i>Natur. Hist.</i> Transl. Philemon
+Holland, book viii. ch. xv. p. 200.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1012" name=
+"footnote1012"></a><b>Footnote 1012:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1012">(return)</a>
+<p>"Sunt item qu&aelig; appellantur <i>Alces</i>. Harum est
+consimilis capreis figura, et varietas pellium; sed magnitudine
+paulo antecedunt, mutil&aelig;que sunt cornibus, <i>et crura sine
+nodis articulisque habent</i>; neque quietis causa procumbunt;
+neque, si quo afflict&aelig; casu considerunt, erigere sese aut
+sublevare possunt. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus; ad eas sese
+applicant, atque ita, paulum modo reclinat&aelig;, quietem capiunt,
+quarum ex vestigiis cum est animadversum a venatoribus, quo se
+recipere consueverint, omnes eo loco, aut a radicibus subruunt aut
+accidunt arbores tantum, ut summa species earum stantium
+relinquatur. Huc cum se consuetudine reclinaverint, infirmas
+arbores pondere affligunt, atque una ips&aelig;
+concidunt."&mdash;C&AElig;SAR, <i>De Bello Gall</i>. lib. vi. ch.
+xxvii.</p>
+<p>The same fiction was extended by the early Arabian travellers to
+the rhinoceros, and in the MS. of the voyages of the "<i>Two
+Mahometans</i>" it is stated that the rhinoceros of Sumatra "n'a
+point d'articulation au genou ni &agrave; la
+main."&mdash;<i>Relations des Voyages, &amp;c.</i>, Paris, 1845,
+vol. i. p. 29.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1021" name=
+"footnote1021"></a><b>Footnote 1021:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1021">(return)</a>
+<p>When an animal moves progressively an hypothenuse is produced,
+which is equal in power to the magnitude that is quiescent, and to
+that which is intermediate. But since the members are equal, it is
+necessary that the member which is quiescent should be inflected
+either in the knee or in the incurvation, <i>if the animal that
+walks is without knees</i>. It is possible, however, for the leg to
+be moved, when not inflected, in the same manner as infants creep;
+and there is an ancient report of this kind about elephants, which
+is not true, for such animals as these, <i>are moved in consequence
+of an inflection taking place either in their shoulders or
+hips</i>."&mdash;ARISTOTLE, <i>De Ingressu Anim.</i>, ch. ix.
+Taylor's Transl.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1022" name=
+"footnote1022"></a><b>Footnote 1022:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1022">(return)</a>
+<p>ARISTOTLE, <i>De Animal</i>., lib. ii. ch. i. It is curious that
+Taylor, in his translation of this passage, was so strongly imbued
+with the "grey-headed errour," that in order to elucidate the
+somewhat obscure meaning of Aristotle, he has actually interpolated
+the text with the exploded fallacy of Ctesias, and after the word
+reclining to sleep, has inserted the words "<i>leaning against some
+wall or tree</i>," which are not to be found in the original.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1023" name=
+"footnote1023"></a><b>Footnote 1023:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1023">(return)</a>
+<p>[Greek: "Zpson de anarthron sunienai kai rhuthmou kai melous,
+kai phylattein sch&ecirc;ma physe&ocirc;s d&ocirc;ra tauta hama kai
+idiot&ecirc;s kath' ekaston
+ekpl&ecirc;ktik&ecirc;]."&mdash;&AElig;LIAN, <i>De Nat. Anim</i>.,
+lib. ii. cap. xi.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1031" name=
+"footnote1031"></a><b>Footnote 1031:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1031">(return)</a>
+<p>Eginhard, <i>Vita Karoli</i>, c. xvi. and <i>Annales
+Francorum</i>, A.D. 810.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1032" name=
+"footnote1032"></a><b>Footnote 1032:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1032">(return)</a>
+<p>"Sed idem Julius, unum de elephantibus mentions, falso loquitur;
+dicens elephantem nunquam jacere; dum ille sicut bos certissime
+jacet, ut populi communiter regni Francorum elephantem, in tempore
+Imperatoris Karoli viderunt. Sed, forsitan, ideo hoc de elephante
+ficte &aelig;stimando scriptum est, eo quod genua et suffragines
+sui nisi quando jacet, non palam apparent."&mdash;DICUILUS, <i>De
+Mensura Orbis Terr&aelig;</i>, c. vii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1041" name=
+"footnote1041"></a><b>Footnote 1041:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1041">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Cotton MSS</i>. NERO. D. 1. fol. 168, b.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1042" name=
+"footnote1042"></a><b>Footnote 1042:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1042">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Arundel MSS</i>. No. 292, fol. 4, &amp;c. It has been printed
+in the <i>Reliqui&aelig; Antiqu&aelig;</i>, vol. i. p. 208, by Mr.
+WRIGHT, to whom I am indebted for the following rendering of the
+passage referred to:&mdash;</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i4">in water ge sal stonden</p>
+<p class="i4">in water to mid side</p>
+<p class="i4">that wanne hire harde tide</p>
+<p class="i4">that ge ne falle nither nogt</p>
+<p class="i4">that it most in hire thogt</p>
+<p class="i4">for he ne haven no lith</p>
+<p class="i4">that he mugen risen with, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"They will stand in the water,</p>
+<p class="i2">in water up to the middle of the side,</p>
+<p class="i2">that when it comes to them hard,</p>
+<p class="i2">they may not fall down:</p>
+<p class="i2">that is most in their thought,</p>
+<p class="i2">for they have no joint</p>
+<p class="i2">to enable them to rise again.</p>
+<p class="i2">How he resteth him this animal,</p>
+<p class="i2">when he walketh abroad,</p>
+<p class="i2">hearken how it is here told.</p>
+<p class="i2">For he is all unwieldy,</p>
+<p class="i2">forsooth he seeks out a tree,</p>
+<p class="i2">that it strong and stedfast,</p>
+<p class="i2">and leans confidently against it,</p>
+<p class="i2">when he is weary of walking.</p>
+<p class="i2">The hunter has observed this,</p>
+<p class="i2">who seeks to ensnare him,</p>
+<p class="i2">where his usual dwelling is,</p>
+<p class="i2">to do his will;</p>
+<p class="i2">saws this tree and props it</p>
+<p class="i2">in the manner that he best may,</p>
+<p class="i2">covers it well that he (the elephant) may not be on
+his guard.</p>
+<p class="i2">Then he makes thereby a seat,</p>
+<p class="i2">himself sits alone and watches</p>
+<p class="i2">whether his trap takes effect.</p>
+<p class="i2">Then cometh this unwieldy elephant,</p>
+<p class="i2">and leans him on his side,</p>
+<p class="i2">rests against the tree in the shadow,</p>
+<p class="i2">and so both fall together.</p>
+<p class="i2">If nobody be by when he falls,</p>
+<p class="i2">he roars ruefully and calls for help,</p>
+<p class="i2">roars ruefully in his manner,</p>
+<p class="i2">hopes he shall through help rise.</p>
+<p class="i2">Then cometh there one (elephant) in haste,</p>
+<p class="i2">hopes he shall cause him to stand up;</p>
+<p class="i2">labours and tries all his might,</p>
+<p class="i2">but he cannot succeed a bit.</p>
+<p class="i2">He knows then no other remedy,</p>
+<p class="i2">but roars with his brother,</p>
+<p class="i2">many and large (elephants) come there in search,</p>
+<p class="i2">thinking to make him get up,</p>
+<p class="i2">but for the help of them all</p>
+<p class="i2">he may not get up.</p>
+<p class="i2">Then they all roar one roar,</p>
+<p class="i2">like the blast of a horn or the sound of bell,</p>
+<p class="i2">for their great roaring</p>
+<p class="i2">a young one cometh running,</p>
+<p class="i2">stoops immediately to him,</p>
+<p class="i2">puts his snout under him,</p>
+<p class="i2">and asks the help of them all;</p>
+<p class="i2">this elephant they raise on his legs:</p>
+<p class="i2">and thus fails this hunter's trick,</p>
+<p class="i2">in the manner that I have told you."</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1043" name=
+"footnote1043"></a><b>Footnote 1043:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1043">(return)</a>
+<p>One of the most venerable authorities by whom the fallacy was
+transmitted to modern times was PHILIP de THAUN, who wrote, about
+the year 1121, A.D., his <i>Livre des Cr&eacute;atures</i>,
+dedicated to Adelaide of Louvaine, Queen of Henry I. of England. In
+the copy of it printed by the Historical Society of Science in
+1841, and edited by Mr. WRIGHT, the following passage
+occurs:&mdash;</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"Et Ysidre nus dit ki le elefant descrit,</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<hr /></div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">Es jambes par nature nen ad que une jointure,</p>
+<p class="i2">Il ne pot pas gesir quant il se volt dormir,</p>
+<p class="i2">Ke si cuchet estait par sei nen levera&icirc;t;</p>
+<p class="i2">Pur ceo li stot apuier, el lui del cucher,</p>
+<p class="i2">U &agrave; arbre u &agrave; mur, idunc dort
+aseur.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">E le gent de la terre, ki li volent conquere,</p>
+<p class="i2">Li mur enfunderunt, u le arbre enc&iacute;serunt;</p>
+<p class="i2">Quant li elefant vendrat, ki s'i apuierat,</p>
+<p class="i2">La arbre u le mur carrat, e il tribucherat;</p>
+<p class="i2">Issi faiterement le parnent cele gent."</p>
+<p class="i10">P. 100.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1051" name=
+"footnote1051"></a><b>Footnote 1051:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1051">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, act ii. sc. 3. A.D. 1609.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1052" name=
+"footnote1052"></a><b>Footnote 1052:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1052">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Progress of the Soul</i>, A.D. 1633.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1053" name=
+"footnote1053"></a><b>Footnote 1053:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1053">(return)</a>
+<p>Sir T. BROWNE, <i>Vulgar Errors</i>, A.D. 1646.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1054" name=
+"footnote1054"></a><b>Footnote 1054:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1054">(return)</a>
+<p>RANDAL HOME'S <i>Academy of Armory</i>, A.D. 1671. HOME only
+perpetuated the error of GUILLAM, who wrote his <i>Display of
+Heraldry</i> in A.D. 1610; wherein he explains that the elephant is
+"so proud of his strength that he never bows himself to any
+(<i>neither indeed can he</i>), and when he is once down he cannot
+rise up again."&mdash;Sec. III. ch. xii. p. 147.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1061" name=
+"footnote1061"></a><b>Footnote 1061:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1061">(return)</a>
+<p>THOMSON'S <i>Seasons</i>, A.D. 1728.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1071" name=
+"footnote1071"></a><b>Footnote 1071:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1071">(return)</a>
+<p>So little is the elephant inclined to lie down in captivity, and
+even after hard labour, that the keepers are generally disposed to
+suspect illness when he betakes himself to this posture. PHILE, in
+his poem <i>De Animalium Proprietate</i>, attributes the propensity
+of the elephant to sleep on his legs, to the difficulty he
+experiences in rising to his feet:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>[Greek: 'Orthostad&ecirc;n de kai katheudei panychos</p>
+<p>'HOt ouk anast&ecirc;sai men eucher&ocirc;s pelei.]</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>But this is a misapprehension.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1081" name=
+"footnote1081"></a><b>Footnote 1081:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1081">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries, &amp;c</i>. "The elephant," ch. i.</p>
+<p>Sir CHARLES BELL, in his essay on <i>The Hand and its
+Mechanism</i>, which forms one of the "Bridgewater Treatises," has
+exhibited the reasons deducible from organisation, which show the
+incapacity of the elephant to <i>spring</i> or <i>leap</i> like the
+horse and other animals whose structure is designed to facilitate
+agility and speed. In them the various bones of the shoulder and
+fore limbs, especially the clavicle and humerus, are set at such an
+angle, that the shock in descending is modified, and the joints and
+sockets protected from the injury occasioned by concussion. But in
+the elephant, where the weight of the body is immense, the bones of
+the leg, in order to present solidify and strength to sustain it,
+are built in one firm and perpendicular column; instead of being
+placed somewhat obliquely at their points of contact. Thus whilst
+the force of the weight in descending is broken and distributed by
+this arrangement in the case of the horse; it would be so
+concentrated in the elephant as to endanger every joint from the
+toe to the shoulder.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1091" name=
+"footnote1091"></a><b>Footnote 1091:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1091">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries, &amp;c</i>., "The Elephant," ch. ii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1101" name=
+"footnote1101"></a><b>Footnote 1101:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1101">(return)</a>
+<p>Dr. HOOKER, in describing the ascent of the Himalayas, says, the
+natives in making their paths despise all zigzags, and run in
+straight lines up the steepest hill faces; whilst "the elephant's
+path is an excellent specimen of engineering&mdash;the opposite of
+the native track,&mdash;for it winds
+judiciously."&mdash;<i>Himalayan Journal</i>, vol. i. ch. iv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1102" name=
+"footnote1102"></a><b>Footnote 1102:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1102">(return)</a>
+<p>Since the above passage was written, I have seen in the
+<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, vol. xiii, pt. ii.
+p. 916, a paper upon this subject, illustrated by the subjoined
+diagram.</p>
+<p>The writer says, "an elephant descending a bank of too acute an
+angle to admit of his walking down it direct, (which, were he to
+attempt, his huge tody, soon disarranging the centre of gravity,
+would certainly topple over,) proceeds thus. His first manoeuvre is
+to kneel down close to the edge of the declivity, placing his chest
+to the ground: one fore-leg is then cautiously passed a short way
+down the slope; and if there is no natural protection to afford a
+firm footing, he speedily forms one by stamping into the soil if
+moist, or kicking out a footing if dry. This point gained, the
+other fore-leg is brought down in the same way; and performs the
+same work, a little in advance of the first; which is thus at
+liberty to move lower still. Then, first one and then the second of
+the hind legs is carefully drawn over the side, and the hind-feet
+in turn occupy the resting-places previously used and left by the
+fore ones. The course, however, in such precipitous ground is not
+straight from top to bottom, but slopes along the face of the bank,
+descending till the animal gains the level below. This an elephant
+has done, at an angle of 45 degrees, carrying a <i>howdah</i>, its
+occupant, his attendant, and sporting apparatus; and in a much less
+time than it takes to describe the operation." I have observed that
+an elephant in descending a declivity uses his knees, on the side
+next the bank; and his feet on the lower side only.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/136.png"><img width="100%" src="images/136.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1131" name=
+"footnote1131"></a><b>Footnote 1131:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1131">(return)</a>
+<p>A correspondent of Buffon, M. MARCELLUS BLES, Seigneur de
+Moergestal, who resided eleven years in Ceylon in the time of the
+Dutch, says in one of his communications, that in herds of forty or
+fifty, enclosed in a single corral, there were frequently very
+young calves; and that "on ne pouvoit pas reconna&icirc;tre quelles
+&eacute;toient les m&egrave;res de chacun de ces petits
+&eacute;l&eacute;phans, car tous ces jeunes animaux paroissent
+faire manse commune; ils t&ecirc;tent indistinctement celles des
+femelles de toute la troupe qui ont du lait, soit qu'elles aient
+elles-m&ecirc;mes un petit en propre, soit qu'elles n'en aient
+point."&mdash;BUFFON, <i>Suppl. &agrave; l'Hist. des Anim.</i>,
+vol. vi. p. 25.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1132" name=
+"footnote1132"></a><b>Footnote 1132:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1132">(return)</a>
+<p>WHITE, in his <i>Natural History of Selborne</i>, philosophising
+on the fact which had fallen under his own notice of this
+indiscriminate suckling of the young of one animal by the parent of
+another, is disposed to ascribe it to a selfish feeling; the
+pleasure and relief of having its distended teats drawn by this
+intervention. He notices the circumstance of a leveret having been
+thus nursed by a cat, whose kittens had been recently drowned: and
+observes, that "this strange affection was probably occasioned by
+that desiderium, those tender maternal feelings, which the loss of
+her kittens had awakened in her breast; and by the complacency and
+ease she derived to herself from procuring her teats to be drawn,
+which were too much distended with milk; till from habit she became
+as much delighted with this foundling as if it had been her real
+offspring. This incident is no bad solution of that strange
+circumstance which grave historians, as well as the poets, assert
+of exposed children being sometimes nurtured by female wild beasts
+that probably had lost their young. For it is not one whit more
+marvellous that Romulus and Remus in their infant state should be
+nursed by a she wolf than that a poor little suckling leveret
+should be fostered and cherished by a bloody
+Grimalkin."&mdash;WHITE'S <i>Selborne</i>, lett. xx.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1151" name=
+"footnote1151"></a><b>Footnote 1151:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1151">(return)</a>
+<p>The term "rogue" is scarcely sufficiently accounted for by
+supposing it to be the English equivalent for the Singhalese word
+<i>Hora</i>. In that very curious book, the <i>Life and Adventures
+of</i> JOHN CHRISTOPHER WOLF, <i>late principal Secretary at
+Jaffnapatam in Ceylon</i>, the author says, when a male elephant in
+a quarrel about the females "is beat out of the field and obliged
+to go without a consort, he becomes furious and mad, killing every
+living creature, be it man or beast: and in this state is called
+<i>ronkedor</i>, an object of greater terror to a traveller than a
+hundred wild ones."&mdash;P. 142. In another passage, p. 164, he is
+called <i>runkedor</i>, and I have seen it spelt elsewhere
+<i>ronquedue</i>, WOLF does not give "<i>ronkedor</i>" as a term
+peculiar to that section of the island; but both there and
+elsewhere, it is obsolete at the present day, unless it be open to
+conjecture that the modern term "rogue" is a modification of
+<i>ronquedue.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1152" name=
+"footnote1152"></a><b>Footnote 1152:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1152">(return)</a>
+<p>BUCHANAN, in his <i>Survey of Bhagulpore</i>, p. 503, says that
+solitary males of the wild buffalo, "when driven from the herd by
+stronger competitors for female society, are reckoned very
+dangerous to meet with; for they are apt to wreak their vengeance
+on whatever they meet, and are said to kill annually three or four
+people." LIVINGSTONE relates the same of the solitary hippopotamus
+which becomes soured in temper, and wantonly attacks the passing
+canoes.&mdash;<i>Travels in South Africa</i>, p. 231.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1211" name=
+"footnote1211"></a><b>Footnote 1211:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1211">(return)</a>
+<p>Letter from Major SKINNER.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1212" name=
+"footnote1212"></a><b>Footnote 1212:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1212">(return)</a>
+<p>This peculiarity was known in the middle ages, and PHILE,
+writing in the fourteenth century, says, that such is his
+<i>preference</i>, for muddy water that the elephant <i>stirs
+it</i> before he drinks.</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>[Greek:</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"Ydor de pineisynchythen prin anpinoi</p>
+<p class="i2">To gar dieides akribos diaptuei."]</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i8">&mdash;PHILE <i>de Eleph</i>., i. 144.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1213" name=
+"footnote1213"></a><b>Footnote 1213:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1213">(return)</a>
+<p>A tame elephant, when taken by his keepers to be bathed, and to
+have his skin washed and rubbed, lies down on his side, pressing
+his head to the bottom under water, with only the top of his trunk
+protruded, to breathe.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1221" name=
+"footnote1221"></a><b>Footnote 1221:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1221">(return)</a>
+<p>BRODERIP'S <i>Zoological Recreations</i>, p. 259.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1222" name=
+"footnote1222"></a><b>Footnote 1222:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1222">(return)</a>
+<p>For observing the osteology of the elephant, materials are of
+course abundant in the indestructible remains of the animal: but
+the study of the intestines, and the dissection of the softer parts
+by comparative anatomists in Europe, have been up to the present
+time beset by difficulties. These arise not alone from the rarity
+of subjects, but even in cases where elephants have died in these
+countries, decomposition interposes, and before the thorough
+examination of so vast a body can be satisfactorily completed, the
+great mass falls into putrefaction.</p>
+<p>The principal English authorities are <i>An Anatomical Account
+of the Elephant accidentally burnt in Dublin</i>, by A. MOLYNEUX,
+A.D. 1696; which is probably a reprint of a letter on the same
+subject in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, addressed by A.
+Moulin, to Sir William Petty, Lond. 1682. There are also some
+papers communicated to Sir Hans Sloane, and afterwards published in
+the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> of the year 1710, by Dr. P.
+BLAIR, who had an opportunity of dissecting an elephant which died
+at Dundee in 1708. The latter writer observes that,
+"notwithstanding the vast interest attaching to the elephant in all
+ages, yet has its body been hitherto very little subjected to
+anatomical, inquiries;" and he laments that the rapid decomposition
+of the carcase, and other causes, had interposed obstacles to the
+scrutiny of the subject he was so fortunate as to find access
+to.</p>
+<p>In 1723 Dr. WM. STUCKLEY published <i>Some Anatomical
+Observations made upon the Dissection of an Elephant</i>; but each
+of the above essays is necessarily unsatisfactory, and little has
+since been done to supply their defects. One of the latest and most
+valuable contributions to the subjects, is a paper read before the
+Royal Irish Academy, on the 18th of Feb., 1847, by Professor
+HARRISON, who had the opportunity of dissecting an Indian elephant
+which died of acute fever; but the examination, so far as he has
+made it public, extends only to the cranium, the brain, and the
+proboscis, the larynx, trachea, and oesophagus. An essential
+service would be rendered to science if some sportsman in Ceylon,
+or some of the officers connected with the elephant establishment
+there, would take the trouble to forward the carcase of a young one
+to England in a state fit for dissection.</p>
+<p><i>Postscriptum.</i>&mdash;I am happy to say that a young
+elephant, carefully preserved in spirits, has recently been
+obtained in Ceylon, and forwarded to Prof. Owen, of the British
+Museum, by the joint exertions of M. DIARD and Major SKINNER. An
+opportunity has thus been afforded from which science will reap
+advantage, of devoting a patient attention to the internal
+structure of this interesting animal.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1231" name=
+"footnote1231"></a><b>Footnote 1231:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1231">(return)</a>
+<p>The passage as quoted by BUFFON from the <i>M&eacute;moires</i>
+is as follows:</p>
+<p>&mdash;"L'estomac avoit peu de diam&egrave;tre; il en avoit
+moins que le colon, car son diam&egrave;tre n'&eacute;toit que de
+quatorze pouces dans la partie la plus large; il avoit trois pieds
+et demi de longueur: l'orifice sup&eacute;rieur &eacute;toit
+&agrave;-peu-pr&egrave;s aussi &eacute;loign&eacute; du pylore que
+du fond du grand cul-de-sac qui se terminoit en une pointe
+compos&eacute;e de tuniques beaucoup plus &eacute;paisses que
+celles du reste de l'estomac; il y avoit au fond du grand
+cul-de-sac plusieurs feuillets &eacute;pais d'une ligne, larges
+d'un pouce et demi, et dispos&eacute;s irr&eacute;gulierement; le
+reste de parois int&eacute;rieures &eacute;toit perc&eacute; de
+plusieurs petits trous et par de plus grands qui
+correspondo&icirc;ent &agrave; des grains
+glanduleux."&mdash;BUFFON, <i>Hist. Nat</i>., vol. xi. p. 109.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1241" name=
+"footnote1241"></a><b>Footnote 1241:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1241">(return)</a>
+<p>"L'extr&eacute;mit&eacute; voisine du cardia se termine par une
+poche tr&egrave;s-consid&eacute;rable et doubl&eacute;e &agrave;
+l'int&eacute;rieure du quatorze valvules orbiculaires que semblent
+en faire une esp&egrave;ce de division
+particuli&egrave;re."&mdash;CAMPER, <i>Description Anatomique d'un
+El&eacute;phant M&acirc;le</i>, p. 37, tabl. IX.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1242" name=
+"footnote1242"></a><b>Footnote 1242:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1242">(return)</a>
+<p>"The elephant has another peculiarity in the internal structure
+of the stomach. It is longer and narrower than that of most
+animals. The cuticular membrane of the oesophagus terminates at the
+orifice of the stomach. At the cardiac end, which is very narrow
+and pointed at the extremity, the lining is thick and glandular,
+and is thrown into transverse folds, of which five are broad and
+nine narrow. That nearest the orifice of the &aelig;sophagus is the
+broadest, and appears to act occasionally as a valve, so that the
+part beyond may be considered as an appendage similar to that of
+the peccary and the hog. The membrane of the cardiac portion is
+uniformly smooth; that of the pyloric is thicker and more
+vascular."&mdash;<i>Lectures on Comparative Anatomy</i>, by Sir
+EVERARD HOME, Bart. 4to. Lond. vol. i. p. 155. The figure of the
+elephant's stomach is given, in his <i>Lectures</i>, vol. ii. plate
+xviii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1251" name=
+"footnote1251"></a><b>Footnote 1251:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1251">(return)</a>
+<p>A similar arrangement, with some modifications, has more
+recently been found in the llama of the Andes, which, like the
+camel, is used as a beast of burden in the Cordilleras of Chili and
+Peru; but both these and the camel are <i>ruminants</i>, whilst the
+elephants belongs to the Pachydermata.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1271" name=
+"footnote1271"></a><b>Footnote 1271:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1271">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Proceed. Roy. Irish Acad</i>., vol. iv. p. 133.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1272" name=
+"footnote1272"></a><b>Footnote 1272:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1272">(return)</a>
+<p>In the account of an elephant corral, chap. vi.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1281" name=
+"footnote1281"></a><b>Footnote 1281:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1281">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ayeen Akbery</i>, transl. by GLADWIN, vol i. pt. i, p.
+147.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1282" name=
+"footnote1282"></a><b>Footnote 1282:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1282">(return)</a>
+<p>One of the Indian names for the elephant is <i>duipa</i>, which
+signifies "to drink twice" (AMANDI, p. 513). Can this have
+reference to the peculiarity of the stomach for retaining a supply
+of water? Or has it merely reference to the habit of the animal to
+fill his trunk before transferring the water to his mouth.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1291" name=
+"footnote1291"></a><b>Footnote 1291:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1291">(return)</a>
+<p>The buffalo and the humped cattle of India, which are used for
+draught and burden, have, I believe, a development of the
+organisation of the reticulum which enables the ruminants
+generally, to endure thirst, and abstain from water, somewhat more
+conspicuous than in the rest of their congeners; but nothing that
+approaches in singularity of character to the distinct cavities in
+the stomach exhibited by the three animals above alluded to.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1321" name=
+"footnote1321"></a><b>Footnote 1321:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1321">(return)</a>
+<p>"One of the strongest instincts which the elephant possesses, is
+this which impels him to experiment upon the solidity of every
+surface which he is required to cross."&mdash;<i>Menageries,
+&amp;c.</i> "The Elephant," vol. i. pp. 17, 19, 66.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1322" name=
+"footnote1322"></a><b>Footnote 1322:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1322">(return)</a>
+<p>WOLF'S <i>Life and Adventures</i>, p. 151. See p. 115,
+<i>note</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1323" name=
+"footnote1323"></a><b>Footnote 1323:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1323">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Private Letter</i> from Dr. DAVY, author of <i>An Account of
+the Interior of Ceylon</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1331" name=
+"footnote1331"></a><b>Footnote 1331:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1331">(return)</a>
+<p>The <i>Colombo Observer</i> for March 1858, contains an offer of
+a reward of twenty-five guineas for the destruction of an elephant
+which infested the Rajawall&eacute; coffee plantation, in the
+vicinity of Kandy. Its object seemed to be less the search for
+food, than the satisfying of its curiosity and the gratification of
+its passion for mischief. Mr. TYTLER, the proprietor, states that
+it frequented the jungle near the estate, whence it was its custom
+to sally forth at night for the pleasure of pulling down buildings
+and trees, "and it seemed to have taken a spite at the pipes of the
+water-works, the pillars of which it several times broke
+down&mdash;its latest fancy being to wrench off the taps." This
+elephant has since been shot.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1332" name=
+"footnote1332"></a><b>Footnote 1332:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1332">(return)</a>
+<p>CUVIER, <i>R&egrave;gne Animal</i>. "Les Mammiferes," p.
+280.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1341" name=
+"footnote1341"></a><b>Footnote 1341:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1341">(return)</a>
+<p>The elephant is believed by the Singhalese to express his
+uneasiness by his voice, on the approach of <i>rain</i>; and the
+Tamils have a proverb.&mdash;"<i>Listen to the elephant, rain is
+coming.</i>"</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1361" name=
+"footnote1361"></a><b>Footnote 1361:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1361">(return)</a>
+<p>Yokes borne on the shoulder, with a package at each end.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1362" name=
+"footnote1362"></a><b>Footnote 1362:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1362">(return)</a>
+<p>The tutelary spirit of the sacred mountain, Adam's Peak.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1371" name=
+"footnote1371"></a><b>Footnote 1371:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1371">(return)</a>
+<p>The Singhalese hold the belief, that twigs taken from one bush
+and placed on another growing close to a pathway, ensure protection
+to travellers from the attacks of wild animals, and especially of
+elephants. Can it be that the latter avoid the path, on discovering
+this evidence of the proximity of recent passengers?</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1372" name=
+"footnote1372"></a><b>Footnote 1372:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1372">(return)</a>
+<p>A rogue elephant.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1381" name=
+"footnote1381"></a><b>Footnote 1381:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1381">(return)</a>
+<p>Woman's robe.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1382" name=
+"footnote1382"></a><b>Footnote 1382:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1382">(return)</a>
+<p>The figured cloth worn by men.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>[pg
+142]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap4" id="chap4"></a>CHAP. IV.</h2>
+<h3>THE ELEPHANT.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>Elephant Shooting.</i></h4>
+<p>As the shooting of an elephant, whatever endurance and
+adroitness the sport may display in other respects, requires the
+smallest possible skill as a marksman, the numbers which are
+annually slain in this way may be regarded as evidence of the
+multitudes abounding in those parts of Ceylon to which they resort.
+One officer, Major ROGERS, killed upwards of 1400; another, Captain
+GALLWEY, has the credit of slaying more than half that number;
+Major SKINNER, the Commissioner of Roads, almost as many; and less
+persevering aspirants follow at humbler distances.<a id=
+"footnotetag1421" name="footnotetag1421"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1421"><sup>1421</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>[pg
+143]</span>
+<p>But notwithstanding this prodigious destruction, a reward of a
+few shillings per head offered by the Government for taking
+elephants was claimed for 3500 destroyed in part of the northern
+province alone, in less than three years prior to 1848: and between
+1851 and 1856, a similar reward was paid for 2000 in the southern
+province, between Galle and Hambangtotte.</p>
+<p>Although there is little opportunity for the display of
+marksmanship in an elephant battue, there is one feature in the
+sport, as conducted in Ceylon, which contrasts favourably with the
+slaughterhouse details chronicled with revolting minuteness in some
+recent accounts of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id=
+"page144"></a>[pg 144]</span> elephant shooting in South Africa.
+The practice in Ceylon is to aim invariably at the head, and the
+sportsman finds his safety to consist in boldly facing the animal,
+advancing to within fifteen paces, and lodging a bullet, either in
+the temple or in the hollow over the eye, or in a well-known spot
+immediately above the trunk, where the weaker structure of the
+skull affords an easy access to the brain.<a id="footnotetag1441"
+name="footnotetag1441"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1441"><sup>1441</sup></a> The region of the ear is also a
+fatal spot, and often resorted to,&mdash;the places I have
+mentioned in the front of the head being only accessible when the
+animal is "charging." Professor HARRISON, in his communication to
+the Royal Irish Academy on the Anatomy of the Elephant, has
+rendered an intelligible explanation of this in the following
+passage descriptive of the cranium:&mdash;"it exhibits two
+remarkable facts: <i>first</i>, the small space occupied by the
+brain; and, <i>secondly</i>, the beautiful and curious structure of
+the bones of the head. The two tables of all these bones, except
+the occipital, are separated by rows of large cells, some from four
+to five inches in length, others only small, irregular, and
+honey-comb-like:&mdash;these all communicate with each other, and,
+through the frontal sinuses, with the cavity of the nose, and also
+with the tympanum or drum of each ear; consequently, as in some
+birds, these cells are filled with air, and thus while the skull
+attains a great size in order to afford an extensive surface
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>[pg
+145]</span> for the attachment of muscles, and a mechanical support
+for the tusks, it is at the same time very light and buoyant in
+proportion to its bulk; a property the more valuable as the animal
+is fond of water and bathes in deep rivers."</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/170.png"><img width="100%" src="images/170.png" alt=
+"" /></a> SECTION OF ELEPHANT'S HEAD.</div>
+<p>Generally speaking, a single ball, planted in the forehead, ends
+the existence of the noble creature instantaneously: and expert
+sportsmen have been known to kill right and left, one with each
+barrel; but occasionally an elephant will not fall before several
+shots have been lodged in his head.<a id="footnotetag1451" name=
+"footnotetag1451"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1451"><sup>1451</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>[pg
+146]</span>
+<p>Contrasted with this, one reads with a shudder the sickening
+details of the African huntsman approaching <i>behind</i> the
+retiring animal, and of the torture inflicted by the shower of
+bullets which tear up its flesh and lacerate its flank and
+shoulders.<a id="footnotetag1461" name=
+"footnotetag1461"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1461"><sup>1461</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>[pg
+147]</span>
+<p>The shooting of elephants in Ceylon has been described with
+tiresome iteration in the successive journals of sporting
+gentlemen, but one who turns to their pages for traits of the
+animal and his instincts is disappointed to find little beyond
+graphic sketches of the daring and exploits of his pursuers, most
+of whom, having had no further opportunity of observation than is
+derived from a casual encounter with the outraged animal, have
+apparently tried to exalt their own prowess, by misrepresenting the
+ordinary character of the elephant, describing him as "savage,
+wary, and revengeful."<a id="footnotetag1471" name=
+"footnotetag1471"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1471"><sup>1471</sup></a></p>
+<p>These epithets may undoubtedly apply to the outcasts from the
+herd, the "Rogues" or <i>hora allia</i>, but so small is the
+proportion of these that there is not probably one <i>rogue</i> to
+be found for every five hundred of those in herds; and it is a
+manifest error, arising from imperfect information, to extend this
+censure to them generally, or to suppose the elephant to be an
+animal "thirsting for blood, lying in wait in the jungle to rush on
+the unwary passer-by, and knowing no greater pleasure than the act
+of crushing his victim to a shapeless mass beneath his feet."<a id=
+"footnotetag1472" name="footnotetag1472"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1472"><sup>1472</sup></a> The cruelties practised by the
+hunters have no doubt taught these sagacious creatures to be
+cautious and alert, but their precautions are simply defensive; and
+beyond the alarm and apprehension which they <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>[pg 148]</span> evince
+on the approach of man, they exhibit no indication of hostility or
+thirst for blood.</p>
+<p>An ordinary traveller seldom comes upon elephants unless after
+sunset or towards daybreak, as they go to or return from their
+nightly visits to the tanks: but when by accident a herd is
+disturbed by day, they evince, if unattacked, no disposition to
+become assailants; and if the attitude of defence which they
+instinctively assume prove sufficent to check the approach of the
+intruder, no further demonstration is to be apprehended.</p>
+<p>Even the hunters who go in search of them find them in positions
+and occupations altogether inconsistent with the idea of their
+being savage, wary, or revengeful. Their demeanour when undisturbed
+is indicative of gentleness and timidity, and their actions bespeak
+lassitude and indolence, induced not alone by heat, but probably
+ascribable in some degree to the fact that the night has been spent
+in watchfulness and amusement. A few are generally browsing
+listlessly on the trees and plants within reach, others fanning
+themselves with leafy branches, and a few are asleep; whilst the
+young run playfully among the herd, the emblems of innocence, as
+the older ones are of peacefulness and gravity.</p>
+<p>Almost every elephant may be observed to exhibit some peculiar
+action of the limbs when standing at rest; some move the head
+monotonously in a circle, or from right to left; some swing their
+feet back and forward; others flap their ears or sway themselves
+from side to side, or rise and sink by alternately bending and
+straightening the fore knees. As the opportunities of observing
+this custom have been almost confined to elephants in captivity, it
+has been conjectured to arise from some morbid <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>[pg 149]</span> habit
+contracted during the length of a voyage by sea<a id=
+"footnotetag1491" name="footnotetag1491"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1491"><sup>1491</sup></a>, or from an instinctive impulse
+to substitute a motion of this kind in lieu of their wonted
+exercise; but this supposition is erroneous; the propensity being
+equally displayed by those at liberty and those in captivity. When
+surprised by sportsmen in the depths of the jungle, individuals of
+a herd are always occupied in swinging their limbs in this manner;
+and in the several corrals which I have seen, where whole herds
+have been captured, the elephants in the midst of the utmost
+excitement, and even after the most vigorous charges, if they
+halted for a moment in stupor and exhaustion, manifested their
+wonted habit, and swung their limbs or swayed their bodies to and
+fro incessantly. So far from its being a substitute for exercise,
+those in the government employment in Ceylon are observed to
+practise their acquired motion, whatever it may be, with increased
+vigour when thoroughly fatigued after excessive work. Even the
+favourite practice of fanning themselves with a leafy branch seems
+less an enjoyment in itself than a resource when listless and at
+rest. The term "fidgetty" seems to describe appropriately the
+temperament of the elephant.</p>
+<p>They evince the strongest love of retirement and a corresponding
+dislike to intrusion. The approach of a stranger is perceived less
+by the eye, the quickness of which is not remarkable (besides which
+its range is obscured by the foliage), than by sensitive smell and
+singular acuteness of hearing; and the whole herd is put in instant
+but noiseless motion towards some deeper and more secure retreat.
+The effectual manner in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id=
+"page150"></a>[pg 150]</span> which an animal of the prodigious
+size of the elephant can conceal himself, and the motionless
+silence which he preserves, is quite surprising; whilst beaters
+pass and repass within a few yards of his hiding place, he will
+maintain his ground till the hunter, creeping almost close to his
+legs, sees his little eye peering out through the leaves, when,
+finding himself discovered, the elephant breaks away with a crash,
+levelling the brushwood in his headlong career.</p>
+<p>If surprised in open ground, where stealthy retreat is
+impracticable, a herd will hesitate in indecision, and, after a few
+meaningless movements, stand huddled together in a group, whilst
+one or two, more adventurous than the rest, advance a few steps to
+reconnoitre. Elephants are generally observed to be bolder in open
+ground than in cover, but, if bold at all, far more dangerous in
+cover than in open ground.</p>
+<p>In searching for them, sportsmen often avail themselves of the
+expertness of the native trackers; and notwithstanding the
+demonstration of Combe that the brain of the timid Singhalese is
+deficient in the organ of destructiveness<a id="footnotetag1501"
+name="footnotetag1501"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1501"><sup>1501</sup></a>, he shows an instinct for
+hunting, and exhibits in the pursuit of the elephant a courage and
+adroitness far surpassing in interest the mere handling of the
+rifle, which is the principal share of the proceeding that falls to
+his European companions.</p>
+<p>The beater on these occasions has the double task of finding the
+game and carrying the guns; and, in an animated communication to
+me, an experienced sportsman describes "this light and active
+creature, with his long glossy hair hanging down his shoulders,
+every <span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>[pg
+151]</span> muscle quivering with excitement; and his countenance
+lighting up with intense animation, leaping from rock to rock, as
+nimble as a deer, tracking the gigantic game like a blood-hound,
+falling behind as he comes up with it, and as the elephants,
+baffled and irritated, make the first stand, passing one rifle into
+your eager hand and holding the other ready whilst right and left
+each barrel performs its mission, and if fortune does not flag, and
+the second gun is as successful as the first, three or four huge
+carcases are piled one on another within a space equal to the area
+of a dining room."<a id="footnotetag1511" name=
+"footnotetag1511"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1511"><sup>1511</sup></a></p>
+<p>It is curious that in these encounters the herd never rush
+forward in a body, as buffaloes or bisons do, but only one elephant
+at a time moves in advance of the rest to confront, or, as it is
+called, to "charge," the assailants. I have heard of but one
+instance in which <i>two</i> so advanced as champions of their
+companions. Sometimes, indeed, the whole herd will follow a leader,
+and manoeuvre in his rear like a body of cavalry; but so large a
+party are necessarily liable to panic; and, one of them having
+turned in alarm, the entire body retreat with terrified
+precipitation.</p>
+<p>As regards boldness and courage, a strange variety of
+temperament is observable amongst elephants, but it may be affirmed
+that they are, much more generally timid than courageous. One herd
+may be as difficult to approach as deer, gliding away through the
+jungle so gently and quickly that scarcely a trace marks their
+passage; another, in apparent stupor, will huddle themselves
+together like swine, and allow their assailant to come within a few
+yards before they break away in <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page152" id="page152"></a>[pg 152]</span> terror; and a third will
+await his approach without motion, and then advance, with fury to
+the "charge."</p>
+<p>In individuals the same differences are discernible; one flies
+on the first appearance of danger, whilst another, alone and
+unsupported, will face a whole host of enemies. When wounded and
+infuriated with pain, many of them become literally savage<a id=
+"footnotetag1521" name="footnotetag1521"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1521"><sup>1521</sup></a>; but, so unaccustomed are they
+to act as assailants, and so awkward and inexpert in using their
+strength, that they rarely or ever exceed in killing a pursuer who
+falls into their power. Although the pressure of a foot, a blow
+with the trunk, or a thrust with the tusk, could scarcely fail to
+prove fatal, three-fourths of those who have fallen into their
+power have escaped without serious injury. So great is this chance
+of impunity, that the sportsman prefers to approach within about
+fifteen paces of the advancing elephant, a space which gives time
+for a second fire should the first shot prove ineffectual, and
+should both fail there is still opportunity for flight.</p>
+<p>Amongst full-grown timber, a skilful runner can escape from an
+elephant by "dodging" round the trees, but in cleared land, and low
+brushwood, the difficulty is much increased, as the small growth of
+underwood which obstructs the movements of man presents no obstacle
+to those of an elephant. On the other hand, on level and open
+ground the chances are rather in favour of the elephant, as his
+pace in full flight exceeds that of man, although as a general
+rule, it is unequal to that of a horse, as has been sometimes
+asserted.<a id="footnotetag1522" name=
+"footnotetag1522"></a><a href="#footnote1522"><sup>1522</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>[pg
+153]</span>
+<p>The incessant slaughter of elephants by sportsmen in Ceylon,
+appears to be merely in subordination to the influence of the organ
+of destructiveness, since the carcase is never applied to any
+useful purpose, but left to decompose and to defile the air of the
+forest. The flesh is occasionally tasted as a matter of curiosity:
+as a steak it is coarse and tough; but the tongue is as delicate as
+that of an ox; and the foot is said to make palatable soup. The
+Caffres attached to the pioneer corps in the Kandyan province are
+in the habit of securing the heart of any elephant shot in their
+vicinity, and say it is their custom to eat it in Africa. The hide
+it has been found impracticable to tan in Ceylon, or to convert to
+any useful purpose, but the bones of those shot have of late years
+been collected and used for manuring coffee estates. The hair of
+the tail, which is extremely strong and horny, is mounted by the
+native goldsmith, and made into bracelets; and the teeth are sawn
+by the Moormen at Galle (as they used to be by the Romans during a
+scarcity of ivory) into plates, out of which they fashion numerous
+articles of ornament, knife-handles, card racks, and
+"presse-papiers."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>[pg
+154]</span>
+<h3>NOTE.</h3>
+<p>Amongst extraordinary recoveries from desperate wounds, I
+venture to record here an instance which occurred in Ceylon to a
+gentleman while engaged in the chase of elephants, and which, I
+apprehend, has few parallels in pathological experience. Lieutenant
+GERARD FRETZ, of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment, whilst firing at an
+elephant in the vicinity of Fort MacDonald, in Oovah, was wounded
+in the face by the bursting of his fowling-piece, on the 22nd
+January, 1828. He was then about thirty-two years of age. On
+raising him, it was found that part of the breech of the gun and
+about two inches of the barrel had been driven through the frontal
+sinus, at the junction of the nose and forehead. It had sunk almost
+perpendicularly till the iron-plate called "the tail-pin," by which
+the barrel is made fast to the stock by a screw, had descended
+through the palate, carrying with it the screw, one extremity of
+which had forced itself into the right nostril, where it was
+discernible externally, whilst the headed end lay in contact with
+his tongue. To extract the jagged mass of iron thus sunk in the
+ethmoidal and sphenoidal cells was found hopelessly impracticable;
+but, strange to tell, after the inflammation subsided, Mr. FRETZ
+recovered rapidly; his general health was unimpaired, and he
+returned to his regiment with this, singular appendage firmly
+embedded behind the bones of his face. He took his turn of duty as
+usual, attained the command of his company, participated in all the
+enjoyments of the mess-room, and died <i>eight years
+afterwards</i>, on the 1st of April, 1836, not from any
+consequences of this fearful wound, but from fever and inflammation
+brought on by other causes.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>[pg
+155]</span> So little was he apparently inconvenienced by the
+presence of the strange body in his palate that he was accustomed
+with his finger partially to undo the screw, which but for its
+extreme length he might altogether have withdrawn. To enable this
+to be done, and possibly to assist by this means the extraction of
+the breech itself through the original orifice (which never
+entirely closed), an attempt was made in 1835 to take off a portion
+of the screw with a file; but, after having cut it three parts
+through the operation was interrupted, chiefly owing to the
+carelessness and indifference of Capt. FRETZ, whose death occurred
+before the attempt could be resumed. The piece of iron, on being
+removed after his decease, was found to measure 2-3/4 inches in
+length, and weighed two scruples more than two ounces and three
+quarters. A cast of the breech and screw now forms No. 2790 amongst
+the deposits in the Medical Museum of Chatham.
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1421" name=
+"footnote1421"></a><b>Footnote 1421:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1421">(return)</a>
+<p>To persons like myself, who are not addicted to what is called
+"sport," the statement of these wholesale slaughters is calculated
+to excite surprise and curiosity as to the nature of a passion that
+impels men to self-exposure and privation, in a pursuit which
+presents nothing but the monotonous recurrence of scenes of blood
+and suffering. Mr. BAKER, who has recently published, under the
+title of "<i>The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon</i>" an account of
+his exploits in the forest, gives us the assurance that "<i>all
+real sportsmen are tender-hearted men, who shun cruelty to an
+animal, and are easily moved by a tale of distress</i>;" and that
+although man is naturally bloodthirsty, and a beast of prey by
+instinct, yet that the true sportsman is distinguished from the
+rest of the human race by his "<i>love of nature, and of noble
+scenery</i>." In support of this pretension to a gentler nature
+than the rest of mankind, the author proceeds to attest his own
+abhorrence of cruelty by narrating the sufferings of an old hound,
+which, although "toothless," he cheered on to assail a boar at bay,
+but the poor dog recoiled "covered with blood, cut nearly in half,
+with a wound fourteen inches in length, from the lower part of the
+belly, passing up the flank, completely severing the muscles of the
+hind leg, and extending up the spine; his hind leg having the
+appearance of being nearly off." In this state, forgetful of the
+character he had so lately given of the true sportsman, as a lover
+of nature and a hater of cruelty, he encouraged "the poor old dog,"
+as he calls him, to resume the fight with the boar, which lasted
+for an hour, when he managed to call the dogs off; and perfectly
+exhausted, the mangled hound crawled out of the jungle with several
+additional wounds, including a severe gash in his throat. "He fell
+from exhaustion, and we made a litter with two poles and a
+horsecloth to carry him home."&mdash;P. 314. If such were the
+habitual enjoyments of this class of sportsmen, their motiveless
+massacres would admit of no manly justification. In comparison with
+them one is disposed to regard almost with favour the exploits of a
+hunter like Major ROGERS, who is said to have applied the value of
+the ivory obtained from his encounters towards the purchase of his
+successive regimental commissions, and had, therefore, an object,
+however disproportionate, in his slaughter of 1400 elephants.</p>
+<p>One gentleman in Ceylon, not less distinguished for his genuine
+kindness of heart, than for his marvellous success in shooting
+elephants, avowed to me that the eagerness with which he found
+himself impelled to pursue them had often excited surprise in his
+own mind; and although he had never read the theory of Lord Kames,
+or the speculations of Vicesimus Knox, he had come to the
+conclusion that the passion thus excited within him was a remnant
+of the hunter's instinct, with which man was originally endowed, to
+enable him, by the chase, to support existence in a state of
+nature, and which, though rendered dormant by civilisation, had not
+been utterly eradicated.</p>
+<p>This theory is at least more consistent and intelligible than
+the "love of nature and scenery," sentimentally propounded by the
+author quoted above.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1441" name=
+"footnote1441"></a><b>Footnote 1441:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1441">(return)</a>
+<p>The vulnerability of the elephant in this region of the head was
+known to the ancients, and PLINY, describing a combat of elephants
+in the amphitheatre at Rome, says, that one was slain by a single
+blow, "pilum sub oculo adactum, in vitalia capitis venerat" (Lib.
+viii. c. 7.) Notwithstanding the comparative facility of access to
+the brain afforded at this spot, an ordinary leaden bullet is not
+certain to penetrate, and frequently becomes flattened. The
+hunters, to counteract this, are accustomed to harden the ball, by
+the introduction of a small portion of type-metal along with the
+lead.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1451" name=
+"footnote1451"></a><b>Footnote 1451:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1451">(return)</a>
+<p>"There is a wide difference of opinion as to the most deadly
+shot. I think the temple the most certain, but authority in Ceylon
+says the 'fronter,' that is, above the trunk. Behind the ear is
+said to be deadly, but that is a shot which I never fired or saw
+fired that I remember. If the ball go true to its mark, all shots
+(in the head) are certain; but the bones on either side of the
+honey-comb passage to the brain are so thick that there is in all a
+'glorious uncertainty' which keeps a man on the <i>qui vive</i>
+till he sees the elephant down."&mdash;From a paper on <i>Elephant
+Shooting in Ceylon</i>, by Major MACREADY, late Military Secretary
+at Colombo.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1461" name=
+"footnote1461"></a><b>Footnote 1461:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1461">(return)</a>
+<p>In Mr. GORDON CUMMING'S account of a <i>Hunter's Life in South
+Africa</i>, there is a narrative of his pursuit of a wounded
+elephant which he had lamed by lodging a ball in its
+shoulder-blade. It limped slowly towards a tree, against which it
+leaned itself in helpless agony, whilst its pursuer seated himself
+in front of it, in safety, to <i>boil his coffee</i>, and observe
+its sufferings. The story is continued as follows:&mdash;"Having
+admired him for a considerable time, <i>I resolved to make
+experiments on vulnerable points</i>; and approaching very near I
+fired several bullets at different parts of his enormous skull. He
+only acknowledged the shots by a salaam-like movement of his trunk,
+with the point of which he gently touched the wounds with a
+striking and peculiar action. Surprised and shocked at finding that
+I was only prolonging the sufferings of the noble beast, which bore
+its trials with such dignified composure, I resolved to finish the
+proceeding with all possible despatch, and accordingly opened fire
+upon him from the left side, aiming at the shoulder. I first fired
+<i>six</i> shots with the two-grooved rifle, which must have
+eventually proved mortal. After which I fired <i>six</i> shots at
+the same part with the Dutch six-pounder. <i>Large tears now
+trickled from his eyes, which he slowly shut and opened, his
+colossal frame shivered convulsively, and falling on his side, he
+expired</i>." (Vol. ii. p. 10.)</p>
+<p>In another place, after detailing the manner in which he
+assailed a poor animal&mdash;he says, "I was loading and firing as
+fast as could be, sometimes at the head, sometimes behind the
+shoulder, until my elephant's fore-quarter was a mass of gore;
+notwithstanding which he continued to hold on, leaving the grass
+and branches of the forest scarlet in his wake. * * * Having fired
+<i>thirty-five rounds</i> with my two-grooved rifle, I opened upon
+him with the Dutch six-pounder, and when forty bullets had
+perforated his hide, he began for the first time, to evince signs
+of a dilapidated constitution." The disgusting description is
+closed thus: "Throughout the charge he repeatedly cooled his person
+with large quantities of water, which he ejected from his trunk
+over his sides and back, and just as the pangs of death came over
+him, he stood trembling violently beside a thorn tree, and kept
+pouring water into his bloody mouth until he died, when he pitched
+heavily forward with the whole weight of his fore-quarters resting
+on the points of his tusks. The strain was fair, and the tusks did
+not yield; but the portion of his head in which the tusks were
+embedded, extending a long way above the eye, yielded and burst
+with a muffled crash."&mdash;(<i>Ib</i>., vol. ii. pp. 4, 5.)</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1471" name=
+"footnote1471"></a><b>Footnote 1471:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1471">(return)</a>
+<p><i>The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon</i>; by S.W. BAKER, Esq.,
+pp. 8, 9. "Next to a rogue," says Mr. BAKER, "in ferocity, and even
+more persevering in the pursuit of her victim, is a female
+elephant." But he appends the significant qualification, "<i>when
+her young one has been killed</i>."&mdash;<i>Ibid</i>., p. 13.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1472" name=
+"footnote1472"></a><b>Footnote 1472:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1472">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ibid</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1491" name=
+"footnote1491"></a><b>Footnote 1491:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1491">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries</i>, &amp;c., "The Elephant," ch. i. p. 21.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1501" name=
+"footnote1501"></a><b>Footnote 1501:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1501">(return)</a>
+<p><i>System of Phrenology</i>, by GEO. COMBE, vol. i. p. 256.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1511" name=
+"footnote1511"></a><b>Footnote 1511:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1511">(return)</a>
+<p>Private letter from Capt. PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1521" name=
+"footnote1521"></a><b>Footnote 1521:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1521">(return)</a>
+<p>Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by a native,
+near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the town, followed him
+along the street, trampled him to death in the bazaar before a
+crowd of spectators, and succeeded in making good its retreat to
+the jungle.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1522" name=
+"footnote1522"></a><b>Footnote 1522:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1522">(return)</a>
+<p>SHAW, in his <i>Zoology</i>, asserts that an elephant can run as
+swiftly as a horse can gallop. London, 1800-6, vol. i. p. 216.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>[pg
+156]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap5" id="chap5"></a>CHAP. V.</h2>
+<h3>THE ELEPHANT.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>An Elephant Corral</i>.</h4>
+<p>So long as the elephants of Ceylon were merely required in small
+numbers for the pageantry of the native princes, or the sacred
+processions of the Buddhist temples, their capture was effected
+either by the instrumentality of female decoys, or by the artifices
+and agility of the individuals and castes who devoted themselves to
+their pursuit and training. But after the arrival of the European
+conquerors of the island, and when it had become expedient to take
+advantage of the strength and intelligence of these creatures in
+clearing forests and making roads and other works, establishments
+were organised on a great scale by the Portuguese and Dutch, and
+the supply of elephants kept up by periodical battues conducted at
+the cost of the government, on a plan similar to that adopted on
+the continent of India, when herds varying in number from twenty to
+one hundred and upwards are driven into concealed enclosures and
+secured.</p>
+<p>In both these processes, success is entirely dependent on the
+skill with which the captors turn to advantage the terror and
+inexperience of the wild elephant, since all attempts would be
+futile to subdue or confine by ordinary force an animal of such
+strength and sagacity.<a id="footnotetag1561" name=
+"footnotetag1561"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1561"><sup>1561</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>[pg
+157]</span>
+<p>Knox describes with circumstantiality the mode adopted, two
+centuries ago, by the servants of the King of Kandy to catch
+elephants for the royal stud. He says, "After discovering the
+retreat of such as have tusks, unto these they drive some <i>she
+elephants</i>, which they bring with them for the purpose, which,
+when once the males have got a sight of, they will never leave, but
+follow them wheresoever they go; and the females are so used to it
+that they will do whatsoever, either by word or a beck, their
+keepers bid them. And so they delude them along through towns and
+countries, and through the streets of the city, even to the very
+gates of the king's palace, where sometimes they seize upon them by
+snares, and sometimes by driving them into a kind of pound, they
+catch them."<a id="footnotetag1571" name=
+"footnotetag1571"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1571"><sup>1571</sup></a></p>
+<p>In Nepaul and Burmah, and throughout the Chin-Indian Peninsula,
+when in pursuit of single elephants, either <i>rogues</i> detached
+from the herd, or individuals <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page158" id="page158"></a>[pg 158]</span> who have been marked for
+the beauty of their ivory, the natives avail themselves of the aid
+of females in order to effect their approaches and secure an
+opportunity of casting a noose over the foot of the destined
+captive. All accounts concur in expressing high admiration of their
+courage and address; but from what has fallen under my own
+observation, added to the descriptions I have heard from other
+eye-witnesses, I am inclined to believe that in such exploits the
+Moormen of Ceylon evince a daring and adroitness, surpassing all
+others.</p>
+<p>These professional elephant catchers, or, as they are called,
+Panickeas, inhabit the Moorish villages in the north and north-east
+of the island, and from time immemorial have been engaged in taking
+elephants, which are afterwards trained by Arabs, chiefly for the
+use of the rajahs and native princes in the south of India, whose
+vakeels are periodically despatched to make purchases in
+Ceylon.</p>
+<p>The ability evinced by these men in tracing elephants through
+the woods has almost the certainty of instinct; and hence their
+services are eagerly sought by the European sportsmen who go down
+into their country in search of game. So keen is their glance, that
+like hounds running "breast high" they will follow the course of an
+elephant, almost at the top of their speed, over glades covered
+with stunted grass, where the eye of a stranger would fail to
+discover a trace of its passage, and on through forests strewn with
+dry leaves, where it seems impossible to perceive a footstep. Here
+they are guided by a bent or broken twig, or by a leaf dropped from
+the animal's mouth, on which the pressure of a tooth may be
+detected. If at fault, they fetch a circuit like a setter, till
+lighting on some fresh marks, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page159" id="page159"></a>[pg 159]</span> they go a-head again
+with renewed vigour. So delicate is the sense of smell in the
+elephant, and so indispensable is it to go against the wind in
+approaching him, that on those occasions when the wind is so still
+that its direction cannot be otherwise discerned, the Panickeas
+will suspend the film of a gossamer to determine it and shape their
+course accordingly.</p>
+<p>They are enabled by the inspection of the footmarks, when
+impressed in soft clay, to describe the size as well as the number
+of a herd before it is seen; the height of an elephant at the
+shoulder being as nearly as possible twice the circumference of his
+fore foot.<a id="footnotetag1591" name=
+"footnotetag1591"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1591"><sup>1591</sup></a></p>
+<p>On overtaking the game their courage is as conspicuous as their
+sagacity. If they have confidence in the sportsman for whom they
+are finding, they will advance to the very heel of the elephant,
+slap him on the quarter, and convert his timidity into anger, till
+he turns upon his tormentor and exposes his front to receive the
+bullet which is awaiting him.<a id="footnotetag1592" name=
+"footnotetag1592"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1592"><sup>1592</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>[pg
+160]</span>
+<p>So fearless and confident are they that two men, without aid or
+attendants, will boldly attempt to capture the largest-sized
+elephant. Their only weapon is a flexible rope made of elk's or
+buffalo's hide, with which it is their object to secure one of the
+hind legs. This they effect either by following in its footsteps
+when in motion or by stealing close up to it when at rest, and
+availing themselves of its well-known propensity at such moments to
+swing the feet backwards and forwards, they contrive to slip a
+noose over the hind leg.</p>
+<p>At other times this is achieved by spreading the noose on the
+ground partially concealed by roots and leaves beneath a tree on
+which one of the party is stationed, whose business it is to lift
+it suddenly by means of a cord, raising it on the elephant's leg at
+the moment when his companion has succeeded in provoking him to
+place his foot within the circle, the other end having been
+previously made fast to the stem of the tree. Should the noosing be
+effected in open ground, and no tree of sufficient strength at hand
+round which to wind the rope, one of the Moors, allowing himself to
+be pursued by the enraged elephant, entices him towards the nearest
+grove; where his companion, dexterously laying hold of the rope as
+it trails along the ground, suddenly coils it round a suitable
+stem, and brings the fugitive to a stand still. On finding himself
+thus arrested, the natural impulse of the captive is to turn on the
+man <span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>[pg
+161]</span> who is engaged in making fast the rope, a movement
+which it is the duty of his colleague to present by running up
+close to the elephant's head and provoking the animal to confront
+him by irritating gesticulations and taunting shouts of <i>dah!
+dah!</i> a monosyllable, the sound of which the elephant peculiarly
+dislikes. Meanwhile the first assailant, having secured one noose,
+comes up from behind with another, with which, amidst the vain rage
+and struggles of the victim, he entraps a fore leg, the rope being,
+as before, secured to another tree in front, and the whole four
+feet having been thus entangled, the capture is completed.</p>
+<p>A shelter is then run up with branches, to protect their
+prisoner from the sun, and the hunters proceed to build a wigwam
+for themselves in front of him, kindling their fires for cooking,
+and making all the necessary arrangements for remaining day and
+night on the spot to await the process of subduing and taming his
+rage. In my journeys through the forest I have come unexpectedly on
+the halting place of adventurous hunters when thus engaged; and on
+one occasion, about sunrise, in ascending the steep ridge from the
+bed of the Malwatte river, the foremost rider of our party was
+suddenly driven back by a furious elephant, which we found picketed
+by two Panickeas on the crest of the bank. In such a position, the
+elephant soon ceases to struggle; and what with the exhaustion of
+rage and resistance, the terror of fire which he dreads, and the
+constant annoyance of smoke which he detests, in a very short time,
+a few weeks at the most, his spirit becomes subdued; and being
+plentifully supplied with plantains and fresh food, and indulged
+with water, in which he luxuriates, he grows so far reconciled to
+his keepers <span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id=
+"page162"></a>[pg 162]</span> that they at length venture to remove
+him to their own village, or to the sea-side for shipment to
+India.</p>
+<p>No part of the hunter's performances exhibits greater skill and
+audacity than this first forced march of the recently captured
+elephant from the great central forests to the sea-coast. As he is
+still too morose to submit to be ridden, and as it would be equally
+impossible to lead or to drive him by force, the ingenuity of the
+captors is displayed in alternately irritating and eluding him, but
+always so attracting his attention as to allure him along in the
+direction in which they want him to go. Some assistance is derived
+from the rope by which the original capture was effected, and
+which, as it serves to make him safe at night, is never removed
+from the leg till his taming is sufficiently advanced to permit of
+his being entrusted with partial liberty.</p>
+<p>In Ceylon the principal place for exporting these animals to
+India is Manaar, on the western coast, to which the Arabs from the
+continent resort, bringing with them horses to be bartered for
+elephants. In order to reach the sea, open plains must be
+traversed, across which it requires the utmost courage, agility,
+and patience of the Moors to coax their reluctant charge. At Manaar
+the elephants are usually detained till any wound on the leg caused
+by the rope has been healed, when the shipment is effected in the
+most primitive manner. It being next to impossible to induce the
+still untamed creature to walk on board, and no mechanical
+contrivances being provided to ship him; a dhoney, or native boat,
+of about forty tons' burthen, and about three parts filled with the
+strong ribbed leaves of the Palmyra palm, is brought alongside the
+quay in front of the Old Dutch Fort, and lashed so that the gunwale
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>[pg
+163]</span> may be as nearly as possible on a line with the level
+of the wharf. The elephant being placed with his back to the water
+is forced by goads to retreat till his hind legs go over the side
+of the quay, but the main contest commences when it is attempted to
+disengage his fore feet from the shore, and force him to entrust
+himself on board. The scene becomes exciting from the screams and
+trumpeting of the elephants, the shouts of the Arabs, the calls of
+the Moors, and the rushing of the crowd. Meanwhile the huge
+creature strains every nerve to regain the land; and the day is
+often consumed before his efforts are overcome, and he finds
+himself fairly afloat. The same dhoney will take from four to five
+elephants, who place themselves athwart it, and exhibit amusing
+adroitness in accommodating their movements to the rolling of the
+little vessel; and in this way they are ferried across the narrow
+strait which separates the continent of India from Ceylon.<a id=
+"footnotetag1631" name="footnotetag1631"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1631"><sup>1631</sup></a></p>
+<p>But the feat of ensnaring and subduing a single elephant,
+courageous as it is, and demonstrative of the supremacy with which
+man wields his "dominion over every beast of the earth," falls far
+short of the daring <span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id=
+"page164"></a>[pg 164]</span> exploit of capturing a whole herd:
+when from thirty to one hundred wild elephants are entrapped in one
+vast decoy. The mode of effecting this, as it is practised in
+Ceylon, is no doubt imitated, but with considerable modifications,
+from the methods prevalent in various parts of India. It was
+introduced by the Portuguese, and continued by the Dutch, the
+latter of whom had two elephant hunts in each year, and conducted
+their operations on so large a scale, that the annual export after
+supplying the government establishments, was from one hundred to
+one hundred and fifty elephants, taken principally in the vicinity
+of Matura, in the southern province, and marched for shipment to
+Manaar.<a id="footnotetag1641" name="footnotetag1641"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1641"><sup>1641</sup></a></p>
+<p>The custom in Bengal is to construct a strong enclosure (called
+a <i>keddah</i>), in the heart of the forest, formed of the trunks
+of trees firmly secured by transverse beams and buttresses, and
+leaving the gate for the entrance of the elephants. A second
+enclosure, opening from the first, contains water (if possible a
+rivulet): this, again, communicates with a third, which terminates
+in a funnel-shaped passage, too narrow to admit of an elephant
+turning, and within this the captives being driven in line, are
+secured with ropes introduced from the outside, and led away in
+custody of tame ones trained for the purpose.</p>
+<p>The <i>keddah</i> being prepared, the first operation is to
+drive the elephants towards it, for which purpose vast bodies of
+men fetch a compass in the forest around the haunts of the herds,
+contracting it by degrees, till they complete the enclosure of a
+certain area, round <span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id=
+"page165"></a>[pg 165]</span> which they kindle fires, and cut
+footpaths through the jungle, to enable the watchers to communicate
+and combine. All this is performed in cautious silence and by slow
+approaches, to avoid alarming the herd. A fresh circle nearer to
+the <i>keddah</i> is then formed in the same way, and into this the
+elephants are admitted from the first one, the hunters following
+from behind, and lighting new fires around the newly inclosed
+space. Day after day the process is repeated; till the drove having
+been brought sufficiently close to make the final rush, the whole
+party close in from all sides, and with drums, guns, shouts, and
+flambeaux, force the terrified animals to enter the fatal
+enclosure, when the passage is barred behind them, and retreat
+rendered impossible.</p>
+<p>Their efforts to escape are repressed by the crowd, who drive
+them back from the stockade with spears and flaming torches; and at
+last compel them to pass on into the second enclosure. Here they
+are detained for a short time, and their feverish exhaustion
+relieved by free access to water;&mdash;until at last, being
+tempted by food, or otherwise induced to trust themselves in the
+narrow outlet, they are one after another made fast by ropes,
+passed in through the palisade; and picketed in the adjoining woods
+to enter on their course of systematic training.</p>
+<p>These arrangements vary in different districts of Bengal; and
+the method adopted in Ceylon differs in many essential particulars
+from them all; the Keddah, or, as it is here called, the corral or
+<i>korahl</i><a id="footnotetag1651" name=
+"footnotetag1651"></a><a href="#footnote1651"><sup>1651</sup></a>
+(from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id=
+"page166"></a>[pg 166]</span> Portuguese <i>curral</i>, a
+"cattle-pen"), consists of but one enclosure instead of three. A
+stream or watering-place is not uniformly enclosed within it,
+because, although water is indispensable after the long thirst and
+exhaustion of the captives, it has been found that a pond or
+rivulet within the corral itself adds to the difficulty of leading
+them out, and increases their reluctance to leave it; besides
+which, the smaller ones are often smothered by the others in their
+eagerness to crowd into the water. The funnel-shaped outlet is also
+dispensed with, as the animals are liable to bruise and injure
+themselves within the narrow stockade; and should one of them die
+in it, as is too often the case in the midst of the struggle, the
+difficulty of removing so great a carcase is extreme. The noosing
+and securing them, therefore, takes place in Ceylon within the area
+of the first enclosure into which they enter, and the dexterity and
+daring displayed in this portion of the work far surpasses that of
+merely attaching the rope through the openings of the paling, as in
+an Indian keddah.</p>
+<p>One result of this change in the system is manifested in the
+increased proportion of healthy elephants which are eventually
+secured and trained out of the number originally enclosed. The
+reason of this is obvious: under the old arrangements, months were
+consumed in the preparatory steps of surrounding and driving in the
+herds, which at last arrived so wasted by excitement and exhausted
+by privation that numbers died within the corral itself, and still
+more died during the process of training. But in later years the
+labour of months is reduced to weeks, and the elephants are driven
+in fresh and full of vigour, so that comparatively few are lost
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>[pg
+167]</span> either in the enclosure or the stables. A conception of
+the whole operation from commencement to end will be best conveyed
+by describing the progress of an elephant corral as I witnessed it
+in 1847 in the great forest on the banks of the Alligator River,
+the Kimbul-oya, in the district of Kornegalle, about thirty miles
+north-west of Kandy.</p>
+<p>Kornegalle, or Kurunai-galle, was one of the ancient capitals of
+the island, and the residence of its kings from A.D. 1319 to
+1347.<a id="footnotetag1671" name="footnotetag1671"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1671"><sup>1671</sup></a> The dwelling-house of the
+principal civil officer in charge of the district now occupies the
+site of the former palace, and the ground is strewn with fragments
+of columns and carved stones, the remnants of the royal buildings.
+The modern town consists of the bungalows of the European
+officials, each surrounded with its own garden; two or three
+streets inhabited by Dutch descendants and by Moors; and a native
+bazaar, with the ordinary array of rice and curry stuffs and
+cooking chattees of brass or burnt clay.</p>
+<p>The charm of the village is the unusual beauty of its position.
+It rests within the shade of an enormous rock of gneiss upwards of
+600 feet in height, nearly denuded of verdure, and so rounded and
+worn by time that it has acquired the form of a couchant elephant,
+from which it derives its name of &AElig;tagalla, the Rock of the
+Tusker.<a id="footnotetag1672" name="footnotetag1672"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1672"><sup>1672</sup></a> But &AElig;tagalla is only the
+last eminence in a range of similarly-formed rocky mountains, which
+here terminate abruptly; and, which from the fantastic shapes into
+which their gigantic outlines have been <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>[pg 168]</span>
+wrought by the action of the atmosphere, are called by the names of
+the Tortoise Rock, the Eel Rock, and the Rock of the Tusked
+Elephant. So impressed are the Singhalese by the aspect of these
+stupendous masses that in ancient grants lands are conveyed in
+perpetuity, or "so long as the sun and the moon, so long as
+&AElig;tagalla and Andagalla shall endure."<a id="footnotetag1681"
+name="footnotetag1681"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1681"><sup>1681</sup></a></p>
+<p>Kornegalle is the resort of Buddhists from the remotest parts of
+the island, who come to visit an ancient temple on the summit of
+the great rock, to which access is had from the valley below by
+means of steep paths and steps hewn out of the solid stone. Here
+the chief object of veneration is a copy of the sacred footstep
+hollowed in the granite, similar to that which confers sanctity on
+Adam's Peak, the towering apex of which, about forty miles distant,
+the pilgrims can discern from &AElig;tagalla.</p>
+<p>At times the heat at Kornegalle is intense, in consequence of
+the perpetual glow diffused from these granite cliffs. The warmth
+they acquire during the blaze of noon becomes almost intolerable
+towards evening, and the sultry night is too short to permit them
+to cool between the setting and the rising of the sun. The district
+is also liable to occasional droughts when the watercourses fail,
+and the tanks are dried up. One of these calamities occurred about
+the period of my visit, and such was the suffering of the wild
+animals that numbers of crocodiles and bears made their way
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>[pg
+169]</span> into the town to drink at the wells. The soil is
+prolific in the extreme; rice, cotton, and dry grain are cultivated
+largely in the valley. Every cottage is surrounded by gardens of
+coco-nuts, arecas, jak-fruit and coffee; the slopes, under tillage,
+are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and, as far as the eye can
+reach on every side, there are dense forests intersected by
+streams, in the shade of which the deer and the elephant
+abound.</p>
+<p>In 1847 arrangements were made for one of the great elephant
+hunts for the supply of the Civil Engineer's Department, and the
+spot fixed on by Mr. Morris, the Government officer who conducted
+the corral, was on the banks of the Kimbul river, about fifteen
+miles from Kornegalle. The country over which we rode to the scene
+of the approaching capture showed traces of the recent drought, the
+fields lay to a great extent untilled, owing to the want of water,
+and the tanks, almost reduced to dryness, were covered with the
+leaves of the rose-coloured lotus.</p>
+<p>Our cavalcade was as oriental as the scenery through which it
+moved; the Governor and the officers of his staff and household
+formed a long cortege, escorted by the native attendants,
+horse-keepers, and foot-runners. The ladies were borne in
+palankins, and the younger individuals of the party carried in
+chairs raised on poles, and covered with cool green awnings made of
+the fresh leaves of the talipat palm.</p>
+<p>After traversing the cultivated lands, the path led across open
+glades of park-like verdure and beauty, and at last entered the
+great-forest under the shade of ancient trees wreathed to their
+crowns with climbing plants and festooned by natural garlands of
+convolvulus and orchids. Here silence reigned, disturbed only by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>[pg
+170]</span> the murmuring hum of glittering insects, or the shrill
+clamour of the plum-headed parroquet and the flute-like calls of
+the golden oriole.</p>
+<p>We crossed the broad sandy beds of two rivers over-arched by
+tall trees, the most conspicuous of which is the Kombook<a id=
+"footnotetag1701" name="footnotetag1701"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1701"><sup>1701</sup></a>, from the calcined bark of
+which the natives extract a species of lime to be used with their
+betel. And from the branches hung suspended over the water the
+gigantic pods of the huge pusw&aelig;l bean<a id="footnotetag1702"
+name="footnotetag1702"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1702"><sup>1702</sup></a>, the sheath of which measures
+six feet long by five or six inches broad.</p>
+<p>On ascending the steep bank of the second stream, we found
+ourselves in front of the residences which had been extemporised
+for our party in the immediate vicinity of the corral. These cool
+and enjoyable structures were formed of branches and thatched with
+palm leaves and fragrant lemon grass; and in addition to a
+dining-room and suites of bedrooms fitted with tent furniture, they
+included kitchens, stables, and storerooms, all run up by the
+natives in the course of a few days.</p>
+<p>In former times, the work connected with these elephant hunts
+was performed by the "forced labour" of the natives, as part of
+that feudal service which under the name of Raja-kariya was
+extorted from the Singhalese during the rule of their native
+sovereigns. This system was continued by the Portuguese and Dutch,
+and prevailed under the British Government till its abolition by
+the Earl of Ripon in 1832. Under it from fifteen hundred to two
+thousand men superintended by their headmen, used to be occupied,
+in constructing the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id=
+"page171"></a>[pg 171]</span> corral, collecting the elephants,
+maintaining the cordon of watch-fires and watchers, and conducting
+all the laborious operations of the capture. Since the abolition of
+Raja-kariya, however, no difficulty has been found in obtaining the
+voluntary co-operation of the natives on these exciting occasions.
+The government defrays the expense of that portion of the
+preparations which involves actual cost,&mdash;for the skilled
+labour expended in the erection of the corral and its
+appurtenances, and the providing of spears, ropes, arms, flutes,
+drums, gunpowder, and other necessaries for the occasion.</p>
+<p>The period of the year selected is that which least interferes
+with the cultivation of the rice-lands (in the interval between
+seed time and harvest), and the people themselves, in addition to
+the excitement and enjoyment of the sport, have a personal interest
+in reducing the number of elephants, which inflict serious injury
+on their gardens and growing crops. For a similar reason the
+priests encourage the practice, because the elephants destroy their
+sacred Bo-trees, of the leaves of which they are passionately fond;
+besides which it promotes the facility for obtaining elephants for
+the processions of the temples: and the Rata-mahat-mayas and
+headmen have a pride in exhibiting the number of retainers who
+follow them to the field, and the performances of the tame
+elephants which they lend for the business of the corral. Thus vast
+numbers of the peasantry are voluntarily occupied for many weeks in
+putting up the stockades, cutting paths through the jungle, and
+relieving the beaters who are engaged in surrounding and driving in
+the elephants.</p>
+<p>In selecting the scene for the hunt a position is chosen which
+lies on some old and frequented route of the animals, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>[pg 172]</span> in
+their periodical migrations in search of forage and water; and the
+vicinity of a stream is indispensable, not only for the supply of
+the elephants during the time spent in inducing them to approach
+the enclosure, but to enable them to bathe and cool themselves
+throughout the process of training after capture.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/197.png"><img width="100%" src="images/197.png" alt=
+"" /></a> GROUND PLAN OF A CORRAL, AND METHOD OF FENCING IT.</div>
+<p>In constructing the corral itself, care is taken to avoid
+disturbing the trees or the brushwood within the included space,
+and especially on the side by which the elephants are to approach,
+where it is essential to conceal the stockade as much as possible
+by the density of the foliage. The trees used in the structure are
+from ten to twelve inches in diameter; and are sunk about three
+feet in the earth, so as to leave a length of from twelve to
+fifteen feet above ground; with spaces between each stanchion
+sufficiently wide to permit a man to glide through. The uprights
+are made fast by transverse beams, to which they are lashed
+securely by ratans and flexible climbing plants, or as they are
+called "jungle ropes," and the whole is steadied by means of forked
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>[pg
+173]</span> supports, which grasp the tie beams, and prevent the
+work from being driven outward by the rush of the wild
+elephants.</p>
+<p>On the occasion I am now attempting to describe, the space thus
+enclosed was about 500 feet in length by 250 wide. At one end an
+entrance was left open, fitted with sliding bars, so prepared as to
+be capable of being instantly shut;&mdash;and from each angle of
+the end by which the elephants were to approach, two lines of the
+same strong fencing were continued, and cautiously concealed by the
+trees; so that if, instead of entering by the open passage, the
+herd should swerve to right, or left, they would find themselves
+suddenly stopped and forced to retrace their course to the
+gate.</p>
+<p>The preparations were completed by placing a stage for the
+Governor's party on a group of the nearest trees looking down into
+the enclosure, so that a view could be had of the entire
+proceeding, from the entrance of the herd, to the leading out of
+the captive elephants.</p>
+<p>It is hardly necessary to observe that the structure here
+described, massive as it is, would be entirely ineffectual to
+resist the shock, if assaulted by the full force of an enraged
+elephant; and accidents have sometimes happened by the breaking
+through of the herd; but reliance is placed not so much on the
+resistance of the stockade as on the timidity of the captives and
+their unconsciousness of their own strength, coupled with the
+daring of their captors and their devices for ensuring
+submission.</p>
+<p>The corral being prepared, the beaters address themselves to
+drive in the elephants. For this purpose it is often necessary to
+fetch a circuit of many miles in <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page174" id="page174"></a>[pg 174]</span> order to surround a
+sufficient number, and the caution to be observed involves patience
+and delay; as it is essential to avoid alarming the elephants,
+which might otherwise escape. Their disposition being essentially
+peaceful, and their only impulse to browse in solitude and
+security, they withdraw instinctively before the slightest
+intrusion, and advantage is taken of this timidity and love of
+seclusion to cause only just such an amount of disturbance as will
+induce them to return slowly in the direction which it is desired
+they should take. Several herds are by this means concentrated
+within such an area as will admit of their being completely
+surrounded by the watchers; and day after day, by degrees, they are
+moved gradually onwards to the immediate confines of the corral.
+When their suspicions become awakened and they exhibit restlessness
+and alarm, bolder measures are adopted for preventing their escape.
+Fires are kept burning at ten paces apart, night and day, along the
+circumference of the area within which they are detained; a corps
+of from two to three thousand beaters is completed, and pathways
+are carefully cleared through the jungle so as to keep open a
+communication along the entire circuit. The headmen keep up a
+constant patrol, to see that their followers are alert at their
+posts, since neglect at any one spot might permit the escape of the
+herd, and undo in a moment the vigilance of weeks. By this means
+any attempt of the elephants to break away is generally checked,
+and on any point threatened a sufficient force can be promptly
+assembled to drive them back. At last the elephants are forced
+onwards so close to the enclosure, that the investing cordon is
+united at either end with the wings of the corral, the whole
+forming a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id=
+"page175"></a>[pg 175]</span> circle of about two miles, within the
+area of which the herd is detained to await the signal for the
+final drive.</p>
+<p>Two months had been spent in these preliminaries, and the
+preparations had been thus far completed, on the day when we
+arrived and took our places on the stage erected for us,
+overlooking the entrance to the corral. Close beneath us a group of
+tame elephants sent by the temples and the chiefs to assist in
+securing the wild ones, were picketed in the shade, and lazily
+fanning themselves with leaves. Three distinct herds, whose united
+numbers were variously represented at from forty to fifty
+elephants, were enclosed, and were at that moment concealed in the
+jungle within a short distance of the stockade. Not a sound was
+permitted to be made, each person spoke to his neighbour in
+whispers, and such was the silence observed by the multitude of the
+watchers at their posts, that occasionally we could hear the
+rustling of the branches as some of the elephants stripped off a
+leaf.</p>
+<p>Suddenly the signal was made, and the stillness of the forest
+was broken by the shouts of the guard, the rolling of the drums and
+tom-toms, and the discharge of muskets; and beginning at the most
+distant side of the area, the elephants were urged forward at a
+rapid pace towards the entrance into the corral.</p>
+<p>The watchers along the line kept silence only till the herd had
+passed them, and then joining the cry in their rear they drove them
+onward with redoubled shouts and noises. The tumult increased as
+the terrified rout drew near, swelling now on one side now on the
+other, as the herd in their panic dashed from point to point in
+their endeavours to force the line, but they were instantly driven
+back by screams, muskets, and drums.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>[pg
+176]</span>
+<p>At length the breaking of the branches and the crackling of the
+brushwood announced their close approach, and the leader bursting
+from the jungle rushed wildly forward to within twenty yards of the
+entrance followed by the rest of the herd. Another moment and they
+would have plunged into the open gate, when suddenly they wheeled
+round, re-entered the forest, and in spite of the hunters resumed
+their original position. The chief headman came forward and
+accounted for the freak by saying that a wild pig<a id=
+"footnotetag1761" name="footnotetag1761"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1761"><sup>1761</sup></a>, an animal which the elephants
+are said to dislike, had started out of the cover and run across
+the leader, who would otherwise have held on direct for the corral;
+and intimated that as the herd was now in the highest pitch of
+excitement: and it was at all times much more difficult to effect a
+successful capture by daylight than by night when the fires and
+flambeaux act with double effect, it was the wish of the hunters to
+defer their final effort till the evening, when the darkness would
+greatly aid their exertions.</p>
+<p>After sunset the scene exhibited was of extraordinary interest;
+the low fires, which had apparently only smouldered in the
+sunlight, assumed their ruddy glow amidst the darkness, and threw
+their tinge over the groups collected round them; while the smoke
+rose in eddies through the rich foliage of the trees. The crowds of
+spectators maintained a profound silence, and not a sound was
+perceptible beyond the hum of an insect. On a sudden the stillness
+was broken by the distant roll of a drum, followed <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>[pg 177]</span> by a
+discharge of musketry. This was the signal for the renewed assault,
+and the hunters entered the circle with shouts and clamour; dry
+leaves and sticks were flung upon the watch-fires till they blazed
+aloft, and formed a line of flame on every side, except in the
+direction of the corral, which was studiously kept dark; and
+thither the terrified elephants betook themselves, followed by the
+yells and racket of their pursuers.</p>
+<p>The elephants approached at a rapid pace, trampling down the
+brushwood and crushing the dry branches; the leader emerged in
+front of the corral, paused for an instant, stared wildly round,
+and then rushed headlong through the open gate, followed by the
+rest of the herd. Instantly, as if by magic, the entire circuit of
+the corral, which up to this moment had been kept in profound
+darkness, blazed with thousands of lights, every hunter on the
+instant that the elephants entered, rushing forward to the stockade
+with a torch kindled at the nearest watch-fire.</p>
+<p>The elephants first dashed to the very extremity of the
+enclosure, and being brought up by the fence, retreated to regain
+the gate, but found it closed. Their terror was sublime: they
+hurried round the corral at a rapid pace, but saw it now girt by
+fire on every side; they attempted to force the stockade, but were
+driven back by the guards with spears and flambeaux; and on
+whichever side they approached they were repulsed with shouts and
+volleys of musketry. Collecting into one group, they would pause
+for a moment in apparent bewilderment, then burst off in another
+direction, as if it had suddenly occurred to them to try some point
+which they had before overlooked; but again baffled, they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>[pg
+178]</span> slowly returned to their forlorn resting-place in the
+centre of the corral.</p>
+<p>The attraction of this strange scene was not confined to the
+spectators; it extended to the tame elephants which were stationed
+outside. At the first approach of the flying herd they evinced the
+utmost interest. Two in particular which were picketed near the
+front were intensely excited, and continued tossing their heads,
+pawing the ground, and starting as the noise drew near. At length,
+when the grand rush into the corral took place, one of them fairly
+burst from her fastenings and rushed towards the herd, levelling a
+tree of considerable size which obstructed her passage.<a id=
+"footnotetag1781" name="footnotetag1781"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1781"><sup>1781</sup></a></p>
+<p>For upwards of an hour the elephants continued to traverse the
+corral and assail the palisade with unabated energy, trumpeting and
+screaming with rage after each disappointment. Again and again they
+attempted to force the gate, as if aware, by experience, that it
+ought to afford an exit as it had already served as an entrance,
+but they shrank back stunned and bewildered. By degrees their
+efforts became less and less frequent. Single ones rushed excitedly
+here and there, returning sullenly to their companions after each
+effort; and at last the whole herd, stupified and exhausted, formed
+themselves into a single group, drawn up in a circle with the young
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>[pg
+179]</span> in the centre, and stood motionless under the dark
+shade of the trees in the middle of the corral.</p>
+<p>Preparations were now made to keep watch during the night, the
+guard was reinforced around the enclosure, and wood heaped on the
+fires to keep up a high flame till sunrise.</p>
+<p>Three herds had been originally entrapped by the beaters
+outside; but with characteristic instinct they had each kept clear
+of the other, taking up different stations in the space invested by
+the watchers. When the final drive took place one herd only had
+entered the enclosure, the other two keeping behind; and as the
+gate had to be instantly shut on the first division, the last were
+unavoidably excluded and remained concealed in the jungle. To
+prevent their escape, the watchers were ordered to their former
+stations, the fires were replenished; and all precautions having
+been taken, we returned to pass the night in our bungalows by the
+river.</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1561" name=
+"footnote1561"></a><b>Footnote 1561:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1561">(return)</a>
+<p>The device of taking them by means of pitfalls still prevails in
+India: but in addition to the difficulty of providing against that
+caution with which the elephant is supposed to reconnoitre
+suspicious ground, it has the further disadvantage of exposing him
+to injury from bruises and dislocations in his fall. Still it was
+the mode of capture employed by the Singhalese, and so late as 1750
+WOLF relates that the native chiefs of the Wanny, when capturing
+elephants for the Dutch, made "pits some fathoms deep in those
+places whither the elephant is wont to go in search of food, across
+which were laid poles covered with branches and baited with the
+food of which he is fondest, making towards which he finds himself
+taken unawares. Thereafter being subdued by fright and exhaustion,
+he was assisted to raise himself to the surface by means of hurdles
+and earth, which he placed underfoot as they were thrown down to
+him, till he was enabled to step out on solid ground, when the
+noosers and decoys were in readiness to tie him up to the nearest
+tree."&mdash;See WOLF'S <i>Life and Adventures</i>, p. 152.
+Shakspeare appears to have been acquainted with the plan of taking
+elephants in pitfalls: Decius, encouraging the conspirators,
+reminds them of C&aelig;sar's taste for anecdotes of animals, by
+which he would undertake to lure him to his fate:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">"For he loves to hear</p>
+<p class="i2">That unicorns may be betrayed with trees.</p>
+<p class="i2">And bears with glasses; <i>elephants with
+holes</i>."</p>
+<p class="i6">JULIUS C&AElig;SAR, Act ii. Scene I.</p>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1571" name=
+"footnote1571"></a><b>Footnote 1571:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1571">(return)</a>
+<p>KNOX'S <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon</i>, A.D. 1681, part i.
+ch. vi. p. 21.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1591" name=
+"footnote1591"></a><b>Footnote 1591:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1591">(return)</a>
+<p>Previous to the death of the female elephant in the Zoological
+Gardens, in the Regent's Park, in 1851, Mr. MITCHELL, the
+Secretary, caused measurements to be accurately made, and found the
+statement of the Singhalese hunters to be strictly correct, the
+height at the shoulders being precisely twice the circumference of
+the fore foot.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1592" name=
+"footnote1592"></a><b>Footnote 1592:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1592">(return)</a>
+<p>Major SKINNER, the Chief Officer at the head of the Commission
+of Roads, in Ceylon, in writing to me, mentions an anecdote
+illustrative of the daring of the Panickeas. "I once saw," he says,
+"a very beautiful example of the confidence with which these
+fellows, from their knowledge of the elephants, meet their worst
+defiance. It was in Neuera-Kalawa; I was bivouacking on the bank of
+a river, and had been kept out so late that I did not get to my
+tent until between 9 and 10 at night. On our return towards it we
+passed several single elephants making their way to the nearest
+water, but at length we came upon a large herd that had taken
+possession of the only road by which we could pass, and which no
+intimidation would induce to move off. I had some Panickeas with
+me; they knew the herd, and counselled extreme caution. After
+trying every device we could think of for a length of time, a
+little old Moorman of the party came to me and requested we should
+all retire to a distance. He then took a couple of chules
+(flambeaux of dried wood, or coco-nut leaves), one in each hand,
+and waving them above his head till they flamed out fiercely, he
+advanced at a deliberate pace to within a few yards of the elephant
+who was acting as leader of the party, and who was growling and
+trumpeting in his rage, and flourished the flaming torches in his
+face. The effect was instantaneous: the whole herd dashed away in a
+panic, bellowing, screaming, and crushing through the underwood,
+whilst we availed ourselves of the open path to make our way to our
+tents."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1631" name=
+"footnote1631"></a><b>Footnote 1631:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1631">(return)</a>
+<p>In the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1701, there is "An
+Account of the taking of Elephants in Ceylon, by Mr. STRACHAN, a
+Physician who lived seventeen years there," in which the author
+describes the manner in which they were shipped by the Dutch, at
+Matura, Galle, and Negombo. A piece of strong sail-cloth having
+been wrapped round the elephant's chest and stomach, he was forced
+into the sea between two tame ones, and there made fast to a boat.
+The tame ones then returned to land, and he swam after the boat to
+the ship, where tackle was reeved to the sail-cloth, and he was
+hoisted on board.</p>
+<p>"But a better way has been invented lately," says Mr. Strachan;
+"a large flat-bottomed vessel is prepared, covered with planks like
+a floor; so that this floor is almost of a height with the key.
+Then the sides of the key and the vessel are adorned with green
+branches, so that the elephant sees no water till he is in the
+ship."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, vol. xxiii. No. 227, p. 1051.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1641" name=
+"footnote1641"></a><b>Footnote 1641:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1641">(return)</a>
+<p>VALENTYN. <i>Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien</i>, ch. xv. p. 272.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1651" name=
+"footnote1651"></a><b>Footnote 1651:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1651">(return)</a>
+<p>It is thus spelled by WOLF, in his <i>Life and Adventures</i>,
+p. 144. <i>Corral</i> is at the present day a household word in
+South America, and especially in La Plata, to designate an
+<i>enclosure for cattle</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1671" name=
+"footnote1671"></a><b>Footnote 1671:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1671">(return)</a>
+<p>See SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S <i>Ceylon</i>, Vol. I. Pt. III. ch.
+xii. p. 415.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1672" name=
+"footnote1672"></a><b>Footnote 1672:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1672">(return)</a>
+<p>Another enormous mass of gneiss is called the Kuruminiagalla, or
+the Beetle-rock, from its resemblance in shape to the back of that
+insect, and hence is said to have been derived the name of the
+town, <i>Kuruna-galle</i> or Kornegalle.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1681" name=
+"footnote1681"></a><b>Footnote 1681:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1681">(return)</a>
+<p>FORBES quotes a Tamil conveyance of land, the purchaser of which
+is to "possess and enjoy it as long as the sun and the moon, the
+earth and its vegetables, the mountains and the River Cauvery
+exist."&mdash;<i>Oriental Memoirs</i>, vol. ii. chap. ii. It will
+not fail to be observed, that the same figure was employed in
+Hebrew literature as a type of duration&mdash;" They shall fear
+thee, <i>so long as the sun and moon endure</i>; throughout all
+generations."&mdash;Psalm lxxii. 5, 17.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1701" name=
+"footnote1701"></a><b>Footnote 1701:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1701">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Pentaptera paniculata</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1702" name=
+"footnote1702"></a><b>Footnote 1702:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1702">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Entada purs&aelig;tha</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1761" name=
+"footnote1761"></a><b>Footnote 1761:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1761">(return)</a>
+<p>Fire, the sound of a horn, and the grunting of a boar are the
+three things which the Greeks, in the middle ages, believed the
+elephant specially to dislike:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>[Greek:</p>
+<p class="i2">Pyr de ptoeitai kai krion kerasphoron,</p>
+<p class="i2">Kai t&ocirc;n moni&ocirc;n t&ecirc;n bo&ecirc;n
+t&ecirc;n athroan.]</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i4">&mdash;PHILE, <i>Expositio de Elephante</i>, 1.
+177.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1781" name=
+"footnote1781"></a><b>Footnote 1781:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1781">(return)</a>
+<p>The other elephant, a fine tusker, which belonged to Dehigam
+Ratamahatmeya, continued in extreme excitement throughout all the
+subsequent operations of the capture, and at last, after attempting
+to break its way into the corral, shaking the bars with its
+forehead and tusks, it went off in a state of frenzy into the
+jungle. A few days after the Aratchy went in search of it with a
+female decoy, and watching its approach, sprang fairly on the
+infuriated beast, with a pair of sharp hooks in his hands, which he
+pressed into tender parts in front of the shoulder, and thus held
+the elephant firmly till chains were passed over its legs, and it
+permitted itself to be led quietly away.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>[pg
+180]</span>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="chap6" id="chap6"></a>CHAP. VI.</h2>
+<h3>THE ELEPHANT.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>The Captives.</i></h4>
+<p>As our sleeping-place was not above two hundred yards from the
+corral, we were frequently awakened by the din of the multitude who
+were bivouacking in the forest, by the merriment round the
+watch-fires, and now and then by the shouts with which the guards
+repulsed some sudden charge of the elephants in attempts to force
+the stockade. But at daybreak, on going down to the corral, we
+found all still and vigilant. The fires were allowed to die out as
+the sun rose, and the watchers who had been relieved were sleeping
+near the great fence, the enclosure on all sides being surrounded
+by crowds of men and boys with spears or white peeled wands about
+ten feet long, whilst the elephants within were huddled together in
+a compact group, no longer turbulent and restless, but exhausted
+and calm, and utterly subdued by apprehension and amazement at all
+that had been passing around them.</p>
+<p>Nine only had been as yet entrapped<a id="footnotetag1801" name=
+"footnotetag1801"></a><a href="#footnote1801"><sup>1801</sup></a>,
+of which <span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id=
+"page181"></a>[pg 181]</span> three were very large, and two were
+little creatures but a few months old. One of the large ones was a
+"rogue" and being unassociated with the rest of the herd, he was
+not admitted to their circle, although permitted to stand near
+them.</p>
+<p>Meanwhile, preparations were making outside to conduct the tame
+elephants into the corral, in order to secure the captives. Noosed
+ropes were in readiness; and far apart from all stood a party of
+the out-caste Rodiyas, the only tribe who will touch a dead
+carcase, to whom, therefore, the duty is assigned of preparing the
+fine flexible rope for noosing, which is made from the fresh hides
+of the deer and the buffalo.</p>
+<p>At length, the bars which secured the entrance to the corral
+were cautiously withdrawn, and two trained elephants passed
+stealthily in, each ridden by its mahout (or <i>ponnekella</i>, as
+the keeper is termed in Ceylon), and one attendant; and, carrying a
+strong collar, formed by coils of rope made from coco-nut fibre,
+from which hung on either side cords of elk's hide, prepared with a
+ready noose. Along with these, and concealed behind them, the
+headman of the "<i>cooroowe</i>," or noosers, crept in, eager to
+secure the honour of taking the first elephant, a distinction which
+this class jealously contests with the mahouts of the chiefs and
+temples. He was a wiry little man, nearly seventy years old, who
+had served in the same capacity under the Kandyan king, and wore
+two silver bangles, which had been conferred on him in testimony of
+his prowess. He was accompanied by his son, named Ranghanie,
+equally renowned for his courage and dexterity.</p>
+<p>On this occasion ten tame elephants were in attendance; two were
+the property of an adjoining temple <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page182" id="page182"></a>[pg 182]</span> (one of which had been
+caught but the year before, yet it was now ready to assist in
+capturing others), four belonged to the neighbouring chiefs, and
+the rest, including the two which first entered the corral, were
+part of the Government stud. Of the latter, one was of prodigious
+age, having been in the service of the Dutch and English
+Governments in succession for upwards of a century.<a id=
+"footnotetag1821" name="footnotetag1821"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1821"><sup>1821</sup></a> The other, called by her keeper
+"Siribeddi," was about fifty years old, and distinguished for
+gentleness and docility. She was a most accomplished decoy, and
+evinced the utmost relish for the sport. Having entered the corral
+noiselessly, carrying a mahout on her shoulders with the headman of
+the noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly along with a sly
+composure and an assumed air of easy indifference; sauntering
+leisurely in the direction of the captives, and halting now and
+then to pluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As
+she approached the herd, they put themselves in motion to meet her,
+and the leader, having advanced in front and passed his trunk
+gently over her head, turned and paced slowly back to his dejected
+companions. Siribeddi followed with the same listless step, and
+drew herself up close behind him, thus affording the nooser an
+opportunity to stoop under her and slip the noose over the hind
+foot of the wild one. The latter instantly perceived his danger,
+shook off the rope, and turned to attack the man. He would have
+suffered for his temerity had not Siribeddi protected him by
+raising her trunk and driving the assailant into the midst of the
+herd, when the old man, being slightly <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>[pg 183]</span>
+wounded, was helped out of the corral, and his son, Ranghanie, took
+his place.</p>
+<p>The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads towards
+the centre. The largest male was singled out, and two tame ones
+pushed boldly in, one on either side of him, till the three stood
+nearly abreast. He made no resistance, but betrayed his uneasiness
+by shifting restlessly from foot to foot. Ranghanie now crept up,
+and, holding the rope open with both hands (its other extremity
+being made fast to Siribeddi's collar), and watching the instant
+when the wild elephant lifted its hind-foot, succeeded in passing
+the noose over its leg, drew it close, and fled to the rear. The
+two tame elephants instantly fell back, Siribeddi stretched the
+rope to its full length, and, whilst she dragged out the captive,
+her companion placed himself between her and the herd to prevent
+any interference.</p>
+<p>In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn backwards some
+twenty or thirty yards, making furious resistance, bellowing in
+terror, plunging on all sides, and crushing the smaller timber,
+which bent like reeds beneath his clumsy struggles. Siribeddi drew
+him steadily after her, and wound the rope round the proper tree,
+holding it all the time at its full tension, and stepping
+cautiously across it when, in order to give it a second turn, it
+was necessary to pass between the tree and the elephant. With a
+coil round the stem, however, it was beyond her strength to haul
+the prisoner close up, which was, nevertheless, necessary in order
+to make him perfectly fast; but the second tame one, perceiving the
+difficulty, returned from the herd, confronted the struggling
+prisoner, pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head,
+forcing him backwards, whilst at <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page184" id="page184"></a>[pg 184]</span> every step Siribeddi
+hauled in the slackened rope till she brought him fairly up to the
+foot of the tree, where he was made fast by the cooroowe people. A
+second noose was then passed over the other hind-leg, and secured
+like the first, both legs being afterwards hobbled together by
+ropes made from the fibre of the kitool or jaggery palm, which,
+being more flexible than that of the coco-nut, occasions less
+formidable ulcerations. The two decoys then ranged themselves, as
+before, abreast of the prisoner on either side, thus enabling
+Ranghanie to stoop under them and noose the two fore-feet as he had
+already done the hind; and these ropes being made fast to a tree in
+front, the capture was complete, and the tame elephants and keepers
+withdrew to repeat the operation on another of the herd.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/209.png"><img width="100%" src="images/209.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>[pg
+185]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/210.png"><img width="100%" src="images/210.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>As long as the tame ones stood beside him the poor animal
+remained comparatively calm and almost passive under his distress,
+but the moment they moved off, and he was left utterly alone, he
+made the most surprising efforts to set himself free and rejoin his
+companions. He felt the ropes with his trunk and tried to untie the
+numerous knots; he drew backwards to liberate his fore-legs, then
+leaned forward to extricate the hind ones, till every branch of the
+tall tree vibrated with his struggles. He screamed in anguish, with
+his proboscis raised high in the air, then falling on his side he
+laid his head to the ground, first his cheek and then his brow, and
+pressed down his doubled-in trunk as though he would force it into
+the earth; then suddenly rising he balanced himself on his forehead
+and forelegs, holding his hind-feet fairly off the ground. This
+scene of distress continued some hours, with occasional pauses of
+apparent stupor, after which the struggle was from time to time
+renewed convulsively, and as if by <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page186" id="page186"></a>[pg 186]</span> some sudden impulse; but
+at last the vain strife subsided, and the poor animal remained
+perfectly motionless, the image of exhaustion and despair.</p>
+<p>Meanwhile Ranghanie presented himself in front of the governor's
+stage to claim the accustomed largesse for tying the first
+elephant. He was rewarded by a shower of rupees, and retired to
+resume his perilous duties in the corral.</p>
+<p>The rest of the herd were now in a state of pitiable dejection,
+and pressed closely together as if under a sense of common
+misfortune. For the most part they stood at rest in a compact body,
+fretful and uneasy. At intervals one more impatient than the rest
+would move out a few steps to reconnoitre; the others would follow
+at first slowly, then at a quicker pace, and at last the whole herd
+would rush off furiously to renew the often-baffled attempt to
+storm the stockade.</p>
+<p>There was a strange combination of the sublime and the
+ridiculous in these abortive onsets; the appearance of prodigious
+power in their ponderous limbs, coupled with the almost ludicrous
+shuffle of their clumsy gait, and the fury of their apparently
+resistless charge, converted in an instant into timid retreat. They
+rushed madly down the enclosure, their backs arched, their tails
+extended, their ears spread, and their trunks raised high above
+their heads, trumpeting and uttering shrill screams, yet when one
+step further would have dashed the opposing fence into fragments,
+they stopped short on a few white rods being pointed at them
+through the paling<a id="footnotetag1861" name=
+"footnotetag1861"></a><a href="#footnote1861"><sup>1861</sup></a>;
+and, on catching the derisive shouts of the</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>[pg
+187]</span>
+<p>crowd, they turned in utter discomfiture, and after an
+objectless circle or two through the corral, they paced slowly back
+to their melancholy halting place in the shade.</p>
+<p>The crowd, chiefly comprised of young men and boys, exhibited
+astonishing nerve and composure at such moments, rushing up to the
+point towards which the elephants charged, pointing their wands at
+their trunks, and keeping up the continual cry of <i>whoop!
+whoop!</i> which invariably turned them to flight.</p>
+<p>The second victim singled out from the herd was secured in the
+same manner as the first. It was a female. The tame ones forced
+themselves in on either side as before, cutting her off from her
+companions, whilst Ranghanie stooped under them and attached the
+fatal noose, and Siribeddi dragged her out amidst unavailing
+struggles, when she was made fast by each leg to the nearest group
+of strong trees. When the noose was placed upon her fore-foot, she
+seized it with her trunk, and succeeded in carrying it to her
+mouth, where she would speedily have severed it had not a tame
+elephant interfered, and placing his foot on the rope pressed it
+downwards out of her jaws. The individuals who acted as leaders in
+the successive charges on the palisades were always those selected
+by the noosers, and the operation of tying each, from the first
+approaches of the decoys, till the captive was left alone by the
+tree, occupied on an average somewhat less than three-quarters of
+an hour.</p>
+<p>It is strange that in these encounters the wild elephants
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>[pg
+188]</span> made no attempt to attack or dislodge the mahouts or
+the cooroowes, who rode on the tame ones. They moved in the very
+midst of the herd, any individual in which could in a moment have
+pulled the riders from their seats; but no effort was made to
+molest them.<a id="footnotetag1881" name=
+"footnotetag1881"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1881"><sup>1881</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/213.png"><img width="100%" src="images/213.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>As one after another their leaders wore entrapped and forced
+away from them, the remainder of the group <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>[pg 189]</span>
+evinced increased emotion and excitement; but whatever may have
+been their sympathy for their lost companions, their alarm seemed
+to prevent them at first from following them to the trees to which
+they had been tied. In passing them afterwards they sometimes
+stopped, mutually entwined their trunks, lapped them round each
+other's limbs and neck, and exhibited the most touching distress at
+their detention, but made no attempt to disturb the cords that
+bound them.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/214.png"><img width="100%" src="images/214.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>The variety of disposition in the herd as evidenced by
+difference of demeanour was very remarkable: some submitted with
+comparatively little resistance; whilst others in their fury dashed
+themselves on the ground with a force sufficient to destroy any
+weaker <span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>[pg
+190]</span> animal. They vented their rage upon every tree and
+plant within reach; if small enough to be torn down, they levelled
+them with their trunks, and stripping them of their leaves and
+branches, they tossed them wildly over their heads on all sides.
+Some in their struggles made no sound, whilst others bellowed and
+trumpeted furiously, then uttered short convulsive screams, and at
+last, exhausted and hopeless, gave vent to their anguish in low and
+piteous moanings. Some, after a few violent efforts of this kind,
+lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering
+than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.
+Others in all the vigour of their rage exhibited the most
+surprising contortions; and to us who had been accustomed to
+associate with the unwieldy bulk of the elephant the idea that he
+must of necessity be stiff and inflexible, the attitudes into which
+they forced themselves were almost incredible. I saw one lie with
+the cheek pressed to the earth, and the fore-legs stretched in
+front, whilst the body was twisted round till the hind-legs
+extended in the opposite direction.</p>
+<p>It was astonishing that their trunks were not wounded by the
+violence with which they flung them on all sides. One twisted his
+proboscis into such fantastic shapes, that it resembled the
+writhings of a gigantic worm; he coiled it and uncoiled it with
+restless rapidity, curling it up like a watch-spring, and suddenly
+unfolding it again to its full length. Another, which lay otherwise
+motionless in all the stupor of hopeless anguish, slowly beat the
+ground with the extremity of his trunk, as a man in despair beats
+his knee with the palm of his hand.</p>
+<p>They displayed an amount of sensitiveness and delicacy of touch
+in the foot, which was very remarkable <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>[pg 191]</span> in a
+limb of such clumsy dimensions and protected by so thick a
+covering. The noosers could always force them to lift it from the
+ground by the gentlest touch of a leaf or twig, apparently applied
+so as to tickle; but the imposition of the rope was instantaneously
+perceived, and if it could not be reached by the trunk the other
+foot was applied to feel its position, and if possible remove it
+before the noose could be drawn tight.</p>
+<p>One practice was incessant with almost the entire herd: in the
+interval between their struggles they beat the ground with their
+fore feet, and taking up the dry earth in a coil of the trunk, they
+flung it dexterously over every part of their body. Even when lying
+down, the sand within reach was thus collected and scattered over
+their limbs: then inserting the extremity of the trunk in their
+mouths, they withdrew a quantity of water, which they discharged
+over their backs, repeating the operation again and again, till the
+dust was thoroughly saturated. I was astonished at the quantity of
+water thus applied, which was sufficient when the elephant, as was
+generally the case, had worked the spot where he lay into a hollow,
+to convert its surface into a coating of mud. Seeing that the herd
+had been now twenty-four hours without access to water of any kind,
+surrounded by watch-fires, and exhausted by struggling and terror,
+the supply of moisture an elephant is capable of containing in the
+receptacle attached to his stomach must be very considerable.</p>
+<p>The conduct of the tame ones during all these proceedings was
+truly wonderful. They displayed the most perfect conception of
+every movement, both of the object to be attained, and of the means
+to accomplish it.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>[pg
+192]</span>
+<p>They manifested the utmost enjoyment in what was going on. There
+was no ill-humour, no malignity in the spirit displayed, in what
+was otherwise a heartless proceeding, but they set about it in a
+way that showed a thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime.
+Their caution was as remarkable as their sagacity; there was no
+hurrying, no contusion, they never ran foul of the ropes, were
+never in the way of the animals already noosed; and amidst the most
+violent struggles, when the tame ones had frequently to step across
+the captives, they in no instance trampled on them, or occasioned
+the slightest accident or annoyance. So far from this, they saw
+intuitively a difficulty or a danger, and addressed themselves
+unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of the larger elephants, he
+contrived before he could be hauled close up to the tree, to walk
+once or twice round it, carrying the rope with him; the decoy,
+perceiving the advantage he had thus gained over the nooser, walked
+up of her own accord, and pushed him backwards with her head, till
+she made him unwind himself again; upon which the rope was hauled
+tight and made fast. More than once, when a wild one was extending
+his trunk, and would have intercepted the rope about to be placed
+over his leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own trunk,
+pushed his aside, and prevented him; and on one occasion, when
+successive efforts had failed to put the noose over the fore-leg of
+an elephant which was already secured by one foot, but which wisely
+put the other to the ground as often as it was attempted to pass
+the noose under it, I saw the decoy watch her opportunity, and when
+his foot was again raised, suddenly push in her own leg beneath it,
+and hold it up till the noose was attached and drawn tight.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>[pg
+193]</span>
+<p>One could almost fancy there was a display of dry humour in the
+manner in which the decoys thus played with the fears of the wild
+herd, and made light of their efforts at resistance. When reluctant
+they shoved them forward, when violent they drove them back; when
+the wild ones threw themselves down, the tame ones butted them with
+head and shoulders, and forced them up again. And when it was
+necessary to keep them down, they knelt upon them, and prevented
+them from rising, till the ropes were secured.</p>
+<p>At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with a bunch
+of leaves, and the graceful ease with which an elephant uses his
+trunk on such occasions is very striking. It is doubtless owing to
+the combination of a circular with a horizontal movement in that
+flexible limb; but it is impossible to see an elephant fanning
+himself without being struck by the singular elegance of motion
+which he displays. The tame ones, too, indulged in the luxury of
+dusting themselves with sand, by flinging it from their trunks; but
+it was a curious illustration of their delicate sagacity, that so
+long as the mahout was on their necks, they confined themselves to
+flinging the dust along their sides and stomach, as if aware, that
+to throw it over their heads and back would cause annoyance to
+their riders.</p>
+<p>One of the decoys which rendered good service, and was obviously
+held in special awe by the wild herd, was a tusker belonging to
+Dehigame Rata-mahatmeya. It was not that he used his tusks for
+purposes of offence, but he was enabled to insinuate himself
+between two elephants by wedging them in where he could not force
+his head; besides which they assisted him in raising up the fallen
+and refractory with greater ease. In some <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>[pg 194]</span>
+instances where the intervention of the other decoys failed to
+reduce a wild one to order, the mere presence and approach of the
+tusker seemed to inspire fear, and insure submission, without more
+active intervention.</p>
+<p>I do not know whether it was the surprising qualities exhibited
+by the tame elephants that cast the courage and dexterity of the
+men into the shade, but even when supported by the presence, the
+sagacity, and co-operation of these wonderful creatures, the part
+sustained by the noosers can bear no comparison with the address
+and daring displayed by the <i>p&iacute;cador</i> and
+<i>matador</i> in a Spanish bull-fight. They certainly possessed
+great quickness of eye in watching the slightest movement of the
+elephant, and great expertness in flinging the noose over its foot
+and attaching it firmly before the animal could tear it off with
+its trunk; but in all this they had the cover of the decoys to
+conceal them; and their shelter behind which to retreat. Apart from
+the services which, from their prodigious strength, the tame
+elephants are alone capable of rendering, in dragging out and
+securing the captives, it is perfectly obvious that without their
+co-operation the utmost prowess and dexterity of the hunters would
+not avail them, unsupported, to enter the corral and ensnare and
+lead out a single captive.</p>
+<p>Of the two tiny elephants which were entrapped, one was about
+ten months old, the other somewhat more. The smaller one had a
+little bolt head covered with woolly brown hair, and was the most
+amusing and interesting miniature imaginable. Both kept constantly
+with the herd, trotting after them in every charge; when the others
+stood at rest they ran in and out between the legs of the older
+ones; and not their own mothers alone, but every female in the
+group caressed them in turn.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>[pg
+195]</span>
+<p>The dam of the youngest was the second elephant singled out by
+the noosers, and as she was dragged along by the decoys, the little
+creature kept by her side till she was drawn close to the fatal
+tree. The men at first were rather amused than otherwise by its
+anger; but they found that it would not permit them to place the
+second noose upon its mother; it ran between her and them, it tried
+to seize the rope, it pushed them and struck them with its little
+trunk, till they were forced to drive it back to the herd. It
+retreated slowly, shouting all the way, and pausing at every step
+to look back. It then attached itself to the largest female
+remaining in the group, and placed itself across her forelegs,
+whilst she hung down her trunk over its side and soothed and
+caressed it. Here it continued moaning and lamenting; till the
+noosers had left off securing its mother, when it instantly
+returned to her side; but as it became troublesome again, attacking
+every one who passed, it was at last tied up by a rope to an
+adjoining tree, to which the other young one was also tied. The
+second little one, equally with its playmate, exhibited great
+affection for its dam; it went willingly with its captor as far as
+the tree to which she was fastened, and in passing her stretched
+out its trunk and tried to rejoin her; but finding itself forced
+along, it caught at every twig and branch within its reach, and
+screamed with grief and disappointment.</p>
+<p>These two little creatures were the most vociferous of the whole
+herd, their shouts were incessant, they struggled to attack every
+one within reach; and as their bodies were more lithe and pliant
+than those of greater growth, their contortions were quite
+wonderful. The most amusing thing was, that in the midst of all
+their <span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>[pg
+196]</span> agony and affliction, the little fellows seized on
+every article of food that was thrown to them, and ate and roared
+simultaneously.</p>
+<p>Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the rogue. Though
+far more savage than the others, he joined in none of their charges
+and assaults on the fences, as they uniformly drove him off and
+would not permit him to enter their circle. When dragged past
+another of his companions in misfortune, who was lying exhausted on
+the ground, he flew upon him and attempted to fasten his teeth in
+his head; this was the only instance of viciousness which occurred
+during the progress of the corral. When tied up and overpowered, he
+was at first noisy and violent, but soon lay down peacefully, a
+sign, according to the hunters, that his death was at hand. Their
+prognostication was correct; he continued for about twelve hours to
+cover himself with dust like the others, and to moisten it with
+water from his trunk; but at length he lay exhausted, and died so
+calmly, that having been moving but a few moment before, his death
+was only perceived by the myriads of black flies by which his body
+was almost instantly covered, although not one was visible a moment
+before.<a id="footnotetag1961" name="footnotetag1961"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1961"><sup>1961</sup></a> The Rodiyas were called
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>[pg
+197]</span> in to loose the ropes that bound him, from the tree,
+and two tame elephants being harnessed to the dead body, it was
+dragged to a distance without the corral.</p>
+<p>When every wild elephant had been noosed and tied up, the scene
+presented was truly oriental. From one to two thousand natives,
+many of them in gaudy dresses and armed with spears, crowded about
+the enclosures. Their <span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id=
+"page198"></a>[pg 198]</span> families had collected to see the
+spectacle; women, whose children clung like little bronzed Cupids
+by their sides; and girls, many of them in the graceful costume of
+that part of the country,&mdash;a scarf, which, after having been
+brought round the waist, is thrown over the left shoulder, leaving
+the right arm and side free and uncovered.</p>
+<p>At the foot of each tree was its captive elephant; some still
+struggling and writhing in feverish excitement, whilst others, in
+exhaustion and despair, lay motionless, except that, from time to
+time, they heaped fresh dust upon their heads. The mellow notes of
+a Kandyan flute, which was played at a distance, had a striking
+effect upon one or more of them; they turned their heads in the
+direction from which the music came, expanded their broad ears, and
+were evidently soothed with the plaintive sound. The two young ones
+alone still roared for freedom; they stamped their feet, and blew
+clouds of dust over their shoulders, brandishing their little
+trunks aloft, and attacking every one who came within their
+reach.</p>
+<p>At first the older ones, when secured, spurned every offer of
+food, trampled it under foot, and turned haughtily away. A few,
+however, as they became more composed, could not resist the
+temptation of the juicy stems of the plantain, but rolling them
+under foot, till they detached the layers, they raised them in
+their trunks, and commenced chewing listlessly.</p>
+<p>On the whole, whilst the sagacity, the composure, and docility
+of the decoys were such as to excite lively astonishment, it was
+not possible to withhold the highest admiration from the calm and
+dignified demeanour of the captives. Their entire bearing was at
+variance with <span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id=
+"page199"></a>[pg 199]</span> the representation made by some of
+the "sportsmen" who harass them, that they are treacherous, savage,
+and revengeful; when tormented by the guns of their persecutors,
+they, no doubt, display their powers and sagacity in efforts to
+retaliate or escape; but here their every movement was indicative
+of innocence and timidity. After a struggle, in which they evinced
+no disposition to violence or revenge, they submitted with the
+calmness of despair. Their attitudes were pitiable, their grief was
+most touching, and their low moaning went to the heart. We could
+not have borne to witness their distress had their capture been
+effected by the needless infliction of pain, or had they been
+destined to ill-treatment afterwards.</p>
+<p>It was now about two hours after noon, and the first elephants
+that had entered the corral having been disposed of, preparations
+were made to reopen the gate, and drive in the other two herds,
+over which the watchers were still keeping guard. The area of the
+enclosure was cleared; and silence was again imposed on the crowds
+who surrounded the corral. The bars that secured the entrance were
+withdrawn and every precaution repeated as before; but as the space
+inside was now somewhat trodden down, especially near the entrance,
+by the frequent charges of the last herd, and as it was to be
+apprehended that the others might be earlier alarmed and retrace
+their steps, before the barricades could be replaced, two tame ones
+were stationed inside to protect the men to whom that duty was
+assigned.</p>
+<p>All preliminaries being at length completed, the signal was
+given; the beaters on the side most distant from the corral closed
+in with tom-toms and discordant noises; a hedge-fire of musketry
+was kept up in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id=
+"page200"></a>[pg 200]</span> rear of the terrified elephants;
+thousands of voices urged them forward; we heard the jungle
+crashing as they came on, and at last they advanced through an
+opening amongst the trees, bearing down all before them like a
+charge of locomotives. They were led by a huge female, nearly nine
+feet high, after whom one half of the herd dashed precipitately
+through the narrow entrance, but the rest turning suddenly towards
+the left, succeeded in forcing the cordon of guards and making good
+their escape to the forest.</p>
+<p>No sooner had the others passed the gate, than the two tame
+elephants stepped forward from either side, and before the herd
+could return from the further end of the enclosure, the bars were
+drawn, the entrance closed, and the men in charge glided outside
+the stockade. The elephants which had previously been made
+prisoners within exhibited intense excitement as the fresh din
+arose around them; they started to their feet, and stretched their
+trunks in the direction whence they winded the scent of the herd in
+its headlong flight; and as the latter rushed past, they renewed
+their struggles to get free and follow. It is not possible to
+imagine anything more exciting than the spectacle which the wild
+ones presented careering round the corral, uttering piercing
+screams, their heads erect and trunks aloft, the very emblems of
+rage and perplexity, of power and helplessness.</p>
+<p>Along with those which entered at the second drive was one that
+evidently belonged to another herd, and had been separated from
+them in the <i>m&ecirc;l&eacute;e</i> when the latter effected
+their escape, and, as usual, his new companions in misfortune drove
+him off indignantly as often as he attempted to approach them.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>[pg
+201]</span>
+<p>The demeanour of those taken in the second drive differed
+materially from that of the preceding captives, who, having entered
+the corral in darkness, to find themselves girt with fire and
+smoke, and beset by hideous sounds and sights on every side, were
+speedily reduced by fear to stupor and submission&mdash;whereas,
+the second herd having passed into the enclosure by daylight, and
+its area being trodden down in many places, could clearly discover
+the fences, and were consequently more alarmed and enraged at their
+confinement. They were thus as restless as the others had been
+calm, and so much more vigorous in their assaults that, on one
+occasion, their courageous leader, undaunted by the multitude of
+white wands thrust towards her, was only driven back from the
+stockade by a hunter hurling a blazing flambeau at her head. Her
+attitude as she stood repulsed, but still irresolute, was a study
+for a painter. Her eye dilated, her ears expanded, her back arched
+like a tiger, and her fore-foot in air, whilst she uttered those
+hideous screams that are imperfectly described by the term
+"<i>trumpeting</i>."</p>
+<p>Although repeatedly passing by the unfortunates from the former
+drove, the new herd seemed to take no friendly notice of them; they
+halted inquiringly for a minute, and then resumed their career
+round the corral, and once or twice in their headlong flight they
+rushed madly over the bodies of the prostrate captives as they lay
+in their misery on the ground.</p>
+<p>It was evening before the new captives had grown wearied with
+their furious and repeated charges, and stood still in the centre
+of the corral collected into a terrified and motionless group. The
+fires were then relighted, the guard redoubled by the addition of
+the watchers, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id=
+"page202"></a>[pg 202]</span> who were now relieved from duty in
+the forest, and the spectators retired to their bungalows for the
+night.</p>
+<p>The business of the <i>third day</i> began by noosing and tying
+up the new captives, and the first sought out was their magnificent
+leader. Siribeddi and the tame tusker having forced themselves on
+either side of her, a boy in the service of the Rata-Mahatmeya
+succeeded in attaching a rope to her hind-foot. Siribeddi moved
+off, but feeling her strength insufficient to drag the reluctant
+prize, she went down on her fore-knees, so as to add the full
+weight of her body to the pull. The tusker, seeing her difficulty,
+placed himself in front of the prisoner, and forced her backwards,
+step by step, till his companion, brought her fairly up to the
+tree, and wound the rope round the stem. Though overpowered by
+fear, she showed the fullest sense of the nature of the danger she
+had to apprehend. She kept her head turned towards the noosers, and
+tried to step in advance of the decoys; in spite of all their
+efforts, she tore off the first noose from her fore-leg, and
+placing it under her foot, snapped it into fathom lengths. When
+finally secured, her writhings were extraordinary. She doubled in
+her head under her chest, till she lay as round as a hedgehog, and
+rising again, stood on her fore-feet, and lifting her hind-feet off
+the ground, she wrung them from side to side, till the great tree
+above her quivered in every branch.</p>
+<p>Before proceeding to catch the others, we requested that the
+smaller trees and jungle, which partially obstructed our view,
+might be broken away, being no longer essential to screen the
+entrance to the corral; and five of the tame elephants were brought
+up for the purpose. They felt the strength of each tree with their
+trunks, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id=
+"page203"></a>[pg 203]</span> then swaying it backwards and
+forwards, by pushing it with their foreheads, they watched the
+opportunity when it was in full swing to raise their fore-feet
+against the stem, and bear it down to the ground. Then tearing off
+the festoons of climbing plants, and trampling down the smaller
+branches and brushwood, they pitched them with their tusks, piling
+them into heaps along the side of the fence.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/228.png"><img width="100%" src="images/228.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>Amongst the last that was secured was the solitary individual
+belonging to the fugitive herd. When they attempted to drag him
+backwards from the tree near which he was noosed, he laid hold of
+it with his trunk and lay down on his side immoveable. The temple
+tusker and another were ordered up to assist, and it required the
+combined efforts of the three elephants to <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>[pg 204]</span> force
+him along. When dragged to the place at which he was to be tied up,
+he continued the contest with desperation, and to prevent the
+second noose being placed on his foot, he sat down on his haunches,
+almost in the attitude of the "Florentine Boar," keeping his
+hind-feet beneath him, and defending his fore-feet with his trunk,
+with which he flung back the rope as often as it was attempted to
+attach it.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/229.png"><img width="100%" src="images/229.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>When overpowered and made fast, his grief was most affecting;
+his violence sunk to utter prostration, and he lay on the ground,
+uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.</p>
+<p>The final operation was that of slackening the ropes, and
+marching each captive down to the river between two tame ones. This
+was effected very simply. A decoy, with a strong collar round its
+neck, stood on either side of the wild one, on which a similar
+collar was formed, by successive coils of coco-nut rope; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>[pg
+205]</span> then, connecting the three collars together, the
+prisoner was effectually made safe between his two guards. During
+this operation, it was curious to see how the tame elephant, from
+time to time, used its trunk to shield the arm of its rider, and
+ward off the trunk of the prisoner, who resisted the placing the
+rope round his neck. This done, the nooses were removed from his
+feet, and he was marched off to the river, in which he and his
+companions were allowed to bathe; a privilege of which all availed
+themselves eagerly. Each was then made fast to a tree in the
+forest, and keepers being assigned to him, with a retinue of
+leaf-cutters, he was plentifully supplied with his favourite food,
+and left to the care and tuition of his new masters.</p>
+<p>Returning from a spectacle such as I have attempted to describe,
+one cannot help feeling how immeasurably it exceeds in interest
+those royal battues where timid deer are driven in crowds to
+unresisting slaughter; or those vaunted "wild sports" the amusement
+of which appears to be in proportion to the effusion of blood. Here
+the only display of power was the imposition of restraint; and
+though considerable mortality often occurs amongst the animals
+caught, the infliction of pain, so far from being an incident of
+the operation, is most cautiously avoided from its tendency to
+enrage, the policy of the captor being to conciliate and soothe.
+The whole scene exhibits the most marvellous example of the
+voluntary alliance of animal sagacity and instinct in active
+co-operation with human intelligence and courage; and nothing else
+in nature, not even the chase of the whale, can afford so vivid an
+illustration of the sovereignty of man over brute creation even
+when confronted with force in its most stupendous embodiment.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>[pg
+206]</span>
+<p>Of the two young elephants which were taken in the corral, the
+smallest was sent down to my house at Colombo, where he became a
+general favourite with the servants. He attached himself especially
+to the coachman, who had a little shed erected for him near his own
+quarters at the stables. But his favourite resort was the kitchen,
+where he received a daily allowance of milk and plantains, and
+picked up several other delicacies besides. He was innocent and
+playful in the extreme, and when walking in the grounds he would
+trot up to me, twine his little trunk round my arm, and coax me to
+take him to the fruit-trees. In the evening the grass-cutters now
+and then indulged him by permitting him to carry home a load of
+fodder for the horses, on which occasions he assumed an air of
+gravity that was highly amusing, showing that he was deeply
+impressed with the importance and responsibility of the service
+entrusted to him. Being sometimes permitted to enter the
+dining-room, and helped to fruit at desert, he at last learned his
+way to the side-board; and on more than one occasion having stolen
+in, during the absence of the servants, he made a clear sweep of
+the wine-glasses and china in his endeavours to reach a basket of
+oranges. For these and similar pranks we were at last forced to put
+him away. He was sent to the Government stud, where he was
+affectionately received and adopted by Siribeddi, and he now takes
+his turn of public duty in the department of the Commissioner of
+Roads.</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1801" name=
+"footnote1801"></a><b>Footnote 1801:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1801">(return)</a>
+<p>In some of the elephant hunts conducted in the southern
+provinces of Ceylon by the earlier British Governors, as many as
+170 and 200 elephants were secured in a single corral, of which a
+portion only were taken out for the public service, and the rest
+shot, the motive being to rid the neighbourhood of them, and thus
+protect the crops from destruction. In the present instance, the
+object being to secure only as many as were required for the
+Government stud, it was not sought to entrap more than could
+conveniently be attended to and trained after capture.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1821" name=
+"footnote1821"></a><b>Footnote 1821:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1821">(return)</a>
+<p>This elephant is since dead; she grew infirm and diseased, and
+died at Colombo in 1848. Her skeleton is now in the Museum of the
+Natural History Society at Belfast.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1861" name=
+"footnote1861"></a><b>Footnote 1861:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1861">(return)</a>
+<p>The fact of the elephant exhibiting timidity, on having a long
+rod pointed towards him, was known to the Romans; and PLINY,
+quoting from the annals of PISO, relates, that in order to
+inculcate contempt for want of courage in the elephant, they were
+introduced into the circus during the triumph of METELLUS, after
+the conquest of the Carthaginians in Sicily, and <i>driven round
+the area by workmen holding blunted spears</i>,&mdash;"Ab operariis
+hastas pr&aelig;pilatas habentibus, per circum totam
+actos."&mdash;Lib. viii. c. 6.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1881" name=
+"footnote1881"></a><b>Footnote 1881:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1881">(return)</a>
+<p>"In a corral, to be on a tame elephant, seems to insure perfect
+immunity from the attacks of the wild ones. I once saw the old
+chief Mollegodde ride in amongst a herd of wild elephants, on a
+small elephant; so small that the Adigar's head was on a level the
+back of the wild animals: I felt very nervous, but he rode right in
+among them, and received not the slightest
+molestation."&mdash;<i>Letter from</i> MAJOR SKINNER.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1961" name=
+"footnote1961"></a><b>Footnote 1961:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag1961">(return)</a>
+<p>The surprising faculty of vultures for discovering carrion, has
+been a subject of much speculation, as to whether it be dependent
+on their power of sight or of scent. It is not, however, more
+mysterious than the unerring certainty and rapidity with which some
+of the minor animals, and more especially insects, in warm climates
+congregate around the offal on which they feed. Circumstanced as
+they are, they must be guided towards their object mainly if not
+exclusively by the sense of smell; but that which excites
+astonishment is the small degree of odour which seems to suffice
+for the purpose; the subtlety and rapidity with which it traverses
+and impregnates the air; and the keen and quick perception with
+which it is taken up by the organs of those creatures. The instance
+of the scavenger beetles has been already alluded to; the
+promptitude with which they discern the existence of matter suited
+to their purposes, and the speed with which they hurry to it from
+all directions; often from distances as extraordinary,
+proportionably, as those traversed by the eye of the vulture. In
+the instance of the dying elephant referred to above, life was
+barely extinct when the flies, of which not one was visible but a
+moment before, arrived in clouds and blackened the body by their
+multitude; scarcely an instant was allowed to elapse for the
+commencement of decomposition; no odour of putrefaction could be
+discerned by us who stood close by; yet some peculiar smell of
+mortality, simultaneously with parting breath, must have summoned
+them to the feast. Ants exhibit an instinct equally surprising. I
+have sometimes covered up a particle of refined sugar with paper on
+the centre of a polished table; and counted the number of minutes
+which would elapse before it was fastened on by the small black
+ants of Ceylon, and a line formed to lower it safely to the floor.
+Here was a substance which, to our apprehension at least, is
+altogether inodorous, and yet the quick sense of smell must have
+been the only conductor of the ants. It has been observed of those
+fishes which travel overland on the evaporation of the ponds in
+which they live, that they invariably march in the direction of the
+nearest water, and even when captured, and placed on the floor of a
+room, their efforts to escape are always made towards the same
+point. Is the sense of smell sufficient to account for this display
+of instinct in them? or is it aided by special organs in the case
+of the others? Dr. MCGEE, formerly of the Royal Navy, writing to me
+on the subject of the instant appearance of flies in the vicinity
+of dead bodies, says: "In warm climates they do not wait for death
+to invite them to the banquet. In Jamaica I have again and again
+seen them settle on a patient, and hardly to be driven away by the
+nurse, the patient himself saying. 'Here are these flies coming to
+eat me ere I am dead.' At times they have enabled the doctor, when
+otherwise he would have been in doubt as to his prognosis, to
+determine whether the strange apyretic interval occasionally
+present in the last stage of yellow fever was the fatal lull or the
+lull of recovery; and 'What say the flies?' has been the settling
+question. Among many, many cases during a long period I have seen
+but one recovery after the assembling of the flies. I consider the
+foregoing as a confirmation of smell being the guide even to the
+attendants, a cadaverous smell has been perceived to arise from the
+body of a patient twenty-four hours before death."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>[pg
+207]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap7" id="chap7"></a>CHAP. VII.</h2>
+<h3>THE ELEPHANT.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>Conduct in Captivity.</i></h4>
+<p>The idea prevailed in ancient times, and obtains even at the
+present day, that the Indian elephant surpasses that of Africa in
+sagacity and tractability, and consequently in capacity for
+training, so as to render its services more available to man. There
+does not appear to me to be sufficient ground for this conclusion.
+It originated, in all probability, in the first impressions created
+by the accounts of the elephant brought back by the Greeks after
+the Indian expedition of Alexander, and above all by the
+descriptions of Aristotle, whose knowledge of the animal was
+derived exclusively from the East. A long interval elapsed before
+the elephant of Africa, and its capabilities, became known in
+Europe. The first elephants brought to Greece by Antipater, were
+from India, as were also those introduced by Pyrrhus into Italy.
+Taught by this example, the Carthaginians undertook to employ
+African elephants in war. Jugurtha led them against Metellus, and
+Juba against C&aelig;sar; but from inexperienced and deficient
+training, they proved less effective than the elephants of
+India<a id="footnotetag2071" name="footnotetag2071"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2071"><sup>2071</sup></a>, and the historians
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>[pg
+208]</span> of these times ascribed to inferiority of race, that
+which was but the result of insufficient education.</p>
+<p>It must, however, be remembered that the elephants which, at a
+later period, astonished the Romans by their sagacity, and whose
+performances in the amphitheatre have been described by &AElig;lian
+and Pliny, were brought from Africa, and acquired their
+accomplishments from European instructors<a id="footnotetag2081"
+name="footnotetag2081"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2081"><sup>2081</sup></a>; a sufficient proof that under
+equally favourable auspices the African species are capable of
+developing similar docility and powers with those of India. It is
+one of the facts from which the inferiority of the Negro race has
+been inferred, that they alone, of all the nations amongst whom the
+elephant is found, have never manifested ability to domesticate it;
+and even as regards the more highly developed races who inhabited
+the valley of the Nile, it is observable that the elephant is
+nowhere to be found amongst the animals figured on the monuments of
+ancient Egypt, whilst the camelopard, the lion, and even the
+hippopotamus are represented. And although in later times the
+knowledge of the art of training appears to have existed under the
+Ptolemies, and on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, it
+admits of no doubt that it was communicated by the more
+accomplished natives of India who had settled there.<a id=
+"footnotetag2082" name="footnotetag2082"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2082"><sup>2082</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>[pg
+209]</span>
+<p>Another favourite doctrine of the earlier visitors to the East
+seems to me to be equally fallacious; PYRARD, BERNIER, PHILLIPE,
+THEVENOT, and other travellers in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, proclaimed the superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, in
+size, strength, and sagacity, above those of all other parts of
+India<a id="footnotetag2091" name="footnotetag2091"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2091"><sup>2091</sup></a>; and TAVERNIER in particular is
+supposed to have stated that if a Ceylon elephant be introduced
+amongst those bred in any other place, by an instinct of nature
+they do him homage by laying their trunks to the ground, and
+raising them reverentially. This passage has been so repeatedly
+quoted in works on Ceylon that it has passed into an aphorism, and
+is always adduced as a testimony to the surpassing intelligence of
+the elephants of that island; although a reference to the original
+shows that Tavernier's observations are not only fanciful in
+themselves, but are restricted to the supposed excellence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>[pg
+210]</span> of the Ceylon animal <i>in war</i>.<a id=
+"footnotetag2101" name="footnotetag2101"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2101"><sup>2101</sup></a> This estimate of the
+superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, if it ever prevailed in
+India, was not current there at a very early period; for in the
+<i>Ramayana</i>, which is probably the oldest epic in the world,
+the stud of Dasartha, the king of Ayodhya, was supplied with
+elephants from the Himalaya and the Vindhya Mountains.<a id=
+"footnotetag2102" name="footnotetag2102"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2102"><sup>2102</sup></a> I have had no opportunity of
+testing by personal observation the justice of the assumption; but
+from all that I have heard of the elephants of the continent, and
+seen of those of Ceylon, I have reason to conclude that the
+difference, if not imaginary, is exceptional, and must have arisen
+in particular and individual instances, from more judicious or
+elaborate instruction.</p>
+<p>The earliest knowledge of the elephant in Europe and the West,
+was derived from the conspicuous position assigned to it in the
+wars of the East: in India, from the remotest antiquity, it formed
+one of the most picturesque, if not the most effective, features in
+the armies of the native princes.<a id="footnotetag2103" name=
+"footnotetag2103"></a><a href="#footnote2103"><sup>2103</sup></a>
+It is more than <span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id=
+"page211"></a>[pg 211]</span> probable that the earliest attempts
+to take and train the elephant, were with a view to military uses,
+and that the art was perpetuated in later times to gratify the
+pride of the eastern kings, and sustain the pomp of their
+processions.</p>
+<p>An impression prevails even to the present day, that the process
+of training is tedious and difficult, and the reduction of a
+full-grown elephant to obedience, slow and troublesome in the
+extreme.<a id="footnotetag2111" name="footnotetag2111"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2111"><sup>2111</sup></a> In both particulars, however,
+the contrary is the truth. The training as it prevails in Ceylon is
+simple, and the conformity and obedience of the animal are
+developed with singular <span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id=
+"page212"></a>[pg 212]</span> rapidity. For the first three days,
+or till they will eat freely, which they seldom do in a less time,
+the newly-captured elephants are allowed to stand quiet; and, if
+practicable, a tame elephant is tied near to give the wild ones
+confidence. Where many elephants are being trained at once, it is
+customary to put every new captive between the stalls of half-tamed
+ones, when it soon takes to its food. This stage being attained,
+training commences by placing tame elephants on either side. The
+"cooroowe vidahn," or the head of the stables, stands in front of
+the wild elephants holding a long stick with a sharp iron point.
+Two men are then stationed one on either side, assisted by the tame
+elephants, and each holding a <i>hendoo</i> or crook<a id=
+"footnotetag2121" name="footnotetag2121"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2121"><sup>2121</sup></a> towards the wild one's trunk,
+whilst one or two others rub their hands over his back, keeping up
+all the while a soothing and plaintive chaunt, interlarded with
+endearing epithets, such as "ho! my son," or "ho! my father," or
+"my mother," as may be applicable to the age and sex of the
+captive. The elephant is at first furious, and strikes in all
+directions with his trunk; but the <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page213" id="page213"></a>[pg 213]</span> men in front receiving
+all these blows on the points of their weapons, the extremity of
+the trunk becomes so sore that the animal curls it up close, and
+seldom afterwards attempts to use it offensively. The first dread
+of man's power being thus established, the process of taking him to
+bathe between two tame elephants is greatly facilitated, and by
+lengthening the neck rope, and drawing the feet together as close
+as possible, the process of laying him down in the water is finally
+accomplished by the keepers pressing the sharp point of their
+hendoos over the backbone.</p>
+<p>For many days the roaring and resistance which attend the
+operation are considerable, and it often requires the sagacious
+interference of the tame elephants to control the refractory wild
+ones. It soon, however, becomes practicable to leave the latter
+alone, only taking them to and from the stall by the aid of a
+decoy. This step lasts, under ordinary treatment, for about three
+weeks, when an elephant may be taken alone with his legs hobbled,
+and a man walking backwards in front with the point of the hendoo
+always presented to the elephant's head, and a keeper with an iron
+crook at each ear. On getting into the water, the fear of being
+pricked on his tender back induces him to lie down directly on the
+crook being only held over him <i>in terrorem</i>. Once this point
+has been achieved, the further process of taming is dependent upon
+the disposition of the creature.</p>
+<p>The greatest care is requisite, and daily medicines are applied
+to heal the fearful wounds on the legs which even the softest ropes
+occasion. This is the great difficulty of training; for the wounds
+fester grievously, and months and sometimes years will <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>[pg 214]</span> elapse
+before an elephant will allow his feet to be touched without
+indications of alarm and anger.</p>
+<p>The observation has been frequently made that the elephants most
+vicious and troublesome to tame, and the most worthless when tamed,
+are those distinguished by a thin trunk and flabby pendulous ears.
+The period of tuition does not appear to be influenced by the size
+or strength of the animals: some of the smallest give the greatest
+amount of trouble; whereas, in the instance of the two largest that
+have been taken in Ceylon within the last thirty years, both were
+docile in a remarkable degree. One in particular, which was caught
+and trained by Mr. Cripps, when Government agent, in the Seven
+Korles, fed from the hand the first night it was secured, and in a
+very few days evinced pleasure on being patted on the head.<a id=
+"footnotetag2141" name="footnotetag2141"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2141"><sup>2141</sup></a> There is none so obstinate, not
+even a <i>rogue</i>, that may not, when kindly and patiently
+treated, be conciliated and reconciled.</p>
+<p>The males are generally more unmaneagable than the females, and
+in both an inclination to lie down to rest is regarded as a
+favourable symptom of approaching tractability, some of the most
+resolute having been known to stand for months together, even
+during sleep. Those which are the most obstinate and violent at
+first <span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>[pg
+215]</span> are the soonest and most effectually subdued, and
+generally prove permanently docile and submissive. But those which
+are sullen or morose, although they may provoke no chastisement by
+their viciousness, are always slower in being taught, and are
+rarely to be trusted in after life.<a id="footnotetag2151" name=
+"footnotetag2151"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2151"><sup>2151</sup></a></p>
+<p>But whatever may be its natural gentleness and docility, the
+temper of an elephant is seldom to be implicitly relied on in a
+state of captivity and coercion. The most amenable are subject to
+occasional fits of stubbornness; and even after years of
+submission, irritability and resentment will unaccountably manifest
+themselves. It may be that the restraints and severer discipline of
+training have not been entirely forgotten; or that incidents which
+in ordinary health would be productive <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>[pg 216]</span> of no
+demonstration whatever, may lead, in moments of temporary illness,
+to fretfulness and anger. The knowledge of this infirmity led to
+the popular belief recorded by PHILE, that the elephant had <i>two
+hearts</i>, under the respective influences of which it evinced
+ferocity of gentleness; subdued by the one to habitual tractability
+and obedience, but occasionally roused by the other to displays of
+rage and resistance.<a id="footnotetag2161" name=
+"footnotetag2161"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2161"><sup>2161</sup></a></p>
+<p>In the process of taming, the presence of the tame ones can
+generally be dispensed with after two months, and the captive may
+then be ridden by the driver alone; and after three or four months
+he may be entrusted with labour, so far as regards
+docility;&mdash;but it is undesirable, and even involves the risk
+of life, to work an elephant too soon; it has frequently happened
+that a valuable animal has lain down and died the first time it was
+tried in harness, from what the natives believe to be "broken
+heart,"&mdash;certainly without any cause inferable from injury or
+previous disease.<a id="footnotetag2162" name=
+"footnotetag2162"></a><a href="#footnote2162"><sup>2162</sup></a>
+It is observable, that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id=
+"page217"></a>[pg 217]</span> till a captured elephant begins to
+relish food, and grow fat upon it, he becomes so fretted by work,
+that it kills him in an incredibly short space of time.</p>
+<p>The first employment to which an elephant is put is to tread
+clay in a brick-field, or to draw a waggon in double harness with a
+tame companion. But the work in which the display of sagacity
+renders his labours of the highest value, is that which involves
+the use of heavy materials; and hence in dragging and piling
+timber, or moving stones<a id="footnotetag2171" name=
+"footnotetag2171"></a><a href="#footnote2171"><sup>2171</sup></a>
+for the construction of retaining walls and the approaches to
+bridges, his services in an unopened country are of the utmost
+importance. When roads are to be constructed along the face of
+steep declivities, and the space is so contracted that risk is
+incurred either of the working elephant falling over the precipice
+or of rocks slipping down from above, not only are the measures to
+which he resorts the most judicious and reasonable that could be
+devised, but if urged by his keeper to adopt any other, he
+manifests a reluctance sufficient to show that he has balanced in
+his own mind the comparative advantages of each. An elephant
+appears on all occasions to comprehend the purpose and object that
+he is expected to promote, and hence he voluntarily executes a
+variety of details without any guidance whatever from his keeper.
+This is one characteristic in which this animal manifests a
+superiority over the horse; although his strength in proportion to
+his weight is not so great as that of the latter.</p>
+<p>His minute motions when engrossed by such operations,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>[pg
+218]</span> the activity of his eye, and the earnestness of his
+attitudes, can only be comprehended by being seen. In moving timber
+and masses of rock his trunk is the instrument on which he mainly
+relies, but those which have tusks turn them to good account. To
+get a weighty stone out of a hollow an elephant will kneel down so
+as to apply the pressure of his head to move it upwards, then
+steadying it with one foot till he can raise himself, he will apply
+a fold of his trunk to shift it to its place, and fit it accurately
+in position: this done, he will step round to view it on either
+side, and adjust it with due precision. He appears to gauge his
+task by his eye, and to form a judgment whether the weight be
+proportionate to his strength. If doubtful of his own power, he
+hesitates and halts, and if urged against his will, he roars and
+shows temper.</p>
+<p>In clearing an opening through forest land, the power of the
+African elephant, and the strength ascribed to him by a recent
+traveller, as displayed in uprooting trees, have never been
+equalled or approached by anything I have seen of the elephant in
+Ceylon<a id="footnotetag2181" name="footnotetag2181"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2181"><sup>2181</sup></a> or heard of them in India.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>[pg
+219]</span>
+<p>Of course much must depend on the nature of the timber and the
+moisture of the soil; thus a strong tree on the verge of a swamp
+may be overthrown with greater ease than a small and low one in
+parched and solid ground. I have seen no "tree" deserving the name,
+nothing but jungle and brushwood, thrown down by the mere movement
+of an elephant without some special exertion of force. But he is by
+no means fond of gratuitously tasking his strength; and food being
+so abundant that he obtains it without an effort, it is not
+altogether apparent, even were he able to do so, why he should
+assail "the largest trees in the forest," and encumber his own
+haunts with their broken stems; especially as there is scarcely
+anything which an elephant dislikes more than venturing amongst
+fallen timber.</p>
+<p>A tree of twelve inches in diameter resisted successfully the
+most strenuous struggles of the largest elephant I ever saw led to
+it; and when directed by their keepers to clear away jungle, the
+removal of even a small tree, or a healthy young coco-nut palm, is
+a matter both of time and exertion. Hence the services of an
+elephant are of much less value in clearing a forest than in
+dragging and piling felled timber. But in the latter occupation he
+manifests an intelligence and dexterity which is surprising to a
+stranger, because the sameness of the operation enables the animal
+to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almost without a
+hint or direction from his attendant. For example, two elephants
+employed <span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id=
+"page220"></a>[pg 220]</span> in piling ebony and satinwood in the
+yards attached to the commissariat stores at Colombo, were so
+accustomed to their work, that they were able to accomplish it with
+equal precision and with greater rapidity than if it had been done
+by dock-labourers. When the pile attained a certain height, and
+they were no longer able by their conjoint efforts to raise one of
+the heavy logs of ebony to the summit, they had been taught to lean
+two pieces against the heap, up the inclined plane of which they
+gently rolled the remaining logs, and placed them trimly on the
+top.</p>
+<p>It has been asserted that in their occupations "elephants are to
+a surprising extent the creatures of habit,"<a id="footnotetag2201"
+name="footnotetag2201"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2201"><sup>2201</sup></a> that their movements are
+altogether mechanical, and that "they are annoyed by any deviation
+from their accustomed practice, and resent any constrained
+departure from the regularity of their course." So far as my own
+observation goes, this is incorrect; and I am assured by officers
+of experience, that in regard to changing his treatment, his hours,
+or his occupation, an elephant evinces no more consideration than a
+horse, but exhibits the same pliancy and facility.</p>
+<p>At one point, however, the utility of the elephant stops short.
+Such is the intelligence and earnestness he displays in work, which
+he seems to conduct almost without supervision, that it has been
+assumed<a id="footnotetag2202" name="footnotetag2202"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2202"><sup>2202</sup></a> that he would continue his
+labour, and accomplish his given task, as well in the absence of
+his keeper as during his presence. But here his innate love of ease
+displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn, the
+moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>[pg 221]</span> he
+will stroll away lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning
+himself and blowing dust over his back.</p>
+<p>The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a question of
+difficulty to his attendants. Force being almost inapplicable, they
+try to work on his passions and feelings, by such expedients as
+altering the nature of his food or withholding it altogether for a
+time. Ou such occasions the demeanour of the creature will
+sometimes evince a sense of humiliation as well as of discontent.
+In some parts of India it is customary, in dealing with offenders,
+to stop their allowance of sugar canes or of jaggery; or to
+restrain them from eating their own share of fodder and leaves till
+their companions shall have finished; and in such cases the
+consciousness of degradation betrayed by the looks and attitudes of
+the culprit is quite sufficient to identify him, and to excite a
+feeling of sympathy and pity.</p>
+<p>The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result of
+affection, as well as of fear; and although his attachment becomes
+so strong that an elephant in Ceylon has been known to remain out
+all night, without food, rather than abandon his mahout, lying
+intoxicated in the jungle, yet he manifests little difficulty in
+yielding the same submission to a new driver in the event of a
+change of attendants. This is opposed to the popular belief that
+"the elephant cherishes such an enduring remembrance of his old
+mahout, that he cannot easily be brought to obey a stranger."<a id=
+"footnotetag2211" name="footnotetag2211"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2211"><sup>2211</sup></a> In the extensive establishments
+of the Ceylon Government, the keepers are changed without
+hesitation, and the animals, when equally kindly treated, are
+usually found to be as tractable <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page222" id="page222"></a>[pg 222]</span> and obedient to their
+new driver as to the old, in fact so soon as they have become
+familiarised with his voice.</p>
+<p>This is not, however, invariably the case; and Mr. CRIPPS, who
+had remarkable opportunities for observing the habits of the
+elephant in Ceylon, mentioned to me an instance in which one of a
+singularly stubborn disposition occasioned some inconvenience after
+the death of its keeper, by refusing to obey any other, till its
+attendants bethought them of a child about twelve years old, in a
+distant village, where the animal had been formerly picketed, and
+to whom it had displayed much attachment. The child was sent for:
+and on its arrival the elephant, as anticipated, manifested extreme
+satisfaction, and was managed with ease, till by degrees it became
+reconciled to the presence of a new superintendent.</p>
+<p>It has been said that the mahouts die young, owing to some
+supposed injury to the spinal column from the peculiar motion of
+the elephant; but this remark does not apply to those in Ceylon,
+who are healthy, and as long lived as other men. If the motion of
+the elephant be thus injurious, that of the camel must be still
+more so; yet we never hear of early death ascribed to this cause by
+the Arabs.</p>
+<p>The voice of the keeper, with a very limited vocabulary of
+articulate sounds, serves almost alone to guide the elephant in his
+domestic occupations.<a id="footnotetag2221" name=
+"footnotetag2221"></a><a href="#footnote2221"><sup>2221</sup></a>
+Sir EVERARD <span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id=
+"page223"></a>[pg 223]</span> HOME, from an examination of the
+muscular fibres in the drum of an elephant's ear, came to the
+conclusion, that notwithstanding the distinctness and power of his
+perception of sounds at a greater distance than other animals, he
+was insensible to their harmonious modulation and destitute of a
+musical ear.<a id="footnotetag2231" name=
+"footnotetag2231"></a><a href="#footnote2231"><sup>2231</sup></a>
+But Professor HARRISON, in a paper read before the Royal Irish
+Academy in 1847, has stated that on a careful examination of the
+head of an elephant which he had dissected, he could "see no
+evidence of the muscular structure of the <i>membrana tympani</i>
+so accurately described by Sir E. HOME." Sir EVERARD'S deduction, I
+may observe, is clearly inconsistent with the fact that the power
+of two elephants may be combined by singing to them a measured
+chant, somewhat resembling a sailor's capstan song; and in labour
+of a particular kind, such as hauling a stone with ropes, they will
+thus move conjointly a weight to which their divided strength would
+be unequal.<a id="footnotetag2232" name=
+"footnotetag2232"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2232"><sup>2232</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>[pg
+224]</span>
+<p>Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to obedience in
+the elephant, than the patience with which, at the order of his
+keeper, he swallows the nauseous medicines of the native
+elephant-doctors; and it is impossible to witness the fortitude
+with which (without shrinking) he submits to excruciating surgical
+operations for the removal of tumours and ulcers to which he is
+subject, without conceiving a vivid impression of his gentleness
+and intelligence. Dr. DAVY when in Ceylon was consulted about an
+elephant in the government Stud, which was suffering from a deep,
+burrowing sore in the back, just over the back-bone, which had long
+resisted the treatment ordinarily employed. He recommended the use
+of the knife, that issue might be given to the accumulated matter,
+but no one of the attendants was competent to undertake the
+operation. "Being assured," he continues, "that the creature would
+behave well, I undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but
+was made to kneel down at his keeper's command&mdash;and with an
+amputating knife, using all my force, I made the incision required
+through the tough integuments. The elephant did not flinch, but
+rather inclined towards me when using the knife; and merely uttered
+a low, and as it were suppressed, groan. In short, he behaved as
+like a human being as possible, as if conscious (as I <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>[pg 225]</span>
+believe he was), that the operation was for his good, and the pain
+unavoidable."<a id="footnotetag2251" name=
+"footnotetag2251"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2251"><sup>2251</sup></a></p>
+<p>Obedience to the orders of his keepers is not, however, to be
+assumed as the result of a uniform perception of the object to be
+attained by compliance; and we cannot but remember the touching
+incident which took place during the slaughter of the elephant at
+Exeter Change in 1846, when, after receiving ineffectually upwards
+of 120 balls in various parts of his body, he turned his face to
+his assailants on hearing the voice of his keeper, and knelt down
+at the accustomed word of command, so as to bring his forehead
+within view of the rifles.<a id="footnotetag2252" name=
+"footnotetag2252"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2252"><sup>2252</sup></a></p>
+<p>The working elephant is always a delicate animal, and requires
+watchfulness and care. As a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory;
+for although in point of mere strength there is scarcely any weight
+which could be conveniently placed on him that he could not carry,
+it is difficult to pack his load without causing abrasions that
+afterwards ulcerate. His skin is easily chafed by harness,
+especially in wet weather. During either long droughts or too much
+moisture, his feet become liable to sores, that render him
+non-effective for months. Many attempts have been made to provide
+him with some protection for the sole of the foot, but from his
+extreme weight and peculiar mode of planting the foot, they have
+all been unsuccessful. His eyes are also liable to frequent
+inflammations, and the skill of the native elephant-doctors, which
+has been renowned since the time of &AElig;lian, is nowhere more
+strikingly displayed than in the successful treatment of such
+attacks.<a id="footnotetag2253" name="footnotetag2253"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2253"><sup>2253</sup></a> In Ceylon, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>[pg 226]</span> the
+murrain among cattle is of frequent occurrence, and carries off
+great numbers of animals, wild as well as tame. In such visitations
+the elephants suffer severely, not only those at liberty in the
+forest, but those carefully tended in the government stables. Out
+of a stud of about 40 attached to the department of the Commission
+of Roads, the deaths between 1841 and 1849 were on an average
+<i>four</i> in each year, and this was nearly doubled in those
+years when murrain prevailed.</p>
+<p>Of 240 elephants, employed in the public departments of the
+Ceylon Government, which died in twenty-five years, from 1831 to
+1856, the length of time that each lived in captivity has only been
+recorded in the instances of 138. Of these there died:&mdash;</p>
+<table width="80%">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<th>Duration of Captivity.</th>
+<th>No.</th>
+<th>Male.</th>
+<th>Female.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Under 1 year</td>
+<td align="right">72</td>
+<td align="right">29</td>
+<td align="right">43</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 1 to 2 years</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 2 to 3 years</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 3 to 4 years</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 4 to 5 years</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 5 to 6 years</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 6 to 7 years</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 7 to 8 years</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 8 to 9 years</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 9 to 10 years</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr align="right">
+<td align="left">From 10 to 11 years</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 11 to 12 years</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 12 to 13 years</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 13 to 14 years</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 14 to 15 years</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 15 to 16 years</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 16 to 17 years</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 17 to 18 years</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 18 to 19 years</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From 19 to 20 years</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">.</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Total</td>
+<td align="right">138</td>
+<td align="right">62</td>
+<td align="right">76</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>[pg
+227]</span>
+<p>Of the 72 who died in one year's servitude, 35 expired within
+the first six months of their captivity. During training, many
+elephants die in the unaccountable manner already referred to, of
+what the natives designate <i>a broken heart</i>.</p>
+<p>On being first subjected to work, the elephant is liable to
+severe and often fatal swellings of the jaws and abdomen.<a id=
+"footnotetag2271" name="footnotetag2271"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2271"><sup>2271</sup></a></p>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td>From these causes there died, between 1841 and
+1849&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td>9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Of cattle murrain</td>
+<td>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sore feet</td>
+<td>1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Colds and inflammation</td>
+<td>6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diarrhoea</td>
+<td>1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Worms</td>
+<td>1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Of diseased liver</td>
+<td>1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Injuries from a fall</td>
+<td>1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>General debility</td>
+<td>1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Unknown causes</td>
+<td>3</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Of the entire, twenty-three were females and eleven males.</p>
+<p>The ages of those that died could not be accurately stated,
+owing to the circumstance of their having been captured in corral.
+Two only were tuskers. Towards keeping the stud in health, nothing
+has been found so conducive as regularly bathing the elephants, and
+giving them the opportunity to stand with their feet in water, or
+in moistened earth.</p>
+<p>Elephants are said to be afflicted with tooth-ache; their tushes
+have likewise been found with symptoms of internal perforation by
+some parasite, and the natives assert that, in their agony, the
+animals have been known <span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id=
+"page228"></a>[pg 228]</span> to break them off short.<a id=
+"footnotetag2281" name="footnotetag2281"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2281"><sup>2281</sup></a> I have never heard of the teeth
+themselves being so affected, and it is just possible that the
+operation of shedding the subsequent decay of the milk-tushes, may
+have in some instances been accompanied by incidents that gave rise
+to this story.</p>
+<p>At the same time the probabilities are in favour of its being
+true. CUVIER committed himself to the statement that the tusks of
+the elephant have no attachments to connect them with the pulp
+lodged in the cavity at their base, from which the peculiar
+modification of dentine, known as "ivory," is secreted<a id=
+"footnotetag2282" name="footnotetag2282"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2282"><sup>2282</sup></a>; and hence, by inference, that
+they would be devoid of sensation.</p>
+<p>But independently of the fact that ivory in permeated by tubes
+so fine that at their origin from the pulpy cavity they do not
+exceed 1/15000th part of an inch in diameter, OWEN had the tusk and
+pulp of the great elephant which died at the Zoological Gardens in
+London in 1847 longitudinally divided, and found that, "although
+the pulp could be easily detached from the inner surface of the
+cavity, it was not without a certain resistance; and when the edges
+of the co-adapted pulp and tusk were examined by a strong lens, the
+filamentary processes from the outer surface of the former could be
+seen stretching, as they were drawn from the dentinal tubes, before
+they broke. These filaments are so minute, he adds, that to the
+naked eye the detached surface of the pulp seems to be entire; and
+hence CUVIER was deceived into supposing that there was no organic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>[pg
+229]</span> connexion between the pulp and the ivory. But if, as
+there seems no reason to doubt, these delicate nervous processes
+traverse the tusk by means of the numerous tubes already described,
+if attacked by caries the pain occasioned to the elephant would be
+excruciating.</p>
+<p>As to maintaining a stud of elephants for the purposes to which
+they are now assigned in Ceylon, there may be a question on the
+score of prudence and economy. In the rude and unopened parts of
+the country, where rivers are to be forded, and forests are only
+traversed by jungle paths, their labour is of value, in certain
+contingencies, in the conveyance of stores, and in the earlier
+operations for the construction of fords and rough bridges of
+timber. But in more highly civilised districts, and wherever
+macadamised roads admit of the employment of horses and oxen for
+draught, I apprehend that the services of elephants might, with
+advantage, be gradually reduced, if not altogether dispensed
+with.</p>
+<p>The love of the elephant for coolness and shade renders him at
+all times more or less impatient of work in the sun, and every
+moment of leisure he can snatch is employed in covering his back
+with dust, or fanning himself to diminish the annoyance of the
+insects and heat. From the tenderness of his skin and its liability
+to sores, the labour in which he can most advantageously be
+employed is that of draught; but the reluctance of horses to meet
+or pass elephants renders it difficult to work the latter with
+safety on frequented roads. Besides, were the full load which an
+elephant is capable of drawing, in proportion to his muscular
+strength, to be placed upon waggons of corresponding dimension, the
+to the roads would be such that the wear and <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>[pg 230]</span> tear
+of the highways and bridges would prove too costly to be borne. On
+the other hand, by restricting it to a somewhat more manageable
+quantity, and by limiting the weight, as at present, to about
+<i>one ton and a half</i>, it is doubtful whether an elephant
+performs so much more work than could be done by a horse or by
+bullocks, as to compensate for the greater cost of his feeding and
+attendance.</p>
+<p>Add to this, that from accidents and other causes, from
+ulcerations of the skin, and illnesses of many kinds, the elephant
+is so often invalided, that the actual cost of his labour, when at
+work, is very considerably enhanced. Exclusive of the salaries of
+higher officers attached to the government establishments, and
+other permanent charges, the expenses of an elephant, looking only
+to the wages of his attendants and the cost of his food and
+medicines, varies from <i>three shillings to four shillings and
+sixpence</i>, per diem, according to his size and class.<a id=
+"footnotetag2301" name="footnotetag2301"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2301"><sup>2301</sup></a> Taking the average at three
+shillings and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id=
+"page231"></a>[pg 231]</span> nine-pence, and calculating that
+hardly any individual works more than four days out of seven, the
+charge for each day so employed would amount to <i>six shillings
+and sixpence</i>. The keep per day of a powerful dray-horse,
+working five days in the week, would not exceed half-a-crown, and
+two such would unquestionably do more work than any elephant under
+the present system. I do not know whether it be from a comparative
+calculation of this kind that the strength of the elephant
+establishments in Ceylon has been gradually diminished of late
+years, but in the department of the Commissioner of Roads, the
+stud, which formerly numbered upwards of sixty elephants, was
+reduced, some years ago, to thirty-six, and is at present less than
+half that number.</p>
+<p>The fallacy of the supposed reluctance of the elephant to breed
+in captivity has been demonstrated by many recent authorities; but
+with the exception of the birth of young elephants at Rome, as
+mentioned by &AElig;LIAN, the only instances that I am aware of
+their actually producing young under such circumstances, took place
+in Ceylon. Both parents had been for several years attached
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>[pg
+232]</span> to the stud of the Commissioner of Roads, and in 1844
+the female, whilst engaged in dragging a waggon, gave birth to a
+still-born calf. Some years before, an elephant that had been
+captured by Mr. Cripps, dropped a female calf, which he succeeded
+in rearing. As usual, the little one became the pet of the keepers;
+but as it increased in growth, it exhibited the utmost violence
+when thwarted; striking out with its hind-feet, throwing itself
+headlong on the ground, and pressing its trunk against any opposing
+object.</p>
+<p>The duration of life in the elephant has been from the remotest
+times a matter of uncertainty and speculation. Aristotle says it
+was reputed to live from two to three hundred years<a id=
+"footnotetag2321" name="footnotetag2321"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2321"><sup>2321</sup></a>, and modern zoologists have
+assigned to it an age very little less; CUVIER<a id=
+"footnotetag2322" name="footnotetag2322"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2322"><sup>2322</sup></a> allots two hundred and DE
+BLAINVILLE one hundred and twenty. The only attempt which I know of
+to establish a period historically or physiologically is that of
+FLEURENS, who has advanced an ingenious theory on the subject in
+his treatise "<i>De la Long&eacute;vit&eacute; Humaine</i>." He
+assumes the sum total of life in all animals to be equivalent to
+five times the number of years requisite to perfect their growth
+and development;&mdash;and he adopts as evidence of the period at
+which growth ceases, the final consolidation of the bones with
+their <i>epiphyses</i>; which in the young consist of cartilages;
+but in the adult become uniformly osseous and solid. So long as the
+epiphyses are distinct from the bones, the growth of the animal is
+proceeding, but it ceases so soon as the consolidation is complete.
+In man, according to FLEURENS, this consummation takes place at 20
+years of age, in the horse at <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page233" id="page233"></a>[pg 233]</span> 5, in the dog at 2; so
+that conformably to this theory the respective normal age for each
+would be 100 years for man, 25 for the horse, and 10 for a dog. As
+a datum for his conclusion, FLEURENS cites the instance of one
+young elephant in which, at 26 years old, the epiphyses were still
+distinct, whereas in another, which died at 31, they were firm and
+adherent. Hence he draws the inference that the period of completed
+solidification is thirty years, and consequently that the normal
+age of the elephant is <i>one hundred and fifty</i>.<a id=
+"footnotetag2331" name="footnotetag2331"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2331"><sup>2331</sup></a></p>
+<p>Amongst the Singhalese the ancient fable of the elephant
+attaining to the age of two or three hundred years still prevails;
+but the Europeans, and those in immediate charge of tame ones,
+entertain the opinion that the duration of life for about
+<i>seventy</i> years is common both to man and the elephant; and
+that before the arrival of the latter period, symptoms of debility
+and decay ordinarily begin to manifest themselves. Still instances
+are not wanting in Ceylon of trained decoys that have lived for
+more than double the reputed period in actual servitude. One
+employed by Mr. Cripps in the Seven Korles was represented by the
+Cooroowe people to have served the king of Kandy in the same
+capacity sixty years before; and amongst the papers left by Colonel
+Robertson (son to the historian of "Charles V."), who held a
+command in Ceylon in 1799, shortly after the capture of the island
+by the British, I have found a memorandum showing that a decoy was
+then attached to the elephant establishment at Matura, which the
+records proved to have served under the Dutch during the entire
+period of their occupation (extending to upwards of one hundred and
+forty years); and it was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page234"
+id="page234"></a>[pg 234]</span> said to have been found in the
+stables by the Dutch on the expulsion of the Portugese in 1656.</p>
+<p>It is perhaps from this popular belief in their almost
+illimitable age, that the natives generally assert that the body of
+a dead elephant is seldom or never to be discovered in the woods.
+And certain it is that frequenters of the forest with whom I have
+conversed, whether European or Singhalese, are consistent in their
+assurances that they have never found the remains of an elephant
+that had died a natural death. One chief, the Wannyah of the
+Trincomalie district, told a friend of mine, that once after a
+severe murrain, which had swept the province, he found the carcases
+of elephants that had died of the disease. On the other hand, a
+European gentleman, who for thirty-six years without intermission
+has been living in the jungle, ascending to the summits of
+mountains in the prosecution of the trigonometrical survey, and
+penetrating valleys in tracing roads and opening means of
+communication,&mdash;one, too, who has made the habits of the wild
+elephant a subject of constant observation and study,&mdash;has
+often expressed to me his astonishment that after seeing many
+thousands of living elephants in all possible situations, he had
+never yet found a single skeleton of a dead one, except of those
+which had fallen by the rifle.<a id="footnotetag2341" name=
+"footnotetag2341"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2341"><sup>2341</sup></a></p>
+<p>It has been suggested that the bones of the elephant, may be so
+porous and spongy as to disappear in consequence of an early
+decomposition; but this remark would <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page235" id="page235"></a>[pg 235]</span> not apply to the
+grinders or to the tusks; besides which, the inference is at
+variance with the fact, that not only the horns and teeth, but
+entire skeletons of deer, are frequently found in the districts
+inhabited by the elephant.</p>
+<p>The natives, to account for this popular belief, declare that
+the survivors of the herd bury such of their companions as die a
+natural death.<a id="footnotetag2351" name=
+"footnotetag2351"></a><a href="#footnote2351"><sup>2351</sup></a>
+It is curious that this belief was current also amongst the Greeks
+of the Lower Empire; and PHILE, writing early in the fourteenth
+century, not only describes the younger elephants as tending the
+wounded, but as burying the dead:</p>
+<p>[Greek: "Otan d' epist&ecirc; t&ecirc;s teleut&ecirc;s o chronos
+Koinou telous amunan o xenos pherei]."<a id="footnotetag2352" name=
+"footnotetag2352"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2352"><sup>2352</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Singhalese have a further superstition in relation to the
+close of life in the elephant: they believe that, on feeling the
+approach of dissolution, he repairs to a solitary valley, and there
+resigns himself to death. A native who accompanied Mr. Cripps, when
+hunting, in the forests of Anarajapoora, intimated to him that he
+was then in the immediate vicinity of the spot "<i>to which the
+elephants come to die</i>," but that it was so mysteriously
+concealed, that although every one believed in its existence,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>[pg
+236]</span> no one had ever succeeded in penetrating to it. At the
+corral which I have described at Kornegalle, in 1847, Dehigame, one
+of the Kandyan chiefs, assured me it was the universal belief of
+his countrymen, that the elephants, when about to die, resorted to
+a valley in Saffragam, among the mountains to the east of Adam's
+Peak, which was reached by a narrow pass with walls of rock on
+either side, and that there, by the side of a lake of clear water,
+they took their last repose.<a id="footnotetag2361" name=
+"footnotetag2361"></a><a href="#footnote2361"><sup>2361</sup></a>
+It was not without interest that I afterwards recognised this
+tradition in the story of <i>Sinbad of the Sea</i>, who in his
+Seventh Voyage, after conveying the presents of Haroun al Raschid
+to the king of Serendib, is wrecked on his return from Ceylon, and
+sold as a slave to a master who employs him in shooting elephants
+for the sake of their ivory; till one day the tree on which he was
+stationed having been uprooted by one of the herd, he fell
+senseless to the ground, and the great elephant approaching wound
+his trunk around him and carried him away, ceasing not to proceed,
+until he had taken him to a place where, his terror having
+subsided, <i>he found himself amongst the bones of elephants, and
+knew that this was their burial place</i>.<a id="footnotetag2362"
+name="footnotetag2362"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2362"><sup>2362</sup></a> It is curious to find this
+legend of Ceylon in what has, not inaptly, been described as the
+"Arabian Odyssey" of Sinbad; the original of which <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>[pg 237]</span>
+evidently embodies the romantic recitals of the sailors returning
+from the navigation of the Indian Seas, in the middle ages<a id=
+"footnotetag2371" name="footnotetag2371"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2371"><sup>2371</sup></a>, which were current amongst the
+Mussulmans, and are reproduced in various forms throughout the
+tales of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>.</p>
+<hr />
+<h2>APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+<hr />
+<p>As &AElig;lian's work on the <i>Nature of Animals</i> has never,
+I believe, been republished in any English version, and the passage
+in relation to the training and performance of elephants is so
+pertinent to the present inquiry, I venture to subjoin a
+translation of the 11th Chapter of his 2nd Book.</p>
+<p>"Of the cleverness of the elephant I have spoken elsewhere, and
+likewise of the manner of hunting. I have mentioned these things, a
+few out of the many which others have stated; but for the present I
+purpose to speak of their musical feeling, their tractability, and
+facility in learning what it is difficult for even a human being to
+acquire, much less a beast, hitherto so wild:&mdash;such as to
+dance, as is done on the stage; to walk with a measured gait; to
+listen to the melody of the flute and to perceive the difference of
+sounds, that, being pitched low lead to a slow movement, or high to
+a quick one: all this the elephant learns and understands, and is
+accurate withal, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id=
+"page238"></a>[pg 238]</span> and makes no mistake. Thus has Nature
+formed him not only the greatest in size, but the most gentle and
+the most easily taught. Now if I were going to write about the
+tractability and aptitude to learn amongst those of India,
+&AElig;thiopia, and Libya, I should probably appear to be
+concocting a tale and acting the braggart, or to be telling a
+falsehood respecting the nature of the animal founded on a mere
+report, all which it behoves a philosopher, and most of all one who
+is an ardent lover of truth, not to do. But what I have seen
+myself, and what others have described as having occurred at Rome,
+this I have chosen to relate, selecting a few facts out of many, to
+show the particular nature of those creatures. The elephant when
+tamed is an animal most gentle and most easily led to do whatever
+he is directed. And by way of showing honour to time, I will first
+narrate events of the oldest date. C&aelig;sar Germanicus, the
+nephew of Tiberius, exhibited once a public show, wherein there
+were many full-grown elephants, male and female, and some of their
+breed born in this country. When their limbs were beginning to
+become firm, a person familiar with such animals instructed them by
+a strange and surpassing method of teaching; using only gentleness
+and kindness, and adding to his mild lessons the bait of pleasant
+and varied food. By this means he led them by degrees to throw off
+all wildness, and, as it were, to desert to a state of
+civilisation, conducting themselves in a manner almost human. He
+taught them neither to be excited on hearing the pipe, nor to be
+disturbed by the beat of drum, but to be soothed by the sounds of
+the reed, and to endure unmusical noises and the clatter of feet
+from persons while marching; and they were trained to feel no fear
+of a mass of men, nor to be enraged at the infliction of blows, not
+even when compelled to twist their limbs and to bend them like a
+stage-dancer, and this too although endowed with strength and
+might. And there is in this a very noble addition to nature, not to
+conduct themselves in a disorderly manner and disobediently towards
+the instructions of man; for after the dancing-master had made them
+expert, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id=
+"page239"></a>[pg 239]</span> and they had learnt their lessons
+accurately, they did not belie the labour of his instruction
+whenever a necessity and opportunity called upon them to exhibit
+what they had been taught. For the whole troop came forward from
+this and that side of the theatre, and divided themselves into
+parties: they advanced walking with a mincing gait and exhibiting
+in their whole body and persons the manners of a beau, clothed in
+the flowery dresses of dancers; and on the ballet-master giving a
+signal with his voice, they fell into line and went round in a
+circle, and if it were requisite to deploy they did so. They
+ornamented the floor of the stage by throwing flowers upon it, and
+this they did in moderation and sparingly, and straightway they
+beat a measure with their feet and kept time together.</p>
+<p>"Now that Damon and Spintharus and Aristoxenus and Xenophilus
+and Philoxenus and others should know music excellently well, and
+for their cleverness be ranked amongst the few, is indeed a thing
+of wonder, but not incredible nor contrary at all to reason. For
+this reason that a man is a rational animal, and the recipient of
+mind and intelligence. But that a jointless animal ([Greek:
+anarthron]) should understand rhythm and melody, and preserve a
+gesture, and not deviate from a measured movement, and fulfil the
+requirements of those who laid down instructions, these are gifts
+of nature, I think, and a peculiarity in every way astounding.
+Added to these there were things enough to drive the spectator out
+of his senses; when the strewn rushes and other materials for beds
+on the ground were placed on the sand of the theatre, and they
+received stuffed mattrasses such as belonged to rich houses and
+variegated bed coverings, and goblets were placed there, very
+expensive, and bowls of gold and silver, and in them a great
+quantity of water; and tables were placed there of sweet-smelling
+wood and ivory very superb: and upon them flesh meats and loaves
+enough to fill the stomachs of animals the most voracious. When the
+preparations were completed and abundant, the banqueters came
+forward, six male and an <span class="pagenum"><a name="page240"
+id="page240"></a>[pg 240]</span> equal number of female elephants;
+the former had on a male dress, and the latter a female; and on a
+signal being given they stretched forward their trunks in a subdued
+manner, and took their food in great moderation, and not one of
+them appeared to be gluttonous greedy, or to snatch at a greater
+portion, as did the Persian mentioned by Xenophon. And when it was
+requisite to drink, a bowl was placed by the side of each; and
+inhaling with their trunks they took a draught very orderly; and
+then they scattered the drink about in fun; but not as in insult.
+Many other acts of a similar kind, both clever and astonishing,
+have persons described, relating to the peculiarities of these
+animals, and I saw them writing letters on Roman tablets with their
+trunks, neither looking awry nor turning aside. The hand, however,
+of the teacher was placed so as to be a guide in the formation of
+the letters; and while it was writing the animal kept its eye fixed
+down in an accomplished and scholarlike manner."</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2071" name=
+"footnote2071"></a><b>Footnote 2071:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2071">(return)</a>
+<p>ARMANDI, <i>Hist. Milit. des El&eacute;phants</i>, liv. i. ch.
+i. p. 2. It is an interesting fact, noticed by ARMANDI, that the
+elephants figured on the coins of Alexander, and the
+Seleucid&aelig; invariably exhibit the characteristics of the
+Indian type, whilst those on Roman medals can at once be pronounced
+African, from the peculiarities of the convex forehead and
+expansive ears.&mdash;<i>Ibid</i>. liv. i. cap. i. p. 3.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/233.png"><img width="100%" src="images/233.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>ARMANDI has, with infinite industry, collected from original
+sources a mass of curious informations relative to the employment
+of elephants in ancient warfare, which he has published under the
+title of <i>Histoire Militaire des El&eacute;phants depuis les
+temps les plus recul&eacute;s jusqu' &agrave; l'introduction des
+armes a feu</i>. Paris. 1843.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2081" name=
+"footnote2081"></a><b>Footnote 2081:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2081">(return)</a>
+<p>&AElig;LIAN, lib. ii. cap. ii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2082" name=
+"footnote2082"></a><b>Footnote 2082:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2082">(return)</a>
+<p>See SCHLEGEL'S Essay on the Elephant and the Sphynx.
+<i>Classical Journal</i>, No. lx. Although the trained elephant
+nowhere appears upon the monuments of the Egyptians, the animal was
+not unknown to them, and ivory and elephants are figured on the
+walls of Thebes and Karnac amongst the spoils of Thothmes III., and
+the tribute paid to Rameses I. The Island of Elephantine, in the
+Nile, near Assouan (Syene) is styled in hieroglyphical writing "The
+Land of the Elephant;" but as it is a mere rock, it probably owes
+its designation to its form. See Sir GARDNER WILKINSON'S <i>Ancient
+Egyptians</i>, vol. i. pl. iv.; vol. v. p. 176. Above the first
+cataract of the Nile are two small islands, each bearing the name
+of Phyl&aelig;;&mdash;qu&aelig;re, is the derivation of this word
+at all connected with the Arabic term <i>fil</i>? See ante, p. 76,
+note. The elephant figured in the sculptures of Nineveh is
+universally as wild, not domesticated.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2091" name=
+"footnote2091"></a><b>Footnote 2091:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2091">(return)</a>
+<p>This is merely a reiteration of the statement of &AElig;LIAN,
+who ascribes to the elephants of Taprobane a vast superiority in
+size, strength, and intelligence, above, those of continental
+India,&mdash;[Greek: "Kai oide ge n&aelig;siotai elephantes ton
+h&aelig;piroton halkimoteroi te t&aelig;n rhom&aelig;n kai meixous
+idein eisi, kai thumosophoteroi de panta pant&aelig; krinointo
+han."]&mdash;&AElig;LIAN, <i>De Nat. Anim</i>., lib. xvi. cap.
+xviii.</p>
+<p>&AElig;LIAN also, in the same chapter, states the fact of the
+shipment of elephants in large boats from Ceylon to the opposite
+continent of India, for sale to the king of Kalinga; so that the
+export from Manaar, described in a former passage, has been going
+on apparently without interruption since the time of the
+Romans.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2101" name=
+"footnote2101"></a><b>Footnote 2101:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2101">(return)</a>
+<p>The expression of TAVERNIER is to the effect that as compared
+with all others, the elephants of Ceylon are "plus courageux
+<i>&agrave; la guerre</i>." The rest of the passage is a
+curiosity:&mdash;</p>
+<p>"Il faut remarquer ici une chose qu'on aura peut-&ecirc;tre de
+la peine &agrave; croire main quit est toutefois
+tr&egrave;s-v&eacute;ritable: c'est que lorsque quelque roi on
+quelque seigneur a quelqu'un de ces &eacute;l&eacute;phants de
+Ceylan, et qu'on en am&egrave;ne quelqu'autre des lieux o&ugrave;
+les marchands vont les prendre, comme d'Achen, de Siam, d'Arakan,
+de Pegu, du roy&aacute;ume de Boutan, d'Assam, des terres de Cochin
+et de la coste du M&eacute;linde, d&eacute;s que les
+&eacute;l&eacute;phants en voient un de Ceylan, par un instinct de
+nature, ils lui font la r&eacute;v&eacute;rence, portant le bout de
+leur trompe &agrave; la terre et la relevant. Il est vrai que les
+&eacute;l&eacute;phants que les grand seigneurs entretiennent,
+quand en les amine devant eux, pour voir s'ils sent en bon point,
+font troi fois une esp&eacute;re de r&eacute;v&eacute;rence avec
+leur troupe, <i>a que j'ai en souvent</i>, mais ils sont
+styl&eacute;s &agrave; cela, et leurs maitres le leur enseignent de
+bonne heure."&mdash;<i>Les Six Voyages de</i> J.B. TAVERNIER, lib.
+iii. ch. 20.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2102" name=
+"footnote2102"></a><b>Footnote 2102:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2102">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ramayana</i>, sec. vi.: CAREY and MARSHMAN, i. 105: FAUCHE,
+t. i. p. 66.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2103" name=
+"footnote2103"></a><b>Footnote 2103:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2103">(return)</a>
+<p>The only mention of the elephant in Sacred History in the
+account given in <i>Maccabees</i> of the invasion of Egypt by
+Antiochus, who entered it 170 B.C., "with chariots and elephants,
+and horsemen, and a great navy."&mdash;1 <i>Macc</i>. i. 17.
+Frequent allusions to the use of elephants in war occur in both
+books: and in chap. vi. 34, it is stated that "to provoke the
+elephants to fight they showed them the blood of grapes and of
+mulberries." The term showed, "[Greek: edeixan]," might be thought
+to imply that the animals were enraged by the sight of the wine and
+its colour, but in the Third Book of Maccabees, in the Greek
+Septuagint, various other passages show that wine, on such
+occasions, was administered to the elephants to render them
+furious.&mdash;Mace, v. 2. 10, 45. PHILE mentions the same fact,
+<i>De Elephante</i>, i. 145.</p>
+<p>There is a very curious account of the mode in which the Arab
+conquerors of Seinde, in the 9th and 10th centuries, equipped the
+elephant for war; which being written with all the particularity of
+an eye-witness, bears the impress of truth and accuracy. MASSOUDI,
+who was born in Bagdad at the close of the 9th century, travelled
+in India in the year A.D. 913, and visited the Gulf of Cambay, the
+coast of Malabar, and the Island of Ceylon:&mdash;from a larger
+account of his journeys he compiled a summary under the title of
+"<i>Moroudj al-dzeheb," or the "Golden Meadows</i>," the MS. of
+which is now in the Biblioth&egrave;que Nationale. M. REINAUD, in
+describing this manuscript says on its authority, "The Prince of
+Mensura, whose dominions lay south of the Indus, maintained eighty
+elephants trained for war, each of which bore in his trunk a bent
+cymeter (carthel), with which he was taught to cut and thrust at
+all confronting him. The trunk itself was effectually protected by
+a coat of mail, and the rest of the body enveloped in a covering
+composed jointly of iron and horn. Other elephants were employed in
+drawing chariots, carrying baggage, and grinding forage, and the
+performance of all bespoke the utmost intelligence and
+docility."&mdash;REINAUD, <i>M&egrave;moires sur l'Inde,
+ant&eacute;rieurement au milieu du XIe si&egrave;cle,
+d'apr&egrave;s les &eacute;crivains arabes, persans et chinois</i>.
+Paris, M.D.CCC. XLIX. p. 215. See SPRENGER'S English Translation of
+Massoudi, vol. i. p. 383.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2111" name=
+"footnote2111"></a><b>Footnote 2111:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2111">(return)</a>
+<p>BRODERIP, <i>Zoological Recreations</i>, p. 226.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2121" name=
+"footnote2121"></a><b>Footnote 2121:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2121">(return)</a>
+<p>The iron goad with which the keeper directs the movements of the
+elephants, called a <i>hendoo</i> in Ceylon and <i>hawkus</i> in
+Bengal, appears to have retained the present shape from the
+remotest antiquity. It is figured in the medals of Caracalla in the
+identical form in which it is in use at the present day in
+India.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/237a.png"><img width="100%" src="images/237a.png" alt=
+"" /></a> Medal of Numidia.</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/237b.png"><img width="100%" src="images/237b.png" alt=
+"" /></a> Modern Hendoo.</div>
+<p>The Greeks called it [Greek: harp&ecirc;], and the Romans
+<i>cuspis</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2141" name=
+"footnote2141"></a><b>Footnote 2141:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2141">(return)</a>
+<p>This was the largest elephant that had been tamed in Ceylon; he
+measured upwards of nine feet at the shoulders and belonged to the
+caste so highly prized for the temples. He was gentle after his
+first capture, but his removal from the corral to the stables,
+though only a distance of six miles, was a matter of the extremest
+difficulty; his extraordinary strength rendering him more than a
+match for the attendant decoys. He, on one occasion, escaped, but
+was recaptured in the forest; and he afterwards became so docile as
+to perform a variety of tricks. He was at length ordered to be
+removed to Colombo; but such was his terror on approaching the
+gate, that on coaxing him to enter the gate, he became paralysed in
+the extraordinary way elsewhere alluded to, and <i>died on the
+spot</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2151" name=
+"footnote2151"></a><b>Footnote 2151:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2151">(return)</a>
+<p>The natives profess that the high caste elephants, such as are
+allotted to the temples, are of all others the most difficult to
+tame, and M. BLES, the Dutch correspondent of BUFFON, mentions a
+caste of elephants which he had heard of, as being peculiar to the
+Kandyan kingdom, that were not higher than a heifer
+(g&eacute;nisse), covered with hair, and insusceptible of being
+tamed. (BUFFON, <i>Supp.</i> vol. vi. p. 29.) Bishop HEBER, in the
+account of his journey from Bareilly towards the Himalayas,
+describes the Raja Gourman Sing, "mounted on a little female
+elephant, hardly bigger than a Durham ox, and almost as shaggy as a
+poodle."&mdash;<i>Journx.</i>, ch. xvii. It will be remembered that
+the mammoth discovered in 1803 embedded in icy soil in Siberia, was
+covered with a coat of long hair, with a sort of wool at the roots.
+Hence there arose the question whether that northern region had
+been formerly inhabited by a race of elephants, so fortified by
+nature against cold; or whether the individual discovered had been
+borne thither by currents from some more temperate latitudes. To
+the latter theory the presence of hair seemed a fatal objection;
+but so far as my own observation goes, I believe the elephants are
+more or less provided with hair. In some it is more developed than
+in others, and it is particularly observable in the young, which
+when captured are frequently covered with a woolly fleece,
+especially about the head and shoulders. In the older individuals
+in Ceylon, this is less apparent: and in captivity the hair appears
+to be altogether removed by the custom of the mahouts to rub their
+skin daily with oil and a rough lump of burned clay. See a paper on
+the subject, <i>Asiat. Journ.</i> N.S. vol. xiv. p. 182, by Mr. G.
+FAIRHOLME.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2161" name=
+"footnote2161"></a><b>Footnote 2161:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2161">(return)</a>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>[Greek:</p>
+<p class="i2">"Dipl&ecirc;s de phasin eupor&ecirc;sai kardias</p>
+<p class="i2">Kai t&ecirc; men einai thumikon to th&ecirc;rion</p>
+<p class="i2">Eis akrat&ecirc; kin&ecirc;sin
+&ecirc;rethismenon,</p>
+<p class="i2">T&ecirc; de pros&ecirc;nes kai thrasyt&ecirc;tos
+xenon.</p>
+<p class="i2">Kai p&ecirc; men aut&ocirc;n akroasthai ton
+log&ocirc;n</p>
+<p class="i2">Ous an tis Indos eu tithaseu&ocirc;n legoi,</p>
+<p class="i2">P&ecirc; de pros autous tous nomeis epitrechein</p>
+<p class="i2">Eis tas palaias ektrapen kakoupgias."]</p>
+<p>PHILE, <i>Expos. de Eleph.</i>, l. 126, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2162" name=
+"footnote2162"></a><b>Footnote 2162:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2162">(return)</a>
+<p>Captain YULE, in his <i>Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in</i>
+1855, records an illustration of this tendency of the elephant to
+sudden death; one newly captured, the process of taming which was
+exhibited to the British Envoy, "made vigorous resistance to the
+placing of a collar on its neck, and the people were proceeding to
+tighten it, when the elephant, which had lain down as if quite
+exhausted, reared suddenly on the hind quarters, and fell on its
+side&mdash;<i>dead</i>!"&mdash;P. 104.</p>
+<p>Mr. STRACHAN noticed the same liability of the elephants to
+sudden death from very slight causes; "of the fall." he says, "at
+any time, though on plain ground, they either die immediately, or
+languish till they die; their great weight occasioning them so much
+hurt by the fall."&mdash;<i>Phil. Trans.</i> A.D. 1701, vol. xxiii.
+p. 1052.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2171" name=
+"footnote2171"></a><b>Footnote 2171:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2171">(return)</a>
+<p>A correspondent informs me that on the Malabar coast of India,
+the elephant, when employed in dragging stones, moves them by means
+of a rope, which he either draws with his forehead, or manages by
+seizing it in his teeth.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2181" name=
+"footnote2181"></a><b>Footnote 2181:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2181">(return)</a>
+<p>"Here the trees were large and handsome, but not strong enough
+to resist the inconceivable strength of the mighty monarch of these
+forests; almost every tree had half its branches broken short by
+them and at every hundred yards I came upon entire trees, and
+these, <i>the largest in the forest</i>, uprooted clean out of the
+ground, and <i>broken short across their stems</i>."&mdash;<i>A
+Hunter's Life in South Africa</i>. By R. GORDON CUMMING, vol. ii.
+p. 305.&mdash;</p>
+<p>"Spreading out from one another, they smash and destroy all the
+finest trees in the forest which happen to be in their course.... I
+have rode through forests where the trees thus broken lay so thick
+across one another, that it was almost impossible to ride through
+the district."&mdash;<i>Ibid</i>., p. 310.</p>
+<p>Mr. Gordon Cumming does not name the trees which he saw thus
+"uprooted" and "broken across," nor has he given any idea of their
+size and weight; but Major DENHAM, who observed like traces of the
+elephant in Africa, saw only small trees overthrown by them; and
+Mr. PRINGLE, who had an opportunity of observing similar practices
+of the animals in the neutral territory of the Eastern frontier of
+the Cape of Good Hope, describes their ravages as being confined to
+the mimosas, "immense numbers of which had been torn out of the
+ground, and placed in an inverted position, in order to enable the
+animals to browse at their ease on the soft and juicy roots, which
+form a favourite part of their food. Many of the <i>larger mimosas
+had resisted all their efforts; and indeed, it is only after heavy
+rain, when the soil is soft and loose, that they ever successfully
+attempt this operation.</i>"&mdash;Pringle's <i>Sketches of South
+Africa.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2201" name=
+"footnote2201"></a><b>Footnote 2201:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2201">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries</i>, &amp;c., "The Elephant," vol. ii. p. 23.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2202" name=
+"footnote2202"></a><b>Footnote 2202:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2202">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ibid.</i>, ch. vi. p. 138.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2211" name=
+"footnote2211"></a><b>Footnote 2211:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2211">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menageries, &amp;c.</i>, "The Elephant," vol. i. p. 19.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2221" name=
+"footnote2221"></a><b>Footnote 2221:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2221">(return)</a>
+<p>The principal sound by which the mahouts in Ceylon direct the
+motions of the elephants is a repetition, with various modulations,
+of the words <i>ur-re! ur-re!</i> This is one of those
+interjections in which the sound is so expressive of the sense that
+persons in charge of animals of almost every description throughout
+the world appear to have adopted it with a concurrence that is very
+curious. The drivers of camels in Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt
+encourage them to speed by shouting <i>ar-r&eacute;!
+ar-r&eacute;!</i> The Arabs in Algeria cry <i>eirich!</i> to their
+mules. The Moors seem to have carried the custom with them into
+Spain, where mules are still driven with cries of
+<i>arr&eacute;</i> (whence the muleteers derive their Spanish
+appellation of "arrieros"). In France the Sportsman excites the
+hound by shouts of <i>hare! hare!</i> and the waggoner there turns
+his horses by his voice, and the use of the word <i>hurhaut!</i> In
+the North, "<i>Hurs</i> was a word used by the old Germans in
+urging their horses to speed;" and to the present day, the herdsmen
+in Ireland, and parts of Scotland, drive their pigs with shouts of
+<i>hurrish!</i> a sound closely resembling that used by the mahouts
+in Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2231" name=
+"footnote2231"></a><b>Footnote 2231:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2231">(return)</a>
+<p><i>On the Difference between the Human Membrana Tympani and that
+of the Elephant</i>. By Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart., Philos. Trans.,
+1823. Paper by Prof. HARRISON. Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. iii.
+p. 386.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2232" name=
+"footnote2232"></a><b>Footnote 2232:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2232">(return)</a>
+<p>I have already noticed the striking effect produced on the
+captive elephants in the corral, by the harmonious notes of an
+ivory flute; and on looking to the graphic description which is
+given by &AElig;LIAN of the exploits which he witnessed as
+performed by the elephants exhibited at Rome, it is remarkable how
+very large a share of their training appears to have been ascribed
+to the employment of music.</p>
+<p>PHILE, in the account which he has given of the elephant's
+fondness for music, would almost seem to have versified the prose
+narrative of &AElig;LIAN, as he describes its excitement at the
+more animated portions, its step being regulated to the time and
+movements of the harmony: the whole "<i>surprising in a creature
+whose limbs are without joints!</i></p>
+<p>[Greek: "Kainon ti poi&ocirc;n ex anarthr&ocirc;n
+organ&ocirc;n."]</p>
+<p>PHILE, <i>Expos. de Eleph</i>, 1. 216.</p>
+<p>For an account of the training and performances of the elephants
+at Rome, as narrated by &AElig;LIAN see the appendix to this
+chapter.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2251" name=
+"footnote2251"></a><b>Footnote 2251:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2251">(return)</a>
+<p>The <i>Angler in the Lake District</i>, p. 23.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2252" name=
+"footnote2252"></a><b>Footnote 2252:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2252">(return)</a>
+<p>A shocking account of the death of this poor animal is given in
+HONE'S <i>Every-Day Book</i>, March, 1830, p. 337.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2253" name=
+"footnote2253"></a><b>Footnote 2253:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2253">(return)</a>
+<p>&AElig;LIAN, lib. xiii. c. 7.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2271" name=
+"footnote2271"></a><b>Footnote 2271:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2271">(return)</a>
+<p>The elephant which was dissected by DR. HARRISON of Dublin, in
+1847, died of a febrile attack, after four or five days' illness,
+which, as Dr. H. tells me in a private letter, was "very like
+scarlatina, at that time a prevailing disease; its skin in some
+places became almost scarlet."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2281" name=
+"footnote2281"></a><b>Footnote 2281:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2281">(return)</a>
+<p>See a paper entitled "<i>Recollections of Ceylon</i>," in
+<i>Fraser's Magazine</i> for December, 1860.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2282" name=
+"footnote2282"></a><b>Footnote 2282:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2282">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Annales du Mus&eacute;um</i> F. viii. 1805. p. 94, and
+<i>Ossemens Fossiles</i>, quoted by OWEN, in the article on
+"Teeth," in TODD'S <i>Cyclop. of Anatomy, &amp;c</i>., vol. iv. p.
+929.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2301" name=
+"footnote2301"></a><b>Footnote 2301:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2301">(return)</a>
+<p>An ordinary-sized elephant engrosses the undivided attention of
+<i>three</i> men. One, as his mahout or superintendent, and two as
+leaf-cutters, who bring him branches and grass for his daily
+supplies. An animal of larger growth would probably require a third
+leaf-cutter. The daily consumption is two cwt. of green food with
+about half a bushel of grain. When in the vicinity of towns and
+villages, the attendants have no difficulty in procuring an
+abundant supply of the branches of the trees to which elephants are
+partial; and in journeys through the forests and unopened country,
+the leaf-cutters are sufficiently expert in the knowledge of those
+particular plants with which the elephant is satisfied. Those that
+would be likely to disagree with him he unerringly rejects. His
+favourites are the palms, especially the cluster of rich, unopened
+leaves, known as the "cabbage," of the coco-nut, and areca; and he
+delights to tear open the young trunks of the palmyra and jaggery
+(<i>Caryota urens</i>) in search of the farinaceous matter
+contained in the spongy pith. Next to these come the varieties of
+fig-trees. particularly the sacred <i>Bo</i> (<i>F. religiosa</i>)
+which is found near every temple, and the <i>na gaha</i> (<i>Messua
+ferrea</i>), with thick dark leaves and a scarlet flower. The
+leaves of the Jak-tree and bread-fruit (<i>Artocarpus
+integrifolia</i>, and <i>A. incisa</i>), the Wood apple
+(<i>&AElig;gle Marmelos</i>), Palu (<i>Mimusops Indica</i>), and a
+number of others well known to their attendants, are all consumed
+in turn. The stems of the plaintain, the stalks of the sugar-cane,
+and the feathery tops of the bamboos, are irresistible luxuries.
+Pine-apples, water-melons, and fruits of every description, are
+voraciously devoured, and a coco-nut when found is first rolled
+under foot to detach it from the husk and fibre, and then raised in
+his trunk and crushed, almost without an effort, by his ponderous
+jaws.</p>
+<p>The grasses are not found in sufficient quantity to be an item
+of daily fodder; the Mauritius or the Guinea grass is seized with
+avidity; lemon grass is rejected from its overpowering perfume, but
+rice in the straw, and every description of grain, whether growing
+or dry; gram (<i>Cicer arietinum</i>), Indian Corn, and millet are
+his natural food. Of such of these as can be found, it is the duty
+of the leaf-cutters, when in the jungle and on march, to provide a
+daily supply.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2321" name=
+"footnote2321"></a><b>Footnote 2321:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2321">(return)</a>
+<p>ARISTOTELES <i>de Anim. l. viii.</i> c. 9.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2322" name=
+"footnote2322"></a><b>Footnote 2322:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2322">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Menag. de Mus. Nat.</i> p. 107.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2331" name=
+"footnote2331"></a><b>Footnote 2331:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2331">(return)</a>
+<p>FLEURENS, <i>De la Long&eacute;vit&eacute; Humaine</i>, pp. 82,
+89.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2341" name=
+"footnote2341"></a><b>Footnote 2341:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2341">(return)</a>
+<p>This remark regarding the elephant of Ceylon does not appear to
+extend to that of Africa, as I observe that BEAVER, in his
+<i>African Memoranda,</i> says that "the skeletons of old ones that
+have died in the woods are frequently found."&mdash;<i>African
+Memoranda relative to an attempt to establish British Settlements
+at the Island of Bulama</i>. Lond. 1815, p. 353.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2351" name=
+"footnote2351"></a><b>Footnote 2351:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2351">(return)</a>
+<p>A corral was organised near Putlam in 1846, by Mr. Morris, the
+chief officer of the district. It was constructed across one of the
+paths which the elephants frequent in their frequent marches, and
+during the course of the proceedings two of the captured elephants
+died. Their carcases were left of course within the enclosure,
+which was abandoned as soon as the capture was complete. The wild
+elephants resumed their path through it, and a few days afterwards
+the headman reported to Mr. Morris that the bodies had been removed
+and carried outside the corral to a spot to which nothing but the
+elephants could have borne them.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2352" name=
+"footnote2352"></a><b>Footnote 2352:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2352">(return)</a>
+<p>PHILE, <i>Expositio de Eleph.</i> l. 243.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2361" name=
+"footnote2361"></a><b>Footnote 2361:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2361">(return)</a>
+<p>The selection by animals of a <i>place to die</i>, is not
+confined to the elephant, DARWIN says, that in South America "the
+guanacos (llamas) appear to have favourite spots for lying down to
+die; on the banks of the Santa Cruz river, in certain circumscribed
+spaces which were generally bushy and all near the water, the
+ground was actually white with their bones; on one such spot I
+counted between ten and twenty heads."&mdash;<i>Nat. Voy.</i> ch.
+viii. The same has been remarked in the Rio Gallegos; and at St.
+Jago in the Cape de Verde Islands, DARWIN saw a retired corner
+similarly covered with the bones of the goat, as if it were "the
+burial-ground of all the goats in the island."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2362" name=
+"footnote2362"></a><b>Footnote 2362:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2362">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Arabian Nights' Entertainment</i>, LANE'S edition, vol. iii.
+p. 77.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2371" name=
+"footnote2371"></a><b>Footnote 2371:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2371">(return)</a>
+<p>See a disquisition on the origin of the story of Sinbad, by M.
+REINAUD, in the introduction prefixed to his translation of the
+<i>Arabian Geography of Aboulfeda</i>, vol. i. p. lxxvi.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>[pg
+241]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap8" id="chap8"></a>CHAP. VIII.</h2>
+<h3>BIRDS.</h3>
+<p>Of the <i>Birds</i> of the island, upwards of three hundred and
+twenty species have been indicated, for which we are indebted to
+the persevering labours of Dr. Templeton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr.
+Layard; but many yet remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye
+of a stranger, their prodigious numbers, and especially the myriads
+of waterfowl which, notwithstanding the presence of the crocodiles,
+people the lakes and marshes in the eastern provinces, form one of
+the marvels of Ceylon.</p>
+<p>In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the interior are
+surpassed by those of South America and Northern India; and the
+melody of their song bears no comparison with that of the warblers
+of Europe, but the want of brilliancy is compensated by their
+singular grace of form, and the absence of prolonged and modulated
+harmony by the rich and melodious tones of their clear and musical
+calls. In the elevations of the Kandyan country there are a few,
+such as the robin of Neuera-ellia<a id="footnotetag2411" name=
+"footnotetag2411"></a><a href="#footnote2411"><sup>2411</sup></a>
+and the long-tailed thrush<a id="footnotetag2412" name=
+"footnotetag2412"></a><a href="#footnote2412"><sup>2412</sup></a>,
+whose song rivals that of their European namesakes; but, far beyond
+the attraction of their notes, the traveller rejoices in the
+flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird<a id=
+"footnotetag2413" name="footnotetag2413"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2413"><sup>2413</sup></a>, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page242" id="page242"></a>[pg 242]</span> and some others equally
+charming; when at the first dawn of day, they wake the forest with
+their clear <i>r&eacute;veil</i>.</p>
+<p>It is only on emerging from the dense woods and coming into the
+vicinity of the lakes and pasture of the low country, that birds
+become visible in great quantities. In the close jungle one
+occasionally hears the call of the copper-smith<a id=
+"footnotetag2421" name="footnotetag2421"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2421"><sup>2421</sup></a>, or the strokes of the great
+orange-coloured woodpecker<a id="footnotetag2422" name=
+"footnotetag2422"></a><a href="#footnote2422"><sup>2422</sup></a>
+as it beats the decaying trees in search of insects, whilst
+clinging to the bark with its finely-pointed claws, and leaning for
+support upon the short stiff feathers of its tail. And on the lofty
+branches of the higher trees, the hornbill<a id="footnotetag2423"
+name="footnotetag2423"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2423"><sup>2423</sup></a> (the toucan of the East), with
+its enormous double casque, sits to watch the motions of the tiny
+reptiles and smaller birds on which it preys, tossing them into the
+air when seized, and catching them in its gigantic mandibles as
+they fall.<a id="footnotetag2424" name=
+"footnotetag2424"></a><a href="#footnote2424"><sup>2424</sup></a>
+The remarkable excrescence on the beak of this <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>[pg 243]</span>
+extraordinary bird may serve to explain the statement of the
+Minorite friar Odoric, of Portenau in Friuli, who travelled in
+Ceylon in the fourteenth century, and brought suspicion on the
+veracity of his narrative by asserting that he had there seen
+"<i>birds with two heads</i>."<a id="footnotetag2431" name=
+"footnotetag2431"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2431"><sup>2431</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/268.png"><img width="100%" src="images/268.png" alt=
+"" /></a>THE HORNBILL.</div>
+<p>The Singhalese have a belief that the hornbill never resorts to
+the water to drink; but that it subsists exclusively by what it
+catches in its prodigious bill while <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page244" id="page244"></a>[pg 244]</span> rain is falling. This
+they allege is associated with the incessant screaming which it
+keeps up during showers.</p>
+<p>As we emerge from the dark shade, and approach park-like
+openings on the verge of the low country, quantities of pea-fowl
+are to be found either feeding on the seeds among the long grass or
+sunning themselves on the branches of the surrounding trees.
+Nothing to be met with in English demesnes can give an adequate
+idea of the size and magnificence of this matchless bird when seen
+in his native solitudes. Here he generally selects some projecting
+branch, from which his plumage may hang free of the foliage, and,
+if there be a dead and leafless bough, he is certain to choose it
+for his resting-place, whence he droops his wings and suspends his
+gorgeous train, or spreads it in the morning sun to drive off the
+damps and dews of the night.</p>
+<p>In some of the unfrequented portions of the eastern province, to
+which Europeans rarely resort, and where the pea-fowl are
+unmolested by the natives, their number is so extraordinary that,
+regarded as game, it ceases to be "sport" to destroy them; and
+their cries at early dawn are so tumultuous and incessant as to
+banish sleep, and amount to an actual inconvenience. Their flesh is
+excellent in flavour when served up hot, though it is said to be
+indigestible; but, when cold, it contracts a reddish and
+disagreeable tinge.</p>
+<p>The European fable of the jackdaw borrowing the plumage of the
+peacock, has its counterpart in Ceylon, where the popular legend
+runs that the pea-fowl stole the plumage of a bird called by the
+natives <i>avitchia</i>. I have not been able to identify the
+species which bears <span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id=
+"page245"></a>[pg 245]</span> this name; but it utters a cry
+resembling the word <i>matkiang!</i> which in Singhalese means, "I
+<i>will</i> complain!" This they believe is addressed by the bird
+to the rising sun, imploring redress for its wrongs. The
+<i>avitchia</i> is described as somewhat less than a crow, the
+colours of its plumage being green, mingled with red.</p>
+<p>But of all, the most astonishing in point of multitude, as well
+as the most interesting from their endless variety, are the myriads
+of aquatic birds and waders which frequent the lakes and
+watercourses; especially those along the coast near Batticaloa,
+between the mainland and the sand formations of the shore, and the
+innumerable salt marshes and lagoons to the south of Trincomalie.
+These, and the profusion of perching birds, fly-catchers, finches,
+and thrushes, that appear in the open country, afford sufficient
+quarry for the raptorial and predatory species&mdash;eagles, hawks,
+and falcons&mdash;whose daring sweeps and effortless undulations
+are striking objects in the cloudless sky.</p>
+<p>I. ACCIPITRES. <i>Eagles</i>.&mdash;The Eagles, however, are
+small, and as compared with other countries rare; except, perhaps,
+the crested eagle<a id="footnotetag2451" name=
+"footnotetag2451"></a><a href="#footnote2451"><sup>2451</sup></a>,
+which haunts the mountain provinces and the lower hills,
+disquieting the peasantry by its ravages amongst their poultry; and
+the gloomy serpent eagle<a id="footnotetag2452" name=
+"footnotetag2452"></a><a href="#footnote2452"><sup>2452</sup></a>,
+which, descending from its eyrie in the lofty jungle, and uttering
+a loud and plaintive cry, sweeps cautiously around the lonely tanks
+and marshes, to feed upon the reptiles on their margin. The largest
+eagle is the great sea Erne<a id="footnotetag2453" name=
+"footnotetag2453"></a><a href="#footnote2453"><sup>2453</sup></a>,
+seen on the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id=
+"page246"></a>[pg 246]</span> northern coasts and the salt lakes of
+the eastern provinces, particularly when the receding tide leaves
+bare an expanse of beach, over which it hunts, in company with the
+fishing eagle<a id="footnotetag2461" name=
+"footnotetag2461"></a><a href="#footnote2461"><sup>2461</sup></a>,
+sacred to Siva. Unlike its companions, however, the sea eagle
+rejects garbage for living prey, and especially for the sea snakes
+which abound on the northern coasts. These it seizes by descending
+with its wings half closed, and, suddenly darting down its talons,
+it soars aloft again with its writhing victim.<a id=
+"footnotetag2462" name="footnotetag2462"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2462"><sup>2462</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Hawks</i>.&mdash;The beautiful Peregrine Falcon<a id=
+"footnotetag2463" name="footnotetag2463"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2463"><sup>2463</sup></a> is rare, but the Kestrel<a id=
+"footnotetag2464" name="footnotetag2464"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2464"><sup>2464</sup></a> is found almost universally;
+and the bold and daring Goshawk<a id="footnotetag2465" name=
+"footnotetag2465"></a><a href="#footnote2465"><sup>2465</sup></a>
+wherever wild crags and precipices afford safe breeding places. In
+the district of Anarajapoora, where it is trained for hawking, it
+is usual, in lieu of a hood, to darken its eyes by means of a
+silken thread passed through holes in the eyelids. The ignoble
+birds of prey, the Kites<a id="footnotetag2466" name=
+"footnotetag2466"></a><a href="#footnote2466"><sup>2466</sup></a>,
+keep close by the shore, and hover round the returning boats of the
+fishermen to feast on the fry rejected from their nets.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/272.png"><img width="100%" src="images/272.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE "DEVIL BIRD."</div>
+<p><i>Owls</i>.&mdash;Of the nocturnal accipitres the most
+remarkable is the brown owl, which, from its hideous yell, has
+acquired the name of the "Devil-Bird."<a id="footnotetag2467" name=
+"footnotetag2467"></a><a href="#footnote2467"><sup>2467</sup></a>
+The Singhalese <span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id=
+"page247"></a>[pg 247]</span> regard it literally with horror, and
+its scream by night in the vicinity of a village is bewailed as the
+harbinger of impending calamity.<a id="footnotetag2471" name=
+"footnotetag2471"></a><a href="#footnote2471"><sup>2471</sup></a>
+There is a popular legend in connection with it, to the effect that
+a morose <span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id=
+"page248"></a>[pg 248]</span> and savage husband, who suspected the
+fidelity of his wife, availed himself of her absence to kill her
+child, of whose paternity he was doubtful, and on her return placed
+before her a curry prepared from its flesh. Of this the unhappy
+woman partook, till discovering the crime by finding the finger of
+her infant, she fled in frenzy to the forest, and there destroyed
+herself. On her death she was metamorphosed, according to the
+Buddhist belief, into an <i>ulama</i>, or Devil-bird, which still
+at nightfall horrifies the villagers by repeating the frantic
+screams of the bereaved mother in her agony.</p>
+<p>II. PASSERES. <i>Swallows</i>.&mdash;Within thirty-five miles of
+Caltura, on the western coast, are inland caves, to which the
+Esculent Swift<a id="footnotetag2481" name=
+"footnotetag2481"></a><a href="#footnote2481"><sup>2481</sup></a>
+resorts, and there builds the "edible bird's nest," so highly
+prized in China. Near the spot a few Chinese immigrants have
+established themselves, who rent the nests as a royalty from the
+government, and make an annual export of the produce. But the
+Swifts are not confined to this district, and caves containing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>[pg
+249]</span> them have been found far in the interior, a fact which
+complicates the still unexplained mystery of the composition of
+their nest; and, notwithstanding the power of wing possessed by
+these birds, adds something to the difficulty of believing that it
+consists of glutinous material obtained from alg&aelig;.<a id=
+"footnotetag2491" name="footnotetag2491"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2491"><sup>2491</sup></a> In the nests brought to me
+there was no trace of organisation; and the original material,
+whatever it be, is so elaborated by the swallow as to present
+somewhat the appearance and consistency of strings of isinglass.
+The quantity of these nests exported from Ceylon is trifling.</p>
+<p><i>Kingfishers</i>.&mdash;In solitary places, where no sound
+breaks the silence except the gurgle of the river as it sweeps
+round the rocks, the lonely Kingfisher, the emblem of vigilance and
+patience, sits upon an overhanging branch, his turquoise plumage
+hardly less intense in its lustre than the deep blue of the sky
+above him; and so intent is his watch upon the passing fish that
+intrusion fails to scare him from his post.</p>
+<p><i>Sun Birds</i>.&mdash;In the gardens the tiny Sun Birds<a id=
+"footnotetag2492" name="footnotetag2492"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2492"><sup>2492</sup></a> (known as the Humming Birds of
+Ceylon) hover all day long, attracted to the plants, over which
+they hang poised on their glittering wings, and inserting their
+curved beaks to extract the insects that nestle in the flowers.</p>
+<p>Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in form and
+motions, and the most chaste in colouring, is the one which
+Europeans call "the Bird of Paradise,"<a id="footnotetag2493" name=
+"footnotetag2493"></a><a href="#footnote2493"><sup>2493</sup></a>
+and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>[pg
+250]</span> natives "the Cotton Thief," from the circumstance that
+its tail consists of two long white feathers, which stream behind
+it as it flies. Mr. Layard says:&mdash;"I have often watched them,
+when seeking their insect prey, turn suddenly on their perch and
+<i>whisk their long tails with a jerk</i> over the bough, as if to
+protect them from injury."</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"><a href=
+"images/275.png"><img width="100%" src="images/275.png" alt=
+"" /></a> TCHITREA PARADISI.</div>
+<p>The tail is sometimes brown, and the natives have the idea that
+the bird changes its plumage at stated periods, and that the
+tail-feathers become white and brown in alternate years. The fact
+of the variety of plumage is no doubt true, but this story as to
+the alternation <span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id=
+"page251"></a>[pg 251]</span> of colours in the same individual
+requires confirmation.<a id="footnotetag2511" name=
+"footnotetag2511"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2511"><sup>2511</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>The Bulbul</i>.&mdash;The <i>Condatchee Bulbul</i><a id=
+"footnotetag2512" name="footnotetag2512"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2512"><sup>2512</sup></a>, which, from the crest on its
+head, is called by the Singhalese the "Konda Cooroola," or <i>Tuft
+bird</i>, is regarded by the natives as the most "<i>game</i>" of
+all birds; and training it to fight was one of the duties entrusted
+by the Kings of Kandy to the Cooroowa, or Head-man, who had charge
+of the King's animals and Birds. For this purpose the Bulbul is
+taken from the nest as soon as the sex is distinguishable by the
+tufted crown; and secured by a string, is taught to fly from hand
+to hand of its keeper. When pitted against an antagonist, such is
+the obstinate courage of this little creature that it will sink
+from exhaustion rather than release its hold. This propensity, and
+the ordinary character of its notes, render it impossible that the
+Bulbul of India could be identical with the Bulbul of Iran, the
+"Bird of a Thousand Songs,"<a id="footnotetag2513" name=
+"footnotetag2513"></a><a href="#footnote2513"><sup>2513</sup></a>
+of which, poets say that its delicate passion for the rose gives a
+plaintive character to its note.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50%;"><a href=
+"images/277.png"><img width="100%" src="images/277.png" alt=
+"" /></a> "CISSA PUELLA."</div>
+<p><i>Tailor-Bird</i>.&mdash;<i>The Weaver-Bird</i>.&mdash;The
+tailor-bird<a id="footnotetag2514" name=
+"footnotetag2514"></a><a href="#footnote2514"><sup>2514</sup></a>
+having completed her nest, sewing together leaves by passing
+through them a cotton thread twisted by herself, leaps from branch
+to branch to testify her happiness by <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>[pg 252]</span> a
+clear and merry note; and the Indian weaver<a id="footnotetag2521"
+name="footnotetag2521"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2521"><sup>2521</sup></a>, a still more ingenious artist,
+hangs its pendulous dwelling from a projecting bough; twisting it
+with grass into a form somewhat resembling a bottle with a
+prolonged neck, the entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the
+approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles. The
+natives assert that the male bird carries fire flies to the nest,
+and fastens them to its sides by a particle of soft mud;&mdash;Mr.
+Layard assures me that although he has never succeeded in finding
+the fire fly, the nest of the male bird (for the female occupies
+another during incubation) invariably contains a patch <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>[pg 253]</span> of mud
+on each side of the perch. Grass is apparently the most convenient
+material for the purposes of the Weaver-bird when constructing its
+nest, but other substances are often substituted, and some nests
+which I brought from Ceylon proved to be formed with delicate
+strips from the fronds of the dwarf date-palm, <i>Phoenix
+paludosa</i>, which happened to grow near the breeding place.</p>
+<p>Amongst the birds of this order, one which, as far as I know, is
+peculiar to the island is <i>Layard's Mountain-jay</i> (<i>Cissa
+puella</i>, Blyth and Layard), is distinguished not less by the
+beautiful blue colour which enlivens its plumage, than by the
+elegance of its form and the grace of its attitudes. It frequents
+the hill country, and is found about the mountain streams at
+Neuera-ellia, and elsewhere.<a id="footnotetag2531" name=
+"footnotetag2531"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2531"><sup>2531</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Crows</i>.&mdash;Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the
+most familiar and notorious are the small glossy crows, whose
+shining black plumage shot with blue has suggested the title of
+<i>Corvus splendens</i>.<a id="footnotetag2532" name=
+"footnotetag2532"></a><a href="#footnote2532"><sup>2532</sup></a>
+They frequent the towns in companies, and domesticate themselves in
+the close vicinity of every house; and it may possibly serve to
+account for the familiarity and audacity which they exhibit in
+their intercourse with men, that the Dutch during their sovereignty
+in Ceylon, enforced severe penalties against any one killing a
+crow, under the belief that they were instrumental in extending the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>[pg
+254]</span> growth of cinnamon by feeding on the fruit, and thus
+disseminating the undigested seed.<a id="footnotetag2541" name=
+"footnotetag2541"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2541"><sup>2541</sup></a></p>
+<p>So accustomed are the natives to their presence and exploits,
+that, like the Greeks and Romans, they have made the movements of
+crows the basis of their auguries; and there is no end to the
+vicissitudes of good and evil fortune which may not be predicted
+from the direction of their flight, the hoarse or mellow notes of
+their croaking, the variety of trees on which they rest, and the
+numbers in which they are seen to assemble.</p>
+<p>All day long these birds are engaged in watching either the
+offal of the offices, or the preparation for meals in the
+dining-room: and as doors and windows are necessarily opened to
+relieve the heat, nothing is more common than the passage of a crow
+across the room, lifting on the wing some ill-guarded morsel from
+the dinner-table. No article, however unpromising its quality,
+provided only it be portable, can with safety be left unguarded in
+any apartment accessible to them. The contents of ladies'
+work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket handkerchiefs vanish instantly
+if exposed near a window or open door. They open paper parcels to
+ascertain the contents; they will undo the knot on a napkin if it
+encloses anything eatable, and I have known a crow to extract the
+peg which fastened the lid of a basket in order to plunder the
+provender within.</p>
+<p>On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining a
+regimental mess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody clasp-knife
+drop from the air at her feet; but the mystery was explained on
+learning that a crow, which had been watching the cook chopping
+mince-meat, had seized <span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id=
+"page255"></a>[pg 255]</span> the moment when his head was turned
+to carry off the knife.</p>
+<p>One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly attitudinising in
+front of a chained watch-dog, that was lazily gnawing a bone, and
+after fruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention by dancing
+before him, with head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for
+a moment, and returned bringing a companion which perched itself on
+a branch a few yards in the rear. The crow's grimaces were now
+actively renewed, but with no better success, till its confederate,
+poising itself on its wings, descended with the utmost velocity,
+striking the dog upon the spine with all the force of its strong
+beak. The <i>ruse</i> was successful; the dog started with surprise
+and pain, but not quickly enough to seize his assailant, whilst the
+bone he had been gnawing was snatched away by the first crow the
+instant his head was turned. Two well-authenticated instances of
+the recurrence of this device came within my knowledge at Colombo,
+and attest the sagacity and powers of communication and combination
+possessed by these astute and courageous birds.</p>
+<p>On the approach of evening the crows near Colombo assemble in
+noisy groups along the margin of the freshwater lake which
+surrounds the fort on the eastern side; and here for an hour or two
+they enjoy the luxury of throwing the water over their shining
+backs, and arranging their plumage decorously, after which they
+disperse, each taking the direction of his accustomed quarters for
+the night.<a id="footnotetag2551" name=
+"footnotetag2551"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2551"><sup>2551</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>[pg
+256]</span>
+<p>During the storms which usher in the monsoon, it has been
+observed, that when coco-nut palms are destroyed by lightning, the
+effect frequently extends beyond a single tree, and from the
+contiguity and conduction of the spreading leaves, or some other
+peculiar cause, large groups will be affected by a single flash, a
+few killed instantly, and the rest doomed to rapid decay. In
+Belligam Bay, a little to the east of Point-de-Galle, a small
+island, which is covered with coco-nuts, has acquired the name of
+"Crow Island," from being the resort of those birds, which are seen
+hastening towards it in thousands towards sunset. A few years ago,
+during a violent storm of thunder, such was the destruction of the
+crows that the beach for some distance was covered with a black
+line of their remains, and the grove on which they had been resting
+was to a great extent destroyed by the same flash.<a id=
+"footnotetag2561" name="footnotetag2561"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2561"><sup>2561</sup></a></p>
+<p>III. SCANSORES. <i>Parroquets</i>.&mdash;Of the Psittacid&aelig;
+the only examples are the parroquets, of which the most renowned is
+the <i>Pal&aelig;ornis Alexandri</i>, which has the historic
+distinction of bearing the name of the great conqueror of India,
+having been the first of its race introduced to the knowledge of
+Europe on the return of his expedition. An idea of their number may
+be formed from the following statement of Mr. Layard, as to the
+multitudes which are to be found on the western coast. "At Chilaw,
+I have seen such vast flights of parroquets hurrying towards the
+coco-nut trees which overhang the <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page257" id="page257"></a>[pg 257]</span> bazaar, that their noise
+drowned the Babel of tongues bargaining for the evening provisions.
+Hearing of the swarms that resorted to this spot, I posted myself
+on a bridge some half mile distant, and attempted to count the
+flocks which came from a single direction to the eastward. About
+four o'clock in the afternoon, straggling parties began to wend
+towards home, and in the course of half an hour the current fairly
+set in. But I soon found that I had no longer distinct flocks to
+count, it became one living screaming stream. Some flew high in the
+air till right above their homes, and dived abruptly downward with
+many evolutions till on a level with the trees; others kept along
+the ground and dashed close by my face with the rapidity of
+thought, their brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre
+in the sun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening closed,
+when I could hear, though no longer distinguish, the birds fighting
+for their perches, and on firing a shot they rose with a noise like
+the 'rushing of a mighty wind,' but soon settled again, and such a
+din commenced as I shall never forget; the shrill screams of the
+birds, the fluttering of their innumerable wings, and the rustling
+of the leaves of the palm trees was almost deafening, and I was
+glad at last to escape to the Government Rest House."<a id=
+"footnotetag2571" name="footnotetag2571"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2571"><sup>2571</sup></a></p>
+<p>IV. COLUMBID&AElig;. <i>Pigeons</i>.&mdash;Of pigeons and doves
+there are at least a dozen species. Some live entirely on
+trees<a id="footnotetag2572" name="footnotetag2572"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2572"><sup>2572</sup></a>, never alighting on the ground;
+others, notwithstanding the abundance of food and warmth, are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>[pg
+258]</span> migratory<a id="footnotetag2581" name=
+"footnotetag2581"></a><a href="#footnote2581"><sup>2581</sup></a>,
+allured, as the Singhalese allege, by the ripening of the cinnamon
+berries, and hence one species is known in the southern provinces
+as the "Cinnamon Dove." Others feed on the fruits of the banyan:
+and it is probably to their instrumentality that this marvellous
+tree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being carried by them to
+remote localities. A very beautiful pigeon, peculiar to the
+mountain range, discovered in the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has,
+in compliment to the Viscountess Torrington, been named
+<i>Carpophaga Torringtoni&aelig;</i>.</p>
+<p>Another, called by the natives <i>neela-cobeya</i><a id=
+"footnotetag2582" name="footnotetag2582"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2582"><sup>2582</sup></a>, although strikingly elegant
+both in shape and colour, is still more remarkable for the
+singularly soothing effect of its low and harmonious voice. A
+gentleman who has spent many years in the jungle, in writing to me
+of this bird and of the effects of its melodious song, says, that
+"its soft and melancholy notes, as they came from some solitary
+place in the forest, were the most gentle sounds I ever listened
+to. Some sentimental smokers assert that the influence of the
+propensity is to make them feel <i>as if they could freely forgive
+all who had ever offended them</i>; and I can say with truth such
+has been the effect on my own nerves of the plaintive murmurs of
+the neela-cobeya, that sometimes, when irritated, and not without
+reason, by the perverseness of some of my native followers, the
+feeling has almost instantly subsided into placidity on suddenly
+hearing the loving tones of these beautiful birds."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>[pg
+259]</span>
+<p>V. GALLIN&AElig;. <i>The Ceylon Jungle-fowl</i>.&mdash;The
+jungle-fowl of Ceylon<a id="footnotetag2591" name=
+"footnotetag2591"></a><a href="#footnote2591"><sup>2591</sup></a>
+is shown by the peculiarity of its plumage to be not only distinct
+from the Indian species, but peculiar to the island. It has never
+yet bred or survived long in captivity, and no living specimens
+have been successfully transmitted to Europe. It abounds in all
+parts of the island, but chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains;
+and one of the vivid memorials which are associated with our
+journeys through the hills, is its clear cry, which sounds like a
+person calling "George Joyce,"<a id="footnotetag2592" name=
+"footnotetag2592"></a><a href="#footnote2592"><sup>2592</sup></a>
+and rises at early morning amidst mist and dew, giving life to the
+scenery, that has scarcely yet been touched by the sun-light.</p>
+<p>The female of this handsome bird was figured many years ago by
+Dr. GRAY in his illustrations of "<i>Indian Zoology</i>," under the
+name of <i>G. Stanleyi</i>. The cock bird subsequently received
+from LESSON, the name by which the species is now known: but its
+habitat was not discovered, until a specimen having been forwarded
+from Ceylon to Calcutta, Dr. BLYTH recognised it as the
+long-sought-for male of Dr. Gray's specimen.</p>
+<p>Another of the Gallin&aelig; of Ceylon, remarkable for the
+delicate pencillings of its plumage, as well as for the peculiarity
+of the double spur, from which it has acquired its trivial name, is
+the <i>Galloperdix bicalcaratus</i>, of which a figure is given
+from a drawing by Mr. Gould.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>[pg
+260]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/285.png"><img width="100%" src="images/285.png" alt=
+"" /></a> GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATUS.</div>
+<p>VI. GRALL&AElig;.&mdash;On reaching the marshy plains and
+shallow lagoons on either side of the island, the astonishment of
+the stranger is excited by the endless multitudes of stilt-birds
+and waders which stand in long array within the wash of the water,
+or sweep in vast clouds above it. Ibises<a id="footnotetag2601"
+name="footnotetag2601"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2601"><sup>2601</sup></a>, storks<a id="footnotetag2602"
+name="footnotetag2602"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2602"><sup>2602</sup></a>, egrets, spoonbills<a id=
+"footnotetag2603" name="footnotetag2603"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2603"><sup>2603</sup></a>, herons<a id="footnotetag2604"
+name="footnotetag2604"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2604"><sup>2604</sup></a>, and the smaller races of sand
+larks and plovers, are seen busily traversing the wet sand, in
+search of the red worm which burrows there, or peering with steady
+eye to watch the motions of the small fry and aquatic insects in
+the ripple on the shore.</p>
+<p>VII. ANSERES.&mdash;Preeminent in size and beauty, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>[pg
+261]</span> tall <i>flamingoes</i><a id="footnotetag2611" name=
+"footnotetag2611"></a><a href="#footnote2611"><sup>2611</sup></a>,
+with rose-coloured plumage, line the beach in long files. The
+Singhalese have been led, from their colour and their military
+order, to designate them the "<i>English Soldier birds</i>."
+Nothing can be more startling than the sudden flight of these
+splendid creatures when alarmed; their strong wings beating the air
+with a sound like distant thunder; and as they soar over head, the
+flock which appeared almost white but a moment before, is converted
+into crimson by the sudden display of the red lining of their
+wings. A peculiarity in the beak of this bird has scarcely
+attracted the attention it merits, as a striking illustration of
+creative wisdom in adapting the organs of animals to their local
+necessities.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/286.png"><img width="100%" src="images/286.png" alt=
+"" /></a> FLAMINGO.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>[pg
+262]</span>
+<p>The upper mandible, which is convex in other birds, is flattened
+in the flamingo, whilst the lower, instead of being flat, is
+convex. To those who have had an opportunity of witnessing the
+action of the bird in its native haunts, the expediency of this
+arrangement is at once apparent. To counteract the extraordinary
+length of its legs, it is provided with a proportionately long
+neck, so that in feeding in shallow water the crown of the head
+becomes inverted and the upper mandible brought into contact with
+the bottom; where its flattened surface qualifies it for performing
+the functions of the lower one in birds of the same class; and the
+edges of both being laminated, it is thus enabled, like the duck,
+by the aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift before swallowing its
+food.</p>
+<p>Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets of the
+Anatid&aelig;, the Coromandel teal<a id="footnotetag2621" name=
+"footnotetag2621"></a><a href="#footnote2621"><sup>2621</sup></a>,
+the Indian hooded gull<a id="footnotetag2622" name=
+"footnotetag2622"></a><a href="#footnote2622"><sup>2622</sup></a>,
+the Caspian tern, and a countless variety of ducks and smaller
+fowl&mdash;pintails<a id="footnotetag2623" name=
+"footnotetag2623"></a><a href="#footnote2623"><sup>2623</sup></a>,
+teal<a id="footnotetag2624" name="footnotetag2624"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2624"><sup>2624</sup></a>, red-crested pochards<a id=
+"footnotetag2625" name="footnotetag2625"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2625"><sup>2625</sup></a>, shovellers<a id=
+"footnotetag2626" name="footnotetag2626"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2626"><sup>2626</sup></a>, and terns.<a id=
+"footnotetag2627" name="footnotetag2627"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2627"><sup>2627</sup></a> Pelicans<a id="footnotetag2628"
+name="footnotetag2628"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2628"><sup>2628</sup></a> in great numbers resort to the
+mouths of the rivers, taking up their position at sunrise on some
+projecting rock, from which to dart on the passing fish, and
+returning far inland at night to their retreats among the trees,
+which overshadow some solitary river or deserted tank.</p>
+<p>I chanced upon one occasion to come unexpectedly upon one of
+these remarkable breeding places during a visit which I made to the
+great tank of Padivil, one of those gigantic constructions by which
+the early kings of Ceylon have left imperishable records of their
+reigns.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>[pg
+263]</span>
+<p>It is situated in the depth of the forests to the north-west of
+Trincomalie; and the tank is itself the basin of a broad and
+shallow valley, enclosed between two lines of low hills, that
+gradually sink into the plain as they approach towards the sea. The
+extreme breadth of the included space may be twelve or fourteen
+miles, narrowing to eleven at the spot where the retaining bund has
+been constructed across the valley; and when this enormous
+embankment was in effectual repair, and the reservoir filled by the
+rains, the water must have been thrown back along the basin of the
+valley for at least fifteen miles. It is difficult now to determine
+the precise distances, as the overgrowth of wood and jungle has
+obliterated all lines left by the original level of the lake at its
+junction with the forest. Even when we rode along it, the centre of
+the tank was deeply submerged, so that notwithstanding the partial
+escape, the water still covered an area of ten miles in diameter.
+Even now its depth when full must be very considerable, for high on
+the branches of the trees that grow in the area, the last flood had
+left quantities of driftwood and withered grass; and the rocks and
+banks were coated with the yeasty foam, that remains after the
+subsidence of an agitated flood.</p>
+<p>The bed of the tank was difficult to ride over, being still soft
+and treacherous, although covered everywhere with tall and waving
+grass; and in every direction it was poched into deep holes by the
+innumerable elephants that had congregated to roll in the soft mud,
+to bathe in the collected water, or to luxuriate in the rich
+herbage, under the cool shade of the trees. The ground, too, was
+thrown up into hummocks like great molehills which, the natives
+told us, were formed by a huge earthworm, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>[pg 264]</span> common
+in Ceylon, nearly two feet in length, and as thick as a small
+snake. Through these inequalities the water was still running off
+in natural drains towards the great channel in the centre, that
+conducts it to the broken sluice; and across these it was sometimes
+difficult to find a safe footing for our horses.</p>
+<p>In a lonely spot, towards the very centre of the tank, we came
+unexpectedly upon an extraordinary scene. A sheet of still water,
+two or three hundred yards broad, and about half a mile long, was
+surrounded by a line of tall forest-trees, whose branches stretched
+above its margin. The sun had not yet risen, when we perceived some
+white objects in large numbers on the tops of the trees; and as we
+came nearer, we discovered that a vast colony of pelicans had
+formed their settlement and breeding-place in this solitary
+retreat. They literally covered the trees in hundreds; and their
+heavy nests, like those of the swan, constructed of large sticks,
+forming great platforms, were sustained by the horizontal branches.
+Each nest contained three eggs, rather larger than those of a
+goose; and the male bird stood placidly beside the female as she
+sat upon them.</p>
+<p>Nor was this all; along with the pelicans prodigious numbers of
+other water-birds had selected this for their dwelling-place, and
+covered the trees in thousands, standing on the topmost branches;
+tall flamingoes, herons, egrets, storks, ibises, and other waders.
+We had disturbed them thus early, before their habitual hour for
+betaking themselves to their fishing-fields. By degrees, as the
+light increased, we saw them beginning to move upon the trees; they
+looked around them on every side, stretched their awkward legs
+behind them, extended their broad wings, gradually rose in groups,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>[pg
+265]</span> and slowly soared away in the direction of the
+seashore.</p>
+<p>The pelicans were apparently later in their movements; they
+allowed us to approach as near them as the swampy nature of the
+soil would permit; and even when a gun was discharged amongst them,
+only those moved off which the particles of shot disturbed. They
+were in such numbers at this favourite place; that the water over
+which they had taken up their residence was swarming with
+crocodiles, attracted by the frequent fall of the young birds; and
+the natives refused, from fear of them, to wade in for one of the
+larger pelicans which had fallen, struck by a rifle ball. It was
+altogether a very remarkable sight.</p>
+<p>Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, partridges and
+quails are to be had at all times; the woodcock has occasionally
+been shot in the hills, and the ubiquitous snipe, which arrives in
+September from Southern India, is identified not alone by the
+eccentricity of its flight, but by retaining in high perfection the
+qualities which have endeared it to the gastronome at home. But the
+magnificent pheasants, which inhabit the Himalayan range and the
+woody hills of the Chin-Indian peninsula, have no representative
+amongst the tribes that people the woods of Ceylon; although a bird
+believed to be a pheasant has more than once been seen in the
+jungle, close to Rangbodde, on the road to Neuera-ellia.</p>
+<hr />
+<h3><i>List of Ceylon Birds</i>.</h3>
+<p>In submitting this Catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, I am
+anxious to state that the copious mass of its contents <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>[pg 266]</span> is
+mainly due to the untiring energy and exertions of my friend, Mr.
+E.L. Layard. Nearly every bird in the list has fallen by his gun;
+so that the most ample facilities have been thus provided, not only
+for extending the limited amount of knowledge which formerly
+existed on this branch of the zoology of the island; but for
+correcting, by actual comparison with recent specimens, the errors
+which had previously prevailed as to imperfectly described species.
+The whole of Mr. Layard's fine collection is at present in
+England.</p>
+<h4>ACCIPITRES.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Aquila
+<ul>
+<li>Bonelli, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+<li>pennata, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spiza&euml;tus
+<ul>
+<li>Nipalensis, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li>
+<li>limn&aelig;&euml;tus, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ictina&euml;tus
+<ul>
+<li>Malayensis, <i>Reinw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>H&aelig;matornis
+<ul>
+<li>Bacha, <i>Daud</i>.</li>
+<li>spilogaster, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pontoa&euml;tus
+<ul>
+<li>leucogaster, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>ichthya&euml;tus, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Haliastur
+<ul>
+<li>Indus, <i>Bodd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Falco
+<ul>
+<li>peregrinus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>peregrinator, <i>Sund</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tinnunculus
+<ul>
+<li>alaudarius, <i>Briss</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hypotriorchis
+<ul>
+<li>chicquera, <i>Daud</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Baza
+<ul>
+<li>lophotes, <i>Cuv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Milvus
+<ul>
+<li>govinda, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Elanus
+<ul>
+<li>melanopterus, <i>Daud</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Astur
+<ul>
+<li>trivirgatus, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Accipiter
+<ul>
+<li>badius, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Circus
+<ul>
+<li>Swainsonii, <i>A. Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>cinerascens, <i>Mont</i>.</li>
+<li>melanoleucos, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li><i>&aelig;ruginosus, Linn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Athene
+<ul>
+<li>castonatus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>scutulata, <i>Raffles</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ephialtes
+<ul>
+<li>scops, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>lempijii, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>sunia, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ketupa
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Syrnium
+<ul>
+<li>Indranee, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Strix
+<ul>
+<li>Javanica, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>PASSERES.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Batrachostomus
+<ul>
+<li>moniliger, <i>Layard</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Caprimulgus
+<ul>
+<li><i>Mahrattensis, Sykes</i>.</li>
+<li>Kelaarti, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>Asiaticus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cypselus
+<ul>
+<li>batassiensis, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+<li>melba, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>affinis, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Macropteryx
+<ul>
+<li>coronatus, <i>Tickell</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Collocalia
+<ul>
+<li>brevirostris, <i>McClel</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acanthylis
+<ul>
+<li>caudacuta, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hirundo
+<ul>
+<li>panayana, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>daurica, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>hyperythra, <i>Layard</i>.</li>
+<li>domicola, <i>Jerdon</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coracias
+<ul>
+<li>Indica, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Harpactes
+<ul>
+<li>fasciatus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eurystomus
+<ul>
+<li>orientalis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Halcyon
+<ul>
+<li>Capensis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>atricapillus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>Smyrnensis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ceyx
+<ul>
+<li>tridactyla, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alcedo
+<ul>
+<li>Bengalensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ceryle
+<ul>
+<li>rudis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Merops
+<ul>
+<li>Philippinus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>viridis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>quincticolor, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Upupa
+<ul>
+<li>nigripennis, <i>Gould</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nectarina
+<ul>
+<li>Zeylanica, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>minima, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+<li>Asiatica, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li>Lotenia, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dic&aelig;um
+<ul>
+<li>minimum, <i>Tickell</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phyllornis
+<ul>
+<li>Malabarica, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li>Jerdoni, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dendrophila
+<ul>
+<li>frontalis, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Piprisoma
+<ul>
+<li>agile, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Orthotomus
+<ul>
+<li>longicauda, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cisticola
+<ul>
+<li>cursitans, <i>Frankl</i>.</li>
+<li>omalura, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Drymoica
+<ul>
+<li>valida, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>inornata, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Prinia
+<ul>
+<li>socialis, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acrocephalus
+<ul>
+<li>dumetorum, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phyllopneuste
+<ul>
+<li>nitidus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>montanus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>viridanus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Copsychus
+<ul>
+<li>saularis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Kittacincla
+<ul>
+<li>macrura, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pratincola
+<ul>
+<li>caprata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>atrata, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Calliope
+<ul>
+<li>cyanea, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thamnobia
+<ul>
+<li>fulicata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyanecula
+<ul>
+<li>Suecica, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sylvia
+<ul>
+<li>affinis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Parus
+<ul>
+<li>cinereus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zosterops
+<ul>
+<li>palpebrosus, <i>Temm</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page267" id="page267"></a>[pg 267]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>I&ouml;ra
+<ul>
+<li>Zeylanica, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>typhia, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Motacilla
+<ul>
+<li>sulphurea, <i>Becks</i>.</li>
+<li>Indica, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>Madraspatana, <i>Briss</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Budytes
+<ul>
+<li>viridis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anthus
+<ul>
+<li>rutulus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+<li>Richardii, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+<li>striolatus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Brachypteryx
+<ul>
+<li>Palliseri, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alcippe
+<ul>
+<li>nigrifrons, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pitta
+<ul>
+<li>brachyura, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oreocincla
+<ul>
+<li>spiloptera, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Merula
+<ul>
+<li>Wardii, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+<li>Kinnisii, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zoothera
+<ul>
+<li>imbricata, <i>Layard</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Garrulax
+<ul>
+<li>cinereifrons, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pormatorhinus
+<ul>
+<li>melanurus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Malacocercus
+<ul>
+<li>rufescens, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>griseus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>striatus, <i>Swains</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pellorneum
+<ul>
+<li>fuscocapillum, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dumetia
+<ul>
+<li>albogularis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chrysomma
+<ul>
+<li>Sinense, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oriolus
+<ul>
+<li>melanocephalus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li><i>Indicus, Briss</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Criniger
+<ul>
+<li>ictericus, <i>Stickl</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pycnonotus
+<ul>
+<li>pencillatus, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+<li>flavirictus, <i>Strickl</i>.</li>
+<li>h&aelig;morrhous, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>atricapillus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hemipus
+<ul>
+<li>picatus, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hypsipetes
+<ul>
+<li>Nilgherriensis, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyornis
+<ul>
+<li>rubeculo&iuml;des, <i>Vig</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Myiagra
+<ul>
+<li>azurea, <i>Bodd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cryptolopha
+<ul>
+<li>cinereocapilla, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leucocerca
+<ul>
+<li><i>compressirostris, Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tchitrea
+<ul>
+<li>paradisi, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>*Butalis
+<ul>
+<li>latirostris, <i>Raffles</i>.</li>
+<li>Muttui, <i>Layard</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stoparola
+<ul>
+<li>melanops, <i>Vig</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pericrocotus
+<ul>
+<li>flammeus, <i>Forst</i>.</li>
+<li>peregrinus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Campephaga
+<ul>
+<li>Macei, <i>Less</i>.</li>
+<li>Sykesii, <i>Strickl</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Artamus
+<ul>
+<li>fuscus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Edolius
+<ul>
+<li>paradiseus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dicrurus
+<ul>
+<li>macrocereus, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+<li>edoliformis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>longicaudatus, <i>A. Hoy</i>.</li>
+<li>leucopygialis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li><i>c&aelig;rulescens</i>, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Irena
+<ul>
+<li>puella, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lanius
+<ul>
+<li>superciliosus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li><i>erythronotus, Vig</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tephrodornis
+<ul>
+<li>affinis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cissa
+<ul>
+<li>puella, <i>Blyth &amp; Layard</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corvus
+<ul>
+<li>splendens, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+<li>culminatus, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eulabes
+<ul>
+<li>religiosa, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>ptilogenys, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pastor
+<ul>
+<li>roseus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Het&aelig;rornis
+<ul>
+<li>pagodarum, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li><i>albifrontata, Layard</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acridotheres
+<ul>
+<li>tristis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ploceus
+<ul>
+<li>manyar, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>baya, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Munia
+<ul>
+<li>undulata, <i>Latr</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Malabarica, Linn</i>.</li>
+<li>Malacca, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>rubronigra, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li>
+<li>striata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Kelaarti, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Passer
+<ul>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Jard. &amp; Selb.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alauda
+<ul>
+<li>gulgula, <i>Frank</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Malabarica, Scop</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pyrrhulauda
+<ul>
+<li>grisea, <i>Scop</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mirafra
+<ul>
+<li>affinis, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Buceros
+<ul>
+<li>gingalensis, <i>Shaw</i>.</li>
+<li>Malabaricus, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>SCANSORES.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Loriculus
+<ul>
+<li>Asiaticus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;cornis
+<ul>
+<li>Alexandri, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>torquatus, <i>Briss</i>.</li>
+<li>cyanocephalus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Calthrop&aelig;, <i>Layard</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Megalaima
+<ul>
+<li>Indica, <i>Latr</i>.</li>
+<li>Zeylanica, <i>Gmel</i>.</li>
+<li>flavifrons, <i>Cuv</i>.</li>
+<li>rubicapilla, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Picus
+<ul>
+<li>gymnophthalmus, Blth.</li>
+<li>Mahrattensis, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Macei, Vieill</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gecinus
+<ul>
+<li>chlorophanes, <i>Vieill</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Brachypternus
+<ul>
+<li>aurantius, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Ceylonus, <i>Forst</i>.</li>
+<li><i>rubescens, Vieill</i>.</li>
+<li>Stricklandi, <i>Layard</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Micropternus
+<ul>
+<li>gularis, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Centropus
+<ul>
+<li>rufipennis, <i>Illiger</i>.</li>
+<li>chlororhynchos, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oxylophus
+<ul>
+<li>melanoleucos, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>Coromandus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Endynamys
+<ul>
+<li>orientalis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cuculus
+<ul>
+<li>Poliocephalus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li>striatus, <i>Drapiex</i>.</li>
+<li>canorus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Polyphasia
+<ul>
+<li>tenuirostris, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+<li>Sonneratii, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hierococcyx
+<ul>
+<li>varius, <i>Vahl</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Surniculus
+<ul>
+<li>dicruro&iuml;des, <i>Hodgs</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phoenicophaus
+<ul>
+<li>pyrrhocephalus, <i>Forst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zanclostomus
+<ul>
+<li>viridirostris, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>COLUMB&AElig;.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Treron
+<ul>
+<li>bicincta, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+<li>flavogularis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>Pompadoura, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>chlorogaster, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Carpophaga
+<ul>
+<li>pusilla, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li>Torringtoni&aelig;, <i>Kelaart</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alsocomus
+<ul>
+<li>puniceus, <i>Tickel</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Columba
+<ul>
+<li>intermedia, <i>Strickl</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Turtur
+<ul>
+<li>risorius, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Suratensis, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li>humilis, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+<li>orientalis, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chalcophaps
+<ul>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>GALLIN&AElig;.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Pavo
+<ul>
+<li>cristatus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gallus
+<ul>
+<li>Lafayetti, <i>Lesson</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Galloperdix
+<ul>
+<li>bicalcaratus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Francolinus
+<ul>
+<li>Ponticerianus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Perdicula
+<ul>
+<li>agoondah, <i>Sykes</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page268"
+id="page268"></a>[pg 268]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coturnix
+<ul>
+<li>Chinensis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Turnix ocellatus
+<ul>
+<li><i>var.</i> Bengalensis, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+<li><i>var.</i> taigoor, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>GRALL&AElig;.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Esacus
+<ul>
+<li>recurvirostris, <i>Cuv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oedienemus
+<ul>
+<li>crepitans, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cursorius
+<ul>
+<li>Coromandelicus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lobivanellus
+<ul>
+<li>bilobus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>G&ouml;ensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Charadrius
+<ul>
+<li>virginicus, <i>Bechs</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hiaticula
+<ul>
+<li>Philippensis, <i>Scop</i>.</li>
+<li>Cantiana, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li>Leschenaultii, <i>Less</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Strepsilas
+<ul>
+<li>Interpres, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ardea
+<ul>
+<li>purpurea, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>cinerea, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>asha, <i>Sykes</i>.</li>
+<li>intermedia, <i>Wagler</i>.</li>
+<li>garzetta, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li><i>alba, Linn</i>.</li>
+<li>bubulcus, <i>Savig</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ardeola
+<ul>
+<li>leucoptera, <i>Bodd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ardetta
+<ul>
+<li>cinnamomea, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>flavicollis, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li>Sinensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Butoroides
+<ul>
+<li>Javanica, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Platalea
+<ul>
+<li>leucorodia, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nycticorax
+<ul>
+<li>griseus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tigrisoma
+<ul>
+<li>melanolopha, <i>Raffl</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mycteria
+<ul>
+<li>australis, <i>Shaw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leptophilus
+<ul>
+<li>Javanica, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ciconia
+<ul>
+<li>leucocephala, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anastomus
+<ul>
+<li>oscitans, <i>Bodd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tantalus
+<ul>
+<li>leucocephalus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Geronticus
+<ul>
+<li>melanocephalus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Falcinellus
+<ul>
+<li>igneus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Numenias
+<ul>
+<li>arquatus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>ph&aelig;opus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Totanus
+<ul>
+<li>fuscus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>calidris, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>glottis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>stagnalis, <i>Bechst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Actitis
+<ul>
+<li>glareola, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>ochropus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>hypoleucos, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tringa
+<ul>
+<li>minuta, <i>Leist</i>.</li>
+<li>subarquata, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Limicola
+<ul>
+<li>platyrhyncha, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Limosa
+<ul>
+<li>&aelig;gocephala, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Himantopus
+<ul>
+<li>candidus, <i>Bon</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Recurvirostra
+<ul>
+<li>avocetta, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>H&aelig;matopus
+<ul>
+<li>ostralegus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhynchoea
+<ul>
+<li>Bengalensis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scolopax
+<ul>
+<li>rusticola, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gallinago
+<ul>
+<li>stenura, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+<li><i>scolopacina, Bon</i>.</li>
+<li><i>gallinula, Linn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydrophasianus
+<ul>
+<li>Sinensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ortygometra
+<ul>
+<li>rubiginosa, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corethura
+<ul>
+<li>Zeylanica, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rallus
+<ul>
+<li>striatus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Porphyrio
+<ul>
+<li>poliocephalus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Porzana
+<ul>
+<li>pygm&aelig;a, <i>Nan</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gallinula
+<ul>
+<li>phoenicura, <i>Penn</i>.</li>
+<li>chloropus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>cristata, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>ANSERES.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Phoenicopterus
+<ul>
+<li>ruber, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sarkidiornis
+<ul>
+<li>melanonotos, <i>Penn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nettapus
+<ul>
+<li>Coromandelianus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anas
+<ul>
+<li>poecilorhyncha, <i>Penn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dendrocygnus
+<ul>
+<li>arcuatus, <i>Cuv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dafila
+<ul>
+<li>acuta, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Querquedula
+<ul>
+<li>crecca, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>circia, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Fuligula</i>
+<ul>
+<li><i>rufina, Pall.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spatula
+<ul>
+<li>clypeata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Podiceps
+<ul>
+<li>Philippensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Larus
+<ul>
+<li>brunnicephalus, <i>Jerd</i>.</li>
+<li>ichthya&euml;tus, <i>Pall</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sylochelidon
+<ul>
+<li>Caspius, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydrochelidon
+<ul>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Steph</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gelochelidon
+<ul>
+<li>Anglicus, <i>Mont</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Onychoprion
+<ul>
+<li>anasth&aelig;tus, <i>Scop</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sterna
+<ul>
+<li>Javanica, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>melanogaster, <i>Temm</i>.</li>
+<li>minuta, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Seena
+<ul>
+<li>aurantia, <i>Gray</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thalasseus
+<ul>
+<li>Bengalensis, <i>Less</i>.</li>
+<li>cristata, <i>Stepth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dromas
+<ul>
+<li>ardeola, <i>Payk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Atagen
+<ul>
+<li>ariel, <i>Gould</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thalassidroma
+<ul>
+<li><i>melanogaster, Gould</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Plotus
+<ul>
+<li>melanogaster, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pelicanus
+<ul>
+<li>Philippensis, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Graculus
+<ul>
+<li>Sinensis, <i>Shaw</i>.</li>
+<li>pygm&aelig;us, <i>Pallas</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>[pg
+269]</span>
+<h3>NOTE.</h3>
+<p>The following is a list of the birds which are, as far as is at
+present known, peculiar to the island; it will probably be
+determined at some future day that some included in it have a wider
+geographical range.</p>
+<p>H&aelig;matornis spilogaster. The "Ceylon eagle;" was discovered
+by Mr. Layard in the Wanny, and by Dr. Kelaart at Trincomalie.</p>
+<p>Athene castonotus. The chestnut-winged hawk owl. This pretty
+little owl was added to the list of Ceylon birds by Dr. Templeton.
+Mr. Blyth is at present of opinion that this bird is identical with
+Ath. Castanopterus, <i>Horsf</i>. of Java as figured by Temminck:
+<i>P. Col.</i></p>
+<p>Batrachostomus moniliger. The oil bird; was discovered amongst
+the precipitous rocks of the Adam's Peak range by Mr. Layard.
+Another specimen was sent about the same time to Sir James Emerson
+Tennent from Avisavelle. Mr. Mitford has met with it at
+Ratnapoora.</p>
+<p>Caprimulgus Kelaarti. Kelaart's nightjar; swarms on the marshy
+plains of Neuera-ellia at dusk.</p>
+<p>Hirundo hyperythra. The red-bellied swallow; was discovered in
+1849, by Mr. Layard at Ambepusse. They build a globular nest, with
+a round hole at top. A pair built in the ring for a hanging lamp in
+Dr. Gardner's study at Peradenia, and hatched their young,
+undisturbed by the daily trimming and lighting of the lamp.</p>
+<p>Cisticola omalura. Layard's mountain grass warbler; is found in
+abundance on Horton Plain and Neuera-ellia, among the long Patena
+grass.</p>
+<p>Drymoica valida. Layard's wren-warbler; frequents tufts of grass
+and low bushes, feeding on insects.</p>
+<p>Pratincola atrata. The Neuera-ellia robin; a melodious songster;
+added to our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart.</p>
+<p>Brachypteryx Palliseri. Ant thrush. A rare bird, added by Dr.
+Kelaart from Dimboola and Neuera-ellia.</p>
+<p>Pellorneum fuscocapillum. Mr. Layard found two specimens of this
+rare thrush creeping about shrubs and bushes, feeding on
+insects.</p>
+<p>Alcippe nigrifrons. This thrush frequents low impenetrable
+thickets, and seems to be widely distributed.</p>
+<p>Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted thrush is only found in the
+mountain zone about lofty trees.</p>
+<p>Merula Kinnisii. The Neuera-ellia blackbird; was added by Dr.
+Kelaart.</p>
+<p>Garrulax cinereifrons. The ashy-headed babbler; was found by Mr.
+Layard near Ratnapoora.</p>
+<p>Pomatorhinus melanurus. Mr. Layard states that the mountain
+babbler frequents low, scraggy, impenetrable brush, along the
+margins of deserted cheena land. This may turn out to be little
+more than a local yet striking variety of P. Horsfieldii of the
+Indian Peninsula.</p>
+<p>Malacocercus rufescens. The red dung thrush added by Dr.
+Templeton to the Singhalese Fauna, is found in thick jungle in the
+southern and midland districts.</p>
+<p>Pycnonotus penicillatus. The yellow-eared bulbul; was found by
+Dr. Kelaart at Neuera-ellia.</p>
+<p>Butalis Muttui. This very handsome flycatcher was procured at
+Point Pedro, by Mr. Layard.</p>
+<p>Dicrurus edoliformis. Dr. Templeton found this kingcrow at the
+Bibloo Oya. Mr. Layard has since got it at Ambogammoa.</p>
+<p>Dicrurus leucopygialis. The Ceylon kingcrow was sent to Mr.
+Blyth from the vicinity of Colombo, by Dr. Templeton. A species
+very closely allied to D. coerulescens of the Indian continent.</p>
+<p>Tephrodornis affinis. The Ceylon butcher-bird. A migatory
+species found in the wooded grass lands in October.</p>
+<p>Cissa puella. Layard's mountain jay. A most lovely bird, found
+along mountain streams at Neuera-ellia and elsewhere.</p>
+<p>Eulabes ptilogenys. Templeton's mynah. The largest and most
+beautiful of the species. It is found in flocks perching on the
+highest trees, feeding on berries.</p>
+<p>Munia Kelaarti. This Grosbeak previously assumed to be M.
+pectoralls of Jerdon; is most probably peculiar to Ceylon.</p>
+<p>Loriculus asiaticus. The small parroquet, abundant in various
+districts.</p>
+<p>Pal&aelig;ornis Calthrop&aelig;. Layard's purple-headed
+parroquet, found at Kandy, is a very handsome bird, flying in
+flocks, and resting on the summits of the very highest trees. Dr.
+Kelaart states that it is the only parroquet of the Neuera-ellia
+range.</p>
+<p>Megalaima flavifrons. The yellow-headed barbet, is not
+uncommon.</p>
+<p>Megalaima rubricapilla, is found in most parts of the
+island.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>[pg
+270]</span>
+<p>Picus gymnophthalmus. Layard's woodpecker. The smallest of the
+species, was discovered near Colombo, amongst jak-trees.</p>
+<p>Brachypternus Ceylonus. The Ceylon woodpecker, is found in
+abundance near Neuera-ellia.</p>
+<p>Brachypternus rubescens. The red woodpecker.</p>
+<p>Centropus chlororhynchus. The yellow-billed cuckoo, was detected
+by Mr. Layard in dense jungle near Colombo and Avisavelle.</p>
+<p>Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. The malkoha, is confined to the
+southern highlands.</p>
+<p>Treron Pompadoura. The Pompadour pigeon. "The Prince of Canino
+has shown that this is a totally distinct bird from Tr.
+flavogularis, with which it was confounded: it is much smaller,
+with the quantity of maroon colour on the mantle greatly
+reduced."&mdash;Paper by Mr. BLYTH, <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> p. 514:
+1857.</p>
+<p>Carpophaga Torringtoni&aelig;. Lady Torrington's pigeon; a very
+handsome pigeon discovered in the highlands by Dr. Kelaart. It
+flies high in long sweeps, and makes its nest on the loftiest
+trees. Mr. Blyth is of opinion that it is no more than a local
+race, barely separable from C. Elphinstonii of the Nilgiris and
+Malabar coast.</p>
+<p>Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill dove a migratory species
+found by Mr. Layard in the mountain zone, only appearing with the
+ripened fruit of the teak, banyan, &amp;c., on which they feed.</p>
+<p>Gallus Lafayetti.&mdash;The Ceylon jungle fowl. The female of
+this handsome bird was figured by Mr. GRAY (<i>Ill. Ind. Zool.</i>)
+under the name of G. Stanleyi. The cock bird had long been lost to
+naturalists, until a specimen was forwarded by Dr. Templeton to Mr.
+Blyth, who at once recognised it as the long-looked-for male of Mr.
+Gray's recently described female. It is abundant in all the
+uncultivated portions of Ceylon; coming out into the open spaces to
+feed in the mornings and evenings. Mr. Blyth states that there can
+be no doubt that Hardwicke's published figure refers to the hen of
+this species, long afterwards termed G. Lafayetti.</p>
+<p>Galloperdix bicalcaratus. Not uncommon in suitable
+situations.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>[pg
+271]</span>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2411" name=
+"footnote2411"></a><b>Footnote 2411:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2411">(return)</a>
+<p>Pratincola atrata, <i>Kelaart</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2412" name=
+"footnote2412"></a><b>Footnote 2412:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2412">(return)</a>
+<p>Kittacincla macrura, <i>Gm</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2413" name=
+"footnote2413"></a><b>Footnote 2413:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2413">(return)</a>
+<p>Copsychussaularis, <i>Linn.</i>. Called by the Europeans in
+Ceylon the "Magpie Robin." This is not to be confounded with the
+other popular favourite the "Indian Robin" (Thamnobia fulicata,
+<i>Linn.</i>), which is "never seen in the unfrequented jungle,
+but, like the coco-nut palm, which the Singhalese assert will only
+flourish within the sound of the human voice, it is always found
+near the habitations of men."&mdash;E.L. LAYARD.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2421" name=
+"footnote2421"></a><b>Footnote 2421:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2421">(return)</a>
+<p>The greater red-headed Barbet (Megalaima indica, <i>Lath</i>.;
+M. Philippensis, <i>var. A. Lath</i>.), the incessant din of which
+resembles the blows of a smith hammering a cauldron.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2422" name=
+"footnote2422"></a><b>Footnote 2422:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2422">(return)</a>
+<p>Brachypternus aurantius, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2423" name=
+"footnote2423"></a><b>Footnote 2423:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2423">(return)</a>
+<p>Buceros pica, <i>Scop</i>.; B. Malaharicus, <i>Jerd</i>. The
+natives assert that B. pica builds in holes in the trees, and that
+when incubation has fairly commenced, the female takes her seat on
+the eggs, and the male closes up the orifice by which she entered,
+leaving only a small aperture through which he feeds his partner,
+whilst she successfully guards their treasures from the monkey
+tribes; her formidable bill nearly filling the entire entrance. See
+a paper by Edgar L. Layard, Esq. <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> March,
+1853. Dr. Horsfield had previously observed the same habit in a
+species of Buceros in Java. (See HORSFIELD and MOORE'S <i>Catal.
+Birds</i>, E.I. Comp. Mus. vol. ii.) It is curious that a similar
+trait, though necessarily from very different instincts, is
+exhibited by the termites, who literally build a cell round the
+great progenitrix of the community, and feed her through
+apertures.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2424" name=
+"footnote2424"></a><b>Footnote 2424:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2424">(return)</a>
+<p>The hornbill is also frugivorous, and the natives assert that
+when endeavouring to detach a fruit, if the stem is too tough to be
+severed by his mandibles, he flings himself off the branch so as to
+add the weight of his body to the pressure of his beak. The
+hornbill abounds in Cuttack, and bears there the name of
+"Kuchila-Kai," or Kuchila-eater, from its partiality for the fruit
+of the Strychnus nuxvomica. The natives regard its flesh as a
+sovereign specific for rheumatic affections.&mdash;<i>Asiat.
+Res.</i> ch. xv. p. 184.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2431" name=
+"footnote2431"></a><b>Footnote 2431:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2431">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Itinerarius</i> FRATRIS ODORICI, de Foro Julii de
+Portu-vahonis, &amp;c.&mdash;HAKLUYT, vol. ii. p. 39.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2451" name=
+"footnote2451"></a><b>Footnote 2451:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2451">(return)</a>
+<p>Spiza&euml;tuslimna&euml;tus, <i>Horsf</i>. The race of these
+birds in the Deccan and Ceylon are rather more crested, originating
+the Sp. Cristatellus, <i>Auct</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2452" name=
+"footnote2452"></a><b>Footnote 2452:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2452">(return)</a>
+<p>Which Gould believes to be the <i>H&aelig;matornis Bacha</i>,
+Daud.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2453" name=
+"footnote2453"></a><b>Footnote 2453:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2453">(return)</a>
+<p>Pontoa&euml;tus leucogaster, <i>Gmel</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2461" name=
+"footnote2461"></a><b>Footnote 2461:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2461">(return)</a>
+<p>Haliastur Indus, <i>Bodd.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2462" name=
+"footnote2462"></a><b>Footnote 2462:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2462">(return)</a>
+<p>E.L. Layard. Europeans have given this bird the name of the
+"Brahminy Kite," probably from observing the superstitious feeling
+of the natives regarding it, who believe that when two armies are
+about to engage, its appearance prognosticates victory to the party
+over whom it hovers.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2463" name=
+"footnote2463"></a><b>Footnote 2463:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2463">(return)</a>
+<p>Falco peregrinus, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2464" name=
+"footnote2464"></a><b>Footnote 2464:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2464">(return)</a>
+<p>Tinnunculus alaudarius, <i>Briss.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2465" name=
+"footnote2465"></a><b>Footnote 2465:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2465">(return)</a>
+<p>Astur trivirgatus, <i>Temm.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2466" name=
+"footnote2466"></a><b>Footnote 2466:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2466">(return)</a>
+<p>Milvus govinda, <i>Sykes.</i> Dr. Hamilton Buchanan remarks that
+when gorged this bird delights to sit on the entablature of
+buildings, exposing its back to the hottest rays of the sun,
+placing its breast against the wall, and stretching out its wings
+<i>exactly as the Egyptian Hawk is represented on the
+monuments</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2467" name=
+"footnote2467"></a><b>Footnote 2467:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2467">(return)</a>
+<p>Syrnium Indranee, <i>Sykes.</i> Mr. Blyth writes to me from
+Calcutta that there are some doubts about this bird. There would
+appear to be three or four distinguishable races, the Ceylon bird
+approximating most nearly to that of the Malayan Peninsula.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2471" name=
+"footnote2471"></a><b>Footnote 2471:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2471">(return)</a>
+<p>The horror of this nocturnal scream was equally prevalent in the
+West as in the East. Ovid introduces it in his <i>Fasti</i>, L. vi.
+l. 139; and Tibullus in his Elegies, L. i. El. 5. Statius
+says&mdash;</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">Nocturn&aelig;que gemunt striges, et feralla bubo</p>
+<p class="i2"><i>Damna canens</i>. Theb. iii. l. 511.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>But Pliny, l. xi. c. 93, doubts as to what bird produced the
+sound;&mdash;and the details of Ovid's description do not apply to
+an owl.</p>
+<p>Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, to whom I am indebted
+for many valuable notes relative to the birds of the island,
+regards the identification of the Singhalese Devil-Bird as open to
+similar doubt: he says&mdash;"The Devil-Bird is not an owl. I never
+heard it until I came to Kornegalle, where it haunts the rocky hill
+at the back of Government-house. Its ordinary note is a magnificent
+clear shout like that of a human being, and which can be heard at a
+great distance, and has a fine effect in the silence of the closing
+night. It has another cry like that of a hen just caught, but the
+sounds which have earned for it its bad name, and which I have
+heard but once to perfection, are indescribable, the most appalling
+that can be imagined, and scarcely to be heard without shuddering;
+I can only compare it to a boy in torture, whose screams are being
+stopped by being strangled. I have offered rewards for a specimen,
+but without success. The only European who had seen and fired at
+one agreed with the natives that it is of the size of a pigeon,
+with a long tail. I believe it is a Podargus or Night Hawk." In a
+subsequent note he further says&mdash;"I have since seen two birds
+by moonlight, one of the size and shape of a cuckoo, the other a
+large black bird, which I imagine to be the one which gives these
+calls."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2481" name=
+"footnote2481"></a><b>Footnote 2481:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2481">(return)</a>
+<p>Collocalia brevirostris, <i>McClell</i>.; C. nidifica,
+<i>Gray</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2491" name=
+"footnote2491"></a><b>Footnote 2491:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2491">(return)</a>
+<p>An epitome of what has been written on this subject will be
+found in <i>Dr. Horsfield's Catalogue</i> of the Birds in the E.I.
+Comp. Museum, vol. i. p. 101, &amp;c. Mr. Morris assures me, that
+he has found the nests of the Esculent Swallow eighty miles distant
+from the sea.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2492" name=
+"footnote2492"></a><b>Footnote 2492:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2492">(return)</a>
+<p>Nectarina Zeylanica, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2493" name=
+"footnote2493"></a><b>Footnote 2493:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2493">(return)</a>
+<p>Tchitrea paradisi, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2511" name=
+"footnote2511"></a><b>Footnote 2511:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2511">(return)</a>
+<p>The engraving of the Tchitrea given on page 244 is copied by
+permission from one of the splendid drawings in. MR. GOULD'S
+<i>Birds of India</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2512" name=
+"footnote2512"></a><b>Footnote 2512:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2512">(return)</a>
+<p>Pycnonotus h&aelig;morrhous, <i>Gmel</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2513" name=
+"footnote2513"></a><b>Footnote 2513:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2513">(return)</a>
+<p>"Hazardasitaum" the Persian name for the bulbul. "The Persians,"
+according to Zakary ben Mohamed al Caswini, "say the bulbul has a
+passion for the rose, and laments and cries when he sees it
+pulled."&mdash;OUSELEY'S <i>Oriental Collections</i>, vol. i. p.
+16. According to Pallas it is the true nightingale of Europe,
+Sylvia luscinia, which the Armenians call <i>boulboul</i>, and the
+Crim-Tartars <i>byl-byl-i</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2514" name=
+"footnote2514"></a><b>Footnote 2514:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2514">(return)</a>
+<p>Orthotomus longicauda, <i>Gmel</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2521" name=
+"footnote2521"></a><b>Footnote 2521:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2521">(return)</a>
+<p>Ploceus baya, <i>Blyth</i>.; P. Philippinus, <i>Auct</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2531" name=
+"footnote2531"></a><b>Footnote 2531:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2531">(return)</a>
+<p>The engraving above is taken by permission of Mr. Gould from one
+of his drawings for his <i>Birds of India</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2532" name=
+"footnote2532"></a><b>Footnote 2532:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2532">(return)</a>
+<p>There is another species, the <i>C. culminatus</i>, so called
+from the convexity of its bill; but though seen in the towns, it
+lives chiefly in the open country, and may be constantly observed
+wherever there are buffaloes, perched on their backs and engaged,
+in company with the small Minah (<i>Acridotheres tristis</i>), in
+freeing them from ticks.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2541" name=
+"footnote2541"></a><b>Footnote 2541:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2541">(return)</a>
+<p>WOLF'S <i>Life and Adventures</i>, p. 117.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2551" name=
+"footnote2551"></a><b>Footnote 2551:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2551">(return)</a>
+<p>A similar habit has been noticed in the damask Parrots of Africa
+(<i>Pal&aelig;ornis fuscus</i>) which daily resort at the same hour
+to their accustomed pools to bathe.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2561" name=
+"footnote2561"></a><b>Footnote 2561:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2561">(return)</a>
+<p>Similar instances are recorded in other countries of sudden and
+prodigious mortality amongst crows; but whether occasioned by
+lightning seems uncertain. In 1839 thirty-three thousand dead crows
+were found on the shores of a lake in the county Westmeath in
+Ireland after a storm.&mdash;THOMPSON'S <i>Nat. Hist. Ireland</i>,
+vol. i. p. 319. PATTERSON in his <i>Zoology</i>, p. 356, mentions
+other cases.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2571" name=
+"footnote2571"></a><b>Footnote 2571:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2571">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Annals of Nat. Hist.</i> vol. xiii. p. 263.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2572" name=
+"footnote2572"></a><b>Footnote 2572:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2572">(return)</a>
+<p>Treron bicincta. <i>Jerd</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2581" name=
+"footnote2581"></a><b>Footnote 2581:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2581">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Alsocomus puniceus</i>, the "Season Pigeon" of Ceylon, so
+called from its periodical arrival and departure.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2582" name=
+"footnote2582"></a><b>Footnote 2582:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2582">(return)</a>
+<p>Chalcophaps Indicus, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2591" name=
+"footnote2591"></a><b>Footnote 2591:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2591">(return)</a>
+<p>Gallus Lafayetti, <i>Lesson</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2592" name=
+"footnote2592"></a><b>Footnote 2592:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2592">(return)</a>
+<p>I apprehend that in the particular of the peculiar cry the
+Ceylon jungle fowl differs from that of the Dekkan, where <i>I am
+told</i> that it crows like a bantam cock.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2601" name=
+"footnote2601"></a><b>Footnote 2601:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2601">(return)</a>
+<p>Tantalus leucocephalus, and Ibis falcinellus.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2602" name=
+"footnote2602"></a><b>Footnote 2602:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2602">(return)</a>
+<p>The violet-headed Stork (Ciconia leticocephala).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2603" name=
+"footnote2603"></a><b>Footnote 2603:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2603">(return)</a>
+<p>Platalea leucorodia, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2604" name=
+"footnote2604"></a><b>Footnote 2604:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2604">(return)</a>
+<p>Ardea cinerea. A. purpurea.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2611" name=
+"footnote2611"></a><b>Footnote 2611:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2611">(return)</a>
+<p>Phoenicopterus roseus, <i>Pallas</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2621" name=
+"footnote2621"></a><b>Footnote 2621:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2621">(return)</a>
+<p>Nettapus coromandelianus, <i>Gm</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2622" name=
+"footnote2622"></a><b>Footnote 2622:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2622">(return)</a>
+<p>Larus brunnicephalus, <i>Jerd</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2623" name=
+"footnote2623"></a><b>Footnote 2623:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2623">(return)</a>
+<p>Dafila acuta, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2624" name=
+"footnote2624"></a><b>Footnote 2624:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2624">(return)</a>
+<p>Querquedula creeca, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2625" name=
+"footnote2625"></a><b>Footnote 2625:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2625">(return)</a>
+<p>Fuligula rufina, <i>Pallas</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2626" name=
+"footnote2626"></a><b>Footnote 2626:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2626">(return)</a>
+<p>Spatula clypeata, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2627" name=
+"footnote2627"></a><b>Footnote 2627:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2627">(return)</a>
+<p>Sterna minuta, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2628" name=
+"footnote2628"></a><b>Footnote 2628:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2628">(return)</a>
+<p>Pelicanus Philippensis, <i>Gmel</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="chap9" id="chap9"></a>CHAP. IX.</h2>
+<h3>REPTILES.</h3>
+<p>LIZARDS. <i>Iguana</i>.&mdash;One of the earliest, if not the
+first remarkable animal to startle a stranger on arriving in
+Ceylon, whilst wending his way from Point-de-Galle to Colombo, is a
+huge lizard of from four to five feet in length, the
+<i>Talla-goy&#257;</i> of the Singhalese, and Iguana<a id=
+"footnotetag2711" name="footnotetag2711"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2711"><sup>2711</sup></a> of the Europeans. It may be
+seen at noonday searching for ants and insects in the middle of the
+highway and along the fences; when disturbed, but by no means
+alarmed, by the approach of man, it moves off to a safe distance;
+and, the intrusion being at an end, it returns again to the
+occupation in which it had been interrupted. Repulsive as it is in
+appearance, it is perfectly harmless, and is hunted down by dogs in
+the maritime provinces, and its delicate flesh, which is believed
+to be a specific in dysentery, is converted into curry, and its
+skin into shoes. When seized, it has the power of inflicting a
+smart blow with its tail. The Talla-goy&#257; lives in almost any
+convenient hollow, such as a hole in the ground, or a deserted nest
+of the termites; and some small ones, which frequented my garden at
+Colombo, made their retreat in the heart of a decayed tree.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>[pg
+272]</span>
+<p>A still larger species, the <i>Kabara-goy&#257;</i><a id=
+"footnotetag2721" name="footnotetag2721"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2721"><sup>2721</sup></a>, is partial to marshy ground,
+and when disturbed upon land, will take refuge in the nearest
+water. From the somewhat eruptive appearance of the yellow blotches
+on its scales, a closely allied species, similarly spotted,
+formerly obtained amongst naturalists the name of <i>Monitor
+exanthematicus</i>, and it is curious that the native appellation
+of this one, <i>kabara</i><a id="footnotetag2722" name=
+"footnotetag2722"></a><a href="#footnote2722"><sup>2722</sup></a>,
+is suggestive of the same idea. The Singhalese, on a strictly
+homoeopathic principle, believe that its fat, externally applied,
+is a cure for cutaneous disorders, but that taken inwardly it is
+poisonous. The skilfulness of the Singhalese in their preparation
+of poisons, and their addiction to using them, are unfortunately
+notorious traits in the character of the rural population. Amongst
+these preparations, the one which above all others excites the
+utmost dread, from the number of murders attributed to its agency,
+is the potent kabara-tel&mdash;a term which Europeans sometimes
+corrupt into <i>cobra-tel</i>, implying that the venom is obtained
+from the hooded-snake; whereas it professes to be extracted from
+the "kabara-goy&#257;." Such is the bad renown of this formidable
+poison, that an individual suspected of having it in his
+possession, is cautiously shunned by his neighbours. Those
+especially who are on doubtful terms with him, suspect their
+servants lest they should be suborned to mix kabara-tel in the
+curry. So subtle is the virus supposed <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>[pg 273]</span> to be,
+that one method of administering it, is to introduce it within the
+midrib of a leaf of betel, and close the orifice with chunam; and,
+as it is an habitual act of courtesy for one Singhalese on meeting
+another to offer <span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id=
+"page274"></a>[pg 274]</span> the compliment of a betel-leaf, which
+it would be rudeness to refuse, facilities are thus afforded for
+presenting the concealed drug. It is curious that to this latent
+suspicion has been traced the origin of a custom universal amongst
+the natives, of nipping off with the thumb nail the thick end of
+the stem before chewing the betel.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/298.png"><img width="100%" src="images/298.png" alt=
+"THE KABARA-GOYA" /></a> THE KABARA-GOYA.</div>
+<p>In the preparation of this mysterious compound, the unfortunate
+Kabara-goya is forced to take a painfully prominent part. The
+receipt, as written down by a Kandyan, was sent to me from
+Kornegalle, by Mr. Morris, the civil officer of that district; and
+in dramatic arrangement it far outdoes the cauldron of
+<i>Macbeth's</i> witches. The ingredients are extracted from
+venomous snakes, the cobra de capello, the Carawilla, and the
+Tic-polonga, by making incisions in the head of these reptiles and
+suspending them over a chattie to collect the poison as it flows.
+To this, arsenic and other drugs are added, and the whole is
+"boiled in a human skull, with the aid of the three Kabara-goyas,
+which are tied on three sides of the fire, with their heads
+directed towards it, and tormented by whips to make them hiss, so
+that the fire may blaze. The froth from their lips is then added to
+the boiling mixture, and so soon as an oily scum rises to the
+surface, the <i>kabara-tel</i> is complete."</p>
+<p>It is obvious that arsenic is the main ingredient in the poison,
+and Mr. Morris reported to me that the mode of preparing it,
+described above, was actually practised in his district. This
+account was transmitted by him apropos to the murder of a
+Mohatal<a id="footnotetag2741" name="footnotetag2741"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2741"><sup>2741</sup></a> and his wife, which had been
+committed with the <i>kabara-tel</i>, and <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>[pg 275]</span> was
+then under investigation. Before commencing the operation of
+preparing the poison, a cock has to be sacrificed to the
+<i>yakhos</i> or demons.</p>
+<p>This ugly lizard is itself regarded with such aversion by the
+Singhalese, that if a <i>kabara</i> enter a house or walk over the
+roof, it is regarded as an omen of ill fortune, sickness, or death;
+and in order to avert the evil, a priest is employed to go through
+a rhythmical incantation; one portion of which consists in the
+repetition of the words</p>
+<p>Kabara goyin wan d&#333;sey Ada palayan e d&#333;sey.</p>
+<p>"These are the inflictions caused by the Kabara-goya&mdash;let
+them now be averted!"</p>
+<p>It is one of the incidents that serve to indicate that Ceylon
+may belong to a separate circle of physical geography, that this
+lizard, though found to the eastward in Burmah<a id=
+"footnotetag2751" name="footnotetag2751"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2751"><sup>2751</sup></a>, has not hitherto been
+discovered in the Dekkan or Hindustan.</p>
+<p><i>Blood-suckers</i>.&mdash;The lizards already mentioned,
+however, are but the stranger's introduction to innumerable
+varieties of others, all most attractive in their sudden movements,
+and some unsurpassed in the brilliancy of their colouring, which
+bask on banks, dart over rocks, and peer curiously out of the
+chinks of every ruined wall. In all their motions there is that
+vivid and brief energy, the rapid but restrained action associated
+with their <span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id=
+"page276"></a>[pg 276]</span> limited power of respiration, which
+justifies the accurate picture of&mdash;</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i2">"The green lizard, rustling thro' the grass,</p>
+<p class="i2">And up the fluted shaft, <i>with short, quick,
+spring</i></p>
+<p class="i2">To vanish in the chinks which time has made."<a id=
+"footnotetag2761" name="footnotetag2761"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2761"><sup>2761</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/301.png"><img width="100%" src="images/301.png" alt=
+"CALOTES OPHIOMACHUS" /></a> CALOTES OPHIOMACHUS</div>
+<p>The most beautiful of the race is the <i>green calotes</i><a id=
+"footnotetag2762" name="footnotetag2762"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2762"><sup>2762</sup></a>, in length about twelve inches,
+which, with the exception of a few dark streaks about the head, is
+as brilliant as the purest emerald or malachite. Unlike its
+congeners of the same family, it never alters this dazzling hue;
+whilst many of them possess, but <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page277" id="page277"></a>[pg 277]</span> in a less degree, the
+power, like the chameleon, of exchanging their ordinary colours for
+others less conspicuous. One of the most remarkable features in the
+physiognomy of those lizards is the prominence of their cheeks.
+This results from the great development of the muscles of the jaws;
+the strength of which is such that they can crush the hardest
+integuments of the beetles on which they feed. The calotes will
+permit its teeth to be broken, rather than quit its hold of a stick
+into which it may have struck them. It is not provided, like so
+many other tropical lizards, with a gular sac or throat-pouch,
+capable of inflation when in a state of high excitement. The tail,
+too, is rounded, not compressed, thus clearly indicating that its
+habits are those of a land-animal.</p>
+<p>The <i>Calotes versicolor</i>; and another, the <i>Calotes
+ophioimachus</i>, of which a figure is attached, possess in a
+remarkable degree the faculty, above alluded to, of changing their
+hue. The head and neck, when the animal is irritated or hastily
+swallowing its food, become of a brilliant red (whence the latter
+species has acquired the name of the "blood-sucker"), whilst the
+usual tint of the rest of the body is converted into pale
+yellow.<a id="footnotetag2771" name="footnotetag2771"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2771"><sup>2771</sup></a> The <i>sitana</i><a id=
+"footnotetag2772" name="footnotetag2772"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2772"><sup>2772</sup></a>, and a number of others,
+exhibit similar phenomena.</p>
+<p>The lyre-headed lizard<a id="footnotetag2773" name=
+"footnotetag2773"></a><a href="#footnote2773"><sup>2773</sup></a>,
+which is not uncommon in the woods about Kandy, is more bulky than
+any of the species of Calotes, and not nearly so active in its
+movements.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>[pg
+278]</span>
+<p>As usually observed it is of a dull greenish brown, but when
+excited its back becomes a rich olive green, leaving the head
+yellowish: the underside of the body is of a very pale blue, almost
+approaching white. The open mouth exhibits the fauces of an intense
+vermilion tint; so that, although extremely handsome, this lizard
+presents, from its extraordinarily shaped head and threatening
+gestures, a most malignant aspect. It is, however, perfectly
+harmless.</p>
+<p><i>Chameleon</i>.&mdash;The true chameleon<a id=
+"footnotetag2781" name="footnotetag2781"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2781"><sup>2781</sup></a> is found, but not in great
+numbers, in the dry districts to the north of Ceylon, where it
+frequents the trees, in slow pursuit of its insect prey; but
+compensated for the sluggishness of its other movements, by the
+electric rapidity of its extensible tongue. Apparently sluggish in
+its general habits, the chameleon rests motionless on a branch,
+from which its varied hues render it scarcely distinguishable in
+colour; and there patiently awaits the approach of the insects on
+which it feeds. Instantly on their appearance its wonderful tongue
+comes into play.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/303.png"><img width="100%" src="images/303.png" alt=
+"TONGUE OF CHAMELEON" /></a> TONGUE OF CHAMELEON.</div>
+<p>Though ordinarily concealed, it is capable of protrusion till it
+exceeds in length the whole body of the creature. No sooner does an
+incautious fly venture within reach <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page279" id="page279"></a>[pg 279]</span> than the extremity of
+this treacherous weapon is disclosed, broad and cuneiform, and
+covered with a viscid fluid; and this, extended to its full length,
+is darted at its prey with an unerring aim, and redrawn within the
+jaws with a rapidity that renders the act almost invisible.<a id=
+"footnotetag2791" name="footnotetag2791"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2791"><sup>2791</sup></a></p>
+<p>Whilst the faculty of this creature to assume all the colours of
+the rainbow has attracted the wonder of all ages, sufficient
+attention has hardly been given to the imperfect sympathy which
+subsists between the two lobes of its brain, and the two sets of
+nerves that permeate the opposite sides of its frame. Hence, not
+only has each of the eyes an action quite independent of the other,
+but one side of its body appears to be sometimes asleep whilst the
+other is vigilant and active; one will assume a green tinge whilst
+the opposite one is red; and it is said that the chameleon is
+utterly unable to swim, from the incapacity of the muscles of the
+two sides to act in concert.</p>
+<p><i>Ceratophora</i>.&mdash;This which till lately was an unique
+lizard, known by only two specimens, one in the British Museum, and
+another in that of Leyden, was ascertained by Dr. Kelaart, about
+five years ago, to be a native of the higher Kandyan hills, where
+it is sometimes seen in the older trees in pursuit of insect
+larv&aelig;. The first specimen brought to Europe was called
+<i>Ceratophora Stoddartii</i>, after the name of its finder; and
+the recent discovery of several others in the National Collection
+has enabled me, by the aid of Dr. A. G&uuml;nther, to add some
+important facts to their history.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>[pg
+280]</span>
+<p>This lizard is remarkable for having no external ear; and it has
+acquired its generic name from the curious horn-like process on the
+extremity of the nose. This horn, as it is found in mature males of
+ten inches in length, is five lines long, conical, pointed, and
+slightly curved; a miniature form of the formidable weapon, from
+which the <i>Rhinoceros</i> takes its name. But the comparison does
+not hold good either from an anatomical or a physiological point of
+view. For, whilst the horn of the rhinoceros is merely a dermal
+production, a conglomeration of hairs cemented into one dense mass
+as hard as bone, and answering the purpose of a defensive weapon,
+besides being used for digging up the roots on which the animal
+lives; the horn of the <i>ceratophora</i> is formed of a soft,
+spongy substance, coated by the rostral shield, which is produced
+into a kind of sheath. Although flexible, it always remains erect,
+owing to the elasticity of its substance. Not having access to a
+living specimen, which would afford the opportunity of testing
+conjecture, we are left to infer from the internal structure of
+this horn, that it is an erectile organ which, in moments of
+irritation, will swell like the comb of a cock. This opinion as to
+its physiological nature is confirmed by the remarkable
+circumstance that, like the rudimentary comb of the hen and young
+cocks, the female and the immature males of the <i>ceratophora</i>
+have the horn exceedingly small. In mature females of eight inches
+in length (and the females appear always to be smaller than the
+males), the horn is only one half or one line long; while in
+immature males five inches in length, it is one line and a
+half.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/306.png"><img width="100%" src="images/306.png" alt=
+"CERATOPHORA TENNENTII and C. STODDARTII" /></a> CERATOPHORA TENNENTII and C. STODDARTII</div>
+<p>Among the specimens sent from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, and now in
+the British Museum, there is one which so remarkably differs from
+<i>C. Stoddartii</i>, that it attracted my attention, by the
+peculiar form of this rostral appendage. Dr. G&uuml;nther
+pronounced it to be a new <span class="pagenum"><a name="page281"
+id="page281"></a>[pg 281]</span> species; and Dr. Gray concurring
+in this opinion, they have done me the honour to call it
+<i>Ceratophora Tennentii</i>. Its "horn" somewhat resembles the
+comb of a cock not only in its internal structure, but also in its
+external appearance; it is nearly six lines long by two broad,
+slightly compressed, soft, flexile, and extensible, and covered
+with a corrugated, granular skin. It bears no resemblance to the
+depressed rostral hump of <i>Lyriocephalus</i>, and the differences
+of the new species from the latter lizard may be easily seen from
+the annexed drawing and the notes given below.<a id=
+"footnotetag2811" name="footnotetag2811"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2811"><sup>2811</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Geckoes</i>.&mdash;The most familiar and attractive of the
+lizard class are the <i>Geckoes</i><a id="footnotetag2812" name=
+"footnotetag2812"></a><a href="#footnote2812"><sup>2812</sup></a>,
+that frequent the sitting-rooms, and being furnished with pads to
+each toe, they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere
+to glass and ceilings. Being nocturnal in their habits, the pupil
+of the eye, instead of being circular as in the diurnal species, is
+linear and vertical like that of the cat. As soon as evening
+arrives, the geckoes are to be seen in every house in keen and
+crafty pursuit of their prey; emerging from the chinks and recesses
+where they conceal themselves <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page282" id="page282"></a>[pg 282]</span> during the day, to
+search for insects that then retire to settle for the night. In a
+boudoir where the ladies of my family spent their evenings, one of
+these familiar and amusing little creatures had its hiding-place
+behind a gilt picture frame. Punctually as the candles were
+lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be fed with its
+accustomed crumbs; and if neglected, it reiterated it sharp, quick
+call of <i>chic, chic, chit,</i> till attended to. It was of a
+delicate gray colour, tinged with pink; and having by accident
+fallen on a work-table, it fled, leaving part of its tail behind
+it, which, however, it reproduced within less than a month. This
+faculty of reproduction is doubtless designed to enable the
+creature to escape from its assailants: the detaching of the limb
+is evidently its own act; and it is observable, that when
+reproduced, the tail generally exhibits some variation from the
+previous form, the diverging spines being absent, the new portion
+covered with small square uniform scales placed in a cross series,
+and the scuta below being seldom so distinct as in the original
+member.<a id="footnotetag2821" name="footnotetag2821"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2821"><sup>2821</sup></a> In an officer's quarters in the
+fort of Colombo, a geckoe had been taught to come daily to the
+dinner-table, and always made its appearance along with the
+dessert. The family were absent for some months, during which the
+house underwent extensive repairs, the roof having been raised, the
+walls stuccoed, and the ceilings whitened. It was naturally
+surmised that so long a suspension of its accustomed habits would
+have led to the disappearance of the little lizard; but on the
+return of its old friends, it made its entrance as usual at their
+first dinner the instant the cloth was removed.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>[pg
+283]</span>
+<p><i>Crocodile.</i>&mdash;The Portuguese in India, like the
+Spaniards in South America, affixed the name of <i>lagarto</i> to
+the huge reptiles that infested the rivers and estuaries of both
+continents; and to the present day the Europeans in Ceylon apply
+the term <i>alligator</i> to what are in reality <i>crocodiles</i>,
+which literally swarm in the still waters and tanks in the low
+country, but rarely frequent rapid streams, and have never been
+found in the marshes among the hills. The differences, however,
+between the two, when once ascertained, are sufficiently marked, to
+prevent their being afterwards confounded. The head of the
+alligator is broader and the snout less prolonged, and the canine
+teeth of the under jaw, instead of being received into foramina in
+the upper, as in the crocodile, fit into furrows on each side of
+it. The legs of the alligator, too, are not denticulated, and the
+feet are only semi-palmate.</p>
+<p>The following drawing exhibits a cranium of each.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50%;"><a href=
+"images/309.png"><img width="100%" src="images/309.png" alt=
+"KULLS OF ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILE" /></a> SKULLS OF ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILE</div>
+<p>The instincts of the crocodiles in Ceylon do not lead to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>[pg
+284]</span> any variation from the habits of those found in other
+countries. There would appear to be two well-distinguished species
+found in the island, the <i>Eli-kimboola</i><a id="footnotetag2841"
+name="footnotetag2841"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2841"><sup>2841</sup></a>, the Indian crocodile,
+inhabiting the rivers and estuaries throughout the low countries of
+the coasts, attaining the length of sixteen or eighteen feet, and
+ready to assail man when pressed by hunger; and the
+marsh-crocodile<a id="footnotetag2842" name=
+"footnotetag2842"></a><a href="#footnote2842"><sup>2842</sup></a>,
+which lives exclusively in fresh water, frequenting the tanks in
+the northern and central provinces, and confining its attacks to
+the smaller animals: in length it seldom exceeds twelve or thirteen
+feet. Sportsmen complain that their dogs are constantly seized by
+both species; and water-fowl, when shot, frequently disappear
+before they can be secured by the fowler.<a id="footnotetag2843"
+name="footnotetag2843"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2843"><sup>2843</sup></a> It is generally believed in
+Ceylon that, in the case of larger animals, the crocodile abstains
+from devouring them till the commencement of decomposition
+facilitates the operation of swallowing. To assist in this, the
+natives assure me that the reptile contrives to fasten the carcase
+behind the roots of a mangrove or some other convenient tree and
+tears off each piece by a backward spring.</p>
+<p>There is another popular belief that the crocodile is
+exceedingly sensitive to tickling; and that it will relax its hold
+of a man, if he can only contrive to reach and rub with his hand
+the softer parts of its under side.<a id="footnotetag2844" name=
+"footnotetag2844"></a><a href="#footnote2844"><sup>2844</sup></a>
+An <span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>[pg
+285]</span> incident indicative of some reality in this piece of
+folklore, once came under my own observation. One morning, about
+sunrise, when riding across the sandy plain near the old fort of
+Moeletivoe, we came suddenly upon a crocodile asleep under some
+bushes of the Buffalo-thorn, several hundred yards from the water.
+The terror of the poor wretch was extreme, when it awoke and found
+itself discovered and completely surrounded. It was a hideous
+creature, upwards of ten feet long, and evidently of prodigious
+strength, had it been in a condition to exert it, but consternation
+completely paralysed it. It started to its feet and turned round in
+a circle hissing and clanking its bony jaws, with its ugly green
+eye intently fixed upon us. On being struck with a stick, it lay
+perfectly quiet and apparently dead. Presently it looked cunningly
+round, and made a rush towards the water, but on a second blow it
+lay again motionless and feigning death. We tried to rouse it, but
+without effect, pulled its tail, slapped its back, struck its hard
+scales, and teased it in every way, but all in vain; nothing would
+induce it to move till accidentally my son, then a boy of twelve
+years old, tickled it gently under the arm, and in an instant it
+drew the limb close to its side and turned to avoid a repetition of
+the experiment. Again it was touched under the other arm, and the
+same emotion was exhibited, the great monster twisting about like
+an infant to avoid being tickled. The scene was highly amusing, but
+the sun was rising high, and we pursued our journey to Moeletivoe,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>[pg
+286]</span> leaving the crocodile to make its way to the adjoining
+lake.</p>
+<p>The Singhalese believe that the crocodile can only move swiftly
+on sand or smooth clay, its feet being too tender to tread firmly
+on hard or stony ground. In the dry season, when the watercourses
+begin to fail and the tanks become exhausted, the marsh-crocodiles
+have occasionally been encountered in the jungle, wandering in
+search of water. During a severe drought in 1844, they deserted a
+tank near Kornegalle and traversed the town during the night, on
+their way to another reservoir in the suburb; two or three fell
+into the wells; others in their trepidation, laid eggs in the
+street, and some were found entangled in garden fences and
+killed.</p>
+<p>Generally, however, during the extreme drought, when unable to
+procure their ordinary food from the drying up of the watercourses,
+they bury themselves in the mud, and remain in a state of torpor
+till released by the recurrence of rains.<a id="footnotetag2861"
+name="footnotetag2861"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2861"><sup>2861</sup></a> At Arne-tivoe, in the eastern
+province, whilst riding across the parched bed of the tank, I was
+shown the recess, still bearing the form and impress of a
+crocodile, out of which the animal had been seen to emerge the day
+before. A story was also related to me of an officer attached to
+the department of the Surveyor-General, who, having pitched his
+tent in a similar position, was disturbed during the night by
+feeling a movement of the earth below his bed, from which on the
+following day a crocodile emerged, making its appearance from
+beneath the matting.<a id="footnotetag2862" name=
+"footnotetag2862"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2862"><sup>2862</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>[pg
+287]</span>
+<p>The fresh water species that inhabits the tanks is essentially
+cowardly in it instincts, and hastens to conceal itself on the
+appearance of man. A gentleman (who told me the circumstance), when
+riding in the jungle, overtook a crocodile, evidently roaming in
+search of water. It fled to a shallow pool almost dried by the sun,
+and, thrusting its head into the mud till it covered up its eyes,
+remained unmoved in profound confidence of perfect concealment. In
+1833, during the progress of the Pearl Fishery, Sir Robert Wilmot
+Horton employed men to drag for crocodiles in a pond which was
+infested by them in the immediate vicinity of Aripo. The pool was
+about fifty yards in length, by ten or twelve wide, shallowing
+gradually to the edge, and not exceeding four or five feet at the
+deepest part. As the party approached the bund, from twenty to
+thirty reptiles, which had been basking in the sun, rose and fled
+to the water. A net, specially weighted so as to sink its lower
+edge to the bottom, was then stretched from bank to bank and swept
+to the further end of the pond, followed by a line of men with
+poles to drive the crocodiles forward: so complete was the
+arrangement, that no individual could have evaded the net, yet, to
+the astonishment of the Governor's party, not one was to be found
+when it was drawn on shore, and no means of escape for them was
+apparent or possible except by their descending into the mud at the
+bottom of the pond.</p>
+<p>The lagoon of Batticaloa, and indeed all the still waters of
+this district, are remarkable for the numbers and prodigious size
+of the crocodiles which infest them. Their teeth are sometimes so
+large that the natives mount them with silver lids and use them for
+boxes to carry the powdered chunam, which they chew with the betel
+leaf. During one of my visits to the lake a crocodile was caught
+within a few yards of the government agent's <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>[pg 288]</span>
+residence, a hook having been laid the night before, baited with
+the entrails of a goat; and made fast, in the native fashion, by a
+bunch of fine cords, which the creature cannot gnaw asunder as it
+would a solid rope, since they sink into the spaces between its
+teeth. The one taken was small, being only about ten or eleven feet
+in length, whereas they are frequently killed from fifteen to
+nineteen feet long. As long as it was in the water, it made strong
+resistance to being hauled on shore, carrying the canoe out into
+the deep channel, and occasionally raising its head above the
+surface, and clashing its jaws together menacingly. This action has
+a horrid sound, as the crocodile has no fleshy lips; and it brings
+its teeth and the bones of the mouth together with a loud crash,
+like the clank of two pieces of hard wood. After playing it a
+little, the boatmen drew it to land, and when once fairly on the
+shore all courage and energy seemed utterly to desert it. It tried
+once or twice to regain the water, but at last lay motionless and
+perfectly helpless on the sand. It was no easy matter to kill it; a
+rifle ball sent diagonally through its breast had little or no
+effect, and even when the shot had been repeated more than once, it
+was as full of life as ever.<a id="footnotetag2881" name=
+"footnotetag2881"></a><a href="#footnote2881"><sup>2881</sup></a>
+It feigned death and lay motionless, with its eye closed; but, on
+being pricked with a spear, it suddenly regained all its activity.
+It was at last finished by a harpoon, and then opened. Its maw
+contained several small tortoises, and a quantity of broken bricks
+and gravel, taken medicinally, to promote digestion.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>[pg
+289]</span>
+<p>During our journeys we had numerous opportunities of observing
+the habits of these hideous creatures, and I am far from
+considering them so formidable as they are usually supposed to be.
+They are evidently not wantonly destructive; they act only under
+the influence of hunger, and even then their motions on land are
+awkward and ungainly, their action timid, and their whole demeanour
+devoid of the sagacity and courage which characterise other animals
+of prey.</p>
+<p>TESTUDINATA. <i>Tortoise</i>.&mdash;Land tortoises are numerous,
+but present no remarkable features beyond the beautiful marking of
+the starred variety<a id="footnotetag2891" name=
+"footnotetag2891"></a><a href="#footnote2891"><sup>2891</sup></a>,
+which is common in the north-western province around Putlam and
+Chilaw, and is distinguished by the bright yellow rays which
+diversify the deep black of its dorsal shield. From one of these
+which was kept in my garden I took a number of flat ticks
+(<i>Ixodes</i>), which adhere to its fleshy neck in such a position
+as to baffle any attempt of the animal itself to remove them; but
+as they are exposed to constant danger of being crushed against the
+plastron during the protrusion and retraction of the head, each is
+covered with a horny case almost as resistant as the carapace of
+the tortoise itself. Such an adaptation of structure is scarcely
+less striking than that of the <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page290" id="page290"></a>[pg 290]</span> parasites found on the
+spotted lizard of Berar by Dr. Hooker, each of which presents the
+distinct colour of the scale to which it adheres.<a id=
+"footnotetag2901" name="footnotetag2901"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2901"><sup>2901</sup></a></p>
+<p>The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented by
+<i>terrapins</i><a id="footnotetag2902" name=
+"footnotetag2902"></a><a href="#footnote2902"><sup>2902</sup></a>,
+which the natives are in the habit of keeping alive in wells under
+the conviction that they clear them of impurities. These
+fresh-water tortoises, the greater number of which are included in
+the genus <i>Emys</i> of naturalists, are distinguished by having
+their toes webbed. Their shell is less convex than that of their
+congeners on land (but more elevated than that of the sea-turtle);
+and it has been observed that the more rounded the shell, the
+nearer does the terrapin approach to the land-tortoise both in its
+habits and in the choice of its food. Some of them live upon animal
+as well as vegetable food, and those which subsist exclusively on
+the former, are noted as having the flattest shells.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/316.png"><img width="100%" src="images/316.png" alt=
+"THE THREE-RIDGED TORTOISE (EMYS TRIJUGA)" /></a> THE THREE-RIDGED TORTOISE (EMYS TRIJUGA)</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>[pg
+291]</span>
+<p>The terrapins lay about thirty eggs in the course of several
+weeks, and these are round, with a calcareous shell. They thrive in
+captivity, provided that they have a regular supply of water and of
+meat, cut into small pieces and thrown to them. The tropical
+species, if transferred to a colder climate, should have
+arrangements made for enabling them to hybernate during the winter:
+they will die in a very short time if exposed to a temperature
+below the freezing point.<a id="footnotetag2911" name=
+"footnotetag2911"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2911"><sup>2911</sup></a></p>
+<p>The edible turtle<a id="footnotetag2912" name=
+"footnotetag2912"></a><a href="#footnote2912"><sup>2912</sup></a>
+is found on all the coasts of the island, and sells for a few
+shillings or a few pence, according to its size and abundance at
+the moment. A very repulsive spectacle is exhibited in the markets
+of Jaffna by the mode in which the flesh of the turtle is sold
+piece-meal, whilst the animal is still alive, by the families of
+the Tamil fishermen. The creatures are to be seen in the
+market-place undergoing this frightful mutilation; the plastron and
+its integuments having been previously removed, and the animal
+thrown on its back, so as to display all the motions of the heart,
+viscera, and lungs. A broad knife, from twelve to eighteen inches
+in length, is first inserted at the left side, and the women, who
+are generally the operators, introduce <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>[pg 292]</span> one
+hand to scoop out the blood, which oozes slowly. The blade is next
+passed round, till the lower shell is detached and placed on one
+side, and the internal organs exposed in full action. A customer,
+as he applies, is served with any part selected, which is cut off
+as ordered, and sold by weight. Each of the fins is thus
+successively removed, with portions of the fat and flesh, the
+turtle showing, by its contortions, that each act of severance is
+productive of agony. In this state it lies for hours, writhing in
+the sun, the heart<a id="footnotetag2921" name=
+"footnotetag2921"></a><a href="#footnote2921"><sup>2921</sup></a>
+and head being usually the last pieces selected, and till the
+latter is cut off the snapping of the mouth, and the opening and
+closing of the eyes, show that life is still inherent, even when
+the shell has been nearly divested of its contents.</p>
+<p>At certain seasons the flesh of turtle on the south-western
+coast of Ceylon is avoided as poisonous, and some lamentable
+instances are recorded of deaths ascribed to its use. At Pantura,
+to the south of Colombo, twenty-eight persons who had partaken of
+turtle in October, 1840, were immediately seized with sickness,
+after which coma supervened, and eighteen died during the night.
+Those who survived said there was nothing unusual in the appearance
+of the flesh except that it was fatter than ordinary. Other
+similarly fatal occurrences have been attributed to turtle curry;
+but as they have never been proved to proceed exclusively from that
+source, there is room for believing that the poison may have been
+contained in some other ingredient.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>[pg
+293]</span>
+<p>In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently found of such a size
+as to measure between four and five feet in length; and on one
+occasion, in riding along the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a
+man in charge of some sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle
+shell, which he had erected on sticks to protect him from the
+sun&mdash;almost verifying the statement of &AElig;lian, that in
+the seas off Ceylon there are tortoises so large that several
+persons may find ample shelter beneath a single shell.<a id=
+"footnotetag2931" name="footnotetag2931"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2931"><sup>2931</sup></a></p>
+<p>The hawksbill-turtle<a id="footnotetag2932" name=
+"footnotetag2932"></a><a href="#footnote2932"><sup>2932</sup></a>,
+which supplies the tortoise-shell of commerce, was at former times
+taken in great numbers in the vicinity of Hambangtotte during the
+season when they came to deposit their eggs. This gave rise to the
+trade in tortoise-shell at Point de Galle, where it is still
+manufactured into articles of ornament by the Moors; but the shell
+they employ is almost entirely imported from the Maldives.</p>
+<p>If taken from the animal after death and decomposition, the
+colour of the shell becomes clouded and milky, and hence the cruel
+expedient is resorted to of seizing the turtles as they repair to
+the shore to deposit their eggs, and suspending them over fires
+till heat makes the plates on the dorsal shields start from the
+bone of the carapace, after which the creature is permitted to
+escape to the water.<a id="footnotetag2933" name=
+"footnotetag2933"></a><a href="#footnote2933"><sup>2933</sup></a>
+In illustration of the resistless influence <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>[pg 294]</span> of
+instinct at the period of breeding, it may be mentioned that the
+identical tortoise is believed to return again and again to the
+same spot, notwithstanding that at each visit she may have to
+undergo a repetition of this torture. In the year 1826, a hawksbill
+turtle was taken near Hambangtotte, which bore a ring attached to
+one of its fins that had been placed there by a Dutch officer
+thirty years before, with a view to establish the fact of these
+recurring visits to the same beach.<a id="footnotetag2941" name=
+"footnotetag2941"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2941"><sup>2941</sup></a></p>
+<p>An opportunity is afforded on the sea-shore of Ceylon for
+observing a remarkable illustration of instinct in the turtle, when
+about to deposit its eggs. As if conscious that if she went and
+returned by one and the same line across the sandy beach, her
+hiding place would be discovered at its farthest extremity, she
+resorts to the expedient of curving her course, so as to regain the
+sea by a different track; and after depositing the eggs, burying
+them about eighteen inches deep, she carefully smoothes over the
+surface to render the precise spot indiscernible. The Singhalese,
+aware of this device, sound her line of, march with a rod till they
+come upon the concealed nest.</p>
+<p><i>Snakes</i>.&mdash;It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited
+by the ferocious expression and unusual action of serpents,
+combined with an instinctive dread of attack<a id="footnotetag2942"
+name="footnotetag2942"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2942"><sup>2942</sup></a>, that exaggerated ideas prevail
+both as to their numbers in Ceylon, and the danger to be
+apprehended from encountering them. The Singhalese profess to
+distinguish a great many kinds, of which they say not more than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>[pg
+295]</span> one half have as yet been scientifically
+identified<a id="footnotetag2951" name=
+"footnotetag2951"></a><a href="#footnote2951"><sup>2951</sup></a>;
+but so cautiously do serpents make their appearance, that the
+surprise of persons long resident is invariably expressed at the
+rarity with which they are to be seen; and from my own journeys
+through the jungle, often of from two to five hundred miles, I have
+frequently returned without observing a single snake. Mr. Bennett,
+who resided much in the south-east of the island, ascribes the
+rarity of serpents in the jungle to the abundance of the wild
+peafowl, whose partiality to young snakes renders them the chief
+destroyers of these reptiles. It is likely, too, that they are
+killed by the jungle-cocks; for they are frequently eaten by the
+common barn-door fowl in Ceylon. This is rendered the more probable
+by the fact, that in those districts where the extension of
+cultivation, and the visits of sportsmen, have reduced the numbers
+of the jungle-cocks and pea-fowl, snakes have perceptibly
+increased. The deer also are enemies of the snakes, and the natives
+who have had opportunities of watching their encounters assert that
+they have seen deer rush upon a serpent and crush it by leaping on
+it with all its four feet. As to the venomous powers of snakes, DR.
+DAVY, whose <span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id=
+"page296"></a>[pg 296]</span> attention was carefully directed to
+the poisonous serpents of Ceylon<a id="footnotetag2961" name=
+"footnotetag2961"></a><a href="#footnote2961"><sup>2961</sup></a>,
+came to the conclusion that but <i>four</i>, out of twenty species
+examined by him, were venomous, and that of these only two (the
+<i>tic-polonga</i><a id="footnotetag2962" name=
+"footnotetag2962"></a><a href="#footnote2962"><sup>2962</sup></a>
+and <i>cobra de capello</i><a id="footnotetag2963" name=
+"footnotetag2963"></a><a href="#footnote2963"><sup>2963</sup></a>)
+were capable of inflicting a wound likely to be fatal to man. The
+third is the <i>carawala</i><a id="footnotetag2964" name=
+"footnotetag2964"></a><a href="#footnote2964"><sup>2964</sup></a>,
+a brown snake of about two feet in length; and for the fourth, of
+which only a few specimens have been procured, the Singhalese have
+no name in their vernacular&mdash;a proof that it is neither deadly
+nor abundant. But Dr. Davy's estimate of the venom of the
+<i>carawala</i> is below the truth, as cases have been
+authenticated to me, in which death from its bite ensued within a
+few days. The effect, however, is not uniformly fatal; a
+circumstance which the natives explain by asserting that there are
+three varieties of the carawala, named the <i>hil-la</i>, the
+<i>dunu</i>, and the <i>mal</i>-carawala; the second being the
+largest and the most dreaded.</p>
+<p>In like manner, the <i>tic-polonga</i>, particularised by Dr.
+Davy, is said to be but one out of seven varieties of that
+formidable reptile. The word "tic" means literally the "spotted"
+polonga, from the superior clearness of the markings on its scales.
+Another, the <i>nidi</i>, or "sleeping" polonga, is so called from
+the fact that a person bitten by it is soon prostrated by a
+lethargy from which he never awakes.<a id="footnotetag2965" name=
+"footnotetag2965"></a><a href="#footnote2965"><sup>2965</sup></a>
+These formidable serpents so infested <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>[pg 297]</span> the
+official residence of the District Judge of Trincomalie in 1858, as
+to compel his family to abandon it. In another instance, a friend
+of mine, going hastily to take a supply of wafers from an open tin
+case which stood in his office, drew back his hand, on finding the
+box occupied by a tic-polonga coiled within it. During my residence
+in Ceylon, I never heard of the death of a European which was
+caused by the bite of a snake; and in the returns of coroners'
+inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the
+natives appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the animal,
+having been surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in
+self-defence.<a id="footnotetag2971" name=
+"footnotetag2971"></a><a href="#footnote2971"><sup>2971</sup></a>
+For these reasons the Singhalese, when obliged to leave their
+houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the
+noise<a id="footnotetag2972" name="footnotetag2972"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2972"><sup>2972</sup></a> of which as they strike it on
+the ground is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their
+path.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>[pg
+298]</span>
+<p><i>Cobra de Capello.</i>&mdash;The cobra de capello is the only
+one exhibited by the itinerant snake-charmers: and the truth of
+Davy's conjecture, that they control it, not by extracting its
+fangs, but by courageously availing themselves of its well-known
+timidity and extreme reluctance to use its fatal weapons, received
+a painful confirmation during my residence in Ceylon, by the death
+of one of these performers, whom his audience had provoked to
+attempt some unaccustomed familiarity with the cobra; it bit him on
+the wrist, and he expired the same evening. The hill near Kandy, on
+which the official residences of the Governor and Colonial
+Secretary are built, is covered in many places with the deserted
+nests of the white ants (<i>termites</i>), and these are the
+favourite retreats of the sluggish and spiritless cobra, which
+watches from their apertures the toads and lizards on which it
+preys. Here, when I have repeatedly come upon them, their only
+impulse was concealment; and on one occasion, when a cobra of
+considerable length could not escape, owing to the bank being
+nearly precipitous on both sides of the road, a few blows from my
+whip were sufficient to deprive it of life.<a id="footnotetag2981"
+name="footnotetag2981"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2981"><sup>2981</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>[pg
+299]</span>
+<p>A gentleman who held a civil appointment at Kornegalle, had a
+servant who was bitten by a snake, and he informed me that on
+enlarging a hole near the foot of the tree under which the accident
+occurred, he unearthed a cobra of upwards of three feet long, and
+so purely white as to induce him to believe that it was an albino.
+With the exception of the <i>rat-snake</i><a id="footnotetag2991"
+name="footnotetag2991"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2991"><sup>2991</sup></a>, the cobra de capello is the
+only serpent which seems from choice to frequent the vicinity of
+human dwellings, doubtless attracted by the young of the domestic
+fowl and by the moisture of the wells and drainage.</p>
+<p>The young cobras, it is said, in the <i>Sarpa-dosa</i>, are not
+venomous till after the thirteenth day, when they shed their coat
+for the first time.</p>
+<p>The Singhalese remark that if one cobra be destroyed near a
+house, its companion is almost certain to be discovered immediately
+after,&mdash;a popular belief which I had an opportunity of
+verifying on more than one occasion. Once, when a snake of this
+description was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id=
+"page300"></a>[pg 300]</span> killed in a bath of the Government
+House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot the day
+after; and again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long,
+having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its
+escape, its companion of the same size was found the same morning
+in an adjoining drain.<a id="footnotetag3001" name=
+"footnotetag3001"></a><a href="#footnote3001"><sup>3001</sup></a>
+On this occasion the snake, which had been several hours in the
+well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood above water; and
+instances have repeatedly occurred of the cobra de capello
+voluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea. When the
+"Wellington," a government vessel employed in the conservancy of
+the pearl banks, was anchored about a quarter of a mile from the
+land, in the bay of Koodremal&eacute;, a cobra was seen, about an
+hour before sunset, swimming vigorously towards the ship. It came
+within twelve yards, when the sailors assailed it with billets of
+wood and other missiles, and forced it to return to land. The
+following morning they discovered the track which it had left on
+the shore, and traced it along the sand till it was lost in the
+jungle. On a later occasion, in the vicinity of the same spot, when
+the "Wellington" was lying at some distance from the shore, a cobra
+was found and killed on board, where it could only have gained
+access by climbing up the cable. It was first discovered by a
+sailor, who felt the chill as it glided over his foot.</p>
+<p>One curious tradition in Ceylon embodies the popular legend,
+that the stomach of the cobra de capello occasionally contains a
+precious stone of such unapproachable <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>[pg 301]</span>
+brilliancy as to surpass all known jewels. This inestimable stone
+is called the <i>n&#257;ga-m&#257;nik-kya</i>; but not one snake in
+thousands is supposed to possess such a treasure. The cobra, before
+eating, is believed to cast it up and conceal it for the moment;
+else its splendour, like a flambeau, would attract all beholders.
+The tales of the peasantry, in relation to it, all turn upon the
+devices of those in search of the gem, and the vigilance and
+cunning of the cobra by which they are baffled; the reptile itself
+being more enamoured of the priceless jewel than even its most
+ardent pursuers.</p>
+<p>In BENNETT'S account of "<i>Ceylon and its Capabilities</i>,"
+there is another curious piece of Singhalese folk-lore, to the
+effect, that the cobra de capello every time it expends its poison
+<i>loses a joint of its tail</i>, and eventually acquires a head
+resembling that of a toad. A recent addition to zoological
+knowledge has thrown light on the origin of this popular fallacy.
+The family of "false snakes" (<i>pseudo typhlops</i>, as Schlegel
+names the group) have till lately consisted of but three species,
+of which only one was known to inhabit Ceylon. They belong to a
+family intermediate between the serpents and that Saurian
+group-commonly called <i>Slow-worms</i> or <i>Glass-snakes</i>;
+they in fact represent the slow-worms of the temperate regions in
+Ceylon. They have the body of a snake, but the cleft of their mouth
+is very narrow, and they are unable to detach the lateral parts of
+the lower jaw from each other, as the true snakes do when devouring
+a prey. The most striking character of the group, however, is the
+size and form of the tail; this is very short, and according to the
+observations of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id=
+"page302"></a>[pg 302]</span> Professor Peters of Berlin<a id=
+"footnotetag3021" name="footnotetag3021"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3021"><sup>3021</sup></a>, shorter in the female than in
+the male. It does not terminate in a point as in other snakes, but
+is truncated obliquely, the abrupt surface of its extremity being
+either entirely flat, or more or less convex, and always covered
+with rough keels. The reptile assists its own movements by pressing
+the rough end to the ground, and from this peculiar form of the
+tail, the family has received the name of <i>Uropeltid&aelig;</i>,
+or "Shield-tails." Within a very recent period important additions
+have been made to this family. which now consists of four genera
+and eleven species. Those occurring in Ceylon are enumerated in the
+List <span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>[pg
+303]</span> appended to this chapter. One of these, the
+<i>Uropeltis grandis</i> of Kelaart<a id="footnotetag3031" name=
+"footnotetag3031"></a><a href="#footnote3031"><sup>3031</sup></a>,
+is distinguished by its dark brown colour, shot with a bluish
+metallic lustre, closely approaching the ordinary shade of the
+cobra; and the tail is abruptly and flatly compressed as though it
+had been severed by a knife. The form of this singular reptile will
+be best understood by a reference to the accompanying figure; and
+there can, I think, be little doubt that to its strange and
+anomalous structure is to be traced the fable of the transformation
+of the cobra de capello. The colour alone would seem to identify
+the two reptiles, but the head and mouth are no longer those of a
+serpent, and the disappearance of the tail might readily suggest
+the mutilation which the tradition asserts.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/328.png"><img width="100%" src="images/328.png" alt=
+"THE UROPELTIS PHILIPPINUS" /></a> THE UROPELTIS PHILIPPINUS.</div>
+<p>The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence from
+inflicting death on any creature, are accustomed, after securing a
+venomous snake, to enclose it in a basket woven of palm leaves, and
+to set it afloat on a river.</p>
+<p><i>The Python.</i>&mdash;The great python<a id="footnotetag3032"
+name="footnotetag3032"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3032"><sup>3032</sup></a> (the "boa," as it is commonly
+designated by Europeans, the "anaconda" of Eastern story), which is
+supposed to crush the bones of an elephant, and to swallow the
+tiger, is found, though not of such portentous dimensions, in the
+cinnamon gardens within a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it
+feeds on hog-deer, and other smaller animals.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>[pg
+304]</span>
+<p>The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it to a
+pole expose it for sale as a curiosity. One that was brought to me
+tied in this way measured seventeen feet with a proportionate
+thickness: but one more fully grown, which crossed my path on a
+coffee estate on the Peacock Mountain at Pusilawa, considerably
+exceeded these dimensions. Another which I watched in the garden at
+Elie House, near Colombo, surprised me by the ease with which it
+erected itself almost perpendicularly in order to scale a wall
+upwards of ten feet high.</p>
+<p>The Singhalese assert that when it has swallowed a deer, or any
+animal of similarly inconvenient bulk, the python draws itself
+through the narrow aperture between two trees, in order to crush
+the bones and assist in the process of deglutition.</p>
+<p>It is a singular fact that the small and innocuous ground-snakes
+called <i>Calamari&aelig;</i>, which abound on the continent of
+India and in the islands are not to be found in Ceylon; where they
+would appear to be replaced by two singular genera, the
+<i>Aspidura</i> and <i>Haplocercus</i>, These latter have only one
+series of shields below the tail, whilst most other harmless snakes
+(<i>Calamaria</i> included) have a double series of sub-candals.
+The <i>Aspidura</i> has been known to naturalists for many
+years<a id="footnotetag3041" name="footnotetag3041"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3041"><sup>3041</sup></a>; the <i>Haplocercus</i> of
+Ceylon has only recently been described by Dr. G&uuml;nther, and of
+it not more than three existing specimens are known: hence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>[pg
+305]</span> its habits and the extent of its distribution over the
+island are still left in uncertainty.<a id="footnotetag3051" name=
+"footnotetag3051"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3051"><sup>3051</sup></a></p>
+<p>Of ten species of snakes that ascend trees in Ceylon to search
+for squirrels and lizards, and to rifle the nests of birds, one
+half, including the green <i>carawala</i>, and the deadly <i>tic
+polonga</i>, are believed by the natives to be venomous; but the
+truth of this is very dubious. I have heard of the cobra being
+found on the crown of a coco-nut palm, attracted, it was said, by
+the toddy which was flowing at the time, it being the season for
+drawing it. Surrounding Elie House, near Colombo, in which I
+resided, were a number of tall <i>casuarinas</i> and India-rubber
+trees, whose branches almost touched the lattices of the window of
+the room in which I usually sat. These were a favourite resort of
+the tree-snakes, and in the early morning the numbers which clung
+to them were sometimes quite remarkable. I had thus an opportunity
+of observing the action of these creatures, which seems to me one
+of vigilance rather than of effort, the tongue being in perpetual
+activity, as if it were an organ of feeling; and in those in which
+the nose is elongated, a similar mobility and restlessness,
+especially when alarmed, affords evidence of the same faculty.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>[pg
+306]</span>
+<p>The general characteristic of the Tree-snake is an exceedingly
+thin and delicate body, often adorned with colours exquisite as
+those of the foliage amongst which they live concealed. In some of
+the South American species the tints vie in brilliancy with those
+of the humming-birds; whilst their forms are so flexible and
+slender as to justify the name conferred on them of
+"<i>whip-snakes</i>." The Siamese, to denote these combinations of
+grace and splendour, call them "Sun-beams." A naturalist<a id=
+"footnotetag3061" name="footnotetag3061"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3061"><sup>3061</sup></a>, describing a bright green
+species in Brazil (<i>Philodryas viridissimus</i>), writes: "I am
+always delighted when I find that another tree-snake has settled in
+my garden. You look for a bird's nest, the young ones have gone,
+but you find their bed occupied by one of these beautiful
+creatures, which will coil up its body of two feet in length within
+a space no larger than the hollow of your hand. They appear to be
+always watchful; for at the instant you discover one, the quick
+playing of the long, black, forked tongue will show you that you
+too are observed. On perceiving the slightest sign of your
+intention to disturb it, the snake will dart upwards through the
+branches and over the leaves which scarcely appear to bend beneath
+the weight. A moment more, and you have lost sight of it. Whenever
+I return to Europe, you may be sure that in my hot-house those
+harmless, lovely creatures shall not be missing."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>[pg
+307]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"><a href=
+"images/333.png"><img width="100%" src="images/333.png" alt=
+"TREE SNAKE. Passerita fusca" /></a> TREE SNAKE. Passerita fusca.</div>
+<p>Ceylon has several species of Tree-snakes, and one of the most
+common is the green <i>Passerita</i>, easily recognized from its
+bright colour and from the pointed moveable appendage, into which
+the snout is prolonged. The snakes of this genus being active
+chiefly during the night, the pupil of the eye is linear and
+horizontal. They never willingly descend from trees, but prey there
+upon nocturnal Saurians, geckoes, small birds and their young; and
+they are perfectly harmless, although they often try to bite. It is
+strange that none of the numerous specimens which it has been
+attempted to bring to Europe have ever fed in captivity; whilst in
+South America they take their food freely in confinement, provided
+that some green plants are placed in their cage.</p>
+<p>In Ceylon I have never seen any specimen of a larger size than
+three feet; whilst they are known to attain to more than five on
+the Indian Continent.</p>
+<p>The inference is obvious, that the green coloration of the
+majority of tree-snakes has more or less connection with their
+habits and mode of life. Indeed, whenever a green-coloured snake is
+observed, it may at once be pronounced, if slender or provided with
+a prehensile tail, to be of the kind which passes its life on
+trees; but if it be short-bodied then it lives on the prairies.
+There are nevertheless tree-snakes which have a very different
+coloration; and one of the most remarkable species is the
+<i>Passerita fusca</i> or <i>Dryinus fuscus</i>, of which a figure
+is annexed. It closely resembles the green Passerita in form, so
+that naturalists have considered it to be a mere variety. It is
+entirely of a shining brown, shot with purple, and the yellow
+longitudinal stripe which runs along the side of the belly of the
+green species, is absent in this one. It is much more rare than the
+green one, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id=
+"page308"></a>[pg 308]</span> does not appear to be found in
+Hindostan: no intermediate forms have been observed in Ceylon.</p>
+<p><i>Water-Snakes.</i>&mdash;The fresh-water snakes, of which
+several species<a id="footnotetag3081" name=
+"footnotetag3081"></a><a href="#footnote3081"><sup>3081</sup></a>
+inhabit the still waters and pools, are all harmless in Ceylon. A
+gentleman, who found near a river an agglutinated cluster of the
+eggs of one variety (<i>Tropidophis schistosus</i>), placed them
+under a glass shade on his drawing-room table, where one by one the
+young reptiles emerged from the shell to the number of twenty.</p>
+<p>The <i>sea-snakes</i> of the Indian tropics did not escape the
+notice of the early Greek mariners who navigated those seas; and
+amongst the facts collected by them, &AElig;lian has briefly
+recorded that the Indian Ocean produces serpents <i>with flattened
+tails</i><a id="footnotetag3082" name=
+"footnotetag3082"></a><a href="#footnote3082"><sup>3082</sup></a>,
+whose bite, he adds, is to be dreaded less for its venom than the
+laceration of its teeth. The first statement is accurate, but the
+latter is incorrect, as there is an all but unanimous concurrence
+of opinion that every species of this family of serpents is more or
+less poisonous. The compression of the tail noticed by &AElig;lian
+is one of the principal characteristics of these reptiles, as their
+motion through the water is mainly effected by its aid, coupled
+with the undulating movement of the rest of the body. Their scales,
+instead of being imbricated like those of land-snakes, form
+hexagons; and those on the belly, instead of being scutate and
+enlarged, are nearly of the same size and form as on other parts of
+the body.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>[pg
+309]</span>
+<p>Sea-snakes (<i>Hydrophis</i>) are found on all the coasts of
+Ceylon. I have sailed through large shoals of them in the Gulf of
+Manaar, close to the pearl-banks of Aripo. The fishermen of
+Calpentyn on the west live in perpetual dread of them, and believe
+their bite to be fatal. In the course of an attempt which was
+recently made to place a lighthouse on the great rocks of the
+south-east coast, known by seamen as the Basses<a id=
+"footnotetag3091" name="footnotetag3091"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3091"><sup>3091</sup></a>, or <i>Baxos</i>, the workmen
+who first landed found the portion of the surface liable to be
+covered by the tides, honeycombed, and hollowed into deep holes
+filled with water, in which were abundance of fishes and some
+molluscs. Some of these cavities also contained sea-snakes from
+four to five feet long, which were described as having the head
+"hooded like the cobra de capello, and of a light grey colour,
+slightly speckled. They coiled themselves like serpents on land,
+and darted at poles thrust in among them. The Singhalese who
+accompanied the party, said that they not only bit venomously, but
+crushed the limb of any intruder in their coils."<a id=
+"footnotetag3092" name="footnotetag3092"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3092"><sup>3092</sup></a></p>
+<p>Still, sea-snakes, though well-known to the natives, are not
+abundant round Ceylon, as compared with their numbers in other
+places. Their principal habitat is the ocean between the southern
+shores of China and the northern coast of New Holland; and their
+western limit appears to be about the longitude of Cape Comorin. It
+has long since been ascertained that they frequent the seas that
+separate the islands of the Pacific; but they have never yet been
+found in the Atlantic, nor even <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page310" id="page310"></a>[pg 310]</span> on the western shores of
+tropical America. And if, as has been stated<a id="footnotetag3101"
+name="footnotetag3101"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3101"><sup>3101</sup></a>, they have been seen on a late
+occasion in considerable numbers in the Bay of Panama, the fact can
+only be regarded as one of the rare instances, in which a change in
+the primary distribution of a race of animals has occurred, either
+by an active or a passive immigration. Being exclusively
+inhabitants of the sea, they are liable to be swept along by the
+influence of currents; but to compensate for this they have been
+endowed with a wonderful power of swimming. The individuals of all
+the groups of terrestrial serpents are observed to be possessed of
+this faculty to a greater or a less degree; and they can swim for a
+certain distance without having any organs specially modified for
+the purpose; except, perhaps, the lung, which is a long sac capable
+of taking in a sufficient quantity of air, to keep the body of the
+snake above water. Nor do we find any peculiar or specially adapted
+organs even in the freshwater-snakes, although they can catch frogs
+or fishes while swimming. But in the <i>hydrophids</i>, which are
+permanent inhabitants of the ocean, and which in an adult state,
+approach the beach only occasionally, and for very short times, the
+tail, which is rounded and tapering in the others, is compressed
+into a vertical rudder-like organ, similar to, and answering all
+the purposes of, the caudal fin in a fish. When these snakes are
+brought on shore or on the deck of a ship, they are helpless and
+struggle vainly in awkward attitudes. Their food consists
+exclusively of such fishes as are found near the surface; a fact
+which affords ample proof that they do not descend to great depths,
+although <span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id=
+"page311"></a>[pg 311]</span> they can dive as well as swim. They
+are often found in groups during calm weather, sleeping on the sea;
+but owing to their extreme caution and shyness, attempts to catch
+them are rarely successful; on the least alarm, they suddenly expel
+the air from their lungs and descend below the surface; a long
+stream of rising air-bubbles marking the rapid course which they
+make below. Their poisonous nature has been questioned; but the
+presence of a strong perforated tooth and of a venomous gland
+sufficiently attest their dangerous powers, even if these had not
+been demonstrated by the effects of their bite. But fortunately for
+the fishermen, who sometimes find them unexpectedly among the
+contents of their nets, sea-snakes are unable, like other venomous
+serpents, to open the jaws widely, and in reality they rarely
+inflict a wound. Dr. Cantor believes, that, they are blinded by the
+light when removed from their own element; and he adds that they
+become sluggish and speedily die.<a id="footnotetag3111" name=
+"footnotetag3111"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3111"><sup>3111</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/338.png"><img width="100%" src="images/338.png" alt=
+"SEA SNAKE Hydrophis subloevis" /></a> SEA SNAKE Hydrophis subloevis</div>
+<p>Those found near the coasts of Ceylon are generally
+small,&mdash;from one to three feet in length, and apparently
+immature; and it is certain that the largest specimens taken in the
+Pacific do not attain to greater length than eight feet. In colour
+they are generally of a greenish brown, in parts inclining to
+yellow, with occasionally cross bands of black. The species figured
+in the accompanying drawing is the <i>Hydrophis subloevis</i> of
+Gray; or <i>Hydrus cyanocinctus</i> of Boie.<a id="footnotetag3112"
+name="footnotetag3112"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3112"><sup>3112</sup></a> The specimen from which the
+drawing is taken, was obtained by Dr. Templeton at Colombo.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>[pg
+312]</span>
+<p>The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-stone, as a remedy in
+cases of wounds by venomous serpents, has probably been
+communicated to the Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who
+resort to the island from the coast of Coromandel; and more than
+one well-authenticated instance of its successful application has
+been told to me by persons who had been eye-witnesses to what they
+described. On one occasion, in March, 1854, a friend of mine was
+riding, with some other civil officers of the Government, along a
+jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he saw one of two
+Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart into the
+forest and return, holding in both hands a cobra de capello which
+he had seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion for
+assistance to place it in their covered basket, but, in doing this,
+he handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and
+retained its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract its
+fangs. The blood flowed, and intense pain appeared to follow almost
+immediately; but, with all expedition, the friend of the sufferer
+undid his waistcloth, and took from it two snake-stones, each of
+the size of a small almond, intensely black and highly polished,
+though of an extremely light substance. These he applied, one to
+each wound inflicted by the teeth of the serpent, to which they
+attached themselves closely; the blood that oozed from the bites
+being rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of the article applied.
+The stones adhered <span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id=
+"page313"></a>[pg 313]</span> tenaciously for three or four
+minutes, the wounded man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing his
+arm downwards from the shoulder towards the fingers. At length the
+snake-stones dropped off of their own accord; the suffering of the
+man appeared to subside; he twisted his fingers till the joints
+cracked, and went on his way without concern. Whilst this had been
+going on, another Indian of the party who had come up took from his
+bag a small piece of white wood, which resembled a root, and passed
+it gently near the head of the cobra, which the latter immediately
+inclined close to the ground; he then lifted the snake without
+hesitation, and coiled it into a circle at the bottom of his
+basket. The root by which he professed to be enabled to perform
+this operation with safety he called the <i>Naya-thalic Kalanga</i>
+(the root of the snake-plant), protected by which he professed his
+ability to approach any reptile with impunity.</p>
+<p>In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, then District
+Judge of Kandy, informed me that he saw a snake-charmer in the
+jungle, close by the town, search for a cobra de capello, and,
+after disturbing one in its retreat, the man tried to secure it,
+but, in the attempt, he was bitten in the thigh till blood trickled
+from the wound. He instantly applied the <i>Pamboo-Kaloo</i>, which
+adhered closely for about ten minutes, during which time he passed
+the root which he held in his hand backwards and forwards above the
+stone, till the latter dropped to the ground. He assured Mr.
+Lavalliere that all danger was then past. That gentleman obtained
+from him the snake-stone he had relied on, and saw him repeatedly
+afterwards in perfect health.</p>
+<p>The substances used on both these occasions are now <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>[pg 314]</span> in my
+possession. The roots employed by the several parties are not
+identical. One appears to be a bit of the stem of an Aristolochia;
+the other is so dried as to render its identification difficult,
+but it resembles the quadrangular stem of a jungle vine. Some
+species of Aristolochia, such as the <i>A. serpentaria</i> of North
+America, are supposed to act as specifics in the cure of
+snakebites; and the <i>A. indica</i> is the plant to which the
+ichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an antidote when
+bitten<a id="footnotetag3141" name="footnotetag3141"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3141"><sup>3141</sup></a>; but it is probable that the
+use of any particular plant by the snake-charmers is a pretence, or
+rather a delusion, the reptile being overpowered by the resolute
+action of the operator<a id="footnotetag3142" name=
+"footnotetag3142"></a><a href="#footnote3142"><sup>3142</sup></a>,
+and not by the influence <span class="pagenum"><a name="page315"
+id="page315"></a>[pg 315]</span> of any secondary appliance. In
+other words, the confidence inspired by the supposed talisman
+enables its possessor to address himself fearlessly to his task,
+and thus to effect, by determination and will, what is popularly
+believed to be the result of charms and stupefaction. Still it is
+curious that, amongst the natives of Northern Africa, who lay hold
+of the <i>Cerastes</i> without fear or hesitation, impunity is
+ascribed to the use of a plant with the juice of which they anoint
+themselves before touching the reptile<a id="footnotetag3151" name=
+"footnotetag3151"></a><a href="#footnote3151"><sup>3151</sup></a>;
+and Bruce says of the people of Sennar, that they acquire exemption
+from the fatal consequences of the bite by chewing a particular
+root, and washing themselves with an infusion of certain plants. He
+adds that a portion of this root was given him, with a view to test
+its efficacy in his own person, but that he had not sufficient
+resolution to make the experiment.</p>
+<p>As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the application
+of which I have been describing, to Mr. Faraday, who has
+communicated to me, as the result of his analysis, his belief that
+it is "a piece of charred bone which has been filled with blood
+perhaps several times, and then carefully charred again. Evidence
+of this is afforded, as well by the apertures of cells or tubes on
+its surface as by the fact that it yields and breaks, under
+pressure; and exhibits an organic structure within. When heated
+slightly, water rises from it, and also a little ammonia; and, if
+heated still more highly in the air, carbon burns away, and a bulky
+white ash is left, retaining the shape and size of the stone." This
+ash, as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>[pg
+316]</span> any vegetable substance, for it is almost entirely
+composed of phosphate of lime. Mr. Faraday adds that "if the piece
+of matter has ever been employed as a spongy absorbent, it seems
+hardly fit for that purpose in its present state: but who can say
+to what treatment it has been subjected since it was fit for use,
+or to what treatment the natives may submit it when expecting to
+have occasion to use it?"</p>
+<p>The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when
+instantaneously applied, may be sufficiently porous and absorbent
+to extract the venom from the recent wound, together with a portion
+of the blood, before it has had time to be carried into the system;
+and that the blood which Mr. Faraday detected in the specimen
+submitted to him was that of the Indian on whose person the effect
+was exhibited on the occasion to which my informant was an
+eye-witness. The snake-charmers from the coast who visit Ceylon
+profess to prepare the snake-stones for themselves, and to preserve
+the composition a secret. Dr. Davy<a id="footnotetag3161" name=
+"footnotetag3161"></a><a href="#footnote3161"><sup>3161</sup></a>,
+on the authority of Sir Alexander Johnston, says the manufacture of
+them is a lucrative trade, carried on by the monks of Manilla, who
+supply the merchants of India&mdash;and his analysis confirms that
+of Mr. Faraday. Of the three different kinds which he
+examined&mdash;one being of partially burnt bone, and another of
+chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of vegetable matter, resembled
+bezoar,&mdash;all of them (except the first, which possessed a
+slight absorbent power) were quite inert, and incapable of having
+any effect except on the imagination of the patient. Thunberg was
+shown the snake-stone used by the boers at the <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>[pg 317]</span> Cape
+in 1772, which was imported for them "from the Indies, especially
+from Malabar," at so high a price that few of the farmers could
+afford to possess themselves of it; he describes it as convex on
+one side, black and so porous that "when thrown into water, it
+caused bubbles to rise;" and hence, by its absorbent qualities, it
+served, if speedily applied, to extract the poison from the
+wound.<a id="footnotetag3171" name="footnotetag3171"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3171"><sup>3171</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Coecilia</i>.&mdash;The rocky jungle, bordering the higher
+coffee estates, provides a safe retreat for a very singular animal,
+first introduced to the notice of European naturalists about a
+century ago by Linn&aelig;us, who gave it the name <i>Coecilia
+glutinosa</i>, to indicate two peculiarities manifest to the
+ordinary observer&mdash;an apparent defect of vision, from the eyes
+being so small and embedded as to be scarcely distinguishable; and
+a power of secreting from minute pores in the skin a <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>[pg 318]</span>
+viscous fluid, resembling that of snails, eels, and some
+salamanders. Specimens are rare in Europe owing to the readiness
+with which it decomposes, breaking down into a flaky mass in the
+spirits in which it is attempted to preserve it.</p>
+<p>The creature is about the length and thickness of an ordinary
+round desk ruler, a little flattened before and rounded behind. It
+is brownish, with a pale stripe along either side. The skin is
+furrowed into 350 circular folds, in which are imbedded minute
+scales. The head is tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine
+curved teeth for seizing the insects and worms on which it is
+supposed to live.</p>
+<p>Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and metamorphoses
+of this creature should be carefully ascertained, for great doubts
+have been entertained as to the position it is entitled to occupy
+in the chain of creation.</p>
+<p><i>Batrachians.</i>&mdash;In the numerous marshes formed by the
+overflowing of the rivers in the plains of the low country, there
+are many varieties of frogs, which, both by their colours and by
+their extraordinary size, are calculated to excite the surprise of
+a stranger. In the lakes around Colombo and the still water near
+Trincomalie, there are huge creatures of this family, from six to
+eight inches in length<a id="footnotetag3181" name=
+"footnotetag3181"></a><a href="#footnote3181"><sup>3181</sup></a>,
+of an olive hue, deepening into brown on the back and yellow on the
+under side. A Kandyan species, recently described, is of much
+smaller dimensions, but distinguished by its brilliant colouring, a
+beautiful grass green above and deep orange underneath<a id=
+"footnotetag3182" name="footnotetag3182"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3182"><sup>3182</sup></a>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>[pg
+319]</span>
+<p>In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the graceful
+little tree-frogs<a id="footnotetag3191" name=
+"footnotetag3191"></a><a href="#footnote3191"><sup>3191</sup></a>
+were to be found in great numbers, sheltered under broad leaves to
+protect them from the scorching sun;&mdash;some of them utter a
+sharp metallic sound at night, similar to that produced by smacking
+the lips.</p>
+<p>In the gardens and grounds toads<a id="footnotetag3192" name=
+"footnotetag3192"></a><a href="#footnote3192"><sup>3192</sup></a>
+crouch in the shade, and pursue the flies and minute coleoptera. In
+Ceylon, as in Europe, these creatures suffer from the bad renown of
+injecting a poison into the wound inflicted by their bite.<a id=
+"footnotetag3193" name="footnotetag3193"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3193"><sup>3193</sup></a> The main calumny is confuted by
+the fact that no toad has yet been discovered furnished with any
+teeth whatsoever; but the obnoxious repute still attaches to the
+milky exudation sometimes perceptible from glands situated on
+either side behind the head; nevertheless experiments have shown,
+that though acrid, the secretions of the toad are incapable of
+exciting more than a slight erythema on the most delicate skins.
+The smell is, however, fetid and offensive, and hence toads are
+less exposed to the attacks of carnivorous animals and of birds
+than frogs, in which such glands do not exist.</p>
+<p>In the class of Reptiles, those only are included in the order
+of Batrachians which undergo a metamorphosis before attaining
+maturity; and as they offer the only example amongst Vertebrate
+animals of this marvellous transformation, they are justly
+considered as the lowest in the scale, with the exception of
+fishes, which remain during life in that stage of development which
+is only the commencement of existence to a frog.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>[pg
+320]</span>
+<p>In undergoing this change, it is chiefly the organs of
+respiration that manifest alteration. In its earliest form the
+young batrachian, living in the water, breathes as a fish does by
+<i>gills</i>, either free and projecting as in the water-newt, or
+partially covered by integument as in the tadpole. But the gills
+disappear as the lungs gradually become developed: the duration of
+the process being on an average one hundred days from the time the
+eggs were first deposited. After this important change, the true
+batrachian is incapable any longer of living continuously in water,
+and either betakes itself altogether to the land, or seeks the
+surface from time to time to replenish its exhausted lungs.<a id=
+"footnotetag3201" name="footnotetag3201"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3201"><sup>3201</sup></a></p>
+<p>The change in the digestive functions during metamorphosis is
+scarcely less extraordinary; frogs, for example, which feed on
+animal substances at maturity, subsist entirely upon vegetable when
+in the condition of larv&aelig;, and the subsidiary organs undergo
+remarkable development, the intestinal canal in the earlier stage
+being five times its length in the later one.</p>
+<p>Of the family of tailed batrachians, Ceylon does not furnish a
+single example; but of those without this appendage, the island, as
+above remarked, affords many varieties; seven distinguishable
+species pertaining to the genus <i>rana</i>, or true frogs with
+webs to the hind feet; two to the genus <i>bufo</i>, or true toads,
+and five to the <i>Polypedates</i>, or East Indian "tree-frogs;"
+besides a few others in allied genera. The "tree-frog," whose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>[pg
+321]</span> toes are terminated by rounded discs which assist it in
+climbing, possesses, in a high degree, the faculty of changing its
+hues; and one as green as a leaf to-day, will be found grey and
+spotted like the bark to-morrow. One of these beautiful little
+creatures, which had seated itself on the gilt pillar of a lamp on
+my dinner-table, became in a few minutes scarcely distinguishable
+in colour from the or-molu ornament to which it clung.</p>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>List of Ceylon Reptiles.</i></h4>
+<p>I am indebted to Dr. Gray and Dr. G&uuml;nther, of the British
+Museum, for a list of the reptiles of Ceylon; but many of those new
+to Europeans have been carefully described by the late Dr. Kelaart
+in his <i>Prodromus Faun&aelig; Zeylanic&aelig;</i> and its
+appendices, as well as in the 13th vol. <i>Magaz. Nat. Hist.</i>
+(1854).</p>
+<h4>SAURA.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Hydrosaurus
+<ul>
+<li>salvator, <i>Wagler.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Monitor
+<ul>
+<li>drac&aelig;na, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Riopa
+<ul>
+<li>punctata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Hardwickii, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Brachymeles
+<ul>
+<li>Bonit&aelig;, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tiliqua
+<ul>
+<li>rufescens, <i>Shaw.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eumeces
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanius, <i>Kel.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nessia
+<ul>
+<li>Burtoni, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acontias
+<ul>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Argyrophis
+<ul>
+<li>bramicus, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lygosoma
+<ul>
+<li>fallax, <i>Peters.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhinophis
+<ul>
+<li>oxyrhynchus, <i>Schn.</i></li>
+<li>punctatus, <i>J. M&uuml;ll</i></li>
+<li>philippinus, <i>J. M&uuml;ll</i></li>
+<li>homolepis, <i>Hempr.</i></li>
+<li>planiceps, <i>Peters.</i></li>
+<li>Blythii, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+<li>melanogaster, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Uropeltis
+<ul>
+<li>grandis, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+<li><i>saffragamus, Kelaart.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Silybura
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonica, <i>Cuv.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hemidactylus
+<ul>
+<li>frenatus, <i>Schleg.</i></li>
+<li>Leschenaultii, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+<li>trihedrus, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+<li>maculatus, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+<li>Piresii, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+<li>Coctoei, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+<li>pustulatus, <i>Dum.</i></li>
+<li>subl&aelig;vis, <i>Cantor.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Peripia
+<ul>
+<li>Peronii, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gymnodactylus
+<ul>
+<li>Kandianus, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sitana
+<ul>
+<li>Ponticereana, <i>Cuv.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lyriocephalus
+<ul>
+<li>scutatus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ceratophora
+<ul>
+<li>Stoddartii, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+<li>Tennentii, <i>G&uuml;nther.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Otocryptis
+<ul>
+<li>bivittata, <i>Wiegm.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Salea Jerdoni, Gray.</i></li>
+<li>Calotes
+<ul>
+<li>ophiomachus, <i>Merr.</i></li>
+<li>nigrilabris, <i>Peters.</i></li>
+<li>versicolor, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+<li>Rouxii, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+<li>mystaceus, <i>Dum.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chameleo
+<ul>
+<li>vulgaris, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>OPHIDIA.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Meg&aelig;ra
+<ul>
+<li>trigonocephala, <i>Latr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trigonocephalus
+<ul>
+<li>hypnalis, <i>Merr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Daboia
+<ul>
+<li>elegans, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Pelamys</i>
+<ul>
+<li><i>bicolor, Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Aturia</i>
+<ul>
+<li><i>lapemoides, Gray.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydrophis
+<ul>
+<li>subl&aelig;vis, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+<li>cyanocinctus, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chersydrus
+<ul>
+<li>granulatus, <i>Schneid</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cerberus
+<ul>
+<li>cinereus, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tropidophis
+<ul>
+<li>schistosus, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Python
+<ul>
+<li>reticulatus, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cylindrophis
+<ul>
+<li>rufa, <i>Schneid.</i></li>
+<li>maculata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aspidura
+<ul>
+<li>brachyorrhos, <i>Boie.</i></li>
+<li>trachyprocta, <i>Cope.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Haplocercus
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oligodon
+<ul>
+<li>subquadratus, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i> <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>[pg 322]</span></li>
+<li>subgriseus, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+<li>sublineatus, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Simotes
+<ul>
+<li>Russellii, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+<li>purpurascens, <i>Schleg.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ablabes
+<ul>
+<li>collaris, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tropidonotus
+<ul>
+<li>quincunciatus, <i>Schleg.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>var. funebris.</li>
+<li>var. carinatus.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>stolatus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>chrysargus, <i>Boie.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cynophis
+<ul>
+<li>Helena, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coryphodon
+<ul>
+<li>Blumenbachii, <i>Merr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyclophis
+<ul>
+<li>calamaria, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chrysopelea
+<ul>
+<li>ornata, <i>Shaw.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dendrophis
+<ul>
+<li>picta, <i>Gm.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Passerita
+<ul>
+<li>mycterizans, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>fusca.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dipsadomorphus
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lycodon
+<ul>
+<li>aulicus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cercaspis
+<ul>
+<li>carinata, <i>Kuhl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bungarus
+<ul>
+<li>fasciatus, <i>Schneid.</i></li>
+<li>var. Ceylonensis, <i>Gthr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Naja
+<ul>
+<li>tripudians, <i>Merr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>CHELONIA.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Testudo
+<ul>
+<li>stellata, <i>Schweig.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Emys
+<ul>
+<li>Seb&aelig;, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+<li>trijuga, <i>Schweigg.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Caretta
+<ul>
+<li>imbricata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chelonia
+<ul>
+<li>virgata, <i>Schweigg.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>EMYDOSAURI.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Crocodilus
+<ul>
+<li>biporcatus. <i>Cuv.</i></li>
+<li>palustris, <i>Less.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>BATRACHIA.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Rana
+<ul>
+<li>hexadactyla, <i>Less.</i></li>
+<li>Kuhlii, <i>Schleg.</i></li>
+<li>cutipora, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+<li>tigrina, <i>Daud.</i></li>
+<li>vittigera, <i>Wiegm.</i></li>
+<li>Malabarica, <i>Dum. &amp; Bib.</i></li>
+<li>Kandiana, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+<li>Neuera-elliana, <i>Kel.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bufo
+<ul>
+<li>melanostictus, <i>Schneid.</i></li>
+<li>Kelaartii, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ixalus
+<ul>
+<li>variabilis, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+<li>leucorhinus, <i>Martens.</i></li>
+<li>poecilopleurus, <i>Mart.</i></li>
+<li>aurifasciatus, <i>Schleg.</i></li>
+<li>schmardanus, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Polypedates
+<ul>
+<li>maculatus, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+<li>microtympanum, <i>Gth.</i></li>
+<li>eques, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Limnodytes
+<ul>
+<li>lividus, <i>Blyth.</i></li>
+<li>macularis, <i>Blyth.</i></li>
+<li>mutabilis, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+<li>maculatus, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Kaloula
+<ul>
+<li>pulchra, <i>Gray.</i></li>
+<li>balteata, var. <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+<li>stellata, <i>Kelaart.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Adenomus
+<ul>
+<li>badioflavus, <i>Copr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pyxicephalus
+<ul>
+<li>fodiens, <i>Jerd.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Engystoma
+<ul>
+<li>rubrum, <i>Jerd.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>PSEUDOPHIDIA.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>C&aelig;cilia
+<ul>
+<li>glutinosa, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>NOTE.&mdash;The following species are peculiar to Ceylon (and
+the genera Ceratophora, Otocryptis, Uropeltis, Aspidura. Cercaspis,
+and Haplocercus would appear to be similarly
+restricted);&mdash;Lygosoma fallax; Trimesurus Ceylonensis, T.
+nigromarginatus; Meg&aelig;ra Trigonocephala; Trigonocephalus
+hypnalis; Daboia elegans; Rhinophis punctatus, Rh. homolepis, Rh.
+planiceps, Rh. Blythii, Rh. melanogaster; Uropeltis grandis;
+Silybura Ceylonica; Cylindrophis maculata; Aspidura brachyorrhos;
+Haplocercus Ceylonensis; Oligodon sublineatus; Cynophis Helena;
+Cyclophis calamaria; Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis; Cercaspis
+carinata; Ixalus variabilis, I. leucorhinus, I. poecilopleurus;
+Polypedates microtympanum. P. eques.</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2711" name=
+"footnote2711"></a><b>Footnote 2711:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2711">(return)</a>
+<p>Monitor drac&aelig;na, <i>Linn.</i> Among the barbarous nostrums
+of the uneducated natives, both Singhalese and Tamil, is the tongue
+of the iguana, which they regard as a specific for consumption, if
+plucked from the living animal and swallowed whole.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2721" name=
+"footnote2721"></a><b>Footnote 2721:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2721">(return)</a>
+<p>Hydrosaurus salvator, <i>Laur</i>. Tail compressed; fingers
+long; nostrils near the extremity of the snout. A black band on
+each temple; round yellow spots disposed in transverse series on
+the back. Teeth with the crown compressed and notched.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2722" name=
+"footnote2722"></a><b>Footnote 2722:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2722">(return)</a>
+<p>In the <i>Mahawanso</i> the hero Tissa, is said to have been
+"afflicted with a cutaneous complaint which made his skin scaly
+like that of the <i>godho</i>."&mdash;Ch. xxiv. p. 148. "Godho" is
+the Pali name for the Kabara-goy&#257;.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2741" name=
+"footnote2741"></a><b>Footnote 2741:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2741">(return)</a>
+<p>A native head-man of low rank.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2751" name=
+"footnote2751"></a><b>Footnote 2751:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2751">(return)</a>
+<p>In corroboration of the view propounded elsewhere (see pp. 7,
+84, &amp;c), and opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon, at some
+remote period, was detached from the continent of India by the
+interposition of the sea, a list of reptiles will be found at p.
+319, including not only individual species, but whole genera
+peculiar to the island, and not to be found on the mainland. See a
+paper by Dr. A. G&amp;&Uuml;NTHER on <i>The Geog. Distribution of
+Reptiles</i>. Magaz. Nat. Hist. for March, 1859, p. 230.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2761" name=
+"footnote2761"></a><b>Footnote 2761:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2761">(return)</a>
+<p>ROGERS' <i>P&aelig;stum.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2762" name=
+"footnote2762"></a><b>Footnote 2762:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2762">(return)</a>
+<p>Calotes sp.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2771" name=
+"footnote2771"></a><b>Footnote 2771:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2771">(return)</a>
+<p>The characteristics by which the <i>Calotes ophiomachus</i> may
+be readily recognised, are a small crest formed by long spines
+running on each side of the neck to above the ear, coupled with a
+green ground-colour of the scales. Many specimens are uniform,
+others banded transversely with white, and others again have a
+black band on each side of the neck.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2772" name=
+"footnote2772"></a><b>Footnote 2772:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2772">(return)</a>
+<p>Sitana Ponticereana, <i>Cuv</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2773" name=
+"footnote2773"></a><b>Footnote 2773:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2773">(return)</a>
+<p>Lyriocephalus scutatus, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2781" name=
+"footnote2781"></a><b>Footnote 2781:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2781">(return)</a>
+<p>Chameleo vulgaris, <i>Daud</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2791" name=
+"footnote2791"></a><b>Footnote 2791:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2791">(return)</a>
+<p>Prof. RYMER JONES, art. <i>Reptilia</i>, in TODD'S <i>Cyclop. of
+Anat</i>. vol. iv. pt. i. p. 292.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2811" name=
+"footnote2811"></a><b>Footnote 2811:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2811">(return)</a>
+<p>The specimen in the British Museum is apparently an adult male,
+ten inches long, and is, with regard to the distribution of the
+scales and the form of the head very similar to <i>C.
+Stoddartii</i>. The posterior angles of the orbit are not
+projecting, but there is a small tubercle behind them; and a pair
+of somewhat larger tubercles on the neck. The gular sac is absent.
+There are five longitudinal quadrangular, imbricate scales on each
+side of the throat; and the sides of the body present a nearly
+horizontal series of similar scales. The scales on the median line
+of the back scarcely form a crest; it is, however distinct on the
+nape of the neck. The scales on the belly, on the extremities, and
+on the tail are slightly keeled. Tail nearly round. This species is
+more uniformly coloured than <i>C. Stoddartii</i>; it is greenish,
+darker on the sides.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2812" name=
+"footnote2812"></a><b>Footnote 2812:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2812">(return)</a>
+<p>Hemidactylus maculatus, <i>Dum</i>. et <i>Bib</i>., H.
+Leschenaultii, <i>Dum</i>, et <i>Bib</i>; H. frenatus,
+<i>Schlegel</i>. Of these the last is very common in the houses of
+Colombo. Colour, grey; sides with small granules; thumb short;
+chin-shields four; tail rounded with transverse series of small
+spines; femoral and preanal pores in a continuous line. GRAY,
+<i>Lizard</i>, p. 155.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2821" name=
+"footnote2821"></a><b>Footnote 2821:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2821">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Brit. Mus. Cat.</i> p. 143; KELAART's <i>Prod. Faun.
+Zeylan.,</i> p. 183.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2841" name=
+"footnote2841"></a><b>Footnote 2841:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2841">(return)</a>
+<p>Crocodilus biporcatus. <i>Cuvier</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2842" name=
+"footnote2842"></a><b>Footnote 2842:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2842">(return)</a>
+<p>Crododilus palustris, <i>Less</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2843" name=
+"footnote2843"></a><b>Footnote 2843:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2843">(return)</a>
+<p>In Siam the flesh of the crocodile is sold for food in the
+markets and bazaars, "Un jour je vis plus de cinquante crocodiles,
+petits et grands, attach&eacute;s aux colonnes de leurs maisons.
+Ils es vendent la chair comme on vendrait de la chair de porc, mais
+&agrave; bien meilleur march&eacute;."-PALLEGOIX, <i>Siam</i>, vol.
+i. p. 174.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2844" name=
+"footnote2844"></a><b>Footnote 2844:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2844">(return)</a>
+<p>A native gentleman who resided for a long time at Caltura tells
+me that in the rivers which flow into the sea, both there and at
+Bentotte, crocodiles are frequently caught in corrals, formed of
+stakes driven into the ground in shallow water, and so constructed,
+that when the reptile enters to seize the bait placed within, the
+aperture closes behind and secures him. A professional "crocodile
+charmer" then enters muttering a spell, and with one end of a stick
+pats the creature gently on the head for a time. The operator then
+boldly mounts astride upon its shoulders, and continues to soothe
+it with his one hand, whilst with the other he contrives to pass a
+rope under its body, by which it is at last dragged on shore. This
+story serves to corroborate the narrative of Mr. Waterton and his
+alligator.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2861" name=
+"footnote2861"></a><b>Footnote 2861:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2861">(return)</a>
+<p>HERODOTUS records the observations of the Egyptians that the
+crocodile of the Nile abstains from food during the four winter
+months.&mdash;<i>Euterpe</i>, lviii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2862" name=
+"footnote2862"></a><b>Footnote 2862:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2862">(return)</a>
+<p>HUMBOLDT relates a similar story as occurring at Calabazo, in
+Venezuela.&mdash;<i>Personal Narrative</i>, c, xvi.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2881" name=
+"footnote2881"></a><b>Footnote 2881:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2881">(return)</a>
+<p>A remarkable instance of the vitality of the common crocodile,
+<i>C. biporcatus</i>, was related to me by a gentleman at Galle: he
+had caught on a baited hook an unusually large one, which his
+coolies disembowelled, the aperture in the stomach being left
+expanded by a stick placed across it. On returning in the afternoon
+with a view to secure the head, they found that the creature had
+crawled for some distance, and made its escape into the water.</p>
+<p>"A curious incident occurred some years ago on the Maguruganga,
+a stream which flows through the Pasdun Corle, to join the Bentolle
+river. A man was fishing seated on the branch of a tree that
+overhung the water; and to shelter himself from the drizzling rain,
+he covered his head and shoulder with a bag folded into a shape
+common with the natives. While in this attitude, a leopard sprang
+upon him from the jungle, but missing its aim, seized the bag and
+not the man, and fell with it into the river. Here a crocodile,
+which had been eyeing the angler is despair, seized the leopard as
+it fell, and sunk with it to the bottom."&mdash;<i>Letter</i> from
+GOONE-RATNE Modliar, interpreter of the Supreme Court, 10th Jany.,
+1861.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2891" name=
+"footnote2891"></a><b>Footnote 2891:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2891">(return)</a>
+<p>Testudo stellata.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2901" name=
+"footnote2901"></a><b>Footnote 2901:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2901">(return)</a>
+<p>HOOKER'S <i>Himalayan Journals</i>, vol. i. p. 37.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2902" name=
+"footnote2902"></a><b>Footnote 2902:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2902">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Cryptopus granum</i>, SCH&Ouml;PF; DR. KELAART, in his
+<i>Prodromus</i> (p. 179), refers this to the common Indian
+species, <i>C. punctata</i>; but it is distinct. It is generally
+distributed in the lower parts of Ceylon, in lakes and tanks. It is
+the one usually put into wells to act the part of a scavenger. By
+the Singhalese it is named <i>Kiri-ibba</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2911" name=
+"footnote2911"></a><b>Footnote 2911:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2911">(return)</a>
+<p>Of the <i>Emys trijuga</i>, the fresh water tortoise figured on
+preceding page, the technical characteristics are;&mdash;vertical
+plates lozenge-shaped; shell convex and oval; with three more or
+less distinct longitudinal keels; shields corrugated; with areola
+situated in the upper posterior corner. Shell brown, with the
+areol&aelig; and the keels yellowish; head brown, with a yellow
+streak over each eye.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2912" name=
+"footnote2912"></a><b>Footnote 2912:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2912">(return)</a>
+<p>Chelonia virgata, <i>Schweig</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2921" name=
+"footnote2921"></a><b>Footnote 2921:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2921">(return)</a>
+<p>ARISTOTLE was aware of the fact that the turtle will live after
+the removal of the heart.&mdash;<i>De Vita et Morte</i>, ch.
+ii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2931" name=
+"footnote2931"></a><b>Footnote 2931:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2931">(return)</a>
+<p>[Greek: "Tiktontai de ara en taut&ecirc; t&ecirc;
+thalatt&ecirc;, kai chel&ocirc;nai megistai, &ocirc;nper oun ta
+elytra orophoi ginontai kai gar esti kai pentekaideka
+p&ecirc;ch&ocirc;n en chel&ocirc;neion, &ocirc;s hypoikein ouk
+oligous, kai tous h&ecirc;lious pyrodestatous apostegei, kai skian
+asmenois parechei."]&mdash;Lib. xvi. c. 17. &AElig;lian copied this
+statement literatim from MEGASTHESES, <i>Indica Frag.</i> lix. 31.
+May not Megasthenes have referred to some tradition connected with
+the gigantic fossilised species discovered on the Sewalik Hills,
+the remains of which are now in the Museum at the East India
+House?</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2932" name=
+"footnote2932"></a><b>Footnote 2932:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2932">(return)</a>
+<p>Caretta imbricata, <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2933" name=
+"footnote2933"></a><b>Footnote 2933:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2933">(return)</a>
+<p>At Celebes, whence the finest tortoise-shell is exported to
+China, the natives kill the turtle by blows on the head, and
+immerse the shell in boiling water to detach the plates. Dry heat
+is only resorted to by the unskilful, who frequently destroy the
+tortoise-shell in the operation&mdash;<i>Journal Indian
+Archipel</i>. vol. iii. p. 227, 1849.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2941" name=
+"footnote2941"></a><b>Footnote 2941:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2941">(return)</a>
+<p>BENNETT'S <i>Ceylon, &amp;c.</i>, c. xxxiv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2942" name=
+"footnote2942"></a><b>Footnote 2942:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2942">(return)</a>
+<p>Genesis iii. 15.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2951" name=
+"footnote2951"></a><b>Footnote 2951:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2951">(return)</a>
+<p>This is not likely to be true: in a very large collection of
+snakes made in Ceylon by Mr. C.R. Butler, and recently examined by
+Dr. G&uuml;nther, of the British Museum, only a single-specimen
+proved to be new.</p>
+<p>There is, however, one venomous snake, of the existence of which
+I am assured by a native correspondent in Ceylon, no mention has
+yet been made by European naturalists. It is called
+<b>M&#257;pil&#257;</b> by the Singhalese; it is described to me as
+being about four feet in length, of the diameter of the little
+finger, and of a uniform dark brown colour. It is said to be often
+seen in company with another snake called in Singhalese <i>Lay
+Medilla</i>, a name which implies its deep red hue. The latter is
+believed to be venomous. It would be well if some collector in
+Ceylon would send home for examination the species which
+respectively bear these names.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2961" name=
+"footnote2961"></a><b>Footnote 2961:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2961">(return)</a>
+<p>See DAVY'S <i>Ceylon</i>, ch. xiv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2962" name=
+"footnote2962"></a><b>Footnote 2962:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2962">(return)</a>
+<p>Daboia elegans, <i>Daud.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2963" name=
+"footnote2963"></a><b>Footnote 2963:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2963">(return)</a>
+<p>Naja tripudians, <i>Merr.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2964" name=
+"footnote2964"></a><b>Footnote 2964:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2964">(return)</a>
+<p>Trigonocephalus hypnale, <i>Merr.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2965" name=
+"footnote2965"></a><b>Footnote 2965:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2965">(return)</a>
+<p>The other varieties are the <i>getta, lay, alu, kunu,</i> and
+<i>nil-polongas.</i> I have heard of an eighth, the
+<i>palla-polonga</i>.</p>
+<p>Amongst the numerous pieces of folk-lore in Ceylon in connexion
+with snakes, is the belief that a deadly enmity subsists between
+the polonga and the cobra de capello, and that the latter, which is
+naturally shy and retiring, is provoked to conflicts by the
+audacity of its rival. Hence the proverb applied to persons at
+enmity, that "they hate like the polonga and cobra."</p>
+<p>The Singhalese believe the polonga to be by far the most savage
+and wanton of the two, and they illustrate this by a popular
+legend, that once upon a time a child, in the absence of its
+mother, was playing beside a tub of water, which a cobra, impelled
+by thirst during a long-continued drought, approached to drink, the
+unconscious child all the while striking it with its hands to
+prevent the intrusion. The cobra, on returning, was met by a
+tic-polonga, which seeing its scales dripping with delicious
+moisture, entreated to be told the way to the well. The cobra,
+knowing the vicious habits of the other snake, and anticipating
+that it would kill the innocent child which it had so recently
+spared, at first refused, and only yielded on condition that the
+infant was not to be molested. But the polonga, on reaching the
+tub, was no sooner obstructed by the little one, than it stung him
+to death.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2971" name=
+"footnote2971"></a><b>Footnote 2971:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2971">(return)</a>
+<p>In a return of 112 coroners' inquests, in cases of death from
+wild animals, held in Ceylon in five years, from 1851 to 1855
+inclusive, 68 are ascribed to the bites of serpents; and in almost
+every instance the assault is set down as having taken place <i>at
+night</i>. The majority of the sufferers were children and
+women.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2972" name=
+"footnote2972"></a><b>Footnote 2972:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2972">(return)</a>
+<p>PLINY notices that the serpent has the sense of hearing more
+acute than that of sight; and that it is more frequently put in
+motion by the sound of footsteps than by the appearance of the
+intruder, "excitatur pede s&aelig;pius."&mdash;Lib, viii. c.
+36.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2981" name=
+"footnote2981"></a><b>Footnote 2981:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2981">(return)</a>
+<p>A Singhalese work, the <i>Sarpados&#257;</i>, enumerates four
+castes of the cobra;&mdash;the <i>raja</i>, or king: the
+<i>bamunu</i>, or Brahman; the <i>velanda</i>, or trader; and the
+<i>gori</i>, or agriculturist. Of these the raja, or "king of the
+cobras," is said to have the head and the anterior half of the body
+of so light a colour, that at a distance it seems like a silvery
+white. The work is quoted, but not correctly, in the <i>Ceylon
+Times</i> for January, 1857. It is more than probable, as the
+division represents the four castes of the Hindus, Chastriyas,
+Brahmans Vaisyas, and Sudras; that the insertion of the <i>gori</i>
+instead of the latter was a pious fraud of some copyist to confer
+rank upon the Vellales, the agricultural caste of Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2991" name=
+"footnote2991"></a><b>Footnote 2991:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag2991">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Coryphodon Blumenbachii.</i> There is a belief in Ceylon that
+the bite of the rat-snake, though harmless to man, is fatal to
+black cattle. The Singhalese add that it would be equally so to man
+were the wound to be touched by cow-dung. WOLF, in the interesting
+story of his <i>Life and Adventures in Ceylon</i>, mentions that
+rat-snakes were often so domesticated by the native as to feed at
+their table. He says: "I once saw an example of this in the house
+of a native. It being meal time, he called his snake, which
+immediately came forth from the roof under which he and I were
+sitting. He gave it victuals from his own dish, which the snake
+took of itself from off a fig-leaf that was laid for it, and ate
+along with its host. When it had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss,
+and bade it go to its hole." Major SKINNER, writing to me 12th
+Dec., 1858, mentions the still more remarkable case of the
+domestication of the cobra de capello in Ceylon. "Did you ever
+hear," he says, "of tame cobras being kept and domesticated about a
+house, going in and out at pleasure, and in common with the rest of
+the inmates? In one family, near Negombo, cobras are kept as
+protectors, in the place of dogs, by a wealthy man who has always
+large sums of money in his house. But this is not a solitary case
+of the kind. I heard of it only the other day, but from undoubtedly
+good authority. The snakes glide about the house, a terror to
+thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3001" name=
+"footnote3001"></a><b>Footnote 3001:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3001">(return)</a>
+<p>PLINY notices the affection that subsists between the male and
+female asp; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other
+seeks to avenge its death.&mdash;Lib. viii. c. 37.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3021" name=
+"footnote3021"></a><b>Footnote 3021:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3021">(return)</a>
+<p>PETERS, <i>De Serpentum familia Uropeltaceorum</i>. Berol, 4.
+1861.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3031" name=
+"footnote3031"></a><b>Footnote 3031:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3031">(return)</a>
+<p>The <i>Uropeltis grandis</i> of Kelaart, which was at first
+supposed to be a new species, proves to be identical with <i>U.
+Phillippinus</i> of Cuvier. It is doubtful, however, whether this
+species be found in the Phillippine Islands, as stated by Cuvier;
+and it is more than, probable that the typical specimen came from
+Ceylon&mdash;a further illustration of the affinity of the fauna of
+Ceylon to that of the Eastern Archipelago. The characteristics of
+this reptile, as given by Dr. GRAY, are as follows:&mdash;"Caudal
+disc subcircular, with large scattered tubercles; snout subacute,
+slightly produced. Dark brown, lighter below, with some of the
+scales dark brown in the centre near the posterior edge. GRAY,
+<i>Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i> 1858, p. 262.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3032" name=
+"footnote3032"></a><b>Footnote 3032:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3032">(return)</a>
+<p>Python reticulatus, <i>Gray</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3041" name=
+"footnote3041"></a><b>Footnote 3041:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3041">(return)</a>
+<p>Boie in Isis 1827 p. 517.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3051" name=
+"footnote3051"></a><b>Footnote 3051:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3051">(return)</a>
+<p>G&amp;&Uuml;NTH. <i>Col. Snakes</i>, p. 14. In the hope that
+some inquirer in Ceylon will be able to furnish such information as
+may fill up this blank in the history of the haplocercus, the
+following particulars are here appended. The largest of the
+specimens in the British Museum is about twenty-five inches in
+length; the body thin, and much elongated; the head narrow, and not
+distinct from the neck, the tail of moderate length. Forehead
+covered by three shields, one anterior and two posterior frontals;
+no loreal shield; one small shield before, two behind the eye;
+seven shields along the upper lip, the eye being above the fourth.
+The scales are disposed in seventeen longitudinal series; they are
+lanceolate and strongly keeled. The upper parts are uniform
+blackish or brown, with two dorsal rows of small indistinct black
+spots; occiput with a whitish collar, edged with darker. The lower
+parts uniform yellowish.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3061" name=
+"footnote3061"></a><b>Footnote 3061:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3061">(return)</a>
+<p>Dr. WUCHERER of Bahia.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3081" name=
+"footnote3081"></a><b>Footnote 3081:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3081">(return)</a>
+<p>Chersydrus granulatus, <i>Merr</i>.; Cerberus cinereus.
+<i>Daud.</i>; Tropidophis schistosus, <i>Daud.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3082" name=
+"footnote3082"></a><b>Footnote 3082:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3082">(return)</a>
+<p>"[Greek: Plateis tas ouras."</p>
+<p>&AElig;LIAN, L. xvi. c. 8.</p>
+<p>&AElig;lian speaks elsewhere of fresh-water snakes. His remark
+on the compression of the tail shows that his informants were aware
+of this speciality in those that inhabit the sea.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3091" name=
+"footnote3091"></a><b>Footnote 3091:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3091">(return)</a>
+<p>The Basses are believed to be the remnants of the great island
+of Giri, swallowed up by the sea.&mdash;<i>Mahawanso</i>, ch. i. p.
+4. They may possibly be the <i>Bass&aelig;</i> of Ptolemy's map of
+<i>Taprobane</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3092" name=
+"footnote3092"></a><b>Footnote 3092:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3092">(return)</a>
+<p>Official Report to the Governor of Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3101" name=
+"footnote3101"></a><b>Footnote 3101:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3101">(return)</a>
+<p>Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3111" name=
+"footnote3111"></a><b>Footnote 3111:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3111">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Catal. Mal. Rept</i>. p. 136.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3112" name=
+"footnote3112"></a><b>Footnote 3112:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3112">(return)</a>
+<p>Its technical characteristics are as follows,&mdash;Body rather
+slender; ground colour yellowish with irregular black rings. Scales
+nearly smooth; ventral plates broad, six-sided, smooth, some
+divided into two, by a slight central groove. Occipital shields
+large, triangular, and produced, with a small central shield behind
+them; a series of four large temporal shields; chin shields in two
+pairs; eyes very small, over the fourth and fifth labials; one
+ante-and two post-oculars; the second upper labial shield
+elongated.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3141" name=
+"footnote3141"></a><b>Footnote 3141:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3141">(return)</a>
+<p>For an account of the encounter between the ichneumon and the
+venomous snakes of Ceylon, see Ch. I. p. 39.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3142" name=
+"footnote3142"></a><b>Footnote 3142:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3142">(return)</a>
+<p>The following narrative of the operations of a snake-charmer in
+Ceylon is contained in a note from Mr. Reyne, of the department of
+public works: "A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in 1851,
+requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing. As I had
+frequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee if he
+would accompany me to the jungle, and catch a cobra, that I knew
+frequented the place. He was willing, and as I was anxious to test
+the truth of the charm, I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch
+over them until I returned with him. Before going I examined the
+man, and satisfied myself he had no snake about his person. When we
+arrived at the spot, he played on a small pipe, and after
+persevering for some time out came a large cobra from an ant hill,
+which I knew it occupied. On seeing the man it tried to escape, but
+he caught it by the tail and kept swinging it round until we
+reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long it bit
+him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the bite,
+and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He
+was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually
+went away, the stone falling off just before he was relieved. When
+he recovered he held a cloth up which the snake flew at, and caught
+its fangs in it; while in that position, the man passed his hand up
+its back, and having seized it by the throat, he extracted the
+fangs in my presence and gave them to me. He then squeezed out the
+poison on to a leaf. It was a clear oily substance, and when rubbed
+on the hand produced a fine lather. I carefully watched the whole
+operation, which was also witnessed by my clerk and two or three
+other persons. <i>Colombo</i>, 13<i>th January</i> 1860.&mdash;H.E.
+REYNE."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3151" name=
+"footnote3151"></a><b>Footnote 3151:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3151">(return)</a>
+<p>Hasselquist.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3161" name=
+"footnote3161"></a><b>Footnote 3161:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3161">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Account of the Interior of Ceylon</i>, ch. iii. p. 101.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3171" name=
+"footnote3171"></a><b>Footnote 3171:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3171">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Thunberg</i>, vol. i. p. 155. Since the foregoing account was
+published, I have received a note from Mr. HARDY, relative to the
+<i>piedra ponsona</i>, the snake-stone of Mexico, in which he gives
+the following account of the method of preparing and applying it:
+"Take a piece of hart's horn of any convenient size and shape;
+cover it well round with grass or hay, enclose both in a thin piece
+of sheet copper well wrapped round them, and place the parcel in a
+charcoal fire till the bone is sufficiently charred.</p>
+<p>"When cold, remove the calcined horn from its envelope, when it
+will be ready for immediate use. In this state it will resemble a
+solid black fibrous substance, of the same shape and size as before
+it was subjected to this treatment.</p>
+<p>"USE.&mdash;The wound being slightly punctured, apply the bone
+to the opening, to which it will adhere firmly for the space of two
+minutes; and when it falls, it should be received into a basin of
+water. It should then be dried in a cloth, and again applied to the
+wound. But it will not adhere longer than about one minute. In like
+manner it may be applied a third time; but now it will fall almost
+immediately, and nothing will cause it to adhere any more.</p>
+<p>"These effects I witnessed in the case of a bite of a
+rattle-snake at Oposura, a town in the province of Sonora, in
+Mexico, from whence I obtained my recipe; and I have given other
+particulars respecting it in my Travels in the Interior of Mexico,
+published in 1830. R.W.H. HARDY. <i>Bath</i>, 30<i>th January</i>,
+1860."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3181" name=
+"footnote3181"></a><b>Footnote 3181:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3181">(return)</a>
+<p>A Singhalese variety of the <i>Rana cutipora?</i> and the
+Malabar bull-frog, <i>Hylarana Malabarica</i>. A frog named by
+BLYTH <i>Rana robusta</i> proves to be a Ceylon specimen of the
+<i>R. cutipora</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3182" name=
+"footnote3182"></a><b>Footnote 3182:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3182">(return)</a>
+<p><i>R. Kandiana</i>, Kelaart.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3191" name=
+"footnote3191"></a><b>Footnote 3191:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3191">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Polypedates maculatus,</i> Gray.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3192" name=
+"footnote3192"></a><b>Footnote 3192:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3192">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Bufo melanostictus</i>, Schneid.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3193" name=
+"footnote3193"></a><b>Footnote 3193:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3193">(return)</a>
+<p>In Ceylon this error is as old as the third century, B.C., when,
+as the <i>Mahawanso</i> tells us, the wife of "King Asoka attempted
+to destroy the great bo-tree (at Magadha) <i>with, the poisoned
+fang of a toad.</i>"&mdash;Ch. xx. p. 122.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3201" name=
+"footnote3201"></a><b>Footnote 3201:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3201">(return)</a>
+<p>A few Batrachians, such as the <i>Siren</i> of Carolina, the
+<i>Proteus</i> of Illyria, the <i>Axolotl</i> of Mexico, and the
+<i>Menobranchus</i> of the North American Lakes, retain their gills
+during life; but although provided with lungs in mature age, they
+are not capable of living out of the water. Such batrachians form
+an intermediate link between reptiles and fishes.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>[pg
+323]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap10" id="chap10"></a>CHAP. X.</h2>
+<h3>FISHES.</h3>
+<p>Hitherto no branch of the zoology of Ceylon has been so
+imperfectly investigated as its Ichthyology. Little has been done
+in the examination and description of its fishes, especially those
+which frequent the rivers and inland waters. Mr. BENNETT, who was
+for some years employed in the Civil Service, directed his
+attention to the subject, and published in 1830 some portions of a
+projected work on the marine fishes of the island<a id=
+"footnotetag3231" name="footnotetag3231"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3231"><sup>3231</sup></a>, but it never proceeded beyond
+the description of thirty individuals. The great work of Cuvier and
+Valenciennes<a id="footnotetag3232" name=
+"footnotetag3232"></a><a href="#footnote3232"><sup>3232</sup></a>
+particularises about one hundred species, specimens of which were
+procured from Ceylon by Reynard, Leschenault and other
+correspondents; but of these not more than half a dozen belong to
+fresh water.</p>
+<p>The fishes of the coast, as far as they have been examined,
+present few that are not in all probability common to the seas of
+Ceylon and India. A series of drawings, including upwards of six
+hundred species and varieties of Ceylon fish, all made from
+recently-captured specimens, have been submitted to Professor
+Huxley, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id=
+"page324"></a>[pg 324]</span> a notice of their general
+characteristics forms an interesting appendix to the present
+chapter.<a id="footnotetag3241" name="footnotetag3241"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3241"><sup>3241</sup></a></p>
+<p>Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far is the
+Seir-fish<a id="footnotetag3242" name=
+"footnotetag3242"></a><a href="#footnote3242"><sup>3242</sup></a>,
+a species of Scomberoids, which is called <i>Tora-malu</i> by the
+natives. It is in size and form very similar to the salmon, to
+which the flesh of the female fish, notwithstanding its white
+colour, bears a very close resemblance both in firmness and
+flavour.</p>
+<p>Mackerel, carp, whitings, mullet both red and striped, perches
+and soles are abundant, and a sardine (<i>Sardinella Neohowii</i>,
+Val.) frequents the southern and eastern coast in such profusion
+that in one instance in 1839, a gentleman who was present saw
+upwards of four hundred thousand taken in a haul of the nets in the
+little bay of Goyapanna, east of Point-de-Galle. As this vast shoal
+approached the shore the broken water became as smooth as if a
+sheet of ice had been floating below the surface.<a id=
+"footnotetag3243" name="footnotetag3243"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3243"><sup>3243</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Poisonous Fishes.</i>&mdash;The sardine has the reputation of
+being poisonous at certain seasons, and accidents ascribed to
+eating it are recorded in all parts of the island. Whole families
+of fishermen who have partaken of it have died. Twelve persons in
+the jail of Chilaw were thus poisoned, about the year 1829; and the
+deaths of soldiers have repeatedly been ascribed to the same cause.
+It is difficult in such instances to say with certainty whether the
+fish were in fault; whether there <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page325" id="page325"></a>[pg 325]</span> was not a peculiar
+susceptibility in the condition of the recipients; or whether the
+mischief may not have been occasioned by the wilful administration
+of poison, or its accidental occurrence in the brass cooking
+vessels used by the natives. The popular belief was, however,
+deferred to by an order passed by the Governor in Council in
+February, 1824, which, after reciting that "Whereas it appears by
+information conveyed to the Government that at three several
+periods at Trincomalie, death has been the consequence to several
+persons from eating the fish called Sardinia during the months of
+January and December," enacts that it shall not be lawful in that
+district to catch sardines during these months, under pain of fine
+and imprisonment. This order is still in force, but the fishing
+continues notwithstanding.<a id="footnotetag3251" name=
+"footnotetag3251"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3251"><sup>3251</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Sharks.</i>&mdash;Sharks appear on all parts of the coast,
+and instances continually occur of persons being seized by them
+whilst bathing even in the harbours of Trincomalie and Colombo. In
+the Gulf of Manaar they are taken for the sake of their oil, of
+which they yield such a quantity that "shark's oil" is a recognised
+export. A trade also exists in drying their fins, for which, owing
+to the gelatine contained in them, a ready market is found in
+China; whither the skin of the basking shark is also sent, to be
+converted, it is said, into shagreen.</p>
+<p><i>Saw Fish.</i>&mdash;The huge <i>Pristis antiquorum</i><a id=
+"footnotetag3252" name="footnotetag3252"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3252"><sup>3252</sup></a> infests <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>[pg 326]</span> the
+eastern coast of the island, where it attains a length of from
+twelve to fifteen feet, including the serrated rostrum from which
+its name is derived. This powerful weapon seems designed to
+compensate for the inadequacy of the ordinary maxillary teeth which
+are unusually small, obtuse, and insufficient to capture and kill
+the animals which form the food of this predatory shark. To remedy
+this, the fore part of the head and its cartilages are prolonged
+into a flattened plate, the length of which is nearly equal to one
+third of the whole body, its edges being armed with formidable
+teeth, that are never shed or renewed, but increase in size with
+the growth of the creature.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/354.png"><img width="100%" src="images/354.png" alt=
+"HEAD OF THE SAWFISH (PRISTIS ANTIQUORUM)" /></a> HEAD OF THE SAWFISH (PRISTIS ANTIQUORUM)</div>
+<p>The <i>Rays</i> form a large tribe of cartilaginous fishes in
+which, although the skeleton is not osseous, the development of
+organs is so advanced that they would appear to be the highest of
+the class, approaching nearest to amphibians. They are easily
+distinguished from the sharks by their broad and flat body, the
+pectoral fins being expanded like wings on each side of the trunk.
+They are all inhabitants of the ocean, and some grow to a
+prodigious size. Specimens have been caught of twenty feet in
+breadth. These, however, are of rare <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page327" id="page327"></a>[pg 327]</span> occurrence, as such huge
+monsters usually retreat into the depths of the sea, where they are
+secure from the molestation of man. It is, generally speaking, only
+the young and the smaller species that approach the coasts, where
+they find a greater supply of those marine animals which form their
+food. The Rays have been divided into several generic groups, and
+the one of which a drawing (<i>A&euml;tobates narinari</i><a id=
+"footnotetag3271" name="footnotetag3271"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3271"><sup>3271</sup></a>) is given, has very marked
+characteristics in its produced snout, pointed and winged-like
+pectoral fins, and exceedingly long, flagelliform tail. The latter
+is armed with a strong, serrated spine, which is always broken off
+by the fishermen immediately on capture, under the impression that
+wounds inflicted by it are poisonous. Their fears, however, are
+utterly groundless,</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/355.png"><img width="100%" src="images/355.png" alt=
+"THE RAY" /></a> THE RAY (A&Euml;TOBATES NARINARI).</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>[pg
+328]</span>
+<p>as the ray has no gland for secreting any venomous fluid. The
+apprehension may, however, have originated in the fact that a
+lacerated wound such as would be produced by a serrated spine, is
+not unlikely to assume a serious character, under the influence of
+a tropical climate. The species figured on the last page is
+brownish-olive on the upper surface, with numerous greenish-white
+round spots, darkening towards the edges. The anterior annulations
+of the tail are black and white, the posterior entirely black. Its
+mouth is transverse and paved with a band of flattened teeth
+calculated to crush the hard shells of the animals on which it
+feeds. It moves slowly along the bottom in search of its food,
+which consists of crustacea and mollusca, and seems to be unable to
+catch fishes or other quickly moving animals. Specimens have been
+taken near Ceylon, of six feet in width. Like most deep-sea fishes,
+the ray has a wide geographical range, and occurs not only in all
+the Indian Ocean, but also in the tropical tracts of the
+Atlantic.</p>
+<p>Another armed fish, renowned since the times of &AElig;lian and
+Pliny for its courage in attacking the whale, and even a ship, is
+the sword-fish (<i>Xiphias gladius</i>).<a id="footnotetag3281"
+name="footnotetag3281"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3281"><sup>3281</sup></a> Like the thunny and bonito, it
+is an inhabitant of the deeper seas, and, though known in the
+Mediterranean, is chiefly confined to the tropics. The dangerous
+weapon with which nature has equipped it is formed by the
+prolongation and intertexture of the bones of the upper jaw into an
+exceedingly compact cylindrical protuberance, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>[pg 329]</span>
+somewhat flattened at the base, but tapering to a sharp point. In
+strange inconsistence with its possession of so formidable an
+armature, the general disposition of the sword-fish is represented
+to be gentle and inoffensive; and although the fact of its assaults
+upon the whale has been incontestably established, yet the motive
+for such conflicts, and the causes of its enmity, are beyond
+conjecture. Competition for food is out of the question, as the
+Xiphias can find its own supplies without rivalry on the part of
+its gigantic antagonist; and as to converting the whale itself into
+food, the sword-fish, from the construction of its mouth and the
+small size of its teeth, is quite incapable of feeding on animals
+of such dimensions.</p>
+<p>In the seas around Ceylon sword-fishes sometimes attain to the
+length of twenty feet, and are distinguished by the unusual height
+of the dorsal fin. Those both of the Atlantic and Mediterranean
+possess this fin in its full proportions, only during the earlier
+stages of their growth. Its dimensions even then are much smaller
+than in the Indian species; and it is a curious fact that it
+gradually decreases as the fish approaches to maturity; whereas in
+the seas around Ceylon, it retains its full size throughout the
+entire period of life. They raise it above the water, whilst
+dashing along the surface in their rapid course; and there is no
+reason to doubt that it occasionally acts as a sail.</p>
+<p>The Indian species (which are provided with two long and
+filamentous ventral fins) have been formed into the genus
+<i>Histiophorus</i>; to which belongs the individual figured on the
+next page. It is distinguished from others most closely allied to
+it, by having the immense dorsal fin of one uniform dark violet
+colour; whilst in its congeners, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page330" id="page330"></a>[pg 330]</span> it is spotted with blue.
+The fish from which the engraving has been made, was procured by
+Dr. Templeton, near Colombo. The species was previously known only
+by a single specimen captured in the Red Sea, by R&uuml;ppell, who
+conferred upon it the specific designation of
+"<i>immaculatus</i>."<a id="footnotetag3301" name=
+"footnotetag3301"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3301"><sup>3301</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/358.png"><img width="100%" src="images/358.png" alt=
+"THE SWORD FISH (MISMOPHORUS IMMACULATUS)" /></a> THE SWORD FISH (MISMOPHORUS IMMACULATUS).</div>
+<p>&AElig;lian, in his graphic account of the strange forms
+presented by the fishes inhabiting the seas around Ceylon, says
+that one in particular is so grotesque in its configuration, that
+no painter would venture to depict it; its main peculiarity being
+that it has feet or claws rather than fins.<a id="footnotetag3302"
+name="footnotetag3302"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3302"><sup>3302</sup></a> The annexed drawing<a id=
+"footnotetag3303" name="footnotetag3303"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3303"><sup>3303</sup></a> may <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>[pg 331]</span>
+probably represent the creature to which the informants of
+&AElig;lian referred. It is a cheironectes; one of a group in which
+the bones of the carpus form arms that support the pectoral fins,
+and enable these fishes to walk along the moist ground, almost like
+quadrupeds.</p>
+<p>They belong to the family of <i>Lophiads</i> or "anglers," not
+unfrequent on the English coast; which conceal themselves in the
+mud, displaying only the erectile ray, situated on the head, which
+bears an excrescence on its extremity resembling a worm; by
+agitating which, they attract the smaller fishes, that thus become
+an easy prey.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/359.png"><img width="100%" src="images/359.png" alt=
+"CHEIRONECTES" /></a> CHEIRONECTES</div>
+<p>On the rocks in Ceylon which are washed by the surf <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>[pg 332]</span> there
+are quantities of the curious little fish, <i>Salarius
+alticus</i><a id="footnotetag3321" name=
+"footnotetag3321"></a><a href="#footnote3321"><sup>3321</sup></a>,
+which possesses the faculty of darting along the surface of the
+water, and running up the wet stones, with the utmost ease and
+rapidity. By aid of the pectoral and ventral fins and gill-cases,
+they move across the damp sand, ascend the roots of the mangroves,
+and climb up the smooth face of the rocks in search of flies;
+adhering so securely as not to be detached by repeated assaults of
+the waves. These little creatures are so nimble, that it is almost
+impossible to lay hold of them, as they scramble to the edge, and
+plunge into the sea on the slightest attempt to molest them. They
+are from three to four inches in length, and of a dark brown
+colour, almost undistinguishable from the rocks they frequent.</p>
+<p>But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are those fishes
+whose brilliancy of colouring has won for them the wonder even of
+the listless Singhalese. Some, like the Red Sea Perch
+(<i>Holocentrum rubrum</i>, Forsk) and the Great Fire Fish<a id=
+"footnotetag3322" name="footnotetag3322"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3322"><sup>3322</sup></a>, are of the deepest scarlet and
+flame colour; in others purple predominates, as in the <i>Serranus
+flavo-c&aelig;ruleus</i>; in others yellow, as in the <i>Choetodon
+Brownriggii</i><a id="footnotetag3323" name=
+"footnotetag3323"></a><a href="#footnote3323"><sup>3323</sup></a>,
+and <i>Acanthurus vittatus</i>, of <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page333" id="page333"></a>[pg 333]</span> Bennett<a id=
+"footnotetag3331" name="footnotetag3331"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3331"><sup>3331</sup></a>, and numbers, from the lustrous
+green of their scales, have obtained from the natives the
+appropriate name of <i>Giraway</i>, or <i>parrots</i>, of which
+one, the <i>Sparus Hardwickii</i> of Bennett, is called the "Flower
+Parrot," from its exquisite colouring, being barred with irregular
+bands of blue, crimson, and purple, green, yellow, and grey, and
+crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.</p>
+<p>Of these richly coloured fishes the most familiar in the Indian
+seas are the <i>Pteroids</i>. They are well known on the coast of
+Africa, and thence eastward to Polynesia; but they do not extend to
+the west coast of America, and are utterly absent from the
+Atlantic. The rays of the dorsal and pectoral fins are so
+elongated, that when specimens were first brought to Europe it was
+conjectured that these fishes have the faculty of flight, and hence
+the specific name of "<i>volitans</i>" But this is an error, for,
+owing to the deep incisions between the pectoral rays, the pteroids
+are wholly unable to sustain themselves in the air. They are not
+even bold swimmers, living close to the shore and never venturing
+into the deep sea. Their head is ornamented with a number of
+filaments and cutaneous appendages, of which one over</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>[pg
+334]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/362.png"><img width="100%" src="images/362.png" alt=
+"PTEROIS VOLITANS" /></a> PTEROIS VOLITANS.</div>
+<p>each eye and another at the angles of the mouth are the most
+conspicuous. Sharp spines project on the crown and on the side of
+the gill-apparatus, as in the other sea-perches, <i>Scorp&aelig;na,
+Serranus</i>, &amp;c., of which these are only a modified and
+ornate form. The extraordinary expansion of their fins is not,
+however, accompanied by a similar development of the bones to which
+they are attached, simply because they appear to have no peculiar
+function, as in flying fishes, or in those where the spines of the
+fins are weapons of offence. They attain to the length of twelve
+inches, and to a weight of about two pounds; they live on small
+marine animals, and by the Singhalese the flesh (of some at least)
+is considered good for table. Nine or ten species are known to
+occur in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id=
+"page335"></a>[pg 335]</span> the East Indian Seas, and of these
+the one figured above is, perhaps, the most common.</p>
+<p>Another species known to occur on the coasts of Ceylon is the
+<i>Scorp&aelig;na miles</i>, Bennett, or <i>Pterois miles</i>,
+G&uuml;nther<a id="footnotetag3351" name=
+"footnotetag3351"></a><a href="#footnote3351"><sup>3351</sup></a>,
+of which Bennett has given a figure<a id="footnotetag3352" name=
+"footnotetag3352"></a><a href="#footnote3352"><sup>3352</sup></a>,
+but it is not altogether correct in some particulars.</p>
+<p>In the fishes of Ceylon, however, beauty is not confined to the
+brilliancy of their tints. In some, as in the <i>/Scarus harid</i>,
+Forsk<a id="footnotetag3353" name="footnotetag3353"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3353"><sup>3353</sup></a>, the arrangement of the scales
+is so graceful, and the effect is so heightened by modifications of
+colour, as to present the appearance of tessellation, or mosaic
+work.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/363.png"><img width="100%" src="images/363.png" alt=
+"SCARUS HARID" /></a> SCARUS HARID. After Bennett.</div>
+<p><i>Fresh-water Fishes</i>.&mdash;Of the fresh-water fish, which
+inhabit the rivers and tanks, so very little has hitherto been
+known to naturalists<a id="footnotetag3354" name=
+"footnotetag3354"></a><a href="#footnote3354"><sup>3354</sup></a>,
+that of nineteen drawings <span class="pagenum"><a name="page336"
+id="page336"></a>[pg 336]</span> sent home by Major Skinner in
+1852, although specimens of well-known genera, Colonel Hamilton
+Smith pronounced nearly the whole to be new and undescribed
+species.</p>
+<p>Of eight of these, which were from the Mahawelliganga, and
+caught in the vicinity of Kandy, five were carps; two were
+<i>Leucisci</i>, and one a <i>Mastacembelus</i> (<i>M. armatus</i>,
+Lacep); one was an <i>Ophiocephalus</i>, and one a
+<i>Polyacanthus</i>, with no serr&aelig; on the gills. Six were
+from the Kalanyganga, close to Colombo, of which two were
+<i>Helostoma</i>, in shape approaching the Ch&aelig;todon; two
+<i>Ophiocephali</i>, one a <i>Silurus</i>, and one an
+<i>Anabas</i>, but the gills were without denticulation. From the
+still water of the lake, close to the walls of Colombo, there were
+two species of <i>Eleotris</i>, one <i>Silurus</i> with barbels,
+and two <i>Malacopterygians</i>, which appear to be
+<i>Bagri</i>.</p>
+<p>The <i>fresh-water Perches</i> of Europe and of the North of
+America are represented in Ceylon and India by several genera,
+which bear to them a great external similarity (<i>Lates,
+Therapon</i>). They have the same habits as their European allies,
+and their flesh is considered equally wholesome, but they appear to
+enter salt-water, or at least brackish water, more freely. It is,
+however, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id=
+"page337"></a>[pg 337]</span> in their internal organisation that
+they differ most from the perches of Europe; their skeletons are
+composed of fewer vertebr&aelig;, and the air bladder of the
+<i>Therapon</i> is divided into two portions, as in the carps. Four
+species at least of this genus inhabit the lakes and rivers of
+Ceylon, and one of them, of which a figure is given above, has been
+but imperfectly described in any ichthyological work<a id=
+"footnotetag3371" name="footnotetag3371"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3371"><sup>3371</sup></a>; it attains to the length of
+seven inches.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/365.png"><img width="100%" src="images/365.png" alt=
+"THERAPON QUADRILINEATUS" /></a> THERAPON QUADRILINEATUS.</div>
+<p>In addition to marine eels, in which the Indian coasts abound,
+Ceylon has some true fresh-water eels, which never enter the sea.
+These are known to the natives under the name of <i>Theliya</i>,
+and to naturalists by that of <i>Mastacembelus</i>. They have
+sometimes in ichthyological systems been referred to the
+Scombrid&aelig; and other marine families, from the circumstance
+that the dorsal fin anteriorly is composed of spines. But, in
+addition to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id=
+"page338"></a>[pg 338]</span> general shape of the body, their
+affinity to the eel is attested, by their confluent fins, by the
+absence of ventral fins, by the structure of the mouth and its
+dentition, by the apparatus of the gills, which opens with an
+inferior slit, and above all by the formation of the skeleton
+itself.<a id="footnotetag3381" name="footnotetag3381"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3381"><sup>3381</sup></a></p>
+<p>Their skin is covered with minute scales, coated by a slimy
+exudation, and the upper jaw is produced into a soft tripartite
+tentacle, with which they are enabled to feel for their prey in the
+mud. They are very tenacious of life, and belong, without doubt, to
+those fishes which in Ceylon descend during the drought into the
+muddy soil.<a id="footnotetag3382" name=
+"footnotetag3382"></a><a href="#footnote3382"><sup>3382</sup></a>
+Their flesh very much resembles that of the eel; and is highly
+esteemed.<a id="footnotetag3383" name=
+"footnotetag3383"></a><a href="#footnote3383"><sup>3383</sup></a>
+They were first made known to European naturalists by Russell<a id=
+"footnotetag3384" name="footnotetag3384"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3384"><sup>3384</sup></a>, who brought to Europe from the
+rivers round Aleppo specimens, some of which are still preserved in
+the collection of the British Museum. Aleppo is the most western
+point of their geographical range, the group being mainly confined
+to the East-Indian continent and its islands.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/366.png"><img width="100%" src="images/366.png" alt=
+"MASTACEMBELUS ARMATUS" /></a> MASTACEMBELUS ARMATUS</div>
+<p>In Ceylon only one species appears to occur, the <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>[pg 339]</span>
+<i>Mastacembelus armatus</i>.<a id="footnotetag3391" name=
+"footnotetag3391"></a><a href="#footnote3391"><sup>3391</sup></a>
+The back is armed with from thirty-five to thirty-nine short, stout
+spines; there being three others before the anal fin. The ground
+colour of the fish is brown, and the head has two rather irregular
+longitudinal black bands; deep-brown spots run along the back as
+well as along the dorsal and anal fins; and the sides are
+ornamented with irregular and reticulated brown lines. This eel
+attains to the length of two feet. The old females do not show any
+markings, being of a uniform brown colour.</p>
+<p>In the collection of Major Skinner, before alluded to, brought
+together without premeditation, the naturalist will be struck by
+the preponderance of those genera which are adapted by nature to
+endure, a temporary privation of moisture; and this, taken in
+connection with the vicissitudes affecting the waters they inhabit,
+exhibits a surprising illustration of the wisdom of the Creator in
+adapting the organisation of his creatures to the peculiar
+circumstances under which they are destined to exist.</p>
+<p>So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that Knox says,
+not the running streams alone, but the reservoirs and ponds, "nay,
+every ditch and little plash of water but ankle deep hath fish in
+it."<a id="footnotetag3392" name="footnotetag3392"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3392"><sup>3392</sup></a> But many of these reservoirs
+and tanks are, twice in each year, liable <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>[pg 340]</span> to be
+evaporated to dryness till the mud of the bottom is converted into
+dust, and the clay cleft by the heat into gaping apertures; yet
+within a very few days after the change of the monsoon, the natives
+are busily engaged in fishing in those very spots and in the
+hollows contiguous to them, although the latter are entirely
+unconnected with any pool or running streams. Here they fish in the
+same way which Knox described nearly 200 years ago, with a
+funnel-shaped basket, open at bottom and top, "which," as he says,
+"they jibb down, and the end sticks in the mud, which often happens
+upon a fish; which, when they feel beating itself against the
+sides, they put in their hands and take it out, and reive a ratan
+through their gills, and so let them drag after them."<a id=
+"footnotetag3401" name="footnotetag3401"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3401"><sup>3401</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/368.png"><img width="100%" src="images/368.png" alt=
+"FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, A.D. 1681" /></a> FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, A.D. 1681</div>
+<p>This operation may be seen in the lowlands, traversed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>[pg
+341]</span> by the high road leading from Colombo to Kandy. Before
+the change of the monsoon, the hollows on either side of the
+highway are covered with dust or stunted grass; but when flooded by
+the rains, they are immediately resorted to by the peasants with
+baskets, constructed precisely as Knox has stated, in which the
+fish are entrapped and taken out by the hand.<a id=
+"footnotetag3411" name="footnotetag3411"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3411"><sup>3411</sup></a></p>
+<p>So singular a phenomenon as the sudden re-appearance of
+full-grown fishes in places that a few days before had been
+encrusted with hardened clay, has not failed to attract attention;
+but the European residents have been content to explain it by
+hazarding conjectures, either that the spawn must have lain
+imbedded in the dried earth till released by the rains, or that the
+fish, so unexpectedly discovered, fall from the clouds during the
+deluge of the monsoon.</p>
+<p>As to the latter conjecture; the fall of fish during showers,
+even were it not so problematical in theory, is too rare an event
+to account for the punctual appearance of those found in the
+rice-fields, at stated periods of the year. Both at Galle and
+Colombo in the south-west monsoon, fish are popularly believed to
+have fallen from the clouds during violent showers, but those found
+on the occasions that give rise to this belief, consist of the
+smallest fry, such as could be caught up by waterspouts, and
+vortices analogous to them, or otherwise blown on shore from the
+surf; whereas those which <span class="pagenum"><a name="page342"
+id="page342"></a>[pg 342]</span> suddenly appear in the replenished
+tanks and in the hollows which they overflow, are mature and
+well-grown fish.<a id="footnotetag3421" name=
+"footnotetag3421"></a><a href="#footnote3421"><sup>3421</sup></a>
+Besides, the latter are found, under the circumstances I have
+described, in all parts of the interior, whilst the prodigy of a
+supposed fall of fish from the sky has been noticed, I apprehend,
+only in the vicinity of the sea, or of some inland water.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 10%;"><a href=
+"images/370.png"><img width="100%" src="images/370.png" alt=
+"" /></a> FISH CORRAL</div>
+<p>The surmise of the buried spawn is one sanctioned by the very
+highest authority. Mr. Yarrell in his "<i>History of British
+Fishes</i>," adverting to the fact that ponds (in India) which had
+been previously converted into hardened mud, are replenished with
+small fish in a very few days after the commencement of each rainy
+season, offers this solution of the problem as probably the true
+one: "The impregnated ova of the fish of one rainy season are left
+unhatched in the mud through the dry season, and from their low
+state of organisation as ova, the vitality is preserved till the
+recurrence, and contact <span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id=
+"page343"></a>[pg 343]</span> of the rain and oxygen in the next
+wet season, when vivification takes place from their joint
+influence."<a id="footnotetag3431" name=
+"footnotetag3431"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3431"><sup>3431</sup></a></p>
+<p>This hypothesis, however, appears to have been advanced upon
+imperfect data; for although some fish, like the salmon, scrape
+grooves in the sand and place their spawn in inequalities and
+fissures; yet as a general rule spawn is deposited not beneath but
+on the surface of the ground or sand over which the water flows,
+the adhesive nature of each egg supplying the means of attachment.
+But in the Ceylon tanks not only is the surface of the soil dried
+to dust after the evaporation of the water, but earth itself,
+twelve or eighteen inches deep, is converted into sun-burnt clay,
+in which, although the eggs of mollusca, in their calcareous
+covering, are in some instances preserved, it would appear to be as
+impossible for the ova of fish to be kept from decomposition as for
+the fish themselves to sustain life. Besides, moisture in such
+situations is only to be found at a depth to which spawn could not
+be conveyed by the parent fish, by any means with which we are yet
+acquainted.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>[pg
+344]</span>
+<p>But supposing it possible to carry the spawn sufficiently deep,
+and to deposit it safely in the mud below, which is still damp,
+whence it could be liberated on the return of the rains, a
+considerable interval would still be necessary after the
+replenishing of the ponds with water to admit of vivification and
+growth. Yet so far from this interval being allowed to elapse, the
+rains have no sooner fallen than the taking of the fish commences,
+and those captured by the natives in wicker cages are mature and
+full grown instead of being "small fish" or fry, as supposed by Mr.
+Yarrell.</p>
+<p>Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the probability
+that, under favourable circumstances, the spawn in the tanks might
+be preserved during the dry season so as to contribute to the
+perpetuation of their breed, the fact is no longer doubtful, that
+adult fish in Ceylon, like some of those that inhabit similar
+waters both in the New and Old World, have been endowed by the
+Creator with the singular faculty of providing against the
+periodical droughts either by journeying overland in search of
+still unexhausted water, or, on its utter disappearance, by burying
+themselves in the mud to await the return of the rains.</p>
+<p>It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after the
+expedition of Alexander the Great, particulars connected with the
+natural history of India were sought for and arranged by the
+Greeks, that in the works both of ARISTOTLE and THEOPHRASTUS facts
+are recorded of the fishes in the Indian rivers migrating in search
+of water, of their burying themselves in the mud on its failure, of
+their being dug out thence alive during the dry season, and of
+their spontaneous reappearance on the return of the rains. The
+earliest notice is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id=
+"page345"></a>[pg 345]</span> in ARISTOTLE'S treatise <i>De
+Respiratione</i><a id="footnotetag3451" name=
+"footnotetag3451"></a><a href="#footnote3451"><sup>3451</sup></a>,
+where he mentions the strange discovery of living fish found
+beneath the surface of the soil, "[Greek: t&ocirc;n ichthy&ocirc;n
+oi polloi z&ocirc;sin en t&ecirc; g&ecirc;, akin&ecirc;tizontes
+mentoi, kai euriskontai oryttomenoi?]" and in his History of
+Animals he conjectures that in ponds periodically dried the ova of
+the fish so buried become vivified at the change of the
+season.<a id="footnotetag3452" name="footnotetag3452"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3452"><sup>3452</sup></a> HERODOTUS had previously
+hazarded a similar theory to account for the sudden appearance of
+fry in the Egyptian marshes on the rising of the Nile; but the
+cases are not parallel. THEOPHRASTUS, the friend and pupil of
+Aristotle, gave importance to the subject by devoting to it his
+essay [Greek: Peri t&ecirc;s t&ocirc;n ichthy&ocirc;n en
+z&ecirc;r&ocirc; diamon&ecirc;s], <i>De Piscibus in sicco
+degentibus</i>. In this, after adverting to the fish called
+<i>exocoetus</i>, from its habit of going on shore to sleep,
+"[Greek: apo t&ecirc;s koit&ecirc;s,]" he instances the small fish
+([Greek: ichthydia]), that leave the rivers of India to wander like
+frogs on the land; and likewise a species found near Babylon,
+which, when the Euphrates runs low, leave the dry channels in
+search of food, "moving themselves along by means of their fins and
+tail." He proceeds to state that at Heraclea Pontica there are
+places in which fish are dug out of the earth, "[Greek: oryktoi
+t&ocirc;n ichthy&ocirc;n]," and he accounts for their being found
+under such circumstances by the subsidence of the rivers, "when the
+water being evaporated the fish gradually descend beneath the soil
+in search of moisture; and the surface becoming hard they are
+preserved in the damp clay below it, in a state of torpor, but are
+capable of vigorous movements when disturbed." "In, this manner,
+too," adds Theophrastus, "the buried fish <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>[pg 346]</span>
+propagate, leaving behind them their spawn, which becomes vivified
+on the return of the waters to their accustomed bed." This work of
+Theophrastus became the great authority for all subsequent writers
+on this question. ATHEN&AElig;US quotes it<a id="footnotetag3461"
+name="footnotetag3461"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3461"><sup>3461</sup></a>, and adds the further testimony
+of POLYBIUS, that in Gallia Narbonensis fish are similarly dug out
+of the ground.<a id="footnotetag3462" name=
+"footnotetag3462"></a><a href="#footnote3462"><sup>3462</sup></a>
+STRABO repeats the story<a id="footnotetag3463" name=
+"footnotetag3463"></a><a href="#footnote3463"><sup>3463</sup></a>,
+and the Greek naturalists one and all received the statement as
+founded on reliable authority.</p>
+<p>Not so the Romans. LIVY mentions it as one of the prodigies
+which were to be "expiated" on the approach of a rupture with
+Macedon, that "in Gallico agro qua induceretur aratrum sub glebis
+pisces emersisse,"<a id="footnotetag3464" name=
+"footnotetag3464"></a><a href="#footnote3464"><sup>3464</sup></a>
+thus taking it out of the category of natural occurrences.
+POMPONIUS MELA, obliged to notice the matter in his account of
+Narbon Gaul, accompanies it with the intimation that although
+asserted by both Greek and Roman authorities, the story was either
+a delusion or a fraud, JUVENAL has a sneer for the
+rustic&mdash;</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i10">"miranti sub aratro</p>
+<p class="i2">Piscibus inventis."&mdash;<i>Sat</i>. xiii. 63.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>And SENECA, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds ironically, that
+now we must go to fish with a <i>hatchet</i> instead of a hook;
+"non cum hamis, sed cum dolabra ire piscatum." PLINY, who devotes
+the 35th chapter of his 9th book to this subject, uses the
+narrative of Theophrastus, but with obvious caution, and
+universally the Latin writers treated the story as a fable.</p>
+<p>In later times the subject received more enlightened attention,
+and Beekman, who in 1736 published his <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>[pg 347]</span>
+commentary on the collection [Greek: Peri Thaumasi&ocirc;n
+akousmat&ocirc;n], ascribed to Aristotle, has given a list of the
+authorities about his own times,&mdash;GEORGIUS AGRICOLA, GESNER,
+RONDELET, DALECHAMP, BOMARE, and GRONOVIUS, who not only gave
+credence to the assertions of Theophrastus, but adduced modern
+instances in corroboration of his Indian authorities.</p>
+<p>As regards the fresh-water fishes of India and Ceylon, the fact
+is now established that certain of them possess the power of
+leaving the rivers and returning to them again after long
+migrations on dry land, and modern observation has fully confirmed
+their statements. They leave the pools and nullahs in the dry
+season, and led by an instinct as yet unexplained, shape their
+course through the grass towards the nearest pool of water. A
+similar phenomenon is observable in countries similarly
+circumstanced. The Doras of Guiana<a id="footnotetag3471" name=
+"footnotetag3471"></a><a href="#footnote3471"><sup>3471</sup></a>
+have been seen travelling over land during the dry season in search
+of their natural element<a id="footnotetag3472" name=
+"footnotetag3472"></a><a href="#footnote3472"><sup>3472</sup></a>,
+in such droves that the negroes fill baskets with them during these
+terrestrial excursions. PALLEGOIX in his account of Siam,
+enumerates three species of fishes which leave the tanks and
+channels <span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id=
+"page348"></a>[pg 348]</span> and traverse the damp grass<a id=
+"footnotetag3481" name="footnotetag3481"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3481"><sup>3481</sup></a>; and SIR JOHN BOWRING, in his
+account of his embassy to the Siamese kings in 1855, states, that
+in ascending and descending the river Meinam to Bankok, he was
+amused with the novel sight of fish leaving the river, gliding over
+the wet banks, and losing themselves amongst the trees of the
+jungle.<a id="footnotetag3482" name="footnotetag3482"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3482"><sup>3482</sup></a></p>
+<p>The class of fishes endowed with this power are chiefly those
+with labyrinthiform pharyngeal bones, so disposed in plates and
+cells as to retain a supply of moisture, which, whilst they are
+crawling on land, gradually exudes so as to keep the gills
+damp.<a id="footnotetag3483" name="footnotetag3483"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3483"><sup>3483</sup></a></p>
+<p>The individual most frequently seen in these excursions in
+Ceylon is a perch called by the Singhalese <i>Kavaya</i> or
+<i>Kawhy-ya</i>, and by the Tamils <i>Pannei-eri</i>, or
+<i>Sennal</i>. It is closely allied to the <i>Anabas scandens</i>
+of Cuvier, the <i>Perca scandens</i> of Daldorf. It grows to about
+six inches in length, the head round and covered with scales, and
+the edges of the gill-covers strongly denticulated. Aided by the
+apparatus already adverted to in its head, this little creature
+issues boldly from its native pools and addresses itself to its
+toilsome march generally at night or in the early morning, whilst
+the grass is still damp with the dew; but in its distress it is
+sometimes compelled to move by day, and Mr. E.L. Layard on one
+occasion encountered a number of them travelling along a hot and
+dusty road under the midday sun.<a id="footnotetag3484" name=
+"footnotetag3484"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3484"><sup>3484</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>[pg
+349]</span>
+<p>Referring to the <i>Anabas scandens</i>, DR. HAMILTON BUCHANAN
+says, that of all the fish with which he was acquainted it is the
+most teliacious of life; and he has known boatmen on the Ganges to
+keep them for five or six days in an earthen pot without water, and
+daily to use what they wanted, finding them as lively and fresh as
+when caught.<a id="footnotetag3491" name=
+"footnotetag3491"></a><a href="#footnote3491"><sup>3491</sup></a>
+Two Danish naturalists residing at <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page350" id="page350"></a>[pg 350]</span> Tranquebar, have
+contributed their authority to the fact of this fish ascending
+trees on the coast of Coromandel, an exploit from which it acquired
+its epithet of <i>Perca scandens</i>. DALDORF, who was a lieutenant
+in the Danish East India Company's service, communicated to Sir
+Joseph Banks, that in the year 1791 he had taken this fish from a
+moist cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, that grew near a lake.
+He saw it when already five feet above the ground struggling to
+ascend still higher;&mdash;"suspending itself by its gill-covers,
+and bending its tail to the left, it fixed its anal fin in the
+cavity of the bark, and sought by expanding its body to urge its
+way upwards, and its march was only arrested by the hand with which
+he seized it."<a id="footnotetag3501" name=
+"footnotetag3501"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3501"><sup>3501</sup></a></p>
+<p>There is considerable obscurity about the story of this ascent,
+although corroborated by M. JOHN. Its motive for climbing is not
+apparent, since water being close at hand it could not have gone
+for sake of the moisture contained in the fissures of the palm; nor
+could it be in search of food, as it lives not on fruit but on
+aquatic insects.<a id="footnotetag3502" name=
+"footnotetag3502"></a><a href="#footnote3502"><sup>3502</sup></a>
+The descent, too, is a question of difficulty.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>[pg
+351]</span>
+<p>The position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-covers,
+might assist its journey upwards, but the same apparatus would
+prove anything but a facility in steadying its journey down. The
+probability is, as suggested by Buchanan, that the ascent which was
+witnessed by Daldorf was accidental, and ought not to be regarded
+as the habit of the animal. In Ceylon I heard of no instance of the
+perch ascending trees<a id="footnotetag3511" name=
+"footnotetag3511"></a><a href="#footnote3511"><sup>3511</sup></a>,
+but the fact is well established that both it, the <i>pullata</i>
+(a species of <i>polyacanthus</i>), and others, are capable of long
+journeys on the level ground.<a id="footnotetag3512" name=
+"footnotetag3512"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3512"><sup>3512</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Burying Fishes.</i>&mdash;But a still more remarkable power
+possessed by some of the Ceylon fishes, is that already alluded to,
+of secreting themselves in the earth in the dry season, at the
+bottom of the exhausted ponds, and there awaiting the renewal of
+the water at the change of the monsoon. The instinct of the
+crocodile to resort to the same expedient has been already referred
+to<a id="footnotetag3513" name="footnotetag3513"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3513"><sup>3513</sup></a>, and in like manner the fish,
+when distressed by the evaporation of the tanks, seek relief by
+immersing first their heads, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page352" id="page352"></a>[pg 352]</span> and by degrees their
+whole bodies, in the mud; sinking to a depth at which they find
+sufficient moisture to preserve life in a state of lethargy long
+after the bed of the tank has been consolidated by the intense heat
+of the sun. It is possible, too, that the cracks which reticulate
+the surface may admit air to some extent to sustain their faint
+respiration.</p>
+<p>The same thing takes place in other tropical regions, subject to
+vicissitudes of drought and moisture. The Protopterus<a id=
+"footnotetag3521" name="footnotetag3521"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3521"><sup>3521</sup></a>, which inhabits the Gambia (and
+which though demonstrated by Professor Owen to possess all the
+essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless provided with
+true lungs), is accustomed in the dry season, when the river
+retires into its channel, to bury itself to the depth of twelve or
+sixteen inches in the indurated mud of the banks, and to remain in
+a state of torpor till the rising of the stream after the rains
+enables it to resume its active habits. At this period the natives
+of the Gambia, like those of Ceylon, resort to the river, and
+secure the fish in considerable numbers as they flounder in the
+still shallow water. A parallel instance occurs, in Abyssinia in
+relation to the fish of the Mareb, one of the sources of the Nile,
+the waters of which are partially absorbed in traversing the plains
+of Taka. During the summer its bed is dry, and in the slime at the
+depth of more than six feet is found a species of fish without
+scales, different from any known to inhabit the Nile.<a id=
+"footnotetag3522" name="footnotetag3522"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3522"><sup>3522</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>[pg
+353]</span>
+<p>In South America the "round-headed hassar" of Guiana,
+<i>Callicthys littoralis</i>, and the "yarrow," a species of the
+family Esocid&aelig;, although they possess no specially modified
+respiratory organs, are accustomed to bury themselves in the mud on
+the subsidence of water in the pools during the dry season.<a id=
+"footnotetag3531" name="footnotetag3531"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3531"><sup>3531</sup></a> The <i>Loricaria</i> of
+Surinam, another Siluridan, exhibits a similar instinct, and
+resorts to the same expedient. Sir R. Schomburgk, in his account of
+the fishes of Guiana, confirms this account of the Callicthys, and
+says "they can exist in muddy lakes without any water whatever, and
+great numbers of them are sometimes dug up from such
+situations."<a id="footnotetag3532" name=
+"footnotetag3532"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3532"><sup>3532</sup></a></p>
+<p>In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat, and small
+tanks are extremely numerous, the natives are accustomed in the hot
+season to dig in the mud for <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page354" id="page354"></a>[pg 354]</span> fish. Mr. Whiting, the
+chief civil officer of the eastern province, informs me that, on
+two occasions, he was present accidentally when the villagers were
+so engaged, once at the tank of Malliativoe, within a few miles of
+Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie, and again at a tank between
+Ellendetorre and Arnitivoe, on the bank of the Vergel river. The
+clay was firm, but moist, and as the men flung out lumps of it with
+a spade, it fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nine to twelve
+inches long, which were full grown and healthy, and jumped on the
+bank when exposed to the sun light.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/382.png"><img width="100%" src="images/382.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS.</div>
+<p>Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of fish so exhumed, I
+received from the Moodliar of Matura, A.B. Wickremeratne, a fish
+taken along with others of the same kind from a tank in which the
+water had dried up; it was found at a depth of a foot and a half
+where the mud was still moist, whilst the surface was dry and hard.
+The fish which the moodliar sent to me is an Anabas, closely
+resembling the <i>Perca scandens</i> of Daldorf; but on minute
+examination it proves to be a species unknown in India, and
+hitherto found only in Boreno and China. It is the <i>A.
+oligolepis</i> of Bleek.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>[pg
+355]</span>
+<p>But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is not
+confined in Ceylon to the crocodile sand fishes;&mdash;it is also
+possessed by some of the fresh-water mollusca and aquatic
+coleoptera. One of the former, the <i>Ampullaria glauca</i>, is
+found in still water in all parts of the island, not alone in the
+tanks, but in rice-fields and the watercourses by which they are
+irrigated. When, during the dry season, the water is about to
+evaporate, it burrows and conceals itself<a id="footnotetag3551"
+name="footnotetag3551"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3551"><sup>3551</sup></a> till the returning rains
+restore it to activity, and reproduce its accustomed food. There,
+at a considerable depth in the soft mud, it deposits a bundle of
+eggs with a white calcareous shell, to the number of one hundred or
+more in each group. The <i>Melania Paludina</i> in the same way
+retires during the droughts into the muddy soil of the rice lands;
+and it can only be by such an instinct that this and other mollusca
+are preserved when the tanks evaporate, to re-appear in full growth
+and vigour immediately on the return of the rains.<a id=
+"footnotetag3552" name="footnotetag3552"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3552"><sup>3552</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>[pg
+356]</span>
+<p>Dr. John Hunter<a id="footnotetag3561" name=
+"footnotetag3561"></a><a href="#footnote3561"><sup>3561</sup></a>
+has advanced an opinion that hybernation, although a result of
+cold, is not its immediate consequence, but is attributable to that
+deprivation of food and other essentials which extreme cold
+occasions, and against the recurrence of which nature makes a
+timely provision by a suspension of her functions. Excessive heat
+in the tropics produces an effect upon animals and vegetables
+analogous to that of excessive cold in northern regions, and hence
+it is reasonable to suppose that the torpor induced by the one may
+be but the counterpart of the hybernation which results from the
+other. The frost that imprisons the alligator in the Mississippi as
+effectually cuts it off from food and action as the drought which
+incarcerates the crocodile in the sun-burnt clay of a Ceylon tank.
+The hedgehog of Europe enters on a period of absolute torpidity as
+soon as the inclemency of winter deprives it of its ordinary supply
+of slugs and insects; and the <i>tenrec</i><a id="footnotetag3562"
+name="footnotetag3562"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3562"><sup>3562</sup></a> of Madagascar, its tropical
+representative, exhibits the same tendency during the period when
+excessive heat produces in that climate a like result.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>[pg
+357]</span>
+<p>The descent of the <i>Ampullaria</i>, and other fresh-water
+molluscs, into the mud of the tanks, has its parallel in the
+conduct of the <i>Bulimi</i> and <i>Helices</i> on land. The
+European snail, in the beginning of winter, either buries itself in
+the earth or withdraws to some crevice or overarching stone to
+await the returning vegetation of spring. So, in the season of
+intense heat, the <i>Helix Waltoni</i> of Ceylon, and others of the
+same family, before retiring under cover, close the aperture of
+their shells with an impervious epiphragm, which effectually
+protects their moisture and juices from evaporation during the
+period of their &aelig;stivation. The Bulimi of Chili have been
+found alive in England in a box packed in cotton after an interval
+of two years, and the animal inhabiting a land-shell from Suez,
+which was attached to a tablet and deposited in the British Museum
+in 1846, was found in 1850 to have formed a fresh epiphragm, and on
+being immersed in tepid water, it emerged from its shell. It became
+torpid again on the 15th November, 1851, and was found dead and
+dried up in March, 1852.<a id="footnotetag3571" name=
+"footnotetag3571"></a><a href="#footnote3571"><sup>3571</sup></a>
+But exceptions serve to prove the accuracy of Hunter's opinion
+almost as strikingly as accordances, since the same genera of
+animals that hybernate in Europe, where extreme cold disarranges
+their oeconomy, evince no symptoms of lethargy in the tropics,
+provided their food be not diminished by the heat. Ants, which are
+torpid in Europe during winter, work all the year round in India,
+where sustenance is uniform.<a id="footnotetag3572" name=
+"footnotetag3572"></a><a href="#footnote3572"><sup>3572</sup></a>
+The shrews of Ceylon (<i>Sorex montanus</i> and <i>S.
+ferrugineus</i> of Kelaart), like <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page358" id="page358"></a>[pg 358]</span> those at home, subsist
+upon insects, but as they inhabit a region where the equable
+temperature admits of the pursuit of their prey at all seasons of
+the year, unlike those of Europe, they never hybernate. A similar
+observation applies to bats, which are dormant during a northern
+winter when insects are rare, but never become torpid in any part
+of the tropics. The bear, in like manner, is nowhere deprived of
+its activity except when the rigour of severe frost cuts off its
+access to its accustomed food. On the other hand, the tortoise,
+which in Venezuela immerses itself in indurated mud during the hot
+months shows no tendency to torpor in Ceylon, where its food is
+permanent; and yet it is subject to hybernation when carried to the
+colder regions of Europe.</p>
+<p>To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the heat, by
+exhausting the water, deprives them at once of motion and
+sustenance, the practical effect must be the same as when the frost
+of a northern winter encases them in ice. Nor is it difficult to
+believe that they can successfully undergo the one crisis when we
+know beyond question that they may survive the other.<a id=
+"footnotetag3581" name="footnotetag3581"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3581"><sup>3581</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Hot-water Fishes</i>.&mdash;Another incident is striking in
+connection with the fresh-water fishes of Ceylon. I have described
+elsewhere the hot springs of Kannea<a id="footnotetag3582" name=
+"footnotetag3582"></a><a href="#footnote3582"><sup>3582</sup></a>,
+in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>[pg
+359]</span> vicinity of Trincomalie, the water in which flows at a
+temperature varying at different seasons from 85&deg; to 115&deg;.
+In the stream formed by these wells M. Reynaud found and forwarded
+to Cuvier two fishes which he took from the water at a time when
+his thermometer indicated a temperature of 37&deg; Reaumur, equal
+to 115&deg; of Fahrenheit. The one was an Apogon, the other an
+Ambassis, and to each, from the heat of its habitat, he assigned
+the specific name of "thermalis."<a id="footnotetag3591" name=
+"footnotetag3591"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3591"><sup>3591</sup></a></p>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>List of Ceylon Fishes.</i></h4>
+<p>In the following list, the Acanthopterygian fishes of Ceylon has
+been prepared for me by Dr. G&amp;&Uuml;NTHER, and will be found
+the most complete which has appeared of this order. I am also
+indebted to him for the correction of the list of Malacopterygians,
+which I hope ere long to render still more extended, as well as
+that of the Cartilaginous fishes.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>[pg
+360]</span>
+<h3>I. OSSEOUS.</h3>
+<h4>ACANTHOPTERYGII</h4>
+<br />
+<ul>
+<li>BERYCID&AElig;, <i>Lowe</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Myripristis murdjan, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>Holocentrum rubrum, <i>Forsk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>spiniferum, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>diadema, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>PERCID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Lates calcarifer, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Serranus louti, <i>Forsk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pachycentrum, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>guttatus, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Sonneratii, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>angularis, <i>C.&amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>marginalis, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>hexagonatis, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>flavocoeruleus, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.</li>
+<li>biguttatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>lemniscatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Amboinensis, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+<li>boenak, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Grammistes orientalis, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Genyoroge Seb&aelig;, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Bengalensis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>marginata, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>rivulata, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>gibba, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>spilura, <i>Benn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mesoprion aurolineatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>rangus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>quinquelineatus, <i>R&uuml;pp</i>.</li>
+<li>Johnii, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>annularis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>?Priacanthus Blochii, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+<li>Ambassis n. sp., <i>G&uuml;nth</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Commersonii, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>thermalis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apogon Ceylonicus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>thermalis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>annularis, <i>R&uuml;pp</i>. Var. roseipinnis.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chilodipterus quinquelineatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>PRISTIPOMATID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Dules Bennettii, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+<li>*Therapon servus, <i>Bloch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*trivittatus, <i>Buch. Ham</i>.</li>
+<li>quadrilineatus, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>*Helotes polyt&aelig;nia, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+<li>Pristipoma hasta, <i>Bloch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>maculatum, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Diagramma punctatum, <i>Ehrenb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>orientale, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>poecilopterum, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Blochii, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>lineatum, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>Radja, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lobotes auctorum, <i>G&uuml;nth</i>.</li>
+<li>Gerres oblongus, <i>C &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Scolopsia Japonicus, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>bimaculatus, <i>R&uuml;pp</i>.</li>
+<li>monogramma, <i>k. &amp; v. H.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Synagris furcosus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Pentapus aurolineatus, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.</li>
+<li>Smaris balteatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>C&aelig;sio coerulaureus, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>MULLID&AElig;, <i>Gray</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Upeneus t&aelig;niopterus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Shaw</i>.</li>
+<li>cyclostoma, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Upe. trifasciatus, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cinnabarinus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Upeneoides vittatus, <i>Forsk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>tragula.</li>
+<li>sulphureus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mulloides flavolineatus, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonicus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>SPARID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Lethrinus frenatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>cinereus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>fasciatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>?ramak, <i>Forsk.</i></li>
+<li>opercularis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>erythrurus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pagrus spinifer, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>Crysophrys hasta, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>?Pimelepterus Ternatensis, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>SQUAMIPINNES, <i>G&uuml;nthier</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ch&aelig;todon Layardi, <i>Blyth</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>oligacanthus, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+<li>setifer, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>vagabundus, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>guttatissimus, <i>Benn</i>.</li>
+<li>pictus, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>xanthocephalus, <i>Benn</i>.</li>
+<li>Seb&aelig;, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Heniochus macrolepidotus, <i>Artedi</i>.</li>
+<li>Holacanthus annularis, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>xanthurus, <i>Benn</i>.</li>
+<li>imperator, <i>B1</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scatophagus argus, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>Ephippus orbis, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Drepane punctata, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>CIRRHITID&AElig;, <i>Gray</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Cirrhites Forsteri, <i>Schn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>CATAPHRACTI, <i>Cuv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Scorp&aelig;na polyprion, <i>Bleek</i>.</li>
+<li>Pterois volitans, <i>L.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>miles, <i>Benn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tetraroge longispinis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Platycephalus insidiator, <i>Forsk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>punctatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>serratus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>tuberculatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>suppositus, <i>Trosch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dactylopterus orientalis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>TRACHINID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>?Uranoscopus guttatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Percis millepunctata, <i>G&uuml;nth</i>.</li>
+<li>Sillago siliama, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>SCI&AElig;NID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Sci&aelig;na diacantha, <i>Lac&eacute;p</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>maculata, <i>Schn</i>.</li>
+<li>Dussumieri, <i>C &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corvina miles, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Otolithus argenteus, <i>k. &amp; v. H.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>POLYNEMID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Polynemus heptadactylus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>hexanemus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Shaw</i>.</li>
+<li>plebeius, <i>Gm.</i></li>
+<li>tetradactylus, <i>Shaw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>SPHYR&AElig;NID&AElig;, <i>Agass</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Sphyr&aelig;na jello, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>obtusata, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>TRICHIURID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Trichiurus savala, <i>Cuv.</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page361" id="page361"></a>[pg 361]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>SCOMBRID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>?Thynnus affinis, <i>Cant.</i></li>
+<li>Cybium Commersonii, <i>Lac&eacute;p.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>guttatum, <i>Schn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Naucrates ductor, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>Elacate nigra, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>?n. sp.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Echeneis remora, <i>L.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>scutata, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+<li>naucrates, <i>L.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stromateus cinereus, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>niger, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coryph&aelig;na hippurus, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>Mene maculata, <i>Schn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>CARANGID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Caranx Heberi, <i>Benn.</i></li>
+<li>Rottleri, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>calla, <i>C.&amp;V.</i></li>
+<li>xanthurus, <i>K.&amp;v.H.</i></li>
+<li>talamparoides, <i>Bleek.</i></li>
+<li>Malabaricus, <i>Schn.</i></li>
+<li>speciosus, <i>Forsk.</i></li>
+<li>carangus, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>hippos, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>armatus, <i>Forsk.</i></li>
+<li>ciliaris, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>gallus, <i>L.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Micropteryx chrysurus, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>Seriola nigro-fasciata, <i>R&uuml;pp.</i></li>
+<li>Chorinemus lysan, <i>Forsk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Sancti Petri, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trachynotus oblongus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>ovatus, <i>L.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Psettus argenteus, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>Platax vespertilio, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Raynaldi, <i>C.&amp;V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zanclus sp. n.</li>
+<li>Lactarius delicatulus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Equula fasciata, <i>Lac&eacute;p.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>edentula, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>daura, <i>Cuv.</i></li>
+<li>inlerrupta.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gazza minuta, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>equul&aelig;formis, <i>R&uuml;pp.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pempheris sp.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>XIPHIID&AElig;, <i>Agass.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Histiophorus immaculatus, <i>R&uuml;pp.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>THEUTYID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Theutys Javus, <i>L.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>stellata, <i>Forsk.</i></li>
+<li>nebulosa, <i>A. &amp; G.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>ACRONURID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Acanthurus triostegus, <i>L.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>nigrofuscus, <i>Forsk.</i></li>
+<li>lineatus, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>Tennentii, <i>Gthr.</i></li>
+<li>leucosternon, <i>Bennett.</i></li>
+<li>ctenodon, <i>C.&amp;V.</i></li>
+<li>rhombeus, <i>Kittl.</i></li>
+<li>xanthurus, <i>Blyth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acronurus melas, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>melanurus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Naseus unicornis, <i>Forsk,</i>
+<ul>
+<li>brevirostris, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>tuberosus, <i>Lac&eacute;p.</i></li>
+<li>lituratus, <i>Forster.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>AULOSTOMATA, <i>Cuvier.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Fistularia serrata, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>BLENNIID&AElig;, <i>M&uuml;ll.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Salarias fasclatus, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Sal. marmoratus, <i>Benn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>tridactylus, <i>Schn.</i></li>
+<li>quadricornis, <i>C.&amp;V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>GOBIID&AElig;, <i>M&uuml;ll.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Gobius ornatus, <i>R&uuml;pp.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>giuris, <i>Buch. Ham.</i></li>
+<li>albopunctatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>grammepomus, <i>Bleek.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apocryptes lanceolatus, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Periophthalmus Koelreuteri, <i>Pall.</i></li>
+<li>Eleotris ophiocephalus, <i>K. &amp; v.H.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>fusca, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>sexguttata, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>muralis, <i>A. &amp; G.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>MASTACEMBELID&AElig;. <i>G&uuml;nther.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Mastacembelus armatus, <i>Lac&eacute;p.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>PEDICULATI, <i>Cuv.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Antennarius marmoratus, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>hispidus, <i>Schn.</i></li>
+<li>pinniceps, <i>Commers.</i></li>
+<li>Commersonii, <i>Lac&eacute;p.</i></li>
+<li>multiocellatus <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+<li>bigibbus, <i>Lac&eacute;p.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>ATHERINID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Atherina Forskalii, <i>R&uuml;pp.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>duodecimalis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>MUGILID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Mugil planiceps, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Waigiensis, <i>A.G.</i></li>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>OPHIOCEPHALID&AElig;, <i>G&uuml;nther.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Ophiocephalus punctatus, <i>Bl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Kelaartii, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+<li>striatus, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>marulius, <i>Ham. Buch.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Channa orientalis, <i>Schn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>LABYRINTHICI, <i>Cuv.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Anabas oligolepis, <i>Bleek.</i></li>
+<li>Polyacanthus signatus, <i>G&uuml;nth.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>PHARYNGOGNATHI.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>
+<ul>
+<li>Amphiprion Clarkii, <i>J. Benn.</i></li>
+<li>Dascyllus aruanus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>trimaculatus, <i>R&uuml;pp.</i></li>
+<li>Glyphisodon septem-fasciatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Brownrigii, <i>Benn,</i></li>
+<li>coelestinus, <i>Sol.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Etroplus Suratensis, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Julis lunaris <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>decussatus, <i>W Benn.</i></li>
+<li>formosus, <i>C.&amp;V.</i></li>
+<li>quadricolor. <i>Lesson.</i></li>
+<li>dorsalis, <i>Quoy &amp; Gaim.</i></li>
+<li>aureomaculatus, <i>W. Benn.</i></li>
+<li>Cellanicus, <i>E. Benn.</i></li>
+<li>Finlaysoni, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>purpureo-lineatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>cingulum, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gomphosus fuscus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>coeruleus, <i>Comm.</i></li>
+<li>viridis, <i>W. Benn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scarus pepo, <i>W. Benn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>harid. <i>Forsk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tautoga fasciata, <i>Thunb.</i></li>
+<li>Hemirhamphus Reynaldi, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Georgii <i>C.&amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Exocoetus evolans. <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Belone annulata, <i>C. &amp; V.</i> <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>[pg 362]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>MALACOPTERYGII (ABDOMINALES).</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>
+<ul>
+<li>Bagrus gulio, <i>Buch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>albilabris, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Plotosus lineatus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Barbus tor, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Nuria thermoicos, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Leuciscus dandia, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>scalpellus, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Ceylonicus, <i>E. Benn</i>.</li>
+<li>thermalis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cobitis thermalis, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Chirocentrus dorab, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>Elops saurus, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>Megalops cundinga, <i>Buch</i>.</li>
+<li>Engraulis Brownii, <i>Gm</i>.</li>
+<li>Sardinella leiogaster, <i>C. &amp; V.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>lineolata, <i>C. &amp; V.</i></li>
+<li>Neohowii.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Saurus myops, <i>Val</i>.</li>
+<li>Saurida tombil, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>MALACOPTERYGII (SUB-BRANCHIATI).</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>
+<ul>
+<li>Pleuronectes, <i>L.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>MALACOPTERYGII (APODA).</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>
+<ul>
+<li>Mur&aelig;na.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>LOPHOBRANCHI.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>
+<ul>
+<li>Syngnathus, <i>L.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>PLECTOGNATHII.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>
+<ul>
+<li>Tetraodon ocellatus, <i>W. Benn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tepa, <i>Buch</i>.</li>
+<li>argyropleura, <i>E. Bennett</i>.</li>
+<li>argentatus, <i>Blyth</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Balistes biaculeatus, <i>W. Benn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lineatus, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Triacanthus biaculeatus, <i>W. Benn</i>.</li>
+<li>Alutarius l&aelig;vis, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>II. CARTILAGINOUS.</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>
+<ul>
+<li>Pristis antiquorum, <i>Lath</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cuspidatus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+<li>pectinatus, <i>Lath</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chiloscyllium plagiosum, <i>Benn</i>.</li>
+<li>Stegostoma fasciatum, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Carcharias acutus, <i>R&uuml;pp</i>.</li>
+<li>Sphyrna zyg&aelig;na, <i>L.</i></li>
+<li>Rhynchobatus l&aelig;vis, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>Trygon uarnak, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>Pteroplatea micrura, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>T&aelig;niura lymna, <i>Forsk</i>.</li>
+<li>Myliobatis Nieuhofii, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+<li>A&euml;tobates narinari, <i>Bl.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<hr />
+<h2>NOTE (A.)</h2>
+<h3>INSTANCES OF FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA.</h3>
+<h4>(<i>From the Bombay Times,</i> 1856.)</h4>
+<h4>See <a href="#page343">Page 343</a>.</h4>
+<p>The late Dr. Buist, after enumerating cases in which fishes were
+said to have been thrown out from volcanoes in South America and
+precipitated from clouds in various parts of the world, adduced the
+following instances of similar occurrences in India. "In 1824," he
+says, "fishes fell at Meerut, on the men of Her Majesty's 14th
+Regiment, then out at drill, and were caught in numbers. In July,
+1826, live fish were seen to fall on the grass at Moradabad during
+a storm. They were the common cyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian
+waters. On the 19th of February, 1830, at noon, a heavy fall of
+fish occurred at the Nokulhatty factory, in the Daccah zillah;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>[pg
+363]</span> depositions on the subject were obtained from nine
+different parties. The fish were all dead; most of them were large;
+some were fresh, others were rotten and mutilated. They were seen
+at first in the sky, like a flock of birds, descending rapidly to
+the ground; there was rain drizzling, but no storm. On the 16th and
+17th of May, 1833, a fall of fish occurred in the zillah of
+Futtehpoor, about three miles north of the Jumna, after a violent
+storm of wind and rain. The fish were from a pound and a half to
+three pounds in weight, and of the same species as those found in
+the tanks in the neighbourhood. They were all dead and dry. A fall
+of fish occurred at Allahabad, during a storm in May, 1835; they
+were of the chowla species, and were found dead and dry after the
+storm had passed over the district. On the 20th of September, 1839,
+after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of live fish, about three
+inches in length and all of the same kind, fell at the Sunderbunds,
+about twenty miles south of Calcutta. On this occasion it was
+remarked that the fish did not fall here and there irregularly over
+the ground, but in a continuous straight line, not more than a span
+in breadth. The vast multitudes of fish, with which the low grounds
+round Bombay are covered, about a week or ten days after the first
+burst of the monsoon, appear to be derived from the adjoining pools
+or rivulets, and not to descend from the sky. They are not, so far
+as I know, found in the higher parts of the island. I have never
+seen them, (though I have watched carefully,) in casks collecting
+water from the roofs of buildings, or heard of them on the decks or
+awnings of vessels in the harbour, where they must have appeared
+had they descended from the sky. One of the most remarkable
+phenomena of this kind occurred during a tremendous deluge of rain
+at Kattywar, on the 25th of July, 1850, when the ground around
+Rajkote was found literally covered with fish; some of them were
+found on the tops of haystacks, where probably they had been
+drifted by the storm. In the course of twenty-four successive hours
+twenty-seven inches of rain fell, thirty-five fell in twenty-six
+hours, seven <span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id=
+"page364"></a>[pg 364]</span> inches within one hour and a half,
+being the heaviest fall on record. At Poonah, on the 3rd of August,
+1852, after a very heavy fall of rain, multitudes of fish were
+caught on the ground in the cantonments, full half a mile from the
+nearest stream. If showers of fish are to be explained on the
+assumption that they are carried up by squalls or violent winds,
+from rivers or spaces of water not far away from where they fall,
+it would be nothing wonderful were they seen to descend from the
+air during the furious squalls which occasionally occur in
+June."</p>
+<hr />
+<h2>NOTE (B.)</h2>
+<h3>CEYLON FISHES.</h3>
+<h4>(<i>Memorandum by Professor Huxley.</i>)</h4>
+<h4>See Page 324.</h4>
+<p>The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the fishes
+of Ceylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, possesses an
+unusual value for several reasons.</p>
+<p>The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and even
+had those from other parts of Ceylon been added, the geographical
+area would not have been very extended. Nevertheless there are more
+than 600 drawings, and though it is possible that some of these
+represent varieties in different stages of growth of the same
+species, I have not been able to find definite evidence of the fact
+in any of those groups which I have particularly tested. If,
+however, these drawings represent <i>six hundred</i> distinct
+species of fish, they constitute, so far as I know, the largest
+collection of fish from one locality in existence.</p>
+<p>The number of known British fishes may be safely assumed to be
+less than 250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr. Cantor's
+valuable work on Malayan fishes enumerates not more than 238, while
+Dr. Russell has figured only 200 from <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>[pg 365]</span>
+Coromandel. Even the enormous area of the Chinese and Japanese seas
+has as yet not yielded 800 species of fishes.</p>
+<p>The large extent of the collection alone, then, renders it of
+great importance: but its value is immeasurably enhanced by the two
+circumstances,&mdash;<i>first</i>, that every drawing was made
+while the fish retained all that vividness of colouring which
+becomes lost so soon after its removal from its native element; and
+<i>secondly</i>, that when the sketch was finished its subject was
+carefully labelled, preserved in spirits, and forwarded to England,
+so that at the present moment the original of every drawing can be
+subjected to anatomical examination, and compared with already
+named species.</p>
+<p>Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the
+collection is one of the most valuable in existence, and might, if
+properly worked out, become a large and secure foundation for all
+future investigation into the ichthyology of the Indian Ocean.</p>
+<p>It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the
+novelty or otherwise of the species and genera figured without the
+study of the specimens themselves, as the specific distinctions of
+fish are for the most part based upon character&mdash;the fin-rays,
+teeth, the operculum, &amp;c., which can only be made out by close
+and careful examination of the object, and cannot be represented in
+ordinary drawings however accurate.</p>
+<p>There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family traits
+are so marked as to render it almost impossible to mistake even
+their portraits, and hence I may venture, without fear of being far
+wrong, upon a few remarks as to the general features of the
+ichthyological fauna of Ceylon.</p>
+<p>In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of
+fishes belong to the cod tribe. I have not found one represented in
+these drawings, nor do either Russell or Cantor mention any in the
+surrounding seas, and the result is in general harmony with the
+known laws of distribution of these most useful of fishes.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tunnies,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>[pg
+366]</span> the bonitas, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &amp;c.,
+which form not more than one sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but
+which are known to increase their proportion in hot climates,
+appear in wonderful variety of form and colour, and constitute not
+less than one fifth of the whole of the species of Ceylon fish. In
+Russell's catalogue they form less than one fifth, in Cantor's less
+than one sixth.</p>
+<p>Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the
+continent of Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country,
+constitute one twentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell's and
+Cantor's lists they form about one thirtieth of the whole.</p>
+<p>The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish
+fauna. They constitute about one tenth or one eleventh of Russell's
+and Cantor's lists, while among these Ceylon drawings I find not
+more than twenty, or about one thirtieth of the whole, which can be
+referred to this group of fishes. It must be extremely interesting
+to know whether this circumstance is owing to accident, or to the
+local peculiarities of Colombo, or whether the fauna of Ceylon
+really is deficient in such fishes.</p>
+<p>The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the
+proportion of the tribe of flat fishes, or
+<i>Pleuronectid&aelig;</i>. Soles, turbots, and the like, form
+nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both Cantor and Russell give
+the flat fishes as making one twenty-second part of their
+collection, while in the whole 600 Ceylon drawings I can find but
+five <i>Pleuronectid&aelig;</i>.</p>
+<p>When this great collection has been carefully studied, I doubt
+not that many more interesting distributional facts will be
+evolved.</p>
+<hr />
+<p>Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the drawings in
+question have been submitted to Dr. Gray, of the British Museum.
+That eminent naturalist, after a careful analysis, has favoured me
+with the following memorandum of <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page367" id="page367"></a>[pg 367]</span> the fishes they
+represent, numerically contrasting them with those of China and
+Japan, so far as we are acquainted with the ichthyology of those
+seas:&mdash;</p>
+<table width="500">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<h3>CARTILAGINEA.</h3>
+</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="250"><br /></td>
+<td width="100" align="right">Ceylon.</td>
+<td width="150" align="right">China and Japan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Squali</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Rai&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sturiones</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<h3>OSTINOPTERYGII.</h3>
+</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Plectognathi.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; tetraodontid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; balistid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Lophobranchii.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; syngnathid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; pegasid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ctenobranchii.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; lophid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cyclopodi.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; echeneid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; cyclopterid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; gobid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Percini.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; callionymid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; uranoscopid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; cottid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; triglid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">37</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; polynemid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; mullid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; perecid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; berycid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; sillaginid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; sci&aelig;nid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; h&aelig;mullinid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; serranid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; theraponid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; cirrhitid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp;m&aelig;nidi&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">37</td>
+<td align="right">25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; sparid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; acanthurid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; ch&aelig;todontid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">25</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; fistularid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Periodopharyngi.</td>
+<td align="right"><br /></td>
+<td align="right"><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; mugilid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; anabantid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; pomacentrid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pharyngognathi.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; labrid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; scomberesocid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; blenniid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Scomberina.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; zeid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; sphyr&aelig;nid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; scomberid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">118</td>
+<td align="right">62</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; xiphlid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; cepolid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heterosomata.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; platessoide&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">22</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; silurid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; cyprinid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; scopelinid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; salmonid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; clupeid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">43</td>
+<td align="right">22</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; gadid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; macrurid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Apodes.</td>
+<td><br /></td>
+<td><br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; anguillid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; mur&aelig;nid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;&nbsp; sphagebranchid&aelig;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<hr />
+<h2>NOTE (C).</h2>
+<h3>ON THE BORA-CHUNG, OR "GROUND-FISH" OF BHOOTAN.</h3>
+<h4>See <a href="#page353">P. 353</a>.</h4>
+<p>In Bhootan, at the south-eastern extremity of the Himalayas, a
+fish is found, the scientific name of which is unknown to me, but
+it is called by the natives the <i>Bora-chung</i>, and by European
+residents the "ground-fish of Bhootan." It is described in the
+<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for</i> 1839, by a
+writer (who had seen it alive), as being about two feet in length,
+and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>[pg
+368]</span> cylindrical, with a thick body, somewhat shaped like a
+pike, but rounder, the nose curved upwards, the colour olive-green,
+with orange stripes, and the head speckled with crimson.<a id=
+"footnotetag3681" name="footnotetag3681"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3681"><sup>3681</sup></a> This fish, according to the
+native story, is caught not in the rivers in whose vicinity it is
+found, but "in perfectly dry places in the middle of grassy jungle,
+sometimes as far as two miles from the banks." Here, on finding a
+hole four or five inches in diameter, they commence to dig, and
+continue till they come to water; and presently the
+<i>bora-chung</i> rises to the surface, sometimes from a depth of
+nineteen feet. In these extemporised wells these fishes are found
+always in pairs, and I when brought to the surface they glide
+rapidly over the ground with a serpentine motion. This account
+appeared in 1839; but some years later, Mr. Campbell, the
+Superintendent of Darjeeling, in a communication to the same
+journal<a id="footnotetag3682" name="footnotetag3682"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3682"><sup>3682</sup></a>, divested the story of much of
+its exaggeration, by stating, as the result of personal inquiry in
+Bhootan, that the <i>bora-chung</i> inhabits the jheels and
+slow-running streams near the hills, but lives principally on the
+banks, into which it penetrates from one to five or six feet. The
+entrance to these retreats leading from the river into the bank is
+generally a few inches below the surface, so that the fish can
+return to the water at pleasure. The mode of catching them is by
+introducing the hand into these holes; and the <i>bora-chungs</i>
+are found generally two in each chamber, coiled concentrically like
+snakes. It is not believed that they bore their own burrows, but
+that they take possession of those made by land-crabs. Mr. Campbell
+denies that they are more capable than other fish of moving on dry
+ground. From the particulars given, the <i>bora-chung</i> would
+appear to be an <i>Ophiocephalus</i>, probably the <i>O. barka</i>
+described by Buchanan, as inhabiting holes in the banks of rivers
+tributary to the Ganges.</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3231" name=
+"footnote3231"></a><b>Footnote 3231:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3231">(return)</a>
+<p><i>A Selection of the most Remarkable and Interesting Fishes
+found on the Coast of Ceylon.</i> By J.W. BENNETT, Esp. London,
+1830.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3232" name=
+"footnote3232"></a><b>Footnote 3232:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3232">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Histoire Naturelle des Poissons.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3241" name=
+"footnote3241"></a><b>Footnote 3241:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3241">(return)</a>
+<p>See note B appended to this chapter.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3242" name=
+"footnote3242"></a><b>Footnote 3242:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3242">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Cybium</i> (<i>Scomber</i>, Linn.) <i>guttatum</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3243" name=
+"footnote3243"></a><b>Footnote 3243:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3243">(return)</a>
+<p>These facts serve to explain the story told by the friar ODORIC
+of Friuli, who visited Ceylon about the year 1320 A.D., and says
+there are "fishes in those seas that come swimming towards the said
+country in such abundance that for a great distance into the sea
+nothing can be seen but the backs of fishes, which casting
+themselves on the shore, do suffer men for the space of three daies
+to come and to take as many of them as they please, and then they
+return again into the sea."&mdash;<i>Hakluyt</i>, vol. ii. p.
+57.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3251" name=
+"footnote3251"></a><b>Footnote 3251:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3251">(return)</a>
+<p>There are other species of Sardine found at Ceylon besides the
+<i>S. Neohowii</i>; such as the <i>S. lineolata</i>, Cuv. and Val.
+and the <i>S. leiogaster</i>, Cuv. and Val. xx. 270, which was
+found by M. Reynaud at Trincomalie. It occurs also off the coast of
+Java. Another Ceylon fish of the same group, a Clupea, is known as
+the "poisonous sprat;" the bonito (<i>Thynnus affinis</i>, Cang.),
+the kangewena, or unicorn fish (<i>Balistes?</i>), and a number of
+others, are more or less in bad repute from the same
+imputation.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3252" name=
+"footnote3252"></a><b>Footnote 3252:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3252">(return)</a>
+<p>Two other species are found in the Ceylon waters, <i>P.
+cuspidatus</i> and <i>P. pectinatus</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3271" name=
+"footnote3271"></a><b>Footnote 3271:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3271">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Raja narinari</i>, Bl. Schn. p. 361. <i>A&euml;tobates
+narinari</i>, M&uuml;ll. und Henle., Plagiost. p. 179.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3281" name=
+"footnote3281"></a><b>Footnote 3281:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3281">(return)</a>
+<p>&AElig;LIAN tells a story of a ship in the Black Sea, the bottom
+of which was penetrated by the sword of a <i>Xiphias</i> (L. xiv.
+c. 23); and PLINY (L. xxxii. c. 8) speaks of a similar accident on
+the coast of Mauritania. In the British Museum there is a specimen
+of a plank of oak, pierced by a sword-fish, and still retaining the
+broken weapon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3301" name=
+"footnote3301"></a><b>Footnote 3301:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3301">(return)</a>
+<p>Trans. Zool. Soc. ii. p. 71. Pl. 15.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3302" name=
+"footnote3302"></a><b>Footnote 3302:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3302">(return)</a>
+<p>[Greek: Podas ge m&ecirc;n ch&ecirc;las &ecirc; pterygia.]</p>
+<p>&mdash;Lib. xvi. c. 18.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3303" name=
+"footnote3303"></a><b>Footnote 3303:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3303">(return)</a>
+<p>The fish from which this drawing of the <i>Cheironectes</i> was
+made, was taken near Colombo, and from the peculiarities which it
+presents it is in all probability a new and undescribed species.
+Dr. G&amp;&Uuml;NTHER has remarked, that in it, whilst the first
+and second dorsal spines are situated as usual over the eye (and
+form, one the angling bait of the fish, the other the crest above
+the nose), the third is at an unusual distance from the second, and
+is not separated, as in the other species, from the soft fin by a
+notch.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3321" name=
+"footnote3321"></a><b>Footnote 3321:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3321">(return)</a>
+<p>Cuv. and VALEN., <i>Hist. Nat. des Poissons</i>, tom. xi. p.
+249. It is identical with <i>S. tridactylus,</i> Schn.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3322" name=
+"footnote3322"></a><b>Footnote 3322:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3322">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Pterois muricata</i>, Cuv. and Val. iv. 363.
+<i>Scarp&aelig;na miles</i>, Bennett; named, by the Singhalese,
+"<i>Maharata-gini</i>," the Great Red Fire, a very brilliant red
+species spotted with black. It is very voracious, and is regarded
+on some parts of the coast as edible, while on others it is
+rejected.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3323" name=
+"footnote3323"></a><b>Footnote 3323:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3323">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Glyphisodon Brownriggii</i>, Cuv. and Val. v. 484;
+<i>Choetodon Brownriggii</i>, Bennett. A very small fish about two
+inches long, called <i>Kaha hartikyha</i> by the natives. It is
+distinct from Choetodon, in which BENNETT placed it. Numerous
+species of this genus are scattered throughout the Indian Ocean. It
+derives its name from the fine hair-like character of its teeth.
+They are found chiefly among coral reefs, and, though eaten, are
+not much esteemed. In the French colonies they are called
+"Chauffe-soleil." One species is found on the shores of the New
+World (<i>G. saxatalis</i>), and it is curious that Messrs. QUOY
+and GAIMARD found this fish at the Cape de Verde Islands in
+1827.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3331" name=
+"footnote3331"></a><b>Footnote 3331:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3331">(return)</a>
+<p>This fish has a sharp round spine on the side of the body near
+the tail; a formidable weapon, which is generally partially
+concealed within a scabbard-like incision. It raises or depresses
+this spine at pleasure. The fish is yellow, with several nearly
+parallel blue stripes on the back and sides; the belly is white,
+the tail and fins brownish green, edged with blue.</p>
+<p>It is found in rocky places; and according to BENNETT, who has
+figured it in his second plate, it is named <i>Seweya</i>. It has
+been known, however, to all the old ichthyologists, Valentyn,
+Renard, Seba, Artedi, and has been named <i>Ch&aelig;todon
+lineatus</i>, by Linn&eacute;. It is scarce on the southern coast
+of Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3351" name=
+"footnote3351"></a><b>Footnote 3351:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3351">(return)</a>
+<p>The fish from the Sea of Pinang, described by Dr. CANTOR with
+this name (Catal. Mal. Fish. p. 42), is again different, and
+belongs to a third species.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3352" name=
+"footnote3352"></a><b>Footnote 3352:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3352">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Fishes of Ceylon</i>, Pl. ix.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3353" name=
+"footnote3353"></a><b>Footnote 3353:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3353">(return)</a>
+<p>This is the fish figured by BENNETT as <i>Sparus pepo</i>.
+<i>Fishes of Ceylon</i>, Plate xxviii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3354" name=
+"footnote3354"></a><b>Footnote 3354:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3354">(return)</a>
+<p>In extenuation of the little that is known of the fresh-water
+fishes of Ceylon, it may be observed that very few of them are used
+at table by Europeans, and there is therefore no stimulus on the
+part of the natives to catch them. The burbot and grey mullet are
+occasionally eaten, but they taste of mud, and are not in
+request.</p>
+<p>Some years ago the experiment was made, with success, of
+introducing into Mauritius the <i>Osphromenus olfax</i> of Java,
+which has also been taken to French Guiana. In both places it is
+now highly esteemed as a fish for table. As it belongs to a family
+which possesses the faculty, hereafter alluded to, of surviving in
+the damp soil after the subsidence of the water in the tanks and
+rivers, it might with equal advantage be acclimated in Ceylon. It
+grows to 20 lbs. weight and upwards.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3371" name=
+"footnote3371"></a><b>Footnote 3371:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3371">(return)</a>
+<p>Holocentrus quadrilineatus, <i>Bloch</i>. It is allied to
+<i>Helotes polytoenia</i>, Bleek., from Halmaheira which it can be
+readily distinguished by having only five or six blackish
+longitudinal bands, the black humeral spot being between the first
+and second; another blackish blotch is in the spinous dorsal fin.
+There are two specimens in the British Museum collection, one of
+which has recently arrived from Amoy; of the other the locality is
+unknown. See G&amp;&Uuml;NTHER, <i>Acanthopt. Fishes</i>, vol. i.
+p. 282, where mention of the black humeral spot has been
+omitted.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3381" name=
+"footnote3381"></a><b>Footnote 3381:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3381">(return)</a>
+<p>See G&amp;&Uuml;NTHER'S <i>Acanthopt. Fishes</i>, vol. iii.
+(Family Mastacembelid&aelig;).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3382" name=
+"footnote3382"></a><b>Footnote 3382:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3382">(return)</a>
+<p>See post, p. 351.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3383" name=
+"footnote3383"></a><b>Footnote 3383:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3383">(return)</a>
+<p>CUV. and VAL., <i>Hist. Poiss.</i> vol. iii. p. 459.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3384" name=
+"footnote3384"></a><b>Footnote 3384:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3384">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Nat. Hist. Aleppo</i>, 2nd edit. Lond. 1794, vol. ii. p. 208,
+pl. vi.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3391" name=
+"footnote3391"></a><b>Footnote 3391:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3391">(return)</a>
+<p>Macrognathus armatus, <i>Lac&eacute;p.</i>; Mastacembelus
+armatus, <i>Cuv., Val.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3392" name=
+"footnote3392"></a><b>Footnote 3392:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3392">(return)</a>
+<p>Knox's <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon,</i> Part i. ch. vii.
+The occurrence of fish in the most unlooked-for situations, is one
+of the mysteries of other eastern countries as well as Ceylon and
+India. In Persia irrigation is carried on to a great extent by
+means of wells sunk in line in the direction in which it is desired
+to lead a supply of water, and these are connected by channels,
+which are carefully arched over to protect them from evaporation.
+These <i>kanats,</i> as they are called, are full of fish, although
+neither they nor the wells they unite have any connection with
+streams or lakes.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3401" name=
+"footnote3401"></a><b>Footnote 3401:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3401">(return)</a>
+<p>Knox, <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon</i>, Part i. ch vi.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3411" name=
+"footnote3411"></a><b>Footnote 3411:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3411">(return)</a>
+<p>As anglers, the native Singhalese exhibit little expertness; but
+for fishing the rivers, they construct with singular ingenuity
+fences formed of strong stakes, protected by screens of ratan, that
+stretch diagonally across the current; and along these the fish are
+conducted into a series of enclosures from which retreat is
+impracticable. MR. LAYARD, in the <i>Magazine of Natural
+History</i> for May, 1853, has given a diagram of one of these fish
+"corrals," as they are called, of which a copy is shown on the next
+page.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3421" name=
+"footnote3421"></a><b>Footnote 3421:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3421">(return)</a>
+<p>I had an opportunity, on one occasion only, of witnessing the
+phenomenon which gives rise to this popular belief. I was driving
+in the cinnamon gardens near the fort of Colombo, and saw a violent
+but partial shower descend at no great distance before me. On
+coming to the spot I found a multitude of small silvery fish from
+one and a half to two inches in length, leaping on the gravel of
+the high road, numbers of which I collected and brought away in my
+palankin. The spot was about half a mile from the sea, and entirely
+unconnected with any watercourse or pool.</p>
+<p>Mr. Whiting, who was many years resident in Trincomadie, writes
+me that he "had often been told by the natives on that side of the
+island that it sometimes rained fishes; and on one occasion" (he
+adds) "I was taken by them, in 1849, to a field at the village of
+Karrancotta-tivo, near Batticaloa, which was dry when I passed over
+it in the morning, but, had been covered in two hours by sudden
+rain to the depth of three inches, in which there was then a
+quantity of small fish. The water had no connection with any pond
+or stream whatsoever." Mr. Cripps, in like manner, in speaking of
+Galle, says: "I have seen in the vicinity of the fort, fish taken
+from rain-water that had accumulated in the hollow parts of land
+that in the hot season are perfectly dry and parched. The place is
+accessible to no running stream or tank; and either the fish or the
+spawn from which they were produced, must of necessity have fallen
+with the rain."</p>
+<p>Mr. J. PRINSEP, the eminent secretary to the Asiatic Society of
+Bengal, found a fish in the pulviometer at Calcutta, in
+1838.&mdash;<i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. vi. p. 465.</p>
+<p>A series of instances in which fishes have been found on the
+continent of India under circumstances which lead to the conclusion
+that they must have fallen from the clouds, have been collected by
+the late Dr. BUIST of Bombay, and will be found in the appendix to
+this chapter.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3431" name=
+"footnote3431"></a><b>Footnote 3431:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3431">(return)</a>
+<p>YARRELL, <i>History of British Fishes</i>, introd. vol. i. p.
+xxvi. This too was the opinion of Aristotle, <i>De
+Respiratione</i>, c. ix.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3451" name=
+"footnote3451"></a><b>Footnote 3451:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3451">(return)</a>
+<p>Chap. ix.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3452" name=
+"footnote3452"></a><b>Footnote 3452:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3452">(return)</a>
+<p>Lib. vi. ch. 15, 16, 17.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3461" name=
+"footnote3461"></a><b>Footnote 3461:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3461">(return)</a>
+<p>Lib. viii. ch. 2.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3462" name=
+"footnote3462"></a><b>Footnote 3462:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3462">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ib.</i> ch. 4.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3463" name=
+"footnote3463"></a><b>Footnote 3463:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3463">(return)</a>
+<p>Lib. iv. and xii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3464" name=
+"footnote3464"></a><b>Footnote 3464:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3464">(return)</a>
+<p>Lib. xlii. ch. 2.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3471" name=
+"footnote3471"></a><b>Footnote 3471:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3471">(return)</a>
+<p><i>D. Hancockii</i>, CUV. et VAL.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3472" name=
+"footnote3472"></a><b>Footnote 3472:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3472">(return)</a>
+<p>Sir R. Schomburgk's <i>Fishes of Guiana</i>, vol. i. pp. 113,
+151, 160. Another migratory fish was found by Bose very numerous in
+the fresh waters of Carolina and in ponds liable to become dry in
+summer. When captured and placed on the ground, "they <i>always,
+directed themselves towards the nearest water, which they could not
+possibly see</i>, and which they must have discovered by some
+internal index. They belong to the genus <i>Hydrargyra</i> and are
+called Swampines.&mdash;KIRBY, <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, vol. i.
+p. 143.</p>
+<p>Eels kept in a garden, when August arrived (the period at which
+instinct impels them to go to the sea to spawn) were in the habit
+of leaving the pond, and were invariably found moving eastward
+<i>in the direction of the sea</i>.&mdash;YARRELL, vol. ii. p. 384.
+Anglers observe that fish newly caught, when placed out of sight of
+water, always struggle towards it to escape.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3481" name=
+"footnote3481"></a><b>Footnote 3481:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3481">(return)</a>
+<p>PALLEGOIX, vol. i. p. 144.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3482" name=
+"footnote3482"></a><b>Footnote 3482:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3482">(return)</a>
+<p>Sir J. BOWERING'S <i>Siam,</i> &amp;c., vol. i. p. 10.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3483" name=
+"footnote3483"></a><b>Footnote 3483:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3483">(return)</a>
+<p>CUVIER and VALENCIENNES, <i>Hist. Nat. des Poissons</i>, tom.
+vii. p. 246.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3484" name=
+"footnote3484"></a><b>Footnote 3484:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3484">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist</i>., May, 1853, p. 390. Mr.
+Morris, the government-agent of Trincomalie, writing to me on this
+subject in 1856, says&mdash;"I was lately on duty inspecting the
+kind of a large tank at Nade-cadua, which, being out of repair, the
+remaining water was confined in a small hollow in the otherwise dry
+bed. Whilst there heavy rain came on, and, as we stood on the high
+ground, we, observed a pelican on the margin of the shallow pool
+gorging himself; our people went towards him and raised a cry of
+fish! fish! We hurried down, and found numbers of fish struggling
+upwards through the grass in the rills formed by the trickling of
+the rain. There was scarcely water enough to cover them, but
+nevertheless they made rapid progress up the bank, on which our
+followers collected about two bushels of them at a distance of
+forty yards from the tank. They were forcing their way up the
+knoll, and, had they not been intercepted first by the pelican and
+afterwards by ourselves, they would in a few minutes have gained
+the highest point and descended on the other side into a pool which
+formed another portion of the tank. They were chub, the same as are
+found in the mud after the tanks dry up." In a subsequent
+communication in July, 1857, the same gentleman says&mdash;"As the
+tanks dry up the fish congregate in the little pools till at last
+you find them in thousands in the moistest parts of the beds,
+rolling in the blue mud which is at that time about the consistence
+of thick gruel."</p>
+<p>"As the moisture further evaporates the surface fish are left
+uncovered, and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In one
+place I saw hundreds diverging in every direction, from the tank
+they had just abandoned to a distance of fifty or sixty yards, and
+still travelling onwards. In going this distance, however, they
+must have used muscular exertion sufficient to have taken them half
+a mile on level ground, for at these places all the cattle and wild
+animals of the neighbourhood had latterly come to drink; so that
+the surface was everywhere indented with footmarks in addition to
+the cracks in the surrounding baked mud, into which the fish
+tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deep and the
+sides perpendicular they remained to die, and were carried off by
+kites and crows."</p>
+<p>"My impression is that this migration takes place at night or
+before sunrise, for it was only early in the morning that I have
+seen them progressing, and I found that those I brought away with
+me in chatties appeared quiet by day, but a large proportion
+managed to get out of the chatties at night&mdash;some escaped
+altogether, others were trodden on and killed."</p>
+<p>"One peculiarity is the large size of the vertebral column,
+quite disproportioned to the bulk of the fish. I particularly
+noticed that all in the act of migrating had their gills
+expanded."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3491" name=
+"footnote3491"></a><b>Footnote 3491:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3491">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Fishes of the Ganges</i>, 4to. 1822.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3501" name=
+"footnote3501"></a><b>Footnote 3501:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3501">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Transactions Linn. Soc.</i> vol. iii. p. 63. It is
+remarkable, however, that this discovery of Daldorf, which excited
+so great an interest in 1791, had been anticipated by an Arabian
+voyager a thousand years before. Abou-zeyd, the compiler of the
+remarkable MS. known since Renaudot's translation by the title of
+the <i>Travels of the Two Mahometans</i>, states that Suleyman, one
+of his informants, who visited India at the close of the ninth
+century, was told there of a fish which, issuing from the waters,
+ascended the coco-nut palms to drink their sap, and returned to the
+sea. "On parle d'un poisson de mer qui, sortant de l'eau, monte sur
+la cocotier et boit le suc de la plante; ensuite il retourne
+&aacute; la mer." See REINAUD, <i>R&eacute;lations des Voyages
+faits par les Arabes et Persans dans le neuvi&egrave;me
+si&egrave;cle</i>, tom. i. p, 21, tom. ii. p. 93.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3502" name=
+"footnote3502"></a><b>Footnote 3502:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3502">(return)</a>
+<p>Kirby says that it is "in pursuit of certain crustaceans that
+form its food" (<i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, vol i. p. 144); but I
+am not aware of any crustaceans in the island which ascend the
+palmyra or feed upon its fruit. The <i>Birgus latro</i>, which
+inhabits Mauritius, and is said to climb the coco-nut for this
+purpose, has not been observed in Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3511" name=
+"footnote3511"></a><b>Footnote 3511:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3511">(return)</a>
+<p>This assertion must be qualified by a fact stated by Mr. E.A.
+Layard, who mentions that on visiting one of the fishing stations
+on a Singhalese river, where the fish are caught in staked
+enclosures, as described at p. 342, and observing that the chambers
+were covered with netting, he asked the reason, and was told
+"<i>that some of the fish climbed up the sticks and got
+over.</i>"&mdash;Mag. Nat. Hist, for May 1823, p. 390-1.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3512" name=
+"footnote3512"></a><b>Footnote 3512:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3512">(return)</a>
+<p>Strange accidents have more than once occurred at Ceylon arising
+from the habit of the native anglers; who, having neither baskets
+nor pockets in which to place what they catch, will seize a fish in
+their teeth whilst putting fresh bait on their hook. In August,
+1853, a man was carried into the Pettah hospital at Colombo, having
+a climbing perch, which he thus attempted to hold, firmly imbedded
+in his throat. The spines of its dorsal fin prevented its descent,
+whilst those of the gill-covers equally forbade its return. It was
+eventually extracted by the forceps through an incision in the
+oesophagus, and the patient recovered. Other similar cases have
+proved fatal.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3513" name=
+"footnote3513"></a><b>Footnote 3513:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3513">(return)</a>
+<p>See <i>ante</i>, p. 285.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3521" name=
+"footnote3521"></a><b>Footnote 3521:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3521">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Lepidosiren annectans</i>, Owen. See <i>Linn. Trans.</i>
+1839.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3522" name=
+"footnote3522"></a><b>Footnote 3522:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3522">(return)</a>
+<p>This statement will be found in QUATREMERE'S M&eacute;moires sur
+l'Egypte, tom. i. p. 17, on the authority of Abdullah ben Ahmed ben
+Solaim Assouany, in his <i>History of Nubia</i>, "Simon,
+h&eacute;ritier pr&eacute;somptif du royanme d'Alouah, m'a
+assur&eacute; que l'on trouve, dans la vase qui couvre fond de
+cette rivi&egrave;re, un grand poisson sans &eacute;cailles, qui ne
+ressemble en rien aux poissons du Nil, et que, pour l'avoir, il
+faut creuser &agrave; une toise et plus de profondeur." To this
+passage, there is appended this note:&mdash;"Le patriarche Mendes,
+cit&eacute; par Legrand (<i>Relation Hist. d' Abyssinie</i>, du P.
+LOBO, p. 212-3) rapporte que le fleuve Mareb, apr&egrave;s avoir
+arros&eacute; une &eacute;tendue de pays consid&eacute;rable, se
+perd sous terre; et que quand les Portugais faisaient la guerre
+dans ce pays, ils fouilloient dans le sable, et y trouvoient de la
+bonne eau et du ban poisson. An rapport de l'auteur de <i>l' Ayin
+Akbery</i> (tom. ii, p. 146, ed. 1800), dans le Soubah do Caschmir,
+pres du lieu nomm&eacute; Tilahmoulah, est une grande pi&egrave;ce
+de terre qui est inond&eacute;e pendant la saison des pluies.
+Lorsque les eaux se sont &eacute;vapor&eacute;es, et que la vase
+est presque s&eacute;che, les habitans prennant des b&acirc;tons
+d'environ une aune do long, qu'ils enfoncent dans la vase, et ils y
+trouvent quantit&eacute; de grands et petits poissons." In the
+library of the British Museum there is an unique MS. of MANOEL DE
+ALMEIDA, written in the sixteenth century, from which Balthasar
+Tellec compiled his <i>Historia General de Ethiopia alta</i>,
+printed at Coimbra in 1660, and in it the above statement of Mendes
+is corroborated by Almeida, who says that he was told by
+Jo&atilde;o Gabriel, a Creole Portuguese, born in Abyssinia, who
+had visited the Mareb, and who said that the "fish were to be found
+everywhere eight or ten palms down, and that he had eaten of
+them."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3531" name=
+"footnote3531"></a><b>Footnote 3531:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3531">(return)</a>
+<p>See Paper "<i>on some Species of Fishes and Reptiles in
+Demerara</i>," by J. HANDCOCK, Esq., M.D., <i>Zoological
+Journal</i>, vol. iv. p. 243.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3532" name=
+"footnote3532"></a><b>Footnote 3532:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3532">(return)</a>
+<p>A curious account of the <i>borachung</i> or "ground fish" of
+Bhootan, will be found in Note (C.) appended to this chapter.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3551" name=
+"footnote3551"></a><b>Footnote 3551:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3551">(return)</a>
+<p>A knowledge of this fact was turned to prompt account by Mr.
+Edgar S. Layard, when holding a judicial office at Point Pedro in
+1849. A native who had been defrauded of his land complained before
+him of his neighbour, who, during his absence, had removed their
+common landmark, diverting the original watercourse and
+obliterating its traces by filling it up to a level with the rest
+of the field. Mr. Layard directed a trench to be sunk at the
+contested spot, and discovering numbers of the Ampullaria, the
+remains of the eggs, and the living animal which had been buried
+for months, the evidence was so resistless as to confound the
+wrong-doer, and terminate the suit.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3552" name=
+"footnote3552"></a><b>Footnote 3552:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3552">(return)</a>
+<p>For a similar fact relative to the shells and water beetles in
+the pools near Rio Janeiro, see DARWIN'S <i>Nat. Journal</i>, ch.
+v. p. 99. BENSON, in the first vol. of <i>Gleanings of Science</i>,
+published at Calcutta in 1829, describes a species of
+<i>Paludina</i> found in pools, which are periodically dried up in
+the hot season but reappear with the rains, p. 363. And in the
+<i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i> for Sept. 1832,
+Lieut. HUTTON, in a singularly interesting paper, has followed up
+the same subject by a narrative of his own observations at
+Mirzapore, wherein June, 1832, after a few heavy showers of rain,
+that formed pools on the surface of the ground near a mango grove,
+he saw the <i>Paludin&aelig;</i> issuing from the ground, "pushing
+aside the moistened earth and coming forth from their retreats; but
+on the disappearance of the water not one of them was to be seen
+above ground. Wishing to ascertain what had become of them he
+turned up the earth at the base of several trees, and invariably
+found the shells buried from an inch to two inches below the
+surface." Lieut. Hutton adds that the <i>Ampullari&aelig;</i> and
+<i>Planorbes</i>, as well as the <i>Paludin&aelig;</i> are found in
+similar situations during the heats of the dry season. The British
+<i>Pisidea</i> exibit the same faculty (see a monograph in the
+<i>Camb. Phil. Trans.</i> vol. iv.). The fact is elsewhere alluded
+to in the present work of the power possessed by the land leech of
+Ceylon of retaining vitality even after being parched to hardness
+during the heat of the rainless season. LYELL mentions the instance
+of some snails in Italy which, when they hybernate, descend to the
+depth of five feet and more below the surface. <i>Princip. of
+Geology,</i> &amp;c, p. 373.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3561" name=
+"footnote3561"></a><b>Footnote 3561:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3561">(return)</a>
+<p>HUNTER'S <i>Observations on parts of the Animal Oeconomy</i>, p.
+88.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3562" name=
+"footnote3562"></a><b>Footnote 3562:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3562">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>, Illiger.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3571" name=
+"footnote3571"></a><b>Footnote 3571:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3571">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Annals of Natural History</i>, 1860. See Dr. BAIRD'S
+<i>Account of Helix desertorum; Excelsior,</i> &amp;c., ch. i. p.
+345.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3572" name=
+"footnote3572"></a><b>Footnote 3572:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3572">(return)</a>
+<p>Colonel SKYES has described in the <i>Entomological Trans.</i>
+the operations of an ant in India which lays up a store of hay
+against the rainy season.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3581" name=
+"footnote3581"></a><b>Footnote 3581:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3581">(return)</a>
+<p>YARRELL, vol. i. p. 364, quotes the authority of Dr. J. Hunter
+in his <i>Animal Oeconomy</i>, that fish, "after being frozen still
+retain so much of life as when thawed to resume their vital
+actions;" and in-the same volume (<i>Introd</i>. vol. i. p. xvii.)
+he relates from JESSE'S <i>Gleanings in Natural History</i>, the
+story of a gold fish (<i>Cyprinus auratus</i>), which, together
+with the a marble basin, was frozen into one solid lump of ice,
+yet, on the water being thawed, the fish became as lively as usual.
+Dr. RICHARDSON in the third vol of his <i>Fauna Borealis
+Americana</i>, says the grey sucking carp, found in the fur
+countries of North America, may be frozen and thawed again without
+being killed in the process.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3582" name=
+"footnote3582"></a><b>Footnote 3582:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3582">(return)</a>
+<p>See SIR J. EMERSON TENNET's <i>Ceylon</i>, &amp;c., vol. ii. p.
+496.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3591" name=
+"footnote3591"></a><b>Footnote 3591:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3591">(return)</a>
+<p>CUV. and VAL., vol. iii. p. 363. In addition to the two fishes
+above named, a loche <i>Cobitis thermalis</i>, and a carp, <i>Nuria
+thermoicos</i>, were found in the hot-springs of Kannea, at a heat
+40&deg; Cent., 114&deg; Fahr., and a roach, <i>Leuciscus
+thermalis</i>, when the thermometer indicated 50&deg; Cent,
+122&deg; Fahr.&mdash;<i>Ib</i>. xviii. p. 59, xvi. p. 182, xvii. p.
+94. Fish have been taken from a hot spring at Pooree when the
+thermometer stood at 112&deg; Fahr., and as they belonged to a
+carnivorous genus, they must have found prey living in the same
+high temperature.&mdash;<i>Journ. Asiatic Soc. of Beng.</i> vol.
+vi. p. 465. Fishes have been observed in a hot spring at Manila
+which raises the thermometer to 187&deg;, and in another in
+Barbary, the usual temperature of which is 172&deg;; and Humboldt
+and Bonpland, when travelling in South America, saw fishes thrown
+up alive from a volcano, in water that raised the temperature to
+210&deg;, being two degrees below the boiling point. PATTERSON'S
+<i>Zoology</i>, Pt. ii. p. 211; YARRELL'S <i>History of British
+Fishes</i>, vol. i. In. p. xvi.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3681" name=
+"footnote3681"></a><b>Footnote 3681:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3681">(return)</a>
+<p>Paper by Mr. J.T. PEARSON, <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i>, vol.
+viii p. 551.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3682" name=
+"footnote3682"></a><b>Footnote 3682:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3682">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i>, vol. xi. p. 963.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>[pg
+369]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap11" id="chap11"></a>CHAP. XI.</h2>
+<h3>SHELLS.</h3>
+<hr class="short" />
+<h3><i>Mollusca.&mdash;Radiata, &amp;c.</i></h3>
+<p>Ceylon has long been renowned for the beauty and variety of the
+shells which abound in its seas and inland waters, and in which an
+active trade has been organised by the industrious Moors, who clean
+them with great expertness, arrange them in satin-wood boxes, and
+send them to Colombo and all parts of the island for sale. In
+general, however, these specimens are more prized for their beauty
+than valued for their rarity, though some of the "Argus"
+cowries<a id="footnotetag3691" name="footnotetag3691"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3691"><sup>3691</sup></a> have been sold as high as
+<i>four guineas</i> a pair.</p>
+<p>One of the principal sources whence their supplies are derived
+is the beautiful Bay of Venloos, to the north of Batticaloa, formed
+by the embouchure of the Natoor river. The scenery at this spot is
+enchanting. The sea is overhung by gentle acclivities wooded to the
+summit; and in an opening between two of these eminences the river
+flows through a cluster of little islands covered with mangroves
+and acacias. A bar of rocks projects across it, at a short distance
+from the shore; and these are frequented all day long by pelicans,
+that come at <span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id=
+"page370"></a>[pg 370]</span> sunrise to fish, and at evening
+return to their solitary breeding-places remote from the beach. The
+strand is literally covered with beautiful shells in rich
+profusion, and the dealers from Trincomalie know the proper season
+to visit the bay for each particular description. The entire coast,
+however, as far north as the Elephant Pass, is indented by little
+rocky inlets, where shells of endless variety may be collected in
+great abundance.<a id="footnotetag3701" name=
+"footnotetag3701"></a><a href="#footnote3701"><sup>3701</sup></a>
+During the north-east monsoon a formidable surf bursts upon the
+shore, which is here piled high with mounds of yellow sand; and the
+remains of shells upon the water mark show how rich the sea is in
+mollusca. Amongst them are prodigious numbers of the ubiquitous
+violet-coloured <i>Ianthina</i><a id="footnotetag3702" name=
+"footnotetag3702"></a><a href="#footnote3702"><sup>3702</sup></a>,
+which rises when the ocean is calm, and by means of its inflated
+vesicles floats lightly on the surface.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/398a.png"><img width="100%" src="images/398a.png" alt=
+"" /></a> BULLIA VITTATA</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/398.png"><img width="100%" src="images/398.png" alt=
+"" /></a> IANTHINA.</div>
+<p>The trade in shells is one of extreme antiquity in Ceylon. The
+Gulf of Manaar has been fished from the earliest times for the
+large chank shell, <i>Turbinella <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page371" id="page371"></a>[pg 371]</span> rapa</i>, to be exported
+to India, where it is still sawn into rings and worn as anklets and
+bracelets by the women of Hindustan. Another use for these shells
+is their conversion into wind instruments, which are sounded in the
+temples on all occasions of ceremony. A chank, in which the whorls,
+instead of running from left to right, as in the ordinary shell,
+are reversed, and run from right to left, is regarded with such
+reverence that a specimen formerly sold for its weight in gold, but
+one may now be had for four or five pounds. COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES,
+writing in the fifth century, describes a place on the west coast
+of Ceylon, which he calls Marallo, and says it produced "[Greek:
+kochlious]," which THEVENOT translates "oysters;" in which case
+Marallo might be conjectured to be Bentotte, near Colombo, which
+yields the best edible "oysters" in Ceylon.<a id="footnotetag3711"
+name="footnotetag3711"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3711"><sup>3711</sup></a> But the shell in question was
+most probably the chank, and Marallo was Mantotte, off which it is
+found in great numbers.<a id="footnotetag3712" name=
+"footnotetag3712"></a><a href="#footnote3712"><sup>3712</sup></a>
+In fact, two centuries later Abouzeyd, an Arab, who wrote an
+account of the trade and productions of India, speaks of these
+shells by the name they still bear, which he states to be
+<i>schenek</i><a id="footnotetag3713" name=
+"footnotetag3713"></a><a href="#footnote3713"><sup>3713</sup></a>;
+but "schenek" is not an Arabic word, and is merely an attempt to
+spell the local term, <i>chank</i>, in Arabic characters.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>[pg
+372]</span>
+<p>BERTOLACCI mentions a curious local peculiarity<a id=
+"footnotetag3721" name="footnotetag3721"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3721"><sup>3721</sup></a> observed by the fishermen in
+the natural history of the chank. "All shells," he says, "found to
+the northward of a line drawn from a point about midway from Manaar
+to the opposite coast (of India) are of the kind called
+<i>patty</i>, and are distinguished by a short flat head; and all
+those found to the southward of that line are of the kind called
+<i>pajel</i>, and are known from having a longer and more pointed
+head than the former. Nor is there ever an instance of deviation
+from this singular law of nature. The <i>Wallampory</i>, or
+'right-hand chanks,' are found of both kinds."</p>
+<p>This tendency of particular localities to re-produce certain
+specialities of form and colour is not confined to the sea or to
+the instance of the chank shell. In the gardens which line the
+suburbs of Galle in the direction of Matura the stems of the
+coco-nut and jak trees are profusely covered with the shells of the
+beautiful striped <i>Helix hamastoma</i>. Stopping frequently to
+collect them, I was led to observe that each separate garden seemed
+to possess a variety almost peculiar to itself; in one the mouth of
+every individual shell was <i>red</i>; in another, separated from
+the first only by a wall, <i>black</i>; and in others (but less
+frequently) <i>pure white</i>; whilst the varieties of external
+colouring were equally local. In one enclosure they were nearly all
+red, and in an adjoining one brown.<a id="footnotetag3722" name=
+"footnotetag3722"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3722"><sup>3722</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>[pg
+373]</span>
+<p>A trade more ancient by far than that carried on in chanks, and
+infinitely more renowned, is the fishery of pearls on the west
+coast of Ceylon, bordering the Gulf of Manaar. No scene in Ceylon
+presents so dreary an aspect as the long sweep of desolate shore to
+which, from time immemorial, adventurers have resorted from the
+uttermost ends of the earth in search of the precious pearls for
+which this gulf is renowned. On approaching it from sea the only
+perceptible landmark is a building erected by Lord Guildford, as a
+temporary residence for the Governor, and known by the name of the
+"Doric," from the style of its architecture. A few coco-nut palms
+appear next above the low sandy beach, and presently are discovered
+the scattered houses which form the villages of Aripo and
+Condatchy.</p>
+<p>Between these two places, or rather between the Kalaar and
+Arrive river, the shore is raised to a height of many feet, by
+enormous mounds of shells, the accumulations of ages, the millions
+of oysters<a id="footnotetag3731" name=
+"footnotetag3731"></a><a href="#footnote3731"><sup>3731</sup></a>,
+robbed of their pearls, having been year after year flung into
+heaps, that extend for a distance of many miles.</p>
+<p>During the progress of a pearl-fishery, this singular and dreary
+expanse becomes suddenly enlivened by the crowds who congregate
+from distant parts of India; a town is improvised by the
+construction of temporary dwellings, huts of timber and
+cajans<a id="footnotetag3732" name="footnotetag3732"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3732"><sup>3732</sup></a>, with tents of palm leaves or
+canvas; and bazaars spring up, to feed the multitude on land, as
+well as the seamen and divers in the fleets of boats that cover the
+bay.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>[pg
+374]</span>
+<p>I visited the pearl banks officially in 1848 in company with
+Capt. Stenart, the official inspector. My immediate object was to
+inquire into the causes of the suspension of the fisheries, and to
+ascertain the probability of reviving a source of revenue, the
+gross receipts from which had failed for several years to defray
+the cost of conservancy. In fact, between 1837 and 1854, the pearl
+banks were an annual charge, instead of producing an annual income,
+to the colony. The conjecture, hastily adopted, to account for the
+disappearance of mature shells, had reference to mechanical causes;
+the received hypothesis being that the young broods had been swept
+off their accustomed feeding grounds, by the establishment of
+unusual currents, occasioned by deepening the narrow passage
+between Ceylon and India at Paumbam. It was also suggested, that a
+previous Governor, in his eagerness to replenish the colonial
+treasury, had so "scraped" and impoverished the beds as to
+exterminate the oysters. To me, neither of these suppositions
+appeared worthy of acceptance; for, in the frequent disruptions of
+Adam's Bridge, there was ample evidence that the currents in the
+Gulf of Manaar had been changed at former times without destroying
+the pearl beds: and moreover the oysters had disappeared on many
+former occasions, without any imputation of improper management on
+the part of the conservators; and returned after much longer
+intervals of absence than that which fell under my own notice, and
+which was then creating serious apprehension in the colony.</p>
+<p>A similar interruption had been experienced between 1820 and
+1828: the Dutch had had no fishing for <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>[pg 375]</span>
+twenty-seven years, from 1768 till 1796<a id="footnotetag3751"
+name="footnotetag3751"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3751"><sup>3751</sup></a>; and they had been equally
+unsuccessful from 1732 till 1746. The Arabs were well acquainted
+with similar vicissitudes, and Albyronni (a contemporary of
+Avicenna), who served under Mahmoud of Ghuznee, and wrote in the
+eleventh century, says that the pearl fishery, which formerly
+existed in the Gulf of Serendib, had become exhausted in his time,
+simultaneously with the appearance of a fishery at Sofala, in the
+country of the Zends, where pearls were unknown before; and hence,
+he says, arose the conjecture that the pearl oyster of Serendib had
+migrated to Sofala.<a id="footnotetag3752" name=
+"footnotetag3752"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3752"><sup>3752</sup></a></p>
+<p>It appeared to me that the explanation of the phenomenon was to
+be sought, not merely in external causes, but also in the instincts
+and faculties of the animals themselves, and, on my return to
+Colombo, I ventured to renew a recommendation, which had been made
+years before, that a scientific inspector should be appointed to
+study the habits and the natural history of the pearl-oyster, and
+that his investigations should be facilitated by the means at the
+disposal of the Government.</p>
+<p>Dr. Kelaart was appointed to this office, by Sir H.G. Ward, in
+1857, and his researches speedily developed results of great
+interest. In opposition to the received opinion that the
+pearl-oyster is incapable of voluntary <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>[pg 376]</span>
+movement, and unable of itself to quit the place to which it is
+originally attached<a id="footnotetag3761" name=
+"footnotetag3761"></a><a href="#footnote3761"><sup>3761</sup></a>,
+he demonstrated, not only that it possesses locomotive powers, but
+also that their exercise is indispensable to its oeconomy when
+obliged to search for food, or compelled to escape from local
+impurities. He showed that, for this purpose, it can sever its
+byssus, and re-form it at pleasure, so as to migrate and moor
+itself in favourable situations.<a id="footnotetag3762" name=
+"footnotetag3762"></a><a href="#footnote3762"><sup>3762</sup></a>
+The establishment of this important fact may tend to solve the
+mystery of the occasional disappearances of the oyster; and if
+coupled with the further discovery that it is susceptible of
+translation from place to place, and even from salt to brackish
+water, it seems reasonable to expect that beds may be formed with
+advantage in positions suitable for its growth and protection.
+Thus, like the edible oyster of our own shores, the pearl-oyster
+may be brought within the domain of pisciculture, and banks may be
+created in suitable places, just as the southern shores of France
+are now being colonised with oysters, under the direction of M.
+Coste.<a id="footnotetag3763" name="footnotetag3763"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3763"><sup>3763</sup></a> The operation of sowing the sea
+with pearl, should the experiment succeed, would be as gorgeous in
+reality, as it is grand in conception: and the wealth of Ceylon, in
+her "treasures of the deep," might eclipse the renown of her gems
+when she merited the title of the "Island of Rubies."</p>
+<p>On my arrival at Aripo, the pearl-divers, under the orders of
+their Adapanaar, put to sea, and commenced <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>[pg 377]</span> the
+examination of the banks.<a id="footnotetag3771" name=
+"footnotetag3771"></a><a href="#footnote3771"><sup>3771</sup></a>
+The persons engaged in this calling are chiefly Tamils and Moors,
+who are trained for the service by diving for chanks. The pieces of
+apparatus employed to assist the diver in his operations are
+exceedingly simple in their character: they consist merely of a
+stone, about thirty pounds' weight, (to accelerate the rapidity of
+his descent,) which is suspended over the side of the boat, with a
+loop attached to it for receiving the foot; and of a net-work
+basket, which he takes down to the bottom and fills with the
+oysters as he collects them. MASSOUDI, one of the earliest Arabian
+geographers, describing, in the ninth century, the habits of the
+pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf, says that, before descending,
+each filled his ears with cotton steeped in oil, and compressed his
+nostrils by a piece of tortoise-shell.<a id="footnotetag3772" name=
+"footnotetag3772"></a><a href="#footnote3772"><sup>3772</sup></a>
+This practice continues there to the present day<a id=
+"footnotetag3773" name="footnotetag3773"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3773"><sup>3773</sup></a>; but the diver of Ceylon
+rejects all such expedients; he inserts his foot in the "sinking
+stone" and inhales a full breath; presses his nostrils with his
+left hand; raises his body as high <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page378" id="page378"></a>[pg 378]</span> as possible above water,
+to give force to his descent: and, liberating the stone from its
+fastenings, he sinks rapidly below the surface. As soon as he has
+reached the bottom, the stone is drawn up, and the diver, throwing
+himself on his face, commences with alacrity to fill his basket
+with oysters. This, on a concerted signal, is hauled rapidly to the
+surface; the diver assisting his own ascent by springing on the
+rope as it rises.</p>
+<p>Improbable tales have been told of the capacity which these men
+acquire of remaining for prolonged periods under water. The divers
+who attended on this occasion were amongst the most expert on the
+coast, yet not one of them was able to complete a full minute
+below. Captain Steuart, who filled for many years the office of
+Inspector of the Pearl Banks, assured me that he had never known a
+diver to continue at the bottom longer than eighty-seven seconds,
+nor to attain a greater depth than thirteen fathoms; and on
+ordinary occasions they seldom exceeded fifty-five seconds in nine
+fathom water<a id="footnotetag3781" name=
+"footnotetag3781"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3781"><sup>3781</sup></a>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>[pg
+379]</span>
+<p>The only precaution to which the Ceylon diver devotedly resorts,
+is the mystic ceremony of the shark-charmer, whose exorcism is an
+indispensable preliminary to every fishery. His power is believed
+to be hereditary; nor is it supposed that the value of his
+incantations is at all dependent upon the religious faith professed
+by the operator, for the present head of the family happens to be a
+Roman Catholic. At the time of our visit this mysterious
+functionary was ill and unable to attend; but he sent an accredited
+substitute, who assured me that although he himself was ignorant of
+the grand and mystic secret, the mere fact of his presence, as a
+representative of the higher authority, would be recognised and
+respected by the sharks.</p>
+<p>Strange to say, though the Gulf of Manaar abounds with these
+hideous creatures, not more than one well authenticated
+accident<a id="footnotetag3791" name="footnotetag3791"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3791"><sup>3791</sup></a> is known to have occurred from
+this source during any pearl fishery since the British have had
+possession of Ceylon. In all probability the reason is that the
+sharks are alarmed by the unusual number of boats, the multitude of
+divers, the noise of the crews, the incessant plunging of the
+sinking stones, and the descent and ascent of the baskets filled
+with shells. The dark colour of the divers themselves may also be a
+protection; whiter skins might not experience an equal impunity.
+Massoudi relates that the divers of the Persian Gulf were so
+conscious of this advantage of colour, that they were accustomed to
+blacken their limbs, in order to baffle the sea monsters.<a id=
+"footnotetag3792" name="footnotetag3792"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3792"><sup>3792</sup></a></p>
+<p>The result of our examination of the pearl banks, on this
+occasion, was such as to discourage the hope of an early fishery.
+The oysters in point of number were abundant, but in size they were
+little more than "spat," the largest being barely a fourth of an
+inch in diameter. As at least seven years are required to furnish
+the growth at which pearls may be sought with advantage<a id=
+"footnotetag3793" name="footnotetag3793"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3793"><sup>3793</sup></a>, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page380" id="page380"></a>[pg 380]</span> the inspection served
+only to suggest the prospect (which has since been realised) that
+in time the income from this source might be expected to
+revive;&mdash;and, forced to content ourselves with this
+anticipation, we weighed anchor from Condatchy, on the 30th March,
+and arrived on the following day at Colombo.</p>
+<p>The banks of Aripo are not the only localities, nor is the
+<i>acicula</i> the only mollusc, by which pearls are furnished. The
+Bay of Tamblegam, connected with the magnificent harbour of
+Trincomalie, is the seat of another pearl fishery, and the shell
+which produces them is the thin transparent oyster (<i>Placuna
+placenta</i>). whose clear white shells are used, in China and
+elsewhere, as a substitute for window glass. They are also
+collected annually for the sake of the diminutive pearls contained
+in them. These are exported to the coast of India, to be calcined
+for lime, which the luxurious affect to chew with their betel.
+These pearls are also burned in the mouths of the dead. So prolific
+are the mollusca of the <i>Placuna</i>, that the quantity of shells
+taken by the licensed renter in the three years prior to 1858,
+could not have been less than eighteen millions.<a id=
+"footnotetag3801" name="footnotetag3801"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3801"><sup>3801</sup></a> They delight in brackish water,
+and on more than one recent occasion, an excess of either salt
+water or fresh has proved fatal to great numbers of them.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>[pg
+381]</span>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"><a href=
+"images/409.png"><img width="100%" src="images/409.png" alt=
+"" /></a>
+<p>PEARL OYSTER.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>1, 2. The young brood or spat.</p>
+<p>3. Four months old.</p>
+<p>4. Six months old.</p>
+<p>5. One year old.</p>
+<p>6. Two years old.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"><a href=
+"images/410.png"><img width="100%" src="images/410.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE PEARL OYSTER. Full Growth.</div>
+<p>On the occasion of a visit which I made to Batticaloa. in
+September, 1848, I made some inquiries relative to a story which
+had reached me of musical sounds, said to be often heard issuing
+from the bottom of the lake, at several places, both above and
+below the ferry opposite the old Dutch Fort; and which the natives
+suppose to proceed from some fish peculiar to the locality. The
+report was confirmed in all its particulars, and one of the spots
+whence the sounds proceed was pointed out between the pier and a
+rock that intersects the channel, two or three hundred yards to the
+eastward. They were said to be heard at night, and most distinctly
+when the moon was nearest the full, and they were described as
+resembling the faint sweet notes of an &AElig;olian harp. I sent
+for some of the fishermen, who said they were perfectly aware of
+the fact, and that their fathers had always known of the existence
+of the musical sounds, heard, they said, at the spot alluded to,
+but only during the dry season, as they cease when the lake is
+swollen by the freshes after the rain. They believed them to
+proceed not from a fish, but from a shell, which is known by the
+Tamil name of (<i>oorie cooleeroo cradoo</i>, or) the "crying
+shell," a name in which the sound seems to have been adopted as an
+echo to the sense. I sent them in search of the shell, and they
+returned bringing me some living specimens of different shells,
+chiefly <i>littorina</i> and <i>cerithium.</i><a id=
+"footnotetag3811" name="footnotetag3811"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3811"><sup>3811</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/411.png"><img width="100%" src="images/411.png" alt=
+"" /></a> CERITHIUM PALUSTRE.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>[pg
+382]</span>
+<p>In the evening when the moon rose, I took a boat and accompanied
+the fishermen to the spot. We rowed about two hundred yards
+north-east of the jetty by the fort gate; there was not a breath of
+wind, nor a ripple except those caused by the dip of our oars. On
+coming to the point mentioned, I distinctly heard the sounds in
+question. They came up from the water like the gentle thrills of a
+musical chord, or the faint vibrations of a wine-glass when its rim
+is rubbed by a moistened finger. It was not one sustained note, but
+a multitude of tiny, sounds, each clear and distinct in itself; the
+sweetest treble mingling with the lowest bass. On applying the ear
+to the woodwork of the boat, the vibration was greatly increased in
+volume. The sounds varied considerably at different points, as we
+moved across the lake, as if the number of the animals from which
+they proceeded was greatest in particular spots; and occasionally
+we rowed out of hearing of them altogether, until on returning to
+the original locality the sounds were at once renewed.</p>
+<p>This fact seems to indicate that the causes of the sounds,
+whatever they may be, are stationary at several points; and this
+agrees with the statement of the natives, that they are produced by
+mollusca, and not by fish. They came evidently and sensibly from
+the depth of the lake, and there was nothing in the surrounding
+circumstances to support the conjecture that they could be the
+reverberation of noises made by insects on the shore conveyed along
+the surface of the water; for they were loudest and most distinct
+at points where the nature of the land, and the intervention of the
+fort and its buildings, forbade the possibility of this kind of
+conduction.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>[pg
+383]</span>
+<p>Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some places on
+the western coast of India, especially in the harbour of
+Bombay.<a id="footnotetag3831" name="footnotetag3831"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3831"><sup>3831</sup></a> At Caldera, in Chili, musical
+cadences are stated to issue from the sea near the landing-place;
+they are described as rising and falling fully four notes,
+resembling the tones of harp strings, and mingling like those at
+Batticaloa, till they produce a musical discord of great delicacy
+and sweetness. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id=
+"page384"></a>[pg 384]</span> same interesting phenomenon has been
+observed at the mouth of the Pascagoula, in the State of
+Mississippi, and of another river called the "Bayou coq del Inde,"
+on the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico. The animals from which
+they proceed have not been identified at either of these places,
+and the mystery remains unsolved, whether the sounds at Batticaloa
+are given forth by fishes or by molluscs.</p>
+<p>Certain fishes are known to utter sounds when removed from the
+water<a id="footnotetag3841" name="footnotetag3841"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3841"><sup>3841</sup></a>, and some are capable of making
+noises when under it<a id="footnotetag3842" name=
+"footnotetag3842"></a><a href="#footnote3842"><sup>3842</sup></a>;
+but all the circumstances connected with the sounds which I heard
+at Batticaloa are unfavourable to the conjecture that they were
+produced by either.</p>
+<p>Organs of hearing have been clearly ascertained to <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>[pg 385]</span> exist,
+mot only in fishes<a id="footnotetag3851" name=
+"footnotetag3851"></a><a href="#footnote3851"><sup>3851</sup></a>,
+but in mollusca. In the oyster the presence of an acoustic
+apparatus of the simplest possible construction has been
+established by the discoveries of Siebold<a id="footnotetag3852"
+name="footnotetag3852"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3852"><sup>3852</sup></a>, and from our knowledge of the
+reciprocal relations existing between the faculties of hearing and
+of producing sounds, the ascertained existence of the one affords
+legitimate grounds for inferring the coexistence of the other in
+animals of the same class.<a id="footnotetag3853" name=
+"footnotetag3853"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3853"><sup>3853</sup></a></p>
+<p>Besides, it has been clearly established, that one at least of
+the gasteropoda is furnished with the power of producing sounds.
+Dr. Grant, in 1826, communicated to the Edinburgh Philosophical
+Society the fact, that on placing some specimens of the <i>Tritonia
+arborescens</i> in a glass vessel filled with sea water, his
+attention was attracted by a noise which he ascertained to proceed
+from these mollusca. It resembled the "clink" of a steel wire on
+the side of the jar, one stroke only being given at a time, and
+repeated at short intervals.<a id="footnotetag3854" name=
+"footnotetag3854"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3854"><sup>3854</sup></a></p>
+<p>The affinity of structure between the <i>Tritonia</i> and the
+mollusca inhabiting the shells brought to me at Batticaloa, might
+justify the belief of the natives of Ceylon, that the latter are
+the authors of the sounds I heard; and the description of those
+emitted by the former as given by Dr. Grant, so nearly resemble
+them, that I have always regretted my inability, on the occasion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>[pg
+386]</span> of my visits to Batticaloa, to investigate the subject
+more narrowly. At subsequent periods I have since renewed my
+efforts, but without success, to obtain specimens or observations
+of the habits of the living mollusca.</p>
+<p>The only species afterwards sent to me were <i>Cerithia</i>; but
+no vigilance sufficed to catch the desired sounds, and I still
+hesitate to accept the dictum of the fishermen, as the same mollusc
+abounds in all the other brackish estuaries on the coast; and it
+would be singular, if true, that the phenomenon of its uttering a
+musical note should be confined to a single spot in the lagoon of
+Batticaloa.<a id="footnotetag3861" name=
+"footnotetag3861"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3861"><sup>3861</sup></a></p>
+<p>Although naturalists have long been familiar with the marine
+testacea of Ceylon, no successful attempt has yet been made to form
+a classified catalogue of the species; and I am indebted to the
+eminent conchologist, Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, for the list which
+accompanies this notice.</p>
+<p>In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it a task of
+more difficulty than would at first be surmised, owing to the
+almost total absence of reliable data from which to construct it.
+Three sources were available: collections formed by resident
+naturalists, the contents of the well-known satin-wood boxes
+prepared at Trincomalie, and the laborious elimination of locality
+from the habitats ascribed to all the known species in the
+multitude of works on conchology in general.</p>
+<p>But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious. There
+is no large collection in this country composed exclusively of
+Ceylon shells;&mdash;and as the very few cabinets <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>[pg 387]</span> rich
+in the marine treasures of the island have been filled as much by
+purchase as by personal exertion, there is an absence of the
+requisite confidence that all professing to be Singhalese have been
+actually captured in the island and its waters.</p>
+<p>The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though professing
+to contain the productions of Ceylon, include shells which have
+been obtained from other islands in the Indian seas; and the
+information contained in books, probably from these very
+circumstances, is either obscure or deceptive. The old writers
+content themselves with assigning to any particular shell the
+too-comprehensive habitat of "the Indian Ocean," and seldom
+discriminate between a specimen from Ceylon and one from the
+Eastern Archipelago or Hindustan. In a very few instances, Ceylon
+has been indicated with precision as the habitat of particular
+shells, but even here the views of specific essentials adopted by
+modern conchologists, and the subdivisions established in
+consequence, leave us in doubt for which of the described forms the
+collective locality should be retained.</p>
+<p>Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in detached
+papers, in periodicals, and in the scientific surveys of exploring
+voyages. The authentic facts embodied in the monographs of REEVE,
+KUSTER, SOWERBY, and KIENER, have greatly enlarged our knowledge of
+the marine testacea; and the land and fresh-water mollusca have
+been similarly illustrated by the contributions of BENSON and
+LAYARD to the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>.</p>
+<p>The dredge has been used, but only in a few insulated spots
+along the coasts of Ceylon; European explorers have been rare; and
+the natives, anxious only to secure the showy and saleable shells
+of the sea, have neglected <span class="pagenum"><a name="page388"
+id="page388"></a>[pg 388]</span> the less attractive ones of the
+land and the lakes. Hence Mr. Hanley finds it necessary to premise
+that the list appended, although the result of infinite labour and
+research, is less satisfactory than could have been wished. "It is
+offered," he says, "with diffidence, not pretending to the merit of
+completeness as a shell-fauna of the island, but rather as a form,
+which the zeal of other collectors may hereafter elaborate and fill
+up."</p>
+<p>Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared with the
+vast and almost untried field which invites explorers, an assiduous
+collector may quadruple the species hitherto described. The minute
+shells especially may be said to be unknown; a vigilant examination
+of the corals and excrescences upon the spondyli and pearl-oysters
+would signally increase our knowledge of the Risso&aelig;,
+Chemnitzi&aelig;, and other perforating testacea, whilst the dredge
+from the deep water will astonish the amateur by the wholly new
+forms it can scarcely fail to display.</p>
+<hr />
+<h3><i>List of Ceylon Shells.</i></h3>
+<p>The arrangement here adopted is a modified Lamarckian one, very
+similar to that used by Reeve and Sowerby, and by Mr. HANLEY, in
+his <i>Illustrated Catalogue of Recent Shells</i>.<a id=
+"footnotetag3881" name="footnotetag3881"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3881"><sup>3881</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>[pg
+389]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>Aspergillum Javanum. <i>Brug.</i> Enc. M&eacute;t.
+<ul>
+<li>sparsum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Gen. Shells.<a id="footnotetag3891"
+name="footnotetag3891"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3891"><sup>3891</sup></a></li>
+<li>clavatum, <i>Chenu,</i> lllust. Conch.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Teredo nucivorus. <i>Sp</i> Skr. Nat. Sels.<a id=
+"footnotetag3892" name="footnotetag3892"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3892"><sup>3892</sup></a></li>
+<li>Solen truncatus. <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Couch.
+<ul>
+<li>linearis, <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Conch.</li>
+<li>cultellus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>radiatus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anatina subrostrata, <i>Lam.</i> Ani. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Anatinella Nicobarica, <i>Gm.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Lutraria Egyptiaca, <i>Chemn.</i> Couch. Cab.</li>
+<li>Blainvillea vitrea, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.<a id=
+"footnotetag3893" name="footnotetag3893"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3893"><sup>3893</sup></a></li>
+<li>Scrobicularia angulata. <i>Chem.</i> Con. Cab.<a id=
+"footnotetag3894" name="footnotetag3894"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3894"><sup>3894</sup></a></li>
+<li>Mactra complanata, <i>Desh.</i> Proc. Zl. Soc.<a id=
+"footnotetag3895" name="footnotetag3895"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3895"><sup>3895</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>tumida, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>antiquata, <i>Reeve</i> (as of <i>Spengl.</i>), C. Icon.</li>
+<li>cygnea, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>Corbiculoides, <i>Deshayes</i>, Pr. Zl. S. 1854.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mesodesma
+<ul>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Deshayes</i>, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>striata, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.<a id="footnotetag3896" name=
+"footnotetag3896"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3896"><sup>3896</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cras-atella rostrata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>sulcata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amphidesma
+<ul>
+<li>duplicatum, <i>Sowerby</i>. Species Conch.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pandora Ceylanica, <i>Sowerby</i>, Couch. Mis.</li>
+<li>Galeomma Layardi. <i>Desh.</i> Pr. Zl. S. 1856.</li>
+<li>Kellia peculiaris, <i>Adams</i>, Pr. Zl. S. 1856.</li>
+<li>Petricola cultellus, <i>Desh.</i> Pr. Zl. S. 1853.</li>
+<li>Sangumoiaria rosea, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Psammobia rostrata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>orcidens, <i>Gm.</i> Systems Natur&aelig;.</li>
+<li>Skinneri, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.<a id="footnotetag3897"
+name="footnotetag3897"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3897"><sup>3897</sup></a></li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Desh</i>. P.Z. Soc. 1854. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>[pg 390]</span></li>
+<li>lunulata, <i>Desh</i>. P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>amethystus, <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Conch.<a id="footnotetag3901"
+name="footnotetag3901"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3901"><sup>3901</sup></a></li>
+<li>rugosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.<a id="footnotetag3902" name=
+"footnotetag3902"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3902"><sup>3902</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tellina virgata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag3903"
+name="footnotetag3903"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3903"><sup>3903</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>rugosa, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. C&aelig;s. Vind.</li>
+<li>ostracea, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>ala, <i>Hanley</i>, Thesaur. Conch. i.</li>
+<li>in&aelig;qualis, <i>Hanley</i>, Thesaur. Conch. i.</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>callosa, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>rubra, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>abbreviata, <i>Deshayes</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>foliacea, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.</li>
+<li>lingua-felis, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.</li>
+<li>vulsella, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.<a id="footnotetag3904"
+name="footnotetag3904"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3904"><sup>3904</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lucina interrupta, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.<a id=
+"footnotetag3905" name="footnotetag3905"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3905"><sup>3905</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Deshayes</i>, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1855.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Donax scortum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>cuneata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>faba, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>spinosa, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>paxillus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyrena Ceylanica, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.
+<ul>
+<li>Tennentii, <i>Hanley</i>, P.Z. Soc. 1858.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cytherea Erycina, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id=
+"footnotetag3906" name="footnotetag3906"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3906"><sup>3906</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>meretrix, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag3907" name=
+"footnotetag3907"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3907"><sup>3907</sup></a></li>
+<li>castanea, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>castrensis, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>casta, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>costata, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>l&aelig;ta, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>trimaculata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Hebr&aelig;a, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>rugifera, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>scripta, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>gibbia, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Meroe, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>testudinalis, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>seminuda, <i>Anton</i>. Wiegm. A. Nat. 1837.<a id=
+"footnotetag3908" name="footnotetag3908"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3908"><sup>3908</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Venus reticulata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id=
+"footnotetag3909" name="footnotetag3909"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3909"><sup>3909</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>pinguis, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>recens, <i>Philippi</i>, Abbild. Neuer Conch.</li>
+<li>thiara, <i>Dillw</i>. Descriptive Cat. Shells.</li>
+<li>Malabarica, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>Bruguieri, <i>Hanley</i>, Recent Bivalves.</li>
+<li>papilionacea, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Indica, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch. ii.</li>
+<li>inflata, <i>Deshayes</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.<a id=
+"footnotetag39010" name="footnotetag39010"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39010"><sup>39010</sup></a></li>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thes. Conch. ii.</li>
+<li>literata, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.</li>
+<li>textrix, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.<a id="footnotetag39011"
+name="footnotetag39011"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39011"><sup>39011</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cardium unedo, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>maculosum, <i>Wood</i>, Gen. Con.</li>
+<li>leucostomum, <i>Born</i>, Tt. M. C&aelig;s. Vind.</li>
+<li>rugosum, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>biradiatum, <i>Bruguiere</i>, En. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>attenuatum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illust.</li>
+<li>enode, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illust.</li>
+<li>papyraceum, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>ringiculum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illust.</li>
+<li>subrugosum, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illust.</li>
+<li>latum, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. C&aelig;s. Vind.</li>
+<li>Asiaticum, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cardita variegata, <i>Brug</i>. Enc. M&eacute;th. Vers.
+<ul>
+<li>bicolor, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Arca rhombea, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus.
+<ul>
+<li>vellicata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>cruciata, <i>Philippi</i>, Ab. Neur Conch.</li>
+<li>decussata, <i>Reeve</i> (as of Sowerby), C.I.<a id=
+"footnotetag39012" name="footnotetag39012"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39012"><sup>39012</sup></a></li>
+<li>scapha, <i>Meuschen</i>, in Gronov. Zoo.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pectunculus nodosus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.
+<ul>
+<li>pectiniformis, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nucula mitralis, <i>Hinds</i>, Zool. voy. Sul.
+<ul>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li>
+<li>Mauritii (<i>Hanley</i> as of <i>Hinds</i>), Rec. Biv.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Unio
+<ul>
+<li>corrugatus, <i>M&uuml;ller</i>, Hist. Verm. Ter.<a id=
+"footnotetag39013" name="footnotetag39013"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39013"><sup>39013</sup></a></li>
+<li>marginalis, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lithodomus
+<ul>
+<li>cinnamoneus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mytilus viridis, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id=
+"footnotetag39014" name="footnotetag39014"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39014"><sup>39014</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>bilocularis, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pinna inflata, <i>Chamn</i>. Conch. Cab.
+<ul>
+<li>cancellata, <i>Mawe</i>, Intr. Lin. Conch.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Malleus vulgaris, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>albus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Meleagrina margaritifera, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>vexillum, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.<a id="footnotetag39015"
+name="footnotetag39015"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39015"><sup>39015</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Avicula macroptera, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Lima squamosa, <i>Linn.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Pecten plica, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>radula, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>pleuronectes, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>pallium, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>senator, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>histrionicus, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Indicus, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voyage Belanger.</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spondylus Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.
+<ul>
+<li>candidus, <i>Reeve</i> (as of <i>Lam.</i>) C. Icon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ostrea hyotis, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>glaucina, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Mytiloides, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>cucullata? var., <i>Born</i>, Test. M. Vind.<a id=
+"footnotetag39016" name="footnotetag39016"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39016"><sup>39016</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Vulsella
+<ul>
+<li>Pholadiformis, <i>Reeve</i>, C. Icn. (immat.)</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Placuna placenta, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Lingula anatina, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>[pg 391]</span></li>
+<li>Hyal&aelig;a tridentata, <i>For</i>. Anim. Orient.<a id=
+"footnotetag3911" name="footnotetag3911"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3911"><sup>3911</sup></a></li>
+<li>Chiton, 2 species (<i>Layard</i>).</li>
+<li>Patella Reynaudii, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Be.
+<ul>
+<li>testodinaria, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Emarginula fissurata, <i>Ch</i>. C. Cab.<a id="footnotetag3912"
+name="footnotetag3912"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3912"><sup>3912</sup></a> <i>Lam.</i></li>
+<li>Calyptr&aelig;a (Crucibulum) violascens, <i>Carpenter</i>,
+<ul>
+<li>Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dentalium
+<ul>
+<li>octogonum, <i>Lam</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>aprinum. <i>Linn</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bulla soluta, <i>Chemn</i> Conch. Cab.<a id="footnotetag3913"
+name="footnotetag3913"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3913"><sup>3913</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>vexillum, <i>Chemn</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>Bruguieri, <i>Adams</i>, Thes. Conch.</li>
+<li>elongata, <i>Adams</i>, Thes. Conch.</li>
+<li>ampulla, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lamellaria (as Marsenia Indica, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>in Brit. Mus.) allied to L. Mauritiana,</li>
+<li>if not it.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Vaginula maculata, <i>Templ.</i> An. Nat.</li>
+<li>Lunax, 2 sp.</li>
+<li>Parmacella Tennentii, <i>Templ.</i><a id="footnotetag3914"
+name="footnotetag3914"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3914"><sup>3914</sup></a></li>
+<li>Vitrina irradians, <i>Pfeiffer</i>, Mon. Helic.
+<ul>
+<li>Edgariana, <i>Ben.</i> Ann. N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>membranacea, <i>Ben.</i> A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Helix h&aelig;mastoma, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>vittata, <i>M&uuml;ller</i>, Vermium Terrestrium.</li>
+<li>bistrialis, <i>Beck</i>, in Pfeiff. Symb. Helic.</li>
+<li>Tranquebarica, <i>Fabricius</i>, in <i>Pfeiff</i>.</li>
+<li>Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Juliana, <i>Gray</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.</li>
+<li>Waltoni, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.</li>
+<li>Skinneri. <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. vii.</li>
+<li>corylus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. vii.</li>
+<li>umbrina (<i>Reeve</i>, as of <i>Pfeiff.</i>.), C. Ic. vii.</li>
+<li>fallaciosa. <i>F&eacute;russac</i>, Hist. Mollus.</li>
+<li>Rivolii, <i>Deshayes</i>. Enc. M&eacute;th. Vers. ii.</li>
+<li>Charpentieri, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>erronea, <i>Albers. Zeitschr</i>. Mal. 18S3.</li>
+<li>carneola, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>convexiuscula, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>gnoma, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Chenui, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>semidecussata, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>phoenix, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>superba, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Gardnerii, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>coriaria, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>concavospira, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>novella, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>verrucula, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>hyphasma, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Emiliana, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Woodiana, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>partita, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>biciliata, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Isabellina, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc.</li>
+<li>trifilosa, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>politissima, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Sc. 1854.</li>
+<li>Thwaitesii, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>nepos, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.</li>
+<li>subopaca, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.</li>
+<li>subconoidea, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. S. 18S4.</li>
+<li>ceraria, <i>Benson</i>, An. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>vilipensa, <i>Benson</i>, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>perfucata, <i>Benson</i>, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>puteolus, <i>Benson</i>, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>mononema, <i>Benson</i>, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>marcida, <i>Benson</i>, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>galerus, <i>Benson</i>, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+<li>albizonata. <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zoo. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>Nictneri, <i>Dohrn</i>, MS.<a id="footnotetag3915" name=
+"footnotetag3915"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3915"><sup>3915</sup></a></li>
+<li>Grevillei, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Streptaxis Layardi, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Mon. Helic.
+<ul>
+<li>Cingalensis, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Helic.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pupa
+<ul>
+<li>muscerda, <i>Benson</i>, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>mimula, <i>Benson</i>, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bulimus
+<ul>
+<li>trifasciatus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>pullus, <i>Gray.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.</li>
+<li>gracilis, <i>Hutton</i>, Journ. Asiat. Soc. iii.</li>
+<li>punctatus, <i>Anton</i>, Verzeichn. Conch.</li>
+<li>Ceylanicus, <i>Pfeiff</i>. (?Bl&aelig;vis, <i>iGray</i>,
+in</li>
+<li>Index Testaceologicus.)</li>
+<li>adumbratus, <i>Pfieff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>intermedius, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>proletarius, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>albizonatus. <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Mavortius, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>luscoventris, <i>Ben</i>. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+<li>rufopictus, <i>Ben</i>. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+<li>panos, <i>Benson</i>, Ann. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Achatina nitens, <i>Gray</i>, Spicilegia Zool.
+<ul>
+<li>inornata, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>capillacea, <i>Pfeiff</i> Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Pfeiff</i> Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Punctogaliana. <i>Pfeiff</i> Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>pachycheila, <i>Benson</i></li>
+<li>veruina, <i>Bens</i>, A. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>parabilis, <i>Bens</i>, A.N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Succinea Ceylanica, <i>Pfeiff</i> Monog. Helic.</li>
+<li>Auricula
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Adams.</i> Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.<a id=
+"footnotetag3916" name="footnotetag3916"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3916"><sup>3916</sup></a></li>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Petit</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.<a id=
+"footnotetag3917" name="footnotetag3917"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3917"><sup>3917</sup></a></li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.<a id=
+"footnotetag3918" name="footnotetag3918"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3918"><sup>3918</sup></a></li>
+<li>pellucens, <i>Menke</i>, Synopsis Moll.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pythia
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Zeits. Malacoz. 1853.</li>
+<li>ovata, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Truncatella
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Pfeiff</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyclostoma (<i>Cyclophorus</i>) Ceylanicum,
+<ul>
+<li><i>Sowerby</i>, Thes. Conch.</li>
+<li>involvulum, <i>M&uuml;ller</i>, Verm. Terrest.</li>
+<li>Menkeanum, <i>Philippi</i>, Zeit. Mal. 1847.</li>
+<li>punctatum, <i>Gratel</i>. A.L. Bordeaux (xi.)</li>
+<li>loxostoma, <i>Pfeiff</i>. Monog. Pneumon. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>[pg 392]</span></li>
+<li>alabastrum, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>Bairdii, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>Thwaitesii, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>annulatum, <i>Trosch.</i> in Pfeiff. M. Pneum.</li>
+<li>parapsis, <i>Bens.</i> An. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>parma, <i>Bens.</i> An. Nat. His. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+<li>cratera, <i>Bens.</i> An. N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>(<i>Leptopoma</i>) halophilum, <i>Benson</i>, Ann. Nat. Hist.
+(ser. 2 vii.) 1851.
+<ul>
+<li>orophilum, <i>Bens.</i> A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)</li>
+<li>apicatum, <i>Bens.</i> A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)</li>
+<li>conulus, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>flammeum, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>semiclausum, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>poecilum, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>elatum, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyclostoma (<i>Aulopoma</i>).
+<ul>
+<li>Iteri, <i>Gu&eacute;rin</i>, Rev. Zool. 1847.</li>
+<li>helicinum, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>Hoffmeisteri, <i>Troschel</i>, Zeit. Mat. 1847.</li>
+<li>grande, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>spheroideum, <i>Dohrn</i>, Malak. Bl&auml;tter.</li>
+<li>(?) gradatum, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyclostoma (<i>Pterocyclos</i>).
+<ul>
+<li>Cingalense, <i>Bens.</i> A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)</li>
+<li>Troscheli, <i>Bens.</i> Ann. Nat. Hist. 1851.</li>
+<li>Cumingii, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+<li>bifrons, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Monog. Pneumon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cataulus Templemani, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Mon. Pneu.
+<ul>
+<li>eurytrema, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>marginatus, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.</li>
+<li>duplicatus, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>aureus, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Gray</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>Austenianus <i>Bens.</i> A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)</li>
+<li>Thwaitesii, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>Cumingii, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.</li>
+<li>decorus, <i>Bens.</i> Ann. Nat. Hist. 1853.</li>
+<li>h&aelig;mastoma, <i>Pfeiff.</i> Proc. Zo. Soc. 1856.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Planorbis
+<ul>
+<li>Coromandelianus, <i>Fab.</i> in <i>Dorhn's</i> MS.</li>
+<li>Stelzeneri, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>elegantulus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Z. Soc. 1858.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Limn&aelig;a
+<ul>
+<li>tigrina, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>pinguis, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Melania
+<ul>
+<li>tuberculata, <i>M&uuml;ller</i>, Verm. Ter.<a id=
+"footnotetag3921" name="footnotetag3921"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3921"><sup>3921</sup></a></li>
+<li>spinulosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>corrugata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>rudis, <i>Lea</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.</li>
+<li>acanthica, <i>Lea</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.</li>
+<li>Zeylanica, <i>Lea</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.</li>
+<li>confusa, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>datura, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Paludomus
+<ul>
+<li>abbreviatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>clavatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>dilatatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>globulosus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>decussatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>nigricans, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>constrictus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>bicinctus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>phaslaninus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>l&aelig;vis, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>palustris, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>fulguratus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.</li>
+<li>nasutus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li>
+<li>sph&aelig;ricus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.</li>
+<li>solidus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li>
+<li>distinguendus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Z.S. 1857.</li>
+<li>Cumingianus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Z.S. 1857.</li>
+<li>dromedarius, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Z.S. 1857.</li>
+<li>Skinneri, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li>
+<li>Swainsoni, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.</li>
+<li>nodulosus, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Paludomus (<i>Tanalia</i>).
+<ul>
+<li>loricatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>erinaceus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>&aelig;reus, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.</li>
+<li>undatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Gardneri, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Tennentii, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Reevei, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>violaceus, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>similis, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>funiculatus, <i>Layard</i>, Pr. Z. Soc. 1854.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Paludomus (<i>Philopotamis</i>).
+<ul>
+<li>sulcatus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>regalis, <i>Layard</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+<li>Thwaitesii, <i>Layard</i>, P. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pirena atra, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.</li>
+<li>Paludina melanostoma, <i>Bens.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Dohrn</i>, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bythinia stenothyroides, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+<ul>
+<li>modesta, <i>Dohrn</i>, MS.</li>
+<li>inconspicua, <i>Dohrn</i>, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ampullaria Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.
+<ul>
+<li>moesta, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>cinerea, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Woodwardi, <i>Dohrn</i>, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>Tischbeini, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>carinata, <i>Swainson</i>, Zool. Illus. ser. 2.</li>
+<li>paludinoides, Cat. <i>Cristofori &amp; Jan.</i><a id=
+"footnotetag3922" name="footnotetag3922"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3922"><sup>3922</sup></a></li>
+<li>Malabarica, <i>Philippi</i>, monog. Ampul.<a id=
+"footnotetag3922a" name="footnotetag3922a"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3922"><sup>3922</sup></a></li>
+<li>Luzonica, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.<a id="footnotetag3922b"
+name="footnotetag3922b"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3922"><sup>3922</sup></a></li>
+<li>Sumatrensis, <i>Philippi</i>, monog. Ampul.<a id=
+"footnotetag3922c" name="footnotetag3922c"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3922"><sup>3922</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Navicella eximia, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.
+<ul>
+<li>reticulata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Livesayi, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>squamata, <i>Dohrn</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.</li>
+<li>depressa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Neritina
+<ul>
+<li>crepidularia, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>melanostoma, <i>Trosch.</i> W.A. Nat. 1837.</li>
+<li>triserialis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illustr.</li>
+<li>Colombaria, <i>Recluz</i>, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1845.</li>
+<li>Perottetiana, <i>Recluz</i>, Rev. Z. Cuv. 1841.</li>
+<li>Ceylanensis, <i>Recluz</i>, Mag. Conch. 1851.</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>rostrata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>reticulata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Conch. Illustr.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nerita plicata, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.
+<ul>
+<li>costata, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>plexa, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.<a id="footnotetag3923" name=
+"footnotetag3923"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3923"><sup>3923</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Natica aurantia, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>mammilla, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.</li>
+<li>picta, <i>Reeve</i>, (as of <i>Recluz</i>), C. Icon.</li>
+<li>arachnoidea, <i>Gm.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.</li>
+<li>lineata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>[pg 393]</span></li>
+<li>adusta, <i>Ch</i>. C. C. f. 1926-7, &amp; <i>Karsten</i>.<a id=
+"footnotetag3931" name="footnotetag3931"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3931"><sup>3931</sup></a></li>
+<li>pellis-tigrina, <i>Karsten</i>, Mus. Lesk.<a id=
+"footnotetag3932" name="footnotetag3932"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3932"><sup>3932</sup></a></li>
+<li>didyma, <i>Bolten</i>, Mus.<a id="footnotetag3933" name=
+"footnotetag3933"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3933"><sup>3933</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ianthina prolongata, <i>Blainv</i>., D.S.N. xxiv.
+<ul>
+<li>communis, <i>Kr</i>., (as of <i>L.</i> in part) S.A.M.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sigaretus, sp.<a id="footnotetag3934" name=
+"footnotetag3934"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3934"><sup>3934</sup></a></li>
+<li>Stomatella
+<ul>
+<li>calliostoma, <i>Adams</i>, Thesaur. Conch.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Haliotis varia, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Natur&aelig;.
+<ul>
+<li>striata, <i>Martini</i> (as of <i>Linn.</i>), C. Cab. i.</li>
+<li>semistriata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tornatella solidula, <i>Linn.</i> Systema Nat.</li>
+<li>Pyramidella
+<ul>
+<li>maculosa, <i>Lam.</i>, Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eulima Martini, <i>Adams</i>, Thes. Conch, ii.</li>
+<li>Siliquaria
+<ul>
+<li>muricata, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. C&aelig;s. Vind.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scalaria raricostata, <i>Lam.</i>, Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Delphinula laciniata, <i>Lam.</i>, Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>distorta, <i>Linn.</i>, Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag3935" name=
+"footnotetag3935"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3935"><sup>3935</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Solarium perdix, <i>Hinds</i>., Proc. Zool. Soc.
+<ul>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.<a id=
+"footnotetag3936" name="footnotetag3936"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3936"><sup>3936</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rotella vestiaria, <i>Linn.</i>, Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Phorus pallidulus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon. i.</li>
+<li>Trochus
+<ul>
+<li>elegantulus, <i>Gray</i>, Index Tes. Suppl.</li>
+<li>Niloticus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Monodonta labio, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>canaliculata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Turbo versicolor, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>princeps, <i>Philippi</i>.<a id="footnotetag3937" name=
+"footnotetag3937"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3937"><sup>3937</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Planaxis undulatus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.<a id=
+"footnotetag3938" name="footnotetag3938"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3938"><sup>3938</sup></a></li>
+<li>Littorina angulifera, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>melanostoma, <i>Gray</i>, Zool., <i>Beech</i>. Voy.<a id=
+"footnotetag3939" name="footnotetag3939"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3939"><sup>3939</sup></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chemnitzia
+<ul>
+<li>trilineata, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.</li>
+<li>lirata, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phasianella
+<ul>
+<li>lineolata, <i>Gray</i>, Index Test. Suppl.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Turritella
+<ul>
+<li>bacillum, <i>Kiener</i>, Coquilles Vivantes.</li>
+<li>columnaris, <i>Kiener</i>, Coquilies Vivantes.</li>
+<li>duplicata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>attenuata, <i>Reeve</i>, Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cerithium fluviatile, <i>Potrez &amp; Michaud</i>, Galerie
+Douai.</li>
+<li>Layardi (Cerithidea), <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+<ul>
+<li>palustre, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>aluco, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>asperula, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>telescopium, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>palustre obeliscus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>fasciatum, <i>Brug</i>., Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>rubus, <i>Sower</i>. (as of <i>Mart</i>.), Thes. C. ii.</li>
+<li>Sowerbyi, <i>Kiener</i>, Coquilles Vivantes (teste Sir E.
+Tennent).</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pleurotoma Indica, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voyage Belanger.
+<ul>
+<li>virgo, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Turbinella pyrum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>rapa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. (the Chank.)</li>
+<li>cornigera, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>spirillus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cancellaria
+<ul>
+<li>trigonostoma, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.<a id=
+"footnotetag39310" name="footnotetag39310"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39310"><sup>39310</sup></a></li>
+<li>scalata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch.</li>
+<li>articularis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch.</li>
+<li>Littoriniformis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thes. Conch.</li>
+<li>contabulata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thes. Conch.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fasciolaria
+<ul>
+<li>filamentosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>trapezium, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fusus longissimus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>colus, <i>Linn.</i> Mus. Lud. Ulric&aelig;.</li>
+<li>toreuma, <i>Deshayes</i>, (as Mur. t. <i>Martyn</i>).<a id=
+"footnotetag39311" name="footnotetag39311"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39311"><sup>39311</sup></a></li>
+<li>laticostatus, <i>Deshayes</i>, Mag. Zool. 1831.</li>
+<li>Blosvillei, <i>Deshayes</i>, E. M&eacute;th. Vers., ii.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pyrula rapa, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag39312"
+name="footnotetag39312"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39312"><sup>39312</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>citrina, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>pugilina, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. Vind.<a id="footnotetag39313"
+name="footnotetag39313"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39313"><sup>39313</sup></a></li>
+<li>ficus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>ficoides, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ranella crumena, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>spinosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>rana, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag39314" name=
+"footnotetag39314"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39314"><sup>39314</sup></a></li>
+<li>margaritula, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Belanger.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Murex baustellum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>adustus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>microphyllus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>anguliferus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>palmaros&aelig;, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>ternispina, <i>Kiener</i>, (as of <i>Lam.</i>), Coquilles
+Vivantes.</li>
+<li>tenuispina, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>ferrugo, <i>Mawe</i>, Index. Test. Suppl.<a id=
+"footnotetag39315" name="footnotetag39315"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39315"><sup>39315</sup></a></li>
+<li>Reeveanus, <i>Shuttleworth</i>, (teste <i>Cuming</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Triton anus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag39316"
+name="footnotetag39316"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39316"><sup>39316</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>mulus, <i>Dillwyn</i>, Descript. Cat. Shells.</li>
+<li>retusus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>pyrum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>clavator, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>Sowerby</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc.</li>
+<li>lotorium, <i>Lam.</i> (not <i>Linn</i>.), An. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>lampas, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pterocera lambis, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>millepeda, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Strombus canarium, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id=
+"footnotetag39317" name="footnotetag39317"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39317"><sup>39317</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>succinotus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>fasciatus, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. C&aelig;s. Vind.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>[pg
+394]</span></li>
+<li>Sibbaldii, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch. t.</li>
+<li>lentiginosus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>marginatus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Lamarckii, <i>Sowerby</i>, Thesaur. Conch.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cassis glauca, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag3941"
+name="footnotetag3941"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3941"><sup>3941</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>canaliculata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Zeylanica, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>areola, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ricinula albolabris, <i>Blainv</i>. Nouv. Ann. Mus. H. N.
+i.<a id="footnotetag3942" name="footnotetag3942"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3942"><sup>3942</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>horrida, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>morus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Purpura tiscella, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.
+<ul>
+<li>Persica, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>hystrix, <i>Lam.</i> (not <i>Linn.</i>) An. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>granatina, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Belanger.</li>
+<li>mancinella, <i>Lam.</i> (as of <i>Linn.</i>) An. s.V.</li>
+<li>buto, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>carinitera, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Harpa conoldalis, <i>Lam.</i> Anim, s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>minor, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dolium pomum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>olearium, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>perdix, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>maculatum, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nassa ornata, <i>Kiener</i>, Coq. Vivantes. <a id=
+"footnotetag3943" name="footnotetag3943"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3943"><sup>3943</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>verrucosa, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>crenulata, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>olivacea, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>glans, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>arcularia, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>papillosa, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phos virgatus, <i>Hinds</i>. Zool. Sul. Moll.
+<ul>
+<li>retecosus, <i>Hinds</i>, Zool. Sulphur, Moll.</li>
+<li>senticosus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Buccinum melanostoma, <i>Sowerby</i>, App. to Tankerv. Cat.
+<ul>
+<li>erythrostoma, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>Proteus, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>rubiginosum, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eburna spirata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag3944"
+name="footnotetag3944"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3944"><sup>3944</sup></a>
+<ul>
+<li>canaliculata, <i>Schumacher</i>, S.A. s. V.<a id=
+"footnotetag3945" name="footnotetag3945"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3945"><sup>3945</sup></a></li>
+<li>Ceylanica, <i>Bruguiere</i>, En. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bullia vittata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>lineolata, <i>Sowerby</i>, Tankerv. Cat.<a id="footnotetag3946"
+name="footnotetag3946"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3946"><sup>3946</sup></a></li>
+<li>Melanoides, <i>Deshayes</i>, Voy. Belan.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Terebra chlorata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>muscaria, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>l&aelig;vigata, <i>Gray</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.</li>
+<li>maculata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>subulata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>concinna, <i>Deshayes</i>, ed. <i>Lam.</i> A. s. V.</li>
+<li>myurus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>tigrina, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>cerithina, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Columbella flavida, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.
+<ul>
+<li>fulgurans, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>mendicaria, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>scripta, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. (Teste <i>Jay</i>).</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mitra
+<ul>
+<li>episcopalis, <i>Dillwyn</i>, Des. Cat. Shells.</li>
+<li>cardinalis, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>crebrilirata, <i>Reeve</i>, Conch. Icon.</li>
+<li>punctostriata, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. So. 1854.</li>
+<li>insculpta, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Layardi, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.<a id=
+"footnotetag3947" name="footnotetag3947"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3947"><sup>3947</sup></a></li>
+<li>Voluta vexillum, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.
+<ul>
+<li>Lapponica, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Melo Indicus, <i>Gm</i>. Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Marginella Sarda, <i>Kiener</i>, Coq. Vivantes.</li>
+<li>Ovulum ovum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>verrucosum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>pudicum, <i>Adams</i>, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cypr&aelig;a Argus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>Arabica, <i>Linn.</i> Syst Nat.</li>
+<li>Mauritiana, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>hirundo, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Lynx, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>asellus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>erosa, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>vitellus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>stolida, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>mappa, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>helvola, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>errones, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>cribraria, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>globulus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>clandestina, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>ocellata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>caurica, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>tabescens, <i>Soland</i>. in Dillwyn Des. C. Sh.</li>
+<li>gangrenosa, <i>Soland</i>. in Dillw. D.C. Sh.</li>
+<li>interrupta, <i>Gray</i>, Zool. Journ. i.</li>
+<li>lentiginosa, <i>Gray</i>, Zool. Journ. i.</li>
+<li>pyriformis, <i>Gray</i>, Zool. Journ. i.</li>
+<li>nivosa, <i>Broderip</i>, Zool. Journ. iii.</li>
+<li>poraria, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>testudinaria, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Terebellum
+<ul>
+<li>subulatum, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ancillaria glabrata, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>candida, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oliva Maura, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert,
+<ul>
+<li>erythrostoma, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>gibbesa, <i>Born</i>, Test. Mus. C&aelig;s.<a id=
+"footnotetag3948" name="footnotetag3948"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3948"><sup>3948</sup></a></li>
+<li>nebulosa, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Macleayana, <i>Duclos</i>, Monogr. of Oliva.</li>
+<li>episcopalis, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>elegans, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>ispidula, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat. (partly).<a id=
+"footnotetag3949" name="footnotetag3949"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3949"><sup>3949</sup></a></li>
+<li>Zeilanica, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>undata, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>irisans, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert. (teste <i>Duclos</i>).</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Conus miles, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.
+<ul>
+<li>generalis, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>betulinus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>stercus-muscarum, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Hebr&aelig;us, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>virgo, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>geographicus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>aulicus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>figutinus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>striatus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>senator, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.<a id="footnotetag39410" name=
+"footnotetag39410"></a><a href=
+"#footnote39410"><sup>39410</sup></a></li>
+<li>literatus, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>[pg 395]</span></li>
+<li>imperialis, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>textile, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>terebra, <i>Born</i>, Test. Must. C&aelig;s. Vind.</li>
+<li>tessellatus, <i>Born,</i> Test. Mus. C&aelig;s. Vind.</li>
+<li>augur, <i>Bruguiere</i>, Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>obesus, <i>Bruguiere</i>, Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>araneosus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>gubernator, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>monite, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>nimbosus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>eburneus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>vitulinus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>quercinus <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>lividus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>Omaria, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>Maldivus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>nocturnus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>arenatus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>Nicobaricus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>glans, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>Amadis, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>punctatus, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>minimus, <i>Reeve</i>. (as of <i>Linn</i>), C. Icon.</li>
+<li>terminus, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>lineatus, <i>Chemn.</i> Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>episcopus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>verriculum, <i>Reeve</i>. Conch. Cab.</li>
+<li>zonatus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>rattus. <i>Brug</i>. En. Mth. V. (teste <i>Chemn.</i>)</li>
+<li>pertusus, <i>Brug</i>. Encycl. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>Nussatella, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>lithoglyphus, <i>Brug</i>. En. M&eacute;th. Vers.</li>
+<li>tulipa, <i>Linn.</i> Syst. Nat.</li>
+<li>Ammiralis, var. <i>Linn.</i> teste <i>Brug</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spirula Peronii, <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</li>
+<li>Sepia Hieredda, <i>Rang</i>. M.Z., ser. i. p. 100.</li>
+<li>Sepioteuthis, <i>Sp</i>.</li>
+<li>Loligo, <i>Sp</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>A conclusion not unworthy of observation may be deduced from
+this catalogue; namely, that Ceylon was the unknown, and hence
+unacknowledged, source of almost every extra-European shell which
+has been described by Linn&aelig;us without a recorded habitat.
+This fact gives to Ceylon specimens an importance which can only be
+appreciated by collectors and the students of Mollusca.</p>
+<h3>2. RADIATA.</h3>
+<p>The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated animals,
+but it is to be regretted that they have as yet received but little
+attention from English naturalists. Recently, however, Dr. Kelaart
+has devoted himself to the investigation of some of the Singhalese
+species, and has published his discoveries in the Journal of the
+Ceylon Branch of the Asiatic Society for 1856-8. Our information
+respecting the radiata on the confines of the island is, therefore,
+very scanty; with the exception of the genera<a id=
+"footnotetag3951" name="footnotetag3951"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3951"><sup>3951</sup></a> examined by him. Hence the
+notice of this extensive class of animals must be limited to
+indicating a few of those which exhibit striking peculiarities, or
+which admit of the most common observation.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>[pg
+396]</span>
+<p><i>Star Fish</i>.&mdash;Very large species of
+<i>Ophiurid&aelig;</i> are to be met with at Trincomalie, crawling
+busily about, and insinuating their long serpentine arms into the
+irregularities and perforations in the rocks. To these they attach
+themselves with such a firm grasp, especially when they perceive
+that they have attracted attention, that it is almost impossible to
+procure unmutilated specimens without previously depriving them of
+life, or at least modifying their muscular tenacity. The upper
+surface is of a dark purple colour, and coarsely spined; the arms
+of the largest specimens are more than a foot in length, and very
+fragile.</p>
+<p>The star fishes, with immovable rays<a id="footnotetag3961"
+name="footnotetag3961"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3961"><sup>3961</sup></a>, are by no means rare; many
+kinds are brought up in the nets, or maybe extracted from the
+stomachs of the larger market fish. One very large species<a id=
+"footnotetag3962" name="footnotetag3962"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3962"><sup>3962</sup></a>, figured by Joinville in the
+manuscript volume in the library at the India House, is not
+uncommon; it has thick arms, from which and the disc numerous large
+fleshy cirrhi of a bright crimson colour project downwards, giving
+the creature a remarkable aspect. No description of it, so far as I
+am aware, has appeared in any systematic work on zoology.</p>
+<p><i>Sea Slugs</i>.&mdash;There are a few species of
+<i>Holothuria</i>, of which the trepang is the best known example.
+It is largely collected in the Gulf of Manaar, and dried in the sun
+to prepare it for export to China. A good description and figures
+of its varieties are still desiderata.</p>
+<p><i>Parasitic Worms</i>.&mdash;Of these entozoa, the <i>Filaria
+medinensis</i>, or Guinea-worm, which burrows in the <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>[pg 397]</span>
+cellular tissue under the skin, is well known in the north of the
+island, but rarely found in the damper districts of the south and
+west. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, the natives attribute its occurrence
+to drinking the waters of particular wells; but this belief is
+inconsistent with the fact that its lodgment in the human body is
+almost always effected just above the ankle. This shows that the
+minute parasites are transferred to the skin of the leg from the
+moist vegetation bordering the footpaths leading to wells. At this
+period the creatures are very small, and the process of insinuation
+is painless and imperceptible. It is only when they attain to
+considerable size, a foot or more in length, that the operation of
+extracting them is resorted to, when exercise may have given rise
+to inconvenience and inflammation.</p>
+<p>These pests in all probability received their popular name of
+<i>Guinea-worms</i>, from the narrative of Bruno or Braun, a
+citizen and surgeon of Basle, who about the year 1611 made several
+voyages to that part of the African coast, and on his return
+published, amongst other things, an account of the local
+diseases.<a id="footnotetag3971" name=
+"footnotetag3971"></a><a href="#footnote3971"><sup>3971</sup></a>
+But Linschoten, the Dutch navigator, had previously observed the
+same worms at Ormus in 1584, and they are thus described, together
+with the method of removing them, in the English version of his
+voyage.</p>
+<p>"There is in Ormus a sickenesse or common plague of wormes,
+which growe in their legges, it is thought that they proceede of
+the water that they drink. These wormes are like, unto lute
+strings, and about two or three fadomes longe, which they must
+plucke out and winde them aboute a straw or a feather, everie day
+some <span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>[pg
+398]</span> part thereof, so longe as they feele them creepe; and
+when they hold still, letting it rest in that sort till the next
+daye, they bind it fast and annoynt the hole, and the swelling from
+whence it commeth foorth, with fresh butter, and so in ten or
+twelve dayes, they winde them out without any let, in the meanetime
+they must sit still with their legges, for if it should breake,
+they should not, without great paine get it out of their legge, as
+I have seen some men doe." <a id="footnotetag3981" name=
+"footnotetag3981"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3981"><sup>3981</sup></a></p>
+<p>The worm is of a whitish colour, sometimes inclining to brown.
+Its thickness is from a half to two-thirds of a line, and its
+length has sometimes reached to ten or twelve feet. Small specimens
+have been found beneath the tunica conjunctiva of the eye; and one
+species of the same genus of <i>Nematoidea</i> infests the cavity
+of the eye itself.<a id="footnotetag3982" name=
+"footnotetag3982"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3982"><sup>3982</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Planaria</i>.&mdash;In the journal already mentioned, Dr.
+Kelaart has given descriptions of fifteen species of planaria, and
+four of a new genus, instituted by him for the reception of those
+differing from the normal kinds by some peculiarities which they
+exhibit in common. At Point Pedro, Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on
+the bark of trees, after heavy rain, which would appear to belong
+to the subgenus <i>geoplana</i>.<a id="footnotetag3983" name=
+"footnotetag3983"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3983"><sup>3983</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Acaleph&aelig;</i>.&mdash;Acaleph&aelig;<a id=
+"footnotetag3984" name="footnotetag3984"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3984"><sup>3984</sup></a> are plentiful, so much so,
+indeed, that they occasionally tempt the larger cetacea into the
+Gulf of Manaar. In the calmer months of the year, when the sea is
+glassy, and for hours together <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page399" id="page399"></a>[pg 399]</span> undisturbed by a ripple,
+the minute descriptions are rendered perceptible by their beautiful
+prismatic tinting. So great is their transparency that they are
+only to be distinguished from the water by the return to the eye of
+the reflected light that glances from their delicate and polished
+surfaces. Less frequently they are traced by the faint hues of
+their tiny peduncles, arms, or tentacul&aelig;; and it has been
+well observed that they often give the seas in which they abound
+the appearance of being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow.
+The larger kinds, when undisturbed in their native haunts, attain
+to considerable size. A faintly blue medusa, nearly a foot across,
+may be seen in the Gulf of Manaar, where, no doubt, others of still
+larger growth are to be found.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/429.png"><img width="100%" src="images/429.png" alt=
+"" /></a> PHYSALUS URTICULUS.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>[pg
+400]</span>
+<p>Occasionally after storms, the beach at Colombo is strewn with
+the thin transparent globes of the "Portuguese Man of War,"
+<i>Physalus urticulus</i>, which are piled upon the lines left by
+the waves, like globules of glass delicately tinted with purple and
+blue. They sting, as their trivial name indicates, like a nettle
+when incautiously touched.</p>
+<p><i>Red infusoria</i>.&mdash;On both sides of the island (but
+most frequently on the west), during the south-west monsoon, a
+broad expanse of the sea assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter
+than brick-dust; and this is confined to a space so distinct that a
+line seems to separate it from the green water which flows on
+either side. Observing at Colombo that the whole area so tinged
+changed its position without parting with any portion of its
+colouring, I had some of the water brought on shore, and, on
+examination with the microscope, found it to be filled with
+<i>infusoria</i>, probably similar to those which have been noticed
+near the shores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted
+a name to the "Vermilion Sea" off the coast of California.<a id=
+"footnotetag4001" name="footnotetag4001"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4001"><sup>4001</sup></a></p>
+<p>The remaining orders, including the corals, madrepores,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>[pg
+401]</span> and other polypi, have yet to find a naturalist to
+undertake their investigation, but in all probability the new
+species are not very numerous.</p>
+<hr />
+<h3>NOTE.</h3>
+<h4>TRITONIA ARBORESCENS.</h4>
+<p>The following is the letter of Dr. Grant, referred to at page
+385:&mdash;</p>
+<p>Sir,&mdash;I have perused, with much interest, your remarkable
+communication received yesterday, respecting the musical sounds
+which you heard proceeding from under water, on the east coast of
+Ceylon. I cannot parallel the phenomenon you witnessed at
+Batticaloa, as produced by marine animals, with anything with which
+my past experience has made me acquainted in marine zoology.
+Excepting the faint clink of the <i>Tritonia arborescens</i>,
+repeated only once every minute or two, and apparently produced by
+the mouth armed with two dense horny lamin&aelig;, I am not aware
+of any sounds produced in the sea by branchiated invertebrata. It
+is to be regretted that in the memorandum you have not mentioned
+your observations on the living specimens brought you by the
+sailors as the animals which produced the sounds. Your
+authentication of the hitherto unknown fact, would probably lead to
+the discovery of the same phenomenon in other common accessible
+paludin&aelig;, and other allied branchiated animals, and to the
+solution of a problem, which is still to me a mystery, even
+regarding the <i>tritonia</i>.</p>
+<p>My two living <i>tritonia</i>, contained in a large clear
+colourless glass cylinder, filled with pure sea water, and placed
+on the central table of the Wernerian Natural History Society of
+Edinburgh, around which many members were sitting, continued
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>[pg
+402]</span> to clink audibly within the distance of twelve feet
+during the whole meeting. These small animals were individually not
+half the size of the last joint of my little finger. What effect
+the mellow sounds of millions of these, covering the shallow bottom
+of a tranquil estuary, in the silence of night, might produce, I
+can scarcely conjecture.</p>
+<p>In the absence of your authentication, and of all geological
+explanation of the continuous sounds, and of all source of fallacy
+from the hum and buzz of living creatures in the air or on the
+land, or swimming on the waters, I must say that I should be
+inclined to seek for the source of sounds so audible as those you
+describe rather among the pulmonated vertebrata, which swarm in the
+depths of these seas&mdash;as fishes, serpents (of which my friend
+Dr. Cantor has described about twelve species he found in the Bay
+of Bengal), turtles, palmated birds, pinnipedous and cetaceous
+mammalia, &amp;c.</p>
+<p>The publication of your memorandum in its present form, though
+not quite satisfactory, will, I think, be eminently calculated to
+excite useful inquiry into a neglected and curious part of the
+economy of nature.</p>
+<p>I remain, Sir,<br />
+Yours most respectfully,<br />
+ROBERT E. GRANT.</p>
+<p><i>Sir J. Emerson Tennent, &amp;c. &amp;c.</i></p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3691" name=
+"footnote3691"></a><b>Footnote 3691:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3691">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Cypr&aelig;a Argus</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3701" name=
+"footnote3701"></a><b>Footnote 3701:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3701">(return)</a>
+<p>In one of these beautiful little bays near Catchavelly, between
+Trincomalie and Batticaloa, I found the sand within the wash of the
+sea literally covered with mollusca and shells, and amongst others
+a species of <i>Bullia</i> (B. vittata, I think), the inhabitant of
+which, has the faculty of mooring itself firmly by sending down its
+membranous foot into the wet sand, where, imbibing the water, this
+organ expands horizontally into a broad, fleshy disc, by which the
+animal anchors itself, and thus secured, collects its food in the
+ripple of the waves. On the slightest alarm, the water is
+discharged, the disc collapses into its original dimensions, and
+the shell and its inhabitant disappear together beneath the
+sand.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3702" name=
+"footnote3702"></a><b>Footnote 3702:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3702">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ianthina communis</i>, Krause and <i>I. prolongata</i>,
+Blainv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3711" name=
+"footnote3711"></a><b>Footnote 3711:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3711">(return)</a>
+<p>COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, in Thevenot's ed. t i. p. 21.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3712" name=
+"footnote3712"></a><b>Footnote 3712:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3712">(return)</a>
+<p>At Kottiar, near Trincomalie, I was struck with the prodigious
+size of the edible oysters, which were brought to us at the
+rest-house. The shell of one of these measured a little more than
+eleven inches in length, by half as many broad: thus unexpectedly
+attesting the correctness of one of the stories related by the
+historians of Alexander's expedition, that in India they had found
+oysters a foot long. PLINY says: "In Indico mari Alexandri rerum
+auctores pedalia inveniri prodidere."&mdash;<i>Nat. Hist.</i> lib.
+xxxii. ch. 31. DARWIN says, that amongst the fossils of Patagonia,
+he found "a massive gigantic oyster, sometimes even a foot in
+diameter."&mdash;<i>Nat. Voy.</i>, ch. viii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3713" name=
+"footnote3713"></a><b>Footnote 3713:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3713">(return)</a>
+<p>&mdash;ABOUZEYD, <i>Voyages Arabes,</i> &amp;c., t. i. p. 6;
+REINAUD, <i>M&eacute;moire sur l'Inde,</i> &amp;c p. 222.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3721" name=
+"footnote3721"></a><b>Footnote 3721:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3721">(return)</a>
+<p>See also the <i>Asiatic Journal for</i> 1827, p. 469.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3722" name=
+"footnote3722"></a><b>Footnote 3722:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3722">(return)</a>
+<p>DARWIN, in his <i>Naturalist's Voyage</i>, mentions a parallel
+instance of the localised propagation of colours amoungst the
+cattle which range the pasturage of East Falkland Island: "Round
+Mount Osborne about half of some of the herds were mouse-coloured,
+a tint no common anywhere else,&mdash;near Mount Pleasant
+dark-brown prevailed; whereas south of Choiseul Sound white beasts
+with black heads and feet were common."&mdash;Ch. ix. p. 192.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3731" name=
+"footnote3731"></a><b>Footnote 3731:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3731">(return)</a>
+<p>It is almost unnecessary to say that the shell fish which
+produces the true Oriental pearls is not an oyster, but belongs to
+the genus Avicula, or more correctly, Meleagrina. It is the
+<i>Meleagrina Margaritifera</i> of Lamarck.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3732" name=
+"footnote3732"></a><b>Footnote 3732:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3732">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Cajan</i> is the local term for the plaited fronds of a
+coco-nut.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3751" name=
+"footnote3751"></a><b>Footnote 3751:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3751">(return)</a>
+<p>This suspension was in some degree attributable to disputes with
+the Nabob of Arcot and other chiefs, and the proprietors of temples
+on the opposite coast of India, who claimed, a right to participate
+in the fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3752" name=
+"footnote3752"></a><b>Footnote 3752:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3752">(return)</a>
+<p>"Il y avait autrefois dans le Golfe de Serendyb, une
+p&ecirc;cherie de perles qui s'est &eacute;puise&eacute; de notre
+temps. D'un autre c&ocirc;t&eacute; il s'est form&eacute; une
+p&ecirc;cherie de Sofala dans le pays des Zends, l&agrave; ou il
+n'en existait pas auparavant&mdash;on dit que c'est la
+p&ecirc;cherie de Serendyb qui s'est transport&eacute;e &agrave;
+Sofala."&mdash;ALBYROUNI, <i>in</i> RENAUD'S <i>Fragmens Arabes,
+&amp;c</i>, p. 125; see also REINAUD'S <i>M&eacute;moire sur
+l'Inde</i>, p. 228.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3761" name=
+"footnote3761"></a><b>Footnote 3761:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3761">(return)</a>
+<p>STEUART'S <i>Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon</i>, p. 27: CORDINER'S
+<i>Ceylon, &amp;c</i>, vol. ii. p. 45.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3762" name=
+"footnote3762"></a><b>Footnote 3762:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3762">(return)</a>
+<p>See Dr. KELAART'S Report on the Pearl Oyster in the <i>Ceylon
+Calendar for 1858&mdash;Appendix</i>, p. 14.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3763" name=
+"footnote3763"></a><b>Footnote 3763:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3763">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Rapport de</i> M. COSTE, Professeur d'Embryog&eacute;nie,
+&amp;c., Paris, 1858.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3771" name=
+"footnote3771"></a><b>Footnote 3771:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3771">(return)</a>
+<p>Detailed accounts of the pearl fishery of Ceylon and the conduct
+of the divers, will be found in PERCIVAL's <i>Ceylon</i>, ch. iii.:
+and in CORDINER'S <i>Ceylon</i>, vol. ii. ch. xvi. There is also a
+valuable paper on the same subject by Mr. LE BECK, in the
+<i>Asiatic Researches</i>, vol. v. p. 993; but by far the most able
+and intelligent description is contained in the <i>Account of the
+Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon</i>, by JAMES STEUART, Esq., Inspector of
+the Pearl Banks, 4to. Colombo, 1843.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3772" name=
+"footnote3772"></a><b>Footnote 3772:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3772">(return)</a>
+<p>MASSOUDI says that the Persian divers, as they could not breathe
+through their nostrils, <i>cleft the root of the ear</i> for that
+purpose: "<i>Ils se fendaient la racine de l'oreille pour
+respirer</i>; en effet, ils ne peuvent se servir pour cet objet des
+narines, vu qu'ils se les bouchent avec des morceaux
+d'&eacute;cailles de tortue marine on bien avec des morceaux de
+corne ayant la forme d'un fer de lance. En m&ecirc;me temps ils se
+mettent dans l'oreille du coton tremp&eacute; dans de
+l'huile."&mdash;<i>Moroudj-al-Dzeheb,</i> &amp;c., REINAUD,
+<i>M&eacute;moire sur l'Inde,</i> p. 228.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3773" name=
+"footnote3773"></a><b>Footnote 3773:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3773">(return)</a>
+<p>Colonel WILSON says they compress the nose with horn, and close
+the ears with beeswax. See <i>Memorandum on the Pearl Fisheries in
+Persian Gulf.&mdash;Journ. Geogr. Soc.</i> 1833, vol. iii. p.
+283.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3781" name=
+"footnote3781"></a><b>Footnote 3781:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3781">(return)</a>
+<p>RIBEYRO says that a diver could remain below whilst two
+<i>credos</i> were being repeated: "Il s'y tient l'espace de deux
+<i>credo</i>."&mdash;Lib. i. ch. xxii. p. 169. PERCIVAL says the
+usual time for them to be under water was two minutes, but that
+some divers stayed <i>four</i> or <i>five</i>, and one <i>six</i>
+minutes,&mdash;<i>Ceylon</i> p. 91; LE BECK says that in 1797 he
+saw a Caffre boy from Karical remain down for the space of seven
+minutes.&mdash;<i>Asiat. Res</i> vol. v. p. 402.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3791" name=
+"footnote3791"></a><b>Footnote 3791:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3791">(return)</a>
+<p>CORDINER'S <i>Ceylon</i>, vol. ii p. 52.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3792" name=
+"footnote3792"></a><b>Footnote 3792:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3792">(return)</a>
+<p>"Ils s'enduisaient les pieds et les jambes d'une substance
+noir&acirc;tre, atin de faire peur aux monstres marins, que, sans
+cela, seraient tent&eacute;s de les
+d&eacute;vorer."&mdash;<i>Moroudj-al-Dzekeb,</i> REINAUD,
+<i>M&eacute;m. sur l'Inde</i>, p. 228.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3793" name=
+"footnote3793"></a><b>Footnote 3793:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3793">(return)</a>
+<p>Along with this two plates are given from drawings made for the
+Official Inspector, and exhibiting the ascertained size of the
+pearl oyster at every period of its growth, from the "spat" to the
+mature shell. The young "brood" are shown at Nos. 1 and 2. The
+shell at four months old, No. 3, No. 4. six months, No. 5. one
+year, No. 6, two years. The second plate exhibits the shell at its
+full growth.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3801" name=
+"footnote3801"></a><b>Footnote 3801:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3801">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Report of</i> Dr. KELAART, Oct. 1857.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3811" name=
+"footnote3811"></a><b>Footnote 3811:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3811">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Littorina l&aelig;vis. Cerithium palustre.</i> Of the latter
+the specimens brought to me were dwarfed and solid, exhibiting in
+this particular the usual peculiarities that distinguish (1) shells
+inhabiting a rocky locality from (2) their congeners in a sandy
+bottom. Their longitudinal development was less, with greater
+breadth, and increased strength and weight.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3831" name=
+"footnote3831"></a><b>Footnote 3831:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3831">(return)</a>
+<p>These sounds are thus described by Dr. BUIST in the <i>Bombay
+Times</i> of January 1847: "A party lately crossing from the
+promontory in Salsette called the 'Neat's Tongue,' to near Sewree,
+were, about sunset, struck by hearing long distinct sounds like the
+protracted booming of a distant bell, the dying cadence of an
+&AElig;olian harp, the note of a pitchpipe or pitch-fork, or any
+other long-drawn-out musical note. It was, at first, supposed to be
+music from Parell floating at intervals on the breeze; then it was
+perceived to come from all directions, almost in equal strength,
+and to arise from the surface of the water all around the vessel.
+The boatmen at once intimated that the sounds were produced by
+fish, abounding in the muddy creeks and shoals around Bombay and
+Salsette; they were perfectly well known, and very often heard.
+Accordingly, on inclining the ear towards the surface of the water;
+or, better still, by placing it close to the planks of the vessel,
+the notes appeared loud and distinct, and followed each other in
+constant succession. The boatmen next day produced specimens of the
+fish&mdash;a creature closely resembling, in size and shape the
+fresh-water perch of the north of Europe&mdash;and spoke of them as
+plentiful and perfectly well known. It is hoped they may be
+procured alive, and the means afforded of determining how the
+musical sounds are produced and emitted, with other particulars of
+interest supposed new in Ichthyology. We shall be thankful to
+receive from our readers any information they can give us in regard
+to a phenomenon which does not appear to have been heretofore
+noticed, and which cannot fail to attract the attention of the
+naturalist. Of the perfect accuracy with which the singular facts
+above related have been given, no doubt will be entertained when it
+is mentioned that the writer was one of a party of five intelligent
+persons, by all of whom they were most carefully observed, and the
+impressions of all of whom in regard to them were uniform. It is
+supposed that the fish are confined to particular
+localities&mdash;shallows, estuaries, and muddy creeks, rarely
+visited by Europeans; and that this is the reason why hitherto no
+mention, so far as we know, has been made of the peculiarity in any
+work on Natural History."</p>
+<p>This communication elicited one from Vizagapatam, relative to
+"musical sounds like the prolonged notes on the harp" heard to
+proceed from under water at that station. It appeared in the
+<i>Bombay Times</i> of Feb. 13, 1849.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3841" name=
+"footnote3841"></a><b>Footnote 3841:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3841">(return)</a>
+<p>The Cuckoo Gurnard (<i>Triglia cuculus</i>) and the maigre
+(<i>Sci&aelig;na aquila</i>) utter sounds when taken out of the
+water (YARRELL, vol. i. p. 44, 107); and herrings when the net has
+just been drawn have been observed to do the same. This effect has
+been attributed to the escape of air from the air bladder, but no
+air bladder has been found in the <i>Cottus</i>, which makes a
+similar noise.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3842" name=
+"footnote3842"></a><b>Footnote 3842:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3842">(return)</a>
+<p>The fishermen assert that a fish about five inches in length,
+found in the lake at Colombo, and called by them "<i>magoora</i>,"
+makes a grunt when disturbed under water. PALLEGOIX, in his account
+of Siam, speaks of a fish resembling a sole, but of brilliant
+colouring with black spots, which the natives call the "dog's
+tongue," that attaches itself to the bottom of a boat, "et fait
+entendre un bruit tr&egrave;s-sonore et m&ecirc;me
+harmonieux."&mdash;Tom. i. p. 194. A <i>Silurus</i>, found in the
+Rio Parana, and called the "armado," is remarkable for making a
+harsh grating noise when caught by hook or line, which can be
+distinctly heard when the fish is beneath the water. DARWIN,
+<i>Nat. Journ.</i> ch. vii. Aristotle and &AElig;lian were aware of
+the existence of this faculty in some of the fishes of the
+Mediterranean. ARISTOTLE, <i>De Anim</i>., lib. iv. ch. ix.;
+&AElig;LIAN, <i>De Nat. Anim.</i>, lib. x. ch. xi.; see also PLINY,
+lib. ix. ch. vii.. lib. xi. ch. cxiii.; ATHEN&AElig;US, lib. vii.
+ch. iii. vi. I have heard of sounds produced under water at
+Baltimore, and supposed to be produced by the "cat-fish;" and at
+Swan River in Australia, where they are ascribed to the
+"trumpeter." A similar noise heard in the Tagus is attributed by
+the Lisbon fishermen to the "<i>Corvina</i>"&mdash;but what fish is
+meant by that name, I am unable to tell.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3851" name=
+"footnote3851"></a><b>Footnote 3851:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3851">(return)</a>
+<p>AGASSIZ, <i>Comparative Physiology</i>, sec. ii. 158.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3852" name=
+"footnote3852"></a><b>Footnote 3852:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3852">(return)</a>
+<p>It consists of two round vesicles containing fluid, and
+crystalline or elliptical calcareous particles or otolites,
+remarkable for their oscillatory action in the living or recently
+killed animal. OWEN'S <i>Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and
+Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals</i>, 1855, p. 511-552.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3853" name=
+"footnote3853"></a><b>Footnote 3853:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3853">(return)</a>
+<p>I am informed that Professor M&amp;&Uuml;LLER read a paper on
+"Musical fishes" before the Academy of Berlin, in 1856. It will
+probably be found in the volume of M&amp;&Uuml;LLER'S <i>Archiv.
+f&uuml;r Physiologie</i> for that year; but I have not had an
+opportunity of reading it.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3854" name=
+"footnote3854"></a><b>Footnote 3854:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3854">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Edinburgh Philosophical Journ</i>., vol. xiv. p. 188. See
+also the Appendix to this chapter.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3861" name=
+"footnote3861"></a><b>Footnote 3861:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3861">(return)</a>
+<p>The letter which I received from Dr. Grant on this subject, I
+have placed in a note to the present chapter, in the hope that it
+may stimulate some other inquirer in Ceylon to prosecute the
+investigation which I was unable to carry out successfully.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3881" name=
+"footnote3881"></a><b>Footnote 3881:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3881">(return)</a>
+<p>Below will be found a general reference to the Works or Papers
+in which are given descriptive notices of the shells contained in
+the following list; the names of the authors (in full or
+abbreviated) being, as usual, annexed to each species.</p>
+<p>ADAMS, <i>Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i> 1853, 54, 56; <i>Thesaur.
+Conch.</i> ALBERS, <i>Zeitsch. Malakoz.</i> 1853. ANTON, <i>Wiegm.
+Arch. Nat.</i> 1837; <i>Verzeichn. Conch</i>. BECK in <i>Pfeiffer,
+Symbol. Helic.</i> BENSON, <i>Ann. Nat. Hist.</i> vii. 1851; xii.
+1853, xviii, 1856. BLAINVILLE, <i>Dict. Sc. Nat.; Nouv. Ann. Mus.
+His. Nat.</i> i. BOLTEN, <i>Mus.</i> BORN, <i>Test. Mus.
+C&aelig;cs. Vind.</i> BRODERIP, <i>Zool. Journ.</i> i. iii.
+BRUGUIERE, <i>Encyc. M&eacute;thod. Vers.</i> CARPENTER, <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i> 1856. CHEMNITZ, <i>Conch. Cab.</i> CHENU, <i>Illus.
+Conch.</i> DESHAYES. <i>Encyc. M&eacute;th. Vers.; Mag. Zool. 1831;
+Voy. Belanger; Edit. Lam. An. s. Vert.; Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1853, 54, 55. DILLWYN. <i>Deser. Cat. Shells.</i> DOHRN, <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i> 1857, 58; <i>Malak. Bl&auml;tter; Land and
+Fluviatile Shells of Ceylon.</i> DUCLOS, <i>Monog. of Oliva.</i>
+FABRICIUS, <i>in Pfeiffer Monog. Helic.; in Dohrn's MSS.</i>
+F&Eacute;RUSSAC, <i>Hist. Mollusques.</i> FORSKAL, <i>Anim.
+Orient.</i> GMELIN, <i>Syst. Nat.</i> GRAY, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1834, 52; <i>Index Testaceologicus Suppl.; Spicilegia Zool.; Zool.
+Journ.</i> i.; <i>Zool. Beechey Voy.</i> GRATELOUP, <i>Act. Linn.
+Bordeaux,</i> xi. GUERIN, <i>Rev. Zool.</i> 1847. HANLEY,
+<i>Thesaur. Conch,</i> i.; <i>Recent Bivalves; Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1858. HINDS, <i>Zool. Voy. Sulphur; Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> HUTTON,
+<i>Journ. As. Soc.</i> KARSTEN, <i>Mus. Lesk.</i> KIENER,
+<i>Coquilles Vivantes.</i> KRAUSS, <i>Sud-Afrik Mollusk.</i>
+LAMARCK, <i>An. sans Vert&eacute;b.</i> LAYARD, <i>Proc. Zool.
+Soc.</i> 1854. LEA, <i>Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i> 1850. LINN&AElig;US,
+<i>Syst. Nat.</i> MARTINI, <i>Conch. Cab.</i> MAWE. <i>Introd.
+Linn. Conch.; Index Test. Suppl.</i> MEUSCHEN, in <i>Gronor.
+Zoophylac.</i> MENKE, <i>Synop. Mollus.</i> MULLER, <i>Hist. Verm.
+Terrest.</i> PETIT, <i>Pro. Zool. Soc.</i> 1842. PFEIFFER,
+<i>Monog. Helic.: Monog. Pneumon.; Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i> 1852,
+53, 54, 55. 56; <i>Zeitschr. Malacoz.</i> 1853. PHILIPPI,
+<i>Zeitsch. Mal.</i> 1846, 47: <i>Abbild. Neuer Conch.</i> POTIEZ
+et MICHAUD. <i>Galeric Douai.</i> RANG, <i>Mag. Zool.</i> ser. i.
+p. 100. R&Eacute;CLUZ, <i>Proceed. Zool. Soc.</i> 1845; <i>Revue
+Zool. Cur.</i> 1841: <i>Mag. Conch.</i> REEVE, <i>Conch. Icon.;
+Proc. Zool. Soc</i>: 1842, 52. SCHUMACHER. <i>Syst.</i>
+SHUTTLEWORTH. SOLANDER. in <i>Dillwyn's Desc. Cat. Shells;</i>
+SOWERBY, <i>Genera Shells; Species Conch.; Conch. Misc.; Thesaur.
+Conch.; Conch. Illus.; Proc. Zool. Soc.; App. to Tankerrille
+Cat.</i> SPENGLER, <i>Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kiobenhav.</i> 1792.
+SWAINSON, <i>Zool. Illust.</i> ser. ii. TEMPLETON, <i>Ann. Nat.
+Hist.</i> 1858. TROSCHEL, in <i>Pfeiffer, Mon. Pneum; Zeitschr.
+Malak.</i> 1847; <i>Wiegm. Arch. Nat.</i> 1837. WOOD, <i>General
+Conch</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3891" name=
+"footnote3891"></a><b>Footnote 3891:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3891">(return)</a>
+<p>A. dichotomum, <i>Chenu.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3892" name=
+"footnote3892"></a><b>Footnote 3892:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3892">(return)</a>
+<p>Fistulana gregata, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3893" name=
+"footnote3893"></a><b>Footnote 3893:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3893">(return)</a>
+<p>Blainvillea, <i>Hup&eacute;.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3894" name=
+"footnote3894"></a><b>Footnote 3894:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3894">(return)</a>
+<p>Latraria tellinoides, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3895" name=
+"footnote3895"></a><b>Footnote 3895:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3895">(return)</a>
+<p>I have also seen M. hians of Philippi in a Ceylon
+collection.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3896" name=
+"footnote3896"></a><b>Footnote 3896:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3896">(return)</a>
+<p>M. Taprobanensis, <i>Index Test. Suppl.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3897" name=
+"footnote3897"></a><b>Footnote 3897:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3897">(return)</a>
+<p>Psammotella Skinneri, <i>Reeve.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3901" name=
+"footnote3901"></a><b>Footnote 3901:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3901">(return)</a>
+<p>P. c&aelig;rulesens, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3902" name=
+"footnote3902"></a><b>Footnote 3902:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3902">(return)</a>
+<p>Sanguinolaria rugosa, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3903" name=
+"footnote3903"></a><b>Footnote 3903:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3903">(return)</a>
+<p>T. striatula of Lamarck is also supposed to be indigenous to
+Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3904" name=
+"footnote3904"></a><b>Footnote 3904:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3904">(return)</a>
+<p>T. rostrata, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3905" name=
+"footnote3905"></a><b>Footnote 3905:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3905">(return)</a>
+<p>L. divaricata is found, also, in mixed Ceylon collections.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3906" name=
+"footnote3906"></a><b>Footnote 3906:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3906">(return)</a>
+<p>C. dispar of Chemnitz is occasionally found in Ceylon
+collections.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3907" name=
+"footnote3907"></a><b>Footnote 3907:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3907">(return)</a>
+<p>C. impudica. <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3908" name=
+"footnote3908"></a><b>Footnote 3908:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3908">(return)</a>
+<p>As Donax.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3909" name=
+"footnote3909"></a><b>Footnote 3909:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3909">(return)</a>
+<p>V. corbis, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39010" name=
+"footnote39010"></a><b>Footnote 39010:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39010">(return)</a>
+<p>As Tapes.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39011" name=
+"footnote39011"></a><b>Footnote 39011:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39011">(return)</a>
+<p>V. textile, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39012" name=
+"footnote39012"></a><b>Footnote 39012:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39012">(return)</a>
+<p>?Arca Helblingii, <i>Chemn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39013" name=
+"footnote39013"></a><b>Footnote 39013:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39013">(return)</a>
+<p>Mr. Cuming informs me that he has forwarded no less than six
+distinct <i>Uniones</i> from Ceylon to Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia,
+for determination or description.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39014" name=
+"footnote39014"></a><b>Footnote 39014:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39014">(return)</a>
+<p>M. smaragdinus, <i>Chemn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39015" name=
+"footnote39015"></a><b>Footnote 39015:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39015">(return)</a>
+<p>As Avicula.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39016" name=
+"footnote39016"></a><b>Footnote 39016:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39016">(return)</a>
+<p>The specimens are not in a fitting state for positive
+determination. They are strong, extremely narrow, with the beak of
+the lower valve much produced, and the inner edge of the upper
+valve denticulated throughout. The muscular impressions are dusky
+brown.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3911" name=
+"footnote3911"></a><b>Footnote 3911:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3911">(return)</a>
+<p>As Anomia.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3912" name=
+"footnote3912"></a><b>Footnote 3912:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3912">(return)</a>
+<p>The fissurata of Humphreys and Dacosta, pl. 4.&mdash;E. rubra,
+<i>Lamarck</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3913" name=
+"footnote3913"></a><b>Footnote 3913:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3913">(return)</a>
+<p>B. Ceylanica, <i>Brug</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3914" name=
+"footnote3914"></a><b>Footnote 3914:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3914">(return)</a>
+<p>P. Tennentii. "Greyish brown, with longitudinal rows of rufous
+spots, forming interrupted bands along the sides. A singularly
+handsome species, having similar habits to <i>Limax</i>. Found in
+the valleys of the Kalany Ganga, near
+Ruanwell&eacute;."&mdash;<i>Templeton</i> MSS.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3915" name=
+"footnote3915"></a><b>Footnote 3915:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3915">(return)</a>
+<p>Not far from bistrialis and Ceylanica. The manuscript species of
+Mr. Dohrn will shortly appear in his intended work upon the land
+and fluviatile shells of Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3916" name=
+"footnote3916"></a><b>Footnote 3916:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3916">(return)</a>
+<p>As Ellobium.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3917" name=
+"footnote3917"></a><b>Footnote 3917:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3917">(return)</a>
+<p>As Melampus.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3918" name=
+"footnote3918"></a><b>Footnote 3918:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3918">(return)</a>
+<p>As Ophicardelis.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3921" name=
+"footnote3921"></a><b>Footnote 3921:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3921">(return)</a>
+<p>M. fasciolata, <i>Olivier</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3922" name=
+"footnote3922"></a><a id="footnote3922a" name=
+"footnote3922a"></a><a id="footnote3922b" name=
+"footnote3922b"></a><a id="footnote3922c" name=
+"footnote3922c"></a><b>Footnote 3922:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3922">(return)</a>
+<p>These four species are included on the authority of Mr.
+Dohrn.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3923" name=
+"footnote3923"></a><b>Footnote 3923:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3923">(return)</a>
+<p>N. exuvia, <i>Lam.</i> not <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3931" name=
+"footnote3931"></a><b>Footnote 3931:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3931">(return)</a>
+<p>Conch. Cab. f. 1926-7, and N. melanostoma, <i>Lam.</i> in
+part.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3932" name=
+"footnote3932"></a><b>Footnote 3932:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3932">(return)</a>
+<p>Chemn. Conch. Cab. 1892-3.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3933" name=
+"footnote3933"></a><b>Footnote 3933:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3933">(return)</a>
+<p>N. glauciua, <i>Lam.</i> not <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3934" name=
+"footnote3934"></a><b>Footnote 3934:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3934">(return)</a>
+<p>A species (possibly Javanicus) is known to have been collected.
+I have not seen it.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3935" name=
+"footnote3935"></a><b>Footnote 3935:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3935">(return)</a>
+<p>Not of <i>Lamarck</i>. D. atrata. <i>Reeve</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3936" name=
+"footnote3936"></a><b>Footnote 3936:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3936">(return)</a>
+<p>Philippia L.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3937" name=
+"footnote3937"></a><b>Footnote 3937:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3937">(return)</a>
+<p>Zeit. Mal. 1846 for T. argyrostoma, <i>Lam.</i> not
+<i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3938" name=
+"footnote3938"></a><b>Footnote 3938:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3938">(return)</a>
+<p>Buccinum pyramidatum, <i>Gm</i>. in part: B. sulcatum, var. C.
+of <i>Brug</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3939" name=
+"footnote3939"></a><b>Footnote 3939:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3939">(return)</a>
+<p>Teste Cuming.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39310" name=
+"footnote39310"></a><b>Footnote 39310:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39310">(return)</a>
+<p>As Delphinulat.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39311" name=
+"footnote39311"></a><b>Footnote 39311:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39311">(return)</a>
+<p>Ed. <i>Lam.</i> Anim. s. Vert.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39312" name=
+"footnote39312"></a><b>Footnote 39312:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39312">(return)</a>
+<p>P. papyracea, <i>Lam.</i> In mixed collections I have seen the
+Chinese P. bezoar of <i>Lamarck</i> as from Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39313" name=
+"footnote39313"></a><b>Footnote 39313:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39313">(return)</a>
+<p>P. vespertilio, <i>Gm</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39314" name=
+"footnote39314"></a><b>Footnote 39314:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39314">(return)</a>
+<p>R. albivaricosa, <i>Reeve</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39315" name=
+"footnote39315"></a><b>Footnote 39315:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39315">(return)</a>
+<p>M. anguliferus var. <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39316" name=
+"footnote39316"></a><b>Footnote 39316:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39316">(return)</a>
+<p>T. cynocephalus of <i>Lamarck</i> is also met with in Ceylon
+collections.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39317" name=
+"footnote39317"></a><b>Footnote 39317:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39317">(return)</a>
+<p>S. incisus of the Index Testaceologicus (urceus, var.
+<i>Sow</i>. Thesaur.) is found in mixed Ceylon collections.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3941" name=
+"footnote3941"></a><b>Footnote 3941:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3941">(return)</a>
+<p>C. plicaria of <i>Lamarck</i>, and C. coronulata of
+<i>Sowerby</i>, are also said to be found in Ceylon.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3942" name=
+"footnote3942"></a><b>Footnote 3942:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3942">(return)</a>
+<p>As Purpura.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3943" name=
+"footnote3943"></a><b>Footnote 3943:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3943">(return)</a>
+<p>N. suturalis, <i>Reeve</i> (as of <i>Lam.</i>), is met with in
+mixed Ceylon collections.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3944" name=
+"footnote3944"></a><b>Footnote 3944:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3944">(return)</a>
+<p>E. areolata, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3945" name=
+"footnote3945"></a><b>Footnote 3945:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3945">(return)</a>
+<p>E. spirata, <i>Lam.</i> not <i>Linn.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3946" name=
+"footnote3946"></a><b>Footnote 3946:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3946">(return)</a>
+<p>B. Belangeri, <i>Kiener</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3947" name=
+"footnote3947"></a><b>Footnote 3947:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3947">(return)</a>
+<p>As Turricula L.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3948" name=
+"footnote3948"></a><b>Footnote 3948:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3948">(return)</a>
+<p>O. utriculus, <i>Dillwyn</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3949" name=
+"footnote3949"></a><b>Footnote 3949:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3949">(return)</a>
+<p>C. planorbis, <i>Born</i>; C. vulpinus, <i>Lam.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote39410" name=
+"footnote39410"></a><b>Footnote 39410:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag39410">(return)</a>
+<p>Conus ermineus, <i>Born</i>, in part.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3951" name=
+"footnote3951"></a><b>Footnote 3951:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3951">(return)</a>
+<p>Actinia, 9 sp.; Anthea, 4 sp.; Actinodendron, 3 sp.; Dioscosoma,
+1 sp.; Peechea, 1 sp.; Zoanthura, 1 sp.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3961" name=
+"footnote3961"></a><b>Footnote 3961:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3961">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Asterias</i>, Linn.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3962" name=
+"footnote3962"></a><b>Footnote 3962:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3962">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Pentaceros?</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3971" name=
+"footnote3971"></a><b>Footnote 3971:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3971">(return)</a>
+<p>Footnote 1: In DE BRY'S, <i>Collect</i>, vol. i. p. 49.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3981" name=
+"footnote3981"></a><b>Footnote 3981:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3981">(return)</a>
+<p>JOHN HUIGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN <i>his Discours of Voyages into the
+Easte and West Indies.</i> London, 1599, p, 16.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3982" name=
+"footnote3982"></a><b>Footnote 3982:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3982">(return)</a>
+<p>OWEN'S <i>Lectures on the Invertebrata</i>, p. 96.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3983" name=
+"footnote3983"></a><b>Footnote 3983:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3983">(return)</a>
+<p>"A curious species, which is of a light brown above, white
+underneath; very broad and thin, and has a peculiarly shaped tail,
+half-moon-shaped in fact, like a grocer's cheese knife."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3984" name=
+"footnote3984"></a><b>Footnote 3984:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag3984">(return)</a>
+<p>Jelly-fish.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4001" name=
+"footnote4001"></a><b>Footnote 4001:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4001">(return)</a>
+<p>The late Dr. BUIST, of Bombay, in commenting on this statement,
+writes to the <i>Athen&aelig;um</i> that: "The red colour with
+which the sea is tinged, round the shores of Ceylon, during a part
+of the S.W. monsoon is due to the <i>Proto-coccus nivalis</i>, or
+the Himatta-coccus, which presents different colours at different
+periods of the year&mdash;giving us the seas of milk as well as
+those of blood. The coloured water at times is to be seen all along
+the coast north to Kurrachee, and far out, and of a much more
+intense tint in the Arabian Sea. The frequency of its appearance in
+the Red Sea has conferred on it its name."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>[pg
+403]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap12" id="chap12"></a>CHAP. XII.</h2>
+<h3>INSECTS.</h3>
+<p>Owing to the favourable combination of heat, moisture, and
+vegetation, the myriads of insects in Ceylon form one of the
+characteristic features of the island. In the solitude of the
+forests there is a perpetual music from their soothing and
+melodious hum, which frequently swells to a startling sound as the
+cicada trills his sonorous drum on the sunny bark of some tall
+tree. At morning the dew hangs in diamond drops on the threads and
+gossamer which the spiders suspend across every pathway; and above
+the pool dragon-flies, of more than metallic lustre, flash in the
+early sunbeams. The earth teems with countless ants, which emerge
+from beneath its surface, or make their devious highways to ascend
+to their nests in the trees. Lustrous beetles, with their golden
+elytra, bask on the leaves, whilst minuter species dash through the
+air in circles, which the ear can follow by the booming of their
+tiny wings. Butterflies of large size and gorgeous colouring,
+flutter over the endless expanse of flowers, and at times the
+extraordinary sight presents itself of flights of these delicate
+creatures, generally of a white or pale yellow hue, apparently
+miles in breadth, and of such prodigious extension as to occupy
+hours, and even days, uninterruptedly in their passage&mdash;whence
+coming no one <span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id=
+"page404"></a>[pg 404]</span> knows; whither going no one can
+tell.<a id="footnotetag4041" name="footnotetag4041"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4041"><sup>4041</sup></a> As day declines, the moths
+issue from their retreats, the crickets add their shrill voices to
+swell the din; and when darkness descends, the eye is charmed with
+the millions of emerald lamps lighted up by the fire-flies amidst
+the surrounding gloom.</p>
+<p>As yet no attempt has been made to describe the insects of
+Ceylon systematically, much less to enumerate the prodigous number
+of species that abound in every locality. Occasional observers
+have, from time to time, contributed notices of particular families
+to the Scientific Associations of Europe, but their papers remain
+undigested, and the time has not yet arrived for the preparation of
+an Entomology of the island.</p>
+<p>What DARWIN remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is nearly as
+applicable to the same order of insects in Ceylon: "The number of
+minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great; the
+cabinets of Europe can as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only
+of the larger species from tropical climates, and it is sufficient
+to disturb the composure of an entomologist to look forward to the
+future dimensions of a catalogue with any pretensions to
+completeness."<a id="footnotetag4042" name=
+"footnotetag4042"></a><a href="#footnote4042"><sup>4042</sup></a>
+M. Nietner, a German entomologist, who has spent some years in
+Ceylon, has recently published, in one of the local <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>[pg 405]</span>
+periodicals, a series of papers on the Coleoptera of the island, in
+which every species introduced is stated to be previously
+undescribed.<a id="footnotetag4051" name=
+"footnotetag4051"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4051"><sup>4051</sup></a></p>
+<p>COLEOPTERA.&mdash;<i>Buprestid&aelig;; Golden
+Beetles</i>.&mdash;In the morning the herbaceous plants, especially
+on the eastern side of the island, are studded with these gorgeous
+beetles, whose golden wing-cases<a id="footnotetag4052" name=
+"footnotetag4052"></a><a href="#footnote4052"><sup>4052</sup></a>
+are used to enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana, whilst the
+lustrous joints of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form
+necklaces and bracelets of singular brilliancy.</p>
+<p>These exquisite colours are not confined to one order, and some
+of the Elaterid&aelig;<a id="footnotetag4053" name=
+"footnotetag4053"></a><a href="#footnote4053"><sup>4053</sup></a>
+and Lamellicorns exhibit hues of green and blue, that rival the
+deepest tints of the emerald and sapphire.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/436.png"><img width="100%" src="images/436.png" alt=
+"" /></a> LONGICORN BEETLE (BATEROCERA RUBUS).</div>
+<p><i>Scavenger Beetles</i>.&mdash;Scavenger beetles<a id=
+"footnotetag4054" name="footnotetag4054"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4054"><sup>4054</sup></a> are to be seen wherever the
+presence of putrescent and offensive matter affords opportunity for
+the display of their repulsive but most curious instincts;
+fastening on it with eagerness, severing it into lumps
+proportionate to their strength, and rolling it along in search of
+some place sufficiently soft in which to bury it, after having
+deposited their eggs in the centre. I had frequent opportunities,
+especially in traversing the sandy jungles in the level plains to
+the north of the island, of observing the unfailing appearance of
+these creatures instantly on the dropping of horse dung, or any
+other substance <span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id=
+"page406"></a>[pg 406]</span> suitable for their purpose; although
+not one was visible but a moment before. Their approach on the wing
+is announced by a loud and joyous booming sound, as they dash in
+rapid circles in search of the desired object, led by their sense
+of smell, and evidently little assisted by the eye in shaping their
+course towards it. In these excursions they exhibit a strength of
+wing and sustained power of flight, such as is possessed by no
+other class of beetles with which I am acquainted, but which is
+obviously indispensable <span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id=
+"page407"></a>[pg 407]</span> for the due performance of the useful
+functions they discharge.</p>
+<p><i>The Coco-nut Beetle</i>.&mdash;In the luxuriant forests of
+Ceylon the extensive family of <i>Longicorns</i><a id=
+"footnotetag4071" name="footnotetag4071"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4071"><sup>4071</sup></a> and <i>Passalid&aelig;</i> live
+in destructive abundance. To the coco-nut planters the ravages
+committed by beetles are painfully familiar.<a id="footnotetag4072"
+name="footnotetag4072"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4072"><sup>4072</sup></a> The larva of one species of
+<i>Dynastida</i>, the <i>Oryctes rhinoceros</i>, called by the
+Singhalese "<i>Gascooroominiya</i>," makes its way into the younger
+trees, descending from the top, and after perforating them in all
+directions, forms a cocoon of the gnawed wood and sawdust, in which
+it reposes during its sleep as a pupa, till the arrival of the
+period when it emerges as a perfect beetle. Notwithstanding the
+repulsive aspect of the large pulpy larv&aelig; of these beetles,
+they are esteemed a luxury by the Malabar coolies, who so far avail
+themselves of the privilege accorded by the Levitical law, which
+permitted the Hebrews to eat "the beetle after his kind."<a id=
+"footnotetag4073" name="footnotetag4073"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4073"><sup>4073</sup></a></p>
+<p>Amongst the superstitions of the Singhalese arising out of their
+belief in demonology, one remarkable one is connected with the
+appearance of a beetle when observed on the floor of a
+dwelling-house after nightfall. The popular belief is that in
+obedience to a certain form of incantation (called
+<i>cooroominiya-pilli</i>) a demon <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page408" id="page408"></a>[pg 408]</span> in the shape of a beetle
+is sent to the house of some person or family whose destruction it
+is intended to compass, and who presently falls sick and dies. The
+only means of averting this catastrophe is, that some one, himself
+an adept in necromancy, should perform a counter-charm, the effect
+of which is to send back the disguised beetle to destroy his
+original employer; for in such a conjuncture the death of one or
+the other is essential to appease the demon whose intervention has
+been invoked. Hence the discomfort of a Singhalese on finding a
+beetle in his house after sunset, and his anxiety to expel but not
+to kill it.</p>
+<p><i>Tortoise Beetles</i>.&mdash;There is one family of insects,
+the members of which cannot fail to strike the traveller by their
+singular beauty, the <i>Cassidid&aelig;</i> or tortoise beetles, in
+which the outer shell overlaps the body, and the limbs are
+susceptible of being drawn entirely within it. The rim is
+frequently of a different tint from the centre, and one species
+which I have seen is quite startling from the brilliancy of its
+colouring, which gives it the appearance of a ruby enclosed in a
+frame of pearl; but this wonderful effect disappears immediately on
+the death of the insect.</p>
+<p>ORTHOPTERA. <i>Leaf-insects</i>.&mdash;But in relation to the
+insects of Ceylon the admiration of their colours is still less
+exciting than the astonishment created by the forms in which some
+of the families present themselves; especially the "soothsayers"
+(<i>Mantid&aelig;</i>) and "walking leaves." The latter<a id=
+"footnotetag4081" name="footnotetag4081"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4081"><sup>4081</sup></a>, exhibiting the most cunning of
+all nature's devices for the preservation of her creatures, are
+found in the jungle in all varieties of hues, from the pale yellow
+of an opening bud to the rich green of <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>[pg 409]</span> the
+full-blown leaf, and the withered tint of decay. So perfect is the
+imitation of a leaf in structure and articulation, that this
+amazing insect when at rest is almost undistinguishable from the
+foliage around: not only are the wings modelled to resemble ribbed
+and fibrous follicles, but every joint of the legs is expanded into
+a broad plait like a half-opened leaflet.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/439.png"><img width="100%" src="images/439.png" alt=
+"" /></a> STICK INSECT AND MANTIS</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>[pg
+410]</span>
+<p>It rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it slowly
+along, and thus the flatness of its attitude serves still further
+to add to the appearance of a leaf. One of the most marvellous
+incidents connected with its organisation was exhibited by one
+which I kept under a glass shade on my table, it laid a quantity of
+eggs, that, in colour and shape, were not to be distinguished from
+<i>seeds</i>. They were brown, and pentangular, with a short stem,
+and slightly punctured at the intersections.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/440.png"><img width="100%" src="images/440.png" alt=
+"" /></a></div>
+<p>The "soothsayer," on the other hand (<i>Mantis
+superstitiosa.</i> Fab.<a id="footnotetag4101" name=
+"footnotetag4101"></a><a href="#footnote4101"><sup>4101</sup></a>),
+little justifies by its propensities the appearance of gentleness,
+and the attitudes of sanctity, which have obtained for it the title
+of the "praying mantis." Its habits are carnivorous, and degenerate
+into cannibalism, as it preys on the weaker individuals of its own
+species. Two which I enclosed in a box were both found dead a few
+hours after, literally severed limb from limb in their encounter.
+The formation of the foreleg enables the tibia to be so closed on
+the sharp edge of the thigh as to amputate any slender substance
+grasped within it.</p>
+<p><i>The Stick-insect</i>.&mdash;The <i>Phasmid&aelig;</i> or
+spectres, another class of orthoptera, present as close a
+resemblance to small branches or leafless twigs as their congeners
+do to green leaves. The wing-covers, where they exist, instead of
+being expanded, are applied so closely to the body as to detract
+nothing from its rounded form, and <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page411" id="page411"></a>[pg 411]</span> hence the name which
+they have acquired of "<i>walking-sticks</i>." Like the
+<i>Phyllium</i>, the <i>Phasma</i> lives exclusively on vegetables,
+and some attain the length of several inches.</p>
+<p>Of all the other tribes of the <i>Orthoptera</i> Ceylon
+possesses many representatives; in swarms of cockroaches,
+grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets.</p>
+<p>NEUROPTERA. <i>Dragon-flies</i>.&mdash;Of the <i>Neuroptera</i>,
+some of the dragon-flies are pre-eminently beautiful; one species,
+with rich brown-coloured spots upon its gauzy wings, is to be seen
+near every pool.<a id="footnotetag4111" name=
+"footnotetag4111"></a><a href="#footnote4111"><sup>4111</sup></a>
+Another<a id="footnotetag4112" name="footnotetag4112"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4112"><sup>4112</sup></a>, which dances above the
+mountain streams in Oovah, and amongst the hills descending towards
+Kandy, gleams in the sun as if each of its green enamelled wings
+had been sliced from an emerald.</p>
+<p><i>The Ant-Lion.</i>&mdash;Of the ant-lion, whose larv&aelig;
+have earned a bad renown from their predaceous ingenuity, Ceylon
+has, at least, four species, which seem peculiar to the
+island.<a id="footnotetag4113" name="footnotetag4113"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4113"><sup>4113</sup></a> This singular creature,
+preparatory to its pupal transformation, contrives to excavate a
+conical pitfall in the dust to the depth of about an inch, in the
+bottom of which it conceals itself, exposing only its open
+mandibles above the surface; and here every ant and soft-bodied
+insect which curiosity tempts to descend, or accident may
+precipitate into the trap, is ruthlessly seized and devoured by its
+ambushed inhabitant.</p>
+<p><i>The White Ant</i>.&mdash;But of the insects of this order the
+most noted are the <i>white ants</i> or termites (which are ants
+only by a misnomer). They are, unfortunately, at once ubiquitous
+and innumerable in every spot where <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page412" id="page412"></a>[pg 412]</span> the climate is not too
+chilly, or the soil too sandy, for them to construct their domed
+edifices.</p>
+<p>These they raise from a considerable depth under ground,
+excavating the clay with their mandibles, and moistening it with
+tenacious saliva<a id="footnotetag4121" name=
+"footnotetag4121"></a><a href="#footnote4121"><sup>4121</sup></a>
+until it assume the appearance, and almost the consistency, of
+sandstone. So delicate is the trituration to which they subject
+this material, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the powdered
+clay of the ant hills in preference to all other substances in the
+preparation of crucibles and moulds for their finer castings: and
+KNOX says, "the people use this finer clay to make their earthen
+gods of, it is so pure and fine."<a id="footnotetag4122" name=
+"footnotetag4122"></a><a href="#footnote4122"><sup>4122</sup></a>
+These structures the termites erect with such perseverance and
+durability that they frequently rise to the height of ten or twelve
+feet from <span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id=
+"page413"></a>[pg 413]</span> the ground, with a corresponding
+diameter. They are so firm in their texture that the weight of a
+horse makes no apparent indentation on their solidity; and even the
+intense rains of the monsoon, which no cement or mortar can long
+resist, fail to penetrate the surface or substance of an ant
+hill.<a id="footnotetag4131" name="footnotetag4131"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4131"><sup>4131</sup></a> In their earlier stages the
+termites proceed with such energetic rapidity, that I have seen a
+pinnacle of moist clay, six inches in height and twice as large in
+diameter, constructed underneath a table between sitting down to
+dinner and the removal of the cloth.</p>
+<p>As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried up from
+beneath the surface, a cave of corresponding dimensions is
+necessarily scooped out below, and here, under the multitude of
+miniature cupolas and pinnacles which canopy it above, the termites
+hollow out the royal chamber for their queen, with spacious
+nurseries surrounding it on all sides; and all are connected by
+arched galleries, long passages, and doorways of the most intricate
+and elaborate construction. In the centre and underneath the
+spacious dome is the recess for the queen&mdash;a hideous creature,
+with the head and thorax of an ordinary termite, but a body swollen
+to a hundred <span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id=
+"page414"></a>[pg 414]</span> times its usual and proportionate
+bulk, and presenting the appearance of a mass of shapeless pulp.
+From this great progenitrix proceed the myriads that people the
+subterranean hive, consisting, like the communities of the genuine
+ants, of labourers and soldiers, which are destined never to
+acquire a fuller development than that of larv&aelig;, and the
+perfect insects which in due time become invested with wings and
+take their departing flight from the cave. But their new equipment
+seems only destined to facilitate their dispersion from the parent
+nest, which takes place at dusk; and almost as quickly as they
+leave it they divest themselves of their ineffectual wings, waving
+them impatiently and twisting them in every direction till they
+become detached and drop off, and the swarm, within a few hours of
+their emancipation, become a prey to the night-jars and bats, which
+are instantly attracted to them as they issue in a cloud from the
+ground. I am not prepared to say that the other insectivorous birds
+would not gladly make a meal of the termites, but, seeing that in
+Ceylon their numbers are chiefly kept in check by the crepuscular
+birds, it is observable, at least as a coincidence, that the
+dispersion of the swarm generally takes place at <i>twilight</i>.
+Those that escape the <i>caprimulgi</i> fall a prey to the crows,
+on the morning succeeding their flight.</p>
+<p>The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages of the white
+ants is that they shrink from the light; in all their expeditions
+for providing food they construct a covered pathway of moistened
+clay, and their galleries above ground extend to an incredible
+distance from the central nest. No timber, except ebony and
+ironwood, which are too hard, and those which are strongly
+impregnated <span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id=
+"page415"></a>[pg 415]</span> with camphor or aromatic oils, which
+they dislike, presents any obstacle to their ingress. I have had a
+case of wine filled, in the course of two days, with almost solid
+clay, and only discovered the presence of the white ants by the
+escape from the corks. I have had a portmanteau in my tent so
+peopled with them in the course of a single night that the contents
+were found worthless in the morning. In an incredibly short time a
+detachment of these pests will destroy a press full of records,
+reducing the paper to fragments; and a shelf of books will be
+tunnelled into a gallery if it happen to be in their line of march.
+The timbers of a house when fairly attacked are eaten from within
+till the beams are reduced to an absolute shell, so thin that it
+may be punched through with the point of the finger: and even
+kyanized wood, unless impregnated with an extra quantity of
+corrosive sublimate, appears to occasion them no inconvenience. The
+only effectual precaution for the protection of furniture is
+incessant vigilance&mdash;the constant watching of every article,
+and its daily removal from place to place, in order to baffle their
+assaults.</p>
+<p>They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of 4000 or
+5000 feet. One species of white ant, the <i>Termes Taprobanes</i>,
+was at one time believed by Mr. Walker to be peculiar to the
+island, but it has recently been found in Sumatra and Borneo, and
+in some parts of Hindustan.</p>
+<p>There is a species of Termes in Ceylon (<i>T. monoceros</i>),
+which always builds its nest in the hollow of an old tree; and,
+unlike the others, carries on its labours without the secrecy and
+protection of a covered way. A marching column of these creatures
+may be observed at early <span class="pagenum"><a name="page416"
+id="page416"></a>[pg 416]</span> morning in the vicinity of their
+nest, returning laden with the spoils collected during their
+foraging excursions. These consist of comminuted vegetable matter,
+derived, it may be, from a thatched roof, if one happens to be
+within reach, or from the decaying leaves of a coco-nut. Each
+little worker in the column carries its tiny load in its jaws; and
+the number of individuals in one of these lines of march must be
+immense, for the column is generally about two inches in width, and
+very densely crowded. One was measured which had most likely been
+in motion for hours, moving in the direction of the nest, and was
+found to be upwards of sixty paces in length. If attention be
+directed to the mass in motion, it will be observed that flanking
+it on each side throughout its whole length are stationed a number
+of horned soldier termites, whose duty it is to protect the
+labourers, and to give notice of any danger threatening them. This
+latter duty they perform by a peculiar quivering motion of the
+whole body, which is rapidly communicated from one to the other for
+a considerable distance: a portion of the column is then thrown
+into confusion for a short time, but confidence soon returns, and
+the progress of the little creatures goes on with steadiness and
+order as before. The nest is of a black colour, and resembles a
+mass of scori&aelig;; the insects themselves are of a pitchy
+brown.<a id="footnotetag4161" name="footnotetag4161"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4161"><sup>4161</sup></a></p>
+<p>HYMENOPTERA. <i>Mason Wasp</i>.&mdash;In Ceylon as in all other
+countries, the order of hymenopterous insects arrests us less by
+the beauty of their forms than the marvels of their sagacity and
+the achievements of their <span class="pagenum"><a name="page417"
+id="page417"></a>[pg 417]</span> instinct. A fossorial wasp of the
+family of <i>Sphegid&aelig;</i>,<a id="footnotetag4171" name=
+"footnotetag4171"></a><a href="#footnote4171"><sup>4171</sup></a>
+which is distinguished by its metallic lustre, enters by the open
+windows, and converts irritation at its movements into admiration
+of the graceful industry with which it stops up the keyholes and
+similar apertures with clay in order to build in them a cell. Into
+this it thrusts the pupa of some other insect, within whose body it
+has previously introduced its own eggs. The whole is surrounded
+with moistened earth, through which the young parasite, after
+undergoing its transformations, gnaws its way into light, to emerge
+as a four-winged fly.<a id="footnotetag4172" name=
+"footnotetag4172"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4172"><sup>4172</sup></a></p>
+<p>A formidable species (<i>Sphex ferruginea</i> of St. Fargeau),
+which is common to India and most of the eastern islands, is
+regarded with the utmost dread by the unclad natives, who fly
+precipitately on finding themselves <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page418" id="page418"></a>[pg 418]</span> in the vicinity<a id=
+"footnotetag4181" name="footnotetag4181"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4181"><sup>4181</sup></a> of its nests. These are of such
+ample dimensions, that when suspended from a branch, they often
+measure upwards of six feet in length.<a id="footnotetag4182" name=
+"footnotetag4182"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4182"><sup>4182</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Bees.</i>&mdash;Bees of several species and genera, some
+unprovided with stings, and some in size scarcely exceeding a
+house-fly, deposit their honey in hollow trees, or suspend their
+combs from a branch. The spoils of their industry form one of the
+chief resources of the uncivilised Veddahs, who collect the wax in
+the upland forests, to be bartered for arrow points and clothes in
+the lowlands.<a id="footnotetag4183" name=
+"footnotetag4183"></a><a href="#footnote4183"><sup>4183</sup></a> I
+have never heard of an instance of persons being attacked by the
+bees of Ceylon, and hence the natives assert, that those most
+productive of honey are destitute of stings.</p>
+<p><i>The Carpenter Bee.</i>&mdash;The operations of one of the
+most interesting of the tribe, the Carpenter bee<a id=
+"footnotetag4184" name="footnotetag4184"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4184"><sup>4184</sup></a>, I have watched with admiration
+from the window of the Colonial <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page419" id="page419"></a>[pg 419]</span> Secretary's official
+residence at Kandy. So soon as the day grew warm, these active
+creatures were at work perforating the wooden columns which
+supported the verandah. They poised themselves on their shining
+purple wings, as they made the first lodgment in the wood,
+enlivening the work with an uninterrupted hum of delight, which was
+audible to a considerable distance. When the excavation had
+proceeded so far that the insect could descend into it, the music
+was suspended, but renewed from time to time, as the little
+creature came to the orifice to throw out the chips, to rest, or to
+enjoy the fresh air. By degrees, a mound of saw-dust was formed at
+the base of the pillar, consisting of particles abraded by the
+mandibles of the bee. These, when the hollow was completed to the
+depth of several inches, were partially replaced in the excavation
+after being agglutinated to form partitions between the eggs, as
+they were deposited within. The mandibles<a id="footnotetag4191"
+name="footnotetag4191"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4191"><sup>4191</sup></a> of these bees are admirably
+formed for the purpose of working out the tunnels required, being
+short, stout, and usually furnished at the tip with two teeth which
+are rounded somewhat into the form of cheese-cutters.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/449.png"><img width="100%" src="images/449.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE CARPENTER BEE</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>[pg
+420]</span>
+<p>These when brought into operation cut out the wood in the same
+way as a carpenter's double gouge, the teeth being more or less
+hollowed out within. The female alone is furnished with these
+powerful instruments. In the males the mandibles are slender as
+compared with those of the females. The bores of some of these bees
+are described as being from twelve to fourteen inches in
+length.</p>
+<p><i>Ants</i>.&mdash;As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstanding
+their numbers and familiarity, information is very imperfect
+relative to the varieties and habits of these marvellous insects in
+Ceylon.<a id="footnotetag4201" name="footnotetag4201"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4201"><sup>4201</sup></a> In point of multitude it is
+scarcely an exaggeration to apply to them the figure of "the sands
+of the sea." They are everywhere; in the earth, in the houses, and
+on the trees; they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and
+almost on every plant in the jungle. To some of the latter they
+are, perhaps, attracted by the sweet juices secreted by the aphides
+and coccid&aelig;.<a id="footnotetag4202" name=
+"footnotetag4202"></a><a href="#footnote4202"><sup>4202</sup></a>
+Such is the passion <span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id=
+"page421"></a>[pg 421]</span> of the ants for sugar, and their
+wonderful faculty of discovering it, that the smallest particle of
+a substance containing it is quickly covered with them, though
+placed in the least conspicuous position, where not a single one
+may have been visible a moment before. But it is not sweet
+substances alone that they attack; no animal or vegetable matter
+comes amiss to them: no aperture appears too small to admit them;
+it is necessary to place everything which it may be desirable to
+keep free from their invasion, under the closest cover, or on
+tables with cups of water under every foot. As scavengers, they are
+invaluable; and as ants never sleep, but work without cessation
+during the night as well as by day, every particle of decaying
+vegetable or putrid animal matter is removed with inconceiveable
+speed and certainty. In collecting shells, I have been able to turn
+this propensity to good account; by placing them within their
+reach, the ants in a few days removed every vestige of the mollusc
+from the innermost and otherwise inaccessible whorls; thus avoiding
+all risk of injuring the enamel by any mechanical process.</p>
+<p>But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead animals
+alone, they attack equally such small insects as they can overcome,
+or find disabled by accidents or wounds; and it is not unusual to
+see some hundreds of them surrounding a maimed beetle, or a bruised
+cockroach, and hurrying it along in spite of its struggles. I have,
+on more than one occasion, seen a contest between, them and one of
+the viscous ophidians, <i>C&aelig;cilia, glutinosa</i><a id=
+"footnotetag4211" name="footnotetag4211"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4211"><sup>4211</sup></a>, a reptile resembling an
+enormous earthworm, common in the Kandyan hills, of an inch in
+diameter, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id=
+"page422"></a>[pg 422]</span> and nearly two feet in length. On
+these occasions it would seem as if the whole community had been
+summoned and turned out for such a prodigious effort; they surround
+their victim literally in tens of thousands, inflicting wounds on
+all parts, and forcing it along towards their nest in spite of
+resistance. In one instance to which I was a witness, the conflict
+lasted for the latter part of a day, but towards evening the
+Coecilia was completely exhausted, and in the morning it had
+totally disappeared, having been carried away either whole or
+piecemeal by its assailants.</p>
+<p>The species I here allude to is a very small ant, which the
+Singhalese call by the generic name of <i>Koombiya</i>. There is a
+species still more minute, and evidently distinct, which frequents
+the caraffes and toilet vessels. A third, probably the <i>Formica
+nidificans</i> of Jerdan, is black, of the same size as that last
+mentioned, and, from its colour, called the <i>Kalu koombiga</i> by
+the natives. In the houses its propensities and habits are the same
+as those of the others; but I have observed that it frequents the
+trees more profusely, forming small paper cells for its young, like
+miniature wasps' nests, in which it deposits its eggs, suspending
+them from a twig.</p>
+<p>The most formidable of all is the great red ant or Dimiya.<a id=
+"footnotetag4221" name="footnotetag4221"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4221"><sup>4221</sup></a> It is particularly abundant in
+gardens, and on fruit trees; it constructs its dwellings by glueing
+the leaves of such species as are suitable from their shape and
+pliancy into hollow balls, and these it lines with a kind of
+transparent paper, like that manufactured by the wasp. I have
+watched them at the interesting operation of forming these
+dwellings;&mdash;a line of ants standing on the edge of one leaf
+bring another into contact <span class="pagenum"><a name="page423"
+id="page423"></a>[pg 423]</span> with it, and hold both together
+with their mandibles till their companions within attach them
+firmly by means of their adhesive paper, the assistants outside
+moving along as the work proceeds. If it be necessary to draw
+closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by the immediate
+workers, they form a chain by depending one from the other till the
+object is reached, when it is at length brought into contact, and
+made fast by cement.</p>
+<p>Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual motion, forming
+lines on the ground along which they pass, in continual procession
+to and from the trees on which they reside. They are the most
+irritable of the whole order in Ceylon, biting with such intense
+ferocity as to render it difficult for the unclad natives to
+collect the fruit from the mango trees, which the red ants
+especially frequent. They drop from the branches upon travellers in
+the jungle, attacking them with venom and fury, and inflicting
+intolerable pain both upon animals and man. On examining the
+structure of the head through a microscope, I found that the
+mandibles, instead of merely meeting in contact, are so hooked as
+to cross each other at the points, whilst the inner line is sharply
+serrated throughout its entire length; thus occasioning the intense
+pain of their bite, as compared with that of the ordinary ant.</p>
+<p>To check the ravages of the coffee bug<a id="footnotetag4231"
+name="footnotetag4231"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4231"><sup>4231</sup></a> (<i>Lecanium coffe&aelig;</i>,
+Walker), which for some years past has devastated some of the
+plantations in Ceylon, the experiment was made of introducing the
+red ants, who feed greedily on the Coccus. But the remedy
+threatened to be attended with some inconvenience, for the Malabar
+Coolies, with bare and oiled skins, were so frequently and fiercely
+assaulted by the ants as to endanger their stay on the estates.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>[pg
+424]</span>
+<p>The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are generally, but
+not invariably, black, and some of them are of considerable size.
+One species, about the third of an inch in length, is abundant in
+the hills, and especially about the roots of trees, where they pile
+up the earth in circular heaps round the entrance to their nests,
+and in doing this I have observed a singular illustration of their
+instinct. To carry up each particle of sand by itself would be an
+endless waste of labour, and to carry two or more loose ones
+securely would be to them embarrassing, if not impossible. To
+overcome the difficulty they glue together with their saliva so
+much earth or sand as is sufficient for a burden, and each ant may
+be seen hurrying up from below with his load, carrying it to the
+top of the circular heap outside, and throwing it over, the mass
+being so strongly attached as to roll to the bottom without
+breaking asunder.</p>
+<p>The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, differing
+in this particular from the Dimiya and another of similar size and
+ferocity, which is called by the Singhalese <i>Kaddiya</i>. They
+have a legend illustrative of their alarm for the bites of the
+latter, to the effect that the cobra de capello invested the
+Kaddiya with her own venom in admiration of the singular courage
+displayed by these little creatures.<a id="footnotetag4241" name=
+"footnotetag4241"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4241"><sup>4241</sup></a></p>
+<p>LEPIDOPTERA. <i>Butterflies</i>.&mdash;In the interior of the
+island butterflies are comparatively rare, and, contrary to the
+ordinary belief, they are seldom to be seen in the sunshine. They
+frequent the neighbourhood of the jungle, and especially the
+vicinity of the rivers and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page425"
+id="page425"></a>[pg 425]</span> waterfalls, living mainly in the
+shade of the moist foliage, and returning to it in haste after the
+shortest flights, as if their slender bodies were speedily dried up
+and exhausted by exposure to the intense heat.</p>
+<p>Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon Lepidoptera is
+the great black and yellow butterfly (<i>Ornithoptera darsius</i>,
+Gray); the upper wings of which measure six inches across, and are
+of deep velvet black, the lower ornamented by large particles of
+satiny yellow, through which the sunlight passes. Few insects can
+compare with it in beauty, as it hovers over the flowers of the
+heliotrope, which furnish the favourite food of the perfect fly,
+although the caterpillar feeds on the aristolochia and the <i>betel
+leaf</i>, and suspends its chrysalis from its drooping
+tendrils.</p>
+<p>Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often exceeding it in
+breadth, is the black and blue <i>Papilio Polymnestor</i>, which
+darts rapidly through the air, alighting on the ruddy flowers of
+the hibiscus, or the dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it
+deposits its eggs. The larv&aelig; of this species are green with
+white bands, and have a hump on the fourth or fifth segment. From
+this hump the caterpillar, on being irritated, protrudes a singular
+horn of an orange colour, bifurcate at the extremity, and covered
+with a pungent mucilaginous secretion. This is evidently intended
+as a weapon of defence against the attack of the ichneumon flies,
+that deposit their eggs in its soft body, for when the grub is
+pricked, either by the ovipositor of the ichneumon, or by any other
+sharp instrument, the horn is at once protruded, and struck upon
+the offending object with unerring aim.</p>
+<p>Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>[pg 426]</span> is the
+<i>P. Hector</i>, with gorgeous crimson spots set in the black
+velvet of the inferior wings; these, when fresh, are shot with a
+purple blush, equalling in splendour the azure of the European
+"<i>Emperor.</i>"</p>
+<p><i>The Spectre Butterfly.</i>&mdash;Another butterfly, but
+belonging to a widely different group, is the "sylph" (<i>Hestia
+Jasonia</i>), called by the Europeans by the various names of
+<i>Floater, Spectre</i>, and <i>Silver-paper fly</i>, as indicative
+of its graceful flight. It is found only in the deep shade of the
+damp forest, usually frequenting the vicinity of pools of water and
+cascades, about which it sails heedless of the spray, the moisture
+of which may even be beneficial in preserving the elasticity of its
+thin and delicate wings, that bend and undulate in the act of
+flight.</p>
+<p>The <i>Lycanid&aelig;</i><a id="footnotetag4261" name=
+"footnotetag4261"></a><a href="#footnote4261"><sup>4261</sup></a>,
+a particularly attractive group, abound near the enclosures of
+cultivated grounds, and amongst the low shrubs edging the patenas,
+flitting from flower to flower, inspecting each in turn, as if
+attracted by their beauty, in the full blaze of sun-light; and
+shunning exposure less sedulously than the other diurnals. Some of
+the more robust kinds<a id="footnotetag4262" name=
+"footnotetag4262"></a><a href="#footnote4262"><sup>4262</sup></a>
+are magnificent in the bright light, from the splendour of their
+metallic blues and glowing purples, but they yield in elegance of
+form and variety to their tinier and more delicately-coloured
+congeners.</p>
+<p>Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar forms,
+and the naturalist marks with interest the small, but strong,
+<i>Hesperid&aelig;</i><a id="footnotetag4263" name=
+"footnotetag4263"></a><a href="#footnote4263"><sup>4263</sup></a>,
+hurrying, by abrupt and jerking flights, to the scented blossoms of
+the champac or <span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id=
+"page427"></a>[pg 427]</span> the sweet night-blowing moon-flower;
+and, when darkness gathers around, we can hear, though hardly
+distinguish amid the gloom, the humming of the powerful wings of
+innumerable hawk moths, which hover with their long proboscides
+inserted into the starry petals of the periwinkle.</p>
+<p>Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the richly-coloured
+<i>Acherontia Satanas</i>, one of the Singhalese representatives of
+our Death's-head moth, which utters a sharp and stridulous cry when
+seized. This sound has been conjectured to be produced by the
+friction of its thorax against the abdomen;&mdash;Reaumur believed
+it to be caused by the rubbing of the palpi against the tongue. I
+have never been able to observe either motion, and Mr. E.L. Layard
+is of opinion that the sound is emitted from two apertures
+concealed by tufts of wiry bristles thrown out from each side of
+the inferior portion of the thorax.<a id="footnotetag4271" name=
+"footnotetag4271"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4271"><sup>4271</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>Moths.</i>&mdash;Among the strictly nocturnal
+<i>Lepidoptera</i> are some gigantic species. Of these the
+cinnamon-eating <i>Atlas</i>, often attains the dimensions of
+nearly a foot in the stretch of its superior wings. It is very
+common in the gardens about Colombo, and its size, and the
+transparent talc-like spots in its wings, cannot fail to strike
+even the most careless saunterer. But little inferior to it in size
+is the famed Tusseh silk moth<a id="footnotetag4272" name=
+"footnotetag4272"></a><a href="#footnote4272"><sup>4272</sup></a>,
+which feeds on the country almond (<i>Terminalia catappa</i>) and
+the palma Christi or Castor-oil plant; it is easily distinguishable
+from the Atlas, which has a triangular wing, whilst its is
+falcated, and the transparent spots are covered with a curious
+thread-like division drawn across them.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>[pg
+428]</span>
+<p>Towards the northern portions of the island this valuable
+species entirely displaces the other, owing to the fact that the
+almond and <i>palma Christi</i> abound there. The latter plant
+springs up spontaneously on every manure-heap or neglected spot of
+ground; and might be cultivated, as in India, with great advantage,
+the leaf to be used as food for the caterpillar, the stalk as
+fodder for cattle, and the seed for the expression of castor-oil.
+The Dutch took advantage of this facility, and gave every
+encouragement to the cultivation of silk at Jaffna<a id=
+"footnotetag4281" name="footnotetag4281"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4281"><sup>4281</sup></a>, but it never attained such a
+development as to become an article of commercial importance.
+Ceylon now cultivates no silkworms whatever, notwithstanding this
+abundance of the favourite food of one species; and the rich silken
+robes sometimes worn by the Buddhist priesthood are imported from
+China and the continent of India.</p>
+<p>In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there are many
+other <i>Bombycid&aelig;</i>; in Ceylon; and, though the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>[pg
+429]</span> silk of some of them, were it susceptible of being
+unwound from the cocoon, would not bear a comparison with that of
+the <i>Bombyx mori</i>, or even of the Tusseh moth, it might still
+prove to be valuable when carded and spun. If the European
+residents in the colony would rear the larv&aelig; of these
+Lepidoptera, and make drawings of their various changes, they would
+render a possible service to commerce, and a certain one to
+entomological knowledge.</p>
+<p><i>Stinging Caterpillars</i>.&mdash;The Dutch carried to their
+Eastern settlements two of their home propensities, which
+distinguish and embellish the towns of the Low Countries; they
+indulged in the excavation of canals, and they planted long lines
+of trees to diffuse shade over the sultry passages in their Indian
+fortresses. For the latter purpose they employed the Suriya
+(<i>Hibiscus populneus</i>), whose broad umbrageous leaves and
+delicate yellow flowers impart a delicious coolness, and give to
+the streets of Galle and Colombo the fresh and enlivening aspect of
+walks in a garden.</p>
+<p>In the towns, however, the suriya trees are productive of one
+serious inconvenience. They are the resort of a hairy greenish
+caterpillar<a id="footnotetag4291" name=
+"footnotetag4291"></a><a href="#footnote4291"><sup>4291</sup></a>,
+longitudinally striped, great numbers of which frequent them, and
+at a certain stage of growth descend by a silken thread to the
+ground and hurry away, probably in search of a suitable spot in
+which to pass through their metamorphoses. Should they happen to
+alight, as they often do, upon some lounger below, and find their
+way to his unprotected skin, they inflict, if molested, a sting as
+pungent, but far more lasting, than that of a nettle or a
+star-fish.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>[pg
+430]</span>
+<p>Attention being thus directed to the quarter whence an assailant
+has lowered himself down, the caterpillars above will be found in
+clusters, sometimes amounting to hundreds, clinging to the branches
+and the bark, with a few straggling over the leaves or suspended
+from them by lines. These pests are so annoying to children as well
+as destructive to the foliage, that it is often necessary to singe
+them off the trees by a flambeau fixed on the extremity of a pole;
+and as they fall to the ground they are eagerly devoured by the
+crows and domestic fowls.<a id="footnotetag4301" name=
+"footnotetag4301"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4301"><sup>4301</sup></a></p>
+<p><i>The Wood-carrying Moth</i>.&mdash;There is another family of
+insects, the singular habits of which will not fail to attract the
+traveller in the cultivated tracts of Ceylon&mdash;these are moths
+of the genus <i>Oiketicus</i><a id="footnotetag4302" name=
+"footnotetag4302"></a><a href="#footnote4302"><sup>4302</sup></a>,
+of which the females are devoid of wings, and some possess no
+articulated feet. Their larv&aelig; construct for themselves cases,
+which they suspend to a branch frequently of the pomegranate<a id=
+"footnotetag4303" name="footnotetag4303"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4303"><sup>4303</sup></a>, surrounding them with the
+stems of leaves, and thorns or pieces of twigs bound together by
+threads, till the whole presents the appearance of a bundle of rods
+about an inch and a half long; and, from the resemblance of this to
+a Roman fasces, one <span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id=
+"page431"></a>[pg 431]</span> African species has obtained the name
+of "Lictor." The German entomologists denominated the group
+<i>Sacktr&auml;ger</i>, the Singhalese call them <i>Dara-kattea</i>
+or "billets of firewood," and regard the inmates as human beings,
+who, as a punishment for stealing wood in some former state of
+existence, have been condemned to undergo a metempsychosis under
+the form of these insects.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"><a href=
+"images/461.png"><img width="100%" src="images/461.png" alt=
+"" /></a> THE WOOD-CARRYING MOTH.</div>
+<p>The male, at the close of the pupal rest, escapes from one end
+of this singular covering, but the female makes it her dwelling for
+life; moving about with it at pleasure, and entrenching herself
+within it, when alarmed, by drawing together the purse-like
+aperture at the open end. Of these remarkable creatures there are
+five ascertained species in Ceylon: <i>Psyche Doubledaii</i>,
+Westw.; <i>Metisa plana</i>; Walker; <i>Eumeta Cramerii</i>,
+Westw.; <span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id=
+"page432"></a>[pg 432]</span> <i>E. Templetonii</i>, Westw.; and
+<i>Cryptothelea consorta</i>, Temp.</p>
+<p>All the other tribes of minute <i>Lepitoptera</i> have abundant
+representatives in Ceylon; some of them most attractive from the
+great beauty of their markings and colouring. The curious little
+split-winged moth (<i>Pterophorus</i>) is frequently seen in the
+cinnamon gardens and in the vicinity of the fort, hid from the
+noon-day heat among the cool grass shaded by the coco-nut topes.
+Three species have been captured, all characterised by the same
+singular feature of having the wings fan-like, separated nearly
+their entire length into detached sections, resembling feathers in
+the pinions of a bird expanded for flight.</p>
+<p>HOMOPTERA. <i>Cicada.</i>&mdash;Of the <i>Homoptera</i>, the one
+which will most frequently arrest attention is the cicada, which,
+resting high up on the bark of a tree, makes the forest re-echo
+with a long-sustained noise so curiously resembling that of a
+cutler's wheel that the creature producing it has acquired the
+highly-appropriate name of the "knife-grinder."</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/462.png"><img width="100%" src="images/462.png" alt=
+"" /></a> CICADA&mdash;"THE KNIFE GRINDER."</div>
+<p>In the jungle which adjoined the grounds attached to my official
+residence at Kandy, the shrubs were frequented by an insect covered
+profusely with a snow-white powder, arranged in delicate filaments
+that curl like <span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id=
+"page433"></a>[pg 433]</span> a head of dressed celery. These it
+moves without dispersing the powder: but when dead they fall
+rapidly to dust. I regret that I did not preserve specimens, but I
+have reason to think that they are the larv&aelig; of the <i>Flata
+limbata</i>, or of some other closely allied species<a id=
+"footnotetag4331" name="footnotetag4331"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4331"><sup>4331</sup></a>, though I have not seen in
+Ceylon any of the wax produced by the <i>flata</i>.</p>
+<p>HEMIPTERA. <i>Bugs</i>.&mdash;On the shrubs in his compound the
+newly-arrived traveller will be attracted by an insect of a pale
+green hue and delicately-thin configuration, which, resting from
+its recent flight, composes its scanty wings, and moves languidly
+along the leaf. But experience will teach him to limit his
+examination to a respectful view of its attitudes; it is one of a
+numerous family of bugs, (some of them most attractive<a id=
+"footnotetag4332" name="footnotetag4332"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4332"><sup>4332</sup></a> in their colouring,) which are
+inoffensive if unmolested, but if touched or irritated, exhale an
+odour that, once endured, is never afterwards forgotten.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50%;"><a href=
+"images/463a.png"><img width="100%" src="images/463a.png" alt=
+"" /></a> POECILOPTERA TENNENTINA.</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50%;"><a href=
+"images/463b.png"><img width="100%" src="images/463b.png" alt=
+"" /></a> ELIDIPTERA EMERSONIANA.</div>
+<p>APHANIPTERA. <i>Fleas</i>.&mdash;Fleas are equally numerous, and
+may be seen in myriads in the dust of the streets or skipping in
+the sunbeams which fall on the clay floors of the cottages. The
+dogs, to escape them, select for their sleeping places spots where
+a wood fire has been previously kindled; and here prone on the
+white ashes, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id=
+"page434"></a>[pg 434]</span> their stomachs close to the earth,
+and their hind legs extended behind, they repose in comparative
+coolness, and bid defiance to their persecutors.</p>
+<p>DIPTERA. <i>Mosquitoes</i>.&mdash;But of all the insect pests
+that beset an unseasoned European the most provoking by far is the
+truculent mosquito.<a id="footnotetag4341" name=
+"footnotetag4341"></a><a href="#footnote4341"><sup>4341</sup></a>
+Next to the torture which it inflicts, its most annoying
+peculiarities are the booming hum of its approach, its cunning, its
+audacity, and the perseverance with which it renews its attacks
+however frequently repulsed. These characteristics are so
+remarkable as fully to justify the conjecture that the mosquito,
+and not the ordinary fly, constituted the plague inflicted upon
+Pharaoh and the Egyptians.<a id="footnotetag4342" name=
+"footnotetag4342"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4342"><sup>4342</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>[pg
+435]</span>
+<p>Even in the midst of endurance from their onslaughts one cannot
+but be amused by the ingenuity of their movements; as if aware of
+the risk incident to an open assault, a favourite mode of attack
+is, when concealed by a table, to assail the ankles through the
+meshes of the stocking, or the knees which are ineffectually
+protected by a fold of Russian duck. When you are reading, a
+mosquito will rarely settle on that portion of your hand which is
+within range of your eyes, but cunningly stealing by the underside
+of the book fastens on the wrist or little finger, and noiselessly
+inserts his proboscis there. I have tested the classical expedient
+recorded by Herodotus, who states that the fishermen inhabiting the
+fens of Egypt, cover their beds with their nets, knowing that the
+mosquitoes, although they bite through linen robes, will not
+venture through a net.<a id="footnotetag4351" name=
+"footnotetag4351"></a><a href="#footnote4351"><sup>4351</sup></a>
+But, notwithstanding the opinion of Spence<a id="footnotetag4352"
+name="footnotetag4352"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4352"><sup>4352</sup></a>, that nets with meshes an inch
+square will effectually exclude them, I have been satisfied by
+painful experience that (if the theory be not altogether
+fallacious) at least the modern mosquitoes of Ceylon are
+uninfluenced by the same considerations which restrained those of
+the Nile under the successors of Cambyses.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>[pg
+436]</span>
+<p><i>The Coffee-Bug</i>.&mdash;Allusion has been made in a
+previous passage to the coccus known in Ceylon as the "Coffee-Bug"
+(<i>Lecanium Caffe&aelig;</i>, Wlk.), which of late years has made
+such destructive ravages in the plantations in the Mountain
+Zone.<a id="footnotetag4361" name="footnotetag4361"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4361"><sup>4361</sup></a> The first thing that attracts
+attention on looking at a coffee tree infested by it, is the number
+of brownish wart-like bodies that stud the young shoots and
+occasionally the margins on the underside of the leaves.<a id=
+"footnotetag4362" name="footnotetag4362"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4362"><sup>4362</sup></a> Each of these warts or scales
+is a transformed female, containing a large number of eggs which
+are hatched within it.</p>
+<p>When the young ones come out from their nest, they run about
+over the plant like diminutive wood-lice, and at this period there
+is no apparent distinction between male and female. Shortly after
+being hatched the males seek the underside of the leaves, while the
+females prefer the young shoots as a place of abode. If the under
+surface of a leaf be examined, it will be found to be studded,
+particularly on its basil half, with minute yellowish-white specks
+of an oblong form.<a id="footnotetag4363" name=
+"footnotetag4363"></a><a href="#footnote4363"><sup>4363</sup></a>
+These are the larv&aelig; of the males undergoing transformation
+into pup&aelig;, beneath their own skins; some of these specks are
+always in a more advanced state than the others, the full-grown
+ones being whitish and scarcely a line <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>[pg 437]</span> long.
+Some of this size are translucent, the insect having escaped; the
+darker ones still retain it within, of an oblong form, with the
+rudiment of a wing on each side attached to the lower part of the
+thorax and closely applied to the sides; the legs are six in
+number, the four hind ones being directed backwards, the anterior
+forwards (a peculiarity not common in other insects); the two
+antenn&aelig; are also inclined backwards, and from the tail
+protrude three short bristles, the middle one thinner and longer
+than the rest.</p>
+<p>When the transformation is complete, the mature insect makes its
+way from beneath the pellucid case<a id="footnotetag4371" name=
+"footnotetag4371"></a><a href="#footnote4371"><sup>4371</sup></a>,
+all its organs having then attained their full size: the head is
+sub-globular, with two rather prominent black eyes, and two
+antenn&aelig;, each with eleven joints, hairy throughout, and a
+tuft of rather longer hairs at the apices; the legs are also
+covered with hairs, the wings are horizontal, of an obovate oblong
+shape, membranous, and extending a little farther than the bristles
+of the tail. They have only two nerves, neither of which reaches so
+far as the tips; one of them runs close to the costal margin, and
+is much thicker than the other, which branches off from its base
+and skirts along the inner margin; behind the wings is attached a
+pair of minute halteres of peculiar form. The possession of wings
+would appear to be the cause why the full-grown male is more rarely
+seen on the coffee bushes than the female.</p>
+<p>The female, like the male, attaches herself to the surface of
+the plant, the place selected being usually <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>[pg 438]</span> the
+young shoots; but she is also to be met with on the margins of the
+undersides of the leaves (on the upper surface neither the male nor
+female ever attach themselves); but, unlike the male, which derives
+no nourishment from the juices of the tree (the mouth being
+obsolete in the perfect state), she punctures the cuticle with a
+proboscis (a very short three-jointed <i>promuscis</i>), springing
+as it were from the breast, but capable of being greatly porrected,
+and inserted in the cuticle of the plant, and through this she
+abstracts her nutriment. In the early pupa state the female is
+easily distinguishable from the male, by being more elliptical and
+much more convex. As she increases in size her skin distends and
+she becomes smooth and dry; the rings of the body become effaced;
+and losing entirely the form of an insect, she presents, for some
+time, a yellowish pustular shape, but ultimately assumes a roundish
+conical form, of a dark brown colour.<a id="footnotetag4381" name=
+"footnotetag4381"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4381"><sup>4381</sup></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"><a href=
+"images/469.png"><img width="100%" src="images/469.png" alt=
+"" /></a>
+<p>THE COFFEE BUG. Lecanium Coffe&aelig;.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Until she has nearly reached her full size, she still possesses
+the power of locomotion, and her six legs are easily
+distinguishable in the under surface of her corpulent body; but at
+no period of her existence has she wings. It is about the time of
+her obtaining full size that impregnation takes place<a id=
+"footnotetag4382" name="footnotetag4382"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4382"><sup>4382</sup></a>; after which the scale becomes
+somewhat more conical, assumes a darker <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>[pg 439]</span>
+colour, and at length is permanently fixed to the surface of the
+plant, by means of a cottony substance interposed between it and
+the vegetable cuticle to which it adheres. The scale, when full
+grown, exactly resembles in miniature the hat of a Cornish
+miner<a id="footnotetag4391" name="footnotetag4391"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4391"><sup>4391</sup></a>, there being a narrow rim at
+the base, which gives increased surface of attachment. It is about
+1/8 inch in diameter, by about 1/12 deep, and it appears perfectly
+smooth to the naked eye; but it is in reality studded over with a
+multitude of very minute warts, giving it a dotted appearance.
+Except the margin, which is ciliated, it is entirely destitute of
+hairs. The number of eggs contained in one of the scales is
+enormous, amounting in a single one to 691. The eggs are of an
+oblong shape, of a pale flesh colour, and perfectly smooth.<a id=
+"footnotetag4392" name="footnotetag4392"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4392"><sup>4392</sup></a> In some of the scales, the eggs
+when laid on the field of the microscope resemble those masses of
+life sometimes seen in decayed cheese.<a id="footnotetag4393" name=
+"footnotetag4393"></a><a href="#footnote4393"><sup>4393</sup></a> A
+few small yellowish maggots are sometimes found with them, and
+these are the larv&aelig;<a id="footnotetag4394" name=
+"footnotetag4394"></a><a href="#footnote4394"><sup>4394</sup></a>
+of insects, the eggs of which have been deposited in the female
+while the scale was soft. They escape when mature by cutting a
+small round hole in the dorsum of the scale.</p>
+<p>It is not till after this pest has been on an estate for two or
+three years that it shows itself to an alarming extent. During the
+first year a few only of the ripe scales are seen scattered over
+the bushes, generally on the younger shoots; but that year's crop
+does not suffer much, and the appearance of the tree is little
+altered.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>[pg
+440]</span>
+<p>The second year, however, brings a change for the worse; if the
+young shoots and the underside of the leaves he now examined, the
+scales will be found to have become much more numerous, and with
+them appear a multitude of white specks, which are the young scales
+in a more or less forward state. The clusters of berries now assume
+a black sooty look, and a great number of them fall off before
+coming to maturity; the general health of the tree also begins to
+fail, and it acquires a blighted appearance. A loss of crop is this
+year sustained, but to no great extent.</p>
+<p>The third year brings about a more serious change, the whole
+plant acquires a black hue, appearing as if soot had been thrown
+over it in great quantities; this is caused by the growth of a
+parasitic fungus<a id="footnotetag4401" name=
+"footnotetag4401"></a><a href="#footnote4401"><sup>4401</sup></a>
+over the shoots and the upper surface of the leaves, forming a
+fibrous coating, somewhat resembling velvet or felt. This never
+makes its appearance till the insect has been a considerable time
+on the bush, and probably owes its existence there to an unhealthy
+condition of the juices of the leaf, consequent on the irritation
+produced by the coccus, since it never visits the upper surface of
+the leaf until the latter has fully established itself on the
+lower. At this period the young shoots have an exceedingly
+disgusting look from the dense mass of yellow pustular bodies
+forming on them, the leaves get shrivelled, and the infected trees
+become conspicuous in the row. The black ants are assiduous in
+their visits to them. Two-thirds of the crop is lost, and on many
+trees not a single berry forms.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>[pg
+441]</span>
+<p>This <i>Lecanium</i>, or a very closely allied species, has been
+observed in the Botanic Garden at Peradenia, on the <i>Citrus
+acida, Psidium pomiferum, Myrtus Zeylanica, Rosa Indica, Careya
+arborea, Vitex Negundo</i>, and other plants. The coffee coccus has
+generally been first observed in moist, hollow places sheltered
+from the wind; and thence it has spread itself even over the driest
+and most exposed parts of the island. On some estates, after
+attaining a maximum, it has generally declined, but has shown a
+liability to reappear, especially in low sheltered situations, and
+it is believed to prevail most extensively in wet seasons. While in
+its earlier stages, it is easily transmitted from one estate to
+another, on the clothes of human beings, and in various other ways,
+which will readily suggest themselves. Dr. Gardner, after a careful
+consideration and minute examination of estates, arrived at the
+conclusion, that all remedies suggested up to that time had utterly
+failed, and that none at once cheap and effectual was likely to be
+discovered. He seems also to have been of opinion that the insect
+was not under human control; and that even if it should disappear,
+it would only be when it should have worn itself out as other
+blighte have been known to do in some mysterious way. Whether this
+may prove to be the case or not, is still very uncertain, but every
+thing observed by Dr. Gardner tends to indicate the permanency of
+the pest.</p>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>[pg
+442]</span>
+<h3><i>List of Ceylon Insects.</i></h3>
+<p>For the following list of the insects of the island, and the
+remarks prefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F. Walker, by whom it
+has been prepared after a careful inspection of the collections
+made by Dr. Templeton, Mr. E.L. Layard, and others: as well as of
+those in the British Museum and in the Museum of the East India
+Company.<a id="footnotetag4421" name="footnotetag4421"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4421"><sup>4421</sup></a></p>
+<p>"A short notice of the aspect of the island will afford the best
+means of accounting, in some degree, for its entomological Fauna:
+first, as it is an island, and has a mountainous central region,
+the tropical character of its productions, as in most other cases,
+rather diminishes, and somewhat approaches that of higher
+latitudes.</p>
+<p>"The coast-region of Ceylon, and fully one-third of its northern
+part, have a much drier atmosphere than that of the rest of its
+surface; and their climate and vegetation are nearly similar to
+those of the Carnatic, with which this island may have been
+connected at no very remote period.<a id="footnotetag4422" name=
+"footnotetag4422"></a><a href="#footnote4422"><sup>4422</sup></a>
+But if, on the contrary, the land in Ceylon is gradually rising,
+the difference of its Fauna from that of Central Hindustan is less
+remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then be conjectured
+to have been nearly or wholly separated from the central part of
+Hindustan, and confined to the range of mountains along the eastern
+coast; the insect-fauna of which is as yet almost unknown, but will
+probably be found to have more resemblance to that of Ceylon than
+to the insects of northern and western India&mdash;just as the
+insect-fauna of Malaya appears more to resemble the similar
+productions of Australasia than those of the more northern
+continent.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>[pg
+443]</span>
+<p>"Mr. Layard's collection was partly formed in the dry northern
+province of Ceylon; and among them more Hindustan insects are to be
+observed than among those collected by Dr. Templeton, and found
+wholly in the district between Colombo and Kandy. According to this
+view the faunas of the Nilgherry Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of
+the peninsula of Malacca, and of Australasia would be found to form
+one group;&mdash;while those of Northern Ceylon, of the western
+Dekkan, and of the level parts of Central Hindustan would form
+another of more recent origin. The insect-fauna of the Carnatic is
+also probably similar to that of the lowlands of Ceylon; but it is
+still unexplored. The regions of Hindustan in which species have
+been chiefly collected, such as Bengal, Silbet, and the Punjaub,
+are at the distance of from 1300 to 1600 miles from Ceylon, and
+therefore the insects of the latter are fully as different from
+those of the above regions as they are from those of Australasia,
+to which Ceylon is as near in point of distance, and agrees more
+with regard to latitude.</p>
+<p>"Dr. Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the
+mountains of Ceylon to be quite different from that of the plains
+and of the shores. The south and west districts have a very moist
+climate, and as their vegetation is like that of Malabar, their
+insect-fauna will probably also resemble that of the latter
+region.</p>
+<p>"The insects mentioned in the following list are thus
+distributed:&mdash;</p>
+<h4>"Order COLEOPTERA.</h4>
+<p>"The recorded species of <i>Cicindelid&aelig;</i> inhabit the
+plains or the coast country of Ceylon, and several of them are also
+found in Hindustan.</p>
+<p>"Many of the species of <i>Carabid&aelig;</i> and of
+<i>Staphylinid&aelig;</i>, especially those collected by Mr.
+Thwaites, near Kandy, and by M. Nietner at Colombo, have much
+resemblance to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id=
+"page444"></a>[pg 444]</span> insects of these two families in
+North Europe; in the <i>Scydm&aelig;nid, Ptiliad&aelig;,
+Phalacrid&aelig;, Nitidulid&aelig;, Colydiad&aelig;</i>, and
+<i>Lathridiad&aelig;</i> the northern form is still more striking,
+and strongly contrasts with the tropical forms of the gigantic
+<i>Coprid&aelig;, Buprestid&aelig;, and Cerambycid&aelig;</i>, and
+with the <i>Elaterid&aelig;, Lampyrid&aelig;, Tenebrionid&aelig;,
+Helopid&aelig;, Meloid&aelig;, Curculionid&aelig;, Prionid&aelig;,
+Cerambycid&aelig;, Lamiid&aelig;</i>, and
+<i>Endomychid&aelig;</i>.</p>
+<p>"The <i>Coprid&aelig;, Dynastid&aelig;, Melolonthid&aelig;,
+Cetoniad&aelig;</i>, and <i>Passalid&aelig;</i> are well
+represented on the plains and on the coast, and the species are
+mostly of a tropical character.</p>
+<p>"The <i>Hydrophilid&aelig;</i> have a more northern aspect, as
+is generally the case with aquatic species.</p>
+<p>"The order <i>Strepsiptera</i> is here considered as belonging
+to the <i>Mordellid&aelig;</i>, and is represented by the genus
+<i>Myrmecolax</i>, which is peculiar, as yet, to Ceylon.</p>
+<p>"In the <i>Curculionid&aelig;</i> the single species of
+<i>Apion</i> will recall to mind the great abundance of that genus
+in North Europe.</p>
+<p>"The <i>Prionid&aelig;</i> and the two following families have
+been investigated by Mr. Pascoe, and the <i>Hispid&aelig;</i>, with
+the five following families, by Mr. Baly; these two gentlemen are
+well acquainted with the above tribes of beetles, and kindly
+supplied me with the names of the Ceylon species.</p>
+<h4>Order ORTHOPTERA.</h4>
+<p>"These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. The
+<i>Physapoda</i>, which will probably be soon incorporated with
+them, are likely to be numerous, though only one species has as yet
+been noticed.</p>
+<h4>Order NEUROPTERA.</h4>
+<p>"The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue
+published by Dr. Hagen, and containing descriptions of the species
+named by him or by M. Nietner. They were found in the most elevated
+parts of the island, near Rangbodde, and Dr. Hagen informs me that
+not less than 500 species have been noticed in Ceylon, but that
+they are not yet recorded, with <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page445" id="page445"></a>[pg 445]</span> the exception of the
+species here enumerated. It has been remarked that the
+<i>Trichoptera</i> and other aquatic <i>Neuroptera</i> are less
+local than the land species, owing to the more equable temperature
+of the habitation of their larv&aelig;, and on account of their
+being often conveyed along the whole length of rivers. The species
+of <i>Psocus</i> in the list are far more numerous than those yet
+observed in any other country, with the exception of Europe.</p>
+<h4>Order HYMENOPTERA.</h4>
+<p>"In this order the <i>Formicid&aelig;</i> and the
+<i>Ponerid&aelig;</i> are very numerous, as they are in other damp
+and woody tropical countries. Seventy species of ants have been
+observed, but as yet few of them have been named. The various other
+families of aculeate <i>Hymenoptera</i> are doubtless more abundant
+than the species recorded indicate, and it may be safely reckoned
+that the parasitic <i>Hymenoptera</i> in Ceylon far exceed one
+thousand species in number, though they are yet only known by means
+of about two dozen kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites.</p>
+<h4>Order LEPIDOPTERA.</h4>
+<p>"The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order than in
+any other of the insect tribes, but as yet the <i>Lepidoptera</i>
+alone in their class afford materials for a comparison of the
+productions of Ceylon with those of Hindustan and of Australasia;
+nine hundred and thirty-two species have been collected by Dr.
+Templeton and by Mr. Layard in the central, western, and northern
+parts of the island. All the families, from the
+<i>Papilionid&aelig;</i> to the <i>Tineid&aelig;</i>, abound, and
+numerous species and several genera appear, as yet, to be peculiar
+to the island. As Ceylon is situate at the entrance to the eastern
+regions, the list in this volume will suitably precede the
+descriptive catalogues of the heterocerous <i>Lepidoptera</i> of
+Hindustan, Java, Borneo, and of other parts of Australasia, which
+are being prepared for publication. In some of the heterocerous
+families several species are common to Ceylon and to Australasia,
+and in various cases the faunas of Ceylon and of <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>[pg 446]</span>
+Australasia seem to be more similar than those of Ceylon and of
+Hindustan. The long intercourse between those two regions may have
+been the means of conveying some species from one to the other.
+Among the <i>Pyralites, Hymenia recurvalis</i> inhabits also the
+West Indies, South America, West Africa, Hindustan, China,
+Australasia, Australia, and New Zealand; and its food-plant is
+probably some vegetable which is cultivated in all those regions;
+so also <i>Desmia afflictalis</i> is found in Sierra Leone,
+Abyssinia, Ceylon, and China.</p>
+<h4>Order DIPTERA.</h4>
+<p>"About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but most of
+those here recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at Kandy, and
+have a great likeness to North European species. The mosquitoes are
+very annoying on account of their numbers, as might be expected
+from the moisture and heat of the climate. <i>Culex laniger</i> is
+the coast species, and the other kinds here mentioned are from
+Kandy. Humboldt observed that in some parts of South America each
+stream had its peculiar mosquitoes, and it yet remains to be seen
+whether the gnats in Ceylon are also thus restricted in their
+habitation. The genera <i>Sciara, Cecidomyia</i>, and
+<i>Simulium</i>, which abound so exceedingly in temperate
+countries, have each one representative species in the collection
+made by Mr. Thwaites. Thus an almost new field remains for the
+Entomologist in the study of the yet unknown Singhalese Diptera,
+which must be very numerous.</p>
+<h4>Order HEMIPTERA.</h4>
+<p>"The species of this order in the list are too few and too
+similar to those of Hindustan to need any particular mention.
+<i>Lecanium coffe&aelig;</i> may be noticed, on account of its
+infesting the coffee plant, as its name indicates, and the ravages
+of other species of the genus will be remembered, from the fact
+that one of them, in other regions, has put a stop to the
+cultivation of the orange as an article of commerce.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>[pg
+447]</span>
+<p>"In conclusion, it may be observed that the species of insects
+in Ceylon may be estimated as exceeding 10,000 in number, of which
+about 2000 are enumerated in this volume.</p>
+<h4>Class ARACHNIDA.</h4>
+<p>"Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens cannot
+be satisfactorily described; one <i>Ixodes</i> and one
+<i>Chelifer</i> have been forwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr.
+Thwaites."</p>
+<hr />
+<p>NOTE.&mdash;The asterisk prefixed denotes the species discovered
+in Ceylon since Sir J.E. Tennent's departure from the Island in
+1849.</p>
+<h4>Order COLEOPTERA, <i>Linn.</i></h4>
+<h5>Fam. CICINDELID&AElig;, <i>Steph.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cicindela, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>flavopunctata, <i>Aud.</i></li>
+<li>discrepans, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>aurofasciaca, <i>Gu&eacute;r.</i></li>
+<li>quadrilineata, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>biramosa, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>catena, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>*insignificans, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tricondyla, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>femorata, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*tumidula, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*scitiscabra, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*concinna, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CARABID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Casnonia, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*punctata, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*pilifera, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ophionea, <i>Klug.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*cyanocephala, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Euplynes, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Dohrni, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Heteroglossa, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*elegans, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*ruficollis, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*bimaculata, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zuphium, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*pubescens, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pheropsophos, <i>Solier.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Cateisei, <i>Dej.</i></li>
+<li>bimaculatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cymindis, <i>Latr</i>
+<ul>
+<li>rufiventris, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anchisia, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*modesta, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dromius, <i>Bon.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>marginiter, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>repandens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lebia, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*bipars, <i>Wlk,</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Creagris, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>labrosa, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Elliotia, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>paltipes, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Maraga, <i>Wlk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>planigera, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Catascopus, <i>Kirby.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>facialis, <i>Wied.</i></li>
+<li>reductus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scarites, <i>Fabr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>obliterans, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>subsignans, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>designans, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*minor, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Clivina, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*rugosifrons, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*elongatula, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*maculata, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>recta, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leistus, <i>Fr&aelig;hl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>linearis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Isotarsus, <i>Laferl&eacute;</i>
+<ul>
+<li>quadrimaculatus, <i>Oliv.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Panag&aelig;us, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>retractus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chl&aelig;nius, <i>Bon.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>bimaculatus, <i>Dej.</i></li>
+<li>diffinis, <i>Reiche.</i></li>
+<li>*Ceylanicus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*quinque-maculatus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>pulcher, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>cupricollis, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>ruginosus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anchomenus, <i>Bon.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>illocatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agonum, <i>Bon.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>placidulum, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corpodes?, <i>Macl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>marginicallis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Argutor, <i>Meg.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>degener, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>relinquens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Simphyus, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*unicolor, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bradytus, <i>Steph.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>stolidus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Curtonotus, <i>Steph.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>comnostus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Harpalus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*advolans, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>dispellens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Calodromus, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*exornatus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Megaristerus, <i>Niet.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*mandibularis, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*stenolophoides, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*Indicus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Platysma, <i>Bon.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>retinens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Morio, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>trogositoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>cucujoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Barysomus, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*Gyllenhalii, <i>Dej.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oodes, <i>Bon.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*piceus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Selenophorus, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>inuxus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Orthogonius, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>femoratus, <i>Dej.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Helluodes, <i>Westw.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Taproban&aelig;, <i>Westw.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Physocrotaphus, <i>Parry.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonicus, <i>Parry.</i></li>
+<li>*minax, <i>West.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Physodera, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Eschscholtzii, <i>Parry.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Omphra, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*ovipennis, <i>Reiche.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Planetes, <i>Macl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>bimaculatus, <i>Macleay.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cardiaderus, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>scitus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Distrigus, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*costatus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*submetallicus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>rufopiceus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*&aelig;neus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*Dejeani, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Drimostoma, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*Ceylanicum, <i>Niet.</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page448" id="page448"></a>[pg 448]</span></li>
+<li>*marginale, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyclosomus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>flexuosus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ochthephilus, <i>Niet</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Ceylanicus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spathinus, <i>Niet</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*nigriceps, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acuparpus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>derogatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>extremus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bembidium, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>finitimum, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*opulentum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*truncatum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*tropicum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*triangulare, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*Ceylanicum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>Klugii, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*ebeninum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*orientale, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*emarginatum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*ornatum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*scydm&aelig;noides, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PAUSSID&AElig;, <i>Westw</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cerapterus, <i>Swed</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>latipes, <i>Swed</i>.</li>
+<li>Pleuropterus, <i>West</i>.</li>
+<li>Westermanni, <i>West</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Paussus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>pacificus, <i>West</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DYTISCID&AElig;, <i>Macl</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cybister, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>limbatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dytiscus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>extenuans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eunectes, <i>Erich</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>griseus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydaticus, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>festivus, <i>Ill</i>.</li>
+<li>vittatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>dislocans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>fractifer, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Colymbetes, <i>Clairv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>interclusus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydroporus, <i>Clairv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>interpulsus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>intermixtus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>l&aelig;tabilis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*inefficiens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GYRINID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Dineutes, <i>Macl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>spinosus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Porrorhynchus, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>indicans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gyretes, <i>Brull&eacute;</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>discifer, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gyrinus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>nitidulus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>obliquus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Orectochilus, <i>Esch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*lenocinium, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. STAPHILINID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ocypus, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>longipennis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>congruus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>punctilinea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*lineatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Philonthus, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*pedestris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Xantholinus, <i>Dahl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cinctus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*inclinans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sunius, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*obliquus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oedichirus, <i>Erich</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*alatus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Poederus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>alternans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stenus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*barbatus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*l&aelig;rtoides, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Osorius? <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*compactus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Prognatha, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>decisi, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*tenuis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leptochirus, <i>Perty</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*piscinus, <i>Erich</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oxytelus, <i>Grav</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rudis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>productus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*bicolor, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trogophloeus, <i>Mann</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Taproban&aelig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Omalium, <i>Grav</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>filiforme, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aleochara, <i>Grav</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>postica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*translata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*subjecta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dinarda, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>serricornis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PSELAPHID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pselaphanax, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>setosus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SCYDM&AElig;NID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Erineus, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>monstrosus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scydm&aelig;nus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*megamelas, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*alatus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*femoralis, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*Ceylanicus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*intermedius, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*pselaphoides, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*advolans, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*pubescens, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*pygm&aelig;us, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*glanduliferus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*graminicola, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*pyriformis, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*angusticeps, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*ovatus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PTILIAD&AElig;, <i>Wo</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trichopteryx, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*cursitans, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*immatura, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*invisibilis, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ptilium, <i>Sch&uuml;pp</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*subquadratum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ptenidium, <i>Erich</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*macrocephalum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PHALACRID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Phalacrus, <i>Payk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>conjiciens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>confectus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. NITUDULID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Nitidula, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>contigens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>intendens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>significans, <i>Wik</i>.</li>
+<li>tomentifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*submaculata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*glabricula, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nitidulopsis, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>&aelig;qualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Meligethes, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*orientalis, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*respondens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhizophagus, <i>Herbst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>parallelus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. COLYDIAD&AElig;, <i>Woll</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lyctus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>retractus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>disputans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ditoma, <i>Illig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rugicollis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TROGOSITID&AElig;, <i>Kirby</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trogosita, <i>Oliv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>insinuans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*rhyzophagoides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CUCUJID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Loemophloeus, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ferrugineus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cucujus? <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*incommodus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Silvanus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>retrahens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*scuticollis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*Porrectus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Brontes, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*orientalis, <i>Dej</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LATHRIDIAN&AElig;, <i>Wall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lathridius, <i>Herbst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>perpusillus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corticaria, <i>Marsh</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>resecta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Monotoma, <i>Herbst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>concinnula, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DERMESTID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Dermestes, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>vulpinus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Attagenus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>detectus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rufipes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trinodes, <i>Meg</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hirtellus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BYRRHID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Inclica, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>solida, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HISTERID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hister, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Bengalensis, <i>Weid</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page449" id="page449"></a>[pg 449]</span></li>
+<li>encaustus, <i>Mars.</i></li>
+<li>orientalis, <i>Payk</i>.</li>
+<li>bipustulatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>*mundissimus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Saprinus, <i>Erich</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>semipunctatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Platysoma, <i>Leach.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>atratum? <i>Erichs.</i></li>
+<li>desmens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>restoratum, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dendrophilus, <i>Leach.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>finitimus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. APHODIAD&AElig;, <i>Macl.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Aphodius, <i>Illig.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>robustus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>dynastoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>pallidicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>mutans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>sequens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Psammodius, <i>Gyll.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>inscitus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TROGID&AElig;, <i>Macl.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trox, <i>Fabr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>inclusus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>cornutus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. COPRID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ateuchus, <i>Weber.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>sacer, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gymnopleurus, <i>Illig</i>
+<ul>
+<li>smaragdifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>Koenigii, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sisyphus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>setosulus <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>subsideus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Orepanocerus, <i>Kirby.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Taproban&aelig;, <i>West.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cobris, <i>Geoffr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Pirmal, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>sagax, <i>Quens.</i></li>
+<li>capucinus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>cribricollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>repertus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>sodalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>signatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>diminutivus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Onthophagus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Bonassus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>cervicornis, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>prolixus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>gravis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>difficilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>lucens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>negligens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>moerens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>turbatus. <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Onitis, <i>Fabr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Philemon, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DYNASTID&AElig;, <i>Macl.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Oryctes, <i>Illig.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>rhinoceros, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Xylotrupes, <i>Hope.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Gideon, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>reductus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>solidipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phileurus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>detractus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Orphnus, <i>Macl.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>detegens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>scitissimus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GECTRUPID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Bolboceras, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lineatus, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MELOLONTHID&AElig;, <i>Macl</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Melolontha, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nummicudens, <i>Newm</i>.</li>
+<li>rubiginosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>ferruginosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>seriata, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>pinguis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>setosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhizotrogus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hirtipectus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>&aelig;qualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>costatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>inductus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>exactus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>sulcifer, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phyllopertha, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>transversa, <i>Burm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Silphodes, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Indica, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trigonostoma, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>assimile, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>compressum? <i>Weid</i>.</li>
+<li>nanum, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Serica, <i>Macl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pruinosa, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Popilia, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>marginicollis, <i>Newm</i>.</li>
+<li>cyanella, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>discalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scricesthis, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rotundata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>subsignata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mollis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>confirmata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Plectris, <i>Lep. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>solida, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>punctigera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>glabsilinea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Isonychus, <i>Mann</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ventralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>pectoralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Omaloplia, <i>Meg</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>fracta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>interrupta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>semicincta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*hamifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*picta, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>*nana, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apogenia, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nigricans, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phytalos <i>Erich</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>eurystomus, <i>Burm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ancylon cha. <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Reynaudii, <i>Blanch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leucopholis, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Mellei, <i>Guer</i>.</li>
+<li>pinguis, <i>Burm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anomala, <i>Meg</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>elata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>humeralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>discalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>varicolor, <i>Sch</i>.</li>
+<li>conformis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>similis, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>punctatissima, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>infixa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mimela, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>variegata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mundissima, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Parastasia, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rufopic a. <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Euchlora, <i>Macl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>viridis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>perplexa, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CETONIAD&AElig;, <i>Kirby</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Glycyphana, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>versicolor, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>luctuosa, <i>Gory</i>.</li>
+<li>variegata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>marginicollis, <i>Gory</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Clinteria, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>imperalis, <i>Schaum</i>.</li>
+<li>incerta, <i>Parry</i>.</li>
+<li>chloronota, <i>Blanch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>T&aelig;niodera, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Malabariensis, <i>Gory</i>.</li>
+<li>quadrivittata, <i>White</i>.</li>
+<li>alboguttata, <i>Vigors</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Prot&aelig;tia, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>maculata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Whitehousii, <i>Parry</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agestrata, <i>Erich</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nigrita, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>orichalcea, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coryphocera, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>elegans, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nacronota, <i>Hoffm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>quadrivittata, <i>Sch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TRICHIAD&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Valgus, <i>Scriba</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>addendus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LUCANID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Odontolabis, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Bengalensis, <i>Parry</i>.</li>
+<li>emarginatus, <i>Dej</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>&AElig;gus, <i>Macl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>acuminatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>lunatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Singuala, <i>Blanch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tenella, <i>Blanch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PASSALID&AElig;, <i>Macl</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Passalus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>transversus, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>interstitialis, <i>Perch</i>.</li>
+<li>punctiger? <i>Lefeb</i>.</li>
+<li>bicolor, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SPH&AElig;RIDIAD&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sph&aelig;ridium, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tricolor, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cercyon, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*vicinale, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYDROPHILID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hydrous, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*rufiventris, <i>Niet</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page450" id="page450"></a>[pg 450]</span></li>
+<li>*inconspicuus, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydrobius, <i>Leach.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>stultus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Philydrus, <i>Solier.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>esurieus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Berosus, <i>Leach.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*decrescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydrochus, <i>Germ.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*lacustris, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Georyssus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*gemma, <i>Niet.</i></li>
+<li>*insularis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dastareus, <i>Wlk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>porosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BUPRESTIDIE, <i>Steph.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sternocera, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>chrysis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>sternicornis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chrysochroa, <i>Solier.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>ignita, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Chinensis, <i>Lap.</i></li>
+<li>Rajah, <i>Lap.</i></li>
+<li>*cyaneocephala, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chyrsodema, <i>Lap</i>
+<ul>
+<li>sulcata, <i>Thunb.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Belionota, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>scutellaris, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>*Petiri, <i>Gory.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chrysobothris, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>suturalis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agrilus, <i>Meg.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>sulcicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*cupreiceps, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*cupreicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*armatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ELATERID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Campsosternos, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Templetonii, <i>Westw.</i></li>
+<li>aureolus, <i>Hope.</i></li>
+<li>Bohemannii, <i>Cand.</i></li>
+<li>venustulus, <i>Cand.</i></li>
+<li>pallidipes, <i>Cand.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agrypnus, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>fuscipes, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alaus, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>speciosus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>sordidus, <i>Westw.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cardiophorus, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>humerifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corymbites, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>dividens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>divisa, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*bivittava, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lacon, <i>Lap.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*obesus, <i>Cand.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Athous, <i>Esch.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>punctosus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>inapertus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>decretus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>inefficiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ampedus, <i>Meg.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*acutifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*discicollis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Legna, <i>Wlk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>idonea, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LAMPYRID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lycus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>triangularis, <i>Hope.</i></li>
+<li>geminus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>astutus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>fallix, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>planicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>melanopterus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>pubicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>duplex, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>costifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>revocans, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>dispellens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*pubipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*humerifer, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>expansicornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>divisus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dictyopterus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>internexus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lampyris, <i>Geoff.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>tenebrosa, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>diffinis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>lutescens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*vitrifera, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Colophotia, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>humeralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>[vespertina, <i>Febr.</i></li>
+<li>perplexa, <i>Wlk.</i>?</li>
+<li>intricata, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>extricans, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>promelas, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Harmatelia, <i>Wlk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>discalis, <i>Wlk</i></li>
+<li>bilinea, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TELEPHORID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Telephorus, <i>Sch&auml;ff.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>dimidiatus, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>malthinoides, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eugeusis, <i>Westw.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>palpator, <i>Westw.</i></li>
+<li>gryphus, <i>Hope.</i></li>
+<li>olivaceus, <i>Hope.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CEBRIONID&AElig;, <i>Steph.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Callirhipis, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Templetonii, <i>Westw.</i></li>
+<li>Championii, <i>Westw.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MERLYRID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Malachius, <i>Fabr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>plagiatus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Malthinus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*forticornis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*retractus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>fragilis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Enciopus, <i>Steph.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>proficiens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Honosca, <i>Wlk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>necrobioides, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CLERID&AElig;, <i>Kirby.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cylidrus, <i>Lap.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>sobrinus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stigmatium, <i>Gray.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>elaphroides, <i>Westw.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Necrobia, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>rufipes, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+<li>aspera, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PTINID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ptinus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*nigerrimus, <i>Boield.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DIAPERID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Diaperis, <i>Geoff.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>velutina, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>fragilis, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TENEBRIONID&AElig;, <i>Leach.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Zophobas, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>errans? <i>Dej.</i></li>
+<li>clavipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>?solidus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pseudoblaps, <i>Guer.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>nigrita, <i>Fabr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tenebrio, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>rubripes, <i>Hope.</i></li>
+<li>retenta, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trachyscelis, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>brunnea, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. OPATRID&AElig;, <i>Shuck.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Opatrum, <i>Fabr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>contrahens, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>bilineatum, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>planatum, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>serricolle, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Asida, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>horrida, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Crypticus, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>detersus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>longipennis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phaleria, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>rutipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Toxicum, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>oppugnans, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>biluna, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Boletophagus, <i>Ill.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*inorosus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+<li>*exasperatus, <i>Dohrn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Uloma, <i>Meg.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>scita, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alphitophagus, <i>Steph.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>subFascia, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HELOPID&AElig;, <i>Steph.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Osdara, <i>Wlk.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>picipes, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cholipus, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>brevicornis, <i>Dej.</i></li>
+<li>parabolicus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>l&aelig;viusculus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Helops, <i>Fabr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>ebeninus, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Camaria, <i>Lep. &amp; Serv.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>amethystina, <i>L.&amp;S.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amarygmus, <i>Dalm.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>chrysomeloides, <i>Dej.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MELOID&AElig;, <i>Woll.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Epicanta, <i>Dej.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>nigrifinis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cissites, <i>Latr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>testaceus, <i>Febr.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mylabris, <i>Fabr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>humeralis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>alterna, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>*recognita, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Atratocerus, <i>Pal., Bv.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>debilis, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+<li>reversus, <i>Wlk.</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page451"
+id="page451"></a>[pg 451]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. OEDEMERID&AElig;, <i>Steph.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cistela, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>congrua, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*falsifica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Allecula, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>fusiformis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>elegans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*flavifemur, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sora, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*marginata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thaceona, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>dimelas, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MORDELLID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Acosmas, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>languidus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhipiphorus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*tropicus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mordella, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>composita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*detectiva, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Myrmecolax, <i>Westir</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Nietneri, <i>Westir</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ANTHICID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Anthicus, <i>Payk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*quisquilairius, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*insularius, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*sticticollis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CISSID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cis, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>contendens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TOMICID&AElig;, <i>Shuck</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Apate, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>submedia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bostrichus, <i>Geoff</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mutuatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*vertens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*moderatus, <i>Wlk</i>..</li>
+<li>*testaceus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*exiguns, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Platypus, <i>Herbst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>minex, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>solidus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*latifinis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hylurgus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>determinans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*concinnulus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hylesinus, <i>Fahr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>curvifer, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>despectus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>irresolutus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CURCULIONID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Bruchus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>scutellaris, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spermophagus, <i>Steven</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>convolvuli, <i>Thunb</i>.</li>
+<li>figuratus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Cisti, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>incertus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>decretus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dendropemon, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*melancholicus, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dendrotrogus, <i>Jek</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Dohrnii, <i>Jek</i>.</li>
+<li>discrepans, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eucorynus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>colligendus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>colligens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Basitropis, <i>Jek</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*disconotatus, <i>Jek</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Litocerus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>punctulatus, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tropideres, <i>Sch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>punctulifer, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>tragilis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cedus, <i>Waterh</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*cancellatus, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Xylinades, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sobrinulus, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>indignus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Xenocerus, <i>Germ</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>anguliterus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>revocans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*anchoralis, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Callistocerus, <i>Dohrn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Nietneri, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anthribus, <i>Geoff</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>longicornis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>apicalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>facilis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ar&aelig;cerus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>coffe&aelig;, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>*insidiosus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>*musculus, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>*intangens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*bifovea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dipieza, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*insignis, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apolecta, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Nietneri, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>*musculus, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Arrhenodes, <i>Steven</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>miles, <i>Sch</i>.</li>
+<li>pilicornis, <i>Sch</i>.</li>
+<li>dentirosiris, <i>Jek</i>.</li>
+<li>approximans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Veneris, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cerobates, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>thrasco, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>aciculatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ceocephalus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cavus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>reticulatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nemocephalus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sulcirostris, <i>De Haan</i>.</li>
+<li>planicollis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>spinirostris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apoderus, <i>Oliv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>longicollis? <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Tranquebaricus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>cygneus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>scitulus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*triangularis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>*echinatus, <i>Sch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhynchites, <i>Herbst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>suffundens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*restituens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apion, <i>Herbst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Cingalense, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Strophosomus, <i>Bilbug</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*suturalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Piazomias, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>&aelig;qualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Astycus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lateralis, <i>Fabr</i>.?</li>
+<li>ebeninus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*immunis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cleonus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>inducens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Myllocerus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>transmarinus, <i>Herbst</i>.?</li>
+<li>spurcatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*retrahens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*posticus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phyllobius, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*mimicus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Episomus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pauperatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lixus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nebulitascia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aclees, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cribratus, <i>Dej</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alcides, <i>Dalm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>signatus, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>obliquus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>transversus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*clausus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acienemis, <i>Fairm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonicus, <i>Jek</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apotomorhinus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>signatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>alboater, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cryptorhynchus, <i>Illig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ineffectus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>assimilans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>declaratus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>notabilis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>vexatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Camptorhinus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.?
+<ul>
+<li>reversus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*indiscretus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Desmidophorus, <i>Chevr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hebes, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>communicans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>strenuus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*discriminans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>inexpertus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>fasciculicollis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sipaius, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>granulatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>porosus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>tinctus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mecopus, <i>Dalm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Waterhousei, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhynchophorus, <i>Herbst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ferrugineus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>introducens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Protocerus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>molossus? <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sph&aelig;nophorus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>glabridiscus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>exquisitus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Debaani?, <i>Jek</i>.</li>
+<li>cribricollis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>?panops, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cossonus, <i>Clairv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*quadrimacula, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>?hebes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>ambiguus, <i>Sch</i>.?</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scitophilus, <i>Sch&ouml;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>oriz&aelig;, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>disciferus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mecinus, Germ.
+<ul>
+<li>*?relictus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PRIONID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trictenotoma, <i>G.R. Gray</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page452" id="page452"></a>[pg 452]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>Templetoni, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Prionomina, <i>White</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>orientalis, <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acanthophorus, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>serraticornis, <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cnemoplites, <i>Newm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Rhesus, <i>Motch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>&AElig;gosoma, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Cingalense, <i>White</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CERAMBYCID&AElig;, <i>Kirby</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cerambyx, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>indutus, <i>Newm</i>.</li>
+<li>vernicosus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>consocius, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>versutus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>nitidus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>macilentus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>venustus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>torticollis, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sebasmia, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Templetoni, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Callichroma, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>trogoninum, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>telephoroides, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Homalomelas, <i>White</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>gracilipes, <i>Parry</i>.</li>
+<li>zonatus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Colobus, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Cingalensis, <i>White</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thramus, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>gibbosus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Deuteromina, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mutica, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Obrium, <i>Meg</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>laterale, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>moestum, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Psilomerus, <i>Blanch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>macilentus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Clytus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>vicinus, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>ascendens, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>Walkeri, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>annularis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>*aurilinea, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhaphuma, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>leucoscutellata, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ceresium, <i>Newm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cretatum, <i>White</i>.</li>
+<li>Zeylanicum, <i>White</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stromatium, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>barbatum, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>maculatum, <i>White</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hespherophanes, <i>Muls</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>simplex, <i>Gyll</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LAMIDI&AElig;, <i>Kirby</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Nyphona, <i>Muls</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cylindracea, <i>White</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mesosa, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>columba, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coptops, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bidens, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Xylorhiza, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>adusta, <i>Wied</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cacia, <i>Newm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>triloba, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Batocera, <i>Blanch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rubus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>ferruginea, <i>Blanch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Monohammus, <i>Meg</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tistulator, <i>Germ</i>.</li>
+<li>crucifer, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>nivosus, <i>White</i>.</li>
+<li>commixtus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cereposius, <i>Dup</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>patronus, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pelargoderus, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tigrinus, <i>Chevr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Olenocamptus, <i>Chevr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bilobus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Praonetha, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>annulata, <i>Chevr</i>.</li>
+<li>posticalis, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apomecyna, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>histrio, <i>Fabr</i>., var.?</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ropica, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pr&aelig;usta, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hathlia, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>procera, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Iolea, <i>Pasc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>proxima, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>histrio, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Glenea, <i>Newm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sulphurella, <i>White</i>.</li>
+<li>commissa, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>scapitera, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+<li>vexator, <i>Pasc</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stibara, <i>Hope</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nigricornis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HISPID&AElig;, <i>Kirby</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Oncocephala, <i>Dohrn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>deltoides, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leptispa, <i>Baly</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pygm&aelig;a, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amplistea, <i>Baly</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>D&ouml;hrnii, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Estigmena, <i>Hope</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Chinensis, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hispa, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>hystrix, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>erinacea, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>nigrina, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+<li>*Walkeri, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Platypria, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>echidna, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CASSIDID&AElig;, <i>Westw</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Episticia, <i>Boh</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>matronula, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hoplionota, <i>Hope</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tetraspilota, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+<li>rubromarginata, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>horrifica, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aspidomorpha, <i>Hope</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>St. crucis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>miliaris, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>pallidimarginata, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+<li>dorsata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>calligera, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>micans, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cassida, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>clathrata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>timefacta, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>farinosa, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Laccoptera, <i>Boh</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>14-notata, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coptcycla, <i>Chevr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sex-notata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>13-signata, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>13-notata, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>ornata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Ceylonica, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>Balyi, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>trivittata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>15-punctuata, <i>Boh</i>.</li>
+<li>catenata, <i>Dej</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SAGRID&AElig;, <i>Kirby</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sagra, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nigrita, <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DONACID&AElig;, <i>Lacord</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Donacia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Delesserti, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coptocephala, <i>Chev</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Templetoni, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EUMOLFID&AElig;, <i>Baly</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Corynodes, <i>Hope</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cyaneus, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>&aelig;neus, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Glyptoscelis, <i>Chevr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Templetoni, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+<li>pyrospilotus, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+<li>micans, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+<li>cupreus, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eumolpus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lemoides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CRYPTOCEPHALID&AElig;, <i>Kirby</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cryptocephalus, <i>Geoff</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sex-punctatus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Walkeri, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Diapromorpha, <i>Lac</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Turcica, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CHRYSOMELID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Chalcolampa, <i>Baly</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Templetoni, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lina, <i>Meg</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>convexa, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chrysomela, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Templetoni, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GALERUCID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Galeruca, <i>Geoff</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*pectinata, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Graphodera, <i>Chevr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cyanea, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Monolepta, <i>Chevr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pulchella, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thyamis, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonicus, <i>Baly</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. COCCINELLID&AElig;, <i>Latr</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Epilachna, <i>Chevr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>28-punctata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Delessortii, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+<li>pubescens, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>innuba, <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coccinella, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>tricincta, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>*repanda, <i>Muls</i>.</li>
+<li>tenuilinea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rejiciens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>interrumpens, <i>Wlk</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page453" id="page453"></a>[pg 453]</span></li>
+<li>quinqueplaga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>simplex, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>antica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>flaviceps, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Neda, <i>Muls</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tricolor, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coelophora, <i>Muls</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>9-maculata, <i>Fabr</i>.?</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chilocorus, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>opponens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scymnus, <i>Kug</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>varibilis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EROTYLID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Fatua, <i>Dej</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Nepalensis, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Triplax, <i>Payk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>decorus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tritoma, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*bilactes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*preposita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ischyrus, <i>Cherz</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>grandis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ENDOMYCHID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Eugonius, <i>Gerst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>annularis, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+<li>lunulatus, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eumorphus, <i>Weber</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pulcripes, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+<li>*tener, <i>Dohrn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stenotarsus, <i>Perty</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Nietneri, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+<li>*castaneus, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+<li>*tormentosus, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+<li>*vallatus, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lycoperdina, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>glabrata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ancylopus, <i>Gerst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>melanocephalus, <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Saula, <i>Gerst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*nigripes, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+<li>*ferruginea, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mycerina, <i>Gerst</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>castanea, <i>Gerst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order ORTHOPTERA, <i>Linn.</i></h4>
+<h5>Fam. FORFICULID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Forficula, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>&mdash;&mdash;?</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BLATTID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Panesthia, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Javanica, <i>Serv</i>.</li>
+<li>plagiata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Polyxosteria, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>larva.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corydia, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Petiveriana, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fam. MANTID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</li>
+<li>Empusa, <i>Illig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>gongylodes, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Harpax, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>signiter, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Schizocephala, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bicornis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mantis, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>superstitiosa, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>aridifolia, <i>Stoll</i>.</li>
+<li>extensicollis, ? <i>Serv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PHASMID&AElig;, <i>Serv</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Acrophylla, <i>Gray</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>systropedon, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phasma, <i>Licht</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sordidium, <i>DeHaan</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phyllium, <i>Illig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>siccifolium, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GRYLLID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Acheta, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>bimaculata, <i>Deg</i>.</li>
+<li>supplicans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>&aelig;qualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>confirmata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Platydactylus, <i>Brull</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>crassipes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Steirodon, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lanceolatum, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phyllophora, <i>Thunb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>falsifolia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acanthodis, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rugosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phaneroptera, <i>Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>attenuata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phymateus, <i>Thunb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>miliaris, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Truxalis, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>exaltata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>porrecta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acridium, <i>Geoffr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>extensum, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>deponens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rutitibia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>cinctifemur, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>respondens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>nigrifascia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order PHYSAPODA, <i>Dum</i>.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Thrips, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>stenomeras, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order NEUROPTERA, <i>Linn.</i></h4>
+<h5>Fam. SERICOSTOMID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Mormonia, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*ursina, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LEPTOCERID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Macronema, <i>Pict</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>multifarium, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*splendidum, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*nebulosum, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*obliquum, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*Ceylanicum, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>*annulicorne, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Molanna, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mixta, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Setodes, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Iris, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*Ino, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PSYCHOMID&AElig;, <i>Curt</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Chimarra, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*aurieps, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*tunesta, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*sepulcralis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYDROPSYCHID&AElig;, <i>Curt</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hydropsyche, <i>Pict</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Taprobanes, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*mitis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. RHYACOPHILID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Rhyacophila, <i>Pict</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*castanea, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PERLID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Perla, <i>Geoffr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>angulata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*testacea, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*limosa, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SILID&AElig;, <i>Westw</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Dilar, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Nietneri, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HEMEROBID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Mantispa, <i>Illig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Indica, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+<li>mutata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chrysopa, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>invaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*tropica, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>auritera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*punctata, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Micromerus, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*linearis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*australis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hemerobius, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*frontalis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coniopteryx, <i>Hal</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*cerata, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MYRMELEONID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Palpares, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>contrarius, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acanthoclisis, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*&mdash;n. s. <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*molestus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Myrmeleon, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>gravis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>nirus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>barbarus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ascalaphus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nugax, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>incusans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*cervinus, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PSOCID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Psocus, <i>Latr</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page454"
+id="page454"></a>[pg 454]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>*Taprobanes, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*oblitus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*consitus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*trimaculatus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*obtusus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*elongatus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*chloroticus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*aridus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*coleoptratus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*dolabratus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*infelix, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TERMITID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Termes, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>fatalis, <i>Koen</i>.</li>
+<li>monocerous, <i>Koen</i>.</li>
+<li>*umbilicatus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*n. s., <i>Jouv</i>.</li>
+<li>*n. s., <i>Jouv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EMBID&AElig;, <i>Hagen</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Oligotoma, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Saundersii, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EPHEMERID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>B&aelig;tis, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Potamanthus, <i>Pict</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*fasciatus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*annulatus, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*femoralis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cloe, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*tristis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*consueta, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*solida, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*sigmata, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*marginalis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>C&aelig;nis, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>perpusida, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LIBELLULID&AElig;.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Calopteryx, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Chinensis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Euphoea, <i>Selys</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>splendens, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Micromerus, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lineatus, <i>Burm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trichoenemys, <i>Selys</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*serapica, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lestes, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*elata, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*gracilis, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agrion, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Coromandelianum, <i>F.</i></li>
+<li>*tenax, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*hilare, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*velare, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>*delicatum, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gynacantha, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subinterrupta, <i>Ramb</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Epophthalmia, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>vittata, <i>Burm</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zyxomma, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>petiolatum, <i>Ramb</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acisoma, <i>Ramb</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>panorpoides, <i>Ramb</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Libellula, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Marcia, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Tillarga, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>variegata, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>flavescens, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Sabina, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>viridula, <i>Pal. Beauv</i>.</li>
+<li>congener, <i>Ramb</i>.</li>
+<li>soror, <i>Ramb</i>.</li>
+<li>Aurora, <i>Burm</i>.</li>
+<li>violacea, <i>Niet</i>.</li>
+<li>perla, <i>Hagen</i>.</li>
+<li>sanguinea, <i>Burm</i>.</li>
+<li>trivialis, <i>Ramb</i>.</li>
+<li>contaminata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>equestris, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>nebulosa, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order HYMENOPTERA, <i>Linn.</i></h4>
+<h5>Fam. FORMICID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Formica, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>smaragdina, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>mitis, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*Taprobane, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*variegata, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*exercita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*exundans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*meritans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*latebrosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*pangens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*ingruens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*detorquens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*diffidens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*obscurans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*indeflexa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>consultans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Polyrhachis, <i>Smith</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*illandatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PONERID&AElig;, <i>Smith</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Odontomachus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>simillimus, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Typhlopone, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Curtisii, <i>Shuck</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Myrmica, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>basalis, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>contigua, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>glyciphila, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*consternens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Crematogaster, <i>Lund</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*pellens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*deponens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*forticulus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pseudomyrma, <i>Gur&eacute;</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*atrata, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>allaborans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Atta, <i>St. Farg</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>didita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pheidole, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Janus, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*Taproban&aelig;, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*rugosa, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Meranopius, <i>Smith</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*dimicans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cataulacus, <i>Smith</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taproban&aelig;, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MUTILLID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Mutilla, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*Sibylla, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tiphia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*decrescens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EUMENID&AElig;, <i>Westw</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Odynerus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*tinctipennis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*intendens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*intendens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scolia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>auricollis, <i>St. Farg</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CRABRONID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Philanthus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>basalis, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stigmus, <i>Jur</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*congruus, <i>Wilk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SPHEGID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ammophila, <i>Kirby</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>atripes, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pelop&aelig;us, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>spinol&aelig;, <i>St. Farg</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sphex, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ferruginea, <i>St. Farg</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ampulex, <i>Jur</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>compressa, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LARRID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Larrada, <i>Smith</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*extensa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. POMPILID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pompilus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>analis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. APID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Andrena, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*exagens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nomia, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rustica, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+<li>*vincta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Allodaps, <i>Smith</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*marginata, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ceratina, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>viridis, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+<li>picta, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*similliana, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coelioxys, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>capitata, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Croeisa, <i>Jur</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*ramosa, <i>St. Farg</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stelis, <i>Panz</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>carbonaria, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anthophora, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>zonarta, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Xylocopa, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tenuiscatia, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+<li>latipes, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apis, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Indica, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trigona, <i>Jur</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>iridipennis, <i>Smith</i>.</li>
+<li>*pr&aelig;terita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CHRYSID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Stilbum, <i>Spin</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>splendidum, <i>Dahl</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DORYLID&AElig;, <i>Shuck</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Enictus, <i>Shuck</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>porizonoides, <i>Wlk</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page455" id="page455"></a>[pg 455]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ICHNEUONID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cryptus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*onustus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hemiteles?, <i>Grav</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*varius, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Porizon, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*dominans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pimpla, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>albopicta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BRACONID&AElig;, <i>Hal</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Microgaster, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*recusans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*significans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*subducens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*detracta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spathius, <i>Nees</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*bisignatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*signipennis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Heratemis, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*tilosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nebartha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*macropoides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Psyttalia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*testacea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CHALCIDI&AElig;, <i>Spin</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Chalcis, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*dividens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*pandens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Halticella, <i>Spin</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*rufimanus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*inticiens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dirrhinus, <i>Dalm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*anthracia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eurytoma, <i>Ill</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*contraria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>indefensa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eucharis, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*convergens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*deprivata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pteromalus, <i>Swed</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*magniceps, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Encyrtus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*obstructus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DIAPRID&AElig;, <i>Hal</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Diapria, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>apicalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order LEPIDOPTERA, <i>Linn.</i></h4>
+<h5>Fam. PAPILIONID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ornithoptera, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Darsius, <i>G.R. Gray</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Papilio, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Diphilus, <i>Esp</i>.</li>
+<li>Jophon, <i>G.R. Gray</i>.</li>
+<li>Hector, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Romulus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Polymnestor, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Crino, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Helenus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Pammon, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Polytes, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Erithonius, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Antipathis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Agamemnon, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Eurypilus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Bathycles, <i>Zinck-Som</i>.</li>
+<li>Sarpedon, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>dissimilis, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pontia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Nina, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pleris, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Eucharis, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Coronis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Epicharis, <i>Godt</i>.</li>
+<li>Nama, <i>Doubl</i>.</li>
+<li>Remba, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Mesentina, <i>Godt</i>.</li>
+<li>Severina, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Namouna, <i>Doubl</i>.</li>
+<li>Phryne, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Paulina, <i>Godt</i>.</li>
+<li>Thestylis, <i>Doubl</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Callosune, <i>Doubl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Eucharis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Dana&euml;, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Etrida, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Idmais, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Calais, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thestias, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Marianne, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Pirene, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hebomoia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Glaucippe, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eronia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Valeria, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Callidryas, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Philippina, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+<li>Pyranthe, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Hilaria, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Alcmeone, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Thisorella, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Terias, <i>Swain</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Drona, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Hecabe, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. NYMPHALID&AElig;, <i>Swain</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Euploea, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Prothoe, <i>Godt</i>.</li>
+<li>Core, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Alcatho&euml;, <i>Godt</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Danais, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Chrysippus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Plexippus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Agl&aelig;, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Melissa, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Limniac&aelig;, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Juventa, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hestia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Jasonia, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Telchinia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>viol&aelig;, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cethosia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Cyane, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Messarus, <i>Doubl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Erymanthis, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Atella, <i>Doubl</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Phalanta, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Argychis, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Niphe, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Clagia, <i>Godt</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ergolis, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobana, <i>West</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Vanessa, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Charonia, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Libythea, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Medhavina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Pushcara, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pyrameis, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Charonia, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Cardui, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Callirho&euml;, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Junonia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Limomas, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Oenone, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Orithia, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Laomedia, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Asterie, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Precis, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Iphita, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cynthia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Arsinoe, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Parthenos, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Gambrisius, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Limenitis, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Calidusa, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Neptis, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Heliodore, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Columelia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>aceris, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Jumbah, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Hordonia, <i>Stoll</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Diadema, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Auge, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Bolina, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Symph&aelig;dra, <i>Hubn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Thyelia, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Adolias, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Evelina, <i>Stoll</i>.</li>
+<li>Lutentina, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Vasanta, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Garuda, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nymphalis, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Psaphon, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+<li>Bernardus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Athamas, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Fabius, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Katlima, <i>Doubl</i>.</li>
+<li>Philarchus, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+<li>Melanitis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Banksia, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Leda, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Casiphone, <i>G.R. Gray</i>.</li>
+<li>undularis, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ypththima, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Lysandra, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Parthalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyllo, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Gorya, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Cath&aelig;na, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Embolima, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Neilgherriensis, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+<li>Purimata, <i>WLk</i>.</li>
+<li>Pushpamitra, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mycalesis, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Patnia, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>*Gamaliba, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Dosaron, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Samba, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>C&aelig;nonympha, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Euaspla, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Emesis, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Echerius, <i>Stoll</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LYC&AElig;NID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Anops, <i>Boisd</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page456"
+id="page456"></a>[pg 456]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>Bulis, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+<li>Thetys, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Loxura, <i>Horsf</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Atymnus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Myrina, <i>Godt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Schumous, <i>Doubled</i>.</li>
+<li>Triopas, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amblypodia, <i>Horsf</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Longinus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Narada, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>pseudocentaurus, <i>Do</i>.</li>
+<li>quercetorum, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aphn&aelig;us, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Pindarus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Etolus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Heph&aelig;stos, <i>Doubled</i>.</li>
+<li>Crotus, <i>Doubled</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dipsas, <i>Doubled</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>chrysomallus, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+<li>Isocrates, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lyc&aelig;na, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Alexis, <i>Stoll</i>.</li>
+<li>Boetica, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Chejus, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Rosimon, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Theophrasius, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Pluto, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Parana, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Nyseus, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+<li>Ethion, <i>Basd</i>.</li>
+<li>Celeno, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Kandarpa, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Elpis, <i>Godt</i>.</li>
+<li>Chimonas, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Gandara, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Chorienis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Geria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Doanas, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Sunya, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Audhra, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Polyommatus, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Akasa, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Puspa, <i>Horsf</i>.</li>
+<li>Laius, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Ethion, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+<li>Cataigara, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Gorgippia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lucia, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Epius, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pithecops, <i>Horsf</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Hylax, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HESPERID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Goniloba, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Iapetus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pyrgus, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Superna, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Danna, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Genta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Sydrus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nisoniades, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Diocles, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+<li>Salsala, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Toides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pamphila, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Angias, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Achylodes, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Temata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hesperia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Indrani, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Chaya, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>Cinnara, <i>Moore</i>.</li>
+<li>gremius, <i>Latr</i>.</li>
+<li>Ceodochates, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Tiagara, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Cetiaris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Sigala, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SPHINGID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sesia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Hylas, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Macroglossa, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Stenatarum, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>gyrans, <i>Borsd</i>.</li>
+<li>Corythus, <i>Borsd</i>.</li>
+<li>divergens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Calymina, <i>Borsd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Panopus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Choerocampa, <i>Dup</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Thyslia, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Nyssus, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Clotho, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Oldenlandi&aelig;, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Lycetus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Silhetensis, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pergesa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Acteus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Panacia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>vigil, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Daphnis, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Nern, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zonitia, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Morpheus, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Macrosila, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ordiqua, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>discistriga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sphinx, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>convolvuli, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acherontia, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Satanas, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Smerintinis, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Dryas, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CASTNIID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Eusemia, <i>Dalm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>beliatrix, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>&AElig;gocera, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Venuia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>bimacula, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ZYG&AElig;NID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Syntomis, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Schoenherri, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+<li>Creusa, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Imaoa, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Glaucopis, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subaurata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Enchiomia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Polymena, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>diminuta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LITHOSIID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Scaptesyle, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bicolor, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nyctemera, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lacticima, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>latistriga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Coleta, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Euschema, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subrepleta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>transversa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>vilis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chalcosia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Tiberina, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>venosa, <i>Anon</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eterusia, <i>Hope</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>&AElig;dea, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trypanophora, <i>Koll</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Heteropan, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>scintillans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hypsa, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>plana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>caric&aelig;, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>ficus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Vitessa, <i>Moor</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Zeinire, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lithosia, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>autica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>brevipennis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Setina, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>semitascia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>solita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Doliche, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hilaris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pitane, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>conserta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>&AElig;mene, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dirade, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>attacoides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyllene, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>transversa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*spoliata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bizone, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subornata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>peregrina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Delopeia, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pulcella, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Astrea, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Argus, <i>Kodar</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ARCHTIID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Alope, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ocellitera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Sangalida, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tinolius, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>eburneigutta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Creatonotos, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>interrupta, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>emitteus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acmonia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Etnosioides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spilosoma, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subtascia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cycnia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rubida, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>sparsigutta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Antheua, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>discalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Atoa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lactmea, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>candidula, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>erisa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amerila, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Melipithus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ammotho, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cunionotatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LIPARID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Artaxa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>guttata, <i>Wlk</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page457"
+id="page457"></a>[pg 457]</span></li>
+<li>*varians, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>atomaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acyphas, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>viridescens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lacida, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rotundata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>antica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>subnotata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>complens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>promittens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>strigulitera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amsacta? <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tenebrosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Antipha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>costalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anaxila, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>norata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Procodeca, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>angulifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Redoa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>submarginata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Euproctis, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>virguncula, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>bimaculata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>lunata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>tinctifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cispia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>plagiata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dasychira, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pudibunda, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lymantria, <i>H&uuml;hn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>grandis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>marginata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Enome, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ampla, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dreata, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>plumipes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>geminata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mutans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mollifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pandala, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>dolosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Charnidas, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>junctifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PSYCHID&AElig;, <i>Bru</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Psyche, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Doubledaii, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Metisa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>plana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eumeta, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Cramerii, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+<li>Templetonii, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cryptothelea, <i>Templ</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>consorta, <i>Templ</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. NOTODONTID&AElig;, <i>St</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cerura, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>liturata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Stauropus, <i>Germ</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>alternans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nioda, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>fusiformis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>transversa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rilia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lanceolata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>basivitta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ptilomacra, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>juvenis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Elavia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>metaph&aelig;a, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Notodonta, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ejecta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ichthyura, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>restituens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LIMACODID&AElig;, <i>Dup</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Scopelodes, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>unicolor, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Messata, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rubiginosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Miresa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>argeutifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>aperiens, <i>Wlks</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nyssia, <i>Herr Sch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>l&aelig;ta, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ne&aelig;ra, <i>Herr. Sch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>graciosa, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Narosa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>conspersa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Naprepa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>varians, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DREPANULID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Oreta, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>suffusa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>extensa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Arna, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>apicaus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ganisa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>postica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SATURINID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Attacus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>Atlas, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>lunula, <i>Anon</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anther&aelig;a, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Mylitta, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Assama, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Trop&aelig;a, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Selene, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BOMBYCID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trabala, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>basalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>prasina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lasiocampa, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>trifascia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Megasoma, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>venustum, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lebeda, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>repanda, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>plagiata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>bimaculata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>scriptiplaga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. COSSID&AElig;, <i>Newm</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cossus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>quadrinotatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zeuzera, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>leuconota, <i>Steph</i>.</li>
+<li>pusilla, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HEPIALID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Phassus, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>signifer, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CYMATOPHORID&AElig;, <i>Herr. Sch</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Thyatira, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>repugnans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BRYOPHILID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Bryophila, <i>Treit</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>semipars, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BOMBYGOID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Diphtera, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>deceptura, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LEUCANID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Leucania, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>confusa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>exempta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>interens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>collecta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Brada, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>truncata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Crambopsis, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>excludens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GLOTTULID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Polytela, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>gloriosa, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Glottula, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Dominic, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chasmma, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pavo, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>cygnus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. APAMID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Laphygma, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>obstans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>trajiciens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Prodenia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>retina, <i>Friv</i>.</li>
+<li>glaucistriga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>apertura, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Calogramma, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>festiva, <i>Don</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Heliophobus, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>discrepans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydr&aelig;cia, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lampadifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Apamea, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>undecilia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cel&aelig;na, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>serva, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CARADRINID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Amyna, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>selenampha, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. NOCTUID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Agrotis, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>aristifera, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+<li>congrua, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>punctipes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mundata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>transducta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>plagiata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>plagifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HADENID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Eurois, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>auriplena, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>inclusa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Epiceia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subsignata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hadena, <i>Treit</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subcurva, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>postica, <i>Wlk</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page458"
+id="page458"></a>[pg 458]</span></li>
+<li>retrahens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>confundens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>congressa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>ruptistriga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ansa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>filipalpis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. XYLINID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ragada, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pyrorchroma, <i>Wlk.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cryassa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bifacies, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Egelista, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rudivitta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Xylina, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>deflexa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>inchoans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HELIOTHID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Heliothis, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>armigera, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HEMEROSID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ariola, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>coelisigna, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>dilectissima, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>saturata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ACONTID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Xanthodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>intersepta, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acontia, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tropica, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>olivacea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>fasciculosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>signifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>turpis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mian&ouml;ides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>approximans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>divulsa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*egens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>plenicosta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>determinata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>hyp&aelig;troides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chlumetia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>multilinea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ANTHOPILID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Micra, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>destituta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>derogata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>simplex, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ERIOPID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Callopistria, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>exotiac, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>rivularis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>duplicans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EURHIPID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Penicillaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nugatrix, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>resoluta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>solida, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>lodatrix, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhesala, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>imparata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eutelia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>favillatrix, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>thermesiides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PLUSIID&AElig;, <i>Boisd</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Abrostola, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>transfixa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Plusia, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>aurilera, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+<li>verticillata, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>agramma, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>obtusisigna, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>nigriluna, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>signata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>dispellens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>propulsa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CALPID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Calpe, <i>Treit</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>minuticornis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oroesia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>emarginata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Deva, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>conducens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HEMICERID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Westermannia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>supberba, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYBL&AElig;ID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hybl&aelig;a, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Puera, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>constellica, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nolasena, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ferrifervens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GONOPTERID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cosmophila, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Indica, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>xanthindvina, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anomis, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>fulvida, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>icomea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gonitis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>combinans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>albitibia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mesogona, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>guttanivis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>involuta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>basalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eporedia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>damnipennis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rusicada, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nigritarsis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pasipeda, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rutipalpis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TOXOCAMPID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Toxocampa, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>metaspila, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>sexlinea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>quinquelina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Albonica, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>reversa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. POLYDESMID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Polydesma, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>boarmoides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>erubescens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HOMOPTERID&AElig;, <i>Bois</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Alamis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>spoliata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Homoptera, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>basipallens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>retrahens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>costifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>divisistriga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>procumbens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Diacuista, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>homopteroides, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Daxata, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bijungens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYPOGRAMMID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Briarda, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>precedens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Brana, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>calopasa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corsa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lignicolor, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Avatha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>includens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gadirtha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>decrescens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>impingens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>spurcata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rectifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>duplicans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>intrusa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ercheia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>diversipennis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Plotheia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>frontalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Diomea, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rotundata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>chloromela, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>orbicularis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>muscosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dinumma, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>placens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lusia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>geometroids, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>perficita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>replusa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Abunis, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>trimesa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CATEPHID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cocytodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>coerula, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>modesta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Catephia, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>linteola, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anophia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>acronyctoids, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Steiria, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>subobliqua, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>trajiciens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aucha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>velans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>&AElig;gilia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>describens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Maceda, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mansueta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYPOCALID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hypocala, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>efflorescens, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>subsatura, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CATOCALID&AElig;, <i>Boisd</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Blenina, <i>Wlk</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page459"
+id="page459"></a>[pg 459]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>donans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>accipiens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. OPHIDERID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ophideres, <i>Boisd</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Materna, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>fullonica, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Cajeta, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Ancilla, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Salaminia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Hypermnestra, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>multiscripta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>bilineosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Potamophera, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Maulia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lygniodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>reducens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>disparans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>hypolenca, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EREBID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Oxyodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Clytia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. OMMATOPHORID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Speiredonia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>retrahens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sericia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>atrops, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>parvipennis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Patula, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>macrops, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Argiva, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hieroglyphica, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Beregra, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>replenens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYPOPYRID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Spiramia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Heliconia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+<li>triloba, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hypopyra, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>vespertilio, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ortospana, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>connectens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Entomogramma, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>fautrix, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BENDID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hom&aelig;a, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>clathrum, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hulodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>caranea, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>palumba, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. OPHIUSID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sphingomorpha, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Chlorea, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lagoptera, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>honesta, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+<li>magica, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+<li>dotata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ophiodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>discriminans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>basistigma, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cerbia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>fugitiva, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ophisma, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>l&aelig;tabilis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>deficiens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>gravata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>circumferens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>terminans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ach&aelig;a, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Melicerta, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+<li>Mezentia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Cyllota, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>Cyllaria, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>fusifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>signivitta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>reversa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>combinans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>expectans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Serrodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>campana, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Naxia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>absentimacula, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>Onelia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>calefaciens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>calorifica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Catesia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hoemorrhoda, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hyp&aelig;tra, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>trigonifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>curvifera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>condita, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>complacens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>divisa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ophiusa, <i>Ochs</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>myops, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>albivitta, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>Achatina, <i>Sulz</i>.</li>
+<li>fulvot&aelig;nia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>simillima, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>festinata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>pallidilinea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>luteipalpis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fodina, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>stola, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Grammodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ammonia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Mygdon, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>stolida, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>mundicolor, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EUCLIDID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trigonodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Hippasia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. REMIGID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Remigia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Archesia, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>frugalis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>pertendens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>congregata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>opturata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. FOCILLID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Focilla, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>submemorans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. AMPHIGANID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lacera, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>capella, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amphigonia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hepatizans, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. THERMISID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sympis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rutibasis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thermesia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>finipalpis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>soluta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Azazia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rubricans, <i>Boisd</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Selenis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nivisapex, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>multiguttata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>semilux, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ephyrodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>excipiens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>crististera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>lineitera, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Capnodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*maculicosta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ballatha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>atrotumens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Daranissa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>digramma, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Darsa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>detectissima, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. URAPTERYD&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lagyra, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Talaca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ENNOMID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hyperythra, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>limbolaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Orsonoba, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Rajaca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fascelima, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>chromataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Laginia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bractiaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BOARMID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Amblychia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>angeronia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>poststrigaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Boarmia, <i>Treit</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sublavaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>admissaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>raptaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Medasina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Bhurmitra, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Suiasasa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>diffluaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>caritaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>exclusaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hypochroma, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>minimaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gnophos, <i>Treit</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Pulinda, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Culataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hemerophila, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>vidhisara, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agathia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>blandiaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bulonga, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ajaia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Chacoraca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Chandubija, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GEOMETRID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Geometra, <i>Linn.</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page460"
+id="page460"></a>[pg 460]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>specularia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>Nanda, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nemoria, <i>Hubn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>caudularia, <i>Gu&ecirc;n</i>.</li>
+<li>solidaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thalassodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>quadraria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>catenaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>immissaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Sisunaga, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>adornataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>meritaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>coelataria, <i>WlK</i>.</li>
+<li>gratularia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>chlorozonaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>l&aelig;saria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>simplicaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>immissaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Comib&aelig;na, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Divapala, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>impulsaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Celenna, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>saturaturia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pseudoterpna, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Vivilaca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Amaurima, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rubrolimbaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PALYAD&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Eumelea, <i>Dunc</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ludovicata, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>aureliata, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>*carnearia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EPHYRID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ephyra, <i>Dap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>obrinaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>decursaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Cacavena, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>abhadraca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Vasudeva, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Susarmana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Vutumana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>in&aelig;quata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ACIDALID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Drapetodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mitaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pomasia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Psylaria, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>Sunandaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acidaria, <i>Treit</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>obliviaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>adeptaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>nexiaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>addictaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>actiosaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>defamataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>negataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>actuaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>c&aelig;saria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cabera, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>falsaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>decussaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>famularia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>nigrarenaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hyria, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>elataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>marcidaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>oblataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>grataria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rhodinaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Timandra, <i>Dup</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ajura, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Vijura, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agyris, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>deharia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zanclopteryx, <i>Herr. Sch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>saponaria, <i>Herr. Sch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MICRONID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Micronia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>caudata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>aculeata, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MACARID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Macaria, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Eleonora, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>Varisara, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Rhagivata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Palaca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>honestaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Sangata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>honoraria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>cessaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>subcandaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Doava, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>adjutaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>figuraria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LARENTID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sauris, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hirudinata, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Camptogramma, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>baceata, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Blemyia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Bataca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>blitiaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corenna, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Comatina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lobophora, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Salisnea, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Ghosha, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>contributaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mesogramma, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lactularia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>scitaria, <i>WLk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Eupithecia, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>recensitaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>admixtaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>immixtaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gathynia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>miraria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PLATYDID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trigonia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Cydoniatis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYPENID&AElig;, <i>Herr</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Dichromia, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Orosialis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hypena, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rhombalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>jocosalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>mandatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>qu&aelig;sitalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>laceratalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>iconicalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>labatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>obacerralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>pactalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>raralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>paritalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>surreptalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>detersalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>ineffectalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>incongrualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rubripunctum, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gesonia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*obeditalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>duplex, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HERMINID&AElig;, <i>Dup</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Herminia, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Timonaris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>diffusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>interstans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Adrapsa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ablualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bertula, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>abjudicalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>raptatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>contigens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bocana, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>jutalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>manifestalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>ophinsalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>vagalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>turpatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>hypernalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>gravatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>tomodalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Orthaga, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Euadrusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hipoepa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lapsalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lamura, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>oberratans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Echana, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>abavalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dragana, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pansalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pingrasa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>accuralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Egnasia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ephiradalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>accingalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>participalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>usurpatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Berresa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>natalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Imma, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rugosalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chusaris, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>retatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corgatha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>zonalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Catada, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>glomeralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>captiosalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PYRALAD&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pyralis, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>igniflualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Palesalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>reconditalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Idahalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Janassalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aglossa, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Guidusalis, <i>Wlk</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page461"
+id="page461"></a>[pg 461]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Labanda, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>herbealis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ENNYCHID&AElig;, <i>Dup.</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pyrausta. <i>Schr.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*absistalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ASOPID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i></h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Desmia, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>afflictalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>concisalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>&AElig;diodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n.</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>flavibasalis. <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>effertalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Samea, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>gratiosalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Asopia. <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>vulgalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>falsidicalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>abruptalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>latim orginalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>pr&aelig;teritalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Eryxelis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rofidalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agathodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ostentalis, <i>Geyer</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leucinades, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>orbonalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hymenia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>recurvalis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Agrotera, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>suffusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>decessalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Isopteryx, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*melaleucalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*impulsalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*spromelalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>acclaralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>abnegatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYDROCAMPID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Oligostigma, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>obitalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>votalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cataclysia, <i>Herr Sch</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>diaicidalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>bisectalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>blaudialis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>elutalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SPILOMELID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lepyrodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>geometralis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>lepidalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>peritalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phalangiodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Neptisalis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Spilomela, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>meritalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>abdicatis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>decussalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nistra, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>coelatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pagyda. <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>salvalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Massepha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>absolutalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MARGORODID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Glyphodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>diurnalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>decretalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>coesalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>univocalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phakellura, <i>L. Guild</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>gazorialis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Margarodes, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>psitt&aelig;alis, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.</li>
+<li>pomonalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>hilaralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pygospila, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Tyresalis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Neurina, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Procopalis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>ignibasalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hurgia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>detamalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Maruca, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ruptalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>caritalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. BOTYD&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Botys, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>marginalis, <i>Cram</i>.</li>
+<li>sillalis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>multilineatis, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</li>
+<li>admensalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>abjungalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>rutilalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>admixtalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>celatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>deductalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>celsalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>vulsalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>ultimalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>tropicalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>abstrusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>ruralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>adhoesalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>illisalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>stultalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>adductalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>histricalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>illectalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>suspictalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Janassalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Cynaralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Dialis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Thaisalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Dryopealis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Myrinalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>phycidalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>annulalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>brevilinealis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>plagiatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ebulea, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>aberratalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Camillalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pionea, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>actualis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Optiletalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Jubesalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>brevialis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>suffusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scopula, <i>Schr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>revocatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>turgidalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>volutatalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Godara, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pervasalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Herculia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>bractialis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mecyna. <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>deprivalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SCOPARID&AElig;, <i>Gu&eacute;n</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Scoparia. <i>Haw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>murificalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>congestalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Alconalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Davana. <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Phalantalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Darsania, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Niobesalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dosara. <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>coelatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>lapsalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>immeritalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CHOREUTID&AElig;, <i>Staint</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Niaccaba. <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sumptialis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sim&aelig;this. <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Clatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Damonella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Bathusella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PHYCID&AElig;, <i>Staint</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Myelois, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>actiosella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>bractiatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>cantella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>adaptella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>illusella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>basifuscella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Ligeralis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Marsyasalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dascusa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Valensalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Daroma, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Zeuxoalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Epulusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Timeusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Homoesoma, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>gratella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Getusella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nephopteryx, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Etolusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Cyllusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Hylasalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Acisalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Harpaxalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>&AElig;olusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Argiadesalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Philiasalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pempelia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>laudatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Prionapteryx, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Lincusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pindicitora, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Acreonalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Annusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Thysbesalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Linceusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lacipea, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>muscosella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Araxes, <i>Steph</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page462"
+id="page462"></a>[pg 462]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>admotella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>decusella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>celsella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>admigratella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>coesella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>candidatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Catagela, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>adjurella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>acricuella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>lunulella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CRAMBID&AElig;, <i>Dup</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Crambus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>concinellus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Darbhaca, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>inceptella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Jartheza, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>honosella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bulina, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>solitella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bembina, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Cyanusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chilo, <i>Zinck</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>dodatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>gratiosella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>aditella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>blitella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dariausa, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Eubusalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Arrhade, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ematheonalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Darnensis, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Strephonella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CHLOEPHORID&AElig;. <i>Staint</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Thagora, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tigurans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Earias, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>chromatana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TORTRICID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lozot&aelig;nia, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>retractana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Peronea, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>divisana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lithogramma, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>flexilineana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dictyopteryx, <i>Steph</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>punctana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Homona, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>fasciculana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hemonia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>obiterana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Achroia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tricingulana, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. YPONOMEUTID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Atteva, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>niveigutta, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GELICHID&AElig;, <i>Staint</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Depressaria, <i>Haw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>obligatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>fimbriella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Decuaria, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mendicella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gelechia, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nugatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>calatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>deductella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Perionella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gizama, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>blandiella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Enisima, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>falsella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gapharia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>recitatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Goesa. <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>decusella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cimitra, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>secinsella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ficulea, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>blandinella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fresilia, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>nesciatella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gesontha, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>cantiosella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aginis, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hilariella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cadra, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>delectella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. GLYPHYPTID&AElig;, <i>Staint</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Glyphyteryx, <i>H&uuml;bn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>scitulella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hybele, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mansuetella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TINEID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Tinea, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>tapetzella, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>receptella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>pelionella, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>plagiferella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LYONETID&AElig;, <i>Staint</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cachura, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>objectella, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PTEROPHORID&AElig;, <i>Zell</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pterophorus, <i>Geoffr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>leucadacivius, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>oxydactylus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>anisodactylus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order DIPTERA, <i>Linn.</i></h4>
+<h5>Fam. MYCETOPHILID&AElig;, <i>Hal</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Sciara, <i>Meig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*valida, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CECIDOMYZID&AElig;, <i>Hal</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cecidomyia, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*primaria, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SIMULID&AElig;, <i>Hal</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Simulium, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*destinatum, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CHIRONOMID&AElig;, <i>Hal</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ceratopogon, <i>Meig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*albocinctus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CULICID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Culex, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>regius, <i>Thwaites</i>.</li>
+<li>fuscanns, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>circumvolans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>contrahens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TIPULID&AElig;, <i>Hal</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ctenophora, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gymnoplistia? <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hebes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. STRATIOMID&AElig;, <i>Latr</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ptilocera, <i>Wied</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>quadridentata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>tastuosa, <i>Geist</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pachygaster, <i>Meig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rutitarsis, <i>Macq</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acanthina, <i>Wied</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>azurea, <i>Geist</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TABANID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pangonia, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ASILID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trupanea, <i>Macq</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylanica <i>Macq</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Asilus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>flavicornis, <i>Macq</i>.</li>
+<li>Barium, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DOLICHOPID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Psilopus, <i>Meig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*procuratus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MUSCID&AElig;, <i>Latr</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Tachina? <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*tenebrosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Musca. <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>domestica, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dacus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*interclusus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*nigro&aelig;neus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*detentus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ortalis, <i>*Fall</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*confundens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sciomyza, <i>Fall</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>eucotelus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Drosophila, <i>*Fall</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*restituens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. NYCTERIBID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Nycteribia, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>&mdash;&mdash;? a species
+<ul>
+<li>parasitic on Scatophilus</li>
+<li>Coromandelicus,</li>
+<li><i>Bligh</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order HEMIPTERA, <i>Linn.</i></h4>
+<h5>Fam. PACHYCORID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cantuo, <i>Amyot &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ocellatus, <i>Thunb</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Callidea, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>superba, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+<li>Stockerus, <i>Linn.</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page463"
+id="page463"></a>[pg 463]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EURYGASTERID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Trigonosoma, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Destontainii, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PLATASPID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Coptosoma, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>laticeps, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HALYDID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Halys, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>dentata, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PENTATOMID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pentatoma, <i>Oliv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Timorensis, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+<li>Taprobanensis, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Catacanthus, <i>Spin</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Incarnatus, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhaphigaster, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>congrua, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. EDESSID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Aspongopus, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>anus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tesseratoma, <i>Lep. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>papillosa, <i>Drury</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cyclopelta, <i>Am. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>siccifolia, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PHYLLOCEPHALID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Phyllocephala, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>&AElig;gyptiaca, <i>Lefeb</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MICTID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Mictis, <i>Leach</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>castanea, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+<li>valida, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+<li>punctum, <i>Hope</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Crinocerus, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ponderosus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ANISOSCELID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Leptoscelis, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>ventralis, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+<li>turpis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>marginalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Serinetha, <i>Spin</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Taprobanensis, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+<li>abdominalis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ALYDID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Alydus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>linearis, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. STENOCEPHALID&AElig;, <i>Dall</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Leptocorisa, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Chinensis, <i>Dall</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. COREID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Rhopalus, <i>Schill</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>interruptus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. LYG&AElig;ID&AElig;, <i>Westw</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lyg&aelig;us, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>lutescens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>figuratus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>discifer, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhyparochromus, <i>Curt</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>testacelpes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ARADID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Piestosoma, <i>Lap</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pierpes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TINGID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Calloniana, <i>Wlk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*elegans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CIMICID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cimex, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>lectularius, <i>Linn.</i>?</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. REDUVIID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Pirates, <i>Burm</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>marginatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Acanthaspis, <i>Am. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sanguimpes, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>fulvispina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. HYDROMETRID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ptilomera, <i>Am. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>laticanda, <i>Hardw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. NEPID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Belostoma, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Indicum, <i>St. Farg</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nepa, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>minor, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. NOTONECTID&AElig;, <i>Steph</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Notonecta, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>abbreviata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>simplex, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corixa, <i>Geoff.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>*subjacens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h4>Order HOMOPTERA, <i>Latr</i>.</h4>
+<h5>Fam. CICADID&AElig;, <i>Westw</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Dundubia, <i>Am. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>stipata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Clonia, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Larus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cicada, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>limitaris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>nubifurca, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. FULGORID&AElig;, <i>Schaum</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hotinus, <i>Am. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>maculatus, <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+<li>fulvirostris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>coccineus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pyrops, <i>Spin</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>punctata, <i>Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aph&aelig;na, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>sanguinalis, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Elidiptera, <i>Spin</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Emersoniana, <i>White</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CIXIID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Eurybrachys, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>tomentosa, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>dilatata, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>crudelis, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cixius, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*nubilus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. ISSID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Hemisph&aelig;rius, <i>Schaum</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*Schaumi, <i>Staf</i>.</li>
+<li>*bipustulatus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. DERBID&AElig;, <i>Schaum</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Thracia, <i>Westw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pterophorides, <i>Westw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Derbe, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*furcato-vittata, <i>Stal</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. FLATTID&AElig;, <i>Schaum</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Flatoides, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>hyalinus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>tenebrosus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ricania, <i>Germ</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Hemerobii, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Poeciloptera, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>pulvernlenta, <i>Gu&eacute;r</i>.</li>
+<li>stellaris, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>Tennentina, <i>White</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. MEMBRACID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Oxyrhachis, <i>Germ</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*indicans, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Centrotus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*reponens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*malleus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>substitutus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*decipiens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*relinquens, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*imitator, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*repressus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>*terminalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. CERCOPID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cercopis, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>inclusa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ptyelus, <i>Lep. &amp; Serv</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>costalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. TETTIGONIID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Tettigonia, <i>Latr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>paulula, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. SCARID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Ledra, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>rugosa, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+<li>conica, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gypona, <i>Germ</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>prasina, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. IASSID&AElig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Acocephalus, <i>Germ</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>porrectus, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. PSYLLID&AElig;, <i>Latr</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Psylla, <i>Goff</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>*marginalis, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>Fam. COCCID&AElig;, <i>Leach</i>.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Lecanium, <i>Illig</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Coffe&aelig;, <i>Wlk</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4041" name=
+"footnote4041"></a><b>Footnote 4041:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4041">(return)</a>
+<p>The butterflies I have seen in these wonderful migrations in
+Ceylon were mostly <i>Callidryas Hilari&aelig;, C. Alcmeone</i>,
+and <i>C. Pyranthe</i>, with straggling individuals of the genus
+<i>Eupl&aelig;a, E. Coras</i>, and <i>E. Prothoe</i>. Their passage
+took place in April and May, generally in a north-easterly
+direction. The natives have a superstitious belief that their
+flight is ultimately directed to Adam's Peak, and that their
+pilgrimage ends on reaching the sacred mountain. A friend of mine
+travelling from Kandy to Kornegalle, drove for nine miles through a
+cloud of white butterflies, which were passing across the road by
+which he went.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4042" name=
+"footnote4042"></a><b>Footnote 4042:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4042">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Nat. Journal</i>, p. 39.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4051" name=
+"footnote4051"></a><b>Footnote 4051:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4051">(return)</a>
+<p>Republished in the <i>Ann. Nat. Hist.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4052" name=
+"footnote4052"></a><b>Footnote 4052:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4052">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Sternocera Chrysis; S. sternicornis</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4053" name=
+"footnote4053"></a><b>Footnote 4053:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4053">(return)</a>
+<p>Of the family of <i>Elaterid&aelig;</i>, one of the finest is a
+Singhalese species, the <i>Campsosternus Templetonii</i>, of an
+exquisite golden green colour, with blue reflections (described and
+figured by Mr. WESTWOOD in his <i>Cabinet of Oriental
+Entomology</i>, pl. 35, f. 1). In the same work is figured another
+species of large size, also from Ceylon, this is the <i>Alaus
+sordidus</i>.&mdash;WESTWOOD, l. c. pl. 35, f. 9.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4054" name=
+"footnote4054"></a><b>Footnote 4054:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4054">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ateuchus sacer; Copris sagax; C. capucinus</i>, &amp;c.
+&amp;c.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4071" name=
+"footnote4071"></a><b>Footnote 4071:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4071">(return)</a>
+<p>The engraving on the preceding page represents in its various
+transformations one of the most familiar and graceful of the
+longicorn beetles of Ceylon, the <i>Batocera rubus</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4072" name=
+"footnote4072"></a><b>Footnote 4072:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4072">(return)</a>
+<p>There is a paper in the <i>Journ. of the Asiat. Society of
+Ceylon</i>, May, 1845, by Mr. CAPPER, on the ravages perpetrated by
+these beetles. The writer had recently passed through several
+coco-nut plantations, "varying in extent from 20 to 150 acres, and
+about two to three years old: and in these he did not discover a
+single young tree untouched by the cooroominiya."&mdash;P. 49.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4073" name=
+"footnote4073"></a><b>Footnote 4073:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4073">(return)</a>
+<p>Leviticus, xi. 22.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4081" name=
+"footnote4081"></a><b>Footnote 4081:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4081">(return)</a>
+<p>Phyllium siccifolium.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4101" name=
+"footnote4101"></a><b>Footnote 4101:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4101">(return)</a>
+<p><i>M. aridifolia</i> and <i>M. extensicollis</i>, as well as
+<i>Empusa gongylodes</i>, remarkable for the long leaf-like head,
+and dilatations on the posterior thighs, are common in the
+island.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4111" name=
+"footnote4111"></a><b>Footnote 4111:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4111">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Libellula pulchella</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4112" name=
+"footnote4112"></a><b>Footnote 4112:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4112">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Euph&aelig;a splendens</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4113" name=
+"footnote4113"></a><b>Footnote 4113:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4113">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Palpares contrarius</i>, Walker; <i>Myrmeleon gravis</i>,
+Walker; <i>M. dirus</i>, Walker; <i>M. barbarus</i>, Walker.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4121" name=
+"footnote4121"></a><b>Footnote 4121:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4121">(return)</a>
+<p>It becomes an interesting question whence the termites derive
+the large supplies of moisture with which they not only temper the
+clay for the construction of their long covered ways above ground,
+but for keeping their passages uniformly damp and cool below the
+surface. Yet their habits in this particular are unvarying, in the
+seasons of droughts as well as after rain; in the driest and least
+promising positions, in situations inaccessible to drainage from
+above, and cut off by rocks and impervious strata from springs from
+below. Dr. Livingstone, struck with this phenomenon in Southern
+Africa, asks: "Can the white ants possess the power of combining
+the oxygen and hydrogen of their vegetable food by vital force so
+as to form water?"&mdash;<i>Travels</i>, p. 22. And he describes at
+Angola, an insect<a id="footnotetag4123" name=
+"footnotetag4123"></a><a href="#footnote4123"><sup>4123</sup></a>
+resembling the <i>Aphrophora spumaria</i>; seven or eight
+individuals of which distil several pints of water every
+night.&mdash;P. 414. It is highly probable that the termites are
+endowed with some such faculty: nor is it more remarkable that an
+insect should combine the gases of its food to produce water, than
+that a fish should decompose water in order to provide itself with
+gas. FOURCROIX found the contents of the air-bladder in a carp to
+be pure nitrogen.&mdash;<i>Yarrell</i>, vol. i. p. 42. And the
+aquatic larva of the dragon-fly extracts air for its respiration
+from the water in which it is submerged. A similar mystery pervades
+the inquiry whence plants under peculiar circumstances derive the
+water essential to vegetation.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4122" name=
+"footnote4122"></a><b>Footnote 4122:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4122">(return)</a>
+<p>KNOX'S <i>Ceylon</i>, Part i, ch. vi, p.24.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4123" name=
+"footnote4123"></a><b>Footnote 4123:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4123">(return)</a>
+<p><i>A. goudotti?</i> Bennett.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4131" name=
+"footnote4131"></a><b>Footnote 4131:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4131">(return)</a>
+<p>Dr. HOOKER, in his <i>Himalayan Journal</i> (vol. i. p. 20) is
+of opinion that the nests of the termites are not independent
+structures, but that their nucleus is "the debris of clumps of
+bamboos or the trunks of large trees which these insects have
+destroyed." He supposes that the dead tree falls leaving the stump
+coated with sand, <i>which the action of the weather soon fashions
+into a cone</i>. But independently of the fact that the "action of
+the weather" produces little or no effect on the closely cemented
+clay of the white ants' nest, they may be daily seen constructing
+their edifices in the very form of a cone, which they ever after
+retain. Besides which, they appear in the midst of terraces and
+fields where no trees are to be seen: and Dr. Hooker seems to
+overlook the fact that the termites rarely attack a living tree;
+and although their nests may be built against one, it continues to
+flourish not the less for their presence.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4161" name=
+"footnote4161"></a><b>Footnote 4161:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4161">(return)</a>
+<p>For these particulars of the <i>termes monoceros</i>, I am
+indebted to Mr. Thwaites, of the Roy. Botanic Garden at Kandy.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4171" name=
+"footnote4171"></a><b>Footnote 4171:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4171">(return)</a>
+<p>It belongs to the genus <i>Pelop&aelig;us, P. Spinol&aelig;</i>,
+of St. Fargean. The <i>Ampulex compressa</i>, which drags about the
+larv&aelig; of cockroaches into which it has implanted its eggs,
+belongs, to the same family.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4172" name=
+"footnote4172"></a><b>Footnote 4172:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4172">(return)</a>
+<p>Mr. E.L. Layard has given an interesting account of this Mason
+wasp in the <i>Annals and Magazine of Nat. History</i> for May,
+1853. "I have frequently," he says, "selected one of these flies
+for observation, and have seen their labours extend over a period
+of a fortnight or twenty days; sometimes only half a cell was
+completed in a day, at others as much as two. I never saw more than
+twenty cells in one nest, seldom indeed that number, and whence the
+caterpillars were procured was always to me a mystery. I have seen
+thirty or forty brought in of a species which I knew to be very
+rare in the perfect state, and which I had sought for in vain,
+although I knew on what plant they fed.</p>
+<p>"Then again how are they disabled by the wasp, and yet not
+injured so as to cause their immediate death? Die they all do, at
+least all that I have ever tried to rear, after taking them from
+the nest.</p>
+<p>"The perfected fly never effects its egress from the closed
+aperture, through which the caterpillars were inserted, and when
+cells are placed end to end, as they are in many instances, the
+outward end of each is always selected. I cannot detect any
+difference in the thickness in the crust of the cell to cause this
+uniformity of practice. It is often as much as half an inch
+through, of great hardness, and as far as I can see impervious to
+air and light. How then does the enclosed fly always select the
+right end, and with what secretion is it supplied to decompose this
+mortar?"</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4181" name=
+"footnote4181"></a><b>Footnote 4181:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4181">(return)</a>
+<p>It ought to be remembered in travelling in the forests of Ceylon
+that sal volatile applied immediately is a specific for the sting
+of a wasp.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4182" name=
+"footnote4182"></a><b>Footnote 4182:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4182">(return)</a>
+<p>At the January (1839) meeting of the Entomological Society, Mr.
+Whitehouse exhibited portions of a wasps' nest from Ceylon, between
+seven and eight feet long and two feet in diameter, and showed that
+the construction of the cells was perfectly analogous to those of
+the hive bee, and that when connected each has a tendency to assume
+a circular outline. In one specimen where there were three cells
+united the outer part was circular, whilst the portions common to
+the three formed straight walls. From this Singhalese nest Mr.
+Whitehouse demonstrated that the wasps at the commencement of their
+comb proceed slowly, forming the bases of several together, whereby
+they assume the hexagonal shape, whereas, if constructed
+separately, he thought each single cell would be circular. See
+<i>Proc. Ent. Soc.</i>, vol. iii. p. 16.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4183" name=
+"footnote4183"></a><b>Footnote 4183:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4183">(return)</a>
+<p>A gentleman connected with the department of the
+Surveyor-General writes to me that he measured a honey-comb which
+he found fastened to the overhanging branch of a small tree in the
+forest near Adam's Peak, and found it nine links of his chain or
+about six feet in length and a foot in breadth where it was
+attached to the branch, but tapering towards the other extremity.
+"It was a single comb with a layer of cells on either side, but so
+weighty that the branch broke by the strain."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4184" name=
+"footnote4184"></a><b>Footnote 4184:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4184">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Xylocopa tenuiscapa</i>, Westw.; Another species found in
+Ceylon is the <i>X. latipes</i>, Drury.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4191" name=
+"footnote4191"></a><b>Footnote 4191:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4191">(return)</a>
+<p>See figure above.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4201" name=
+"footnote4201"></a><b>Footnote 4201:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4201">(return)</a>
+<p>Mr. Jerdan, in a series of papers in the thirteenth volume of
+the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>, has described forty-seven
+species of ants in Southern India. But M. Nietner has recently
+forwarded to the Berlin Museum upwards of seventy species taken by
+him in Ceylon, chiefly in the western province and the vicinity of
+Colombo. Of these many are identical with those noted by Mr. Jerdan
+as belonging to the Indian continent. One (probably
+<i>Drepanognathus saltator</i> of Jerdan) is described by M.
+Nietner as occasionally "moving by jumps of several inches at a
+spring."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4202" name=
+"footnote4202"></a><b>Footnote 4202:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4202">(return)</a>
+<p>Dr. DAVY, in a paper on Tropical Plants, has introduced the
+following passage relative to the purification of sugar by
+ants:</p>
+<p>"If the juice of the sugar-cane&mdash;the common syrup as
+expressed by the mill&mdash;be exposed to the air, it gradually
+evaporates, yielding a light-brown residue, like the ordinary
+muscovado sugar of the best quality. If not protected, it is
+presently attacked by ants, and in a short time is, as it were,
+converted into white crystalline sugar, the ants having refined it
+by removing the darker portion, probably preferring that part from
+it containing azotized matter. The negroes, I may remark, prefer
+brown sugar to white: they say its sweetening power is greater; no
+doubt its nourishing quality is greater, and therefore as an
+article of diet deserving of preference. In refining sugar as in
+refining salt (coarse bay salt containing a little iodine), an
+error may be committed in abstracting matter designed by nature for
+a useful purpose."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4211" name=
+"footnote4211"></a><b>Footnote 4211:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4211">(return)</a>
+<p>See <i>ante</i>, p. 317.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4221" name=
+"footnote4221"></a><b>Footnote 4221:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4221">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Formica smaragdina,</i> Fab.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4231" name=
+"footnote4231"></a><b>Footnote 4231:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4231">(return)</a>
+<p>For an account of this pest, see p. 437.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4241" name=
+"footnote4241"></a><b>Footnote 4241:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4241">(return)</a>
+<p>KNOX'S <i>Historical Relation of Ceylon</i>, pt. i. ch. vi. p.
+23.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4261" name=
+"footnote4261"></a><b>Footnote 4261:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4261">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Lyc&aelig;na polyommatus, &amp;c.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4262" name=
+"footnote4262"></a><b>Footnote 4262:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4262">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Amblypodia pseudocentaurus, &amp;c.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4263" name=
+"footnote4263"></a><b>Footnote 4263:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4263">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Pamphila hesperia, &amp;c.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4271" name=
+"footnote4271"></a><b>Footnote 4271:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4271">(return)</a>
+<p>There is another variety of the same moth in Ceylon which
+closely resembles it in its markings, but in which I have never
+detected the uttering of this curious cry. It is smaller than the
+<i>A. Satanas</i>, and, like it, often enters dwellings at night,
+attracted by the lights; but I have not found its larv&aelig;,
+although that of the other species is common on several widely
+different plants.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4272" name=
+"footnote4272"></a><b>Footnote 4272:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4272">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Anther&aelig;a mylitta,</i> Drury.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4281" name=
+"footnote4281"></a><b>Footnote 4281:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4281">(return)</a>
+<p>The Portuguese had made the attempt previous to the arrival of
+the Dutch, and a strip of land on the banks of the Kalany river
+near Colombo, still bears the name of Orta Seda, the silk garden.
+The attempt of the Dutch to introduce the true silkworm, the
+<i>Bombyx mori</i>, took place under the governorship; of Ryklof
+Van Goens, who, on handing over the administration to his successor
+in A.D. 1663, thus apprises him of the initiation of the
+experiment:&mdash;"At Jaffna Palace a trial has been undertaken to
+feed silkworms, and to ascertain whether silk may be reared at that
+station. I have planted a quantity of mulberry trees, which grow
+well there, and they ought to be planted in other
+directions."&mdash;VALENTYN, chap. xiii. The growth of the mulberry
+trees is noticed the year after in a report to the governor-general
+of India, but the subject afterwards ceased to be attended to.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4291" name=
+"footnote4291"></a><b>Footnote 4291:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4291">(return)</a>
+<p>The species of moth with which it is identified has not yet been
+determined, but it most probably belongs to a section of
+Boisduval's genus <i>Bombyx</i> allied to <i>Cnethocampa</i>,
+Stephens.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4301" name=
+"footnote4301"></a><b>Footnote 4301:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4301">(return)</a>
+<p>Another caterpillar which feeds on the jasmine flowering
+Carissa, stings with such fury that I have known a gentleman to
+shed tears while the pain was at its height. It is short and broad,
+of a pale green, with fleshy spines on the upper surface, each of
+which seems to be charged with the venom that occasions this acute
+suffering. The moth which this caterpillar produces, <i>Ne&aelig;ra
+lepida</i>, Cramer; <i>Limacodes graciosa</i>, Westw., has dark
+brown wings, the primary traversed by a broad green band. It is
+common in the western side of Ceylon. The larv&aelig; of the genus
+<i>Adolia</i> are also hairy, and sting with virulence.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4302" name=
+"footnote4302"></a><b>Footnote 4302:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4302">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Eumeta</i>, Wlk.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4303" name=
+"footnote4303"></a><b>Footnote 4303:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4303">(return)</a>
+<p>The singular instincts of a species of Thecla, <i>Dipsas
+Isocrates</i>, Fab., in connection with the fruit of the
+pomegranate, were fully described by Mr. Westwood, in a paper read
+before the Entomological Society of London in 1835.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4331" name=
+"footnote4331"></a><b>Footnote 4331:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4331">(return)</a>
+<p>Amongst the specimens of this order which I brought from Ceylon,
+two proved to be new and undescribed, and have been named by Mr. A.
+WHITE <i>Elidiptera Emersoniana</i> and <i>Poeciloptera
+Tennentina</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4332" name=
+"footnote4332"></a><b>Footnote 4332:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4332">(return)</a>
+<p>Such as <i>Cantuo ocellatus, Leptoscelis Marginalis, Callidea
+Stockerius</i>, &amp;c. &amp;c. Of the aquatic species, the
+gigantic <i>Belostoma Indicum</i> cannot escape notice, attaining a
+size of nearly three inches.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4341" name=
+"footnote4341"></a><b>Footnote 4341:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4341">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Culex laniger?</i> Wied. In Kandy Mr. Thwaites finds <i>C.
+fuscanns, C. circumcolans,</i> &amp;c., and one with a most
+formidable hooked proboscis, to which he has assigned the
+appropriate name <i>C. Regius</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4342" name=
+"footnote4342"></a><b>Footnote 4342:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4342">(return)</a>
+<p>The precise species of insect by means of which the Almighty
+signalised the plague of flies, remains uncertain, as the Hebrew
+term <i>arob</i> or <i>oror</i> which has been rendered in one
+place. "Divers sorts of flies," Ps. cv. 31; and in another, "swarms
+of flies," Exod. viii. 21, &amp;c., means merely "an assemblage." a
+"mixture" or a "swarm," and the expletive. "<i>of flies</i>" is an
+interpolation of the translators. This, however, serves to show
+that the fly implied was one easily recognisable by its habit of
+<i>swarming</i>; and the further fact that it <i>bites</i>, or
+rather stings, is elicited from the expression of the Psalmist, Ps.
+lxxviii. 45, that the insects by which the Egyptians were tormented
+"devoured them," so that here are two peculiarities inapplicable to
+the domestic fly, but strongly characteristic of gnats and
+mosquitoes.</p>
+<p>Bruce thought that the fly of the fourth plague was the "zimb"
+of Abyssinia which he so graphically describes: and WESTWOOD, in an
+ingenious passage in his <i>Entomologist's Text-book.</i> p. 17,
+combats the strange idea of one of the bishops, that it was a
+cockroach! and argues in favour of the mosquito. This view he
+sustains by a reference to the habits of the creature, the swarms
+in which it invades a locality, and the audacity with which it
+enters the houses; and he accounts for the exemption of "the land
+of Goshen in which the Isr&aelig;lites dwelt," by the fact of its
+being sandy pasture above the level of the river; whilst the
+mosquitoes were produced freely in the rest of Egypt, the soil of
+which was submerged by the rising of the Nile.</p>
+<p>In all the passages in the Old Testament in which flies are
+alluded to, otherwise than in connection with the Egyptian
+infliction, the word used in the Hebrew is <i>zevor</i>, which the
+Septuagint renders by the ordinary generic term for flies in
+general, [Greek: muia], "<i>musca</i>" (Eccles. x. 1, Isaiah vii.
+10); but in every instance in which mention is made of the miracle
+of Moses, the Septuagint says that the fly produced was the [Greek:
+kunomyia], the "dog-fly." What insect was meant by this name it is
+not now easy to determine, but &AElig;LIAN intimates that the
+dogfly both inflicts a wound and emits a booming sound, in both of
+which particulars it accords with the mosquito (lib. iv, 51); and
+PHILO-JUD&AElig;US, in his <i>Vita Mosis</i>, lib. i. ch. xxiii.,
+descanting on the plague of flies, and using the term of the
+Septuagint, [Greek: kunomyia], describes it as combining the
+characteristic of "the most impudent of all animals, the fly and
+the dog, exhibiting the courage and the cunning of both, and
+fastening on its victim with the noise and rapidity of an
+arrow"&mdash;[Greek: meta roizou kathaper belos]. This seems to
+identify the dog-fly of the Septuagint with the description of the
+Psalmist, Ps. lxxviii. 45, and to vindicate the conjecture that the
+tormenting mosquito, and not the house-fly, was commissioned by the
+Lord to humble the obstinacy of the Egyptian tyrant.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4351" name=
+"footnote4351"></a><b>Footnote 4351:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4351">(return)</a>
+<p>HERODOTUS, <i>Euterpe.</i> xcv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4352" name=
+"footnote4352"></a><b>Footnote 4352:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4352">(return)</a>
+<p>KIRBY and SPENCE'S <i>Entomology</i>, letter iv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4361" name=
+"footnote4361"></a><b>Footnote 4361:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4361">(return)</a>
+<p>The following notice of the "coffee-bug," and of the singularly
+destructive effects produced by it on the plants, has been prepared
+chiefly from a memoir presented to the Ceylon Government by the
+late Dr. Gardner, in which he traces the history of the insect from
+its first appearance in the coffee districts, until it had
+established itself more or less permanently in all the estates in
+full cultivation throughout the island.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4362" name=
+"footnote4362"></a><b>Footnote 4362:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4362">(return)</a>
+<p>See the annexed drawing, Fig. 1.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4363" name=
+"footnote4363"></a><b>Footnote 4363:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4363">(return)</a>
+<p>Figs. 2, and 3 and 5 in the engraving, where these and all the
+other figures are considerably enlarged.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4371" name=
+"footnote4371"></a><b>Footnote 4371:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4371">(return)</a>
+<p>Fig. 4. Mr. WESTWOOD, who observed the operation in one species,
+states that they escape backwards, the wings being extended flatly
+over the head.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4381" name=
+"footnote4381"></a><b>Footnote 4381:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4381">(return)</a>
+<p>Figs. 6 and 7. There are many other species of the Coccus tribe
+in Ceylon, some (Pseudococcus?) never appearing as a scale, the
+female wrapping herself up in a white cottony exudation; many
+species nearly allied to the true Coccus infest common plants about
+gardens, such as the Nerium Oleander, Plumeria Acuminata, and
+others with milky juices; another subgenus (Ceroplastes?), the
+female of which produces a protecting waxy material, infests the
+Gendurassa Vulgaris, the Furrc&aelig;a Gigantea, the Jak Tree,
+Mango, and other common trees.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4382" name=
+"footnote4382"></a><b>Footnote 4382:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4382">(return)</a>
+<p>REAUMUR has described the singular manner in which this occurs.
+<i>Mem.</i> tom. iv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4391" name=
+"footnote4391"></a><b>Footnote 4391:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4391">(return)</a>
+<p>Fig. 8.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4392" name=
+"footnote4392"></a><b>Footnote 4392:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4392">(return)</a>
+<p>Fig. 9.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4393" name=
+"footnote4393"></a><b>Footnote 4393:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4393">(return)</a>
+<p>Figs. 10, 11.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4394" name=
+"footnote4394"></a><b>Footnote 4394:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4394">(return)</a>
+<p>Of the parasitic Chalcididi&aelig;, many genera of which are
+well known to deposit their eggs in the soft Coccus, viz.:
+Encystus, Coccophagus, Pteromalus, Mesosela, Agonioneurus; besides
+Aphidius, a minutely sized genus of Ichneumonid&aelig;. Most, if
+not all, of these genera are Singhalese.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4401" name=
+"footnote4401"></a><b>Footnote 4401:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4401">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Racodium?</i> Species of this genus are not confined to the
+coffee plant alone in Ceylon, but follow the "bugs" in their
+attacks on other bushes. It appears like a dense interlaced mesh of
+fibres, each made up of a single series of minute oblong vesicles
+applied end to end.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4421" name=
+"footnote4421"></a><b>Footnote 4421:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4421">(return)</a>
+<p>The entire of the new species contained in this list have been
+described in a series of papers by Mr. WALKER in successive numbers
+of the <i>Annals of Natural History</i> (1858-61): those, from Dr.
+TEMPLETON'S collection of which descriptions have been taken, have
+been at his desire transferred to the British Museum for future
+reference and comparison.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4422" name=
+"footnote4422"></a><b>Footnote 4422:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4422">(return)</a>
+<p>On the subject of this conjecture see <i>ante</i>, p. 60.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>[pg
+464]</span>
+<h2><a name="chap13" id="chap13"></a>CHAP. XIII.</h2>
+<h3>ARTICULATA.</h3>
+<hr />
+<h4><i>Arachinida&mdash;Myriopoda&mdash;Crustacea, etc.</i></h4>
+<p>With a few striking exceptions, the true <i>spiders</i> of
+Ceylon resemble in oeconomy and appearance those we are accustomed
+to see at home;&mdash;they frequent the houses, the gardens, the
+rocks and the stems of trees, and along the sunny paths, where the
+forest meets the open country, the <i>Epeira</i> and her congeners,
+the true net-weaving spiders, extend their lacework, the grace of
+the designs being even less attractive than the beauty of the
+creatures that elaborate them.</p>
+<p>Such of them as live in the woods select with singular sagacity
+the bridle-paths and narrow passages for expanding their nets;
+perceiving no doubt that the larger insects frequent these openings
+for facility of movement through the jungle; and that the smaller
+ones are carried towards them by currents of air. Their nets are
+stretched across the path from four to eight feet above the ground,
+suspended from projecting shoots, and attached, if possible, to
+thorny shrubs; and they sometimes exhibit the most remarkable
+scenes of carnage and destruction. I have taken down a ball as
+large as a man's head consisting of successive layers rolled
+together, in the heart of which was the original den of the family,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>[pg
+465]</span> whilst the envelope was formed, sheet after sheet, by
+coils of the old web filled with the wings and limbs of insects of
+all descriptions, from large moths and butterflies to mosquitoes
+and minute coleoptera. Each layer appeared to have been originally
+hung across the passage to intercept the expected prey; and, when
+it had become surcharged with carcases, to have been loosened,
+tossed over by the wind or its own weight, and wrapped round the
+nucleus in the centre, the spider replacing it by a fresh sheet, to
+be in turn detached and added to the mass within.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/496.png"><img width="100%" src="images/496.png" alt=
+"Spider" /></a>
+<p>Spider</p>
+</div>
+<p>Separated by marked peculiarities both of structure and
+instinct, from the spiders which live in the open air, and busy
+themselves in providing food during the day, the <i>Mygale
+fasciata</i> is not only sluggish in its habits, but disgusting in
+its form and dimensions. Its colour is a gloomy brown, interrupted
+by irregular blotches and faint bands (whence its trivial name); it
+is sparingly sprinkled with hairs, and its limbs, when expanded,
+stretch over an area of six to eight inches in diameter. It is
+familiar to Europeans in Ceylon, who have given it the name, and
+ascribed to it the fabulous propensities, of the Tarentula.<a id=
+"footnotetag4651" name="footnotetag4651"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4651"><sup>4651</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Mygale is found abundantly in the northern and eastern parts
+of the island, and occasionally in dark unfrequented apartments in
+the western province; but its inclinations are solitary, and it
+shuns the busy traffic of towns.</p>
+<p>The largest specimens I have seen were at Gampola in the
+vicinity of Kandy, and one taken in the store-room <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>[pg 466]</span> of the
+rest-house there, nearly covered with its legs an ordinary-sized
+breakfast plate.<a id="footnotetag4661" name=
+"footnotetag4661"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4661"><sup>4661</sup></a></p>
+<p>This hideous creature does not weave a broad web or spin a net
+like other spiders, but nevertheless it forms a comfortable mansion
+in the wall of a neglected building, the hollow of a tree, or under
+the eave of an overhanging stone. This it lines throughout with a
+tapestry of silk of a tubular form; and of a texture so exquisitely
+fine and closely woven, that no moisture can penetrate it. The
+extremity of the tube is carried out to the entrance, where it
+expands into a little platform, stayed by braces to the nearest
+objects that afford a firm hold. In particular situations, where
+the entrance is exposed to the wind, the mygale, on the approach of
+the monsoon, extends the strong tissue above it so as to serve as
+an awning to prevent the access of rain.</p>
+<p>The construction of this silken dwelling is exclusively designed
+for the domestic luxury of the spider; it serves no purpose in
+trapping or securing prey, and no external disturbance of the web
+tempts the creature to sally out to surprise an intruder, as the
+epeira and its congeners would.</p>
+<p>By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it issues at
+night to feed on larv&aelig; and worms, devouring cockroaches and
+their pup&aelig;, and attacking the millepeds, gryllotalp&aelig;,
+and other fleshy insects.</p>
+<p>Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD has described<a id="footnotetag4662" name=
+"footnotetag4662"></a><a href="#footnote4662"><sup>4662</sup></a>
+an encounter between a Mygale and a cockroach, which he witnessed
+in the madua of a temple at Alittane, between Anarajapoora and
+Dambool. When about a yard apart, each <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>[pg 467]</span>
+discerned the other and stood still, the spider with his legs
+slightly bent and his body raised, the cockroach confronting him
+and directing his antenn&aelig; with a restless undulation towards
+his enemy. The spider, by stealthy movements, approached to within
+a few inches and paused, both parties eyeing each other intently;
+then suddenly a rush, a scuffle, and both fell to the ground, when
+the blatta's wings closed, the spider seized it under the throat
+with his claws, and dragged it into a corner, when the action of
+his jaws was distinctly audible. Next morning Mr. Layard found that
+the soft parts of the body had been eaten, nothing but the head,
+thorax, and clytra remaining.</p>
+<p>But, in addition to minor and ignoble prey, the Mygale rests
+under the imputation of seizing small birds and feasting on their
+blood. The author who first gave popular currency to this story was
+Madame MERIAN, a zoological artist of the last century, many of
+whose drawings are still preserved in the Museums of St.
+Petersburg, Holland, and England. In a work on the Insects of
+Surinam, published in 1705<a id="footnotetag4671" name=
+"footnotetag4671"></a><a href="#footnote4671"><sup>4671</sup></a>,
+she figured the <i>Mygale aricularia</i>, in the act of devouring a
+humming-bird. The accuracy of her statement has since been
+impugned<a id="footnotetag4672" name="footnotetag4672"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4672"><sup>4672</sup></a> by a correspondent of the
+Zoological Society of London, on the ground that the mygale makes
+no net, but lives in recesses, to which no humming-bird would
+resort; and hence, the writer somewhat illogically declares, that
+he "disbelieves the existence of any bird-catching spider."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>[pg
+468]</span>
+<p>Some years later, however, the same writer felt it incumbent on
+him to qualify this hasty conclusion<a id="footnotetag4681" name=
+"footnotetag4681"></a><a href="#footnote4681"><sup>4681</sup></a>,
+in consequence of having seen at Sydney an enormous spider, the
+<i>Epeira diadema</i>, in the act of sucking the juices of a bird
+(the <i>Zosterops dorsalis</i> of Vigors and Horsfield), which, it
+had caught in the meshes of its geometrical net. This circumstance,
+however, did not in his opinion affect the case of the
+<i>Mygale</i>; and even as regards the <i>Epeira</i>, Mr. MacLeay,
+who witnessed the occurrence, was inclined to believe the instance
+to be accidental and exceptional; "an exception indeed so rare,
+that no other person had ever witnessed the fact."</p>
+<p>Subsequent observation has, however, served to sustain the story
+of Madame Merian.<a id="footnotetag4682" name=
+"footnotetag4682"></a><a href="#footnote4682"><sup>4682</sup></a>
+Baron Walcken&aelig;r and Latreille both corroborated it by other
+authorities; and M. Moreau da Jonn&egrave;s, who studied the habits
+of the Mygale in Martinique, says it hunts far and wide in search
+of its prey, conceals itself beneath leaves for the purpose of
+surprising them, and climbs the branches of trees to devour the
+young of the humming-bird, and of the <i>Certhia flaveola</i>. As
+to its mode of attack, M. Jonn&egrave;s says that when it throws
+itself on its victim it clings to it by the double hooks of its
+tarsi, and strives to reach the back of the head, to insert its
+jaws between the skull and the vertebr&aelig;.<a id=
+"footnotetag4683" name="footnotetag4683"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4683"><sup>4683</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>[pg
+469]</span>
+<p>For my own part, no instance came to my knowledge in Ceylon of a
+mygale attacking a bird; but PERCIVAL, who wrote his account of the
+island in 1805, describes an enormous spider (possibly an Epeirid)
+thinly covered with hair which "makes webs strong enough to
+entangle and hold even small birds that form its usual food."<a id=
+"footnotetag4691" name="footnotetag4691"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4691"><sup>4691</sup></a></p>
+<p>The fact of its living on millepeds, blatt&aelig;, and crickets,
+is universally known; and a lady who lived at Marandahn, near
+Colombo, told me that she had, on one occasion, seen a little
+house-lizard (<i>gecko</i>) seized and devoured by one of these
+ugly spiders.</p>
+<p>Walcken&aelig;r has described a spider of large size, under the
+name of <i>Olios Taprobanius</i>, which is very common in Ceylon,
+and conspicuous from the fiery hue of the under surface, the
+remainder being covered with gray hair so short and fine that the
+body seems almost denuded. It spins a moderate-sized web, hung
+vertically between two sets of strong lines, stretched one above
+the other athwart the pathways. Some of the threads thus carried
+horizontally from tree to tree at a considerable height from the
+ground are so strong as to cause a painful check across the face
+when moving quickly against them; and more than once in riding I
+have had my hat lifted off my head by one of these cords.<a id=
+"footnotetag4692" name="footnotetag4692"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4692"><sup>4692</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>[pg
+470]</span>
+<p>An officer in the East India Company's Service<a id=
+"footnotetag4701" name="footnotetag4701"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4701"><sup>4701</sup></a>, in a communication to the
+Asiatic Society of Bengal, describes the gigantic web of a black
+and red spider six inches in diameter, (his description of which,
+both in colour and size, seems to point to some species closely
+allied to the <i>Olios Taprobanius</i>,) which he saw near Monghyr
+on the Ganges; in this web "a bird was entangled, and the young
+spiders, eight in number, and entirely of a brick red colour, were
+feeding on the carcase."<a id="footnotetag4702" name=
+"footnotetag4702"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4702"><sup>4702</sup></a></p>
+<p>The voracious <i>Galeodes</i> has not yet been noticed in
+Ceylon; but its carnivorous propensities are well known in those
+parts of Hindustan, where it is found, and where it lives upon
+crickets, coleoptera and other insects, as well as small lizards
+and birds. This "tiger of the insect world," as it has aptly been
+designated by a gentleman who was a witness to its ferocity<a id=
+"footnotetag4703" name="footnotetag4703"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4703"><sup>4703</sup></a>, was seen to attack a young
+sparrow half grown, and seize it by the thigh, <i>which it sawed
+through</i>. The "savage then caught the bird by the throat, and
+put an end to its sufferings by cutting off its head." "On another
+occasion," says the same authority, "Dr. Baddeley confined one of
+these spiders under a glass wall-shade with two young musk-rats
+(<i>Sorex Indicus</i>), both of which it destroyed." It must be
+added, however, that neither in the instance of the bird, of the
+lizard, or the rats, did the galeodes devour its prey after killing
+it.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>[pg
+471]</span>
+<p>In the hills around Pusilawa, I have seen the haunts of a
+curious species of long-legged spiders<a id="footnotetag4711" name=
+"footnotetag4711"></a><a href="#footnote4711"><sup>4711</sup></a>,
+popularly called "harvest-men," which congregate in hollow trees
+and in holes in the banks by the roadside, in groups of from fifty
+to a hundred, that to a casual observer look like bunches of
+horse-hair. This appearance is produced by the long and slender
+legs of these creatures, which are of a shining black, whilst their
+bodies, so small as to be mere specks, are concealed beneath them.
+The same spider is found in the low country near Galle, but there
+it shows no tendency to become gregarious. Can it be that they thus
+assemble in groups in the hills for the sake of accumulated warmth
+at the cool altitude of 4000 feet?</p>
+<p><i>Ticks</i>.&mdash;Ticks are to be classed among the
+intolerable nuisances to the Ceylon traveller. They live in immense
+numbers in the jungle<a id="footnotetag4712" name=
+"footnotetag4712"></a><a href="#footnote4712"><sup>4712</sup></a>,
+and attaching themselves to the <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page472" id="page472"></a>[pg 472]</span> plants by the two
+forelegs, lie in wait to catch at unwary animals as they pass. A
+shower of these diminutive vermin will sometimes drop from a
+branch, if unluckily shaken, and disperse themselves over the body,
+each fastening on the neck, the ears, and eyelids, and inserting a
+barbed proboscis. They burrow, with their heads pressed as far as
+practicable under the skin, causing a sensation of smarting, as if
+particles of red hot sand had been scattered over the flesh. If
+torn from their hold, the suckers remain behind and form an ulcer.
+The only safe expedient is to tolerate the agony of their
+penetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the juice of a lime can
+be applied, when these little furies drop off without further ill
+consequences. One very large species, dappled with grey, attaches
+itself to the buffaloes.</p>
+<p><i>Mites</i>.&mdash;The <i>Trombidium tinctorum</i> of Hermann
+is found about Aripo, and generally over the northern
+provinces,&mdash;where after a shower of rain or heavy night's dew,
+they appear in countless myriads. It is about half an inch long,
+like a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts its colouring matter
+readily to any fluid in which it may be immersed. It feeds on
+vegetable juices, and is perfectly innocuous. Its European
+representative, similarly tinted, and found in garden mould, is
+commonly called the "Little red pillion."</p>
+<p>MYRIAPODS.&mdash;The certainty with which an accidental pressure
+or unguarded touch is resented and retorted by a bite, makes the
+centipede, when it has taken up its temporary abode, within a
+sleeve or the fold of a dress, by far the most unwelcome of all the
+Singhalese assailants. The great size, too (little short of a foot
+in length), <span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id=
+"page473"></a>[pg 473]</span> to which it sometimes attains,
+renders it formidable, and, apart from the apprehension of
+unpleasant consequences from a wound, one shudders at the bare idea
+of such a hideous creature crawling over the skin, beneath the
+innermost folds of one's garments.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/505.png"><img width="100%" src="images/505.png" alt=
+"" /></a> CERMATIA.</div>
+<p>At the head of the <i>Myriapods</i>, and pre-eminent from a
+superiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus
+<i>Cermatia</i>: singular-looking objects; mounted upon slender
+legs, of gradually increasing length from front to rear, the hind
+ones in some species being amazingly prolonged, and all handsomely
+marked with brown annuli in concentric arches. These myriapods are
+harmless, excepting to woodlice, spiders, and young cockroaches,
+which form their ordinary prey. They are rarely to be seen; but
+occasionally at daybreak, after a more than usually abundant
+repast, they may be observed motionless, and resting with their
+regularly extended limbs nearly flat against the walls. On being
+disturbed they dart away with a surprising velocity, to conceal
+themselves in chinks until the return of night.</p>
+<p>But the species to be really dreaded are the true
+<i>Scolopendr&aelig;</i>, which are active and carnivorous, living
+in holes in old walls and other gloomy dens. One <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>[pg 474]</span>
+species<a id="footnotetag4741" name="footnotetag4741"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4741"><sup>4741</sup></a> attains to nearly the length of
+a foot, with corresponding breadth; it is of a dark purple colour,
+approaching black, with yellowish legs and antenn&aelig;, and in
+its whole aspect repulsive and frightful. It is strong and active,
+and evinces an eager disposition to fight when molested. The
+<i>Scolopendr&aelig;</i> are gifted by nature with a rigid
+coriaceous armour, which does not yield to common pressure, or even
+to a moderate blow; so that they often escape the most
+well-deserved and well-directed attempts to destroy them, seeking
+refuge in retreats which effectually conceal them from sight.</p>
+<p>There is a smaller species<a id="footnotetag4742" name=
+"footnotetag4742"></a><a href="#footnote4742"><sup>4742</sup></a>,
+that frequents dwelling-houses; it is about one quarter the size of
+the preceding, and of a dirty olive colour, with pale ferruginous
+legs. It is this species that generally inflicts the wound, when
+persons complain of being bitten by a scorpion; and it has a
+mischievous propensity for insinuating itself into the folds of
+dress. The bite at first does not occasion more suffering than
+would arise from the penetration of two coarsely-pointed needles;
+but after a little time the wound swells, becomes acutely painful,
+and if it be over a bone or any other resisting part, the sensation
+is so intolerable as to produce fever. The agony subsides after a
+few hours' duration. In some cases the bite is unattended by any
+particular degree of annoyance, and in these instances it is to be
+supposed that the contents of the poison gland had become exhausted
+by previous efforts, since, if much tasked, the organ requires rest
+to enable it to resume its accustomed functions and to secrete a
+supply of venom.</p>
+<p><i>The Fish-insect</i>.&mdash;The chief inconvenience of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>[pg
+475]</span> residence in Ceylon, both on the coast and in the
+mountains, is the prevalence of damp, and the difficulty of
+protecting articles liable to injury from this cause. Books,
+papers, and manuscripts rapidly decay; especially during the
+south-west monsoon, when the atmosphere is saturated with moisture.
+Unless great precautions are taken, the binding fades and yields,
+the leaves grow mouldy and stained, and letter-paper, in an
+incredibly short time, becomes so spotted and spongy as to be unfit
+for use. After a very few seasons of neglect, a book falls to
+pieces, and its decomposition attracts hordes of minute insects,
+that swarm to assist in the work of destruction. The concealment of
+these tiny creatures during daylight renders it difficult to watch
+their proceedings, or to discriminate the precise species most
+actively engaged; but there is every reason to believe that the
+larv&aelig; of the death-watch and numerous acari are amongst the
+most active. As nature seldom peoples a region supplied with
+abundance of suitable food, without, at the same time, taking
+measures of precaution against the disproportionate increase of
+individuals; so have these vegetable depredators been provided with
+foes who pursue and feed greedily upon them. These are of widely
+different genera; but instead of their services being gratefully
+recognised, they are popularly branded as accomplices in the work
+of destruction. One of these ill-used creatures is a tiny,
+tail-less scorpion (<i>Chelifer</i><a id="footnotetag4751" name=
+"footnotetag4751"></a><a href="#footnote4751"><sup>4751</sup></a>),
+and another is the pretty <span class="pagenum"><a name="page476"
+id="page476"></a>[pg 476]</span> little silvery creature
+(<i>Lepisma</i>), called by Europeans the "fish-insect."<a id=
+"footnotetag4761" name="footnotetag4761"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4761"><sup>4761</sup></a></p>
+<p>The latter, which is a familiar genus, comprises several
+species, of which only two have as yet been described; one is of a
+large size, most graceful in its movements, and singularly
+beautiful in appearance, owing to the whiteness of the pearly
+scales from which its name is derived. These, contrasted with the
+dark hue of the other parts, and its tri-partite tail, attract the
+eye as the insect darts rapidly along. Like the chelifer, it shuns
+the light, hiding in chinks till sunset, but is actively engaged
+throughout the night feasting on the acari and soft-bodied insects
+which assail books and papers.</p>
+<p><i>Millepeds</i>.&mdash;In the hot dry season, and more
+especially in the northern portions of the island, the eye is
+attracted along the edges of the sandy roads by fragments of the
+dislocated rings of a huge species of millepede<a id=
+"footnotetag4762" name="footnotetag4762"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4762"><sup>4762</sup></a>, lying in short curved tubes,
+the cavity admitting the tip of the little finger. When perfect the
+creature is two-thirds of a foot long, of a brilliant jet black,
+and with above a hundred yellow legs, which, when moving onward,
+present the appearance of a series of undulations from rear to
+front, bearing the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id=
+"page477"></a>[pg 477]</span> animal gently forwards. This
+<i>Julus</i> is harmless, and may be handled with perfect impunity.
+Its food consists chiefly of fruits and the roots and stems of
+succulent vegetables, its jaws not being framed for any more
+formidable purpose. Another and a very pretty species<a id=
+"footnotetag4771" name="footnotetag4771"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4771"><sup>4771</sup></a>, quite as black, but with a
+bright crimson band down the back, and the legs similarly tinted,
+is common in the gardens about Colombo and throughout the western
+province.</p>
+<p>CRUSTACEA.&mdash;The seas around Ceylon abound with marine
+articulata; but a knowledge of the crustacea of the island is at
+present a desideratum; and with the exception of the few commoner
+species that frequent the shores, or are offered in the markets, we
+are literally without information, excepting the little that can be
+gleaned from already published systematic works.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"><a href=
+"images/509.png"><img width="100%" src="images/509.png" alt=
+"" /></a> CALLING CRAB OF CEYLON.</div>
+<p>In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are exposed for
+sale; and amongst the delicacies at the tables of Europeans,
+curries made from prawns and lobsters are the triumphs of the
+Ceylon cuisine. Of these latter the fishermen sometimes exhibit
+specimens<a id="footnotetag4772" name=
+"footnotetag4772"></a><a href="#footnote4772"><sup>4772</sup></a>
+of extraordinary dimensions and of a beautiful purple hue,
+variegated with white. Along the level shore north and south of
+Colombo, and in no less profusion elsewhere, the nimble little
+Calling Crabs<a id="footnotetag4773" name=
+"footnotetag4773"></a><a href="#footnote4773"><sup>4773</sup></a>
+scamper over the moist sands, carrying aloft the enormous hand
+(sometimes larger than the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page478"
+id="page478"></a>[pg 478]</span> rest of the body), which is their
+peculiar characteristic, and which, from its beckoning gesture has
+suggested their popular name. They hurry to conceal themselves in
+the deep retreats which they hollow out in the banks that border
+the sea.</p>
+<p><i>Sand Crabs</i>.&mdash;In the same localities, or a little
+farther inland, the <i>Ocypode</i><a id="footnotetag4781" name=
+"footnotetag4781"></a><a href="#footnote4781"><sup>4781</sup></a>
+burrows in the dry soil, making deep excavations, bringing up
+literally armfulls of sand; which with a spring in the air, and
+employing its other limbs, it jerks far from its burrows,
+distributing it in a circle to the distance of several feet.<a id=
+"footnotetag4782" name="footnotetag4782"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4782"><sup>4782</sup></a> So inconvenient are the
+operations of these industrious pests that men are kept regularly
+employed at Colombo in filling up the holes formed by them on the
+surface of the Galle face. This, the only equestrian promenade of
+the capital, is so infested by these active little creatures that
+accidents often occur through horses stumbling in their troublesome
+excavations.</p>
+<p><i>Painted Crabs</i>.&mdash;On the reef of rocks which lies to
+the south of the harbour at Colombo, the beautiful little painted
+crabs<a id="footnotetag4783" name="footnotetag4783"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4783"><sup>4783</sup></a>, distinguished by dark red
+markings on a yellow ground, may be seen all day long running
+nimbly in the spray, and ascending and descending in security the
+almost perpendicular sides of the rocks which are washed by the
+waves. <i>Paddling Crabs</i><a id="footnotetag4784" name=
+"footnotetag4784"></a><a href="#footnote4784"><sup>4784</sup></a>,
+with the hind pair of legs terminated by flattened plates to assist
+them in swimming, are brought up in the fishermen's nets. <i>Hermit
+Crabs</i> take possession of the deserted shells of the univalves,
+and crawl in pursuit of garbage along the moist beach. Prawns and
+shrimps furnish delicacies <span class="pagenum"><a name="page479"
+id="page479"></a>[pg 479]</span> for the breakfast table; and the
+delicate little pea crab, <i>Pontonia inflata</i><a id=
+"footnotetag4791" name="footnotetag4791"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4791"><sup>4791</sup></a>, recalls its Mediterranean
+congener<a id="footnotetag4792" name="footnotetag4792"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4792"><sup>4792</sup></a>, which attracted the attention
+of Aristotle, from taking up its habitation in the shell of the
+living pinna.</p>
+<p>ANNELID&AElig;.&mdash;The marine <i>Annelides</i> of the island
+have not as yet been investigated; a cursory glance, however,
+amongst the stones, on the beach at Trincomalie and in the pools
+that afford convenient basins for examining them, would lead to the
+belief that the marine species are not numerous; tubicole genera,
+as well as some nereids, are found, but there seems to be little
+diversity, though it is not impossible that a closer scrutiny might
+be repaid by the discovery of some interesting forms.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/513.png"><img width="100%" src="images/513.png" alt=
+"" /></a> LAND LEECHES IN PURSUIT</div>
+<p><i>Leeches</i>.&mdash;Of all the plagues which beset the
+traveller in the rising grounds of Ceylon, the most detested are
+the land leeches.<a id="footnotetag4793" name=
+"footnotetag4793"></a><a href="#footnote4793"><sup>4793</sup></a>
+They are not frequent in the plains, <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page480" id="page480"></a>[pg 480]</span> which are too hot and
+dry for them; but amongst the rank vegetation in the lower ranges
+of the hill country, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id=
+"page481"></a>[pg 481]</span> which is kept damp by frequent
+showers, they are found in tormenting profusion. They are
+terrestrial, never visiting ponds or streams. In size they are
+about an inch in length, and as fine as a common knitting needle;
+but they are capable of distension till they equal a quill in
+thickness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their
+structure is so flexible that they can insinuate themselves through
+the meshes of the finest stocking, not only seizing on the feet and
+ankles, but ascending to the back and throat and fastening on the
+tenderest parts of the body. In order to exclude them, the coffee
+planters, who live amongst these pests, are obliged to envelope
+their legs in "leech gaiters" made of closely woven cloth. The
+natives smear their bodies with oil, tobacco ashes, or lemon
+juice<a id="footnotetag4811" name="footnotetag4811"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4811"><sup>4811</sup></a>; the latter serving not only to
+stop the flow of blood, but to expedite the healing of the wounds.
+In moving, the land leeches have the power of planting one
+extremity on the earth and raising the other perpendicularly to
+watch for their victim. Such is their vigilance and instinct, that
+on <span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>[pg
+482]</span> the approach of a passer-by to a spot which they
+infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves on the
+edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for their attack
+on man and horse. On descrying their prey they advance rapidly by
+semi-circular strides, fixing one end firmly and arching the other
+forwards, till by successive advances they can lay hold of the
+traveller's foot, when they disengage themselves from the ground
+and ascend his dress in search of an aperture to enter. In these
+encounters the individuals in the rear of a party of travellers in
+the jungle invariably fare worst, as the leeches, once warned of
+their approach, congregate with singular celerity. Their size is so
+insignificant, and the wound they make is so skilfully punctured,
+that both are generally imperceptible, and the first intimation of
+their onslaught is the trickling of the blood or a chill feeling of
+the leech when it begins to hang heavily on the skin from being
+distended by its repast. Horses are driven wild by them, and stamp
+the ground in fury to shake them from their fetlocks, to which they
+hang in bloody tassels. The bare legs of the palankin bearers and
+coolies are a favourite resort; and, as their hands are too much
+engaged to be spared to pull them off, the leeches hang like
+bunches of grapes round their ankles; and I have seen the blood
+literally flowing over the ledge of a European's shoe from their
+innumerable bites. In healthy constitutions the wounds, if not
+irritated, generally heal, occasioning no other inconvenience than
+a slight inflammation and itching; but in those with a bad state of
+body, the punctures, if rubbed, are liable to degenerate into
+ulcers, which may lead to the loss of limb or even of life. Both
+Marshall and Davy mention, that during <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>[pg 483]</span> the
+march of troops in the mountains, when the Kandyans were in
+rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and especially the Madras sepoys,
+with the pioneers and coolies, suffered so severely from this cause
+that numbers perished.<a id="footnotetag4831" name=
+"footnotetag4831"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4831"><sup>4831</sup></a></p>
+<p>One circumstance regarding these land leeches is remarkable and
+unexplained; they are helpless without moisture, and in the hills
+where they abound at all other times, they entirely disappear
+during long droughts;&mdash;yet re-appear instantaneously on the
+very first fall of rain; and in spots previously parched, where not
+one was visible an hour before, a single shower is sufficient to
+reproduce them in thousands, lurking beneath the decaying leaves,
+or striding with rapid movements across the gravel. Whence do they
+re-appear? Do they, too, take a "summer sleep," like the reptiles,
+molluscs, and tank fishes? or may they, like the <i>Rotifera</i>,
+be dried up and preserved for an indefinite period, resuming their
+vital activity on the mere recurrence of moisture?<a id=
+"footnotetag4832" name="footnotetag4832"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4832"><sup>4832</sup></a></p>
+<p>Besides a species of the medicinal leech, which<a id=
+"footnotetag4833" name="footnotetag4833"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4833"><sup>4833</sup></a> is <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>[pg 484]</span> found
+in Ceylon, nearly double the size of the European one, and with a
+prodigious faculty of engorging blood, there is another pest in the
+low country, which is a source of considerable annoyance, and often
+of loss, to the husbandman. This is the cattle leech<a id=
+"footnotetag4841" name="footnotetag4841"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4841"><sup>4841</sup></a>, which infests the stagnant
+pools, chiefly in the alluvial lands around the base of the
+mountain zone, whither the cattle resort by day, and the wild
+animals by night, to quench their thirst and to bathe. Lurking
+amongst the rank vegetation that fringes these deep pools, and hid
+by the broad leaves, or concealed among the stems and roots covered
+by the water, there are quantities of these pests in wait to attack
+the animals on their approach to drink. Their natural food consists
+of the juices of lumbrici and other invertebrata; but they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>[pg
+485]</span> generally avail themselves of the opportunity afforded
+by the dipping of the muzzles of the animals in the water to fasten
+on their nostrils, and by degrees to make their way to the deeper
+recesses of the nasal passages, and the mucous membranes of the
+throat and gullet. As many as a dozen have been found attached to
+the epiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing such irritation
+and submucous effusion that death has eventually ensued; and so
+tenacious are the leeches that even after death they retain their
+hold for some hours.<a id="footnotetag4851" name=
+"footnotetag4851"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4851"><sup>4851</sup></a></p>
+<hr />
+<h3>ARTICULATA.</h3>
+<h4><i>APTERA</i>.</h4>
+<h5>THYSANURA.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Podura <i>albicollis</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>atricollis</i>.</li>
+<li><i>viduata</i>.</li>
+<li><i>pilosa</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Archoreutes <i>coccinea</i>.</li>
+<li>Lepisma nigrofasciara, <i>Temp</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>nigra.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>ARACHNIDA.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Buthus afer. <i>Linn</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylonicus, <i>Koch</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Scorpio <i>linearis</i>.</li>
+<li>Chelifer librorum.
+<ul>
+<li><i>oblongus</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Obisium <i>crassifemur</i>.</li>
+<li>Phrynus lunatus, <i>Pall</i>.</li>
+<li>Thelyphonus caudatus, <i>Linn.</i></li>
+<li>Phalangium <i>bisignatum</i>.</li>
+<li>Mygale fasciata, <i>Walck</i>.</li>
+<li>Olios taprobanius, <i>Walck</i>.</li>
+<li>Nephila ... ?</li>
+<li>Trombidium tinctorum, <i>Herm</i>.</li>
+<li>Oribata ... ?</li>
+<li>Ixodes ... ?</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>MYRIAPODA.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Cermatia <i>dispar</i>.</li>
+<li>Lithobius <i>umbratilis</i>.</li>
+<li>Scolopendra <i>crassa</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>spinosa, <i>Newp</i>.</li>
+<li><i>pallipes</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Grayii</i>? <i>Newp</i>.</li>
+<li>tuberculidens, <i>Newp</i>.</li>
+<li>Ceylonensis, <i>Newp</i>.</li>
+<li>flava, <i>Newp</i>.</li>
+<li><i>olivacea</i>.</li>
+<li><i>abdominalis</i>,</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cryptops <i>sordidus</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>assimilis</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Geophilus <i>tegularius</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>speciosus</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Julus <i>ater</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>carnifex, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li><i>pallipes</i>.</li>
+<li><i>fiaviceps</i>.</li>
+<li><i>pallidus</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>[pg
+486]</span></li>
+<li>Craspedosoma <i>juloides</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>pr&aelig;usta</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Polydesmus <i>granulatus</i>.</li>
+<li>Cambala <i>catenulata</i>.</li>
+<li>Zephronia <i>conspicua</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><i>CRUSTACEA</i>.</h4>
+<h5>DECAPODA BHACHTUEA.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Polybius</i>.</li>
+<li>Neptunus pelagicus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li>sanguinolentus, <i>Herbst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Thalamlta ... ?</li>
+<li>Thelphusa <i>Indica, Latr</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Cardisoma</i> ... ?</li>
+<li>Ocypoda ceratophthalmus, <i>Pall</i>,
+<ul>
+<li><i>macrocera, Edw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gelasimus <i>tetragonon, Edw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>annulipes, Edw</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Macrophthalmus <i>carinimanus, Latr</i>.</li>
+<li>Grapsus <i>messor, Forsk</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>strigosus, <i>Herbst</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Plagusia depressa, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Calappa philargus, <i>Linn.</i>
+<ul>
+<li><i>tuberculata, Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Matota victor, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Leucosia <i>fugax, Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Dorippe</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>DECAPODA ANOMURA.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Dromia</i> ... ?</li>
+<li>Hippa Asiatica, <i>Edw</i>.</li>
+<li>Pagurus affinis, <i>Edw</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>punctulatus, Oliv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Porcellana</i> ... ?</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>DECAPODA MACRURA.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li>Scyllarus <i>orientalis, Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Palinurus ornatus, <i>Fabr</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>affinis, <i>N.S.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Crangon</i> ... ?</li>
+<li><i>Alpheus</i> ... ?</li>
+<li>Pomonia inflata, <i>Edw</i>.</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;mon carcinus, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+<li>Steaopus ... ?</li>
+<li>Peneus ...?</li>
+</ul>
+<h5>STOMATOPODA.</h5>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Squilla</i> ... ?</li>
+<li>Gonodactylus chiragra, <i>Fabr</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><i>CIRRHIPEDIA</i>.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Lepas</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Balanus</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><i>ANNELIDA</i>.</h4>
+<ul>
+<li>Tubicol&aelig;.</li>
+<li>Dorsibranchiata.</li>
+<li>Abranchia.
+<ul>
+<li>Hirudo <i>sanguisorba</i>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>Thwaitesii</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>H&aelig;mopsis <i>paludum</i>.</li>
+<li>H&aelig;madipsa Ceylana. <i>Blainv</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lumbricus ... ?</li>
+</ul>
+<hr />
+<h3>NOTE</h3>
+<h4>ON THE FACULTY OF REPEATED RE-VIVIFICATION POSSESSED BY THE
+<i>ROTIFERA</i>, ETC.</h4>
+<p>The <i>Rotifer</i>, a singular creature, although it can only
+truly live in water, inhabits the moss on house-tops, dying each
+time the sun dries up its place of retreat, to revive as often as a
+shower of rain supplies it with the moisture essential to its
+existence; thus employing several years to exhaust the eighteen
+days of life which nature has allotted to it. These creatures were
+discovered by LEUWENHOECK, and have become the types of a class
+already numerous, which undergo the same conditions of life, and
+possess the same faculty. Besides the <i>Rotifera</i>, the
+<i>Tardigrades</i>, (which belong to the <i>Acari</i>,) and certain
+paste-eels, all exhibit a similar phenomenon. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>[pg 487]</span> But
+although these different species may die and be resuscitated
+several times in succession, this power has its limits, and each
+successive experiment generally proves fatal to one or more
+individuals. SPALLANZANI, in his experiments on the
+<i>Rotifera</i>, did not find that any survived after the sixteenth
+alternation of desiccation and damping, but paste-eels bore
+seventeen of those vicissitudes.</p>
+<p>SPALLANZANI, after thoroughly drying sand rich in
+<i>Rotifera</i>, kept it for more than three years, moistening
+portions taken from it every five or six months. BAKER went further
+still in his experiments on paste-eels, for he kept the paste from
+which they had been taken, without moistening it in any way, for
+twenty-seven years, and at the end of that time the eels revived on
+being immersed in a drop of water. <i>If they had exhausted their
+lives all at once and without these intermissions, these Rotifera
+and paste-eels would not have lived beyond sixteen or eighteen
+consecutive days.</i></p>
+<p>To remove all doubt as to the complete desiccation of the
+animalcules experimented on by SPALLANZANI and BAKER, M.
+DOY&Egrave;RE has published, in the <i>Annales des Sciences
+Naturales</i> for 1842, the results of his own observation, in
+cases in which the mosses containing the insects were dried under
+the receiver of an air-pump and left there for a week; after which
+they were placed in a stove heated to 267&deg; Fahr., and yet, when
+again immersed in water, a number of the <i>Rotifera</i> became as
+lively as ever.</p>
+<p>Further particulars of these experiments will be found in the
+Appendix to the <i>Rambles of a Naturalist, &amp;c.</i>, by M.
+QUARTREFAGE.</p>
+<hr />
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4651" name=
+"footnote4651"></a><b>Footnote 4651:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4651">(return)</a>
+<p>Species of the true <i>Tarentula</i> are not uncommon in Ceylon;
+they are all of very small size, and perfectly harmless.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4661" name=
+"footnote4661"></a><b>Footnote 4661:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4661">(return)</a>
+<p>See Plate opposite.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4662" name=
+"footnote4662"></a><b>Footnote 4662:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4662">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> May, 1853.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4671" name=
+"footnote4671"></a><b>Footnote 4671:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4671">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Dissertatio de Generatione et Metamorphosibus Insectorum
+Surinamensium</i>, Amst. 1701. Fol.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4672" name=
+"footnote4672"></a><b>Footnote 4672:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4672">(return)</a>
+<p>By Mr. MACLEAY in a paper communicated to the Zoological Society
+of London, <i>Proc.</i> 1834, p. 12.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4681" name=
+"footnote4681"></a><b>Footnote 4681:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4681">(return)</a>
+<p>See <i>Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.</i> for 1842, vol. viii. p.
+324.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4682" name=
+"footnote4682"></a><b>Footnote 4682:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4682">(return)</a>
+<p>See authorities quoted by Mr. SHUCKARD in the <i>Ann. and Mag.
+of Nat. Hist.</i> 1842, vol. viii. p. 436, &amp;c.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4683" name=
+"footnote4683"></a><b>Footnote 4683:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4683">(return)</a>
+<p>At a meeting of the Entomological Society, July 20, 1855, a
+paper was read by Mr. H.W. BATES, who stated that in 1849 at Cameta
+in Brazil, he "was attracted by a curious movement of the large
+grayish brown Mygale on the trunk of a vast tree: it was close
+beneath a deep crevice or chink in the tree, across which this
+species weaves a dense web, at one end open for its exit and
+entrance. In the present instance the lower part of the web was
+broken, and two small finches were entangled in its folds. The
+finch was about the size of the common Siskin of Europe, and he
+judged the two to be male and female; one of them was quite dead,
+but secured in the broken web; the other was under the body of the
+spider, not quite dead, and was covered in parts with a filthy
+liquor or saliva exuded by the monster. "The species of spider,"
+Mr. Bates says, "I cannot name; it is wholly of a gray brown
+colour, and clothed with coarse pile." "If the Mygales," he adds,
+"did not prey upon vertebrated animals, I do not see how they could
+find sufficient subsistence."&mdash;<i>The Zoologist</i>, vol.
+xiii. p. 480.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4691" name=
+"footnote4691"></a><b>Footnote 4691:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4691">(return)</a>
+<p>PERCIVAL'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p. 313.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4692" name=
+"footnote4692"></a><b>Footnote 4692:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4692">(return)</a>
+<p>Over the country generally are scattered species of
+<i>Gasteracantha</i>, remarkable for their firm shell-covered
+bodies, with projecting knobs arranged in pairs. In habit these
+anomalous-looking <i>Epeird&aelig;</i> appear to differ in no
+respect from the rest of the family, waylaying their prey in
+similar situations and in the same manner.</p>
+<p>Another very singular subgenus, met with in Ceylon, is
+distinguished by the abdomen being dilated behind, and armed with
+two long spines, arching obliquely backwards. These abnormal kinds
+are not so handsomely coloured as the smaller species of typical
+form.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4701" name=
+"footnote4701"></a><b>Footnote 4701:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4701">(return)</a>
+<p>Capt. Sherwill.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4702" name=
+"footnote4702"></a><b>Footnote 4702:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4702">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal</i>, 1850, vol. xix. p. 475.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4703" name=
+"footnote4703"></a><b>Footnote v3:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4703">(return)</a>
+<p>Capt. Hutton. See a paper on the <i>Galeodes vor&aelig;</i> in
+the <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, vol. xi. Part
+11. p. 860.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4711" name=
+"footnote4711"></a><b>Footnote 4711:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4711">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Phalangium bisignatum</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4712" name=
+"footnote4712"></a><b>Footnote 4712:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4712">(return)</a>
+<p>Dr. HOOKER, in his <i>Himalayan Journal</i>, vol. i. p. 279, in
+speaking of the multitude of those creatures in the mountains of
+Nepal, wonders what they tend to feed on, as in these humid forests
+in which they literally swarmed, there was neither pathway nor
+animal life. In Ceylon they abound everywhere in the plains on the
+low brush-wood; and in the very driest seasons they are quite as
+numerous as at other times. In the mountain zone, which is more
+humid, they are less prevalent. Dogs are tormented by them: and
+they display something closely allied to cunning in always
+fastening on an animal in those parts where they cannot be torn off
+by his paws; on his eye-brows, the tips of his ears, and the back
+of his neck. With a corresponding instinct I have always observed
+in the gambols of the Pariah dogs, that they invariably commence
+their attentions by mutually gnawing each other's ears and necks,
+as if in pursuit of ticks from places from which each is unable to
+expel them for himself. Horses have a similar instinct; and when
+they meet, they apply their teeth to the roots of the ears of their
+companions, to the neck and the crown of the head. The buffaloes
+and oxen are relieved of ticks by the crows which rest on their
+backs as they browse, and free them from these pests. In the low
+country the same acceptable office is performed by the
+"cattle-keeper heron" (<i>Ardea bubulcus</i>), which is "sure to be
+found in attendance on them while grazing; and the animals seem to
+know their benefactors, and stand quietly, while the birds peck
+their tormentors from their flanks."&mdash;<i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>
+p. 111, 1844.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4741" name=
+"footnote4741"></a><b>Footnote 4741:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4741">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Scolopendra crassa</i>, Temp.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4742" name=
+"footnote4742"></a><b>Footnote 4742:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4742">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Scolopendra pallipes</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4751" name=
+"footnote4751"></a><b>Footnote 4751:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4751">(return)</a>
+<p>Of the first of these, three species have been noticed in
+Ceylon, all with the common characteristics of being nocturnal,
+very active, very minute, of a pale chesnut colour, and each armed
+with a crab-like claw. They are</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p><i>Chelifer Librorum</i>, Temp.</p>
+<p><i>Chelifer oblongus</i>, Temp.</p>
+<p><i>Chelifer acaroides</i>, Hermann.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Dr. Templeton appears to have been puzzled to account for the
+appearance of the latter species in Ceylon, so far from its native
+country, but it has most certainly been introduced from Europe, in
+Dutch or Portuguese books.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4761" name=
+"footnote4761"></a><b>Footnote 4761:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4761">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Lepisma niveo-fasciata</i>, Templeton, and <i>L. niger</i>,
+Temp. It was called "Lepisma" by Fabricius, from its fish-like
+scales. It has six legs, filiform antenna, and the abdomen
+terminated by three elongated set&aelig;, two of which are placed
+nearly at right angles to the central one. LINN&AElig;US states
+that the European species, with which book collectors are familiar,
+was first brought in sugar ships from America. Hence, possibly,
+these are more common in seaport towns in the South of England and
+elsewhere, and it is almost certain that, like the chelifer, one of
+the species found on book-shelves in Ceylon, has been brought
+thither from Europe.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4762" name=
+"footnote4762"></a><b>Footnote 4762:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4762">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Julus ater</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4771" name=
+"footnote4771"></a><b>Footnote 4771:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4771">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Julus carnifex</i>, Fab.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4772" name=
+"footnote4772"></a><b>Footnote 4772:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4772">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Palinurus ornatus</i>, Fab. P&mdash;n. s.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4773" name=
+"footnote4773"></a><b>Footnote 4773:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4773">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Gelasimus tetragonon</i>? Edw.; <i>G. annulipes</i>? Edw.;
+<i>G. Dussumieri</i>? Edw.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4781" name=
+"footnote4781"></a><b>Footnote 4781:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4781">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ocypode ceratophthamus</i>. Pall.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4782" name=
+"footnote4782"></a><b>Footnote 4782:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4782">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Ann. Nat. Hist</i>. April, 1852. Paper by Mr. EDGAR L.
+LAYARD.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4783" name=
+"footnote4783"></a><b>Footnote 4783:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4783">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Grapsus strigosus</i>, Herbst.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4784" name=
+"footnote4784"></a><b>Footnote 4784:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4784">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Neptunus pelagicus</i>, Linn.; <i>N. sanguinolentus</i>,
+Herbst, &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4791" name=
+"footnote4791"></a><b>Footnote 4791:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4791">(return)</a>
+<p>MILNE EDW., <i>Hist. Nat. Crust</i>., vol. ii. p. 360.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4792" name=
+"footnote4792"></a><b>Footnote 4792:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4792">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Pinnotheres veterum</i>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4793" name=
+"footnote4793"></a><b>Footnote 4793:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4793">(return)</a>
+<p><i>H&aelig;madipsa Ceylanica</i>. Bose. Blainv. These pests are
+not, however, confined to Ceylon, they infest the lower ranges of
+the Himalaya.&mdash;HOOKER, vol. i. p. 107; vol. ii. p. 54.
+THUNBERG, who records (<i>Travels</i>, vol. iv. p. 232) having seen
+them in Ceylon, likewise met with them in the forests and slopes of
+Batavia. MARSDEN (<i>Hist</i>. p. 311) complains of them dropping
+on travellers in Sumatra. KNORR found them at Japan; and it is
+affirmed that they abound in islands farther to the eastward. M.
+GAY encountered them in Chili.&mdash;(MOQUIN-TANDON,
+<i>Hirudin&eacute;es</i>, p. 211, 346). It is very doubtful,
+however, whether all these are to be referred to one species. M. DE
+BLAINVILLE, under <i>H. Ceylanica</i>, in the <i>Dict. de Scien.
+Nat</i>. vol. xlvii. p. 271, quotes M. Bosc as authority for the
+kind, which that naturalist describes being "rouges et
+tachet&eacute;es;" which is scarcely applicable to the Singhalese
+species. It is more than probable therefore, considering the period
+at which M. BOSC wrote, that he obtained his information from
+travellers to the further east, and has connected with the habitat
+universally ascribed to them from old KNOX'S work (Part 1. chap.
+vi.) a meagre description, more properly belonging to the land
+leech of Batavia or Japan. In all likelihood, therefore, there may
+be a <i>H. Boscii</i>, distinct from the <i>H. Ceylanica</i>. That
+which is found in Ceylon is round, a little flattened on the
+inferior surface, largest at the anal extremity, thence gradually
+tapering forward, and with the anal sucker composed of four rings,
+and wider in proportion than in other species.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/512.png"><img width="100%" src="images/512.png" alt=
+"" /></a> EYES AND TEETH OF THE LAND LEECH OF CEYLON</div>
+<p>It is of a clear brown colour, with a yellow stripe the entire
+length of each side, and a greenish dorsal one. The body is formed
+of 100 rings; the eyes, of which there are five pairs, are placed
+in an arch on the dorsal surface; the first four pairs occupying
+contiguous rings (thus differing from the water-leeches, which have
+an unoccupied ring betwixt the third and fourth); the fifth pair
+are located on the seventh ring, two vacant rings intervening. To
+Mr. Thwaites, Director of the Botanic Garden at Peradenia, who at
+my request examined their structure minutely, I am indebted for the
+following most interesting particulars respecting them. "I have
+been giving a little time to the examination of the land leech. I
+find it to have five pairs of ocelli, the first four seated on
+corresponding segments, and the posterior pair on the seventh
+segment or ring, the fifth and sixth rings being eyeless
+(<i>fig</i>. A). The mouth is very retractile, and the aperture is
+shaped as in ordinary leeches. The serratures of the teeth, or
+rather the teeth themselves, are very beautiful. Each of the three
+'teeth,' or cutting instruments, is principally muscular, the
+muscular body being very clearly seen. The rounded edge in which
+the teeth are set appears to be cartilaginous in structure; the
+teeth are very numerous, (<i>fig</i>. B); but some near the base
+have a curious appendage, apparently (I have not yet made this out
+quite satisfactorily) set upon one side. I have not yet been able
+to detect the anal or sexual pores. The anal sucker seems to be
+formed of four rings, and on each side above is a sort of crenated
+flesh-like appendage. The tint of the common species is
+yellowish-brown or snuff-coloured, streaked with black, with a
+yellow-greenish dorsal, and another lateral line along its whole
+length. There is a larger species to be found in this garden with a
+broad green dorsal fascia; but I have not been able to procure one
+although I have offered a small reward to any coolie who will bring
+me one." In a subsequent communication Mr. Thwaites remarks "that
+the dorsal longitudinal fascia is of the same width as the lateral
+ones, and differs only in being perhaps slightly more green; the
+colour of the three fasci&aelig; varies from brownish-yellow to
+bright green." He likewise states "that the rings which compose the
+body are just 100, and the teeth 70 to 80 in each set, in a single
+row, except to one end, where they are in a double row."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4811" name=
+"footnote4811"></a><b>Footnote 4811:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4811">(return)</a>
+<p>The Minorite friar, ODORIC of Portenau. writing in A.D. 1320,
+says that the gem-finders who sought the jewels around Adam's Peak,
+"take lemons which they peel, anointing themselves with the juice
+thereof, so that the leeches may not be able to hurt
+them."&mdash;HAKLUYT, <i>Voy.</i> vol. ii. p. 58.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4831" name=
+"footnote4831"></a><b>Footnote 4831:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4831">(return)</a>
+<p>DAVY'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p. 104; MARSHALL'S <i>Ceylon</i>, p.
+15.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4832" name=
+"footnote4832"></a><b>Footnote 4832:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4832">(return)</a>
+<p>See an account of the <i>Rotifera</i> and their faculty of
+repeated vivifaction, in the note appended to this chapter.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4833" name=
+"footnote4833"></a><b>Footnote 4833:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4833">(return)</a>
+<p><i>Hirudo sanguisorba</i>. The paddi-field leech of Ceylon, used
+for surgical purposes, has the dorsal surface of blackish olive,
+with several longitudinal stri&aelig;, more or less defined; the
+crenated margin yellow. The ventral surface is fulvous, bordered
+laterally with olive; the extreme margin yellow. The eyes are
+ranged as in the common medicinal leech of Europe; the four
+anterior ones rather larger than the others. The teeth are 140 in
+each series, appearing as a single row; in size diminishing
+gradually from one end, very close set, and about half the width of
+a tooth apart. When full grown, these leeches are about two inches
+long, but reaching to six inches when extended. Mr. Thwaites, to
+whom I am indebted for these particulars, adds that he saw in a
+tank at Kolona Korle leeches which appeared to him flatter and of a
+darker colour than those described above, but that he had not an
+opportunity of examining them particularly.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"><a href=
+"images/515.png"><img width="100%" src="images/515.png" alt=
+"" /></a> DORSAL. VENTRAL</div>
+<p>Mr. Thwaites states that there is a smaller tank leech of an
+olive-green colour, with some indistinct longitudinal stri&aelig;
+on the upper surface; the crenated margin of a pale
+yellowish-green; ocelli as in the paddi-field leech; length, one
+inch at rest, three inches when extended.</p>
+<p>Mr. E.L. LAYARD informs us, <i>Mag. Nat. Hist</i>. p. 225, 1853,
+that a bubbling spring at the village of Tonniotoo, three miles
+S.W. of Moeletivoe, supplies most of the leeches used in the
+island. Those in use at Colombo are obtained in the immediate
+vicinity.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4841" name=
+"footnote4841"></a><b>Footnote 4841:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4841">(return)</a>
+<p><i>H&aelig;mopsis paludum</i>. In size the cattle leech of
+Ceylon is somewhat larger than the medicinal leech of Europe: in
+colour it is of a uniform brown without bands, unless a rufous
+margin may be so considered. It has dark stri&aelig;. The body is
+somewhat rounded, flat when swimming, and composed of rather more
+than ninety rings. The greatest dimension is a little in advance of
+the anal sucker; the body thence tapers to the other extremity,
+which ends in an upper lip projecting considerably beyond the
+mouth. The eyes, ten in number, are disposed as in the common
+leech. The mouth is oval, the biting apparatus with difficulty
+seen, and the teeth not very numerous. The bite is so little acute
+that the moment of attachment, and the incision of the membrane is
+scarcely perceived by the sufferer from its attack.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4851" name=
+"footnote4851"></a><b>Footnote 4851:</b> <a href=
+"#footnotetag4851">(return)</a>
+<p>Even men, when stooping to drink at a pool, are not safe from
+the assault of the cattle leeches. They cannot penetrate the human
+skin, but the delicate membrane of the mucous passages is easily
+ruptured by their serrated jaws. Instances have come to my
+knowledge of Europeans into whose nostrils they had gained
+admission and caused serious disturbance.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>[pg
+488]</span>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>[pg
+489]</span>
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+<hr />
+<ul>
+<li>ABOU-ZEYD, his account of fish on dry land, <a href=
+"#page350">350</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Abyssinia, fishes of, <a href="#page352">352</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Acaleph&aelig;</i>, <a href="#page398">398</a>. <i>See</i>
+Radiata.</li>
+<li>Acanthopterygii, <a href="#page360">360</a>.</li>
+<li>Accipitres, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Acherontia Sathanas</i>, <a href="#page427">427</a></li>
+<li>Adam's Peak, elephants on the summit, <a href=
+"#page109">109</a>.</li>
+<li>&AElig;lian's account of the mermaid, <a href="#page69">69</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his statement as to the export of elephants from Ceylon,
+<a href="#page77">77</a> <i>n</i>., <a href=
+"#page209">209</a><i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>error as to the shedding of the elephant's tusks, <a href=
+"#page79">79</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>describes elephants killing criminals with their knees.<a href=
+"#page87">87</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>error as to elephants' joints, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</li>
+<li>his account of Ceylon tortoises, <a href=
+"#page293">293</a>.</li>
+<li>his account of the superiority of the elephants of Ceylon,
+<a href="#page209">209</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>his description of the performances of the trained elephants at
+Rome, <a href="#page237">237</a>.</li>
+<li>his account of the sword-fish, <a href="#page328">328</a>.</li>
+<li>describes a <i>Cheironectes</i>, <a href=
+"#page331">331</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>African elephant, its peculiarities, <a href="#page65">65</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>not inferior to the Indian in tractability, <a href=
+"#page208">208</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Albino buffalo, <a href="#page57">57</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>deer, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Albyrouni, on the pearl oyster, <a href=
+"#page375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>Alce, described by Pliny and C&aelig;sar, <a href=
+"#page101">101</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Alexandria, story of the dogs at, <a href=
+"#page34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>Alligator, <a href="#page283">283</a>. <i>See</i>
+Crocodile.</li>
+<li>Almeida, Manoel de, on burying fishes, <a href=
+"#page353">353</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Amboina, mermaids at, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Ampullaria, its faculty of burying itself, <a href=
+"#page355">355</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Anabas</i>, <a href="#page354">354</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>Daldorf's account of, doubted, <a href="#page349">349</a>.
+<a href="#page350">350</a>.</li>
+<li>accidents from, <a href="#page351">351</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Angling bad in Ceylon, <a href="#page335">335</a> <i>n</i>.,
+<a href="#page341">341</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Annelid&aelig;</i>, leeches, <a href="#page479">479</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>land-leech, its varieties, <a href="#page482">482</a>.</li>
+<li>land-leech, its teeth and eyes, <a href=
+"#page480">480</a>.</li>
+<li>its tormenting bite, <a href="#page482">482</a>.</li>
+<li>list of, <a href="#page485">485</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Anseres, <a href="#page260">260</a>.</li>
+<li>Ansted, Prof., on the geology of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page61">61</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his statement as to the height of Indian elephants, <a href=
+"#page100">100</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Antiochus, elephants used by, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li>
+<li>Antipater, the first to bring the Indian elephant to Europe,
+<a href="#page207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Ant-lion, <a href="#page411">411</a>. <i>See</i> Insects.</li>
+<li>Ants, <a href="#page420">420</a> <i>See</i> Insects.
+<ul>
+<li>red, <a href="#page420">420</a>. <a href=
+"#page422">422</a>.</li>
+<li>white, <a href="#page412">412</a>. <i>See Termites</i>.</li>
+<li>their faculty in discovering food, <a href=
+"#page421">421</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Armandi's work on the use of elephants in war, <a href=
+"#page208">208</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Aphaniptera, <a href="#page433">433</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Arachnid&aelig;</i>, spiders, <a href="#page464">464</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>extraordinary webs, <a href="#page464">464</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Olios Taprobanius</i>, <a href="#page470">470</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mygale fasciata</i>, <a href="#page465">465</a>.</li>
+<li>erroneously called "tarentula," <a href=
+"#page465"><i>ib</i></a>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of, <a href="#page466">466</a>.</li>
+<li>spiders, the Mygale, <a href="#page465">465</a>.</li>
+<li>birds killed by it, <a href="#page468">468</a>.</li>
+<li>Galeodes, <a href="#page470">470</a>.</li>
+<li>ticks, their multitude, <a href="#page471">471</a>.</li>
+<li>mites, <a href="#page472">472</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Trombidium tinctorum</i>, <a href="#page472">472</a>.</li>
+<li>list of, <a href="#page485">485</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Argus cowrie, <a href="#page369">369</a>.</li>
+<li>Aripo, the sea-shore, <a href="#page373">373</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristotle, account of fishes migrating overland, <a href=
+"#page344">344</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>sounds made by elephants, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li>
+<li>his error as to the elephant's knees, <a href=
+"#page101">101</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Armitage, Mr., story of an elephant on his estate, <a href=
+"#page139">139</a>.</li>
+<li>Articulata, list of, <a href="#page485">485</a>.</li>
+<li>Athen&aelig;us, anecdotes of fishes on dry land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id=
+"page490"></a>[pg 490]</span></li>
+<li>Avicula, <a href="#page373">373</a>. <i>See</i> Pearl
+Fishery.</li>
+<li>Avitchia, story of, <a href="#page244">244</a>. <i>See</i>
+Jackdaw.</li>
+<li>Ayeen Akbery, elephant stomach described in, <a href=
+"#page128">128</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Baker, Mr., his theory of the passion for sporting, <a href=
+"#page142">142</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>its accuracy questionable, <a href="#page142">142</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Badger, the Ceylon, <a href="#page38">38</a>. <i>See</i>
+Mongoos.</li>
+<li>Bandicoot rat, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Barbezieux, on the elephant, <a href="#page104">104</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Batocera rubus</i>, <a href="#page406">406</a>.</li>
+<li>Batrachia, <a href="#page318">318</a>.</li>
+<li>Bats, <a href="#page13">13</a> <i>See</i> Mammalia <i>and</i>
+Cheiroptera.
+<ul>
+<li>orange-coloured bats, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>bats do not hybernate in Ceylon, <a href="#page18">18</a>.</li>
+<li>horse-shoe bat, <a href="#page19">19</a>.</li>
+<li>sense of smell and touch, <a href="#page19">19</a>.</li>
+<li>small bat, <i>Scotophilus Coromandelicus</i>, <a href=
+"#page20">20</a>.</li>
+<li>their parasite (Nycteribia), <a href="#page20">20</a>-22.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Batticaloa, musical fish, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</li>
+<li>Bears, <a href="#page22">22</a>. <i>See</i> Mammalia.
+<ul>
+<li>ferocity of, <a href="#page23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>charm to protect from, <a href="#page25">25</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Beaters for elephants, <a href="#page150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Beaver, on African elephant, <a href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+<li>Beckman's account of fishes on dry land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Bees, <a href="#page419">419</a>. <i>See</i> Insects.</li>
+<li>Beetles, <a href="#page405">405</a>. <i>See</i> Insects.
+<ul>
+<li>instincts of the scavenger beetle, <a href=
+"#page405">405</a>.</li>
+<li>coco-nut beetle, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</li>
+<li>tortoise beetle, <a href="#page408">408</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bell, Sir Charles, on the elephant's shoulder, <a href=
+"#page108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>Benary, his derivation of the word elephant, <a href=
+"#page76">76</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Bengal mode of taking elephants, <a href=
+"#page164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Bennett's account of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.
+<ul>
+<li>work on its Ichthyology, <a href="#page323">323</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bernier, on the Ceylon elephant, <a href=
+"#page209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>Bertolacci, on form of <i>chank shell</i>, <a href=
+"#page372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Bestiaries, <a href="#page104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Bicho de Mar. <i>See</i> Holothuria.</li>
+<li>Birds of Ceylon, <a href="#page241">241</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>their number and character, <a href=
+"#page241"><i>ib</i></a>.</li>
+<li>few songsters, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>pea-fowl, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>eagles and hawks, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>owls, devil bird, <a href="#page246">246</a>. <a href=
+"#page247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>swallows, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>edible bird' nests, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>kingfisher, sun birds, <a href="#page249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>bulbul, tailor bird, weaver bird, <a href=
+"#page251">251</a>.</li>
+<li>crows, anecdotes of, <a href="#page253">253</a>.</li>
+<li>paroquets, <a href="#page256">256</a>.</li>
+<li>pigeons, <a href="#page257">257</a>.</li>
+<li>jungle-fowl, <a href="#page259">259</a>.</li>
+<li><i>grall&aelig;</i>, flamingoes, <a href=
+"#page260">260</a>.</li>
+<li>list of Ceylon birds, <a href="#page265">265</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bird-eating spiders, <a href="#page469">469</a>.</li>
+<li>Birds' nests, edible, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>Blainville, De, on the age of the elephant, <a href=
+"#page232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Blair, on the anatomy of the elephant, <a href=
+"#page123">123</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Bles, Marcellus, on the elephants of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page113">113</a> <i>n</i>., <a href="#page215">215</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Blood-suckers, <a href="#page275">275</a>.</li>
+<li>Blyth, Mr., of Calcutta, his cultivation of zoology, <a href=
+"#page4">4</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his revision of this work, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Boa, <a href="#page303">303</a>. <i>See</i> Python.</li>
+<li>Boar, wild, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Bochart, <a href="#page68">68</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his derivation of the word "elephant," <a href="#page76">76</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bora-chung, a curious fish, <a href="#page367">367</a>.</li>
+<li>Bosquez, Demas, account of a mermaid, <a href=
+"#page70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Bowring, Sir John, on the fishes of Siam, <a href=
+"#page348">348</a>.</li>
+<li>Broderip, on the elephant, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Browne, Sir Thomas, <i>vulgar errors</i>, <a href=
+"#page100">100</a>. <a href="#page105">105</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>error as to elephants' joints, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Brun, Le, account of the elephants at Colombo, <a href=
+"#page77">77</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Bruno <i>or</i> Braun, his account of the Guinea worm, <a href=
+"#page397">397</a>.</li>
+<li>Buchanan, story of buffalo "rogues," <a href="#page115">115</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Buffalo, <a href="#page54">54</a>. <i>See</i> Mammalia.
+<ul>
+<li>its temper, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>sporting buffaloe, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li>
+<li>peculiar structure of its foot, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>rogue buffalo, <a href="#page115">115</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>buffalo's stomach and its water-cells, <a href=
+"#page129">129</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Buffon, on the elephant, <a href="#page113">113</a> <i>n</i>.,
+<a href="#page215">215</a>.</li>
+<li>Bugs, <a href="#page433">433</a>. <i>See</i> Insects <i>and</i>
+Coffee-bug.</li>
+<li>Buist, Dr., account of fish fallen from clouds, <a href=
+"#page362">362</a>.</li>
+<li>Bulbul, <a href="#page251">251</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li><i>Bulimi</i>, their vitality, <a href="#page357">357</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Bullia</i>, curious property of, <a href=
+"#page370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Bullocks for draught, <a href="#page50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Burying fishes, <a href="#page351">351</a>.</li>
+<li>Butterflies, <a href="#page403">403</a>. <a href=
+"#page425">425</a>. <i>See</i> Insects.
+<ul>
+<li>migration of, <a href="#page403">403</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>the spectre butterfly, <a href="#page426">426</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>C&aelig;cilia, <a href="#page317">317</a>. <i>See</i>
+Reptiles.</li>
+<li>C&aelig;sar's description of the "<i>alce</i>," <a href=
+"#page100">100</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Cajan, <a href="#page373">373</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Caldera, in Chili, musical sounds under water, <a href=
+"#page383">383</a>.</li>
+<li>Calotes, the green, <a href="#page276">276</a>.</li>
+<li>Camel, attempt to domesticate in Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page53">53</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>stomach of, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>antipathy to the horse, <a href="#page83">83</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Camper, on the anatomy of the elephant's stomach, <a href=
+"#page125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Carawala, <a href="#page296">296</a>. <i>See</i> Reptiles.</li>
+<li>Carnivora, <a href="#page74">74</a>. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>[pg 491]</span></li>
+<li>Carpenter bee, <a href="#page418">418</a>. <i>See</i>
+Insects.</li>
+<li>Caterpillars, stings of, <a href="#page429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>Cats attracted by the <i>Cuppa-may-niya,</i> 33.</li>
+<li>Centipede, <a href="#page474">474</a>. <i>See</i> Myriapoda
+<i>and</i> Scolopendr&aelig;.</li>
+<li><i>Ceratophora</i>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cerithia</i>, <a href="#page381">381</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>probably musical, <a href="#page381">381</a> <i>n.</i></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Cermatia</i>, <a href="#page473">473</a>. <i>See</i>
+Myriapoda.</li>
+<li>Cetacea, <a href="#page68">68</a>. <a href="#page74">74</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>described by Megasthenes and &AElig;lian, <a href=
+"#page69">69</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Chameleon, <a href="#page278">278</a>. <i>See</i>
+Reptiles.</li>
+<li>Chank shell, Turbinella rapa, <a href="#page371">371</a>.
+<i>See</i> [Greek: Kochlious] and <i>Schenek</i>.</li>
+<li>Cheetah, <a href="#page26">26</a>. <i>See</i> Leopard.</li>
+<li>Cheironectes, described by &AElig;lian, <a href=
+"#page331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>Cheiroptera, <a href="#page13">13</a>. <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Chelifer</i>, <a href="#page475">475</a>.</li>
+<li>Chelonia, <a href="#page322">322</a>.</li>
+<li>Chena cultivation, <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>Cicada, <a href="#page432">432</a>. <i>See</i> Insects.</li>
+<li><i>Cirrhipeda</i>, <a href="#page486">486</a>.</li>
+<li>Cissa, <a href="#page252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Civet, <a href="#page32">32</a>. <i>See</i> Genette.</li>
+<li>Climbing fish (<i>Anabas scandens</i>), <a href=
+"#page349">349</a>.</li>
+<li>Cluverius, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Cobra de Capello, anecdotes of, <a href="#page297">297</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>legend of, <a href="#page297">297</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>a white cobra, <a href="#page298">298</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>a tame cobra, <a href="#page299">299</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>cobra crossing the sea, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>curious belief as to the cobra, <a href="#page300">300</a>.
+<a href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>worship of, <a href="#page303">303</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cobra-tel, poison, <a href="#page272">272</a>. <i>See</i>
+Kabara-tel.</li>
+<li>Coecilia glutinosa, <a href="#page317">317</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>attacked and killed by ants, <a href="#page422">422</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coco-nut beetle, <a href="#page407">407</a>.</li>
+<li>Coffee-bug, <i>Lecanium Caffe&aelig;</i>, <a href=
+"#page436">436</a>.</li>
+<li>Coffee rat, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Coleoptera, <a href="#page405">405</a>.</li>
+<li>Columbid&aelig;, <a href="#page257">257</a>.</li>
+<li>Conchology. <i>See</i> Shells.</li>
+<li>Cooroowe, elephant catchers, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Corral for taking elephants, <a href="#page156">156</a>.
+<a href="#page164">164</a>. <i>See</i> Elephant.
+<ul>
+<li>process of its construction, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of conducting the capture, <a href="#page156">156</a>.
+<a href="#page169">169</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Corse, Mr., account of elephants, <a href=
+"#page114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>Cosmas Indico pleustes, his reference to chanks at Marallo,
+<a href="#page371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Cotton-thief, <a href="#page250">250</a>. <i>See</i>
+Tchitrea.</li>
+<li>Crabs, <a href="#page477">477</a>. <i>See</i> Crustacea.</li>
+<li>Cripps, Mr., on sounds produced by elephants, <a href=
+"#page98">98</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his story of an elephant which feigned death, <a href=
+"#page135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>his account of fishes after rain, <a href=
+"#page343">343</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Crocodile, <a href="#page282">282</a>. <i>See</i> Reptiles.
+<ul>
+<li>its sensibility to tickling, <a href="#page285">285</a>.</li>
+<li>habit of the crocodile to bury itself in the mud, <a href=
+"#page286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>its flesh eaten, <a href="#page284">284</a> <i>n.</i></li>
+<li>their vitality, <a href="#page288">288</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>one killed at Batticaloa, <a href="#page287">287</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Crows, <a href="#page233">233</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.
+<ul>
+<li>anecdotes of, <a href="#page254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>story of a crow and a dog, <a href="#page255">255</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cruelty to turtle, &amp;c., <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Crustacea</i>, calling crabs, <a href="#page477">477</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>Sand crabs (ocypode), <a href="#page478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Painted crabs, <a href="#page478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Paddling crabs, <a href="#page478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Hermit crabs, <a href="#page478">478</a>.</li>
+<li>Pea crabs, <a href="#page479">479</a>.</li>
+<li>List of Ceylon Crustacea, <a href="#page486">486</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ctesias' error as to the elephant's knee, <a href=
+"#page101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Cumming, Mr. Gordon, on the power of the elephant in
+overturning trees, <a href="#page218">218</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Cuppa-moy niya</i> plant, its attraction for cats, <a href=
+"#page33">33</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Cuvier, on the elephant, <a href="#page133">133</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>on the structure of its tusks, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</li>
+<li>on the elephant's age, <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Daldorf's account of climbing fish, <a href="#page350">350</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his story doubted, <a href="#page350">350</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Darwin, burying-place of llamas and goats, <a href=
+"#page236">236</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>on the coleoptera of Brazil, <a href="#page405">405</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Davy, Dr. John, describes the reptiles of
+<ul>
+<li>Ceylon, <a href="#page3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>stimulates study of natural history, <a href=
+"#page3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>operation on a diseased elephant, <a href=
+"#page224">224</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dawson, Captain, story of an elephant, <a href=
+"#page107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Deafness frequent in elephants, <a href="#page98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Death's-head moth, <a href="#page427">427</a>.</li>
+<li>Decoy elephants, <a href="#page157">157</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Decapoda brachyura</i>, <a href="#page486">486</a>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>anomura</i>, <a href="#page486">486</a>.</li>
+<li><i>macrura</i>, <a href="#page486">486</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Deer, <a href="#page57">57</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>meminna, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Ceylon elk, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>milk-white, <a href="#page59">59</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Demon-worship, anecdote of, <a href="#page408">408</a>.</li>
+<li>Denham, error as to height of elephants, <a href=
+"#page99">99</a>.</li>
+<li>Devil-bird, <a href="#page246">246</a>. <i>See</i> Owls.
+<ul>
+<li>Mr. Mitford's account of, <a href="#page247">247</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Diard, M., sends home an elephant for dissection, <a href=
+"#page123">123</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Dicuil on the elephant, <a href="#page103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Diptera, <a href="#page434">434</a>.</li>
+<li>Dogs, <a href="#page33">33</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>device of, to escape fleas, <a href="#page433">433</a>.
+<a href="#page434">434</a>.</li>
+<li>dog-tax, <a href="#page33">33</a>.</li>
+<li>republican instincts, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>disliked by elephants, <a href="#page82">82</a>. <a href=
+"#page84">84</a>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id=
+"page492"></a>[pg 492]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Donne, on the elephant, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Doras, fish of Guiana, <a href="#page347">347</a>.</li>
+<li>Dragon-flies, <a href="#page411">411</a>. <i>See</i>
+Insects.</li>
+<li>Dugong, <a href="#page68">68</a>. <a href="#page69">69</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>abundant at Manaar, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>origin of the fable of the mermaid, <a href=
+"#page69">69</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Dutch belief in the mermaid, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Eagles, <a href="#page245">245</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Edentata, <a href="#page46">46</a>. <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Edrisi, the Arabian geographer, his account of musk, <a href=
+"#page32">32</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Eels, <a href="#page337">337</a>. <a href="#page347">347</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Eginhard, life of Charlemagne, <a href="#page103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Elephant, <a href="#page64">64</a>. <a href="#page75">75</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>Sumatran species, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>points of distinction, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>those of Ceylon extolled, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>elephants on Adam's Peak, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li>
+<li>numbers in Ceylon, <a href="#page76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>[Greek: Elephas], derivation of the word, <a href=
+"#page76">76</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>antiquity of the trade in, <a href="#page77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>numbers diminishing, <a href="#page77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of poisoning, <a href="#page77">77</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>tusks and their uses, <a href="#page78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>disposition gentle, <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>accidents from, <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>antipathy to other animals, <a href="#page82">82</a>; to the
+horse, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>jealousy of each other, <a href="#page86">86</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of attacking man, <a href="#page87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of a tame elephant, <a href="#page89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>African elephant differs from that of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>skin, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>white elephant, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>love of shade, <a href="#page94">94</a>.</li>
+<li>water, not heat, essential to them, <a href=
+"#page94">94</a>.</li>
+<li>sight limited&mdash;smell acute, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li>
+<li>anatomy of the brain, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li>
+<li>power of smell, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>sounds uttered by, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>subject to deafness, <a href="#page98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>exaggeration as to size, <a href="#page98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>source of this mistake, <a href="#page98">98</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>stealthy motions, <a href="#page100">100</a>.</li>
+<li>error as to the elephant's want of joints, <a href=
+"#page100">100</a>.</li>
+<li>probable origin of this mistake, <a href=
+"#page106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of lying down, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>ability to climb acclivities, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of descending a mountain, <a href="#page110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>a herd is a family, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</li>
+<li>attachment to young, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>young suckled by all the females in a herd, <a href=
+"#page113">113</a>.</li>
+<li>theory of this, according to White, <a href="#page113">113</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>a rogue, what, <a href="#page114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>savage attacks of rogues, <a href="#page116">116</a>.</li>
+<li>character of the rogues, <a href="#page116">116</a>. <a href=
+"#page147">147</a>.</li>
+<li>habits of the herd, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>elephant's mode of drinking, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</li>
+<li>their method of swimming, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>wells sunk by, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>receptacle in the stomach, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>stomach, anatomy of, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>food of the elephant, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>instinct in search of food, <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>dread of fences, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li>
+<li>their caution exaggerated, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</li>
+<li>spirit of curiosity in elephants, <a href=
+"#page132">132</a>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of Col. Hardy, <a href="#page132">132</a>. <a href=
+"#page133">133</a>.</li>
+<li>sagacity in freedom over-estimated, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>.</li>
+<li>leave the forests during thunder, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>.</li>
+<li>cunning, feign death, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>stories of encounters with wild elephants, <a href=
+"#page136">136</a>.</li>
+<li>sporting, numbers shot, <a href="#page142">142</a>.</li>
+<li>butchery by expert shots, <a href="#page142">142</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>fatal spots in the head, <a href="#page144">144</a>. <a href=
+"#page145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>peculiar actions of elephants, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</li>
+<li>love of retirement, <a href="#page149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>elephant-trackers, <a href="#page150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>herd charging, <a href="#page151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>carcase useless, <a href="#page153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>remarkable recovery from a wound, <a href="#page154">154</a>.
+<i>See Lieut</i>. Fretz.</li>
+<li>mode of taking in India, <a href="#page157">157</a>-162.</li>
+<li>height measured by the circumference of the foot, <a href=
+"#page159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of shipping elephants at Manaar, <a href=
+"#page162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of shipping elephants at Galle, in 1701, <a href=
+"#page163">163</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li><i>keddah</i> for taking elephants in Bengal, <a href=
+"#page164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>a corral (kraal) described, <a href="#page165">165</a>.
+<a href="#page166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>derivation of the word <i>corral</i>, <a href=
+"#page165">165</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>corral, its construction, <a href="#page167">167</a>. <a href=
+"#page172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>corral, driving in the elephants, <a href=
+"#page173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>the capture, <a href="#page177">177</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of securing, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>the "cooroowe," or noosers, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>tame elephants, their conduct, <a href="#page182">182</a>.
+<a href="#page191">191</a>.</li>
+<li>captives, their resistance and demeanour, <a href=
+"#page184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>dread of white rods, <a href="#page186">186</a>.</li>
+<li>their contortions, <a href="#page190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>a young one, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</li>
+<li>conduct in captivity, <a href="#page207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>mode of training, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</li>
+<li>their employment in ancient warfare, <a href=
+"#page207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>superiority of Ceylon, a fallacy, <a href=
+"#page209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>elephant driver's crook (hendoo), <a href=
+"#page212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>hairy elephants in Ceylon, <a href="#page215">215</a> <i>n</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>[pg
+493]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Elephants, capricious disposition of, <a href=
+"#page215">215</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>first labour intrusted to them, <a href=
+"#page217">217</a>.</li>
+<li>his comprehension of his duties, <a href=
+"#page218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>exaggeration of his strength in uprooting trees, <a href=
+"#page218">218</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Mahouts and their duties, <a href="#page221">221</a>.</li>
+<li>Their cry of <i>urre!</i>, <a href="#page222">222</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>elephant's sense of musical notes, <a href=
+"#page223">223</a>.</li>
+<li>its endurance of pain, <a href="#page224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>diseases in captivity, <a href="#page225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>subject to tooth-ache, <a href="#page227">227</a>.</li>
+<li>questionable economy of keeping trained elephants for labour,
+<a href="#page229">229</a>.</li>
+<li>their cost, <a href="#page230">230</a>.</li>
+<li>their food, <a href="#page230">230</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>fallacy of their alleged reluctance to breed in captivity,
+<a href="#page231">231</a>.</li>
+<li>duration of life in the elephant, <a href=
+"#page232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>theory of M. Fleurens, <a href="#page232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>instances of very old elephants in Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page233">233</a>.</li>
+<li>dead elephant never found, <a href="#page234">234</a>.</li>
+<li>Sinbad's story, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+<li>passage from &AElig;lian regarding the, <a href=
+"#page237">237</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Elk, <a href="#page59">59</a>. <i>See</i> Deer; Mammalia.</li>
+<li>Emydosauri, <a href="#page321">321</a>.</li>
+<li>Emys trijuga, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Englishman, anonymous, his story of a fight between elephants
+and horses, <a href="#page84">84</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Falconer, Dr., height of Indian elephant, <a href=
+"#page99">99</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Falkland Islands, peculiarity in the cattle there, <a href=
+"#page372">372</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Fauna of Ceylon, not common to India, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>., <a href="#page62">62</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>peculiar and independent, <a href="#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.,
+<a href="#page62">62</a>.</li>
+<li>have received insufficient attention, <a href=
+"#page3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>first study due to Dr. Davy, <a href="#page3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>subsequent, due to Templeton, Layard, and Kelaart, <a href=
+"#page3">3</a>. <a href="#page4">4</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fishes of Ceylon, little known, <a href="#page323">323</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>seir fish, and others for table, <a href=
+"#page324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>abundance of perch, soles, and sardines, <a href=
+"#page324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>explanation of Odoric's statement, <a href="#page324">324</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>sardines, said to be poisonous, <a href=
+"#page324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>shark, and sawfish, <a href="#page325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>sawfish, <a href="#page325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>ray, <a href="#page326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>swordfish, <a href="#page328">328</a>.</li>
+<li>cheironectes of &AElig;lian, <a href="#page331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>fishes of rare forms, and of beautiful colours, <a href=
+"#page332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>fresh-water fishes, their peculiarities, <a href=
+"#page335">335</a>.</li>
+<li>fresh-water, little known, <i>ib</i>.; reason, <a href=
+"#page335">335</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>eels, <a href="#page337">337</a>.</li>
+<li>reappearance of fishes after the dry season, <a href=
+"#page340">340</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fishes, similar mysterious re-appearances elsewhere, <a href=
+"#page342">342</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>method of taking them by hand, <a href="#page340">340</a>.</li>
+<li>a fish decoy, <a href="#page342">342</a>.</li>
+<li>fish filling from clouds, <a href="#page342">342</a> <i>n</i>.,
+<a href="#page362">362</a>.</li>
+<li>buried alive in mud, <a href="#page347">347</a>.</li>
+<li>Mr. Yarrell's theory controverted, <a href=
+"#page344">344</a>.</li>
+<li>travelling overland, <a href="#page345">345</a>.</li>
+<li>the fact was known to the Greeks and Romans, <a href=
+"#page345">345</a>.</li>
+<li>instances in Guiana and Siam, <a href="#page347">347</a>.</li>
+<li>faculty of all migratory fish for discovering water, <a href=
+"#page347">347</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>on dry land in Ceylon, <a href="#page348">348</a>.</li>
+<li>fish ascending trees, <a href="#page349">349</a>.</li>
+<li>excerpt from letter by Mr. Morris, <a href="#page348">348</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Anabas scandens, <a href="#page349">349</a>. <a href=
+"#page350">350</a>.</li>
+<li>Daldorf's statement, anticipated by Abou-zeyd, <a href=
+"#page350">350</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>accidents when fishing, <a href="#page351">351</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>burying fishes and travelling fish, <a href=
+"#page351">351</a>.</li>
+<li>occurrence of similar fish in Abyssinia and elsewhere, <a href=
+"#page352">352</a>.</li>
+<li>statement of the patriarch Mendes, <a href="#page353">353</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>knowledge of habits of Melania employed judicially by E.L.
+Layard, <a href="#page355">355</a><i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>illustrations of &aelig;stivating fish and animals, <a href=
+"#page356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>&aelig;stivating shell-fish and water-beetlea, <a href=
+"#page351">351</a>.</li>
+<li>fish in hot water, <a href="#page358">358</a>.</li>
+<li>list of Ceylon fishes, <a href="#page359">359</a>.</li>
+<li>Professor Huxley's memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page364">364</a>.</li>
+<li>Dr. Gray's memorandum, <a href="#page366">366</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Note</i> on the <i>Bora-chung</i>, <a href=
+"#page367">367</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Fishing, native mode of, <a href="#page340">340</a>.</li>
+<li>Fish insect, <a href="#page475">475</a>.</li>
+<li>Flamingoes, <a href="#page261">261</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Fleas, <a href="#page433">433</a>. <i>See</i> Insects.</li>
+<li>Fleurens, on the duration of life in the elephant, <a href=
+"#page232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Flies, their instinct in discovering carrion, <a href=
+"#page196">196</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>mosquitoes, the plague of, <a href="#page434">434</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Flowers, fondness of monkeys for, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Flying Fox. <i>Pteropus Edwardsii</i>, <a href=
+"#page14">14</a>. <i>See</i> Mammalia.
+<ul>
+<li>its sizes, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>skeleton of, <a href="#page15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>food, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+<li>habits, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+<li>numbers, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</li>
+<li>strange attitudes, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</li>
+<li>food and habits, <a href="#page18">18</a>.</li>
+<li>drinking toddy, <a href="#page18">18</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Flying squirrels, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li>
+<li>Fresh-water fishes, <a href="#page335">335</a>.</li>
+<li>Fretz, Lieut., his singular wound, <a href="#page154">154</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>[pg
+494]</span></li>
+<li>Frogs, <a href="#page318">318</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>tree frogs, <a href="#page319">319</a>. <a href=
+"#page320">320</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Galle, elephants shipped in 1701, <a href="#page163">163</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Gallin&aelig;, <a href="#page259">259</a>.</li>
+<li>Galloperdix bicalcaratus, <a href="#page259">259</a>.</li>
+<li>Gallwey, Capt. P.P., great number of elephants shot by him,
+<a href="#page142">142</a>.</li>
+<li>Game birds, <a href="#page265">265</a>.</li>
+<li>Gardner, Dr., his account of the coffee bug, <a href=
+"#page436">436</a>-441.</li>
+<li>Gaur, <a href="#page49">49</a> <i>See</i> Mammalia.
+<ul>
+<li>Knox's account of the gaur, <a href="#page49">49</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Geckoes, <a href="#page281">281</a>.</li>
+<li>Gemma Frisius, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Genette, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Geology of Ceylon, errors as to, <a href="#page60">60</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>previous accounts, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li>
+<li>traditions of ancient submersion, <a href="#page61">61</a>.
+<a href="#page67">67</a>.</li>
+<li>Ceylon has a fauna distinct from India, <a href=
+"#page62">62</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>"Golden Meadows," <a href="#page211">211</a> <i>n</i>. <i>See</i>
+Massoude.</li>
+<li>Golunda rat, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Goondah</i>, <a href="#page114">114</a>. <i>See</i>
+Rogue.</li>
+<li>Gooneratne, Mr., <a href="#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his story of the jackal, <a href="#page35">35</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gordon Cumming, his butchery of elephants in Africa, <a href=
+"#page146">146</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Gowra-ellia, <a href="#page49">49</a>.</li>
+<li>Grall&aelig;, <a href="#page260">260</a>.</li>
+<li>Gray, Dr. J.E., Brit. Mus., <a href="#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.
+<ul>
+<li>notice of Ceylon fishes, <a href="#page366">366</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Great fire-fish, <a href="#page332">332</a>.</li>
+<li>Guinea worm, <a href="#page397">397</a>.</li>
+<li>G&uuml;nther, Dr. A., on Ceylon reptiles, <a href=
+"#page275">275</a> <i>n</i>., <a href="#page304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>Gwillim's Heraldry, error as to elephants, <a href=
+"#page105">105</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Hambangtotte, elephants of, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</li>
+<li>Hardy, Col, anecdote of, when chased by an elephant, <a href=
+"#page133">133</a>.</li>
+<li>Hardy, Rev. Spence, describes a white monkey, <a href=
+"#page8">8</a>.</li>
+<li>Haroun Alraschid, sends an elephant to Charlemagne, <a href=
+"#page103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Harrison, Dr., <a href="#page95">95</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his anatomy of the elephant, <a href="#page123">123</a>
+<i>n</i>., <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>his account of elephant's head, <a href=
+"#page142">142</a>.</li>
+<li>of the elephant's ear, <a href="#page223">223</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hastisilpe, a work on elephants, <a href="#page87">87</a>
+<i>n</i>., <a href="#page91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Hawking, <a href="#page246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Hawks. <i>See</i> Birds, <a href="#page246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Hedge-hog, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</li>
+<li>Helix h&aelig;mastoma, its colouring, <a href=
+"#page372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Hemiptera, <a href="#page433">433</a>. <a href=
+"#page462">462</a>.</li>
+<li>Hendoo, crook for driving elephants, <a href=
+"#page212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Herd, a, of elephants, is a family, <a href="#page111">111</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>its mode of electing a leader, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Herodotus, on mosquitoes, <a href="#page435">435</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>antipathy of the elephant to the camel, <a href=
+"#page83">83</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Herpestes, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Herport, Albrecht, his work on India, <a href="#page71">71</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Hesperid&aelig;</i>, <a href="#page426">426</a>.</li>
+<li>Hill, Sir John, error as to elephants, <a href=
+"#page98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Hippopotamus rogues, <a href="#page115">115</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Histiophorus, <a href="#page330">330</a>. <i>See</i>
+Sword-fish.</li>
+<li>Holland, Dr., his theory as to the formation of tusks, <a href=
+"#page89">89</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Holothurin</i>, sea-slug and Trepang, <a href=
+"#page396">396</a>.</li>
+<li>Home, Sir Everard, on the elephant's stomach, <a href=
+"#page124">124</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>error as to the elephant's ear, <a href=
+"#page223">223</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Home, Randal, error as to elephant, <a href="#page105">105</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Homoptera, <a href="#page462">462</a>. <a href=
+"#page463">463</a>.</li>
+<li>Honey-comb, great size of, <a href="#page418">418</a>.</li>
+<li>Hooker, Dr. J.D., on the elephants of the Himalaya, <a href=
+"#page110">110</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>error as to white ants' nests, <a href="#page413">413</a>.</li>
+<li>on ticks in Nepal, <a href="#page471">471</a> <i>n</i>.,
+<a href="#page472">472</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Hora</i>, <a href="#page115">115</a>. <i>See</i> Rogue.</li>
+<li>Horace, alludes to a white elephant, <a href="#page92">92</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Hornbill, <i>Buceros</i>, <a href="#page242">242</a>. <a href=
+"#page243">243</a>.</li>
+<li>Horse, alleged antipathy to the elephant, <a href=
+"#page83">83</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>to the camel, <a href="#page83">83</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>story of, and an elephant, <a href="#page89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>horses taught to fight with elephants, <a href=
+"#page84">84</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hotambeya, <a href="#page40">40</a>. <i>See</i> Mongoos.</li>
+<li>Hot-water fishes, <a href="#page358">358</a>.</li>
+<li>Hunt, mode of conducting an elephant-hunt, <a href=
+"#page157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Hunter, Dr. John, his theory of &aelig;stivation, <a href=
+"#page356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>Hurra! 223 <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Huxley, Prof., <a href="#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page364">364</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Hydrophobia in jackals, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Hymenoptera, <a href="#page416">416</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Ianthina</i>, <a href="#page370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Ichneumon, <a href="#page39">39</a>. <i>See</i> Mongoos.</li>
+<li>Iguana, <a href="#page271">271</a>. <i>See</i> Reptiles.</li>
+<li><i>Infusoria</i>, Red, in the Ceylon seas, <a href=
+"#page400">400</a>.</li>
+<li>Insects of Ceylon, <a href="#page403">403</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>their profusion and beauty, <a href="#page403">403</a>.</li>
+<li>hitherto imperfectly described, <a href=
+"#page404">404</a>.</li>
+<li>coleoptera, <a href="#page405">405</a>.</li>
+<li>Beetles, scavengers, <a href="#page405">405</a>.</li>
+<li>coco-nut beetle, tortoise beetle, <a href=
+"#page407">407</a>.</li>
+<li>tortoise beetle, <a href="#page408">408</a>.</li>
+<li>Orthoptera, <a href="#page408">408</a>.</li>
+<li>the soothsayer, leaf-insect, <a href="#page410">410</a>.</li>
+<li>Neuroptera, <a href="#page411">411</a>.</li>
+<li>dragon-flies, <a href="#page411">411</a>.</li>
+<li>ant-lion, <a href="#page411">411</a>.</li>
+<li>white ant, termites, <a href="#page411">411</a>. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>[pg 495]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Insects, <i>Hymenoptera</i>, mason-wasp, <a href=
+"#page416">416</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>wasps, bees, wasps' nest, <a href="#page418">418</a>.</li>
+<li>carpenter bee, <a href="#page418">418</a>.</li>
+<li>ants, <a href="#page420">420</a>.</li>
+<li>value of scavenger ants to conchologists, <a href=
+"#page421">421</a>.</li>
+<li>dimiya or red ant, <a href="#page422">422</a>.</li>
+<li>introduced to destroy coffee-bug, <a href=
+"#page423">423</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lepidoptera</i>, butterflies, <a href=
+"#page424">424</a>.</li>
+<li><i>lyc&aelig;nid&aelig;, hesperid&aelig;</i>, <a href=
+"#page426">426</a>.</li>
+<li><i>acherontia sathanas</i>, <a href="#page427">427</a>.</li>
+<li>moths, silk-worm, <a href="#page427">427</a>.</li>
+<li>stinging caterpillars, <a href="#page429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>oiketicus, <a href="#page430">430</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Homoptera, cicada</i>, the "knife-grinder," <a href=
+"#page432">432</a>.</li>
+<li>Flata, <a href="#page433">433</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aphaniptera</i>&mdash;fleas, <a href=
+"#page433">433</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Diptera</i>&mdash;mosquitoes, <a href=
+"#page434">434</a>.</li>
+<li>Coffee bug, <a href="#page436">436</a>-441.</li>
+<li>Mr. Walker's memorandum on Ceylon insects, <a href=
+"#page442">442</a>.</li>
+<li>list, <a href="#page447">447</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ivory, annual consumption, <a href="#page78">78</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>superiority of Chinese, <i>ib</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Jackal, <a href="#page35">35</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>its cunning, <a href="#page35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>probably the "fox" of Scripture, <a href="#page35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>its sagacity in hunting, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>subject to hydrophobia, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>jackal's horn, the <i>narric comboo</i>, <a href=
+"#page37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>superstitions connected with, <a href="#page37">37</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Jackdaw, fable of, <a href="#page244">244</a>. <i>See</i>
+Avitchia.</li>
+<li>Jardine, Sir W., error as to elephants shedding their tusks,
+<a href="#page79">79</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Jay, the mountain, <a href="#page252">252</a>. <i>See</i>
+Cissa.</li>
+<li>Joinville, on the parasite of the bat, <a href=
+"#page20">20</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Julus</i>, <a href="#page477">477</a>.</li>
+<li>Jungle fowl, <a href="#page259">259</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Juvenal's allusion to fishes on land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Kabragoya, <a href="#page272">272</a>. <a href=
+"#page273">273</a>. <i>See</i> Iguana.
+<ul>
+<li>Kabara-tel, poison, <a href="#page274">274</a>.</li>
+<li>Kanats in Persia, <a href="#page339">339</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Keddah, for taking elephants, <a href="#page164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Kelaart, Dr., work on the Zoology of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page4">4</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>examination of the Radiata, <a href="#page395">395</a>.</li>
+<li>discoveries as to the pearl oyster, <a href=
+"#page375">375</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Kingfisher, <a href="#page249">249</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Kinnis, Dr., cultivates zoology, <a href="#page4">4</a>.</li>
+<li>Kite, on Egyptian sculpture, <a href="#page246">246</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Knife-grinder, <a href="#page432">432</a>. <i>See</i>
+Cicada.</li>
+<li>Knox, R., account of Ceylon fauna, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his description of the Wanderoo, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>of elephants executing criminals, <a href=
+"#page87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>of the mode of catching elephants, <a href=
+"#page157">157</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Knox, his description of natives fishing, <a href=
+"#page340">340</a>.</li>
+<li>[Greek: Kochlious], <a href="#page371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Kombook tree, its bark, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Korahl</i>, <a href="#page165">165</a>. <i>See</i> Kraal
+<i>and</i> Corral.
+<ul>
+<li>derivation of the word, <a href="#page165">165</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Kornegalle, beauty of the place, <a href=
+"#page167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Kottiar, immense oysters, <a href="#page371">371</a> <i>n</i>.
+<i>See</i> Cottiar.</li>
+<li>Kraal, <a href="#page165">165</a>. <i>See</i> Corral <i>and</i>
+Korahl.</li>
+<li>Krank-bezoeker, <a href="#page71">71</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Layard, E.A., his knowledge of Ceylon zoology, <a href=
+"#page4">4</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his collections of Ceylon birds, <a href=
+"#page241">241</a>.</li>
+<li>story of fish on dry land, <a href="#page318">318</a>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of burying molluscs, <a href="#page355">355</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leaf insect. 408-410. <i>See</i> Insects.</li>
+<li>Leaping fish, <a href="#page332">332</a>. <i>See Salarias
+alticus</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Lecanium Caffe&aelig;</i>, <a href="#page436">436</a>.</li>
+<li>Leeches, <a href="#page479">479</a>. <i>See Annelid&aelig;</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>land leech, <a href="#page479">479</a>.</li>
+<li>medicinal leech, <a href="#page483">483</a>.</li>
+<li>cattle leech, <a href="#page344">344</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leopard, <a href="#page25">25</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>in Ceylon confounded with the <i>cheetah</i>, <a href=
+"#page26">26</a>.</li>
+<li>superstitions regarding, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</li>
+<li>anecdotes of their ferocity, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>attracted by the small-pox, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>story of Major Skinner, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>monkeys killed by leopards, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lepidoptera, <a href="#page424">424</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lepisma</i>, the fish insect, <a href=
+"#page474">474</a>.</li>
+<li>Lima, General de, his account of the weight of elephants' tusks
+at
+<ul>
+<li>Mozambique, <a href="#page79">79</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Livingstone's account of the "rogue" hippopotamus, <a href=
+"#page115">115</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Llama of the Andes, its stomach, <a href="#page128">128</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Livy, account of fishes on dry land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Lizards, <a href="#page271">271</a>. <i>See</i> Reptiles.</li>
+<li>Lophobranchi, <a href="#page362">362</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Loris</i>, <a href="#page12">12</a>. <i>See</i> Mammalia.
+<ul>
+<li>two varieties in Ceylon, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>torture inflicted on it, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lucan, description of the ichneumon, <a href=
+"#page39">39</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lyc&aelig;nid&aelig;</i>, <a href="#page426">426</a>.</li>
+<li>Lyre-headed lizard, <a href="#page277">277</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Macabbees iii. Book, allusion to elephants, <a href=
+"#page87">87</a> <i>n</i>., <a href="#page211">211</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Macacus monkey, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Machlis described by C&aelig;sar, <a href=
+"#page101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Macready, Major, account of a noise made by elephants, <a href=
+"#page97">97</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his opinion as to the vulnerable point in the elephant's head.
+<a href="#page145">145</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mahawanso, mentions a white elephant, <a href=
+"#page93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Mahout, an elephant driver, <a href="#page181">181</a>.
+<i>See</i> Ponnekella. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id=
+"page496"></a>[pg 496]</span></li>
+<li>Mahout, alleged short life, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Malacopterygii abdominales</i>, <a href="#page362">362</a>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>sub-branchiati</i>, <a href="#page362">362</a>.</li>
+<li><i>apoda</i>, <a href="#page362">362</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Mammalia, <a href="#page3">3</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>Monkeys, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Rilawa, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Wanderoo, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>error as to the Ceylon Wanderoo, <a href="#page6">6</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Wanderoo, mode of flight among trees, <a href=
+"#page9">9</a>.</li>
+<li>monkeys never found dead, <a href="#page11">11</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Loris</i>, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>tortures inflicted on it, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</li>
+<li>Bat, flying fox, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>skeleton of, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>attracted by toddy to the coco-nut palms, <a href=
+"#page18">18</a>.</li>
+<li>horse-shoe bat, <a href="#page18">18</a>.</li>
+<li>parasite of the bat, Nycteribia, <a href="#page20">20</a>.
+<a href="#page21">21</a>.</li>
+<li>bears, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>bears dreaded in Ceylon, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</li>
+<li>leopards, <a href="#page25">25</a>.</li>
+<li>attracted by the odour of small pox, <a href=
+"#page28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of a leopard, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>lesser felines, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>dogs, Pariah, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>jackal, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>the jackal's horn, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Mongoos, <a href="#page37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>assaults of Mongoos on the serpent, <a href=
+"#page38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>squirrels, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li>
+<li>the flying squirrel, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li>
+<li>rats, the rat snake, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li>
+<li>coffee rat, <a href="#page43">43</a>. <a href=
+"#page44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>bandicoot, <a href="#page44">44</a>. <a href=
+"#page45">45</a>.</li>
+<li>porcupine, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</li>
+<li>pengolin, <a href="#page46">46</a>-48.</li>
+<li>the gaur, <a href="#page49">49</a>.</li>
+<li>the ox, <a href="#page50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of, <a href="#page51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>draft oxen, <a href="#page51">51</a>-53.</li>
+<li>the buffalo, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>sporting buffaloes, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li>
+<li>peculiarity of the buffalo's foot, <a href=
+"#page56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>deer, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>meminna, <a href="#page57">57</a>. <a href=
+"#page58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Ceylon elk, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>wild boar, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>elephant, <a href="#page69">69</a>. <a href=
+"#page75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>whale and dugong, <a href="#page68">68</a>. <a href=
+"#page69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>peculiarities of Ceylon mammalia, <a href=
+"#page73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>list of, <a href="#page73">73</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Manaar, mermaid taken at, <a href="#page69">69</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>elephants shipped at, <a href="#page162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>pearl fishery, <a href="#page373">373</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Manis. <i>See</i> Pengolin, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</li>
+<li>Mantis, <a href="#page410">410</a>.</li>
+<li>Massoudi, on the use of elephants in war, <a href=
+"#page211">211</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>his account of pearl-diving, <a href="#page377">377</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Mastacembelus</i>, <a href="#page338">338</a>. <i>See</i>
+Eels.</li>
+<li>Megasthenes' account of the mermaid, <a href=
+"#page69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Mehemet Ali, story of, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Melania Paludina</i>, its habit of burying itself, <a href=
+"#page355">355</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>its hybernation, <a href="#page355">355</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Melania, story of a law suit decided by, <a href=
+"#page355">355</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Meleagrina, <a href="#page373">373</a> <i>n</i>. <i>See</i>
+Pearl fishery.</li>
+<li>Meminna deer, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Mercator, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Mercer, Mr., his story of an elephant fight, <a href=
+"#page86">86</a>.</li>
+<li>Mermaid, <a href="#page68">68</a>. <i>See</i> Dugong.</li>
+<li>Mermaids, at Manaar, <a href="#page69">69</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>at Amboina, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>at Booro, <a href="#page71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>at Edam, <a href="#page72">72</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Millipeds, <i>Julus</i>, <a href="#page477">477</a>.</li>
+<li>Mites, <a href="#page472">472</a>.</li>
+<li>Mollusca. <i>See</i> Shells.</li>
+<li>Molyneux, on the anatomy of the elephant, <a href=
+"#page122">122</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Mongoos, <a href="#page38">38</a>. <i>See</i> Ichneumon.
+<ul>
+<li>species at Neuera-ellia, <i>Herpestes Vitticollis</i>, <a href=
+"#page38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>story of its antidote against the bite of serpents, <a href=
+"#page39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>its mode of killing snakes, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Monkeys, <a href="#page5">5</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>never found dead, <a href="#page11">11</a>.</li>
+<li>a white monkey, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Moors of Galle, make ornaments of the elephant's teeth,
+<a href="#page153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Moors, as caravan drivers, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Moose deer, <a href="#page58">58</a>. <i>See</i> Meminna.</li>
+<li>Morris, Mr., account of fishes on land, <a href=
+"#page348">348</a>.</li>
+<li>Mosquitoes, their cunning, <a href="#page434">434</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>Herodotus, account of, <a href="#page436">436</a>.</li>
+<li>probably the plague of flies, <a href="#page434">434</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Moths, <a href="#page427">427</a>. <i>See</i> Insects.</li>
+<li>Munster, Sebastian, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Musical fishes, <a href="#page380">380</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>account of, at Batticaloa, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</li>
+<li>similar phenomena at other places, <a href="#page383">383</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>fishes known to utter sounds, <a href="#page384">384</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Tritonia arborescens</i>, <a href="#page385">385</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Musk, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Mygale, spider, <a href="#page465">465</a>.</li>
+<li>Myriapods, <a href="#page472">472</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Narric-comboo, <a href="#page37">37</a>. <i>See</i> Jackal's
+Horn.</li>
+<li>Natural history neglected in Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page3">3</a>.</li>
+<li>Neela-cobeya, pigeon, <a href="#page258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>Neuroptera, <a href="#page411">411</a>.</li>
+<li>Nietner, on Ceylon insects, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.</li>
+<li><i>Nycteribia</i>, parasite of the bat, <a href=
+"#page20">20</a>. <a href="#page21">21</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>its extraordinary structure, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Odoric of Portenau, his cure for leech bites, <a href=
+"#page481">481</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his account of birds with two heads, <a href=
+"#page243">243</a>.</li>
+<li>his account of fishes in Ceylon, <a href="#page324">324</a>
+<i>n</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id=
+"page497"></a>[pg 497]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Oiketicus</i>, <a href="#page430">430</a>.</li>
+<li>Oil-bird, <a href="#page269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Ophidia, <a href="#page321">321</a>.</li>
+<li>Ortelius, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Orthoptera, <a href="#page408">408</a>.</li>
+<li>Ouanderoo. <i>See</i> Wanderoo.</li>
+<li>Owen, Professor, on the structure of the elephant's tusk,
+<a href="#page228">228</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>on the Protopterus of the Gambia, <a href=
+"#page352">352</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Owls. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Oxen, their uses and diseases, <a href="#page50">50</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>anecdote of a cow and a leopard, <a href="#page51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>white, eight feet high, seen by Wolf, <a href="#page52">52</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oysters at Bentotte, <a href="#page371">371</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>immense, at Kottiar, <a href="#page371">371</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Pachydermata, <a href="#page59">59</a>. <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Padivil, the great tank, <a href="#page262">262</a>.</li>
+<li>Pallegoix, on the elephants of Siam, <a href="#page98">98</a>
+<i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>on the fishes of Siam, <a href="#page347">347</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Palm-cat, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Panickeas, elephant catchers, <a href="#page150">150</a>.
+<a href="#page158">158</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>their skill, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pariah dogs, <a href="#page33">33</a>.</li>
+<li>Paris, Matthew, on the elephant, <a href=
+"#page103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Paroquets, their habits; anecdote of, <a href=
+"#page256">256</a>.</li>
+<li>Passeres, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>Patterson, R., Esq., <a href="#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.</li>
+<li>Pea-fowl, <a href="#page244">244</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.
+<ul>
+<li>fable of the jackdaw, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pearl fishery of Ceylon, its antiquity, <a href=
+"#page373">373</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>dreary scenery of Aripo, <a href="#page373">373</a>.</li>
+<li>disappearances of the pearl-oyster, <a href=
+"#page374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>capable of transplantation, <a href="#page376">376</a>.</li>
+<li>operation of diving, <a href="#page377">377</a>.</li>
+<li>endurance of the divers under water, <a href=
+"#page377">377</a>.</li>
+<li>growth of the pearl-oyster, <a href="#page379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>pearls of Tamblegam, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pelicans, <a href="#page262">262</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>strange scene at their breeding place, <a href=
+"#page263">263</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pengolin, <a href="#page46">46</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>its habits and food, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</li>
+<li>skeleton of, <a href="#page48">48</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phile, his account of the elephant, <a href="#page103">103</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>error as to its joints, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>describes its drinking, <a href="#page121">121</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>its dispositions, <a href="#page216">216</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>on the elephant's ear, <a href="#page224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>on elephants burying their dead, <a href=
+"#page235">235</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Phillipe, on the elephant of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#page209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>Phyllium, <a href="#page410">410</a>. <i>See</i> Leaf
+Insect.</li>
+<li>Physalus urticulus, <a href="#page400">400</a>. <i>See</i>
+Portuguese Man-of-war.</li>
+<li>Pictet, Mon., his derivation of the word "elephant," <a href=
+"#page76">76</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Pigeons, <a href="#page257">257</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Pigeons, Lady Torrington's pigeon, <a href=
+"#page258">258</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Placuna placenta</i>, pearls of, <a href=
+"#page380">380</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Planaria</i>, <a href="#page398">398</a>. <i>See
+Radiata</i>.</li>
+<li>Pliny's nereids, <a href="#page72">72</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>error as to elephants shedding their tusks, <a href=
+"#page79">79</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>error as to their antipathy to other animals, <a href=
+"#page85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>error as to elephant's joints, <a href="#page100">100</a>.</li>
+<li>account of the <i>machlis</i>, <a href="#page101">101</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>his knowledge of the vulnerability of the elephant's head,
+<a href="#page144">144</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>of fishes on dry land, <a href="#page346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Ponnekella. <i>See</i> Mahout.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Polybius' account of fishes on dry land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Pomponius, Mela, account of fishes on land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Porcupine, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</li>
+<li>Portuguese belief in the mermaid, <a href="#page69">69</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>Man-of-war, <a href="#page400">400</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pott, his derivation of the word elephant, <a href=
+"#page76">76</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Presbytes <i>cephalopterus</i>, <a href="#page7">7</a>.
+<ul>
+<li><i>ursinus</i>, <a href="#page6">6</a>. <a href=
+"#page9">9</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Thersites</i>, <a href="#page6">6</a>. <a href=
+"#page10">10</a>.</li>
+<li>its fondness of attention, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Priamus</i>, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</li>
+<li>its curiosity, <a href="#page11">11</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Protopterus of the Gambia, <a href="#page352">352</a>.</li>
+<li>Pseudophidia, <a href="#page322">322</a>.</li>
+<li>Pterois volitans, <a href="#page333">333</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pterophorus</i>, <a href="#page430">430</a>. <i>See</i>
+Insects.</li>
+<li>Pteropus, <a href="#page14">14</a>. <i>See</i> Flying Fox.</li>
+<li>Pyrard de Laval, on the Ceylon elephant, <a href=
+"#page209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>Python, its great size, <a href="#page303">303</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Quadrumana, <a href="#page5">5</a>. <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Quatrefage on the Rotifera, <a href="#page487">487</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Radiata</i>, star-fish, <a href="#page395">395</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>sea-slugs, holothuria, <a href="#page396">396</a>.</li>
+<li>parasitic worms, <a href="#page396">396</a>.</li>
+<li>Guinea worm, <a href="#page397">397</a>.</li>
+<li><i>planaria</i>, <a href="#page398">398</a>.</li>
+<li><i>acaleph&aelig;</i>, <a href="#page398">398</a>.</li>
+<li>Portuguese Man-of-war, <a href="#page400">400</a>.</li>
+<li>Red infusoria, <a href="#page400">400</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Raja-kariya, forced labour, in elephant hunts, <a href=
+"#page170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Raja-welle estate, story of an elephant at, <a href=
+"#page133">133</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Ramayana, Ceylon elephants mentioned in, <a href=
+"#page210">210</a>.</li>
+<li>Rats, <a href="#page42">42</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>eaten as food in Oovah and Bintenne, <a href=
+"#page43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>liable to hydrophobia, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>coffee rat, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>bandicoot, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rat snake, anecdote of, <a href="#page43">43</a>. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>[pg 498]</span></li>
+<li>Rat-snake, domesticated, <a href="#page299">299</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Ray, <a href="#page326">326</a>. <a href=
+"#page327">327</a>.</li>
+<li>Reinaud, on the ancient use of the elephant in Indian wars,
+<a href="#page205">205</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Reptiles of Ceylon described by Dr. Davy, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.
+<ul>
+<li>lizards, iguana, <a href="#page271">271</a>.</li>
+<li>kabara-tel, poison, <a href="#page272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>blood-suckers, <a href="#page275">275</a>.</li>
+<li>calotes, the green, <a href="#page276">276</a>.</li>
+<li>lyre-headed lizard, <a href="#page277">277</a>.</li>
+<li>chameleon, <a href="#page278">278</a>.</li>
+<li><i>ceratophora</i>, <a href="#page279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>gecko, anecdotes of, <a href="#page281">281</a>. <a href=
+"#page282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>crocodile, anecdotes of, <a href="#page282">282</a>. <a href=
+"#page283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>crocodile and alligator, skulls of, <a href=
+"#page283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>tortoises, <a href="#page289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>parasites of the tortoise, <a href="#page289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>Terrapins, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>cruel mode of cutting up turtle, <a href=
+"#page291">291</a>.</li>
+<li>turtle, said to be poisonous, <a href="#page292">292</a>.</li>
+<li>hawk's-bill turtle, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</li>
+<li>cruel mode of taking tortoise-shell, <a href=
+"#page293">293</a>.</li>
+<li>snakes, few poisonous, <a href="#page294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>tic-polonga, <a href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+<li>cobra de capello, <a href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>legends of the cobra, <a href="#page297">297</a>-298
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li><i>uropeltis</i>, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>the python, <a href="#page303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>haplocercus, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>tree-snakes, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>water snakes, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>sea snakes, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>the snake-stone and its composition, <a href=
+"#page312">312</a>-317.</li>
+<li><i>c&aelig;cilia</i>, <a href="#page317">317</a>.</li>
+<li>frogs, <a href="#page318">318</a>.</li>
+<li>tree frogs, <a href="#page319">319</a>.</li>
+<li>list of Ceylon reptiles, <a href="#page321">321</a>.</li>
+<li>snakes peculiar to Ceylon, <a href="#page322">322</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rhinolophus, <a href="#page19">19</a>. <i>See</i> Horse-shoe
+Bat.</li>
+<li>Ribeyro's account of pearl-diving, <a href=
+"#page378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Rilawa monkey, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Rodentia, <a href="#page41">41</a>. <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Rogers, Major, story of his horse, <a href="#page84">84</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his death by lightning, <a href="#page84">84</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>anecdote of an elephant killed by him, <a href=
+"#page107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>great numbers of elephants shot by him, <a href=
+"#page142">142</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>"A Rogue" elephant. <i>See</i> Elephant, <a href=
+"#page114">114</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>derivation of the term "Rogue," 114.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Ronkedor</i>, <a href="#page114">114</a>. <i>See</i>
+"Rogue."</li>
+<li><i>Ronquedue</i>, <a href="#page114">114</a>. <i>See</i>
+"Rogue."
+<ul>
+<li>dangerous encounters with, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Rotifera, marvellous faculty in, <a href=
+"#page486">486</a>.</li>
+<li>Rousette. <i>See</i> Flying-fox <i>and</i> Pteropus, <a href=
+"#page14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Ruminantia, <a href="#page49">49</a>. <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Salarias Alticus</i>, <a href="#page332">332</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>almasius, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sardines, said to be poisonous, <a href=
+"#page324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>Saw fish, <a href="#page325">325</a>. <i>See</i> Fishes.</li>
+<li>Scaliger, Julius, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Scansores, <a href="#page256">256</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Scarus harid</i>, <a href="#page335">335</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Schenck</i>, <a href="#page371">371</a>. <i>See</i>
+Chank.</li>
+<li>Schlegel's essay on the elephant, <a href="#page208">208</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Schlegel, Prof., of Leyden, his account of the Sumatran
+elephant, <a href="#page66">66</a>.</li>
+<li>Schmarda, Prof., <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Schomburgk, Sir R., on the fishes of Guiana, <a href=
+"#page347">347</a>.</li>
+<li>Sciurus Tennentii, <a href="#page41">41</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li><i>Scolopiendr&aelig;</i>, centipede, <a href=
+"#page474">474</a>.</li>
+<li>Scorpions, <a href="#page474">474</a>.</li>
+<li>Sea slugs, <i>holothuria</i>, <a href="#page397">397</a>.</li>
+<li>Sea snakes, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Seir-fish, <a href="#page324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>Seneca, account of fishes on dry land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Septuagint, allusion to elephants in, <a href="#page87">87</a>.
+<a href="#page210">210</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Serpents, <a href="#page294">294</a>. <i>See</i> Reptiles.</li>
+<li>Shakspeare, on the elephant, <a href="#page105">105</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>describes its capture in pit-falls, <a href="#page157">157</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sharks, <a href="#page325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>Shark charmer, <a href="#page378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Shaw, error as to elephants shedding their tusks, <a href=
+"#page79">79</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Shells of Ceylon, <a href="#page369">369</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>lanthina, <a href="#page370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Bullia vittata, <a href="#page370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>chanks, <a href="#page371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>oysters, immense, <a href="#page371">371</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Helix h&aelig;mastoma, <a href="#page372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Pearl fishery, <a href="#page373">373</a>.</li>
+<li>Musical shells, <a href="#page381">381</a>.</li>
+<li>Mr. Henley's memorandum, <a href="#page386">386</a>.</li>
+<li>uncertainty as to species, <a href="#page387">387</a>.</li>
+<li>list of Ceylon shells, <a href="#page388">388</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Siam, fishes on dry land, <a href="#page347">347</a>.</li>
+<li>Silk, cultivated by the Dutch, <a href="#page429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>Silkworm. <i>See</i> Insects.</li>
+<li>Sindbad's story of the elephants burying-place, <a href=
+"#page236">236</a>.</li>
+<li>Skinner, Major, knowledge of Ceylon. <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>. <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>adventure with a leopard, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>great number of elephants killed by him, <a href=
+"#page142">142</a>.</li>
+<li>description of the Panickeas or elephant catchers, <a href=
+"#page158">158</a>. <a href="#page159">159</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>anecdotes of elephants, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>collection of Ceylon fish, <a href="#page339">339</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Small-pox attracts the leopard, <a href="#page28">28</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>native superstition, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Snakes, <a href="#page294">294</a>. <i>See</i> Reptiles.
+<ul>
+<li>few venomous, <a href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+<li>tic-polonga, <a href="#page296">296</a>.</li>
+<li>cobra de capello, <a href="#page297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>legends of, <a href="#page297">297</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>stories of, <a href="#page298">298</a>. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>[pg 499]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Snakes, tamed snakes, <a href="#page299">299</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>snakes crossing the sea, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>curious tradition of the cobra-de-capello, <a href=
+"#page300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>uropeltis, and explanation of the popular belief, <a href=
+"#page302">302</a>.</li>
+<li>reluctance of Buddhists to kill snakes, <a href=
+"#page303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>python or "boa," <a href="#page303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>tree snakes, <a href="#page305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>the <i>Passerita fusca</i>, <a href="#page306">306</a>.</li>
+<li>water snakes, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>sea snakes, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>their geographical distribution, <a href=
+"#page309">309</a>.</li>
+<li>their habits, <a href="#page310">310</a>.</li>
+<li>c&aelig;cilia, <a href="#page317">317</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Snake-stone, its alleged virtue, <a href="#page312">312</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>anecdotes of its use, <a href="#page312">312</a>.</li>
+<li>analysis of, by Professor Faraday, <a href=
+"#page315">315</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sofala, pearls at, <a href="#page375">375</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Solinus, on the elephant, <a href="#page103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Soothsayer insect, <a href="#page410">410</a>.</li>
+<li>Spectre butterfly, <a href="#page426">426</a>.</li>
+<li>Spiders. <i>See Arachnida</i>, <a href="#page464">464</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>at Gampola, <a href="#page465">465</a>.</li>
+<li>at Pusilawa, <a href="#page471">471</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Squirrel, <a href="#page41">41</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>the flying squirrel, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Star-fish, <a href="#page396">396</a>. <i>See Radiata</i>.</li>
+<li>Stick insect, <a href="#page410">410</a>. <i>See</i>
+Insects.</li>
+<li>Stinging caterpillars, <a href="#page429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>Strabo, his account of fishes on dry land, <a href=
+"#page346">346</a>.</li>
+<li>Strachan, Mr., account of the elephants shipped at Ceylon,
+<a href="#page163">163</a> <i>n</i>, <a href="#page210">210</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Stuckley, on the anatomy of the elephant, <a href=
+"#page123">123</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Sumatra confounded with Ceylon, <a href="#page67">67</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>elephant of, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>points in which it differs from that of India, <a href=
+"#page65">65</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sun bird, <a href="#page249">249</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Superstitions:&mdash;Singhalese folk-lore regarding bears,
+<a href="#page24">24</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>leopards, <a href="#page27">27</a>. <a href=
+"#page29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>mongoos, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>kabra-goya, <a href="#page273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>cobra-de-capello, <a href="#page300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>use of snake-stones, <a href="#page315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>elephants' burial-place, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Suriya trees, caterpillars on, <a href="#page429">429</a>.</li>
+<li>Syrnum Indranee, <a href="#page246">246</a>. <i>See</i>
+Devil-bird.</li>
+<li>Swallows, <a href="#page248">248</a>. <i>See</i> Birds.</li>
+<li>Sword-fish, <a href="#page328">328</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Tailor-bird, <a href="#page251">251</a>. <i>See</i> Birds;</li>
+<li>Tamblegam, lake of, <a href="#page380">380</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>pearls, <a href="#page380">380</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tarentula, <i>Mygale fasciata</i>, <a href="#page465">465</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>fight with a cockroach, <a href="#page467">467</a>.</li>
+<li>numerous at Gampola, <a href="#page465">465</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tavalam, a caravan of bullocks, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Tavernier, error as to Ceylon elephants, <a href=
+"#page203">203</a>. <a href="#page214">214</a>.</li>
+<li>Taylor, the translator of Aristotle, his error as to elephants'
+joints,
+<ul>
+<li><a href="#page102">102</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tchitrea paradisi, <a href="#page250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Temminck, his discovery of the Sumatran elephant, <a href=
+"#page64">64</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his account of it, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Templeton, Dr. R.A., his knowledge of Ceylon, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.
+<ul>
+<li>his valuable aid in the present work, <i>ib</i>.</li>
+<li>his cultivation of zoology, <a href="#page4">4</a>.</li>
+<li>notice of Ceylon monkeys, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Termites</i>, white ants, their ravages, <a href=
+"#page412">412</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>whence comes their moisture, <a href="#page412">412</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Terrapins, <a href="#page290">290</a>.</li>
+<li>Terrier, attacks an elephant, <a href="#page85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>Testudinata, <a href="#page289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>Thaun, Philip de, on the elephant, <a href=
+"#page104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Theobaldus' <i>Physiologus</i>, <a href=
+"#page104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Theophrastus' account of fishes on dry land, <a href=
+"#page344">344</a>. <a href="#page345">345</a>.</li>
+<li>Thevenot, on the Ceylon elephant, <a href=
+"#page203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomson's "<i>Seasons</i>," error as to the elephant, <a href=
+"#page106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Thunberg, account of the snake-stone, <a href=
+"#page317">317</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Thysdnura</i>, <a href="#page464">464</a>.</li>
+<li>Ticks, <a href="#page475">475</a>.</li>
+<li>Tic-polonga, <a href="#page296">296</a>. See Reptiles.</li>
+<li>Tiger at Trincomalie, <a href="#page25">25</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Toad, <a href="#page319">319</a>.</li>
+<li>Torrington, Viscount, his tax on dogs, <a href=
+"#page33">33</a>.</li>
+<li>Tortoises, <a href="#page289">289</a>. <a href=
+"#page291">291</a>. <i>See</i> Turtle.
+<ul>
+<li>parasite of, <a href="#page289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>fresh-water tortoises, <a href="#page290">290</a>. <i>See</i>
+Terrapins.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tortoise-shell, cruel mode of taking, <a href=
+"#page293">293</a>.</li>
+<li>Tree frogs, <a href="#page320">320</a>.</li>
+<li>Tree snakes, <a href="#page304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>Trepang, <a href="#page396">396</a>. <i>See</i> Sea-slug.</li>
+<li><i>Tritonia arborescens</i>, <a href="#page385">385</a>.
+<i>See</i> Musical Fish.
+<ul>
+<li>letter on, <a href="#page401">401</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li><i>Trombidium tinctorum. See</i> Mites.</li>
+<li>Trumpeting of elephants, <a href="#page97">97</a>. <a href=
+"#page201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Trunk, elephant's, origin of the name, <a href="#page97">97</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Tsetse fly of Africa, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Turbinella rapa, <a href="#page371">371</a>. <i>See</i>
+Chank.</li>
+<li>Turtle, <a href="#page291">291</a>. <i>See</i> Reptiles.
+<ul>
+<li>barbarous treatment of, <a href="#page291">291</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tushes, <a href="#page79">79</a>.</li>
+<li>Tusks, <a href="#page79">79</a>. <i>See</i> Elephant; Ivory.
+<ul>
+<li>fallacy that they are shed, <a href="#page79">79</a>.</li>
+<li>weight of, <a href="#page80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>their uses, <a href="#page80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>singular shapes of, <a href="#page88">88</a> <i>n</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>[pg
+500]</span></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tusks, Dr. Holland's theory of their formation, <a href=
+"#page88">88</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>Tytler, Mr., story of an elephant, <a href="#page133">133</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li><i>Uropeltis</i>, <a href="#page301">301</a>.</li>
+<li>Urr&eacute;! cry of the elephant drivers, <a href=
+"#page222">222</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Valentyn's account of the mermaid, <a href="#page70">70</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>Dutch mode of taking elephants, <a href=
+"#page164">164</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Venloos Bay, its profusion of shells, <a href=
+"#page369">369</a>.</li>
+<li>Vossius, Isaac, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Waloora. <i>See</i> Wild-boar, <a href="#page59">59</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>dreaded by the Singhalese, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Wanderoo monkey, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Wasps, wasps' nest, <a href="#page418">418</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>mason-wasp, <a href="#page416">416</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Water-fowl, <a href="#page260">260</a>. <a href=
+"#page262">262</a>.</li>
+<li>Water snakes, <a href="#page308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Weaver-bird, <a href="#page251">251</a>.</li>
+<li>Whales, <a href="#page68">68</a>. <i>See</i> Cetacea.</li>
+<li>White, Adam, Esq., Brit Mus., <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.</li>
+<li>White, of Selbourne, his theory of animals suckled by strange
+mothers, <a href="#page113">113</a> <i>n</i>.</li>
+<li>White ants, <a href="#page411">411</a>. <i>See</i>
+Termites.</li>
+<li>Whiting, Mr., account of buried fishes, <a href=
+"#page342">342</a> <i>n</i>., <a href="#page354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Wild-boar, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Wolf, Jo. Christian, travels in Ceylon, <a href="#page99">99</a>
+<i>n</i>., <a href="#page115">115</a> <i>n</i>.
+<ul>
+<li>his account of elephants there, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</li>
+<li>describes pitfalls for elephants, <a href="#page157">157</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Wood-carrying moth, <a href="#page430">430</a>. See
+Insects.</li>
+<li>Worms, parasite, <a href="#page396">396</a>. <i>See
+Radiata</i>.</li>
+<li>Wound when elephant shooting, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Wright, Thomas, Esq., F.S.A., <a href="#page104">104</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Yarrell's theory of buried fish, <a href=
+"#page342">342</a>.</li>
+<li>Yule's embassy to Ava, <a href="#page216">216</a>
+<i>n</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Zimb fly, <a href="#page434">434</a>.</li>
+<li>Zoology neglected in Ceylon, <a href="#page3">3</a>. <i>See</i>
+Natural History.
+<ul>
+<li>partial extent to which it has been cultivated, <a href=
+"#Intro"><i>Introd</i></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>THE END.</p>
+<p>LONDON</p>
+<p>PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.</p>
+<p>NRW-STREET SQUARE</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+by J. Emerson Tennent
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 13325-h.htm or 13325-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/3/2/13325/
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Leonard Johnson and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team from images generously made available by the
+Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/002.png b/old/13325-h/images/002.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a046c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/002.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/028.png b/old/13325-h/images/028.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..945bb83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/028.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/036.png b/old/13325-h/images/036.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e922f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/036.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/039.png b/old/13325-h/images/039.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcaf199
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/039.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/044.png b/old/13325-h/images/044.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5cccc52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/044.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/044b.png b/old/13325-h/images/044b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a67fb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/044b.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/046.png b/old/13325-h/images/046.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95a0bdb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/046.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/048.png b/old/13325-h/images/048.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbe002a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/048.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/051.png b/old/13325-h/images/051.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cdeab61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/051.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/061.png b/old/13325-h/images/061.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0c7456
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/061.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/063.png b/old/13325-h/images/063.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e182f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/063.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/066.png b/old/13325-h/images/066.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97d67b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/066.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/069.png b/old/13325-h/images/069.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..99ad47f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/069.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/070.png b/old/13325-h/images/070.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0767d2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/070.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/072.png b/old/13325-h/images/072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5afd032
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/072.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/073.png b/old/13325-h/images/073.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1be403
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/073.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/083.png b/old/13325-h/images/083.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7543f73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/083.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/094.png b/old/13325-h/images/094.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cf95cbc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/094.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/097.png b/old/13325-h/images/097.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a65279e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/097.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/120.png b/old/13325-h/images/120.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cdbf009
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/120.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/133.png b/old/13325-h/images/133.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce9fea2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/133.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/136.png b/old/13325-h/images/136.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..044b10f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/136.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/147.png b/old/13325-h/images/147.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5dac06a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/147.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/150.png b/old/13325-h/images/150.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7157f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/150.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/151.png b/old/13325-h/images/151.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b9ecf3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/151.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/153.png b/old/13325-h/images/153.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a1be8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/153.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/170.png b/old/13325-h/images/170.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5721a23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/170.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/197.png b/old/13325-h/images/197.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d2361c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/197.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/209.png b/old/13325-h/images/209.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..006eaf6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/209.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/210.png b/old/13325-h/images/210.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87a406f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/210.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/213.png b/old/13325-h/images/213.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d416fd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/213.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/214.png b/old/13325-h/images/214.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b3a412
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/214.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/228.png b/old/13325-h/images/228.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f69ed07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/228.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/229.png b/old/13325-h/images/229.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..491cf5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/229.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/233.png b/old/13325-h/images/233.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9badf6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/233.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/237a.png b/old/13325-h/images/237a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2480646
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/237a.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/237b.png b/old/13325-h/images/237b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4db456f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/237b.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/268.png b/old/13325-h/images/268.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7570b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/268.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/272.png b/old/13325-h/images/272.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88c2cf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/272.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/275.png b/old/13325-h/images/275.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3237fc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/275.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/277.png b/old/13325-h/images/277.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fb879b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/277.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/285.png b/old/13325-h/images/285.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a34eba5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/285.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/286.png b/old/13325-h/images/286.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b11e5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/286.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/298.png b/old/13325-h/images/298.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3bfeac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/298.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/301.png b/old/13325-h/images/301.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbd0188
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/301.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/303.png b/old/13325-h/images/303.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e634c90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/303.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/306.png b/old/13325-h/images/306.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad49580
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/306.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/309.png b/old/13325-h/images/309.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba8f665
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/309.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/316.png b/old/13325-h/images/316.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9197114
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/316.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/328.png b/old/13325-h/images/328.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2554152
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/328.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/333.png b/old/13325-h/images/333.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7713728
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/333.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/338.png b/old/13325-h/images/338.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..742422b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/338.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/354.png b/old/13325-h/images/354.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50b2aad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/354.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/355.png b/old/13325-h/images/355.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68dcd7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/355.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/358.png b/old/13325-h/images/358.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b75af20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/358.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/359.png b/old/13325-h/images/359.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9632b45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/359.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/362.png b/old/13325-h/images/362.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38d538e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/362.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/363.png b/old/13325-h/images/363.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b9bbcc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/363.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/365.png b/old/13325-h/images/365.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be7ebd4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/365.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/366.png b/old/13325-h/images/366.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..430b120
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/366.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/368.png b/old/13325-h/images/368.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a9e686
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/368.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/370.png b/old/13325-h/images/370.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3dba82a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/370.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/382.png b/old/13325-h/images/382.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81d563d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/382.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/398.png b/old/13325-h/images/398.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..faf626f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/398.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/398a.png b/old/13325-h/images/398a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd18255
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/398a.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/409.png b/old/13325-h/images/409.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..322e6fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/409.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/410.png b/old/13325-h/images/410.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8db1667
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/410.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/411.png b/old/13325-h/images/411.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..217716e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/411.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/429.png b/old/13325-h/images/429.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fd19ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/429.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/436.png b/old/13325-h/images/436.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cada75d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/436.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/439.png b/old/13325-h/images/439.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5cec0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/439.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/440.png b/old/13325-h/images/440.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1045d68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/440.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/449.png b/old/13325-h/images/449.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7de9584
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/449.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/461.png b/old/13325-h/images/461.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14d2d1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/461.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/462.png b/old/13325-h/images/462.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eaf1fee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/462.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/463a.png b/old/13325-h/images/463a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37fab57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/463a.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/463b.png b/old/13325-h/images/463b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f55cc4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/463b.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/469.png b/old/13325-h/images/469.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..107c667
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/469.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/496.png b/old/13325-h/images/496.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d771905
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/496.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/505.png b/old/13325-h/images/505.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aaccb83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/505.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/509.png b/old/13325-h/images/509.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d2c620
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/509.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/512.png b/old/13325-h/images/512.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c65e0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/512.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/513.png b/old/13325-h/images/513.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e834363
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/513.png
diff --git a/old/13325-h/images/515.png b/old/13325-h/images/515.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b70567a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325-h/images/515.png
diff --git a/old/13325.txt b/old/13325.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1023ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,23795 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+by J. Emerson Tennent
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+
+Author: J. Emerson Tennent
+
+Release Date: August 29, 2004 [EBook #13325]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Leonard Johnson and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team from images generously made available by the
+Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+
+
+
+SKETCHES
+OF THE
+NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON
+
+WITH
+
+NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES
+Illustrative of the Habits and Instincts of the
+MAMMALIA, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES, INSECTS, &c.
+
+INCLUDING A MONOGRAPH OF
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE MODES OF CAPTURING AND TRAINING IT
+WITH ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS
+
+BY
+
+SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c.
+
+1861
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A considerable portion of the contents of the present volume formed the
+zoological section of a much more comprehensive work recently published,
+on the history and present condition of Ceylon.[1] But its inclusion
+there was a matter of difficulty; for to have altogether omitted the
+chapters on Natural History would have impaired the completeness of the
+plan on which I had attempted to describe the island; whilst to insert
+them as they here appear, without curtailment, would have encroached
+unduly on the space required for other essential topics. In this
+dilemma, I was obliged to adopt the alternative of so condensing the
+matter as to bring the whole within the prescribed proportions.
+
+But this operation necessarily diminished the general interest of the
+subjects treated, as well by the omission of incidents which would
+otherwise have been retained, as by the exclusion of anecdotes
+calculated to illustrate the habits and instincts of the animals
+described.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ceylon: An Account of the Island, Physical, Historical,
+and Typographical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiquities, and
+Productions._ By Sir JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S., LL.D., &c.
+Illustrated by Maps. Plans, and Drawings. 2 vols. 8vo. Longman and Co.,
+1859.]
+
+A suggestion to re-publish these sections in an independent form has
+afforded an opportunity for repairing some of these defects by revising
+the entire, restoring omitted passages, and introducing fresh materials
+collected in Ceylon; the additional matter occupying a very large
+portion of the present volume.
+
+I have been enabled, at the same time, to avail myself of the
+corrections and communications of scientific friends; and thus to
+compensate, in some degree for what is still incomplete, by increased
+accuracy in minute particulars.
+
+In the Introduction to the First Edition of the original work I alluded,
+in the following terms, to that portion of it which is now reproduced in
+an extended form:--
+
+"Regarding the _fauna_ of Ceylon, little has been published in any
+collective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr. KELAART entitled
+_Prodromus Faunae Zeilanicae_; several valuable papers by Mr. EDGAR L.
+LAYARD in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_ for 1852 and
+1853; and some very imperfect lists appended to PRIDHAM'S compiled
+account of the island.[1] KNOX, in the charming narrative of his
+captivity, published in the feign of Charles II., has devoted a chapter
+to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. DAVY has described some of the
+reptiles: but with these exceptions the subject is almost untouched in
+works relating to the colony. Yet a more than ordinary interest attaches
+to the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of presenting, as is generally
+assumed, an identity between its _fauna_ and that of Southern India,
+exhibits a remarkable diversity, taken in connection with the limited
+area over which the animals included in it are distributed. The island,
+in fact, may be regarded as the centre of a geographical circle,
+possessing within itself forms, whose allied species radiate far into
+the temperate regions of the north, as well as in to Africa, Australia,
+and the isles of the Eastern Archipelago.
+
+[Footnote 1: _An Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of
+Ceylon and its Dependencies_, by C. PRIDHAM, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo., London,
+1849.]
+
+"In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation, I have
+endeavoured to interest others in the subject, by describing my own
+observations and impressions, with fidelity, and with as much accuracy
+as may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no greater
+knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than is ordinarily
+possessed by any educated gentleman. It was my good fortune, however, in
+my journeys to have the companionship of friends familiar with many
+branches of natural science: the late Dr. GARDNER, Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD,
+an accomplished zoologist, Dr. TEMPLETON, and others; and I was thus
+enabled to collect on the spot many interesting facts relative to the
+structure and habits of the numerous tribes. These, chastened by the
+corrections of my fellow-travellers, and established by the examination
+of collections made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison with
+specimens contained in museums at home, I have ventured to submit as
+faithful outlines of the _fauna_ of Ceylon.
+
+"The sections descriptive of the several classes are accompanied by
+lists, prepared with the assistance of scientific friends, showing the
+extent to which each particular branch had been investigated by
+naturalists, up to the period of my departure from Ceylon at the close
+of 1849. These, besides their inherent interest, will, I trust,
+stimulate others to engage in the same pursuit, by exhibiting chasms,
+which it remains for future industry and research to fill up;--and the
+study of the zoology of Ceylon may thus serve as a preparative for that
+of Continental India, embracing, as the former does, much that is common
+to both, as well as possessing a _fauna_ peculiar to the island, that in
+itself will amply repay more extended scrutiny.
+
+"From these lists have been excluded all species regarding the
+authenticity of which reasonable doubts could be entertained[1], and of
+some of them, a very few have been printed in _italics_, in order to
+denote the desirability of more minute comparison with well-determined
+specimens in the great national depositories before finally
+incorporating them with the Singhalese catalogues.
+
+[Footnote 1: An exception occurs in the list of shells, prepared by Mr.
+SYLVANUS HANLEY, in which some whose localities are doubtful have been
+admitted for reasons adduced. (See p. 387.)]
+
+"In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts embodied in these
+sections, I cannot too warmly express my thanks for the aid I have
+received from gentlemen interested in similar studies in Ceylon: from
+Dr. KELAART[1] and Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, as well as from officers of the
+Ceylon Civil Service; the Hon. GERALD C. TALBOT, Mr. C.R. BULLER, Mr.
+MERCER, Mr. MORRIS, Mr. WHITING, Major SKINNER, and Mr. MITFORD.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is with deep regret that I have to record the death of
+this accomplished gentleman, which occurred in 1860.]
+
+"Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work to the press, I
+have had the advantage of having portions of them read by Professor
+HUXLEY, Mr. MOORE, of the East India House Museum; Mr. R. PATTERSON,
+F.R.S., author of the _Introduction to Zoology_; and by Mr. ADAM WHITE,
+of the British Museum; to each of whom I am exceedingly indebted for the
+care they have bestowed. In an especial degree I have to acknowledge the
+kindness of Dr. J.E. GRAY, F.R.S., for valuable additions and
+corrections in the list of the Ceylon Reptilia; and to Professor FARADAY
+for some notes on the nature and qualities of the "Serpent Stone,"[2]
+submitted to him.
+
+[Footnote 2: See p. 312.]
+
+"The extent to which my observations on _the Elephant_ have been
+carried, requires some explanation. The existing notices of this noble
+creature are chiefly devoted to its habits and capabilities _in
+captivity_; and very few works, with which I am acquainted, contain
+illustrations of its instincts and functions when wild in its native
+woods. Opportunities for observing the latter, and for collecting facts
+in connection with them, are abundant in Ceylon; and from the moment of
+my arrival, I profited by every occasion afforded to me for observing
+the elephant in a state of nature, and obtaining from hunters and
+natives correct information as to its oeconomy and disposition.
+Anecdotes in connection with this subject, I received from some of the
+most experienced residents in the island; amongst others, from Major
+SKINNER, Captain PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY, Mr. FAIRHOLME, Mr. CRIPPS, and
+Mr. MORRIS. Nor can I omit to express my acknowledgments to Professor
+OWEN, of the British Museum, to whom this portion of my manuscript was
+submitted previous to its committal to the press."
+
+To the foregoing observations I have little to add beyond my
+acknowledgment to Dr. ALBERT GUeNTHER, of the British Museum, for the
+communication of important facts in illustration of the ichthyology of
+Ceylon, as well as of the reptiles of the island.
+
+Mr. BLYTH, of the Calcutta Museum, has carefully revised the Catalogue
+of Birds, and supplied me with much useful information in regard to
+their geographical distribution. To his experienced scrutiny is due the
+perfected state in which the list is now presented. It will be seen,
+however, from the italicised names still retained, that inquiry is far
+from being exhausted.
+
+Mr. THWAITES, the able Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at
+Peradenia, near Kandy, has forwarded to me many valuable observations,
+not only in connection with the botany, but the zoology of the mountain
+region. The latter I have here embodied in their appropriate places, and
+those relating to plants and vegetation will appear in a future edition
+of my large work.
+
+To M. NIETNER, of Colombo, I am likewise indebted for many particulars
+regarding Singhalese Entomology, a department to which his attention has
+been given, with equal earnestness and success.
+
+Through the Hon. RICHARD MORGAN, acting Senior Puisne Judge of the
+Supreme Court at Colombo, I have received from his Interpreter, M.D. DE
+SILVA GOONERATNE MODLIAR, a Singhalese gentleman of learning and
+observation, many important notes, of which I have largely availed
+myself, in relation to the wild animals, and the folk-lore and
+superstitions of the natives in connection with them.
+
+Of the latter I have inserted numerous examples; in the conviction that,
+notwithstanding their obvious errors in many instances, these popular
+legends and traditions occasionally embody traces of actual observation,
+and may contain hints and materials deserving of minuter inquiry.
+
+I wish distinctly to disclaim offering the present volume as a
+compendium of the Natural History of Ceylon. I present it merely as a
+"memoire pour servir," materials to assist some future inquirer in the
+formation of a more detailed and systematic account of the _fauna_ of
+the island. My design has been to point out to others the extreme
+richness and variety of the field, the facility of exploring it, and the
+charms and attractions of the undertaking. I am eager to show how much
+remains to do by exhibiting the little that has as yet been done.
+
+The departments of _Mammalia_ and _Birds_ are the only two which can be
+said to have as yet undergone tolerably close investigation; although
+even in these it is probable that large additions still remain to be
+made to the ascertained species. But, independently of forms and
+specific characteristics, the more interesting inquiry into habits and
+instincts is still open for observation and remark; and for the
+investigation of these no country can possibly afford more inviting
+opportunities than Ceylon.
+
+Concerning the _Reptilia_ a considerable amount of information has been
+amassed. The Batrachians and smaller Lizards have, I apprehend, been
+imperfectly investigated; but the Tortoises are well known, and the
+Serpents, from the fearful interest attaching to the race, and
+stimulating their destruction, have been so vigilantly pursued, that
+there is reason to believe that few, if any, varieties exist which have
+not been carefully examined. In a very large collection, made by Mr.
+CHARLES REGINALD BULLER during many years' residence in Kandy, and
+recently submitted by him to Dr. Guenther, only one single specimen
+proved to be new or previously unknown to belong to the island.
+
+Of the _Ichthyology_ of Ceylon I am obliged to speak ill very different
+terms; for although the materials are abundant almost to profusion,
+little has yet been done to bring them under thoroughly scientific
+scrutiny. In the following pages I have alluded to the large collection
+of examples of Fishes sent home by officers of the Medical Staff, and
+which still remain unopened, in the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham; but I
+am not without hope that these may shortly undergo comparison with the
+drawings which exist of each, and that this branch of the island _fauna_
+may at last attract the attention to which its richness so eminently
+entitles it.
+
+In the department of Entomology much has already been achieved; but an
+extended area still invites future explorers; and one which the Notes of
+Mr. Walker prefixed to the List of Insects in this volume, show to be of
+extraordinary interest, from the unexpected convergence in Ceylon of
+characteristics heretofore supposed to have been kept distinct by the
+broad lines of geographical distribution.
+
+Relative to the inferior classes of _Invertebrata_ very little has as
+yet been ascertained. The Mollusca, especially the lacustrine and
+fluviatile, have been most imperfectly investigated; and of the
+land-shells, a large proportion have yet to be submitted to scientific
+examination.
+
+The same may be said of the _Arachnida_ and _Crustacea_. The jungle is
+frequented by spiders, _phalangia_[1], and acarids, of which nothing is
+known with certainty; and the sea-shore and sands have been equally
+overlooked, so far as concerns the infinite variety of lobsters,
+crayfish, crabs, and all their minor congeners. The _polypi, echini,
+asterias_, and other _radiata_ of the coast, as well as the _acalephae_
+of the deeper waters, have shared the same neglect: and literally
+nothing has been done to collect and classify the infusoriae and minuter
+zoophytes, the labours of Dr. Kelaart amongst the Diatomaceae being the
+solitary exception.
+
+[Footnote 1: Commonly called "harvest-men."]
+
+Nothing is so likely to act as a stimulant to future research as an
+accurate conception of what has already been achieved. With equal
+terseness and truth Dr. Johnson has observed that the traveller who
+would bring back knowledge from any country must carry knowledge with
+him at setting out: and I am not without hope that the demonstration I
+now venture to offer, of the little that has already been done for
+zoology in Ceylon, may serve to inspire others with a desire to resume
+and complete the inquiry.
+
+J. EMERSON TENNENT
+
+London: November 1st, 1861.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+MAMMALIA.
+
+Neglect of zoology in Ceylon
+
+Labours of Dr. Davy
+
+Followed by Dr. Templeton and others
+
+Dr. Kelaart and Mr. E.L. Layard
+
+Monkeys
+  The Rilawa, _Macacus pileatus_
+  Wanderoos
+  Knox's account of them
+  Error regarding the _Silenus Veter (note)_
+  Presbytes Cephalopterus
+  Fond of eating flowers
+  A white monkey
+  Method of the flight of monkeys
+  P. Ursinus in the Hills
+  P. Thersites in the Wanny
+  P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie
+  No dead monkey ever found
+
+Loris
+
+Bats
+  Flying Fox, _Pteropus Edwardsii_
+  Their numbers at Peradenia
+  Singularity of their attitudes
+  Food and mode of eating
+  Horse-shoe bat, _Rhinolophus_
+  Faculty of smell in bat
+  A tiny bat, _Scotophilus foromandelicus_
+  Extraordinary parasite of the bat, the _Nycteribia_
+
+_Carnivora_.--Bears
+  Their ferocity
+
+Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (_note_)
+
+Leopards
+  Erroneously confounded with the Indian _cheetah_
+  Curious belief
+  Anecdotes of leopards
+  Their attraction by the smallpox
+  Native superstition
+  Encounter with a leopard
+  Monkeys killed by leopards
+  Alleged peculiarity of the claws
+
+Palm-cat
+
+Civet
+
+Dogs
+  Cruel mode of destroying dogs
+  Their republican instincts
+
+Jackal
+  Cunning, anecdotes of
+  The horn of the jackal
+
+Mungoos
+  Its fights with serpents
+  Theory of its antidote
+
+Squirrels
+  Flying squirrel
+
+Tree-rat
+  Story of a rat and a snake
+
+Coffee-rat
+
+Bandicoot
+
+Porcupine
+
+Pengolin
+  Its habits and gentleness
+  Its skeleton
+
+_Ruminantia_.--The Gaur
+  Oxen
+  Humped cattle
+  Encounter of a cow and a leopard
+  Draft oxen
+  Their treatment
+  A _Tavalam_
+  Attempt to introduce the camel (note)
+  Buffaloes
+  Sporting buffaloes
+  Peculiar structure of the foot
+
+Deer
+
+Meminna
+
+Elk
+
+Wild-boar
+
+Elephants
+  Recent discovery of a new species
+  Geological speculations as to the island of Ceylon
+  Ancient tradition
+  Opinion of Professor Ansted
+  Peculiarities in Ceylon mammalia
+  The same in Ceylon birds and insects
+  Temminck's discovery of a new species of elephant in Sumatra
+  Points of distinction between it and the elephant of India
+  Professor Schlegel's description
+
+_Cetacea_
+  Whales
+  The Dugong
+  Origin of the fable of the mermaid
+  Credulity of the Portuguese
+  Belief of the Dutch
+
+Testimony of Valentyn
+
+List of Ceylon mammalia
+
+
+CHAP. II
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Its Structure_.
+
+Vast numbers in Ceylon
+
+Derivation of the word "elephant" (note)
+
+Antiquity of the trade in elephants
+
+Numbers now diminishing
+
+Mischief done by them to crops
+
+Ivory scarce in Ceylon
+
+Conjectures as to the absence of tusks
+
+Elephant a harmless animal
+
+Alleged antipathies to other animals
+
+Fights with each other
+
+The foot its chief weapon
+
+Use of the tusks in a wild state doubtful
+
+Anecdote of sagacity in an elephant at Kandy
+
+Difference between African and Indian species
+
+Native ideas of perfection in an elephant
+
+Blotches on the skin
+
+White elephants not unknown in Ceylon
+
+
+CHAP. III.
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Its Habits_.
+
+Water, but not heat, essential to elephants
+
+Sight limited
+
+Smell acute
+
+Caution
+
+Hearing, good
+
+Cries of the elephant
+
+Trumpeting
+
+Booming noise
+
+Height, exaggerated
+
+Facility of stealthy motion
+
+Ancient delusion as to the joints of the leg
+
+Its exposure by Sir Thos. Browne
+
+Its perpetuation by poets and others
+
+Position of the elephant in sleep
+
+An elephant killed on its feet
+
+Mode of lying down
+
+Its gait a shuffle
+
+Power of climbing mountains
+
+Facilitated by the joint of the knee
+
+Mode of descending declivities
+
+A "herd" is a family
+
+Attachment to their young
+
+Suckled indifferently by the females
+
+A "rogue" elephant
+
+Their cunning and vice
+
+Injuries done by them
+
+The leader of a herd a tusker
+
+Bathing and nocturnal gambols, description of a scene by Major Skinner
+
+Method of swimming
+
+Internal anatomy imperfectly known
+
+Faculty of storing water
+
+Peculiarity of the stomach
+
+The food of the elephant
+
+Sagacity in search of it
+
+Unexplained dread of fences
+
+Its spirit of inquisitiveness
+
+Anecdotes illustrative of its curiosity
+
+Estimate of sagacity
+
+Singular conduct of a herd during thunder
+
+An elephant feigning death
+
+_Appendix_.--Narratives of natives, as to encounters with rogue
+  elephants
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+THE ELEPHANT
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Elephant Shooting_.
+
+Vast numbers shot in Ceylon
+
+Revolting details of elephant killing in Africa
+
+Fatal spots at which to aim
+
+Structure of the bones of the head
+
+Wounds which are certain to kill
+
+Attitudes when surprised
+
+Peculiar movements when reposing
+
+Habits when attacked
+
+Sagacity of native trackers
+
+Courage and agility of the elephants in escape
+
+Worthlessness of the carcass
+
+Singular recovery from a wound
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_An Elephant Corral_.
+
+Early method of catching elephants
+
+Capture in pit-falls
+
+By means of decoys
+
+Panickeas--their courage and address
+
+Their sagacity in following the elephant
+
+Mode of capture by the noose
+
+Mode of taming
+
+Method of leading the elephants to the coast
+
+Process of embarking them at Manaar
+
+Method of capturing a whole herd
+
+The "keddah" in Bengal described
+
+Process of enclosing a herd
+
+Process of capture in Ceylon
+
+An elephant corral and its construction
+
+An elephant hunt in Ceylon, 1847
+
+The town and district of Kornegalle
+
+The rock of AEtagalla
+
+Forced labour of the corral in former times
+
+Now given voluntarily
+
+Form of the enclosure
+
+Method of securing a wild herd
+
+Scene when driving them into the corral
+
+A failure
+
+An elephant drove by night
+
+Singular scene in the corral
+
+Excitement of the tame elephants
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Captives_.
+
+A night scene
+
+Morning in the corral
+
+Preparations for securing the captives
+
+The "cooroowe," or noosers
+
+The tame decoys
+
+First captive tied up
+
+Singular conduct of the wild elephants
+
+Furious attempts of the herd to escape
+
+Courageous conduct of the natives
+
+Variety of disposition exhibited by the herd
+
+Extraordinary contortions of the captives
+
+Water withdrawn from the stomach
+
+Instinct of the decoys
+
+Conduct of the noosers
+
+The young ones and their actions
+
+Noosing a "rogue." and his death
+
+Instinct of flies in search of carrion (_note_)
+
+Strange scene
+
+A second herd captured
+
+Their treatment of a solitary elephant
+
+A magnificent female elephant
+
+Her extraordinary attitudes
+
+Wonderful contortions
+
+Taking the captives out of the corral
+
+Their subsequent treatment and training
+
+Grandeur of the scene
+
+Story of young pet elephant
+
+
+CHAP. VII.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Conduct in Captivity_.
+
+Alleged superiority of the Indian to the African elephant--not true
+
+Ditto of Ceylon elephant to Indian
+
+Process of training in Ceylon
+
+Allowed to bathe
+
+Difference of disposition
+
+Sudden death of "broken heart"
+
+First employment treading clay
+
+Drawing a waggon
+
+Dragging timber
+
+Sagacity in labour
+
+Mode of raising stones
+
+Strength in throwing down trees exaggerated
+
+Piling timber
+
+Not uniform in habits of work
+
+Lazy if not watched
+
+Obedience to keeper from affection, not fear
+
+Change of keeper--story of child
+
+Ear for sounds and music
+
+_Hurra! (note)_
+
+Endurance of pain
+
+Docility
+
+Working elephants, delicate
+
+Deaths in government stud
+
+Diseases
+
+Subject to tooth-ache
+
+Question of the value of labour of an elephant
+
+Food in captivity, and cost
+
+Breed in captivity
+
+Age
+
+Theory of M. Fleurens
+
+No dead elephants found
+
+Sindbad's story
+
+Passage from AElian
+
+
+CHAP. VIII.
+
+BIRDS.
+
+Their numbers
+
+Songsters
+
+Hornbills, the "bird with two heads"
+
+Pea fowl
+
+Sea birds, their number
+
+I. _Accipitres_.--Eagles
+  Falcons and hawks
+  Owls--the devil bird
+
+II. _Passeres_.--Swallows
+  Kingfishers--sunbirds
+  The cotton-thief
+  Bul-bul--tailor bird--and weaver
+  The mountain jay
+  Crows, anecdotes of
+
+III. _Scansores_.--Parroquets
+
+IV. _Columbidae_.--Pigeons
+
+V. _Gallinae_.--Jungle-fowl
+
+VI. _Grallae_.--Ibis, stork, &c.
+
+VII. _Anseres_.--Flamingoes
+  Pelicans
+  Strange scene
+  Game--Partridges, &c.
+
+List of Ceylon birds
+
+List of birds peculiar to Ceylon
+
+
+CHAP. IX.
+
+REPTILES.
+
+_Lizards_.--Iguana
+  Kabara-goya, barbarous custom in preparing the kabara-tel poison
+    Blood-suckers
+  The green calotes
+  The lyre-headed lizard
+  Chameleon
+  Ceratophora
+  Geckoes,--their power of reproducing limbs
+
+Crocodiles
+  Their sensitiveness to tickling
+  Anecdotes of crocodiles
+  Their power of burying themselves in the mud
+
+_Tortoises_.--Curious parasite
+  Terrapins
+  Edible turtle
+  Cruel mode of cutting it up alive
+  Huge Indian tortoises (_note_)
+  Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the tortoise-shell
+
+_Serpents_.--Venomous species rare
+  Tic polonga and carawala
+  Cobra de capello
+  Tame snakes (_note_)
+  Anecdotes of the cobra de capello
+  Legends concerning it
+  Instance of land snakes found at sea
+  Singular tradition regarding the robra de capello
+  Uropeltidae.--New species discovered in Ceylon
+  Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello
+  The Python
+  Tree snakes
+  Water snakes
+  Sea snakes
+  Snake stones
+  Analysis of one
+  Caecilia
+  Frogs
+  Tree frogs
+
+List of Ceylon reptiles
+
+
+CHAP. X.
+
+FISHES.
+
+Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known
+
+Fish for table, seir fish
+
+Sardines, poisonous?
+
+Sharks
+
+Saw-fish
+
+Fish of brilliant colours
+
+The ray
+
+The sword-fish
+
+Curious fish described by AElian
+
+_Salarias alticus_
+
+Beautifully coloured fishes
+
+Fresh-water fish, little known,--not much eaten
+
+Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake
+
+Perches
+
+Eels
+
+Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes
+
+Their re-appearance after rain
+
+Mode of fishing in the ponds
+
+Showers of fish
+
+Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable
+
+Fish moving on dry land
+  Ancient authorities, Greek and Roman
+  Aristotle and Theophrastus
+  Athenaeus and Polybius
+  Livy, Pompomus, Mela, and Juvenal
+  Seneca and Pliny
+  Georgius Agricola, Gesner, &c.
+  Instances in Guiana (_note_)
+  _Perca Scandens_, ascends trees
+  Doubts as to the story of Daldorf
+
+Fishes burying themselves daring the dry season
+  The _protopterus_ of the Gambia
+  Instances in the fish of the Nile
+  Instances in the fish of South America
+  Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon
+  Molluscs that bury themselves
+  The animals that so bury themselves in India
+  Analogous case of
+  Theory of aestivation and hybernation
+
+Fish in hot water in Ceylon
+
+List of Ceylon fishes
+
+Instances of fishes falling from the clouds
+
+_Note_ on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley
+
+Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus.
+
+_Note_ on the Bora-chung
+
+
+CHAP. XI.
+
+MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHAE.
+
+I. _Conchology_.--General character of Ceylon shells
+  Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections
+  Ancient export of shells from Ceylon
+  Special forms confined to particular localities
+  The pearl fishery of Aripo
+  Frequent suspensions of
+  Experiment to create beds of the pearl oyster
+  Process of diving for pearls
+  Danger from sharks
+  The transparent pearl oyster (_Placuna placenta_)
+  The "musical fish" at Ballicaloa
+  A similar phenomenon at other places
+  Faculty of uttering sounds in fishes
+  Instance in the _Tritonia arborescens_
+  Difficulty in forming a list of Ceylon shells
+  List of Ceylon shells
+
+II. _Radiata_.--Star fish
+  Sea slugs
+  Parasitic worms
+  Planaria
+
+III. _Acalephae_, abundant
+  The Portuguese man-of-war
+  Red infusoria
+  _Note_ on the _Tritonia arborescens_
+
+
+CHAP. XII.
+
+INSECTS.
+
+Profusion of insects in Ceylon
+  Imperfect knowledge of
+
+I. _Coleoptera_.--Beetles
+  Scavenger beetles
+  Coco-nut beetles
+  Tortoise beetles
+
+II. _Orthoptera_.--Mantis and leaf-insects
+  Stick-insects
+
+III. _Neuroptera_.--Dragon flies
+  Ant-lion
+  White ants
+  Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages
+
+IV. _Hymenoptera_.--Mason wasps
+  Wasps
+  Bees
+  Carpenter Bee
+  Ants
+  Burrowing ants
+
+V. _Lepidoptera_.--Butterflies
+  The spectre
+  Lycaenidae
+  Moths
+  Silk worms
+  Stinging caterpillars
+  Wood-carrying moths
+  Pterophorus
+
+VI. _Homoptera_
+  Cicada
+
+VII. _Hemiptera_
+  Bugs
+
+VIII. _Aphaniptera_
+
+IX. _Diptera_.--Mosquitoes
+  Mosquitoes the "plague of flies"
+  The coffee bug
+
+General character of Ceylon insects
+
+List of insects in Ceylon
+
+
+CHAP. XIII.
+
+ARACHNIDAE, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACAE, ETC.
+
+Spiders
+  Strange nets of the wood spiders
+  The mygale
+  Birds killed by it
+  _Olios Taprobanius_
+  The galeodes
+  Gregarious spiders
+  Ticks
+  Mites.--_Trombidium tinctorum_
+
+_Myriapods_.--Centipedes
+  Cermatia
+  Scolopendra crassa
+  S. pollippes
+  The fish insect
+
+_Millipeds_.--Julus
+
+_Crustacae_
+  Calling crabs
+  Sand crabs
+  Painted crabs
+  Paddling crabs
+
+_Annelidae_, Leeches.--The land leech
+  Medicinal leech
+  Cattle leech
+
+List of Articulata, &c.
+
+_Note_.--On the revivification of the Rotifera and Paste-eels
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                Page
+
+View of an Elephant Corral                              Frontispiece
+
+Group of Ceylon Monkeys                                    to face 5
+
+The Loris (_Loris gracilis_)                                      12
+
+Group of Flying Foxes (_Pteropus Edwardsii_)              to face 14
+
+Head of the Horse-shoe Bat (_Rhynulophus_)                        19
+
+Nycteribia                                                        21
+
+Indian Bear (_Prochylus labiatus_)                                23
+
+Ceylon Leopard and Indian Cheetah                                 26
+
+Jackal's Skull and "Horn"                                         36
+
+Mongoos of Neura-ellia (_Herpestes vitticollis_)                  38
+
+Flying Squirrel (_Pteromys oral_)                                 41
+
+Coffee Rat (_Golunda Elliotti_)                                   44
+
+Bandicoot Rat (_Mus bandicota_)                                   45
+
+Pengolin (_Manis pentadactylus_)                                  47
+
+Skeleton of the Pengolin                                          48
+
+Moose-deer (_Moschus meminna_)                                    55
+
+The Dugong (_Halicore dugung_)                                    69
+
+The Mermaid, from Valentyn                                        72
+
+Brain of the Elephant                                             95
+
+Bones of the Fore-leg                                            108
+
+Elephant descending a Hill                                       111
+
+Elephant's Well                                                  122
+
+Elephant's Stomach, showing the Water-cells                      125
+
+Elephant's Trachea                                               126
+
+Water-cells in the Stomach of the Camel                          128
+
+Section of the Elephant's Skull                                  145
+
+Fence and Ground-plan of a Corral                                172
+
+Mode of tying an Elephant                                        184
+
+His Struggles for Freedom                                        185
+
+Impotent Fury                                                    188
+
+Obstinate Resistance                                             189
+
+Attitude for Defence                                             203
+
+Singular Contortions of an Elephant                              204
+
+Figures of the African and Indian Elephants on Greek and
+  Roman Coins                                                    208
+
+Medal of Numidia                                                 212
+
+Modern "Hendoo"                                                  ib.
+
+The Horn-bill (_Buceros pica_)                                   243
+
+The "Devil-bird" (_Syrnium Indranec_)                            247
+
+The "Cotton-thief" (_Tchitrea paradisi_)                         250
+
+Layard Mountain Jay (_Cissa puella_)                             252
+
+The "Double-spur" (_Gallo-perdix bicalcaratus_)                  260
+
+The Flamingo (_Phoenicopterus roseus_)                           261
+
+The Kabara-goya Lizard (_Hydrosaurus salvator_)                  273
+
+The Green Calotes (_Calotes ophiomachus_)                        276
+
+Tongue of the Chameleon                                          278
+
+_Ceratophora_                                          _to face_ 280
+
+Skulls of the Crocodile and Alligator                            283
+
+Terrapin (_Emys trijuga_)                                        290
+
+Shield-tailed Serpent (_Uropeltis grandis_)                      302
+
+Tree Snake (_Passerita fusca_)                         _to face_ 307
+
+Sea Snake (_Hydrophis subloevisis_)                    _to face_ 311
+
+Saw of the Saw-fish (_Pristis antiquorum_)             _to face_ 326
+
+Ray (_Aetobates narinari_)                                       327
+
+Sword-fish (_Histiophorus immaculatus_)                          330
+
+Cheironectes                                                     331
+
+_Pterois volitans_                                               334
+
+_Scarus harid_                                                   335
+
+Perch (_Therapon quadrilineatus_)                                337
+
+Eel (_Mastacembelus armatus_)                                    338
+
+Mode of Fishing, after Rain                                      340
+
+Plan of a Fish Decoy                                             342
+
+The Anabas of the dry Tanks                                      354
+
+The Violet Ianthina and its Shell                                370
+
+_Bullia vittata_                                                 ib.
+
+Pearl Oysters, in various Stages of Growth             _to face_ 380
+
+Pearl Oyster, full grown                               _to face_ 381
+
+_Cerithium palustre_                                             ib.
+
+The Portuguese Man-of-war (_Physalus urticulus_)                 399
+
+Longicorn Beetle (_Batocera rubus_)                              406
+
+Leaf Insects, &c                                                 409
+
+Eggs of the Leaf Insect (_Phyllium siccifolium_)                 410
+
+The Carpenter Bee (_Xylocapa tenniscapa_)                        419
+
+Wood-carrying Moths                                              431
+
+The "Knife, grinder" (_Cicada_)                                  432
+
+Flata (_Elidiptera Emersoniana and Poeciloptera Tennentii_)      433
+
+The "Coffee-bug" (_Lecanium caffeae_)                   _to face_ 436
+
+Spider (_Mygate fasciata_)                             _to face_ 465
+
+Cermatia                                                         473
+
+The Calling Crab (_Gelusimus_)                                   477
+
+Eyes and Teeth of the Leech                                      480
+
+Land Leeches preparing to attack                                 481
+
+Medicinal Leech of Ceylon                                        483
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+MAMMALIA.
+
+
+With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the fauna of Ceylon has,
+up to the present, failed to receive that systematic attention to
+which its richness and variety most amply entitle it. The Singhalese
+themselves, habitually indolent, and singularly unobservant of nature
+and her operations, are at the same time restrained from the study of
+natural history by the tenet of their religion which forbids the
+taking of life under any circumstances. From the nature of their
+avocations, the majority of the European residents, engaged in
+planting and commerce, are discouraged by want of leisure from
+cultivating the taste; and it is to be regretted that, with few
+exceptions, the civil servants of the government, whose position and
+duties would have afforded them influence and extended opportunities
+for successful investigation, have never seen the importance of
+encouraging such studies.
+
+The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural science in
+Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when connected with the medical
+staff[1] of the army from 1816 to 1820, and his example stimulated
+some of the assistant-surgeons of Her Majesty's forces to make collections
+in illustration of the productions of the colony. Of these the late
+Dr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and successful. He was
+seconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal Artillery, who engaged
+assiduously in the investigation of various orders, and commenced an
+interchange of specimens with Mr. Blyth[2], the distinguished
+naturalist and curator of the Calcutta Museum. The birds and rarer
+vertebrata of the island were thus compared with their peninsular
+congeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those belonging to the island,
+so far as regards the higher classes of animals, has been the result.
+The example so set was perseveringly followed by Mr. E.L. Layard and
+the late Dr. Kelaart, and infinite credit is due to Mr. Blyth for the
+zealous and untiring energy with which he has devoted his attention
+and leisure to the identification of the specimens forwarded from
+Ceylon, and to their description in the Calcutta Journal. To him, and
+to the gentlemen I have named, we are mainly indebted for whatever
+accurate knowledge we now possess of the zoology of the colony.
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. DAVY, brother to the illustrious Sir Humphry Davy,
+published, in 1821, his _Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its
+Inhabitants_, which contains the earliest notice of the Natural
+History of the island, and especially of its ophidian reptiles.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xv. p. 280, 314.]
+
+The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first scientific
+description in an able work published in 1852 by Dr. Kelaart of the army
+medical staff[1], which is by far the most valuable that has yet
+appeared on the Singhalese fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard has
+supplied a fund of information especially in ornithology and conchology.
+The zoophytes and Crustacea have I believe been partially investigated
+by Professor Harvey, who visited Ceylon in 1852, and more recently by
+Professor Schmarda, of the University of Prague. From the united labours
+of these gentlemen and others interested in the same pursuits, we may
+hope at an early day to obtain such a knowledge of the zoology of Ceylon
+as will to some extent compensate for the long indifference of the
+government officers.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae; being Contributions to the
+Zoology of Ceylon_, by F. KELAART, Esq., M.D., F.L.S., &c. &c. 2
+vols. Colombo and London, 1852.]
+
+[Illustration: CEYLON MONKEYS.
+
+  1. _Presbytes cephalopterus._
+  2. _P. thersites_
+  3. _P. Priamus_
+  4. _Macacus pileatus_]
+
+I. QUADRUMANA. 1. _Monkeys_.--To a stranger in the tropics, among
+the most attractive creatures in the forests are the troops of
+_monkeys_ that career in ceaseless chase among the loftiest
+trees. In Ceylon there are five species, four of which belong to one
+group, the Wanderoos, and the other is the little graceful grimacing
+_rilawa_[1], which is the universal pet and favourite of both
+natives and Europeans. The Tamil conjurors teach it to dance, and in
+their wanderings carry it from village to village, clad in a grotesque
+dress, to exhibit its lively performances. It does not object to smoke
+tobacco. The Wanderoo is too grave and melancholy to be trained to
+these drolleries.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Macacus pileatus_, Shaw and Desmarest. The
+"bonneted Macaque" is common in the south and west; it is replaced on
+the neighbouring coast of the Peninsula of India by the Toque, _M.
+radiatus_, which closely resembles it in size, habit, and form, and
+in the peculiar appearance occasioned by the hairs radiating from the
+crown of the head. A spectacled monkey is _said_ to inhabit the
+low country near to Bintenne; but I have never seen one brought
+thence. A paper by Dr. TEMPLETON, in the _Mag. Nat. Hist._ n. s.
+xiv. p. 361, contains some interesting facts relative to the Rilawa of
+Ceylon.]
+
+KNOX, in his captivating account of the island, gives an accurate
+description of both; the Rilawas, with "no beards, white faces, and long
+hair on the top of their heads, which parteth and hangeth down like a
+man's, and which do a deal of mischief to the corn, and are so impudent
+that they will come into their gardens and eat such fruit as grows
+there. And the Wanderoos, some as large as our English spaniel dogs, of
+a darkish grey colour, and black faces with great white beards round
+from ear to ear, which makes them show just like old men. This sort does
+but little mischief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and buds
+of trees, but when they are catched they will eat anything."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX, _Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in the
+East Indies_.--P. i. ch. vi. p. 25. Fol. Lond. 1681. See an account
+of his captivity in SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, etc., Vol.
+II. p. 66 n.]
+
+KNOX, whose experience during his long captivity was confined almost
+exclusively to the hill country around Kandy, spoke in all probability
+of one large and comparatively powerful species, _Presbytes ursinus_,
+which inhabits the lofty forests, and which, as well as another of the
+same group, _P. Thersites_, was, till recently, unknown to European
+naturalists. The Singhalese word _Ouandura_ has a generic sense, and
+being in every respect the equivalent fur our own term of "monkey" it
+necessarily comprehends the low country species, as well as those which
+inhabit other parts of the island. In point of fact, there are no less
+than four animals in the island, each of which is entitled to the name
+of "wanderoo."[1] Each separate species has appropriated to itself a
+different district of the wooded country, and seldom encroaches on the
+domain of its neighbours.
+
+[Footnote 1: Down to a very late period, a large and somewhat
+repulsive-looking monkey, common to the Malabar coast, the Silenus
+veter, _Linn._, was, from the circumstance of his possessing a
+"great white beard," incorrectly assumed to be the "wanderoo" of
+Ceylon, described by KNOX; and under that usurped name it has figured
+in every author from Buffon to the present time. Specimens of the true
+Singhalese species were, however, received in Europe; but in the
+absence of information in this country as to their actual habitat,
+they were described, first by Zimmerman, on the continent, under the
+name of, _Leucoprymnus cephalopterus_, and subsequently by Mr. E.
+Bennett, under that of _Semnopithecus Nestor_ (_Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ pt. i. p. 67: 1833); the generic and specific characters
+being on this occasion most carefully pointed out by that eminent
+naturalist. Eleven years later Dr. Templeton forwarded to the
+Zoological Society a description, accompanied by drawings, of the
+wanderoo of the western maritime districts of Ceylon, and noticed the
+fact that the wanderoo of authors (_S. veter_) was not to be
+found in the island except as an introduced species in the custody of
+the Arab horse-dealers, who visit the port of Colombo at stated
+periods. Mr. Waterhouse, at the meeting (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ p. 1:
+1844) at which this communication was read, recognised the identity of
+the subject of Dr. Templeton's description with that already laid
+before them by Mr. Bennett; and from this period the species in
+question was believed to truly represent the wanderoo of Knox. The
+later discovery, however, of the _P. ursinus_ by Dr. Kelaart, in
+the mountains amongst which we are assured that Knox spent so many
+years of captivity, reopens the question, but at the same time appears
+to me clearly to demonstrate that in this latter we have in reality
+the animal to which his narrative refers.]
+
+1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most numerous in the
+island, and the one best known in Europe, is the Wanderoo of the low
+country, the _P. cephalopterus_ of Zimmerman.[1] Although common
+in the southern and western provinces, it is never found at a higher
+elevation than 1300 feet. It is an active and intelligent creature,
+little larger than the common bonneted Macaque, and far from being so
+mischievous as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it is
+remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for an air of
+melancholy in its expression and movements which are completely in
+character with its snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition it
+is gentle and confiding, sensible in the highest degree of kindness,
+and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low plaintive cry when
+its sympathies are excited. It is particularly cleanly in its habits
+when domesticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its fur,
+and carefully divesting its hair of particles of dust.
+
+[Footnote 1: Leucoprymnus Nestor, _Bennett_.]
+
+Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed upon
+plantains and bananas, but for nothing did they evince a greater
+partiality than the rose-coloured flowers of the red hibiscus (H.
+_rosa-sinensis_).
+
+These they devoured with unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished the
+leaves of many other trees, and even the bark of a few of the more
+succulent ones. A hint might possibly be taken from this circumstance
+for improving the regimen of monkeys in menageries, by the occasional
+admixture of a few fresh leaves and flowers with their solid and
+substantial dietary.
+
+A white monkey, taken between Ambepusse and Kornegalle, where they are
+said to be numerous, was brought to me to Colombo. Except in colour,
+it had all the characteristics of _Presbytes cephalopterus_. So
+striking was its whiteness that it might have been conjectured to be
+an albino, but for the circumstance that its eyes and face were black.
+I have heard that white monkeys have been seen near the Ridi-galle
+Wihara in Seven Korles and also at Tangalle; but I never saw another
+specimen. The natives say they are not uncommon, and KNOX that they
+are "milk-white both in body and face; but of this sort there is not
+such plenty."[1] The Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY mentions, in his learned
+work on _Eastern Monachism_, that on the occasion of his visit to
+the great temple of Dambool, he encountered a troop of white monkeys
+on the rock in which it is situated--which were, doubtless, a variety
+of the Wanderoo.[2] PLINY was aware of the fact that white monkeys are
+occasionally found in India.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX, pt. i.e. vi. p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Eastern Monachism_. c: xix; p. 204.]
+
+[Footnote 3: PLINY, Nat. Hist. I. viii. c. xxxii.]
+
+When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty of
+these creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for berries
+and buds. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, except when
+they may have descended to recover seeds or fruit which have fallen at
+the foot of their favourite trees. When disturbed, their leaps are
+prodigious: but, generally speaking, their progress is made not so
+much by _leaping_ as by swinging from branch to branch, using
+their powerful arms alternately; and when baffled by distance,
+flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower boughs of an
+opposite tree, the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficient
+to cause a rebound of the branch, that carries them upwards again,
+till they can grasp a higher and more distant one, and thus continue
+their headlong flight. In these perilous achievements, wonder is
+excited less by the surpassing agility of these little creatures,
+frequently encumbered as they are by their young, which cling to them
+in their career, than by the quickness of their eye and the unerring
+accuracy with which they seem almost to calculate the angle at which a
+descent will enable them to cover a given distance, and the recoil to
+attain a higher altitude.
+
+2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills by the larger
+species, _P. ursinus_, which inhabits the mountain zone. The natives,
+who designate the latter the _Maha_ or Great Wanderoo, to distinguish it
+from the _Kaloo_, or black one, with which they are familiar, describe
+it as much wilder, and more powerful than its congener of the lowland
+forests. It is rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the country
+having till very recently been but partially opened; and even now it is
+difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the few roads
+which wind through these deep solitudes. At early morning, ere the day
+begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which consists of a quick
+repetition of the sounds _how how!_ maybe frequently heard in the
+mountain jungles, and forms one of the characteristic noises of these
+lofty situations. It was first captured by Dr. Kelaart in the woods near
+Nuera-ellia, and from its peculiar appearance it has been named _P.
+ursinus_ by Mr. Blyth.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. Blyth quotes as authority for this trivial name a
+passage from MAJOR FORBES' _Eleven Years in Ceylon;_ and I can
+vouch for the graphic accuracy of the remark.--"A species of very
+large monkey, that passed some distance before me, when resting on all
+fours, looked so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly took him for one."]
+
+3. The _P. Thersites_, which is chiefly distinguished from the
+others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was for some time
+doubtful whether the single specimen procured by Dr. Templeton from
+the Nuera-kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which Mr. Blyth
+conferred this new name, was in reality native; but the occurrence of
+a second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has established its
+existence as a separate species. Like the common wanderoo, the one
+obtained by Dr. Templeton was partial to fresh vegetables, plantains,
+and fruit; but he ate freely boiled rice, beans, and gram. He was fond
+of being noticed and petted, stretching out his limbs in succession to
+be scratched, drawing himself up so that his ribs might be reached by
+the finger, closing his eyes during the operation, and evincing his
+satisfaction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous.
+
+4. The _P. Priamus_ inhabits the northern and eastern provinces, and the
+wooded hills which occur in these portions of the island. In appearance
+it differs both in size and in colour from the common wanderoo, being
+larger and more inclined to grey; and in habits it is much less
+reserved. At Jaffna, and in other parts of the island where the
+population is comparatively numerous, these monkeys become so
+familiarised with the presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daring
+and indifference. A flock of them will take possession of a Palmyra
+palm; and so effectually can they crouch and conceal themselves among
+the leaves that, on the slightest alarm, the whole party becomes
+invisible in an instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites such an
+irrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they
+never fail to betray themselves. They may be frequently seen congregated
+on the roof of a native hut: and, some years ago, the child of a
+European clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been left on the ground
+by the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as to cause its death.
+
+The Singhalese have the impression that the remains of a monkey are
+never to be found in the forest; a belief which they have embodied in
+the proverb that "he who has seen a white crow, the nest of a paddi
+bird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey, is certain to live
+for ever." This piece of folk-lore has evidently reached Ceylon from
+India, where it is believed that persons dwelling on the spot where a
+hanuman monkey, _Semnopithecus entellus_, has been killed, will
+die, that even its bones are unlucky, and that no house erected where
+they are hid under ground can prosper. Hence when a dwelling is to be
+built, it is one of the employments of the Jyotish philosophers to
+ascertain by their science that none such are concealed; and Buchanan
+observes that "it is, perhaps, owing to this fear of ill-luck that no
+native will acknowledge his having seen a dead hanuman."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: BUCHANAN'S _Survey of Bhagulpoor_, p. 142. At
+Gibraltar it is believed that the body of a _dead monkey_ has
+never been found on the rock.]
+
+The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon is the little
+loris[1], which, from its sluggish movements, nocturnal habits, and
+consequent inaction during the day, has acquired the name of the
+"Ceylon Sloth."
+
+[Footnote 1: Loris graeilis, _Geof_.]
+
+[Illustration: THE LORIS.]
+
+There are two varieties in the island; one of the ordinary fulvous
+brown, and another larger, whose fur is entirely black. A specimen of
+the former was sent to me from Chilaw, on the western coast, and lived
+for some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, fruit, and vegetables. It was
+partial to ants and, other insects, and was always eager for milk or the
+bone of a fowl. The naturally slow motion of its limbs enables the loris
+to approach its prey so stealthily that it seizes birds before they can
+be alarmed by its presence. The natives assert that it has been known to
+strangle the pea-fowl at night, to feast on the brain. During the day
+the one which I kept was usually asleep in the strange position
+represented on the last page; its perch firmly grasped with both hands,
+its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and its head hidden deep
+between its legs. The singularly-large and intense eyes of the loris
+have attracted the attention, of the Singhalese, who capture the
+creature for the purpose of extracting them as charms and love-potions,
+and this they are said to effect by holding the little animal to the
+fire till its eyeballs burst. Its Tamil name is _thaxangu_, or
+"thin-bodied;" and hence a deformed child or an emaciated person has
+acquired in the Tamil districts the same epithet. The light-coloured
+variety of the loris in Ceylon has a spot on its forehead, somewhat
+resembling the _namam_, or mark worn by the worshippers of Vishnu; and,
+from this peculiarity, it is distinguished as the _Nama-thavangu_.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: There is an interesting notice of the Loris of Ceylon by
+Dr. TEMPLETON, in the _Mag. Nat. Hist._ 1844, ch. xiv. p. 362.]
+
+II. CHEIROPTERA. _Bats_.--The multitude of _bats_ is one of the features
+of the evening landscape; they abound in every cave and subterranean
+passage, in the tunnels on the highways, in the galleries of the
+fortifications, in the roofs of the bungalows, and the ruins of every
+temple and building. At sunset they are seen issuing from their diurnal
+retreats to roam through the twilight in search of crepuscular insects,
+and as night approaches and the lights in the rooms attract the
+night-flying lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table and
+carry off their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps. Including the
+frugivorous section about sixteen species have been identified in
+Ceylon; and remarkable varieties of two of these are peculiar to the
+island. The colours of some of them are as brilliant as the plumage of a
+bird, bright yellow, deep orange, and a rich ferruginous brown inclining
+to red.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1:
+  Rhinolophus affinis? _var_. rubidus, _Kelaart_.
+  Hipposideros murinus, _var_. fulvus, _Kelaart_.
+  Hipposideros speoris, _var_. aureus, _Kelaart_.
+  Kerivoula picta, _Pallas_.
+  Scotophilus Heathii, _Horsf_.]
+
+But of all the bats, the most conspicuous from its size and numbers,
+and the most interesting from its habits, is the rousette of
+Ceylon[1];--the "flying fox," as it is called by Europeans, from the
+similarity to that animal in its head and ears, its bright eyes, and
+intelligent little face. In its aspect it has nothing of the
+disagreeable and repulsive look so common amongst the ordinary
+vespertilionidae; it likewise differs from them in the want of the
+nose-leaf, as well as of the tail. In the absence of the latter, its
+flight is directed by means of a membrane attached to the inner side
+of each of the hind legs, and kept distended at the lower extremity by
+a projecting bone, just as a fore-and-aft sail is distended by a
+"gaff."
+
+[Footnote 1: Pteropus Edwardsii, _Geoff_.]
+
+[Illustration: FLYING FOXES.]
+
+In size the body measures from ten to twelve inches in length, but the
+arms are prolonged, and especially the metacarpal bones and phalanges of
+the four fingers over which the leathery wings are distended, till the
+alar expanse measures between four and five feet. Whilst the function of
+these metamorphosed limbs in sustaining flight entitles them to the
+designation of "wings," they are endowed with another faculty, the
+existence of which essentially distinguishes them from the feathery
+wings of a bird, and vindicates the appropriateness of the term
+_Cheiro-ptera_[1], or "winged hands," by which the bats are designated.
+Over the entire surface of the thin membrane of which they are formed,
+sentient nerves of the utmost delicacy are distributed, by means of
+which the animal is enabled during the darkness to direct its motions
+with security, avoiding objects against contact with which at such times
+its eyes and other senses would be insufficient to protect it.[2]
+Spallanzani ascertained the perfection of this faculty by a series of
+cruel experiments, by which he demonstrated that bats, even after their
+eyes had been destroyed, and their external organs, of smell and hearing
+obliterated, were still enabled to direct their flight with unhesitating
+confidence, avoiding even threads suspended to intercept them. But after
+ascertaining the fact, Spallanzani was slow to arrive at its origin; and
+ascribed the surprising power to the existence of some sixth
+supplementary sense, the enjoyment of which was withheld from other
+animals. Cuvier, however, dissipated the obscurity by showing the seat
+of this extraordinary endowment to be in the wings, the superficies of
+which retains the exquisite sensitiveness to touch that is inherent in
+the palms of the human hand and the extremities of the fingers, as well
+as in the feet of some of the mammalia.[3] The face and head of the
+_Pteropus_ are covered with brownish-grey hairs, the neck and chest are
+dark ferruginous grey, and the rest of the body brown, inclining to
+black.
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: cheir] the "hand," and [Greek: pteron] a "wing."]
+
+[Footnote 2: See BELL _On the Hand_, ch. iii. p. 70;]
+
+[Footnote 3: See article on _Cheiroptera_, in TODD'S
+_Cyclopiadia of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. i. p. 599.]
+
+These active and energetic creatures, though chiefly frugivorous, are
+to some extent insectivorous also, as attested by their teeth[1], as
+well as by their habits. They feed, amongst other things, on the
+guava, the plantain, the rose-apple, and the fruit of the various
+fig-trees. Flying foxes are abundant in all the maritime districts,
+especially at the season when the _pulum-imbul_[2], one of the
+silk-cotton trees, is putting forth its flower-buds, of which they are
+singularly fond. By day they suspend themselves from the highest
+branches, hanging by the claws of the hind legs, with the head turned
+upwards, and pressing the chin against the breast. At sunset taking
+wing, they hover, with a murmuring sound occasioned by the beating of
+their broad membranous wings, around the fruit trees, on which they
+feed till morning, when they resume their pensile attitude as before.
+
+[Footnote 1: Those which I have examined have four minute incisors in
+each jaw, with two canines and a very minute pointed tooth behind each
+canine. They have six molars in the upper jaw and ten in the lower,
+longitudinally grooved, and with a cutting edge directed backwards.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Eriodendron Orientale, _Stead_.]
+
+A favourite resort of these bats is to the lofty india-rubber trees,
+which on one side overhang the Botanic Gardens of Paradenia in the
+vicinity of Kandy. Thither for some years past, they have congregated,
+chiefly in the autumn, taking their departure when the figs of the
+_ficus elastica_ are consumed. Here they hang in such prodigious
+numbers, that frequently, large branches give way beneath their
+accumulated weight. Every forenoon, generally between the hours of 9 and
+11 A.M., they take to wing, apparently for exercise, and possibly to sun
+their wings and fur, and dry them after the dews of the early morning.
+On these occasions, their numbers are quite surprising, flying in clouds
+as thick as bees or midges. After these recreations, they hurry back to
+their favourite trees, chattering and screaming like monkeys, and always
+wrangling and contending angrily for the most shady and comfortable
+places in which to hang for the rest of the day protected from the sun.
+The branches they resort to soon become almost divested of leaves, these
+being stripped off by the action of the bats, attaching and detaching
+themselves by means of their hooked feet. At sunset, they fly off to
+their feeding-grounds, probably at a considerable distance, as it
+requires a large area to furnish sufficient food for such multitudes.
+
+In all its movements and attitudes, the action of the _Pteropus_
+is highly interesting. If placed upon the ground, it is almost
+helpless, none of its limbs being calculated for progressive motion;
+it drags itself along by means of the hook attached to each of its
+extended thumbs, pushing at the same time with those of its hind feet.
+Its natural position is exclusively pensile; it moves laterally from
+branch to branch with great ease, by using each foot alternately, and
+climbs, when necessary, by means of its claws.
+
+When at rest, or asleep, the disposition of the limbs is most curious.
+At such times it suspends itself by one foot only, bringing the other
+close to its side, and thus it is enabled to wrap itself in the ample
+folds of its wings, which envelop it like a mantle, leaving only its
+upturned head uncovered. Its fur is thus protected from damp and rain,
+and to some extent its body is sheltered from the sun.
+
+As it collects its food by means of its mouth, either when on the
+wing, or when suspended within reach of it, the flying-fox is always
+more or less liable to have the spoil wrested from it by its intrusive
+companions, before it can make good its way to some secure retreat in
+which to devour it unmolested. In such conflicts they bite viciously,
+tear each other with their hooks, and scream incessantly, till, taking
+to flight, the persecuted one reaches some place of safety, where he
+hangs by one foot, and grasping the fruit he has secured in the claws
+and opposable thumb of the other, he hastily reduces it to lumps, with
+which he stuffs his cheek pouches till they become distended like those
+of a monkey; then suspended in safety, he commences to chew and suck the
+pieces, rejecting the refuse with his tongue.
+
+To drink, which it does by lapping, the _Pteropus_ suspends
+itself head downwards from a branch above the water.
+
+Insects, caterpillars, birds' eggs, and young birds are devoured by
+them; and the Singhalese say that the flying-fox will even attack a
+tree snake. It is killed by the natives for the sake of its flesh,
+which, I have been told by a gentleman who has eaten of it, resembles
+that of the hare.[1] It is strongly attracted to the coconut trees
+during the period when toddy is drawn for distillation, and exhibits,
+it is said, at such times, symptoms resembling intoxication.
+
+[Footnote 1: In Western India the native Portuguese eat the
+flying-fox, and pronounce it delicate, and far from disagreeable in
+flavour.]
+
+Neither the flying-fox, nor any other bat that I know of in Ceylon,
+ever hybernates.
+
+There are several varieties (one of them peculiar to the island) of
+the horse-shoe-headed _Rhinolophus_, with the strange leaf-like
+appendage erected on the extremity of the nose.
+
+It has been suggested that the insectivorous bats, though nocturnal,
+are deficient in that keen vision characteristic of animals which take
+their prey by night.
+
+[Illustration: RINOLOPHUS.]
+
+I doubt whether this conjecture be well founded; it certainly does not
+apply to the _Pteropus_ and the other frugivorous species, in
+which the faculty of sight is singularly clear. As regards the others,
+it is possible that in their peculiar oeconomy some additional power
+may be required to act in concert with that of vision, as in insects,
+touch is superadded, in its most sensitive development, to that of
+sight. It is probable that the noseleaf, which forms an extended
+screen stretched behind the nostrils in some of the bats, may be
+intended by nature to facilitate the collection and conduction of
+odours, just as the vast expansion of the shell of the ear in the same
+family is designed to assist in the collection of sounds--and thus to
+supplement their vision when in pursuit of prey in the dusk by the
+superior sensitiveness of the organs of hearing and smell.
+
+One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humble
+bee[1], and of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be seen about
+Colombo. It is so familiar and gentle that it will alight on the cloth
+during dinner, and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes any
+effort to escape before a wine glass can be inverted to secure it.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is a _very_ small Singhalese variety of
+Scotophilus Coromandelicus, _F. Cuv._]
+
+Although not strictly in order, this seems not an inappropriate place
+to notice one of the most curious peculiarities connected with the
+bats--their singular parasite, the Nycteribia.[1] On cursory
+observation this creature appears to have neither head, antennae, eyes,
+nor mouth; and the earlier observers of its structure satisfied
+themselves that the place of the latter was supplied by a cylindrical
+sucker, which, being placed between the shoulders, the insect had no
+option but to turn on its back to feed. Another anomaly was thought to
+compensate for this apparent inconvenience;--its three pairs of legs,
+armed with claws, are so arranged that they seem to be equally
+distributed over its upper and under sides, the creature being thus
+enabled to use them like hands, and to grasp the strong hairs above it
+while extracting its nourishment.
+
+[Footnote 1: This extraordinary creature had formerly been discovered
+only on a few European bats. Joinville figured one which he found on
+the large roussette (the flying-fox), and says he had seen another on
+a bat of the same family. Dr. Templeton observed them in Ceylon in
+great abundance on the fur of the _Scotophilus Coromandelicus_,
+and they will, no doubt, be found on many others.]
+
+It moves, in fact, by rolling itself rapidly along, rotating like a
+wheel on the extremities of its spokes, or like the clown in a
+pantomime, hurling himself forward on hands and feet alternately. Its
+celerity is so great that Colonel Montague, who was one of the first
+to describe it minutely[1], says its speed exceeds that of any
+known insect, and as its joints are so flexible as to yield in every
+direction (like what mechanics call a "ball and socket"), its motions
+are exceedingly grotesque as it tumbles through the fur of the bat.
+
+[Footnote 1: Celeripes vespertilionis, _Mont. Lin. Trans._ xi. p.11.]
+
+[Illustration: NYCTERBIA.]
+
+To enable it to attain its marvellous velocity, each foot is armed
+with two sharp hooks, with elastic opposable pads, so that the hair
+can not only be rapidly seized and firmly held, but as quickly
+disengaged, as the creature whirls away in its headlong career.
+
+The insects to which it bears the nearest affinity, are the
+_Hippoboscidae_, or "spider flies," that infest birds and horses;
+but, unlike them, the Nycteribia is unable to fly.
+
+Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to the belief that
+it was headless, is its faculty when at rest of throwing back its head
+and pressing it close between its shoulders till the under side
+becomes uppermost, not a vestige of head being discernible where we
+would naturally look for it, and the whole seeming but a casual
+inequality on its back.
+
+On closer examination this, apparent tubercle is found to have a
+leathery attachment like a flexible neck, and by a sudden jerk the
+little creature is enabled to project it forward into its normal
+position, when it is discovered to be furnished with a mouth, antennae,
+and four eyes, two on each side.
+
+The organisation of such an insect is a marvellous adaptation of
+physical form to special circumstances. As the nycteribia has to make
+its way through fur and hairs, its feet are furnished with prehensile
+hooks that almost convert them into hands; and being obliged to conform
+to the sudden flights of its patron, and accommodate itself to inverted
+positions, all attitudes are rendered alike to it by the arrangement of its
+limbs, which enables it, after every possible gyration, to find itself
+always on its feet.
+
+III. CARNIVORA.--_Bears_.--Of the _carnivora_, the one most
+dreaded by the natives of Ceylon, and the only one of the larger
+animals that makes the depths of the forest its habitual retreat, is
+the bear[1], attracted chiefly by the honey which is found in the
+hollow trees and clefts of the rocks. Occasionally spots of fresh
+earth are observed which have been turned up by the bears in search of
+some favourite root. They feed also on the termites and ants. A friend
+of mine traversing the forest, near Jaffna, at early dawn, had his
+attention attracted by the growling of a bear, that was seated upon a
+lofty branch, thrusting portions of a red-ants' nest into his mouth
+with one paw, whilst with the other he endeavoured to clear his
+eyebrows and lips of the angry inmates, which bit and tortured him in
+their rage. The Ceylon bear is found in the low and dry districts of
+the northern and south-eastern coast, and is seldom met with on the
+mountains or the moist and damp plains of the west. It is furnished
+with a bushy tuft of hair on the back, between the shoulders, by which
+the young are accustomed to cling till sufficiently strong to provide
+for their own safety. During a severe drought that prevailed in the
+northern province in 1850, the district of Caretchy was so infested by
+bears that the Oriental custom of the women resorting to the wells was
+altogether suspended, as it was a common occurrence to find one of these
+animals in the water, unable to climb up the yielding and slippery soil,
+down which its thirst had impelled it to slide during the night.
+
+[Footnote 1: Prochilus labiatus, _Blainville_.]
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN BEAR.]
+
+Although the structure of the bear shows him to be naturally omnivorous,
+he rarely preys upon flesh in Ceylon, and his solitary habits whilst in
+search of honey and fruits render him timid and retiring. Hence he
+evinces alarm on the approach of man or other animals, and, unable to
+make a rapid retreat, his panic, rather than any vicious disposition,
+leads him to become an assailant in self-defence. But so furious are his
+assaults under such circumstances that the Singhalese have a terror of
+his attack greater than that created by any other beast of the forest.
+If not armed with a gun, a native, in the places where bears abound,
+usually carries a light axe, called "kodelly," with which to strike them
+on the head. The bear, on the other hand, always aims at the face, and,
+if successful in prostrating his victim, usually commences by assailing
+the eyes. I have met numerous individuals on our journeys who exhibited
+frightful scars from such encounters, the white seams of their wounds
+contrasting hideously with the dark colour of the rest of their bodies.
+
+The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose principal stores consist of honey, live
+in dread of the bears, because, attracted by the perfume, they will
+not hesitate to attack their rude dwellings, when allured by this
+irresistible temptation. The Post-office runners, who always travel by
+night, are frequently exposed to danger from these animals, especially
+along the coast from Putlam to Aripo, where they are found in
+considerable numbers; and, to guard against surprise, they are
+accustomed to carry flambeaux, to give warning to the bears, and
+enable them to shuffle out of the path.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Amongst the Singhalese there is a belief that certain
+charms are efficacious in protecting them from the violence of bears,
+and those whose avocations expose them to encounters of this kind are
+accustomed to carry a talisman either attached to their neck or
+enveloped in the folds of their luxuriant hair. A friend of mine,
+writing of an adventure which occurred at Anarajapoora, thus describes
+an occasion on which a Moor, who attended him, was somewhat, rudely
+disabused of his belief in the efficacy of charms upon bears:--"Desiring
+to change the position of a herd of deer, the Moorman (with his charm)
+was sent across some swampy land to disturb them. As he was proceeding,
+we saw him suddenly turn from an old tree and run back with all speed,
+his hair becoming unfastened and like his clothes streaming in the wind.
+It soon became evident that he was flying from some terrific object, for
+he had thrown down his gun, and, in his panic, he was taking the
+shortest line towards us, which lay across a swamp covered with sedge
+and rushes that greatly impeded his progress, and prevented us
+approaching him, or seeing what was the cause of his flight. Missing his
+steps from one hard spot to another he repeatedly fell into the water,
+but he rose and resumed his flight. I advanced as far as the sods would
+bear my weight, but to go further was impracticable. Just within
+ball-range there was an open space, and, as the man gained it. I saw
+that he was pursued by a bear and two cubs. As the person of the
+fugitive covered the bear, it was impossible to fire without risk. At
+last he fall exhausted, and the bear being close upon him, I discharged
+both barrels. The first broke the bear's shoulder, but this only made
+her more savage, and rising on her hind legs she advanced with ferocious
+prowls, when the second barrel, though I do not think it took effect,
+served to frighten her, for turning round she retreated, followed by the
+cubs. Some natives then waded through the mud to the Moorman, who was
+just exhausted, and would have been drowned but that he fell with his
+head upon a tuft of grass: the poor man was unable to speak, and for
+several weeks his intellect seemed confused. The adventure sufficed to
+satisfy him that he could not again depend upon a charm to protect him,
+from bears, though he always insisted that but for its having fallen
+from his hair where he had fastened it under his turban, the bear would
+not have ventured to attack him."]
+
+Leopards[1] are the only formidable members of the tiger race in
+Ceylon[2], and they are neither very numerous nor very dangerous, as
+they seldom attack man. By the Europeans, the Ceylon leopard is
+erroneously called a _cheetah_, but the true "cheetah" (_felis
+jubata_),' the hunting leopard of India, does not exist in the
+island.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: Felis pardus, _Linn._ What is called a leopard, or a
+cheetah, in Ceylon, is in reality the true panther.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A belief is prevalent at Trincomalie that a Bengal tiger
+inhabits the jungle in its vicinity; and the story runs that it
+escaped from the wreck of a vessel on which it had been embarked for
+England. Officers of the Government state positively that they have
+more than once come on it whilst hunting; and one gentleman of the
+Royal Engineers, who had seen it, assured me that he could not be
+mistaken as to its being a tiger of India, and one of the largest
+description.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Mr. BAKER, in his _Eight Years in Ceylon_, has
+stated that there are two species of leopard in the island, one of
+which he implies is the Indian cheetah. But although he specifies
+discrepancies in size, weight, and marking between the varieties which
+he has examined, his data are not sufficient to identify any of them
+with the true _felis jubata_.]
+
+There is a rare variety of the leopard which has been found in various
+parts of the island, in which the skin, instead of being spotted, is of
+a uniform black.[1] Leopards frequent the vicinity of pasture hinds in
+quest of the deer and other peaceful animals which resort to them; and
+the villagers often complain of the destruction of their cattle by these
+formidable marauders. In relation to them, the natives have a curious
+but firm conviction that when a bullock is killed by a leopard, and, in
+expiring, falls so that _its right side is undermost_, the leopard will
+not return to devour it. I have been told by English sportsmen (some of
+whom share in the popular belief), that sometimes, when they have
+proposed to watch by the carcase of a bullock recently killed by a
+leopard, in the hope of shooting the spoiler on his return in search of
+his prey, the native owner of the slaughtered animal, though earnestly
+desiring to be avenged, has assured them that it would be in vain, as
+the beast having fallen on its right side, the leopard not return.
+
+[Footnote 1: F. melas, _Peron_ and _Leseur_.]
+
+[Illustration: LEOPARD AND CHEETAH.]
+
+The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their extremely beautiful
+skins, but prefer taking them in traps and pitfalls, and occasionally
+in spring cages formed of poles driven firmly into the ground, within
+which a kid is generally fastened as a bait; the door being held open
+by a sapling bent down by the united force of several men, and so
+arranged as to act as a spring, to which a noose is ingeniously
+attached, formed of plaited deer's hide. The cries of the kid attract
+the leopard, which being tempted to enter, is enclosed by the
+liberation of the spring, and grasped firmly round the body by the
+noose.
+
+Like the other carnivora, leopards are timid and cowardly in the
+presence of man, never intruding on him voluntarily, and making a
+hasty retreat when approached. Instances have, however, occurred of
+individuals having been slain by them; and it is believed, that,
+having once tasted human blood, they, like the tiger, acquire an
+habitual relish for it. A peon, on duty by night at the court-house of
+Anarajapoora, was some years ago carried off by a leopard from a table
+in the verandah on which he had laid down his head to sleep. At
+Batticaloa a "cheetah" in two instances in succession was known to
+carry off men placed on a stage erected in a tree to drive away
+elephants from rice-land: but such cases are rare, and, as compared
+with their dread of the bear, the natives of Ceylon entertain but
+slight apprehensions of the "cheetah." It is, however, the dread of
+sportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the jungle are especially
+exposed to its attacks: and I am aware of an instance in which a party
+having tied their dogs to the tent-pole for security, and fallen
+asleep round them, a leopard sprang into the tent and carried
+off a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters. On one occasion
+being in the mountains near Kandy, a messenger despatched to me
+through the jungle excused his delay by stating that a "cheetah" had
+seated itself in the only practicable path, and remained quietly
+licking its fore paws and rubbing them over its face, till he was
+forced to drive it, with stones, into the forest.
+
+Leopards are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour which
+accompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the natives to submit
+themselves or their children to vaccination exposes the island to
+frightful visitations of this disease; and in the villages in the
+interior it is usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle to
+serve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the leopards are certain
+to be allured; and the medical officers are obliged to resort to
+increased precautions in consequence. This fact is connected with a
+curious native superstition. Amongst the avenging scourges sent direct
+from the gods, the Singhalese regard both the ravages of the leopard,
+and the visitation of the small-pox. The latter they call _par
+excellence "maha ledda_," the great "sickness;" they look upon it
+as a special manifestation of _devidosay_, "the displeasure of
+the gods;" and the attraction of the cheetahs to the bed of the
+sufferer they attribute to the same indignant agency. A few years ago,
+the capua, or demon-priest of a "dewale," at Oggalbodda, a village
+near Caltura, when suffering under small-pox, was devoured by a
+cheetah, and his fate was regarded by those of an opposite faith as a
+special judgment from heaven.
+
+Such is the awe inspired by this belief in connection with the
+small-pox, that a person afflicted with it is always approached as one
+in immediate communication with the deity; his attendants, address him
+as "my lord," and "your lordship," and exhaust on him the whole series
+of honorific epithets in which their language abounds for approaching
+personages of the most exalted rank. At evening and morning, a lamp is
+lighted before him, and invoked with prayers to protect his family from
+the dire calamity which has befallen himself. And after his recovery,
+his former associates refrain from communication with him until a
+ceremony shall have been performed by the capua, called
+_awasara-pandema_, or "the offering of lights for permission," the
+object of which is to entreat permission of the deity to regard him as
+freed from the divine displeasure, with liberty to his friends to renew
+their intercourse as before.
+
+Major SKINNER, who for upwards of forty years has had occasionally to
+live for long periods in the interior, occupied in the prosecution of
+surveys and the construction of roads, is strongly of opinion that the
+disposition of the leopard towards man is essentially pacific, and
+that, when discovered, its natural impulse is to effect its escape. In
+illustration of this I insert an extract from one of his letters,
+which describes an adventure highly characteristic of this instinctive
+timidity:--
+
+"On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam's Peak, in the prosecution
+of my military reconnoissances of the mountain zone, I fixed on a pretty
+little patena (_i.e._, meadow) in the midst of an extensive and dense
+forest in the southern segment of the Peak Range, as a favourable spot
+for operations. It would have been difficult, after descending from the
+cone of the peak, to have found one's way to this point, in the midst of
+so vast a wilderness of trees, had not long experience assured me that
+good game tracks would be found leading to it, and by one of them I
+reached it. It was in the afternoon, just after one of those tropical
+sunshowers that decorate every branch and blade with pendant brilliants,
+and the little patena was covered with game, either driven to the open
+space by the drippings from the leaves or tempted by the freshness of
+the pasture: there were several pairs of elk, the bearded antlered male
+contrasting finely with his mate; and other varieties of game in a
+profusion not to be found in any place frequented by man. It was some
+time before I would allow them to be disturbed by the rude fall of the
+axe, in our necessity to establish our bivouac for the night, and they
+were so unaccustomed to danger that it was long before they took alarm
+at our noises.
+
+"The following morning, anxious to gain a height for my observations
+in time to avail myself of the clear atmosphere of sunrise, I started
+off by myself through the jungle, leaving orders for my men, with my
+surveying instruments, to follow my track by the notches which I cut
+in the bark of the trees. On leaving the plain, I availed myself of a
+fine wide game track which lay in my direction, and had gone, perhaps,
+half a mile from the camp, when I was startled by a slight rustling in
+the nilloo[1] to my right, and in another instant, by the spring of a
+magnificent leopard, which, in a bound of full eight feet in height
+over the lower brushwood, lighted at my feet within eighteen inches of
+the spot whereon I stood, and lay in a crouching position, his fiery
+gleaming eyes fixed on me.
+
+[Footnote 1: A species of one of the suffruticose _Acanthaccae_
+(Strobilanthes), which grows, abundantly in the mountain ranges of
+Ceylon.]
+
+"The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had no weapon of defence, and
+with one spring or blow of his paw the beast could have annihilated me.
+To move I knew would only encourage his attack. It occurred to me at the
+moment that I had heard of the power of man's eye over wild animals, and
+accordingly I fixed my gaze as intently as the agitation of such a
+moment enabled me on his eyes: we stared at each other for some seconds,
+when, to my inexpressible joy, the beast turned and bounded down the
+straight open path before me. This scene occurred just at that period of
+the morning when the grazing animals retired from the open patena to the
+cool shade of the forest: doubtless, the leopard had taken my approach
+for that of a deer, or some such animal. And if his spring had been at a
+quadruped instead of a biped, his distance was so well measured, that it
+must have landed him on the neck of a deer, an elk, or a buffalo; as it
+was, one pace more would have done for me. A bear would not have let his
+victim off so easily."
+
+Notwithstanding the unequalled agility of the monkey, it falls a prey,
+and not unfrequently, to the leopard. The latter, on approaching a tree
+on which a troop of monkeys have taken shelter, causes an instant and
+fearful excitement, which they manifest by loud and continued screams,
+and incessant restless leaps from branch to branch. The leopard
+meanwhile walks round and round the tree, with his eyes firmly fixed
+upon his victims, till at last exhausted by terror, and prostrated by
+vain exertions to escape, one or more falls a prey to his voracity. So
+rivetted is the attention of both during the struggle, that a sportsman,
+on one occasion, attracted by the noise, was enabled to approach within
+an uncomfortable distance of the leopard, before he discovered the cause
+of the unusual dismay amongst the monkeys overhead.
+
+It is said, but I have never been able personally to verify the fact,
+that the leopard of Ceylon exhibits a peculiarity in being unable
+entirely to retract its claws within their sheaths.
+
+There is another piece of curious folk lore, in connexion with the
+leopard. The natives assert that it devours the _kaolin_ clay
+called by them _kiri-mattie_[1] in a very peculiar way. They say
+that the cheetah places it in lumps beside him, and then gazes
+intently on the sun, till on turning his eyes on the clay, every piece
+appears of a red colour like flesh, when he instantly devours it.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Sir J.E. TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, vol. i. p. 31.]
+
+They likewise allege that the female cheetah never produces more than
+one litter of whelps.
+
+Of the _lesser feline species_, the number and variety in Ceylon
+is inferior to those of India. The Palm-cat[1] lurks by day among the
+fronds of the coco-nut palms, and by night makes destructive forays on
+the fowls of the villagers; and, in order to suck the blood of its
+victim, inflicts a wound so small as to be almost imperceptible. The
+glossy genette[2], the "_Civet_" of Europeans, is common in the
+northern province, where the Tamils confine it in cages for the sake
+of its musk, which they collect from the wooden bars on which it rubs
+itself. Edrisi, the Moorish geographer, writing in the twelfth
+century, enumerates musk as one of the productions then exported from
+Ceylon.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: Paradoxurus typus, _F. Cuv._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Viverra Indica, _Geoffr., Hodgs._]
+
+[Footnote 3: EDRISI, _Geogr._ sec. vii. Jauberts's translation,
+t. ii. p. 72. In connexion with cats, a Singhalese gentleman has
+described to me a plant in Ceylon, called _Cuppa-mayniya_ by the
+natives; by which he says cats are so enchanted, that they play with
+it as they would with, a captured mouse; throwing if into the air,
+watching it till it falls, and crouching to see if it will move. It
+would be worth inquiring into the truth of this; and the explanation
+of the attraction.]
+
+_Dogs_.--There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but every village
+and town is haunted by mongrels of European descent, that are known by
+the generic description of _Pariahs_. They are a miserable race,
+lean, wretched, and mangy, acknowledged by no owners, living on the
+garbage of the streets and sewers, and if spoken to unexpectedly they
+shrink with an almost involuntary cry. Yet in these persecuted
+outcasts there survives that germ of instinctive affection which binds
+the dog to the human race, and a gentle word, even a look of
+compassionate kindness, is sufficient foundation for a lasting
+attachment.
+
+The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to taking away life in any
+form, permit the increase of these desolate creatures till in the hot
+season they become so numerous as to be a nuisance; and the only
+expedient hitherto devised by the civil government to reduce their
+numbers, is once in each year to offer a reward for their destruction,
+when the Tamils and Malays pursue them in the streets with clubs (guns
+being forbidden by the police for fear of accidents), and the
+unresisting dogs are beaten to death on the side-paths and door-steps
+where they had been taught to resort for food. Lord Torrington, during
+his government of Ceylon, attempted the more civilised experiment of
+putting some check on their numbers, by imposing a dog-tax, the effect
+of which would have been to lead to the drowning of puppies; whereas
+there is reason to believe that dogs are at present _bred_ by the
+horse-keepers to be killed for sake of the reward.
+
+The Pariahs of Colombo exhibit something of the same instinct, by
+which the dogs in other eastern cities partition the towns into
+districts, each apportioned to a separate pack, by whom it is
+jealously guarded from the encroachments of all intruders. Travellers
+at Cairo and Constantinople are often startled at night by the racket
+occasioned by the demonstrations made by the rightful possessors of a
+locality in repelling its invasion by some straggling wanderer. At
+Alexandria, in 1844, the dogs had multiplied to such an inconvenient
+extent, that Mehemet Ali, to abate the nuisance, caused them to be
+shipped in boats and conveyed to one of the islands at the mouth of
+the Nile. But the streets, thus deprived of their habitual patroles,
+were speedily infested by dogs from the suburbs, in such numbers that
+the evil became greater than before, and in the following year, the
+legitimate denizens were recalled from their exile in the Delta, and
+speedily drove back the intruders within their original boundary. May
+not this disposition of the dog be referable to the impulse by which,
+in a state of nature, each pack appropriates its own hunting-fields
+within a particular area? and may not the impulse which, even in a
+state of domestication, they still manifest to attack a passing dog
+upon the road, be a remnant of this localised instinct, and a
+concomitant dislike of intrusion?
+
+_Jackal_.--The Jackal[1] in the low country of Ceylon hunts thus in
+packs, headed by a leader, and these audacious prowlers have been seen
+to assault and pull down a deer. The small number of hares in the
+districts they infest is ascribed to their depredations. In the legends
+of the natives, and in the literature of the Buddhists, the jackal in
+Ceylon is as essentially the type of cunning as the fox is the emblem of
+craft and adroitness in the traditions of Europe. In fact, it is more
+than doubtful whether the jackal of the East be not the creature alluded
+to, in the various passages of the Sacred Writings which make allusion
+to the artfulness and subtlety of the "fox."
+
+[Footnote 1: Canis Aureus, _Linn._]
+
+These faculties they display in a high degree in their hunting
+expeditions, especially in the northern portions of the island, where
+they are found in the greatest numbers. In these districts, where the
+wide sandy plains are thinly covered with brushwood, the face of the
+country is diversified by patches of thick jungle and detached groups
+of trees, that form insulated groves and topes. At dusk, or after
+nightfall, a pack of jackals, having watched a hare or a small deer
+take refuge in one of these retreats, immediately surround it on all
+sides; and having stationed a few to watch the path by which the game
+entered, the leader commences the attack by raising the unearthly cry
+peculiar to their race, and which resembles the sound _okkay!_
+loudly and rapidly repeated. The whole party then rush into the
+jungle, and drive out the victim, which generally falls into the
+ambush previously laid to entrap it.
+
+A native gentleman[1], who had favourable opportunities of observing the
+movements of these animals, informed me, that when a jackal has brought
+down his game and killed it, his first impulse is to hide it in the
+nearest jungle, whence he issues with an air of easy indifference to
+observe whether anything more powerful than himself may be at hand, from
+which he might encounter the risk of being despoiled of his capture. If
+the coast be clear, he returns to the concealed carcase, and carries it
+away, followed by his companions. But if a man be in sight, or any other
+animal to be avoided, my informant has seen the jackal seize a coco-nut
+husk in his mouth, or any similar substance, and fly at full speed, as
+if eager to carry off his pretended prize, returning for the real booty
+at some more convenient season.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. D. de Silva Gooneratne.]
+
+They are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are frequent in Ceylon
+of cattle being bitten by them and dying in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: JACKAL'S SKULL AND HORN]
+
+An excrescence is sometimes found on the head of the jackal, consisting
+of a small horny cone about half an inch in length, and concealed by a
+tuft of hair. This the natives call _narrie-comboo_; and they aver that
+this "Jackal's Horn" only grows on the head of the leader of the
+pack.[1] Both the Singhalese and the Tamils regard it as a talisman, and
+believe that its fortunate possessor can command by its instrumentality
+the realisation of every wish, and that if stolen or lost by him, it
+will invariably return of its own accord. Those who have jewels to
+conceal rest in perfect security if along with them they can deposit a
+narri-comboo, fully convinced that its presence is an effectual
+safeguard against robbers.
+
+[Footnote 1: In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London (No.
+4362 A), there is a cranium of a jackal which exhibits this strange
+osseous process on the super-occipital; and I have placed along with
+it a specimen of the horny sheath, which was presented to me by Mr.
+Lavalliere, the late district judge of Kandy.]
+
+One fabulous virtue ascribed to the _narrie-comboo_ by the Singhalese is
+absurdly characteristic of their passion for litigation, as well as of
+their perceptions of the "glorious uncertainty of the law." It is the
+popular belief that the fortunate discoverer of a jackal's horn becomes
+thereby invincible in every lawsuit, and must irresistibly triumph over
+every opponent. A gentleman connected "with the Supreme Court of Colombo
+has repeated to me a circumstance, within his own knowledge, of a
+plaintiff who, after numerous defeats, eventually succeeded against his
+opponent by the timely acquisition of this invaluable charm. Before the
+final hearing of the cause, the mysterious horn was duly exhibited to
+his friends; and the consequence was, that the adverse witnesses,
+appalled by the belief that no one could possibly give judgment against
+a person so endowed, suddenly modified their previous evidence, and
+secured an unforeseen victory for the happy owner of the
+_narrie-comboo!_
+
+_The Mongoos_.--Of the Mongoos or Ichneumon four species have been
+described; and one, that frequents the hills near Neuera-ellia[1], is so
+remarkable from its bushy fur, that the invalid soldiers in the
+sanatarium there, to whom it is familiar, have given it the name of the
+"Ceylon Badger."
+
+[Footnote 1: _Herpestes vitticollis_. Mr. W. ELLIOTT, in his _Catalogue
+of Mammalia found in the Southern Maharata Country_, Madras, 1840, says,
+that "One specimen of this Herpestes was procured by accident in the
+Ghat forests in 1829, and is now deposited in the British Museum; it is
+very rare, inhabiting only the thickest woods, and its habits are very
+little known," p. 9. In Ceylon it is comparatively common.]
+
+[Illustration: HERPESTES VITTICOLLIS.]
+
+I have found universally that the natives of Ceylon attach no credit to
+the European story of the Mongoos (_H. griseus_) resorting to some
+plant, which no one has yet succeeded in identifying, as an antidote
+against the bite of the venomous serpents on which it preys: There is no
+doubt that, in its conflicts with the cobra de capello and other
+poisonous snakes, which it attacks with as little hesitation as the
+harmless ones, it may be seen occasionally to retreat, and even to
+retire into the jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable; but a
+gentleman, who has been a frequent observer of its exploits, assures me
+that most usually the herb it resorted to was grass; and if this were
+not at hand, almost any other plant that grew near seemed equally
+acceptable. Hence has probably arisen the long list of plants, such as
+the _Ophioxylon serpentinum_ and _Ophiorhiza mungos_, the _Aristolochia
+Indica_, the _Mimosa octandria_, and others, each of which has been
+asserted to be the ichneumon's specific; whilst their multiplicity is
+demonstrative of the non-existence of any one in particular on which the
+animal relies as an antidote. Were there any truth in the tale as
+regards the mongoos, it would be difficult to understand why creatures,
+such as the secretary bird and the falcon, and others, which equally
+destroy serpents, should be left defenceless, and the ichneumon alone
+provided with a prophylactic. Besides, were the ichneumon inspired by
+that courage which would result from the consciousness of security, it
+would be so indifferent to the bite of the serpent that we might
+conclude that, both in its approaches and its assault, it would be
+utterly careless as to the precise mode of its attack. Such, however, is
+far from being the case: and next to its audacity, nothing can be more
+surprising than the adroitness with which it escapes the spring of the
+snake under a due sense of danger, and the cunning with which it makes
+its arrangements to leap upon the back and fasten its teeth in the head
+of the cobra. It is this display of instinctive ingenuity that Lucan[1]
+celebrates where he paints the ichneumon diverting the attention of the
+asp, by the motion of his bushy tail, and then seizing it in the midst
+of its confusion:--
+
+  "Aspidas ut Pharias cauda solertior hostis
+  Ludit, et iratas incerta provocat umbra:
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 1: The passage in Lucan is a versification of the same
+narrative related by Pliny, lib. viii. ch. 53; and AElian, lib. iii. ch.
+22.]
+
+  Obliquusque caput vanas serpentis in auras
+  Effuse toto comprendit guttura morsu
+  Letiferam citra saniem; tunc irrita pestis
+  Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno."
+                      _Pharsalia_, lib. iv. v. 729.
+
+The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has been referred to the
+supposition that there may be some peculiarity in its organisation which
+renders it _proof against_ the poison of the serpent. It remains for
+future investigation to determine how far this conjecture is founded in
+truth; and whether in the blood of the mongoos there exists any element
+or quality which acts as a prophylactic. Such exceptional provisions are
+not without precedent in the animal oeconomy: the hornbill feeds with
+impunity on the deadly fruit of the strychnos; the milky juice of some
+species of euphorbia, which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal to
+the zebra; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa, whose bite is
+mortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse, is harmless to man and the
+untamed creatures of the forest.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. LIVINGSTONE, _Tour in S. Africa_, p. 80. Is it a fact
+that, in America, pigs extirpate the rattlesnakes with impunity?]
+
+The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos, which they designate
+"_Hotambeya_" and which they assert never preys upon serpents. A writer
+in the _Ceylon Miscellany_ mentions, that they are often to be seen
+"crossing rivers and frequently mud-brooks near Chilaw; the adjacent
+thickets affording them shelter, and their food consisting of aquatic
+reptiles, crabs, and mollusca."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This is possibly the "musbilai" or mouse-cat of Behar,
+which preys upon birds and fish. Can it be the Urva of the Nepalese
+(_Urva cancrivora_, Hodgson), which Mr. Hodgson describes as dwelling in
+burrows, and being carnivorous and ranivorous?--Vide _Journ. As. Soc.
+Beng._ vol. vi. p. 56.]
+
+[Illustration: FLYING SQUIRREL.]
+
+IV. RODENTIA. _Squirrels_.--Smaller animals in great numbers enliven the
+forests and lowland plains with their graceful movements. Squirrels[1],
+of which there are a great variety, make their shrill metallic call
+heard at early morning in the woods; and when sounding their note of
+warning on the approach of a civet or a tree-snake, the ears tingle with
+the loud trill of defiance, which rings as clear and rapid as the
+running down of an alarum, and is instantly caught up and re-echoed from
+every side by their terrified playmates.
+
+[Footnote 1: Of two kinds which frequent the mountains, one which is
+peculiar to Ceylon was discovered by Mr. Edgar L. Layard, who has done
+me the honour to call it the _Sciurus Tennentii_. Its dimensions are
+large, measuring upwards of two feet from head to tail. It is
+distinguished from the _S. macrurus_ by the predominant black colour of
+the upper surface of the body, with the exception of a rusty spot at the
+base of the ears.]
+
+One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied subgenus, is known as
+the "Flying Squirrel,"[1] from its being assisted, in its prodigious
+leaps from tree to tree, by a parachute formed by the skin of the
+flanks, which, on the extension of the limbs front and rear, is
+laterally expanded from foot to foot. Thus buoyed up in its descent, the
+spring which it is enabled to make from one lofty tree to another
+resembles the flight of a bird rather than the bound of a quadruped.
+
+[Footnote 1: Pteromys oral., _Tickel_. P. petaurista, _Pallas_.]
+
+Of these pretty creatures there are two species, one common to Ceylon
+and India, the other (_Sciuropterus Layardii_, Kelaart) is peculiar to
+the island, and by far the most beautiful of the family.
+
+_Rats_.--Among the multifarious inhabitants to which the forest affords
+at once a home and provender is the tree rat[1], which forms its nest on
+the branches, and by turns makes its visits to the dwellings of the
+natives, frequenting the ceilings in preference to the lower parts of
+houses. Here it is incessantly followed by the rat-snake[2], whose
+domestication is encouraged by the servants, in consideration of its
+services in destroying vermin. I had one day an opportunity of
+surprising a snake that had just seized on a rat of this description,
+and of covering it suddenly with a glass shade, before it had time to
+swallow its prey. The serpent, appeared stunned by its own capture, and
+allowed the rat to escape from its jaws, which cowered at one side of
+the glass in the most pitiable state of trembling terror. The two were
+left alone for some moments, and on my return to them the snake was as
+before in the same attitude of sullen stupor. On setting them at
+liberty, the rat bounded towards the nearest fence; but quick as
+lightning it was followed by its pursuer, which seized it before it
+could gain the hedge, through which I saw the snake glide with its
+victim in its jaws. In parts of the central province, at Oovah and
+Bintenne, the house-rat is eaten as a common article of food. The
+Singhalese believe it and the mouse to be liable to hydrophobia.
+
+[Footnote 1: There are two species of the tree rat in Ceylon: M.
+rufescens, _Gray_; (M. flavescens, _Elliot_;) and Mus nemoralis,
+_Blyth_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Coryphodon Blumenbachii, _Merr_.]
+
+Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which made its appearance
+for the first time in the coffee plantations on the Kandyan hills in the
+year 1847; and in such swarms does it continue to infest them, at
+intervals, that as many as a thousand have been killed in a single day
+on one estate. In order to reach the buds and blossoms of the coffee, it
+cuts such of the slender branches as would not sustain its weight, and
+feeds on them when fallen to the ground; and so delicate and sharp are
+its incisors, that the twigs thus destroyed are detached by as clean a
+cut as if severed with a knife.
+
+The coffee-rat[1] is an insular variety of the _Mus hirsutus_ of W.
+Elliot, found in Southern India. They inhabit the forests, making their
+nests among the roots of the trees, and feeding, in the season, on the
+ripe seeds of the nilloo. Like the lemmings of Norway and Lapland, they
+migrate in vast numbers on the occurrence of a scarcity of their
+ordinary food. The Malabar coolies are so fond of their flesh, that they
+evince a preference for those districts in which the coffee plantations
+are subject to their incursions, where they fry the rats in coco-nut
+oil, or convert them into curry.
+
+[Footnote 1: Golunda Ellioti, _Gray_.]
+
+[Illustration: COFFEE RAT.]
+
+_Bandicoot_.--Another favourite article of food with the coolies is the
+pig-rat or Bandicoot[1], which attains on those hills the weight of two
+or three pounds, and grows to nearly the length of two feet. As it feeds
+on grain and roots, its flesh is said to be delicate, and much
+resembling young pork.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mus bandicota, _Beckst._ The English term bandicoot is a
+corruption of the Telinga name _pandikoku_, literally _pig-rat_.]
+
+Its nests, when rifled, are frequently found to contain considerable
+quantities of rice, stored up against the dry season.
+
+[Illustration: BANDICOOT.]
+
+_Porcupine_.--The Porcupine[1] is another of the _rodentia_ which has
+drawn down upon itself the hostility of the planters, from its
+destruction of the young coconut palms, to which it is a pernicious and
+persevering, but withal so crafty, a visitor, that it is with difficulty
+any trap can be so disguised, or any bait made so alluring, as to lead
+to its capture. The usual expedient in Ceylon is to place some of its
+favourite food at the extremity of a trench, so narrow as to prevent the
+porcupine turning, whilst the direction of his quills effectually bars
+his retreat backwards. On a newly planted coconut tope, at Hang-welle,
+within a few miles of Colombo, I have heard of as many as twenty-seven
+being thus captured in a single night; but such success is rare. The
+more ordinary expedient is to smoke them out by burning straw at the
+apertures of their burrows. At Ootacamund, on the continent of the
+Dekkan, spring-guns have been used with great success by the
+Superintendent of the Horticultural Gardens; placing them so as to sweep
+the runs of the porcupines. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon,
+and in consistency, colour, and flavour it very much resembles young
+pork.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hystrix leucurus, _Sykes_.]
+
+V. EDENTATA. _Pengolin_.--Of the Edentata the only example in Ceylon is
+the scaly ant-eater, called by the Singhalese, Caballaya, but usually
+known by its Malay name of _Pengolin_[1], a word indicative of its
+faculty, when alarmed, of "rolling itself up" into a compact ball, by
+bending its head towards its stomach, arching its back into a circle,
+and securing all by a powerful fold of its mail-covered tail. The feet
+of the pengolin are armed with powerful claws, which in walking they
+double in, like the ant-eater of Brazil. These they use in extracting
+their favourite food from ant-hills and decaying wood. When at liberty,
+they burrow in the dry ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, where
+they reside in pairs, and produce annually one or two young.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Manis pentadactyla, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 2: I am assured that there is a hedge-hog in Ceylon; but as I
+have never seen it, I cannot tell whether it belongs to either of the
+two species known in India (_Erinaceus mentalis_ and _E. collaris_)--nor
+can I vouch for its existence there at all. But the fact was told to me,
+in connexion with the statement, that its favourite dwelling is in the
+same burrow with the pengolin. The popular belief in this is attested by
+a Singhalese proverb, in relation to an intrusive personage; the import
+of which is that he is like "_a hedge-hog in the den of a pengolin_."]
+
+Of two specimens which I kept alive at different times, one, about two
+feet in length, from the vicinity of Kandy, was a gentle and affectionate
+creature, which, after wandering over the house in search of ants, would
+attract attention to its wants by climbing up my knee, laying hold of my
+leg with its prehensile tail. The other, more than double that length,
+was caught in the jungle near Chilaw, and brought to me in Colombo. I
+had always understood that the pengolin was unable to climb trees; but
+the one last mentioned frequently ascended a tree in my garden, in
+search of ants; and this it effected by means of its hooked feet, aided
+by an oblique grasp of the tail. The ants it seized by extending its
+round and glutinous tongue along their tracks; and in the stomach of one
+which was opened after death, I found a quantity of small stones and
+gravel, which had been taken to facilitate digestion. In both specimens
+in my possession the scales of the back were a cream-coloured white,
+with a tinge of red in that which came from Chilaw, probably acquired by
+the insinuation of the Cabook dust which abounds along the western coast
+of the island.
+
+[Illustration: THE PENGOLIN.]
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF PENGOLIN.]
+
+Of the habits of the pengolin I found that very little was known by the
+natives, who regard it with aversion, one name given to it being the
+"Negombo Devil." Those kept by me were, generally speaking, quiet during
+the day, and grew restless and active as evening and night approached.
+Both had been taken near rocks, in the hollows of which they had their
+dwelling, but owing to their slow power of motion, they were unable to
+reach their hiding place when overtaken. When frightened, they rolled
+themselves instantly into a rounded ball; and such was the powerful
+force of muscle, that the strength of a man was insufficient to uncoil
+it. In reconnoitring they made important use of the tail, resting upon
+it and their hind legs, and holding themselves nearly erect, to command
+a view of their object. The strength of this powerful limb will be
+perceived from the accompanying drawing of the skeleton of the Manis; in
+which it will be seen that the tail is equal in length to all the rest
+of the body, whilst the vertebrae which compose it are stronger by far
+than those of the back.
+
+From the size and position of the bones of the leg, the pengolin is
+endued with prodigious power; and its faculty of exerting this
+vertically, was displayed in overturning heavy cases, by insinuating
+itself under them, between the supports, by which it is customary in
+Ceylon to raise trunks a few inches above the floor, in order to prevent
+the attacks of white ants.
+
+VI. RUMINANTIA. _The Gaur_.--Besides the deer, and some varieties of the
+humped ox, that have been introduced from the opposite continent of
+India, Ceylon has probably but one other indigenous bovine _ruminant_,
+the buffalo.[1] There is a tradition that the gaur, found in the
+extremity of the Indian peninsula, was at one period a native of the
+Kandyan Mountains; but as Knox speaks of one which in his time "was kept
+among the king's creatures" at Kandy[2], and his account of it tallies
+with that of the _Bos Gaurus_ of Hindustan, it would appear even then to
+have been a rarity. A place between Neuera-ellia and Adam's Peak bears
+the name of "Gowra-ellia," and it is not impossible that the animal may
+yet be discovered in some of the imperfectly explored regions of the
+island.[3] I have heard of an instance in which a very old Kandyan,
+residing in the mountains near the Horton Plains, asserted that when
+young he had seen what he believed to have been a gaur, and he described
+it as between an elk and a buffalo in size, dark brown in colour, and
+very scantily provided with hair.
+
+[Footnote 1: Bubalus buffelus, _Gray_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: KNOX, _Historical Relation of Ceylon, &c._, A.D. 1681. Book
+i. c. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 3: KELAART, _Fauna Zeylan_., p. 87.]
+
+_Oxen_.--Oxen are used by the peasantry both in ploughing and in
+tempering the mud in the wet paddi fields before sowing the rice; and
+when the harvest is reaped they "tread out the corn," after the
+immemorial custom of the East. The wealth of the native chiefs and
+landed proprietors frequently consists in their herds of bullocks, which
+they hire out to their dependents during the seasons for agricultural
+labour; and as they already supply them with land to be tilled, and lend
+the seed which is to crop it, the further contribution of this portion
+of the labour serves to render the dependence of the peasantry on the
+chiefs and headmen complete.
+
+The cows are often worked as well as the oxen; and as the calves are
+always permitted to suck them, milk is an article which the traveller
+can rarely hope to procure in a Kandyan village. From their constant
+exposure at all seasons, the cattle in Ceylon, both those employed in
+agriculture and those on the roads, are subject to devastating murrains,
+that sweep them away by thousands. So frequent is the recurrence of
+these calamities, and so extended their ravages, that they exercise a
+serious influence upon the commercial interests of the colony, by
+reducing the facilities of agriculture, and augmenting the cost of
+carriage during the most critical periods of the coffee harvest.
+
+A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, frequently carries off the
+cattle in Assam and other hill countries on the continent of India; and
+there, as in Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the lungs and throat,
+and the internal derangement and external eruptive appearances, seem to
+indicate that the disease is a feverish influenza, attributable to
+neglect and exposure in a moist and variable climate; and that its
+prevention might be hoped for, and the cattle preserved, by the simple
+expedient of more humane and considerate treatment, especially by
+affording them cover at night.
+
+During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred at Neuera-ellia,
+which invested one of these pretty animals with an heroic interest. A
+little cow, belonging to an English gentleman, was housed, together with
+her calf, near the dwelling of her owner, and being aroused during the
+night by her furious bellowing, the servants, on hastening to the stall,
+found her goring a leopard, which had stolen in to attack the calf. She
+had got it into a corner, and whilst lowing incessantly to call for
+help, she continued to pound it with her horns. The wild animal,
+apparently stupified by her unexpected violence, was detained by her
+till despatched by a bullet.
+
+The number of bullock-carts encountered between Colombo and Kandy, laden
+with coffee from the interior, or carrying up rice and stores for the
+supply of the plantations in the hill-country, is quite surprising. The
+oxen thus employed on this single road, about seventy miles long, are
+estimated at upwards of twenty thousand. The bandy to which they are
+yoked is a barbarous two-wheeled waggon, with a covering of plaited
+coco-nut leaves, in which a pair of strong bullocks will draw from five
+to ten hundred weight, according to the nature of the country; and with
+this load on a level they will perform a journey of twenty miles a day.
+
+A few of the large humped cattle of India are annually imported for
+draught; but the vast majority of those in use are small and
+dark-coloured, with a graceful head and neck, and elevated hump, a deep
+silky dewlap, and limbs as slender as a deer. They appear to have
+neither the strength nor weight requisite for this service; and yet the
+entire coffee crop of Ceylon, amounting annually to upwards of half a
+million hundred weight, is year after year brought down from the
+mountains to the coast by these indefatigable little creatures, which,
+on returning, carry up proportionally heavy loads, of rice and
+implements for the estates.[1] There are two varieties of the native
+bullock; one a somewhat coarser animal, of a deep red colour; the other,
+the high-bred black one I have just described. So rare was a white one
+of this species, under the native kings, that the Kandyans were
+compelled to set them apart for the royal herd.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: A pair of these little bullocks carry up about twenty
+bushels of rice to the hills, and bring down from fifty to sixty bushels
+of coffee to Colombo.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WOLF says that, in the year 1763, he saw in Ceylon two
+white oxen, each of which measured upwards of eight feet high. They were
+sent as a present from the King of Atchin.--_Life and Adventures_, p.
+172.]
+
+Although bullocks may be said to be the only animals of draught and
+burden in Ceylon (horses being rarely used except in spring carriages),
+no attempt has been made to improve the breed, or even to better the
+condition and treatment of those in use. Their food is indifferent,
+pasture in all parts of the island being rare, and cattle are seldom
+housed under any vicissitudes of weather.
+
+The labour for which they are best adapted, and in which, before the
+opening of roads, these cattle were formerly employed, is in traversing
+the jungle paths of the interior, carrying light loads as pack-oxen in
+what is called a "_tavalam_"--a term which, substituting bullocks for
+camels, is equivalent to a "caravan."[1] The class of persons engaged in
+this traffic in Ceylon resemble in their occupations the "Banjarees" of
+Hindustan, who bring down to the coast corn, cotton, and oil, and take
+back to the interior cloths and iron and copper utensils. In the
+unopened parts of the island, and especially in the eastern provinces,
+this primitive practice still continues. When travelling in these
+districts I have often encountered long files of pack-bullocks toiling
+along the mountain paths, their bells tinkling musically as they moved;
+or halting during the noonday heat beside some stream in the forests,
+their burdens piled in heaps near the drivers, who had lighted their
+cooking fires, whilst the bullocks were permitted to bathe and browse.
+
+[Footnote 1: Attempts have been made to domesticate the camel in Ceylon;
+but, I am told, they died of ulcers in the feet, attributed to the too
+great moisture of the roads at certain seasons. This explanation seems
+insufficient if taken in connection with the fact of the camel living in
+perfect health in climates equally, if not more, exposed to rain. I
+apprehend that sufficient justice has not been done to the experiment.]
+
+The persons engaged in this wandering trade are chiefly Moors, and the
+business carried on by them consists in bringing up salt from the
+government depots on the coast to be bartered with the Kandyans in the
+hills for "native coffee," which is grown in small quantities round
+every house, but without systematic cultivation. This they carry down to
+the maritime towns, and the proceeds are invested in cotton cloths and
+brass utensils, dried fish, and other commodities, with which the
+_tavalams_ supply the secluded villages of the interior.
+
+_The Buffalo_.--Buffaloes abound in all parts of Ceylon, but they are
+only to be seen in their native wildness in the vast solitudes of the
+northern and eastern provinces, where rivers, lagoons, and dilapidated
+tanks abound. In these they delight to immerse themselves, till only
+their heads appear above the surface; or, enveloped in mud to protect
+themselves from the assaults of insects, they luxuriate in the long
+sedges by the water margins. When the buffalo is browsing, a crow will
+frequently be seen stationed on its back, engaged in freeing it from the
+ticks and other pests which attach themselves to its leathery hide, the
+smooth brown surface of which, unprotected by hair, shines with an
+unpleasant polish in the sunlight. When in motion a buffalo throws back
+its clumsy head till the huge horns rest on its shoulders, and the nose
+is presented in a line with the eyes.
+
+The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain, and such is its
+strength and courage that in the Hindu epic of the Ramayana its
+onslaught is compared to that of the tiger.[1] It is never quite safe to
+approach them, if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from their
+repose in the shallow lakes. On such occasions they hurry into line,
+draw up in defensive array, with a few of the oldest bulls in advance;
+and, wheeling in circles, their horns clashing with a loud sound as they
+clank them together in their rapid evolutions, they prepare for attack;
+but generally, after a menacing display the herd betake themselves to
+flight; then forming again at a safer distance, they halt as before,
+elevating their nostrils, and throwing back their heads to take a
+defiant survey of the intruders. The true sportsman rarely molests them,
+so huge a creature affording no worthy mark for his skill, and their
+wanton slaughter adds nothing to the supply of food for their assailant.
+
+[Footnote 1: CAREY and MARSHMAN'S Transl. vol. i. p. 430, 447.]
+
+In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese domesticate buffaloes,
+and use them to assist in the labour of the rice lands, the villagers
+are much annoyed by the wild ones, that mingle with the tame when sent
+out to the woods to pasture; and it constantly happens that a savage
+stranger, placing himself at the head of the tame herd, resists the
+attempts of the owners to drive them homewards at sunset. In the
+districts of Putlam and the Seven Corles, buffaloes are generally used
+for draught; and in carrying heavy loads of salt from the coast towards
+the interior, they drag a cart over roads which would defy the weaker
+strength of bullocks.
+
+In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie I found the natives
+making an ingenious use of them when engaged in shooting water-fowl in
+the vast salt marshes and muddy lakes. Being an object to which the
+birds are accustomed, the Singhalese train the buffalo to the sport,
+and, concealed behind, the animal browsing listlessly along, they guide
+it by ropes attached to its horns, and thus creep undiscovered within
+shot of the flock. The same practice prevails, I believe, in some of the
+northern parts of India, where they are similarly trained to assist the
+sportsman in approaching deer. One of these "sporting buffaloes" sells
+for a considerable sum.
+
+In the thick forests which cover the Passdun Corle, to the east, and
+south of Caltura, the natives use the sporting buffalo in another way,
+to assist in hunting deer and wild hogs. A bell is attached to its neck,
+and a box or basket with one side open is securely strapped on its back.
+This at nightfall is lighted by flambeaux of wax, and the buffalo
+bearing it, is driven slowly into the jungle. The huntsmen, with their
+fowling pieces, keep close under the darkened side, and as it moves
+slowly onwards, the wild animals, startled by the sound, and bewildered
+by the light, steal cautiously towards it in stupified fascination. Even
+the snakes, I am assured, will be attracted by this extraordinary
+object; and the leopard too falls a victim to curiosity.
+
+There is a peculiarity in the formation of the buffalo's foot, which,
+though it must have attracted attention, I have never seen mentioned by
+naturalists. It is equivalent to the arrangement which distinguishes the
+foot of the reindeer from that of the stag and the antelope. In the
+latter, the hoofs, being constructed for lightness and flight, are
+compact and vertical; but, in the reindeer, the joints of the tarsal
+bones admit of lateral expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards,
+while the two secondary ones behind (which are but slightly developed in
+the fallow deer and others of the same family) are prolonged vertically
+till, in certain positions, they are capable of being applied to the
+ground, thus adding to the circumference and sustaining power of the
+foot. It has been usually suggested as the probable design of this
+structure, that it is to enable the reindeer to shovel away the snow in
+order to reach the lichens beneath it; but I apprehend that another use
+of it has been overlooked, that of facilitating its movements in search
+of food by increasing the difficulty of its sinking in the snow.
+
+A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems to point to a
+corresponding design. The ox, whose life is spent on firm ground, has
+the bones of the foot so constructed as to afford the most solid support
+to an animal of its great weight; but in the buffalo, which delights in
+the morasses on the margins of pools and rivers, the construction of the
+foot resembles that of the reindeer. The tarsi in front extend almost
+horizontally from the upright bones of the leg, and spread apart widely
+on touching the ground; the hoofs are flattened and broad, with the
+extremities turned upwards; and the false hoofs behind descend till they
+make a clattering sound as the animal walks. In traversing the marshes,
+this combination of abnormal incidents serves to give extraordinary
+breadth to the foot, and not only prevents the buffalo from sinking
+inconveniently in soft ground[1], but at the same time presents no
+obstacle to the withdrawal of its foot from the mud.
+
+[Footnote 1: PROFESSOR OWEN has noticed a similar fact regarding the
+rudiments of the second and fifth digits in the instance of the elk and
+bison, which have them largely expanded where they inhabit swampy
+ground; whilst they are nearly obliterated in the camel and dromedary,
+that traverse arid deserts.--OWEN _on Limbs_, p. 34; see also BELL _on
+the Hand_, ch. iii.]
+
+The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in Ceylon as an albino,
+with purely white hair and a pink iris.
+
+_Deer_.--"Deer," says the truthful old chronicler, Robert Knox, "are in
+great abundance in the woods, from the largeness of a cow to the
+smallness of a hare, for here is a creature in this land no bigger than
+the latter, though every part rightly resembleth a deer: it is called
+_meminna_, of a grey colour, with white spots and good meat."[1] The
+little creature which thus dwelt in the recollection of the old man, as
+one of the memorials of his long captivity, is the small "musk deer"[2]
+so called in India, although neither sex is provided with a musk-bag.
+The Europeans in Ceylon know it by the name of the "moose deer;" and in
+all probability the terms _musk_ and _moose_ are both corruptions of the
+Dutch word "_muis_," or "mouse" deer, a name particularly applicable to
+the timid and crouching attitudes and aspect of this beautiful little
+creature. Its extreme length never reaches two feet; and of those which
+were domesticated about my house, few exceeded ten inches in height,
+their graceful limbs being of proportionate delicacy. It possesses long
+and extremely large tusks, with which it can inflict a severe bite. The
+interpreter moodliar of Negombo had a _milk white_ meminna in 1847,
+which he designed to send home as an acceptable present to Her Majesty,
+but it was unfortunately killed by an accident.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Relation, &c._, book i. c. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Moschus meminna.]
+
+[Footnote 3: When the English look possession of Kandy, in 1803, they
+found "five beautiful milk-white deer in the palace, which was noted as
+a very extraordinary thing."--_Letter_ in Appendix to PERCIVAL'S
+_Ceylon_, p. 428. The writer does not say of what species they were.]
+
+[Illustration: "MOOSE" DEER (MOSCHUS MEMINNA)]
+
+_Ceylon Elk_.--In the mountains, the Ceylon elk[1], which reminds one of
+the red deer of Scotland, attains the height of four or five feet; it
+abounds in all shady places that are intersected by rivers; where,
+though its chase affords an endless resource to the sportsman, its
+venison scarcely equals in quality the inferior beef of the lowland ox.
+In the glades and park-like openings that diversify the great forests of
+the interior, the spotted Axis troops in herds as numerous as the fallow
+deer in England: but, in journeys through the jungle, when often
+dependent on the guns of our party for the precarious supply of the
+table, we found the flesh of the Axis[2] and the Muntjac[3] a sorry
+substitute for that of the pea-fowl, the jungle-cock, and flamingo. The
+occurrence of albinos is very frequent in troops of the axis. Deer's
+horns are an article of export from Ceylon, and considerable quantities
+are annually sent to the United Kingdom.
+
+[Footnote 1: Rusa Aristotelis. Dr. GRAY has lately shown that this is
+the great _axis_ of Cuvier.--_Oss. Foss._ 502. t. 39; f. 10: The
+Singhalese, on following the elk, frequently effect their approaches by
+so imitating the call of the animal as to induce them to respond. An
+instance occurred during my residence in Ceylon, in which two natives,
+whose mimicry had mutually deceived them, crept so close together in the
+jungle that one shot the other, supposing the cry to proceed from the
+game.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Axis maculata, _H. Smith_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Stylocerus muntjac, _Horss_.]
+
+VII. PACHYDERMATA.--_The Elephant_.--The elephant, and the wild boar,
+the Singhalese "waloora,"[1] are the only representatives of the
+_pachydermatous_ order. The latter, which differs somewhat from the wild
+boar of India, is found in droves in all parts of the island where
+vegetation and water are abundant.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. BLYTH of Calcutta has distinguished, from the hog,
+common in India, a specimen sent to him from Ceylon, the skull of which
+approaches in form, that of a species from Borneo, the _susbarbatus_ of
+S. Mueller.]
+
+The elephant, the lord paramount of the Ceylon forests, is to be met
+with in every district, on the confines of the woods, in the depths of
+which he finds concealment and shade during the hours when the sun is
+high, and from which he emerges only at twilight to wend his way towards
+the rivers and tanks, where he luxuriates till dawn, when he again seeks
+the retirement of the deep forests. This noble animal fills so dignified
+a place both in the zoology and oeconomy of Ceylon, and his habits in a
+state of nature have been so much misunderstood, that I shall devote a
+separate section to his defence from misrepresentation, and to an
+exposition of what, from observation and experience, I believe to be his
+genuine character when free in his native domains. But this seems the
+proper place to allude to a recent discovery in connexion with the
+elephant, which strikingly confirms a conjecture which I ventured to
+make elsewhere[1], relative to the isolation of Ceylon and its
+distinctness, in many remarkable particulars, from the great continent
+of India. Every writer who previously treated of the island, including
+the accomplished Dr. Davy and the erudite Lassen, was contented, by a
+glance at its outline and a reference to its position on the map, to
+assume that Ceylon was a fragment, which in a very remote age had been
+torn from the adjacent mainland, by some convulsion of nature. Hence it
+was taken for granted that the vegetation which covers and the races of
+animals which inhabit it, must be identical with those of Hindustan; to
+which Ceylon was alleged to bear the same relation as Sicily presents to
+the peninsula of Italy. MALTE BRUN[2] and the geographers generally,
+declared the larger animals of either to be common to both. I was led to
+question the soundness of this dictum;--and from a closer examination of
+its geological conformation and of its botanical and zoological
+characteristics I came to the conclusion that not only is there an
+absence of sameness between the formations of the two localities; but
+that plants and animals, mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects exist in
+Ceylon, which are not to be found in the flora and fauna of the Dekkan;
+but which present a striking affinity, and occasionally an actual
+identity, with those of the Malayan countries and some of the islands of
+the Eastern Archipelago. Startling as this conclusion appeared to be, it
+was strangely in unison with the legends of the Singhalese themselves,
+that at an infinitely remote period Ceylon formed an integral portion of
+a vast continent, known in the mythical epics of the Brahmans by the
+designation of "_Lanka_;" so immense that its southern extremity fell
+below the equator, whilst in breadth it was prolonged till its western
+and eastern boundaries touch at once upon the shores of Africa and
+China.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ceylon, &c._, by Sir J. EMERSON TENNENT, vol. i. pp. 7,
+13, 85, 160, 183, n., 205, 270, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 2: MALTE BRUN, _Geogr. Univ._, l. xlix.]
+
+Dim as is this ancient tradition, it is in consistency with the
+conclusions of modern geology, that at the commencement of the tertiary
+period northern Asia and a considerable part of India were in all
+probability covered by the sea but that south of India land extended
+eastward and westward connecting Malacca with Arabia. PROFESSOR ANSTED
+has propounded this view. His opinion is, that the Himalayas then
+existed only as a chain of islands, and did not till a much later age
+become elevated into mountain ranges,--a change which took place during
+the same revolution that raised the great plains of Siberia and Tartary
+and many parts of north-western Europe. At the same time the great
+continent whose position between the tropics has been alluded to, and
+whose previous existence is still indicated by the Coral islands, the
+Laccadives, the Maldives, and the Chagos group, underwent simultaneous
+depression by a counteracting movement.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _The Ancient World_, by D.T. ANSTED, M.A., &c., pp.
+322-324.]
+
+But divested of oriental mystery and geologic conjecture, and brought to
+the test of "geographical distribution," this once prodigious continent
+would appear to have connected the distant Islands of Ceylon and Sumatra
+and possibly to have united both to the Malay peninsula, from which the
+latter is now severed by the Straits of Malacca. The proofs of physical
+affinity between these scattered localities are exceedingly curious.
+
+A striking dissimilarity presents itself between some of the Mammalia of
+Ceylon and those of the continent of India. In its general outline and
+feature, this branch of the island fauna, no doubt, exhibits a general
+resemblance to that of the mainland, although many of the larger animals
+of the latter are unknown in Ceylon: but, on the other hand, some
+species discovered there are peculiar to the island. A deer[1] as large
+as the Axis, but differing from it in the number and arrangement of its
+spots, has been described by Dr. Kelaart, to whose vigilance the natural
+history of Ceylon is indebted, amongst others, for the identification of
+two new species of monkeys[2], a number of curious shrews[3], and an
+orange-coloured ichneumon[4], before unknown. There are also two
+squirrels[5] that have not as yet been discovered elsewhere, (one of
+them belonging to those equipped with a parachute[6],) as well as some
+local varieties of the palm squirrel (Sciurus penicillatus, _Leach_).[7]
+
+[Footnote 1: Cervus orizus, KELAART, _Prod. F. Zeyl.,_ p. 83.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Presbytes ursinus, _Blyth_, and P. Thersites, _Elliot_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Sorex montanus, S. ferrugineus, and Feroculus macropus.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Herpestes fulvescens, KELAART, _Prod. Faun. Zeylan_.. App.
+p. 42.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Sciurus Tennentii, _Layard_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Sciuropterus Layardi, _Kelaart_.]
+
+[Footnote 7: There is a rat found only in the Cinnamon Gardens at
+Colombo, Mus Ceylonus, _Kelaart_; and a mouse which Dr. Kelaart
+discovered at Trincomalie, M. fulvidiventris, _Blyth_, both peculiar to
+Ceylon. Dr. TEMPLETON has noticed a little shrew (Corsira purpurascens,
+_Mag. Nat. Hist_. 1855, p. 238) at Neuera-ellia, not as yet observed
+elsewhere.]
+
+But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a number of minor animals found
+in the Indian peninsula, cannot boast such a ruminant as the majestic
+Gaur[1], which inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin to the
+Himalaya; and, providentially, the island is equally free of the
+formidable tiger and the ferocious wolf of Hindustan. The Hyena and
+Cheetah[2], common in Southern India, are unknown in Ceylon; and, though
+abundant in deer, the island possesses no example of the Antelope or the
+Gazelle.
+
+[Footnote 1: Bos cavifrons, _Hodgs_.; B. frontalis, _Lamb_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Felis jubata, _Schreb_.]
+
+Amongst the Birds of Ceylon, the same abnormity is apparent. About
+thirty-eight species will be presently particularised[1], which,
+although some of them may hereafter be discovered to have a wider
+geographical range, are at present believed to be unknown in continental
+India. I might further extend this enumeration, by including the Cheela
+eagle of Ceylon, which, although I have placed it in my list as
+identical with the _Hematornis cheela_ of the Dekkan, is, I have since
+been assured, a different bird, and is most probably the _Falco bido_ of
+Horsfield, known to us by specimens obtained from Java and Sumatra.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Chapter on the Birds of Ceylon.]
+
+As to the Fishes of Ceylon, they are of course less distinct; and
+besides they have hitherto been very imperfectly compared. But the
+Insects afford a remarkable confirmation of the view I have ventured to
+propound; so much so that Mr. Walker, by whom the elaborate lists
+appended to this work have been prepared, asserts that some of the
+families have a less affinity to the entomology of India than to that of
+Australia.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Chapter on the Insects of Ceylon.]
+
+But more conclusive than all, is the discovery to which I have alluded,
+in relation to the elephant of Ceylon. Down to a very recent period it
+was universally believed that only two species of the elephant are now
+in existence, the African and the Asiatic; distinguished by certain
+peculiarities in the shape of the cranium, the size of the ears, the
+ridges of the teeth, the number of vertebrae, and, according to Cuvier,
+in the number of nails on the hind feet. The elephant of Ceylon was
+believed to be identical with the elephant of India. But some few years
+back, TEMMINCK, in his survey of the Dutch possessions in the Indian
+Archipelago[1], announced the fact that the elephant which abounds in
+Sumatra (although unknown in the adjacent island of Java), and which had
+theretofore been regarded as the same species with the Indian one, has
+been recently found to possess peculiarities, in which it differs as
+much from the elephant of India, as the latter from its African
+congener. On this new species of elephant, to which the natives give the
+name of _gadjah_, TEMMINCK has conferred the scientific designation of
+the _Elephas Sumatranus_.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Coup d'Oeil General sur les Possessions Neerlandaises dans
+l'Inde Archipelagique_.]
+
+The points which entitle it to this distinction he enumerated minutely
+in the work[1] before alluded to, but they have been summarized as
+follows by Prince Lucien Bonaparte.
+
+[Footnote 1: TEMMINCK, _Coup-d'oeil, &c_., t. i. c. iv. p. 328.; t. ii.
+c. iii. p. 91.]
+
+"This species is perfectly intermediate between the Indian and African,
+especially in the shape of the skull, and will certainly put an end to
+the distinction between _Elephas_ and _Loxodon_, with those who admit
+that anatomical genus; since although the crowns of the teeth of _E.
+Sumatranus_ are more like the Asiatic animal, still the less numerous
+undulated ribbons of enamel are nearly quite as wide as those forming
+the lozenges of the African. The number of pairs of false ribs (which
+alone vary, the true ones being always six) is fourteen, one less than
+in the _Africanus_, _one_ more than in the _Indicus_; and so it is with
+the dorsal vertebrae, which are twenty in the _Sumatranus_ (_twenty-one_
+and _nineteen_, in the others), whilst the new species agrees with
+_Africanus_ in the number of sacral vertebrae (_four_), and with
+_Indicus_ in that of the caudal ones, which are _thirty-four_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Proceed. Zool. Soc. London_, 1849. p. 144, _note_. The
+original description of TEMMINCK is as follows:
+
+"Elephas Sumatranus, _Nob_. ressemble, par la forme generale du crane a
+l'elephant du continent de l'Asie; mais la partie libre des
+intermaxillaires est beaucoup plus courte et plus etroite; les cavites
+nasales sont beaucoup moins larges; l'espace entre les orbites des yeux
+est plus etroit; la partie posterieur du crane au contraire est plus
+large que dans l'espece du continent.
+
+"Les machelieres se rapprochent, par la forme de leur couronne, plutot
+de l'espece Asiatique que do celle qui est propre a l'Afrique;
+c'est-a-dire que leur couronne offre la forme de rubans ondoyes et non
+pas en losange; mais ces rubans sont de la largeur de ceux qu'on voit a
+la couronne des dents de l'elephant d'Afrique; ils sont consequemment
+moins nombreux que dans celui du continent de l'Asie. Les dimensions de
+ces rubans, dans la direction d'avant en arriere, comparees a celle
+prises dans la direction transversale et laterale, sont en raison de 3
+ou 4 a 1; tandis que dans l'elephant du continent elles sont comme 4 ou
+6 a 1. La longueur totale de six de ces rubans, dans l'espece nouvelle
+de Sumatra, ainsi que dans celle d'Afrique, est d'environ 12
+centimetres, tandis que cette longueur n'est que de 8 a 10 centimetres
+dans l'espece du continent de l'Asie.
+
+"Les autres formes osteologiques sont a peu pres les memes dans les
+trois especes; mais il y a difference dans le nombre des os dont le
+squelette se compose, ainsi que le tableau comparatif ci-joint
+l'eprouve.
+
+"_L'elephas Africanus_ a 7 vertebres du cou, 21 vert. dorsales, 3
+lombaires, 4 sacrees, et 26 caudales; 21 paires de cotes, dont 6 vraies,
+et 15 fausses. _L'elephas Indicus_ a 7 vertebres du cou, 19 dorsales, 3
+lombaires, 5 sacrees, et 34 caudales, 19 paires de cotes, dont 6 vraies,
+et 3 fausses. _L'elephas Sumatranus_ a 7 vertebres du cou, 20 dorsales,
+3 lombaires, 4 sacrees, et 34 caudales; 20 paires du cotes, dont 6
+vraies, et 14 fausses.
+
+"Ces caracteres ont ete constates sur trois squelettes de l'espece
+nouvelle, un male et une femelle adultes et un jeune male. Nous n'avons
+pas encore ete a meme de nous procurer la depouille de cette espece."]
+
+PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL of Leyden, in a paper lately submitted by him to the
+Royal Academy of Sciences of Holland, (the substance of which he has
+obligingly communicated to me, through Baron Bentinck the Netherlands
+Minister at this Court), has confirmed the identity of the Ceylon
+elephant with that found in the Lampongs of Sumatra. The osteological
+comparison of which TEMMINCK has given the results was, he says,
+conducted by himself with access to four skeletons of the latter. And
+the more recent opportunity of comparing a living Sumatran elephant with
+one from Bengal, has served to establish other though minor points of
+divergence. The Indian species is more robust and powerful: the
+proboscis longer and more slender; and the extremity, (a point, in which
+the elephant of Sumatra resembles that of Africa,) is more flattened and
+provided with coarser and longer hair than that of India.
+
+PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL, adverting to the large export of elephants from
+Ceylon to the Indian continent, which has been carried on from time
+immemorial, suggests the caution with which naturalists, in
+investigating this question, should first satisfy themselves whether the
+elephants they examine are really natives of the mainland,  or whether
+they have been brought to it from the islands.[1] "The extraordinary
+fact," he observes in his letter to me, "of the identity thus
+established between the elephants of Ceylon and Sumatra; and the points
+in which they are found to differ from that of Bengal, leads to the
+question whether all the elephants of the Asiatic continent belong to
+one single species; or whether these vast regions may not produce in
+some quarter as yet unexplored the one hitherto found only in the two
+islands referred to? It is highly desirable that naturalists who have
+the means and opportunity, should exert themselves to discover, whether
+any traces are to be found of the Ceylon elephant in the Dekkan; or of
+that of Sumatra in Cochin China or Siam."
+
+[Footnote 1: A further inquiry suggests itself, how far the intermixture
+of the breed may have served to confound specific differences, in the
+case of elephants bred on the continent of India, from stock partially
+imported from Ceylon?]
+
+To me the establishment of a fact so conclusively confirmatory of the
+theory I had ventured to broach, is productive of great satisfaction.
+But it is not a little remarkable that the distinction should not long
+before have been discovered between the elephant of India and that of
+Ceylon. Nor can it be regarded otherwise than as a singular illustration
+of "geographical distribution" that two remote islands should be thus
+shown to possess in common a species unknown in any other quarter of the
+globe. As bearing on the ancient myth which represents both countries as
+forming parts of a submerged continent, the discovery is curious--and it
+is equally interesting in connection with the circumstance alluded to by
+Gibbon, that amongst the early geographers and even down to a
+comparatively modern date, Sumatra and Ceylon were confounded; and grave
+doubts were entertained as to which of the two was the "Taprobane" of
+antiquity. GEMMA FRISIUS, SEBASTIAN MUNSTER, JULIUS SCALIGER, ORTELIUS
+and MERCATOR contended for the former; SALMASIUS, BOCHART, CLUVERIUS,
+and VOSSIUS for Ceylon: and the controversy did not cease till it was
+terminated by DELISLE about the beginning of the last century.
+
+VIII. CETACEA.--Whales are so frequently seen that they have been
+captured within sight of Colombo, and more than once their carcases,
+after having been flinched by the whalers, have floated on shore near
+the lighthouse, tainting the atmosphere within the fort by their rapid
+decomposition.
+
+Of this family, one of the most remarkable animals on the coast is the
+dugong[1], a phytophagous cetacean, numbers of which are attracted to
+the inlets, from the bay of Calpentyn to Adam's Bridge, by the still
+water and the abundance of marine algae in these parts of the gulf. One
+which was killed at Manaar and sent to me to Colombo[2] in 1847,
+measured upwards of seven feet in length; but specimens considerably
+larger have been taken at Calpentyn, and their flesh is represented as
+closely resembling veal.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Halicore dugung_, F. Cuv.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The skeleton is now in the Museum of the Natural History
+Society of Belfast.]
+
+[Illustration: THE DUGONG.]
+
+The rude approach to the human outline, observed in the shape of the
+head of this creature, and the attitude of the mother when suckling her
+young, clasping it to her breast with one flipper, while swimming with
+the other, holding the heads of both above water; and when disturbed,
+suddenly diving and displaying her fish-like tail,--these, together with
+her habitual demonstrations of strong maternal affection, probably gave
+rise to the fable of the "mermaid;" and thus that earliest invention of
+mythical physiology may be traced to the Arab seamen and the Greeks, who
+had watched the movements of the dugong in the waters of Manaar.
+
+Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the ocean, near
+Taprobane, with the aspect of a woman[1]; and AElian, adopting and
+enlarging on his information, peoples the seas of Ceylon with fishes
+having the heads of lions, panthers, and rams, and, stranger still,
+_cetaceans in the form of satyrs_. Statements such as these must have
+had their origin in the hairs, which are set round the mouth of the
+dugong, somewhat resembling a beard, which AElian and Megasthenes both
+particularise, from their resemblance to the hair of a woman: "[Greek:
+kai gynaikon opsin echousin aisper anti plokamon akanthai
+prosertentai"][2]
+
+[Footnote 1: MEGASTHENES, _Indica_, fragm. lix. 34,]
+
+[Footnote 2: AELIAN, _Nat. Hist._, lib. xvi. ch. xviii.]
+
+The Portuguese cherished the belief in the mermaid, and the annalist of
+the exploits of the Jesuits in India, gravely records that seven of
+these monsters, male and female, were captured at Manaar in 1560, and
+carried to Goa, where they were dissected by Demas Bosquez, physician to
+the Viceroy, and "their internal structure found to be in all respects
+conformable to the human."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Hist, de la Compagnie de Jesus_, quoted in the _Asiat.
+Journ._ vol. xiv. p. 461; and in FORBES' _Orient. Memoirs_, vol. i. p.
+421.]
+
+The Dutch were no less inclined to the marvellous, and they propagated
+the belief in the mermaid with earnestness and particularity. VALENTYN,
+one of their chaplains, in his account of the Natural History of
+Amboina, embodied in his great work on the Netherlands' Possessions in
+India, published so late as 1727[1], has devoted the first section of
+his chapter on the Fishes of that island to a minute description of the
+"Zee-Menschen, Zee-Wyven," and mermaids. As to the dugong he admits its
+resemblance to the mermaid, but repudiates the idea of its having given
+rise to the fable, by being mistaken for one. This error he imagines
+must have arisen at a time when observations on such matters were made
+with culpable laxity; but now more recent and minute attention has
+established the truth beyond cavil.
+
+[Footnote 1: FRAN. VALENTYN, _Beschryving van Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien_,
+&c. 5 vol. fol. Dordrecht and Amsterdam, MDCCXXVII. vol. iii. p. 330.]
+
+For instance, he states that in 1653, when a lieutenant in the Dutch
+service was leading a party of soldiers along the sea-shore in Amboina,
+he and all his company saw the mermen swimming at a short distance from
+the beach with long and flowing hair, of a colour between gray and
+green--and six weeks afterwards, the creatures were again seen by him
+and more than fifty witnesses, at the same place, by clear daylight.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: VALENTYN, _Beschryving, &c._, vol. iii. p. 331.]
+
+"If any narrative in the world," adds VALENTYN, "deserves credit, it is
+this; since _not only one but two mermen_ together were seen by so many
+eye-witnesses. Should the stubborn world, however, hesitate to believe
+it, it matters nothing; as there are people who would even deny that
+such cities as Rome, Constantinople or Cairo, exist, merely because they
+themselves have not happened to see them."
+
+But what are such incredulous persons, he continues, to make of the
+circumstance recorded by Albert Herport in his account of India[1], that
+a sea-man was seen in the water near the Church of Taquan, on the
+morning of the 29th of April 1661, and a mermaid at the same spot the
+same afternoon?--or what do they say to the fact that in 1714, a mermaid
+was not only seen but captured near the island of Booro? "five feet
+Rhineland measure in height, which lived four days and seven hours, but
+refusing all food, died without leaving any intelligible account of
+herself."
+
+[Footnote 1: Probably the _Itinerarium Indicum_ of ALBRECHT HERPORT.
+Berne, 1669.]
+
+Valentyn, in support of his own faith in the mermaid, cites numerous
+other instances in which both "sea-men and women" were seen and taken at
+Amboina; especially one by an office-bearer in the Church of Holland[1],
+by whom it was surrendered to the Governor Vanderstel.
+
+[Footnote 1: A "krank-bezoeker" or visitant of the sick.]
+
+Of this well-authenticated specimen he gives an elaborate engraving
+amongst those of the authentic fishes of the island--together with a
+minute ichthyological description of each for the satisfaction of men of
+science.
+
+[Illustration: THE MERMAID (From VALENTYN)]
+
+The fame of this creature having reached Europe, the British Minister in
+Holland wrote to Valentyn on the 28th December 1716, whilst the Emperor,
+Peter the Great of Russia, was his guest at Amsterdam; to communicate
+the desire of the Czar, that the mermaid should be brought home from
+Amboina for his Imperial inspection.
+
+To complete his proofs of the existence of mermen and women, Valentyn
+points triumphantly to the historical fact, that in Holland in the year
+1404, a mermaid was driven during a tempest, through a breach in the
+dyke of Edam, and was taken alive in the lake of Purmer. Thence she was
+carried to Harlem, where the Dutch women taught her to spin; and where,
+several years after, she died in the Roman Catholic faith;--"but this,"
+says the pious Calvinistic chaplain, "in no way militates against the
+truth of her story."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: VALENTYN, _Beschryving, &c_., p. 333.]
+
+Finally Valentyn winds up his proofs, by the accumulated testimony of
+Pliny [1], Theodore Gaza, George of Trebisond, and Alexander ab
+Alexandro, to show that mermaids had in all ages been known in Gaul,
+Naples, Epirus, and the Morea. From these and a multitude of more modern
+instances he comes to the conclusion, that as there are "sea-cows,"
+"sea-horses," and "sea-dogs;" as well as "sea-trees" and "sea-flowers"
+which he himself had seen, what grounds in reason are there to doubt
+that there may also be "sea-maidens" and "sea-men!"
+
+[Footnote 1: _Nat. Hist_. l. ix. c. 5, where Pliny speaks of the
+Nereids.]
+
+_List of Ceylon Mammalia._
+
+A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In framing it, as well as
+the lists appended to the other chapters on the Fauna of the island, the
+principal object in view has been to exhibit the extent to which the
+Natural History of the island had been investigated, and collections
+made up to the period of my leaving the colony in 1850. It has been
+considered expedient to exclude a few individuals which have not had the
+advantage of a direct comparison with authentic specimens, either at
+Calcutta or in England. This will account for the omission of a number
+that have appeared in other catalogues, but of which many, though
+ascertained to exist, have not been submitted to this rigorous process
+of identification.
+
+The greater portion of the species of mammals and birds contained in
+these lists will be found, with suitable references to the most accurate
+descriptions, in the admirable catalogue of the collection at the India
+House, published under the care of the late Dr. Horsfield. This work
+cannot be too highly extolled, not alone for the scrupulous fidelity
+with which the description of each species is referred to its first
+discoverer, but also for the pains which have been taken to elaborate
+synonymes and to collate from local periodicals and other sources,
+(little accessible to ordinary inquirers,) such incidents and traits as
+are calculated to illustrate characteristics and habits.
+
+QUADRUMANA.
+
+Presbytes
+  cephalopterus, _Zimm_.
+  ursinus, _Blyth_.
+  Priamus, _Elliot & Blyth_.
+  Thersites, _Blyth_.
+Macacus pileatus, _Shaw & Desm_.
+Loris gracilis, _Geoff_.
+
+
+CHEIROPTERA.
+
+Pteropus Edwardsii, _Geoff_.
+  Leschenaultii, _Dum_.
+Cynopterus
+  marginatus, _Ham_.
+Megaderma spasma, _Linn._
+  lyra, _Geoff_.
+Rhinolophus _affinis_, _Horsf_.
+Hipposideros
+  murinus, _Elliot_.
+  speoris, _Elliot_.
+  armiger, _Hodgs_.
+  vulgaris, _Horsf_.
+Kerivoula picta, _Pall_.
+Taphozous
+  longimanus, _Har_.
+Scotophilus Coromandelicus, _F. Cuv._
+  _adversus_, _Horsf_.
+  Temminkii, _Horsf_.
+  Tickelli, _Blyth_.
+  Heathii.
+
+
+CARNIVORA.
+
+Sorex coerulescens, _Shaw_.
+  ferrugineus, _Kelaart_.
+  serpentarius, _Is. Geoff._
+  montanus, _Kelaart_.
+Feroculus macropus, _Kel_.
+Ursus labiatus, _Blainv_.
+Lutra nair, _F. Cuv_.
+Canis aureus. _Linn._
+Viverra Indica, _Geoff_., _Hod_.
+Herpestes vitticollis, _Benn_.
+  griseus, _Gm_.
+  Smithii, _Gray_.
+  fulvescens, _Kelaart_.
+Paradoxurus typus, _F. Cuv._
+  Ceylonicus, _Pall_.
+Felis pardus, _Linn._
+  chaus, _Guldens_.
+  viverrinus, _Benn_.
+
+
+RODENTIA.
+
+Sciurus macrurus, _Forst_.
+  Tennentii, _Layard_.
+  penicillatus. _Leach_.
+  trilineatus, _Waterh_.
+Sciuropterus Layardi, _Kel_.
+Pteromys petaurista, _Pall_.
+Mus bandicota, _Bechst_.
+  Kok, _Gray_.
+Mus rufescens. _Gray_.
+  nemoralis, _Blyth_.
+  Indicus, _Geoff_.
+  fulvidiventris, _Blyth_.
+Nesoki _Hardwickii_, _Gray_.
+Golunda Neuera, _Kelaart_.
+  Ellioti, _Gray_.
+Gerbillus Indicus, _Hardw_.
+Lepus nigricollis, _F. Cuv._
+Hystrix leucurus, _Sykes_.
+
+
+EDENTATA.
+
+Manis pentadactyla, _Linn._
+
+
+PACHYDERMATA.
+
+Elephas Sumatranus, _Linn._
+Sus Indicus, _Gray_.
+  _Zeylonicus_, _Blyth_.
+
+
+RUMINANTIA.
+
+Moschus meminna, _Eral_.
+Stylocerus muntjac, _Horsf_.
+Axis maculata, _H. Smith_.
+Rusa Aristotelis, _Cuv_.
+
+
+CETACEA.
+
+Halicore dugung, _F. Cuv._
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Structure and Functions._
+
+During my residence at Kandy, I had twice the opportunity of witnessing
+the operation on a grand scale, of capturing wild elephants, intended to
+be trained for the public service in the establishment of the Civil
+Engineer;--and in the course of my frequent journeys through the
+interior of the island, I succeeded in collecting so many facts relative
+to the habits of these interesting animals in a state of nature, as
+enable me not only to add to the information previously possessed, but
+to correct many fallacies popularly received regarding their instincts
+and disposition. These particulars I am anxious to place on record
+before proceeding to describe the scenes of which I was a spectator,
+during the progress of the elephant hunts in the district of the Seven
+Korles, at which I was present in 1846, and again in 1847.
+
+With the exception of the narrow but densely inhabited belt of
+cultivated land, that extends along the seaborde of the island from
+Chilaw on the western coast to Tangalle on the south-east, there is no
+part of Ceylon in which elephants may not be said to abound; even close
+to the environs of the most populous localities of the interior. They
+frequent both the open plains and the deep forests; and their footsteps
+are to be seen wherever food and shade, vegetation and water[1], allure
+them, alike on the summits of the loftiest mountains, and on the borders
+of the tanks and lowland streams.
+
+[Footnote 1: M. AD. PICTET has availed himself of the love of the
+elephant for water, to found on it a solution of the long-contested
+question as to the etymology of the word "elephant,"-a term which,
+whilst it has passed into almost every dialect of the West, is scarcely
+to be traced in any language of Asia. The Greek [Greek: elephas], to
+which we are immediately indebted for it, did not originally mean the
+animal, but, as early as the time of Homer, was applied only to its
+tusks, and signified _ivory_. BOCHART has sought for a Semitic origin,
+and seizing on the Arabic _fil_, and prefixing the article _al_,
+suggests _alfil_, akin to [Greek: eleph]; but rejecting this, BOCHART
+himself resorts to the Hebrew _eleph_, an "ox"--and this conjecture
+derives a certain degree of countenance from the fact that the Romans,
+when they obtained their first sight of the elephant in the army of
+Pyrrhus, in Lucania, called it the _Luca bos_. But the [Greek: antos] is
+still unaccounted for; and POTT has sought to remove the difficulty by
+introducing the Arabic _hindi_, Indian, s thus making _eleph-hindi_,
+"_bos Indicus_." The conversion of _hindi_ into [Greek: antos] is an
+obstacle, but here the example of "tamarind" comes to aid; _tamar
+hindi_, the "Indian date," which in mediaeval Greek forms [Greek:
+tamarenti]. A theory of Benary, that helhephas might be compounded of
+the Arabic _al_, and _ibha_, a Sanskrit name for the elephant, is
+exposed to still greater etymological exception. PICTET'S solution is,
+that in the Sanskrit epics "the King of Elephants," who has the
+distinction of carrying the god Indra, is called _airarata_ or
+_airavana_, a modification of _airavanta_, "son of the ocean," which
+again comes from _iravat_, "abounding in water." "Nous aurions done
+ainsi, comme correlatif du gree [Greek: elephanto], une ancienne forme,
+_airavanta_ ou _ailavanta_, affaiblie plus tard en _airavata_ ou
+_airavana_.... On connait la predilection de l'elephant pour le
+voisinage des fleuves, et son amour pour l'eau, dont l'abondance est
+necessaire a son bien-etre." This Sanskrit name, PICTET supposes, may
+have been carried to the West by the Phoenicians, who were the purveyors
+of ivory from India; and, from the Greek, the Latins derived _elephas_,
+which passed into the modern languages of Italy, Germany, and France.
+But it is curious that the Spaniards acquired from the Moors their
+Arabic term for ivory, _marfil_, and the Portuguese _marfim_; and that
+the Scandinavians, probably from their early expeditions to the
+Mediterranean, adopted _fill_ as their name for the elephant itself, and
+_fil-bein_ for ivory; in Danish, _fils-ben_. (See _Journ. Asiat._ 1843,
+t. xliii. p. 133.) The Spaniards of South America call the palm which
+produces the vegetable ivory (_Phytelephas macrocarpa_) _Palma de
+marfil_, and the nut itself, _marfil vegetal_.
+
+Since the above was written Gooneratne Modliar, the Singhalese
+Interpreter to the Supreme Court at Colombo, has supplied me with
+another conjecture, that the word elephant may possibly be traced to the
+Singhalese name of the animal, _alia_, which means literally, "the huge
+one." _Alia_, he adds, is not a derivation from Sanskrit or Pali, but
+belongs to a dialect more ancient than either.]
+
+From time immemorial the natives have been taught to capture and tame
+them and the export of elephants from Ceylon to India has been going on
+without interruption from the period of the first Punic War.[1] In later
+times all elephants were the property of the Kandyan crown; and their
+capture or slaughter without the royal permission was classed amongst
+the gravest offences in the criminal code.
+
+[Footnote 1: AELIAN, _de Nat. Anim._ lib. xvi. c. 18; COSMAS INDICOPL.,
+p. 128.]
+
+In recent years there is reason to believe that their numbers have
+become considerably reduced. They have entirely disappeared from
+localities in which they were formerly numerous[1]; smaller herds have
+been taken in the periodical captures for the government service, and
+hunters returning from the chase report them to be growing scarce. In
+consequence of this diminution the peasantry in some parts of the island
+have even suspended the ancient practice of keeping watchers and fires
+by night to drive away the elephants from their growing crops.[2] The
+opening of roads and the clearing of the mountain forests of Kandy for
+the cultivation of coffee, have forced the animals to retire to the low
+country, where again they have been followed by large parties of
+European sportsmen; and the Singhalese themselves, being more freely
+provided with arms than in former times, have assisted in swelling the
+annual slaughter.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: LE BRUN, who visited Ceylon A.D. 1705, says that in the
+district round Colombo, where elephants are now never seen, they were
+then so abundant, that 160 had been taken in a single corral. (_Voyage_,
+&c., tom. ii. ch. lxiii. p. 331.)]
+
+[Footnote 2: In some parts of Bengal, where elephants were formerly
+troublesome (especially near the wilds of Ramgur), the natives got rid
+of them by mixing a preparation of the poisonous Nepal root called
+_dakra_ in balls of grain, and other materials, of which the animal is
+fond. In Cuttack, above fifty years ago, mineral poison was laid for
+them in the same way, and the carcases of eighty were found which had
+been killed by it. (_Asiat. Res._, xv. 183.)]
+
+[Footnote 3: The number of elephants has been similarly reduced
+throughout the south of India.]
+
+Had the motive that incites to the destruction of the elephant in Africa
+and India prevailed in Ceylon, that is, had the elephants there been
+provided with tusks, they would long since have been annihilated for the
+sake of their ivory.[1] But it is a curious fact that, whilst in Africa
+and India both sexes have tusks[2], with some slight disproportion in
+the size of those of the females: not one elephant in a hundred is found
+with tusks in Ceylon, and the few that possess them are exclusively
+males. Nearly all, however, have those stunted processes called
+_tushes_, about ten or twelve inches in length and one or two in
+diameter. These I have observed them to use in loosening earth,
+stripping off bark, and snapping asunder small branches and climbing
+plants; and hence tushes are seldom seen without a groove worn into them
+near their extremities.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: The annual importation of ivory into Great Britain alone,
+for the last few years, has been about _one million_ pounds; which,
+taking the average weight of a tusk at sixty pounds, would require the
+slaughter of 8,333 male elephants.
+
+But of this quantity the importation from Ceylon has generally averaged
+only five or six hundred weight; which, making allowance for the
+lightness of the tusks, would not involve the destruction of more than
+seven or eight in each year. At the same time, this does not fairly
+represent the annual number of tuskers shot in Ceylon, not only because
+a portion of the ivory finds its way to China and to other places, but
+because the chiefs and Buddhist priests have a passion for collecting
+tusks, and the finest and largest are to be found ornamenting their
+temples and private dwellings. The Chinese profess that for their
+exquisite carvings the ivory of Ceylon excels all other, both in density
+of texture and in delicacy of tint; but in the European market, the
+ivory of Africa, from its more distinct graining and other causes,
+obtains a higher price.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A writer in the _India Sporting Review_ for October 1857
+says, "In Malabar a tuskless male elephant is rare; I have seen but
+two."--p. 157.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The old fallacy is still renewed, that the elephant sheds
+his tusks. AELIAN says he drops them once in ten years (lib. xiv. c. 5):
+and PLINY repeats the story, adding that, when dropped, the elephants
+hide them under ground (lib. viii.) whence SHAW says, in his _Zoology_,
+"they are frequently found in the woods," and exported from Africa (vol.
+i. p. 213): and Sir W. JARDINE in the _Naturalist's Library_ (vol. ix.
+p. 110), says, "the tusks are shed about the twelfth or thirteenth
+year." This is erroneous: after losing the first pair, or, as they are
+called, the "milk tusks," which drop in consequence of the absorption of
+their roots, when the animal is extremely young, the second pair acquire
+their full size, and become the "permanent tusks," which are never
+shed.]
+
+Amongst other surmises more ingenious than sound, the general absence of
+tusks in the elephant of Ceylon has been associated with the profusion
+of rivers and streams in the island; whilst it has been thrown out as a
+possibility that in Africa, where water is comparatively scarce, the
+animal is equipped with these implements in order to assist it in
+digging wells in the sand and in raising the juicy roots of the mimosas
+and succulent plants for the sake of their moisture. In support of this
+hypothesis, it has been observed, that whilst the tusks of the Ceylon
+species, which are never required for such uses, are slender, graceful
+and curved, seldom exceeding fifty or sixty pounds' weight, those of the
+African elephant are straight and thick, weighing occasionally one
+hundred and fifty, and even three hundred pounds.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding the inferiority in weight of the Ceylon
+tusks, as compared with those of the elephant of India, it would, I
+think, be precipitate to draw the inference that the size of the former
+was uniformly and naturally less than that of the latter. The truth, I
+believe to be, that if permitted to grow to maturity, the tusks of the
+one would, in all probability, equal those of the other; but, so eager
+is the search for ivory in Ceylon, that a tusker, when once observed in
+a herd, is followed up with such vigilant impatience, that he is almost
+invariably shot before attaining his full growth. General DE LIMA, when
+returning from the governorship of the Portuguese settlements at
+Mozambique, told me, in 1848, that he had been requested to procure two
+tusks of the largest size, and straightest possible shape, which were to
+be formed into a cross to surmount the high altar of the cathedral at
+Goa: he succeeded in his commission, and sent two, one of which was 180
+pounds, and the other 170 pounds' weight, with the slightest possible
+curve. In a periodical, entitled _The Friend_, published in Ceylon, it
+is stated in the volume for 1837 that the officers belonging to the
+ships Quorrah and Alburhak, engaged in the Niger Expedition, were shown
+by a native king two tusks, each two feet and a half in circumference at
+the base, eight feet long, and weighing upwards of 200 pounds. (Vol. i.
+p. 225.) BRODERIP, in his _Zoological Recreations_, p. 255, says a tusk
+of 350 pounds' weight was sold at Amsterdam, but he does not quote his
+authority.]
+
+But it is manifestly inconsistent with the idea that tusks were given to
+the elephant to assist him in digging for his food, to find that the
+females are less bountifully supplied with them than the males, whilst
+the necessity for their use extends equally to both sexes. The same
+argument serves to demonstrate the fallacy of the conjecture, that the
+tusks of the elephant were given to him as weapons of offence, for if
+such were the case the vast majority in Ceylon, males as well as
+females, would be left helpless in presence of an assailant. But
+although in their conflicts with one another, those which are provided
+with tusks may occasionally push with them clumsily at their opponents;
+it is a misapprehension to imagine that tusks are designed specially to
+serve "in warding off the attacks of the wily tiger and the furious
+rhinoceros, often securing the victory by one blow which transfixes the
+assailant to the earth."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, published by the Society for the
+Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. i. p. 68: "The Elephant," ch. iii.
+It will be seen that I have quoted repeatedly from this volume, because
+it is the most compendious and careful compilation with which I am
+acquainted of the information previously existing regarding the
+elephant. The author incorporates no speculations of his own, but has
+most diligently and agreeably arranged all the facts collected by his
+predecessors. The story of antipathy between the elephant and rhinoceros
+is probably borrowed from AELIAN _de Nat._, lib. xvii. c. 44.]
+
+So harmless and peaceful is the life of the elephant, that nature
+appears to have left it unprovided with any weapon of offence: its trunk
+is too delicate an organ to be rudely employed in a conflict with other
+animals, and although on an emergency it may push or gore with its tusks
+(to which the French have hastily given the term "_defenses_"), their
+almost vertical position, added to the difficulty of raising its head
+above the level of the shoulder, is inconsistent with the idea of their
+being designed for attack, since it is impossible for the elephant to
+strike an effectual blow, or to "wield" its tusks as the deer and the
+buffalo can direct their horns. Nor is it easy to conceive under what
+circumstances an elephant could have a hostile encounter with either a
+rhinoceros or a tiger, with whose pursuits in a state of nature its own
+can in no way conflict.
+
+Towards man elephants evince shyness, arising from their love of
+solitude and dislike of intrusion; any alarm they exhibit at his
+appearance may be reasonably traced to the slaughter which has reduced
+their numbers; and as some evidence of this, it has always been observed
+that an elephant exhibits greater impatience of the presence of a white
+man than of a native. Were its instincts to carry it further, or were it
+influenced by any feeling of animosity or cruelty, it must be apparent
+that, as against the prodigious numbers that inhabit the forests of
+Ceylon, man would wage an unequal contest, and that of the two one or
+other must long since have been reduced to a helpless minority.
+
+Official testimony is not wanting in confirmation of this view;--in the
+returns of 108 coroners' inquests in Ceylon, during five years, from
+1849 to 1855 inclusive, held in cases of death occasioned by wild
+animals; 16 are recorded as having been caused by elephants, 15 by
+buffaloes, 6 by crocodiles, 2 by boars, 1 by a bear, and 68 by serpents
+(the great majority of the last class of sufferers being women and
+children, who had been bitten during the night). Little more than
+_three_ fatal accidents occurring annually on the average of five years,
+is certainly a very small proportion in a population estimated at a
+million and a half, in an island abounding with elephants, with which,
+independently of casual encounters, voluntary conflicts are daily
+stimulated by the love of sport or the hope of gain. Were the elephants
+instinctively vicious or even highly irritable in their temperament, the
+destruction of human life under the circumstances must have been
+infinitely greater. It must also be taken into account, that some of the
+accidents recorded may have occurred in the rutting season, when
+elephants are subject to fits of temporary fury, known in India by the
+term _must_, in Ceylon _mudda_,--a paroxysm which speedily passes away,
+but during the fury of which it is dangerous even for the mahout to
+approach those ordinarily the gentlest and most familiar.
+
+But, then, the elephant is said to "entertain an extraordinary dislike
+to all quadrupeds; that dogs running near him produce annoyance; that he
+is alarmed if a hare start from her form;" and from Pliny to Buffon
+every naturalist has recorded its supposed aversion to swine.[1] These
+alleged antipathies are in a great degree, if not entirely, imaginary.
+The habits of the elephant are essentially harmless, its wants lead to
+no rivalry with other animals, and the food to which it is most attached
+flourishes in such abundance that it is obtained without an effort. In
+the quiet solitudes of Ceylon, elephants may constantly be seen browsing
+peacefully in the immediate vicinity of other animals, and in close
+contact with them. I have seen groups of deer and wild buffaloes
+reclining in the sandy bed of a river in the dry season, and elephants
+plucking the branches close beside them. They show no impatience in the
+company of the elk, the bear, and the wild hog; and on the other hand, I
+have never discovered an instance in which these animals have evinced
+any apprehension of elephants. The elephant's natural timidity, however,
+is such that it becomes alarmed on the appearance in the jungle of any
+animal with which it is not familiar. It is said to be afraid of the
+horse; but from my own experience, I should say it is the horse that is
+alarmed at the aspect of the elephant. In the same way, from some
+unaccountable impulse, the horse has an antipathy to the camel, and
+evinces extreme impatience, both of the sight and the smell of that
+animal.[2] When enraged, an elephant will not hesitate to charge a rider
+on horseback; but it is against the man, not against the horse, that his
+fury is directed; and no instance has been ever known of his wantonly
+assailing a horse. A horse, belonging to the late Major Rogers[3], had
+run away from his groom, and was found some considerable time afterwards
+grazing quietly with a herd of elephants. In DE BRY'S splendid
+collection of travels, however, there is included "_The voyage of a
+Certain Englishman to Cambay_;" in which the author asserts that at
+Agra, in the year 1607, he was present at a spectacle given by the
+Viceregent of the great Mogul, in the course of which he saw an elephant
+destroy two horses, by seizing them in its trunk, and crushing them
+under foot.[4] But the display was avowedly an artificial one, and the
+creature must have been cruelly tutored for the occasion.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," ch. iii.]
+
+[Footnote 2: This peculiarity was noticed by the ancients, and is
+recorded by Herodotus: [Greek: "kamelon hippos phobeetai, kai ouk
+anechetai oute ten ideen autes oreon oute ten odmen osphrainomenos"]
+(Herod. ch. 80). Camels have long been bred by the Grand Duke of
+Tuscany, at his establishment near Pisa, and even there the same
+instinctive dislike to them is manifested by the horse, which it is
+necessary to train and accustom to their presence in order to avoid
+accidents. Mr. BRODERIP mentions, that, "when the precaution of such
+training has not been adopted, the sudden and dangerous terror with
+which a horse is seized in coming unexpectedly upon one of them is
+excessive."--_Note-book of a Naturalist_, ch. iv. p. 113.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Major ROGERS was many years the chief civil officer of
+Government in the district of Oovah, where he was killed by lightning,
+1845.]
+
+[Footnote 4: "Quidam etiam cum equis silvestribus pugnant. Saepe unus
+elephas cum sex equis committitur; atque ipse adeo interfui cum unus
+elephas duos equos cum primo impetu protinus prosternerit;--injecta enim
+jugulis ipsorum longa proboscide, ad se protractos, dentibus porro
+comminuit ac protrivit." _Angli Cujusdam in Cambayam Navigatio_. DE BRY,
+_Coll., &c._, vol. iii. ch. xvi. p. 31.]
+
+Pigs are constantly to be seen feeding about the stables of the tame
+elephants, which manifest no repugnance to them. As to the smaller
+animals, the elephant undoubtedly evinces uneasiness at the presence of
+a dog, but this is referable to the same cause as its impatience of a
+horse, namely, that neither is habitually seen by it in the forest; but
+it would be idle to suppose that this feeling could amount to hostility
+against a creature incapable of inflicting on it the slightest
+injury.[1] The truth I apprehend to be that, when they meet, the
+impudence and impertinences of the dog are offensive to the gravity of
+the elephant, and incompatible with his love of solitude and ease. Or
+may it be assumed as an evidence of the sagacity of the elephant, that
+the only two animals to which it manifests an antipathy, are the two
+which it has seen only in the company of its enemy, man? One instance
+has certainly been attested to me by an eye-witness, in which the trunk
+of an elephant was seized in the teeth of a Scotch terrier, and such was
+the alarm of the huge creature that it came at once to its knees. The
+dog repeated the attack, and on every renewal of it the elephant
+retreated in terror, holding its trunk above its head, and kicking at
+the terrier with its fore feet. It would have turned to flight, but for
+the interference of its keeper.
+
+[Footnote 1: To account for the impatience manifested by the elephant at
+the presence of a dog, it has been suggested that he is alarmed lest the
+latter should attack _his feet_, a portion of his body of which the
+elephant is peculiarly careful. A tame elephant has been observed to
+regard with indifference a spear directed towards his head, but to
+shrink timidly from the same weapon when pointed at his foot.]
+
+Major Skinner, formerly commissioner of roads in Ceylon, whose official
+duties in constructing highways involved the necessity of his being in
+the jungle for months together, always found that, by night or by day,
+the barking of a dog which accompanied him, was sufficient to put a herd
+to flight. On the whole, therefore, I am of opinion that the elephant
+lives on terms of amity with every quadruped in the forest, that it
+neither regards them as its foes, nor provokes their hostility by its
+acts; and that, with the exception of man, _its greatest enemy is a
+fly_!
+
+The current statements as to the supposed animosity of the elephant to
+minor animals originated with AElian and Pliny, who had probably an
+opportunity of seeing, what may at any time be observed, that when a
+captive elephant is picketed beside a post, the domestic animals, goats,
+sheep, and cattle, will annoy and irritate him by their audacity in
+making free with his provender; but this is an evidence in itself of the
+little instinctive dread which such comparatively puny creatures
+entertain of one so powerful and yet so gentle.
+
+Amongst elephants themselves, jealousy and other causes of irritation
+frequently occasion contentions between individuals of the same herd;
+but on such occasions it is their habit to strike with their trunks, and
+to bear down their opponents with their heads. It is doubtless correct
+that an elephant, when prostrated by the force and fury of an antagonist
+of its own species, is often wounded by the downward pressure of the
+tusks, which in any other position it would be almost impossible to use
+offensively.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A writer in the _India Sporting Review_ for October 1857
+says a male elephant was killed by two others close to his camp: "the
+head was completely smashed in; there was a large hole in the side, and
+the abdomen was ripped open. The latter wound was given probably after
+it had fallen."--P. 175.]
+
+Mr. Mercer, who in 1846 was the principal civil officer of Government at
+Badulla, sent me a jagged fragment of an elephant's tusk, about five
+inches in diameter, and weighing between twenty and thirty pounds, which
+had been brought to him by some natives, who, being attracted by a noise
+in the jungle, witnessed a combat between a tusker and one without
+tusks, and saw the latter with his trunk seize one of the tusks of his
+antagonist and wrench from it the portion in question, which measured
+two feet in length.
+
+Here the trunk was shown to be the more powerful offensive weapon of the
+two; but I apprehend that the chief reliance of the elephant for defence
+is on its ponderous weight, the pressure of its foot being sufficient to
+crush any minor assailant after being prostrated by means of its trunk.
+Besides, in using its feet for this purpose, it derives a wonderful
+facility from the peculiar formation of the knee-joint in the hind leg,
+which, enabling it to swing the hind feet forward close to the ground,
+assists it to toss the body alternately from foot to foot, till deprived
+of life.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: In the Third Book of Maccabees, which is not printed in our
+Apocrypha, but appears in the series in the Greek Septuagint, the
+author, in describing the persecution of the Jews by Ptolemy Philopater,
+B.C. 210, states that the king swore vehemently that he would send them
+into the other world, "foully trampled to death by the knees and feet of
+elephants" ([Greek: pempsein eis haden en gonasi kai posi therion
+hekismenous.] 3 Mac. v. 42). AELIAN makes the remark, that elephants on
+such occasions use their _knees_ as well as their feet to crush their
+victims.--_Hist Anim._ viii. 10.]
+
+A sportsman who had partially undergone this operation, having been
+seized by a wounded elephant but rescued from its fury, described to me
+his sufferings as he was thus flung back and forward between the hind
+and fore feet of the animal, which ineffectually attempted to trample
+him at each concussion, and abandoned him without inflicting serious
+injury.
+
+KNOX, in describing the execution of criminals by the state elephants of
+the former kings of Kandy, says, "they will run their teeth (_tusks_)
+through the body, and then tear it in pieces and throw it limb from
+limb;" but a Kandyan chief, who was witness to such scenes, has assured
+me that the elephant never once applied its tusks, but, placing its foot
+on the prostrate victim, plucked off his limbs in succession by a sudden
+movement of the trunk. If the tusks were designed to be employed
+offensively, some alertness would naturally be exhibited in using them;
+but in numerous instances where sportsmen have fallen into the power of
+a wounded elephant, they have escaped through the failure of the enraged
+animal to strike them with its tusks, even when stretched upon the
+ground.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The _Hastisilpe_, a Singhalese work which treats of the
+"Science of Elephants," enumerates amongst those which it is not
+desirable to possess, "the elephant which will fight with a stone or a
+stick in his trunk."]
+
+Placed as the elephant is in Ceylon, in the midst of the most luxuriant
+profusion of its favourite food, in close proximity at all times to
+abundant supplies of water, and with no enemies against whom to protect
+itself, it is difficult to conjecture any probable utility which it
+could derive from such appendages. Their absence is unaccompanied by any
+inconvenience to the individuals in whom they are wanting; and as
+regards the few who possess them, the only operations in which I am
+aware of their tusks being employed in relation to the oeconomy of the
+animal, is to assist in ripping open the stem of the jaggery palms and
+young palmyras to extract the farinaceous core; and in splitting the
+juicy shaft of the plantain. Whilst the tuskless elephant crushes the
+latter under foot, thereby soiling it and wasting its moisture; the
+other, by opening it with the point of his tusk, performs the operation
+with delicacy and apparent ease.
+
+These, however, are trivial and almost accidental advantages: on the
+other hand, owing to irregularities in their growth, the tusks are
+sometimes an impediment in feeding[1]; and in more than one instance in
+the Government studs, tusks which had so grown as to approach and cross
+one another at the extremities, have had to be removed by the saw; the
+contraction of space between them so impeding the free action of the
+trunk as to prevent the animal from conveying branches to its mouth.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Among other eccentric forms, an elephant was seen in 1844,
+in the district of Bintenne, near Friar's-Hood Mountain, one of whose
+tusks was so bent that it took what sailors term a "round turn," and
+resumed its curved direction as before. In the Museum of the College of
+Surgeons, London, there is a specimen, No. 2757, of a _spira_ tusk.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Since the foregoing remarks were written relative to the
+undefined use of tusks to the elephant, I have seen a speculation on the
+same subject in Dr. HOLLAND'S "_Constitution of the Animal Creation, as
+expressed in structural Appendages_;" but the conjecture of the author
+leaves the problem scarcely less obscure than before. Struck with the
+mere _supplemental_ presence of the tusks, the absence of all apparent
+use serving to distinguish them from the essential organs of the
+creature, Dr. HOLLAND concludes that their production is a process
+incident, but not ancillary, to other important ends, especially
+connected with the vital functions of the trunk and the marvellous
+motive powers inherent to it; his conjecture is, that they are "a
+species of safety valve of the animal oeconomy,"--and that "they owe
+their development to the predominance of the senses of touch and smell,
+conjointly with the muscular motions of which the exercise of these is
+accompanied." "Had there been no proboscis," he thinks, "there would
+have been no supplementary appendages,--the former creates the
+latter."--Pp. 246, 271.]
+
+It is true that in captivity, and after a due course of training, the
+elephant discovers a new use for its tusks when employed in moving
+stones and piling timber; so much so that a powerful one will raise and
+carry on them a log of half a ton weight or more. One evening, whilst
+riding in the vicinity of Kandy, towards the scene of the massacre of
+Major Davie's party in 1803, my horse evinced some excitement at a noise
+which approached us in the thick jungle, and which consisted of a
+repetition of the ejaculation _urmph! urmph!_ in a hoarse and
+dissatisfied tone. A turn in the forest explained the mystery, by
+bringing me face to face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by any
+attendant. He was labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber,
+which he balanced across his tusks, but the pathway being narrow, he was
+forced to bend his head to one side to permit it to pass endways; and
+the exertion and this inconvenience combined led him to utter the
+dissatisfied sounds which disturbed the composure of my horse. On seeing
+us halt, the elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us for a moment,
+then flung down the timber, and voluntarily forced himself backwards
+among the brushwood so as to leave a passage, of which he expected us to
+avail ourselves. My horse hesitated: the elephant observed it, and
+impatiently thrust himself deeper into the jungle, repeating his cry of
+_urmph!_ but in a voice evidently meant to encourage us to advance.
+Still the horse trembled; and anxious to observe the instinct of the two
+sagacious animals, I forbore any interference: again the elephant of his
+own accord wedged himself further in amongst the trees, and manifested
+some impatience that we did not pass him. At length the horse moved
+forward; and when we were fairly past, I saw the wise creature stoop and
+take up its heavy burthen, trim and balance it on its tusks, and resume
+its route as before, hoarsely snorting its discontented remonstrance.
+
+Between the African elephant and that of Ceylon, with the exception of
+the striking peculiarity of the infrequency of tusks in the latter, the
+distinctions are less apparent to a casual observer than to a scientific
+naturalist. In the Ceylon species the forehead is higher and more
+hollow, the ears are smaller, and, in a section of the teeth, the
+grinding ridges, instead of being lozenge-shaped, are transverse bars of
+uniform breadth.
+
+The Indian elephant is stated by Cuvier to have four nails on the hind
+foot, the African variety having only three: but amongst the perfections
+of a high-bred elephant of Ceylon, is always enumerated the possession
+of _twenty_ nails, whilst those of a secondary class have but eighteen
+in all.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Chapter on Mammalia, p. 60.]
+
+So conversant are the natives with the structure and "points" of the
+elephant, that they divide them readily into castes, and describe with
+particularity their distinctive excellences and defects. In the
+_Hastisilpe_, a Singhalese work which treats of their management, the
+marks of inferior breeding are said to be "eyes restless like those of a
+crow, the hair of the head of mixed shades; the face wrinkled; the
+tongue curved and black; the nails short and green; the ears small; the
+neck thin, the skin freckled; the tail without a tuft, and the
+fore-quarter lean and low:" whilst the perfection of form and beauty is
+supposed to consist in the "softness of the skin, the red colour of the
+mouth and tongue, the forehead expanded and hollow, the ears broad and
+rectangular, the trunk broad at the root and blotched with pink in
+front; the eyes bright and kindly, the cheeks large, the neck full, the
+back level, the chest square, the fore legs short and convex in front,
+the hind quarter plump, and five nails on each foot, all smooth,
+polished, and round.[1] An elephant with these perfections," says the
+author of the _Hastisilpe_, "will impart glory and magnificence to the
+king; but he cannot be discovered amongst thousands, yea, there shall
+never be found an elephant clothed at once with _all_ the excellences
+herein described." The "points" of an elephant are to be studied with
+the greatest advantage in those attached to the temples, which are
+always of the highest caste, and exhibit the most perfect breeding.
+
+[Footnote 1: A native of rank informed me, that "the tail of a
+high-caste elephant will sometimes touch the ground, but such are very
+rare."]
+
+The colour of the animal's skin in a state of nature is generally of a
+lighter brown than that of those in captivity; a distinction which
+arises, in all probability, not so much from the wild animal's
+propensity to cover itself with mud and dust, as from the superior care
+which is taken in repeatedly bathing the tame ones, and in rubbing their
+skins with a soft stone, a lump of burnt clay, or the coarse husk of a
+coco-nut. This kind of attention, together with the occasional
+application of oil, gives rise to the deeper black which the hides of
+the latter present.
+
+Amongst the native Singhalese, however, a singular preference is evinced
+for elephants that exhibit those flesh-coloured blotches which
+occasionally mottle the skin of an elephant, chiefly about the head and
+extremities. The front of the trunk, the tips of the ears, the forehead,
+and occasionally the legs, are thus diversified with stains of a
+yellowish tint, inclining to pink. These are not natural; nor are they
+hereditary, for they are seldom exhibited by the younger individuals in
+a herd, but appear to be the result of some eruptive affection, the
+irritation of which has induced the animal in its uneasiness to rub
+itself against the rough bark of trees, and thus to destroy the outer
+cuticle.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This is confirmed by the fact that the scar of the ancle
+wound, occasioned by the rope on the legs of those which have been
+captured by noosing, presents precisely the same tint in the healed
+parts.]
+
+To a European these spots appear blemishes, and the taste that leads the
+natives to admire them is probably akin to the feeling that has at all
+times rendered a _white elephant_ an object of wonder to Asiatics. The
+rarity of the latter is accounted for by regarding this peculiar
+appearance as the result of albinism; and notwithstanding the
+exaggeration of Oriental historians, who compare the fairness of such
+creatures to the whiteness of snow, even in its utmost perfection, I
+apprehend that the tint of a white elephant is little else than a
+flesh-colour, rendered somewhat more conspicuous by the blanching of the
+skin, and the lightness of the colourless hairs by which it is sparsely
+covered. A white elephant is mentioned in the _Mahawanso_ as forming
+part of the retinue attached to the "Temple of the Tooth" at
+Anarajapoora, in the fifth century after Christ[1]; but it commanded no
+religious veneration, and like those in the stud of the kings of Siam,
+it was tended merely as an emblem of royalty[2]; the sovereign of Ceylon
+being addressed as the "Lord of Elephants."[3] In 1633 a white elephant
+was exhibited in Holland[4]; but as this was some years before the Dutch
+had established themselves firmly in Ceylon, it was probably brought
+from some other of their eastern possessions.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Mahawanso_, ch. xxxviii. p. 254, A.D. 433.]
+
+[Footnote 2: PALLEGOIX, _Siam, &c._, vol. i. p. 152.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Mahawanso_, ch. xviii. p. 111. The Hindu sovereigns of
+Orissa, in the middle ages, bore the style of _Gaja-pati_, "powerful in
+elephants."--_Asiat. Res_. xv. 253.]
+
+[Footnote 4: ARMANDI, _Hist. Milit. des Elephants_, lib. ii. c. x. p.
+380. HORACE mentions a white elephant as having been exhibited at Rome:
+"Sive elephas albus vulgi converteret ora."--HOR. _Ep_. II. 196.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Habits when Wild_.
+
+Although found generally in warm and sunny climates, it is a mistake to
+suppose that the elephant is partial either to heat or to light. In
+Ceylon, the mountain tops, and not the sultry valleys, are its favourite
+resort. In Oovah, where the elevated plains are often crisp with the
+morning frost, and on Pedura-talla-galla, at the height of upwards of
+eight thousand feet, they are found in herds, whilst the hunter may
+search for them without success in the hot jungles of the low country.
+No altitude, in fact, seems too lofty or too chill for the elephant,
+provided it affords the luxury of water in abundance; and, contrary to
+the general opinion that the elephant delights in sunshine, it seems at
+all times impatient of glare, and spends the day in the thickest depth
+of the forests, devoting the night to excursions, and to the luxury of
+the bath, in which it also indulges occasionally by day. This partiality
+for shade is doubtless ascribable to the animal's love of coolness and
+solitude; but it is not altogether unconnected with the position of the
+eye, and the circumscribed use which its peculiar mode of life permits
+it to make of the faculty of sight.
+
+All the elephant hunters and natives to whom I have spoken on the
+subject, concur in opinion that its range of vision is circumscribed,
+and that it relies more on its ear and sense of smell than on its sight,
+which is liable to be obstructed by dense foliage; besides which, from
+the formation of its short neck, the elephant is incapable of directing
+the range of the eye much above the level of the head.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: After writing the above, I was permitted by the late Dr.
+HARRISON, of Dublin, to see some accurate drawings of the brain of an
+elephant, which he had the opportunity of dissecting in 1847; and on
+looking to that of the base, I have found a remarkable verification of
+the information which I collected in Ceylon.
+
+The small figure A is the ganglion of the fifth nerve, showing the small
+motor and large sensitive portion.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The _olfactory lobes_, from which the olfactory nerves proceed, are
+large, whilst the _optic and muscular nerves of the orbit are singularly
+small_ for so vast an animal; and one is immediately struck by the
+prodigious size of the fifth nerve, which supplies the proboscis with
+its exquisite sensibility, as well as by the great size of the motor
+portion of the seventh, which supplies the same organ with its power of
+movement and action.]
+
+The elephant's small range of vision is sufficient to account for its
+excessive caution, its alarm at unusual noises, and the timidity and
+panic exhibited at trivial objects and incidents which, imperfectly
+discerned, excite suspicions for its safety.[1] In 1841 an officer[2]
+was chased by an elephant that he had slightly wounded. Seizing him near
+the dry bed of a river, the animal had its forefoot already raised to
+crush him; but its forehead being caught at the instant by the tendrils
+of a climbing plant which had suspended itself from the branches above,
+it suddenly turned and fled; leaving him badly hurt, but with no limb
+broken. I have heard similar instances, equally well attested, of this
+peculiarity in the elephant.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Major ROGERS. An account of this singular adventure will be
+found in the _Ceylon Miscellany_ for 1842, vol. i. p. 221.]
+
+On the other hand, the power of smell is so remarkable as almost to
+compensate for the deficiency of sight. A herd is not only apprised of
+the approach of danger by this means, but when scattered in the forest,
+and dispersed out of range of sight, they are enabled by it to
+reassemble with rapidity and adopt precautions for their common safety.
+The same necessity is met by a delicate sense of hearing, and the use of
+a variety of noises or calls, by means of which elephants succeed in
+communicating with each other upon all emergencies. "The sounds which
+they utter have been described by the African hunters as of three kinds:
+the first, which is very shrill, produced by blowing through the trunk,
+is indicative of pleasure; the second, produced by the mouth, is
+expressive of want; and the third, proceeding from the throat, is a
+terrific roar of anger or revenge."[1] These words convey but an
+imperfect idea of the variety of noises made by the elephant in Ceylon;
+and the shrill cry produced by blowing through his trunk, so far from
+being regarded as an indication of "pleasure," is the well-known cry of
+rage with which he rushes to encounter an assailant. ARISTOTLE describes
+it as resembling the hoarse sound of a "trumpet."[2] The French still
+designate the proboscis of an elephant by the same expression "trompe,"
+(which we have unmeaningly corrupted into _trunk_,) and hence the scream
+of the elephant is known as "trumpeting" by the hunters in Ceylon. Their
+cry when in pain, or when subjected to compulsion, is a grunt or a deep
+groan from the throat, with the proboscis curled upwards and the lips
+wide apart.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," ch. iii. p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 2: ARISTOTLE, _De Anim_., lib. iv. c. 9. "[Greek: homoion
+salpingi]." See also PLINY, lib. x. ch. cxiii. A manuscript in the
+British Museum, containing the romance of "_Alexander_" which is
+probably of the fifteenth century, is interspersed with drawings
+illustrative of the strange animals of the East. Amongst them are two
+elephants, whose trunks are literally in form of _trumpets with expanded
+mouths_. See WRIGHT'S _Archaeological Album_, p. 176.]
+
+Should the attention of an individual in the herd be attracted by any
+unusual appearance in the forest, the intelligence is rapidly
+communicated by a low suppressed sound made by the lips, somewhat
+resembling the twittering of a bird, and described by the hunters by the
+word "_prut_."
+
+A very remarkable noise has been described to me by more than one
+individual, who has come unexpectedly upon a herd during the night, when
+the alarm of the elephants was apparently too great to be satisfied with
+the stealthy note of warning just described. On these occasions the
+sound produced resembled the hollow booming of an empty tun when struck
+with a wooden mallet or a muffled sledge. Major MACREADY, Military
+Secretary in Ceylon in 1836, who heard it by night amongst the wild
+elephants in the great forest of Bintenne, describes it as "a sort of
+banging noise like a cooper hammering a cask;" and Major SKINNER is of
+opinion that it must be produced by the elephant striking his sides
+rapidly and forcibly with his trunk. Mr. CRIPPS informs me that he has
+more than once seen an elephant, when surprised or alarmed, produce this
+sound by striking the ground forcibly with the flat side of the trunk;
+and this movement was instantly succeeded by raising it again, and
+pointing it in the direction whence the alarm proceeded, as if to
+ascertain by the sense of smell the nature of the threatened danger. As
+this strange sound is generally mingled with the bellowing and ordinary
+trumpeting of the herd, it is in all probability a device resorted to,
+not alone for warning their companions of some approaching peril, but
+also for the additional purpose of terrifying unseen intruders.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: PALLEGOIX, in his _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_,
+adverts to a sound produced by the elephant when weary: "quand il est
+fatigue, _il frappe la terre avec sa_ trompe, et en tire un son
+semblable a celui du cor."--Tom. i. p. 151.]
+
+Elephants are subject to deafness; and the Singhalese regard as the most
+formidable of all wild animals, a "rogue"[1] afflicted with this
+infirmity.
+
+[Footnote 1: For an explanation of the term "rogue" as applied to an
+elephant, see p. 115.]
+
+Extravagant estimates are recorded of the height of the elephant. In an
+age when popular fallacies in relation to him were as yet uncorrected in
+Europe by the actual inspection of the living animal, he was supposed to
+grow to the height of twelve or fifteen feet. Even within the last
+century in popular works on natural history, the elephant, when full
+grown, was said to measure from seventeen to twenty feet from the ground
+to the shoulder.[1] At a still later period, so imperfectly had the
+facts been collated, that the elephant of Ceylon was believed "to excel
+that of Africa in size and strength."[2] But so far from equalling the
+size of the African species, that of Ceylon seldom exceeds the height of
+nine feet; even in the Hambangtotte country, where the hunters agree
+that the largest specimens are to be found, the tallest of ordinary
+herds do not average more than eight feet. WOLF, in his account of the
+Ceylon elephant[3], says he saw one taken near Jaffna, which measured
+twelve feet and one inch high. But the truth is, that the general bulk
+of the elephant so far exceeds that of the animals which we are
+accustomed to see daily, that the imagination magnifies its unusual
+dimensions; and I have seldom or ever met with an inexperienced
+spectator who did not unconsciously over-estimate the size of an
+elephant shown to him, whether in captivity or in a state of nature.
+Major DENHAM would have guessed some which he saw in Africa to be
+sixteen feet in height, but the largest when killed was found to measure
+nine feet six, from the foot to the hip-bone.[4]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Natural History of Animals_. By Sir JOHN HILL, M.D.
+London, 1748-52, p. 565. A probable source of these false estimates is
+mentioned by a writer in the _Indian Sporting Review_ for Oct. 1857.
+"Elephants were measured formerly, and even now, by natives, as to their
+height, by throwing a rope over them, the ends brought to the ground on
+each side, and half the length taken as the true height. Hence the
+origin of elephants fifteen and sixteen feet high. A rod held at right
+angles to the measuring rod, and parallel to the ground, will rarely
+give more than ten feet, the majority being under nine."--P. 159.]
+
+[Footnote 2: SHAW'S _Zoology_. Lond. 1806. vol. i. p. 216; ARMANDI,
+_Hist. Milit. des Elephans_, liv. i. ch. i. p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 3: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures, &c_., p. 164. Wolf was a
+native of Mecklenburg, who arrived in Ceylon about 1750, as chaplain in
+one of the Dutch East Indiamen, and having been taken into the
+government employment, he served for twenty years at Jaffna, first as
+Secretary to the Governor, and afterwards in an office the duties of
+which he describes to be the examination and signature of the "writings
+which served to commence a suit in any of the Courts of justice." His
+book embodies a truthful and generally accurate account of the northern
+portion of the island, with which alone he was conversant, and his
+narrative gives a curious insight into the policy of the Dutch
+Government, and of the condition of the natives under their dominion.]
+
+[Footnote 4: DENHAM'S _Travels, &c_., 4to p. 220. The fossil remains of
+the Indian elephant have been discovered at Jabalpur, showing a height
+of fifteen feet.--_Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng_. vi. Professor ANSTED in his
+_Ancient World_, p. 197, says he was informed by Dr. Falconer "that out
+of eleven hundred elephants from which the tallest were selected and
+measured with care, on one occasion in India, there was not one whose
+height equalled eleven feet."]
+
+For a creature of such extraordinary weight it is astonishing how
+noiselessly and stealthily the elephant can escape from a pursuer. When
+suddenly disturbed in the jungle, it will burst away with a rush that
+seems to bear down all before it; but the noise sinks into absolute
+stillness so suddenly, that a novice might well be led to suppose that
+the fugitive had only halted within a few yards of him, when further
+search will disclose that it has stolen silently away, making scarcely a
+sound in its escape; and, stranger still, leaving the foliage almost
+undisturbed by its passage.
+
+The most venerable delusion respecting the elephant, and that which held
+its ground with unequalled tenacity, is the ancient fallacy which is
+explained by SIR THOMAS BROWNE in his _Pseudodoxia Epidemica_, that "it
+hath no joynts; and this absurdity is seconded by another, that being
+unable to lye downe it sleepeth against a tree, which the hunters
+observing doe saw almost asunder, whereon the beast relying, by the fall
+of the tree falls also downe it-selfe and is able to rise no more."[1]
+Sir THOMAS is disposed to think that "the hint and ground of this
+opinion might be the grosse and somewhat cylindricall composure of the
+legs of the elephant, and the equality and lesse perceptible disposure
+of the joynts, especially in the forelegs of this animal, they
+appearing, when he standeth, like pillars of flesh;" but he overlooks
+the fact that PLINY has ascribed the same peculiarity to the
+Scandinavian beast somewhat resembling a horse, which he calls a
+"machlis,"[2] and that CAESAR in describing the wild animals in the
+Hercynian forests, enumerates the _alce_, "in colour and configuration
+approaching the goat, but surpassing it in size, its head destitute of
+horns _and its limbs of joints_, whence it can neither lie down to rest,
+nor rise if by any accident it should fall, but using the trees for a
+resting-place, the hunters by loosening their roots bring the _alce_ to
+the ground, so soon as it is tempted to lean on them."[3] This fallacy,
+as Sir THOMAS BROWNE says, is "not the daughter of latter times, but an
+old and grey-headed errour, even in the days of ARISTOTLE," who deals
+with the story as he received it from CTESIAS, by whom it appears to
+have been embodied in his lost work on India. But although ARISTOTLE
+generally receives the credit of having exposed and demolished the
+fallacy of CTESIAS, it will be seen by a reference to his treatise _On
+the Progressive Motions of Animals_, that in reality he approached the
+question with some hesitation, and has not only left it doubtful in one
+passage whether the elephant has joints _in his knee_, although he
+demonstrates that it has joints in the shoulders[4]; but in another he
+distinctly affirms that on account of his weight the elephant cannot
+bend his forelegs together, but only one at a time, and reclines to
+sleep on that particular side.[5]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Vulgar Errors_, book iii. chap. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Machlis (said to be derived from _a_, priv., and [Greek:
+klino], _cubo_, quod non cubat). "Moreover in the island of Scandinavia
+there is a beast called _Machlis_, that hath neither ioynt in the hough,
+nor pasternes in his hind legs, and therefore he never lieth down, but
+sleepeth leaning to a tree, wherefore the hunters that lie in wait for
+these beasts cut downe the trees while they are asleepe, and so take
+them; otherwise they should never be taken, they are so swift of foot
+that it is wonderful."--PLINY, _Natur. Hist._ Transl. Philemon Holland,
+book viii. ch. xv. p. 200.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "Sunt item quae appellantur _Alces_. Harum est consimilis
+capreis figura, et varietas pellium; sed magnitudine paulo antecedunt,
+mutilaeque sunt cornibus, _et crura sine nodis articulisque habent_;
+neque quietis causa procumbunt; neque, si quo afflictae casu considerunt,
+erigere sese aut sublevare possunt. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus; ad
+eas sese applicant, atque ita, paulum modo reclinatae, quietem capiunt,
+quarum ex vestigiis cum est animadversum a venatoribus, quo se recipere
+consueverint, omnes eo loco, aut a radicibus subruunt aut accidunt
+arbores tantum, ut summa species earum stantium relinquatur. Huc cum se
+consuetudine reclinaverint, infirmas arbores pondere affligunt, atque
+una ipsae concidunt."--CAESAR, _De Bello Gall_. lib. vi. ch. xxvii.
+
+The same fiction was extended by the early Arabian travellers to the
+rhinoceros, and in the MS. of the voyages of the "_Two Mahometans_" it
+is stated that the rhinoceros of Sumatra "n'a point d'articulation au
+genou ni a la main."--_Relations des Voyages, &c._, Paris, 1845, vol. i.
+p. 29.]
+
+[Footnote 4: When an animal moves progressively an hypothenuse is
+produced, which is equal in power to the magnitude that is quiescent,
+and to that which is intermediate. But since the members are equal, it
+is necessary that the member which is quiescent should be inflected
+either in the knee or in the incurvation, _if the animal that walks is
+without knees_. It is possible, however, for the leg to be moved, when
+not inflected, in the same manner as infants creep; and there is an
+ancient report of this kind about elephants, which is not true, for such
+animals as these, _are moved in consequence of an inflection taking
+place either in their shoulders or hips_."--ARISTOTLE, _De Ingressu
+Anim._, ch. ix. Taylor's Transl.]
+
+[Footnote 5: ARISTOTLE, _De Animal_., lib. ii. ch. i. It is curious that
+Taylor, in his translation of this passage, was so strongly imbued with
+the "grey-headed errour," that in order to elucidate the somewhat
+obscure meaning of Aristotle, he has actually interpolated the text with
+the exploded fallacy of Ctesias, and after the word reclining to sleep,
+has inserted the words "_leaning against some wall or tree_," which are
+not to be found in the original.]
+
+So great was the authority of ARISTOTLE, that AELIAN, who wrote two
+centuries later and borrowed many of his statements from the works of
+his predecessor, perpetuates this error; and, after describing the
+exploits of the trained elephants exhibited at Rome, adds the expression
+of his surprise, that an animal without joints ([Greek: anarthron])
+should yet be able to dance.[1] The fiction was too agreeable to be
+readily abandoned by the poets of the Lower Empire and the Romancers of
+the middle ages; and PHILE, a contemporary of PETRARCH and DANTE, who in
+the early part of the fourteenth century, addressed his didactic poem on
+the elephant to the Emperor Andronicus II., untaught by the exposition
+of ARISTOTLE, still clung to the old delusion,
+
+[Greek:
+  "Podes de toutps thauma kai saphes teras,
+  Ous, ou kathaper talla ton zoon gene,
+  Eiothe kinein ex anarthron klasmaton,
+  Kai gar stibarois syntethentes osteois,
+  Kai te pladara ton sphyron katastasei,
+  Kai te pros arthra ton skelon hypokrisei,
+  Nyn eis tonous agousi, nyn eis hypheseis,
+  Tas pantodapas ekdromas tou theriou.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Brachyterous ontas de ton opisthion
+  'Anamphilektos oida tous emprosthious
+  Toutois elephas entatheis osper stylois
+  'Orthostaden akamptos hypnotton menei."]
+                               v. 106, &c.
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: "Zpson de anarthron sunienai kai rhuthmou kai
+melous, kai phylattein schema physeos dora tauta hama kai idiotes  kath'
+ekaston ekplektike]."--AELIAN, _De Nat. Anim_., lib. ii.  cap. xi.]
+
+SOLINUS introduced the same fable into his _Polyhistor_; and DICUIL, the
+Irish commentator of the ninth century, who had an opportunity of seeing
+the elephant sent by Haroun Alraschid as a present to Charlemagne[1] in
+the year 802, corrects the error, and attributes its perpetuation to the
+circumstance that the joints in the elephant's leg are not very
+apparent, except when he lies down.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Eginhard, _Vita Karoli_, c. xvi. and _Annales Francorum_,
+A.D. 810.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Sed idem Julius, unum de elephantibus mentions, falso
+loquitur; dicens elephantem nunquam jacere; dum ille sicut bos
+certissime jacet, ut populi communiter regni Francorum elephantem, in
+tempore Imperatoris Karoli viderunt. Sed, forsitan, ideo hoc de
+elephante ficte aestimando scriptum est, eo quod genua et suffragines sui
+nisi quando jacet, non palam apparent."--DICUILUS, _De Mensura Orbis
+Terrae_, c. vii.]
+
+It is a strong illustration of the vitality of error, that the delusion
+thus exposed by Dicuil in the ninth century, was revived by MATTHEW
+PARIS in the thirteenth; and stranger still, that Matthew not only saw
+but made a drawing of the elephant presented to King Henry III. by the
+King of France in 1255, in which he nevertheless represents the legs as
+without joints.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cotton MSS_. NERO. D. 1. fol. 168, b.]
+
+In the numerous mediaeval treatises on natural history, known under the
+title of _Bestiaries_, this delusion regarding the elephant is often
+repeated; and it is given at length in a metrical version of the
+_Physiologus_ of THEOBALDUS, amongst the Arundel Manuscripts in the
+British Museum.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Arundel MSS_. No. 292, fol. 4, &c. It has been printed in
+the _Reliquiae Antiquae_, vol. i. p. 208, by Mr. WRIGHT, to whom I am
+indebted for the following rendering of the passage referred to:--
+
+    in water ge sal stonden
+    in water to mid side
+    that wanne hire harde tide
+    that ge ne falle nither nogt
+    that it most in hire thogt
+    for he ne haven no lith
+    that he mugen risen with, etc.
+
+  "They will stand in the water,
+  in water up to the middle of the side,
+  that when it comes to them hard,
+  they may not fall down:
+  that is most in their thought,
+  for they have no joint
+  to enable them to rise again.
+  How he resteth him this animal,
+  when he walketh abroad,
+  hearken how it is here told.
+  For he is all unwieldy,
+  forsooth he seeks out a tree,
+  that it strong and stedfast,
+  and leans confidently against it,
+  when he is weary of walking.
+  The hunter has observed this,
+  who seeks to ensnare him,
+  where his usual dwelling is,
+  to do his will;
+  saws this tree and props it
+  in the manner that he best may,
+  covers it well that he (the elephant) may not be on his guard.
+  Then he makes thereby a seat,
+  himself sits alone and watches
+  whether his trap takes effect.
+  Then cometh this unwieldy elephant,
+  and leans him on his side,
+  rests against the tree in the shadow,
+  and so both fall together.
+  If nobody be by when he falls,
+  he roars ruefully and calls for help,
+  roars ruefully in his manner,
+  hopes he shall through help rise.
+  Then cometh there one (elephant) in haste,
+  hopes he shall cause him to stand up;
+  labours and tries all his might,
+  but he cannot succeed a bit.
+  He knows then no other remedy,
+  but roars with his brother,
+  many and large (elephants) come there in search,
+  thinking to make him get up,
+  but for the help of them all
+  he may not get up.
+  Then they all roar one roar,
+  like the blast of a horn or the sound of bell,
+  for their great roaring
+  a young one cometh running,
+  stoops immediately to him,
+  puts his snout under him,
+  and asks the help of them all;
+  this elephant they raise on his legs:
+  and thus fails this hunter's trick,
+  in the manner that I have told you."]
+
+With the Provencal song writers, the helplessness of the fallen elephant
+was a favourite simile, and amongst others RICHARD DE BARBEZIEUX, in the
+latter half of the twelfth century, sung[1],
+
+  "Atressi cum l'olifans
+  Que quan chai no s'pot levar."
+
+[Footnote 1: One of the most venerable authorities by whom the fallacy
+was transmitted to modern times was PHILIP de THAUN, who wrote, about
+the year 1121, A.D., his _Livre des Creatures_, dedicated to Adelaide of
+Louvaine, Queen of Henry I. of England. In the copy of it printed by the
+Historical Society of Science in 1841, and edited by Mr. WRIGHT, the
+following passage occurs:--
+
+  "Et Ysidre nus dit ki le elefant descrit,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Es jambes par nature nen ad que une jointure,
+  Il ne pot pas gesir quant il se volt dormir,
+  Ke si cuchet estait par sei nen leverait;
+  Pur ceo li stot apuier, el lui del cucher,
+  U a arbre u a mur, idunc dort aseur.
+
+  E le gent de la terre, ki li volent conquere,
+  Li mur enfunderunt, u le arbre enciserunt;
+  Quant li elefant vendrat, ki s'i apuierat,
+  La arbre u le mur carrat, e il tribucherat;
+  Issi faiterement le parnent cele gent."
+  P. 100.]
+
+As elephants were but rarely seen in Europe prior to the seventeenth
+century, there were but few opportunities of correcting the popular
+fallacy by ocular demonstration. Hence SHAKSPEARE still believed that,
+
+  "The elephant hath joints; but none for courtesy:
+  His legs are for necessity, not flexure:"[1]
+
+and DONNE sang of
+
+  "Nature's great masterpiece, an Elephant;
+  The only harmless great thing:
+  Yet Nature hath given him no knee to bend:
+  Himself he up-props, on himself relies;
+  Still sleeping stands."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Troilus and Cressida_, act ii. sc. 3. A.D. 1609.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Progress of the Soul_, A.D. 1633.]
+
+Sir THOMAS BROWNE, while he argues against the delusion, does not fail
+to record his suspicion, that "although the opinion at present be
+reasonably well suppressed, yet from the strings of tradition and
+fruitful recurrence of errour, it was not improbable it might revive in
+the next generation;"[1]--an anticipation which has proved singularly
+correct; for the heralds still continued to explain that the elephant is
+the emblem of watchfulness, "_nec jacet in somno,"_[2] and poets almost
+of our own times paint the scene when
+
+  "Peaceful, beneath primeval trees, that cast
+  Their ample shade on Niger's yellow stream,
+  Or where the Ganges rolls his sacred waves,
+  _Leans_ the huge Elephant."[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: Sir T. BROWNE, _Vulgar Errors_, A.D. 1646.]
+
+[Footnote 2: RANDAL HOME'S _Academy of Armory_, A.D. 1671. HOME
+only perpetuated the error of GUILLAM, who wrote his _Display of
+Heraldry_ in A.D. 1610; wherein he explains that the elephant is
+"so proud of his strength that he never bows himself to any
+(_neither indeed can he_), and when he is once down he cannot
+rise up again."--Sec. III. ch. xii. p. 147.]
+
+[Footnote 3: THOMSON'S _Seasons_, A.D. 1728.]
+
+It is not difficult to see whence this antiquated delusion took its
+origin; nor is it, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE imagined, to be traced
+exclusively "to the grosse and cylindricall structure" of the animal's
+legs. The fact is, that the elephant, returning in the early morning
+from his nocturnal revels in the reservoirs and water-courses, is
+accustomed to rub his muddy sides against a tree, and sometimes
+against a rock if more convenient. In my rides through the northern
+forests, the natives of Ceylon have often pointed out that the
+elephants which had preceded me must have been of considerable size,
+from the height at which their marks had been left on the trees
+against which they had been rubbing. Not unfrequently the animals
+themselves, overcome with drowsiness from the night's gambolling, are
+found dosing and resting against the trees they had so visited, and in
+the same manner they have been discovered by sportsmen asleep, and
+leaning against a rock.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to explain that the position is accidental, and
+that it is taken by the elephant not from any difficulty in lying at
+length on the ground, but rather from the coincidence that the structure
+of his legs affords such support in a standing position, that reclining
+scarcely adds to his enjoyment of repose; and elephants in a state of
+captivity have been known for months together to sleep without lying
+down.[1] So distinctive is this formation, and so self-sustaining the
+configuration of the limbs, that an elephant shot in the brain, by Major
+Rogers in 1836, was killed so instantaneously that it died literally _on
+its knees_, and remained resting on them. About the year 1826, Captain
+Dawson, the engineer of the great road to Kandy, over the Kaduganava
+pass, shot an elephant at Hangwelle on the banks of the Kalany Ganga;
+_it remained on its feet_, but so motionless, that after discharging a
+few more balls, he was induced to go close to it, and found it dead.
+
+[Footnote 1: So little is the elephant inclined to lie down in
+captivity, and even after hard labour, that the keepers are generally
+disposed to suspect illness when he betakes himself to this posture.
+PHILE, in his poem _De Animalium Proprietate_, attributes the propensity
+of the elephant to sleep on his legs, to the difficulty he experiences
+in rising to his feet:
+
+    [Greek:
+    'Orthostaden de kai katheudei panychos
+    'HOt ouk anastesai men eucheros pelei.]
+
+But this is a misapprehension.]
+
+The real peculiarity in the elephant in lying down is, that he extends
+his hind legs backwards as a man does when he kneels, instead of
+bringing them under him like the horse or any other quadruped. The wise
+purpose of this arrangement must be obvious to any one who observes the
+struggle with which the horse _gets up_ from the ground, and the violent
+efforts which he makes to raise himself erect. Such an exertion in the
+case of the elephant, and the force requisite to apply a similar
+movement to raise his weight (equal to four or five tons) would be
+attended with a dangerous strain upon the muscles, and hence the simple
+arrangement, which by enabling him to draw the hind feet gradually under
+him, assists him to rise without a perceptible effort.
+
+The same construction renders his gait not a "gallop," as it has been
+somewhat loosely described[1], which would be too violent a motion for
+so vast a body; but a shuffle, that he can increase at pleasure to a
+pace as rapid as that of a man at full speed, but which he cannot
+maintain for any considerable distance.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c_. "The elephant," ch. i. Sir CHARLES BELL,
+in his essay on _The Hand and its Mechanism_, which forms one of the
+"Bridgewater Treatises," has exhibited the reasons deducible from
+organisation, which show the incapacity of the elephant to _spring_ or
+_leap_ like the horse and other animals whose structure is designed to
+facilitate agility and speed. In them the various bones of the shoulder
+and fore limbs, especially the clavicle and humerus, are set at such an
+angle, that the shock in descending is modified, and the joints and
+sockets protected from the injury occasioned by concussion. But in the
+elephant, where the weight of the body is immense, the bones of the leg,
+in order to present solidify and strength to sustain it, are built in
+one firm and perpendicular column; instead of being placed somewhat
+obliquely at their points of contact. Thus whilst the force of the
+weight in descending is broken and distributed by this arrangement in
+the case of the horse; it would be so concentrated in the elephant as to
+endanger every joint from the toe to the shoulder.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is to the structure of the knee-joint that the elephant is indebted
+for his singular facility in ascending and descending steep activities,
+climbing rocks and traversing precipitous ledges, where even a mule dare
+not venture; and this again leads to the correction of another generally
+received error, that his legs are "formed more for strength than
+flexibility, and fitted to bear an enormous weight upon a level surface,
+without the necessity of ascending or descending great acclivities."[1]
+The same authority assumes that, although the elephant is found in the
+neighbourhood of mountainous ranges, and will even ascend rocky passes,
+such a service is a violation of its natural habits.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c_., "The Elephant," ch. ii.]
+
+Of the elephant of Africa I am not qualified to speak, nor of the nature
+of the ground which it most frequents; but certainly the facts in
+connection with the elephant of India are all irreconcilable with the
+theory mentioned above. In Bengal, in the Nilgherries, in Nepal, in
+Burmah, in Siam, Sumatra, and Ceylon, the districts in which the
+elephants most abound, are all hilly and mountainous. In the latter,
+especially, there is not a range so elevated as to be inaccessible to
+them. On the very summit of Adam's Peak, at an altitude of 7,420 feet,
+and on a pinnacle which the pilgrims climb with difficulty, by means of
+steps hewn in the rock, Major Skinner, in 1840, found the spoor of an
+elephant.
+
+Prior to 1840, and before coffee-plantations had been extensively opened
+in the Kandyan ranges, there was not a mountain or a lofty feature of
+land of Ceylon which they had not traversed, in their periodical
+migrations in search of water; and the sagacity which they display in
+"laying out roads" is almost incredible. They generally keep along the
+_backbone_ of a chain of hills, avoiding steep gradients: and one
+curious observation was not lost upon the government surveyors, that in
+crossing the valleys from ridge to ridge, through forests so dense as
+altogether to obstruct a distant view, the elephants invariably select
+the line of march which communicates most judiciously with the opposite
+point, by means of _the safest ford_.[1] So sure-footed are they, that
+there are few places where man can go that an elephant cannot follow,
+provided there be space to admit his bulk, and solidity to sustain his
+weight.
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. HOOKER, in describing the ascent of the Himalayas,
+says, the natives in making their paths despise all zigzags, and run in
+straight lines up the steepest hill faces; whilst "the elephant's path
+is an excellent specimen of engineering--the opposite of the native
+track,--for it winds judiciously."--_Himalayan Journal_, vol. i. ch.
+iv.]
+
+This faculty is almost entirely derived from the unusual position, as
+compared with other quadrupeds, of the knee joint of the hind leg;
+arising from the superior length of the thigh-bone, and the shortness of
+the metatarsus: the heel being almost where it projects in man, instead
+of being lifted up as a "hock." It is this which enables him, in
+descending declivities, to depress and adjust the weight of his hinder
+portions, which would otherwise overbalance and force him headlong.[1]
+It is by the same arrangement that he is enabled, on uneven ground, to
+lift his feet, which are tender and sensitive, with delicacy, and plant
+them with such precision as to ensure his own safety as well as that of
+objects which it is expedient to avoid touching.
+
+[Footnote 1: Since the above passage was written, I have seen in the
+_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. xiii, pt. ii. p. 916, a
+paper upon this subject, illustrated by the subjoined diagram.
+
+The writer says, "an elephant descending a bank of too acute an angle to
+admit of his walking down it direct, (which, were he to attempt, his
+huge tody, soon disarranging the centre of gravity, would certainly
+topple over,) proceeds thus. His first manoeuvre is to kneel down close
+to the edge of the declivity, placing his chest to the ground: one
+fore-leg is then cautiously passed a short way down the slope; and if
+there is no natural protection to afford a firm footing, he speedily
+forms one by stamping into the soil if moist, or kicking out a footing
+if dry. This point gained, the other fore-leg is brought down in the
+same way; and performs the same work, a little in advance of the first;
+which is thus at liberty to move lower still. Then, first one and then
+the second of the hind legs is carefully drawn over the side, and the
+hind-feet in turn occupy the resting-places previously used and left by
+the fore ones. The course, however, in such precipitous ground is not
+straight from top to bottom, but slopes along the face of the bank,
+descending till the animal gains the level below. This an elephant has
+done, at an angle of 45 degrees, carrying a _howdah_, its occupant, his
+attendant, and sporting apparatus; and in a much less time than it takes
+to describe the operation." I have observed that an elephant in
+descending a declivity uses his knees, on the side next the bank; and
+his feet on the lower side only.
+
+[Illustration]]
+
+A _herd_ of elephants is a family, not a group whom accident or
+attachment may have induced to associate together. Similarity of
+features and caste attest that, among the various individuals which
+compose it, there is a common lineage and relationship. In a herd of
+twenty-one elephants, captured in 1844, the trunks of each individual
+presented the same peculiar formation,--long, and almost of one uniform
+breadth throughout, instead of tapering gradually from the root to the
+nostril. In another instance, the eyes of thirty-five taken in one
+corral were of the same colour in each. The same slope of the back, the
+same form of the forehead, is to be detected in the majority of the same
+group.
+
+In the forest several herds will browse in close contiguity, and in
+their expeditions in search of water they may form a body of possibly
+one or two hundred; but on the slightest disturbance each distinct herd
+hastens to re-form within its own particular circle, and to take
+measures on its own behalf for retreat or defence.
+
+The natives of any place which may chance to be frequented by elephants,
+observe that the numbers of the same herd fluctuate very slightly; and
+hunters in pursuit of them, who may chance to have shot one or more,
+always reckon with certainty the precise number of those remaining,
+although a considerable interval may intervene before they again
+encounter them. The proportion of males is generally small, and some
+herds have been seen composed exclusively of females; possibly in
+consequence of the males having been shot. A herd usually consists of
+from ten to twenty individuals, though occasionally they exceed the
+latter number; and in their frequent migrations and nightly resort to
+tanks and water-courses, alliances are formed between members of
+associated herds, which serve to introduce new blood into the family.
+
+In illustration of the attachment of the elephant to its young, the
+authority of KNOX has been quoted, that "the shees are alike tender of
+any one's young ones as of their own."[1] Their affection in this
+particular is undoubted, but I question whether it exceeds that of other
+animals; and the trait thus adduced of their indiscriminate kindness to
+all the young of the herd,--of which I have myself been an
+eye-witness,--so far from being an evidence of the strength of parental
+attachment individually, is, perhaps, somewhat inconsistent with the
+existence of such a passion to any extraordinary degree.[2] In fact,
+some individuals, who have had extensive facilities for observation,
+doubt whether the fondness of the female elephants for their offspring
+is so great as that of many other animals; as instances are not wanting
+in Ceylon, in which, when pursued by the hunters, the herd has abandoned
+the young ones in their flight, notwithstanding the cries of the latter
+for help.
+
+[Footnote 1: A correspondent of Buffon, M. MARCELLUS BLES, Seigneur de
+Moergestal, who resided eleven years in Ceylon in the time of the Dutch,
+says in one of his communications, that in herds of forty or fifty,
+enclosed in a single corral, there were frequently very young calves;
+and that "on ne pouvoit pas reconnaitre quelles etoient les meres de
+chacun de ces petits elephans, car tous ces jeunes animaux paroissent
+faire manse commune; ils tetent indistinctement celles des femelles de
+toute la troupe qui ont du lait, soit qu'elles aient elles-memes un
+petit en propre, soit qu'elles n'en aient point."--BUFFON, _Suppl. a
+l'Hist. des Anim._, vol. vi. p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WHITE, in his _Natural History of Selborne_, philosophising
+on the fact which had fallen under his own notice of this indiscriminate
+suckling of the young of one animal by the parent of another, is
+disposed to ascribe it to a selfish feeling; the pleasure and relief of
+having its distended teats drawn by this intervention. He notices the
+circumstance of a leveret having been thus nursed by a cat, whose
+kittens had been recently drowned: and observes, that "this strange
+affection was probably occasioned by that desiderium, those tender
+maternal feelings, which the loss of her kittens had awakened in her
+breast; and by the complacency and ease she derived to herself from
+procuring her teats to be drawn, which were too much distended with
+milk; till from habit she became as much delighted with this foundling
+as if it had been her real offspring. This incident is no bad solution
+of that strange circumstance which grave historians, as well as the
+poets, assert of exposed children being sometimes nurtured by female
+wild beasts that probably had lost their young. For it is not one whit
+more marvellous that Romulus and Remus in their infant state should be
+nursed by a she wolf than that a poor little suckling leveret should be
+fostered and cherished by a bloody Grimalkin."--WHITE'S _Selborne_,
+lett. xx.]
+
+In an interesting paper on the habits of the Indian elephant, published
+in the _Philosophical Transactions for_ 1793, Mr. CORSE says: "If a wild
+elephant happens to be separated from its young for only two days,
+though giving suck, she never after recognises or acknowledges it,"
+although the young one evidently knows its dam, and by its plaintive
+cries and submissive approaches solicits her assistance.
+
+If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly separated from his own
+herd, he is not permitted to attach himself to any other. He may browse
+in the vicinity, or frequent the same place to drink and to bathe; but
+the intercourse is only on a distant and conventional footing, and no
+familiarity or intimate association is under any circumstances
+permitted. To such a height is this exclusiveness carried, that even
+amidst the terror and stupefaction of an elephant corral, when an
+individual, detached from his own party in the _melee_ and confusion,
+has been driven into the enclosure with an unbroken herd, I have seen
+him repulsed in every attempt to take refuge among them, and driven off
+by heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted to insinuate
+himself within the circle which they had formed for common security.
+There can be no reasonable doubt that this jealous and exclusive policy
+not only contributes to produce, but mainly serves to perpetuate, the
+class of solitary elephants which are known by the term _goondahs_, in
+India, and which from their vicious propensities and predatory habits
+are called _Hora_, or _Rogues_, in Ceylon.[1]
+
+It is believed by the Singhalese that these are either individuals, who
+by accident have lost their former associates and become morose and
+savage from rage and solitude; or else that being naturally vicious they
+have become daring from the yielding habits of their milder companions,
+and eventually separated themselves from the rest of the herd which had
+refused to associate with them. Another conjecture is, that being almost
+universally males, the death or capture of particular females may have
+detached them from their former companions in search of fresh
+alliances.[2] It is also believed that a tame elephant escaping from
+captivity, unable to rejoin its former herd, and excluded from any
+other, becomes a "_rogue_" from necessity. In Ceylon it is generally
+believed that the _rogues_ are all males (but of this I am not certain),
+and so sullen is their disposition that although two may be in the same
+vicinity, there is no known instance of their associating, or of a
+_rogue_ being seen in company with another elephant.
+
+[Footnote 1: The term "rogue" is scarcely sufficiently accounted for by
+supposing it to be the English equivalent for the Singhalese word
+_Hora_. In that very curious book, the _Life and Adventures of_ JOHN
+CHRISTOPHER WOLF, _late principal Secretary at Jaffnapatam in Ceylon_,
+the author says, when a male elephant in a quarrel about the females "is
+beat out of the field and obliged to go without a consort, he becomes
+furious and mad, killing every living creature, be it man or beast: and
+in this state is called _ronkedor_, an object of greater terror to a
+traveller than a hundred wild ones."--P. 142. In another passage, p.
+164, he is called _runkedor_, and I have seen it spelt elsewhere
+_ronquedue_, WOLF does not give "_ronkedor_" as a term peculiar to that
+section of the island; but both there and elsewhere, it is obsolete at
+the present day, unless it be open to conjecture that the modern term
+"rogue" is a modification of _ronquedue._]
+
+[Footnote 2: BUCHANAN, in his _Survey of Bhagulpore_, p. 503, says that
+solitary males of the wild buffalo, "when driven from the herd by
+stronger competitors for female society, are reckoned very dangerous to
+meet with; for they are apt to wreak their vengeance on whatever they
+meet, and are said to kill annually three or four people." LIVINGSTONE
+relates the same of the solitary hippopotamus which becomes soured in
+temper, and wantonly attacks the passing canoes.--_Travels in South
+Africa_, p. 231.]
+
+They spend their nights in marauding, often about the dwellings of men,
+destroying their plantations, trampling down their gardens, and
+committing serious ravages in rice grounds and young coco-nut
+plantations. Hence from their closer contact with man and his dwellings,
+these outcasts become disabused of many of the terrors which render the
+ordinary elephant timid and needlessly cautious; they break through
+fences without fear; and even in the daylight a _rogue_ has been known
+near Ambogammoa to watch a field of labourers at work in reaping rice,
+and boldly to walk in amongst them, seize a sheaf from the heap, and
+retire leisurely to the jungle. By day they generally seek concealment,
+but are frequently to be met with prowling about the by-roads and jungle
+paths, where travellers are exposed to the utmost risk from their savage
+assaults. It is probable that this hostility to man is the result of the
+enmity engendered by those measures which the natives, who have a
+constant dread of their visits, adopt for the protection of their
+growing crops. In some districts, especially in the low country of
+Badulla, the villagers occasionally enclose their cottages with rude
+walls of earth and branches to protect them from nightly assaults. In
+places infested by them, the visits of European sportsmen to the
+vicinity of their haunts are eagerly encouraged by the natives, who
+think themselves happy in lending their services to track the ordinary
+herds in consideration of the benefit conferred on the village
+communities by the destruction of a rogue. In 1847 one of these
+formidable creatures frequented for some months the Rangbodde Pass on
+the great mountain road leading to the sanatarium, at Neuera-ellia; and
+amongst other excesses, killed a Caffre belonging to the corps of Caffre
+pioneers, by seizing him with its trunk and beating him to death against
+the bank.
+
+To return to the herd: one member of it, usually the largest and most
+powerful, is by common consent implicitly followed as leader. A tusker,
+if there be one in the party, is generally observed to be the commander;
+but a female, if of superior energy, is as readily obeyed as a male. In
+fact, in this promotion there is no reason to doubt that supremacy is
+almost unconsciously assumed by those endowed with superior vigour and
+courage rather than from the accidental possession of greater bodily
+strength; and the devotion and loyalty which the herd evince to their
+leader are very remarkable. This is more readily seen in the case of a
+tusker than any other, because in a herd he is generally the object of
+the keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such occasions the others do
+their utmost to protect him from danger: when driven to extremity they
+place their leader in the centre and crowd so eagerly in front of him
+that the sportsmen have to shoot a number which they might otherwise
+have spared. In one instance a tusker, which was badly wounded by Major
+ROGERS, was promptly surrounded by his companions, who supported him
+between their shoulders, and actually succeeded in covering his retreat
+to the forest.
+
+Those who have lived much in the jungle in Ceylon, and who have had
+constant opportunities of watching the habits of wild elephants, have
+witnessed instances of the submission of herds to their leaders, that
+suggest an inquiry of singular interest as to the means adopted by the
+latter to communicate with distinctness, orders which are observed with
+the most implicit obedience by their followers. The following narrative
+of an adventure in the great central forest toward the north of the
+island, communicated to me by Major SKINNER, who was engaged for some
+time in surveying and opening roads through the thickly-wooded districts
+there, will serve better than any abstract description to convey an idea
+of the conduct of a herd on such occasions:--
+
+"The case you refer to struck me as exhibiting something more than
+ordinary brute instinct, and approached nearer to reasoning powers than
+any other instance I can now remember. I cannot do justice to the scene,
+although it appeared to me at the time to be so remarkable that it left
+a deep impression in my mind.
+
+"In the height of the dry season in Neuera-Kalawa, you know the streams
+are all dried up, and the tanks nearly so. All animals are then sorely
+pressed for water, and they congregate in the vicinity of those tanks in
+which there may remain ever so little of the precious element.
+
+"During one of those seasons I was encamped on the bund or embankment of
+a very small tank, the water in which was so dried that its surface
+could not have exceeded an area of 500 square yards. It was the only
+pond within many miles, and I knew that of necessity a very large herd
+of elephants, which had been in the neighbourhood all day, must resort
+to it at night.
+
+"On the lower side of the tank, and in a line with the embankment, was a
+thick forest, in which the elephants sheltered themselves during the
+day. On the upper side and all around the tank there was a considerable
+margin of open ground. It was one of those beautiful bright, clear,
+moonlight nights, when objects could be seen almost as distinctly as by
+day, and I determined to avail myself of the opportunity to observe the
+movements of the herd, which had already manifested some uneasiness at
+our presence. The locality was very favourable for my purpose, and an
+enormous tree projecting over the tank afforded me a secure lodgement in
+its branches. Having ordered the fires of my camp to be extinguished at
+an early hour, and all my followers to retire to rest, I took up my post
+of observation on the overhanging bough; but I had to remain for upwards
+of two hours before anything was to be seen or heard of the elephants,
+although I knew they were within 500 yards of me. At length, about the
+distance of 300 yards from the water, an unusually large elephant issued
+from the dense cover, and advanced cautiously across the open ground to
+within 100 yards of the tank, where he stood perfectly motionless. So
+quiet had the elephants become (although they had been roaring and
+breaking the jungle throughout the day and evening), that not a movement
+was now to be heard. The huge vidette remained in his position, still as
+a rock, for a few minutes, and then made three successive stealthy
+advances of several yards (halting for some minutes between each, with
+ears bent forward to catch the slightest sound), and in this way he
+moved slowly up to the water's edge. Still he did not venture to quench
+his thirst, for though his fore-feet were partially in the tank and his
+vast body was reflected clear in the water, he remained for some minutes
+listening in perfect stillness. Not a motion could be perceived in
+himself or his shadow. He returned cautiously and slowly to the position
+he had at first taken up on emerging from the forest. Here in a little
+while he was joined by five others, with which he again proceeded as
+cautiously, but less slowly than before, to within a few yards of the
+tank, and then posted his patrols. He then re-entered the forest and
+collected around him the whole herd, which must have amounted to between
+80 and 100 individuals,--led them across the open ground with the most
+extraordinary composure and quietness, till he joined the advanced
+guard, when he left them for a moment and repeated his former
+reconnoissance at the edge of the tank. After which, having apparently
+satisfied himself that all was safe, he returned and obviously gave the
+order to advance, for in a moment the whole herd rushed into the water
+with a degree of unreserved confidence, so opposite to the caution and
+timidity which had marked their previous movements, that nothing will
+ever persuade me that there was not rational and preconcerted
+co-operation throughout the whole party, and a degree of responsible
+authority exercised by the patriarch leader.
+
+"When the poor animals had gained possession of the tank (the leader
+being the last to enter), they seemed to abandon themselves to enjoyment
+without restraint or apprehension of danger. Such a mass of animal life
+I had never before seen huddled together in so narrow a space. It seemed
+to me as though they would have nearly drunk the tank dry. I watched
+them with great interest until they had satisfied themselves as well in
+bathing as in drinking, when I tried how small a noise would apprise
+them of the proximity of unwelcome neighbours. I had but to break a
+little twig, and the solid mass instantly took to flight like a herd of
+frightened deer, each of the smaller calves being apparently shouldered
+and carried along between two of the older ones."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Letter from Major SKINNER.]
+
+In drinking, the elephant, like the camel, although preferring water
+pure, shows no decided aversion to it when discoloured with mud[1]; and
+the eagerness with which he precipitates himself into the tanks and
+streams attests his exquisite enjoyment of the fresh coolness, which to
+him is the chief attraction. In crossing deep rivers, although his
+rotundity and buoyancy enable him to swim with a less immersion than
+other quadrupeds, he generally prefers to sink till no part of his huge
+body is visible except the tip of his trunk, through which he breathes,
+moving beneath the surface, and only now and then raising his head to
+look that he is keeping the proper direction.[2] In the dry season the
+scanty streams which, during the rains, are sufficient to convert the
+rivers of the low country into torrents, often entirely disappear,
+leaving only broad expanses of dry sand, which they have swept down with
+them from the hills. In this the elephants contrive to sink wells for
+their own use by scooping out the sand to the depth of four or five
+feet, and leaving a hollow for the percolation of the spring. But as the
+weight of the elephant would force in the side if left perpendicular,
+one approach is always formed with such a gradient that he can reach the
+water with his trunk without disturbing the surrounding sand.
+
+[Footnote 1: This peculiarity was known in the middle ages, and PHILE,
+writing in the fourteenth century, says, that such is his _preference_,
+for muddy water that the elephant _stirs it_ before he drinks.
+
+[Greek:
+
+  "Ydor de pineisynchythen prin anpinoi
+  To gar dieides akribos diaptuei."]
+
+         --PHILE _de Eleph_., i. 144.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A tame elephant, when taken by his keepers to be bathed,
+and to have his skin washed and rubbed, lies down on his side, pressing
+his head to the bottom under water, with only the top of his trunk
+protruded, to breathe.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+I have reason to believe, although the fact has not been authoritatively
+stated by naturalists, that the stomach of the elephant will be found to
+include a section analogous to that possessed by some of the ruminants,
+calculated to contain a supply of water as a provision against
+emergencies. The fact of his being enabled to retain a quantity of water
+and discharge it at pleasure has been long known to every observer of
+the habits of the animal; but the proboscis has always been supposed to
+be "his water-reservoir,"[1] and the theory of an internal receptacle
+has not been discussed. The truth is that the anatomy of the elephant is
+even yet but imperfectly understood[2], and, although some peculiarities
+of his stomach were observed at an early period, and even their
+configuration described, the function of the abnormal portion remained
+undetermined, and has been only recently conjectured. An elephant which
+belonged to Louis XIV. died at Versailles in 1681 at the age of
+seventeen, and an account of its dissection was published in the
+_Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire Naturelle_, under the authority of
+the Academy of Sciences, in which the unusual appendages of the stomach
+are pointed out with sufficient particularity, but no suggestion is made
+as to their probable uses."[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: BRODERIP'S _Zoological Recreations_, p. 259.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For observing the osteology of the elephant, materials are
+of course abundant in the indestructible remains of the animal: but the
+study of the intestines, and the dissection of the softer parts by
+comparative anatomists in Europe, have been up to the present time beset
+by difficulties. These arise not alone from the rarity of subjects, but
+even in cases where elephants have died in these countries,
+decomposition interposes, and before the thorough examination of so vast
+a body can be satisfactorily completed, the great mass falls into
+putrefaction.
+
+The principal English authorities are _An Anatomical Account of the
+Elephant accidentally burnt in Dublin_, by A. MOLYNEUX, A.D. 1696; which
+is probably a reprint of a letter on the same subject in the library of
+Trinity College, Dublin, addressed by A. Moulin, to Sir William Petty,
+Lond. 1682. There are also some papers communicated to Sir Hans Sloane,
+and afterwards published in the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the year
+1710, by Dr. P. BLAIR, who had an opportunity of dissecting an elephant
+which died at Dundee in 1708. The latter writer observes that,
+"notwithstanding the vast interest attaching to the elephant in all
+ages, yet has its body been hitherto very little subjected to
+anatomical, inquiries;" and he laments that the rapid decomposition of
+the carcase, and other causes, had interposed obstacles to the scrutiny
+of the subject he was so fortunate as to find access to.
+
+In 1723 Dr. WM. STUCKLEY published _Some Anatomical Observations made
+upon the Dissection of an Elephant_; but each of the above essays is
+necessarily unsatisfactory, and little has since been done to supply
+their defects. One of the latest and most valuable contributions to the
+subjects, is a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy, on the 18th of
+Feb., 1847, by Professor HARRISON, who had the opportunity of dissecting
+an Indian elephant which died of acute fever; but the examination, so
+far as he has made it public, extends only to the cranium, the brain,
+and the proboscis, the larynx, trachea, and oesophagus. An essential
+service would be rendered to science if some sportsman in Ceylon, or
+some of the officers connected with the elephant establishment there,
+would take the trouble to forward the carcase of a young one to England
+in a state fit for dissection.
+
+_Postscriptum._--I am happy to say that a young elephant, carefully
+preserved in spirits, has recently been obtained in Ceylon, and
+forwarded to Prof. Owen, of the British Museum, by the joint exertions
+of M. DIARD and Major SKINNER. An opportunity has thus been afforded
+from which science will reap advantage, of devoting a patient attention
+to the internal structure of this interesting animal.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The passage as quoted by BUFFON from the _Memoires_ is as
+follows:
+
+--"L'estomac avoit peu de diametre; il en avoit moins que le colon, car
+son diametre n'etoit que de quatorze pouces dans la partie la plus
+large; il avoit trois pieds et demi de longueur: l'orifice superieur
+etoit a-peu-pres aussi eloigne du pylore que du fond du grand cul-de-sac
+qui se terminoit en une pointe composee de tuniques beaucoup plus
+epaisses que celles du reste de l'estomac; il y avoit au fond du grand
+cul-de-sac plusieurs feuillets epais d'une ligne, larges d'un pouce et
+demi, et disposes irregulierement; le reste de parois interieures etoit
+perce de plusieurs petits trous et par de plus grands qui
+correspondoient a des grains glanduleux."--BUFFON, _Hist. Nat_., vol.
+xi. p. 109.]
+
+A writer in the _Quarterly Review_ for December 1850, says that "CAMPER
+and other comparative anatomists have shown that the left, or cardiac
+end of the stomach in the elephant is adapted, by several wide folds of
+lining membrane, to serve as a receiver for water;" but this is scarcely
+correct, for although CAMPER has accurately figured the external form of
+the stomach, he disposes of the question of the interior functions with
+the simple remark that its folds "semblent en faire une espece de
+division particuliere."[1] In like manner SIR EVERARD HOME, in his
+_Lectures on Comparative Anatomy_, has not only carefully described the
+form of the elephant's stomach, and furnished a drawing of it even more
+accurate than CAMPER; but he has equally omitted to assign any purpose
+to so strange a formation, contenting himself with observing that the
+structure is a peculiarity, and that one of the remarkable folds nearest
+the orifice of the diaphragm appears to act as a valve, so that the
+portion beyond may be considered as an appendage similar to that of the
+hog and the _peccary_.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: "L'extremite voisine du cardia se termine par une poche
+tres-considerable et doublee a l'interieure du quatorze valvules
+orbiculaires que semblent en faire une espece de division
+particuliere."--CAMPER, _Description Anatomique d'un Elephant Male_, p.
+37, tabl. IX.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "The elephant has another peculiarity in the internal
+structure of the stomach. It is longer and narrower than that of most
+animals. The cuticular membrane of the oesophagus terminates at the
+orifice of the stomach. At the cardiac end, which is very narrow and
+pointed at the extremity, the lining is thick and glandular, and is
+thrown into transverse folds, of which five are broad and nine narrow.
+That nearest the orifice of the oesophagus is the broadest, and appears
+to act occasionally as a valve, so that the part beyond may be
+considered as an appendage similar to that of the peccary and the hog.
+The membrane of the cardiac portion is uniformly smooth; that of the
+pyloric is thicker and more vascular."--_Lectures on Comparative
+Anatomy_, by Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart. 4to. Lond. vol. i. p. 155. The
+figure of the elephant's stomach is given, in his _Lectures_, vol. ii.
+plate xviii.]
+
+[Illustration: ELEPANT'S STOMACH.]
+
+The appendage thus alluded to by Sir EVERARD HOME is the grand
+"cul-de-sac," noticed by the Academic des Sciences, and the "division
+particuliere," figured by CAMPER. It is of sufficient dimensions to
+contain ten gallons of water, and by means of the valve above alluded
+to, it can be shut off from the chamber devoted to the process of
+digestion. Professor OWEN is probably the first who, not from an
+autopsy, but from the mere inspection of the drawings of CAMPER and
+HOME, ventured to assert (in lectures hitherto unpublished), that the
+uses of this section of the elephant's stomach may be analogous to those
+ascertained to belong to a somewhat similar arrangement in the stomach
+of the camel, one cavity of which is exclusively employed as a reservoir
+for water, and performs no function the preparation of food.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A similar arrangement, with some modifications, has more
+recently been found in the llama of the Andes, which, like the camel, is
+used as a beast of burden in the Cordilleras of Chili and Peru; but both
+these and the camel are _ruminants_, whilst the elephants belongs to the
+Pachydermata.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Whilst Professor OWEN was advancing this conjecture, another comparative
+anatomist, from the examination of another portion of the structure of
+the elephant, was led to a somewhat similar conclusion. Dr. HARRISON of
+Dublin had, in 1847, an opportunity of dissecting the body of an
+elephant which had suddenly died; and in the course of his examination
+of the thoracic viscera, he observed that an unusually close connection
+existed between the trachea and oesophagus, which he found to depend on
+a muscle unnoticed by any previous anatomist, connecting the back of the
+former with the forepart of the latter, along which the fibres descend
+and can be distinctly traced to the cardiac orifice of the stomach.
+Imperfectly acquainted with the habits and functions of the elephant in
+a state of nature, Dr. HARRISON found it difficult to pronounce as to
+the use of this very peculiar structure; but looking to the intimate
+connection between the mechanism concerned in the functions of
+respiration and deglutition, and seeing that the proboscis served in a
+double capacity as an instrument of voice and an organ for the
+prehension of food, he ventured (apparently without adverting to the
+abnormal form of the stomach) to express the opinion that this muscle,
+viewing its attachment to the trachea, might either have some influence
+in raising the diaphragm, and thereby assisting in expiration, "_or that
+it might raise the cardiac orifice of the stomach, and so aid this organ
+to regurgitate a portion of its contents into the oesophagus_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Proceed. Roy. Irish Acad_., vol. iv. p. 133.]
+
+Dr. HARRISON, on the reflection that "we have no satisfactory evidence
+that the animal ever ruminates," thought it useless to speculate on the
+latter supposition as to the action of the newly discovered muscle, and
+rather inclined to the surmise that it was designed to assist the
+elephant in producing the remarkable sound through his proboscis known
+as "trumpeting;" but there is little room to doubt that of the two the
+rejected hypothesis was the more correct one. I have elsewhere described
+the occurrence to which I was myself a witness[1], of elephants
+inserting their proboscis in their mouths, and withdrawing gallons of
+water, which could only have been contained in the receptacle figured by
+CAMPER and HOME, and of which the true uses were discerned by the clear
+intellect of Professor OWEN. I was not, till very recently, aware that a
+similar observation as to the remarkable habit of the elephant, had been
+made by the author of the _Ayeen Akbery_, in his account of the _Feel_
+_Kaneh_, or elephant stables of the Emperor Akbar, in which he says, "an
+elephant frequently with his trunk takes water out of his stomach and
+sprinkles himself with it, and it is not in the least offensive."[2]
+FORBES, in his Oriental Memoirs, quotes this passage of the _Ayeen
+Akbery_, but without a remark; nor does any European writer with whose
+works I am acquainted appear to have been cognisant of the peculiarity
+in question.
+
+[Footnote 1: In the account of an elephant corral, chap. vi.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ayeen Akbery_, transl. by GLADWIN, vol i. pt. i, p. 147.]
+
+[Illustration: WATER-CELLS IN THE STOMACH OF THE CAMEL.]
+
+It is to be hoped that Professor OWEN'S dissection of the young
+elephant, recently arrived, may serve to decide this highly interesting
+point.[1] Should scientific investigation hereafter more clearly
+establish the fact that, in this particular, the structure of the
+elephant is assimilated to that of the llama and the camel, it will be
+regarded as more than a common coincidence, that an apparatus, so unique
+in its purpose and action, should thus have been conferred by the
+Creator on the three animals which in sultry climates are, by this
+arrangement, enabled to traverse arid regions in the service of man.[2]
+To show this peculiar organization where it attains its fullest
+development, I have given a sketch of the water-cells, in the stomach of
+the camel on the preceding page.
+
+[Footnote 1: One of the Indian names for the elephant is _duipa_, which
+signifies "to drink twice" (AMANDI, p. 513). Can this have reference to
+the peculiarity of the stomach for retaining a supply of water? Or has
+it merely reference to the habit of the animal to fill his trunk before
+transferring the water to his mouth.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The buffalo and the humped cattle of India, which are used
+for draught and burden, have, I believe, a development of the
+organisation of the reticulum which enables the ruminants generally, to
+endure thirst, and abstain from water, somewhat more conspicuous than in
+the rest of their congeners; but nothing that approaches in singularity
+of character to the distinct cavities in the stomach exhibited by the
+three animals above alluded to.]
+
+The _food_ of the elephant is so abundant, that in feeding he never
+appears to be impatient or voracious, but rather to play with the leaves
+and branches on which he leisurely feeds. In riding by places where a
+herd has recently halted, I have sometimes seen the bark peeled
+curiously off the twigs, as though it had been done in mere dalliance.
+In the same way in eating grass the elephant selects a tussac which he
+draws from the ground by a dexterous twist of his trunk, and nothing can
+be more graceful than the ease with which, before conveying it to his
+mouth, he beats the earth from its roots by striking it gently upon his
+fore-leg. A coco-nut he first rolls under foot, to detach the strong
+outer bark, then stripping off with his trunk the thick layer of fibre
+within, he places the shell in his mouth, and swallows with evident
+relish the fresh liquid which flows as he crushes it between his
+grinders.
+
+The natives of the peninsula of Jaffna always look for the periodical
+appearance of the elephants, at the precise time when the fruit of the
+palmyra palm begins to fall to the ground from ripeness. In like manner
+in the eastern provinces where the custom prevails of cultivating what
+is called _chena_ land (by clearing a patch of forest for the purpose of
+raising a single crop, after which the ground is abandoned, and reverts
+to jungle again), although a single elephant may not have been seen in
+the neighbourhood during the early stages of the process, the Moormen,
+who are the cultivators of this class, will predict their appearance
+with almost unerring confidence so soon as the grains shall have begun
+to ripen; and although the crop comes to maturity at different periods
+in different districts, herds are certain to be seen at each in
+succession, as soon as it is ready to be cut. In these well-timed
+excursions, they resemble the bison of North America, which, by a
+similarly mysterious instinct, finds its way to portions of the distant
+prairies, where accidental fires have been followed by a growth of
+tender grass. Although the fences around these _chenas_ are little more
+than lines of reeds loosely fastened together, they are sufficient, with
+the presence of a single watcher, to prevent the entrance of the
+elephants, who wait patiently till the rice and _coracan_ have been
+removed, and the watcher withdrawn; and, then finding gaps in the fence,
+they may be seen gleaning among the leavings and the stubble; and they
+take their departure when these are exhausted, apparently in the
+direction of some other _chena_, which they have ascertained to be about
+to be cut.
+
+There is something still unexplained in the dread which an elephant
+always exhibits on approaching a fence, and the reluctance which he
+displays to face the slightest artificial obstruction to his passage. In
+the fine old tank of Tissa-weva, close by Anarajapoora, the natives
+cultivate grain, during the dry season, around the margin where the
+ground has been left bare by the subsidence of the water. These little
+patches of rice they enclose with small sticks an inch in diameter and
+five or six feet in height, such as would scarcely serve to keep out a
+wild hog if he attempted to force his way through. Passages of from ten
+to twenty feet wide are left between each field, to permit the wild
+elephants, which abound in the vicinity to make their nocturnal visits
+to the water still remaining in the tank. Night after night these open
+pathways are frequented by immense herds, but the tempting corn is never
+touched, nor is a single fence disturbed, although the merest, movement
+of a trunk would be sufficient to demolish the fragile structure. Yet
+the same spots, the fences being left open as soon as the grain has been
+cut and carried home, are eagerly entered by the elephants to glean
+amongst the stubble.
+
+Sportsmen observe that an elephant, even when enraged by a wound, will
+hesitate to charge an assailant across an intervening hedge, but will
+hurry along it to seek for an opening. It is possible that, on the part
+of the elephant, there may be some instinctive consciousness, that owing
+to his superior bulk, he is exposed to danger from sources that might be
+perfectly harmless in the case of lighter animals, and hence his
+suspicion that every fence may conceal a snare or pitfall. Some similar
+apprehension is apparent in the deer, which shrinks from attempting a
+fence of wire, although it will clear without hesitation a solid wall of
+greater height.
+
+At the same time, the caution with which the elephant is supposed to
+approach insecure ground and places of doubtful[1] solidity, appears to
+me, so far as my own observation and experience extend, to be
+exaggerated, and the number of temporary bridges which are annually
+broken down by elephants in all parts of Ceylon, is sufficient to show
+that, although in captivity, and when familiar with such structures, the
+tame ones may, and doubtless do, exhibit all the wariness attributed to
+them; yet, in a state of liberty, and whilst unaccustomed to such
+artificial appliances, their instincts are not sufficient to ensure
+their safety. Besides, the fact is adverted to elsewhere[2], that the
+chiefs of the Wanny, during the sovereignty of the Dutch, were
+accustomed to take in pitfalls the elephants which they rendered as
+tribute to government.
+
+[Footnote 1: "One of the strongest instincts which the elephant
+possesses, is this which impels him to experiment upon the solidity of
+every surface which he is required to cross."--_Menageries, &c._ "The
+Elephant," vol. i. pp. 17, 19, 66.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 151. See p. 115, _note_.]
+
+A fact illustrative at once of the caution and the spirit of curiosity
+with which an elephant regards an unaccustomed object has been
+frequently mentioned to me by the officers engaged in opening roads
+through the forest. On such occasions the wooden "tracing pegs" which
+they are obliged to drive into the ground to mark the levels taken
+during the day, will often be withdrawn by the elephants during the
+night, to such an extent as frequently to render it necessary to go over
+the work a second time, in order to replace them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Private Letter_ from Dr. DAVY, author of _An Account of
+the Interior of Ceylon_.]
+
+Colonel HARDY, formerly Deputy Quarter-Master-General in Ceylon, when
+proceeding, about the year 1820, to a military out-post in the
+south-east of the island, imprudently landed in an uninhabited part of
+the coast, intending to take a short cut through the forest, to his
+destination. He not only miscalculated the distance, but, on the
+approach of nightfall, he was chased by a vicious rogue elephant. The
+pursuer was nearly upon him, when, to gain time, he flung down a small
+dressing-case, which he happened to be carrying. The device was
+successful; the elephant halted and minutely examined its contents, and
+thus gave the colonel time to effect his escape.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The _Colombo Observer_ for March 1858, contains an offer of
+a reward of twenty-five guineas for the destruction of an elephant which
+infested the Rajawalle coffee plantation, in the vicinity of Kandy. Its
+object seemed to be less the search for food, than the satisfying of its
+curiosity and the gratification of its passion for mischief. Mr. TYTLER,
+the proprietor, states that it frequented the jungle near the estate,
+whence it was its custom to sally forth at night for the pleasure of
+pulling down buildings and trees, "and it seemed to have taken a spite
+at the pipes of the water-works, the pillars of which it several times
+broke down--its latest fancy being to wrench off the taps." This
+elephant has since been shot.]
+
+As regards the general sagacity of the elephant, although it has not
+been over-rated in the instances of those whose powers have been largely
+developed in captivity, an undue estimate has been formed in relation to
+them whilst still untamed. The difference of instincts and habits
+renders it difficult to institute a just comparison between them and
+other animals. CUVIER[1] is disposed to ascribe the exalted idea that
+prevails of their intellect to the feats which an elephant performs with
+that unique instrument, its trunk, combined with an imposing expression
+of countenance: but he records his own conviction that in sagacity it in
+no way excels the dog, and some other species of Carnivora. If there be
+a superiority, I am disposed to award it to the dog, not from any excess
+of natural capacity, but from the higher degree of development
+consequent on his more intimate domestication and association with man.
+
+[Footnote 1: CUVIER, _Regne Animal_. "Les Mammiferes," p. 280.]
+
+One remarkable fact was called to my attention by a gentleman who
+resided on a coffee plantation at Rassawe, one of the loftiest mountains
+of the Ambogammoa range. More than once during the terrific
+thunder-bursts that precede the rains at the change of each monsoon, he
+observed that the elephants in the adjoining forest hastened from under
+cover of the trees and took up their station in the open ground, where I
+saw them on one of these occasions collected into a group; and here, he
+said, it was their custom to remain till the lightning had ceased, when
+they retired again into the jungle.[1] It must be observed, however,
+that showers, and especially light drizzling rain, are believed to bring
+the elephants from the jungle towards pathways or other openings in the
+forest;--and hence, in places infested by them, timid persons are afraid
+to travel in the afternoon during uncertain weather.
+
+[Footnote 1: The elephant is believed by the Singhalese to express his
+uneasiness by his voice, on the approach of _rain_; and the Tamils have
+a proverb.--"_Listen to the elephant, rain is coming._"]
+
+When free in its native woods the elephant evinces rather simplicity
+than sagacity, and its intelligence seldom exhibits itself in cunning.
+The rich profusion in which nature has supplied its food, and
+anticipated its every want, has made it independent of those devices by
+which carnivorous animals provide for their subsistence; and, from the
+absence of all rivalry between it and the other denizens of the plains,
+it is never required to resort to artifice for self-protection. For
+these reasons, in its tranquil and harmless life, it may appear to
+casual observers to exhibit even less than ordinary ability; but when
+danger and apprehension call for the exertion of its powers, those who
+have witnessed their display are seldom inclined to undervalue its
+sagacity.
+
+Mr. CRIPPS has related to me an instance in which a recently captured
+elephant was either rendered senseless from fear, or, as the native
+attendants asserted, _feigned death_ in order to regain its freedom. It
+was led from the corral as usual between two tame ones, and had already
+proceeded far towards its destination; when night closing in, and the
+torches being lighted, it refused to go on, and finally sank to the
+ground, apparently lifeless. Mr. CRIPPS ordered the fastenings to be
+removed from its legs, and when all attempts to raise it had failed, so
+convinced was he that it was dead, that he ordered the ropes to be taken
+off and the carcase abandoned. While this was being done he and a
+gentleman by whom he was accompanied leaned against the body to rest.
+They had scarcely taken their departure and proceeded a few yards, when,
+to their astonishment, the elephant rose with the utmost alacrity, and
+fled towards the jungle, screaming at the top of its voice, its cries
+being audible long after it had disappeared in the shades of the forest.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NARRATIVES OF THE NATIVES OF CEYLON RELATIVE TO ENCOUNTERS WITH ROGUE
+ELEPHANTS.
+
+
+The following narratives have been taken down by a Singhalese gentleman,
+from the statements of the natives by whom they are recounted;--and they
+are here inserted, in order to show the opinion prevalent amongst the
+people of Ceylon as to the habits and propensities of the rogue
+elephant. The stories are given in words of my correspondent, who writes
+in English, as follows:--
+
+1. "We," said my informant, who was a native trader of Caltura, "were on
+our way to Badulla, by way of Ratnapoora and Balangodde, to barter our
+merchandize for coffee. There were six in our party, myself, my
+brother-in-law, and four coolies, who carried on pingoes[1] our
+merchandize, which consisted of cloth and brass articles. About 4
+o'clock, P.M., we were close to Idalgasinna, and our coolies were rather
+unwilling to go further for fear of elephants, which they said were sure
+to be met with at that noted place, especially as there had been a
+slight drizzling of rain during the whole afternoon. I was as much
+afraid of elephants as the coolies themselves; but I was anxious to
+proceed, and so, after a few words of encouragement addressed to them,
+and a prayer or two offered up to _Saman dewiyo_[2], we resumed our
+journey. I also took the further precaution of hanging up a few
+leaves.[3] As the rain was coming down fast and thick, and I was anxious
+to get to our halting-place before night, we moved on at a rapid pace.
+My brother-in-law was in the van of the party, I myself was in the rear,
+and the four coolies between us, all moving along on a rugged, rocky,
+and difficult path; as the road to Badulla till lately was on the
+sloping side of a hill, covered with jungle, pieces of projecting rock,
+and brushwood. It was about five o'clock in the evening, or a little
+later, and we had hardly cleared the foot of the hill and got to the
+plain below, when a rustling of leaves and a crackling of dry brushwood
+were heard on our right, followed immediately by the trumpeting of a
+_hora allia_[4], which was making towards us. We all fled, followed by
+the elephant. I, who was in the rear of the party, was the first to take
+to flight; the coolies threw away their pingoes, and my brother-in-law
+his umbrella, and all ran in different directions. I hid myself behind a
+large boulder of granite nearly covered by jungle: but as my place of
+concealment was on high ground, I could see all that was going on below.
+The first thing I observed was the elephant returning to the place where
+one of the pingoes was lying: he was carrying one of the coolies in a
+coil of his trunk. The body of the man was dangling with the head
+downward. I cannot say whether he was then alive or not; I could not
+perceive any marks of blood or bruises on his person: but he appeared to
+be lifeless. The elephant placed him down on the ground, put the pingo
+on his (the man's) shoulder, steadying both the man and the pingo with
+his trunk and fore-legs. But the man of course did not move or stand up
+with his pingo. Seeing this, the elephant again raised the cooly and
+dashed him against the ground, and then trampled the body to a very
+jelly. This done, he took up the pingo and moved away from the spot; but
+at the distance of about a fathom or two, laid it down again, and
+ripping open one of the bundles, took out of it all the contents,
+_somans_[5], _camb[=a]yas_[6], handkerchiefs, and several pieces of
+white cambrick cloth, all which he tore to small pieces, and flung them
+wildly here and there. He did the same with all the other pingoes. When
+this was over the elephant quietly walked away into the jungle,
+trumpeting all the way as far as I could hear. When danger was past I
+came out of my concealment, and returned to the place where we had
+halted that morning. Here the rest of my companions joined me soon
+after. The next morning we set out again on our journey, our party being
+now increased by some seven or eight traders from Salpity Corle: but
+this time we did not meet with the elephant. We found the mangled corpse
+of our cooly on the same spot where I had seen it the day before,
+together with the torn pieces of my cloths, of which we collected as
+fast as we could the few which were serviceable, and all the brass
+utensils which were quite uninjured. That elephant was a noted rogue. He
+had before this killed many people on that road, especially those
+carrying pingoes of coco-nut oil and ghee. He was afterwards killed by
+an Englishman. The incidents I have mentioned above, took place about
+twenty years ago."
+
+[Footnote 1: Yokes borne on the shoulder, with a package at each end.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The tutelary spirit of the sacred mountain, Adam's Peak.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The Singhalese hold the belief, that twigs taken from one
+bush and placed on another growing close to a pathway, ensure protection
+to travellers from the attacks of wild animals, and especially of
+elephants. Can it be that the latter avoid the path, on discovering this
+evidence of the proximity of recent passengers?]
+
+[Footnote 4: A rogue elephant.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Woman's robe.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The figured cloth worn by men.]
+
+The following also relates to the same locality. It was narrated to me
+by an old Moorman of Barberyn, who, during his earlier years, led the
+life of a pedlar.
+
+2. "I and another," said he, "were on our way to Badulla, one day some
+twenty-five or thirty years ago. We were quietly moving along a path
+which wound round a hill, when all of a sudden, and without the
+slightest previous intimation either by the rustling of leaves or by any
+other sign, a huge elephant with short tusks rushed to the path. Where
+he had been before I can't say; I believe he must have been lying in
+wait for travellers. In a moment he rushed forward to the road,
+trumpeting dreadfully, and seized my companion. I, who happened to be in
+the rear, took to flight, pursued by the elephant, which had already
+killed my companion by striking him against the ground. I had not moved
+more than seven or eight fathoms, when the elephant seized me, and threw
+me up with such force, that I was carried high into the air towards a
+_Cahata_ tree, whose branches caught me and prevented my falling to the
+ground. By this I received no other injury than the dislocation of one
+of my wrists. I do not know whether the elephant saw me after he had
+hurled me away through the air; but certainly he did not come to the
+tree to which I was then clinging: even if he had come, he couldn't have
+done me any more harm, as the branch on which I was far beyond the reach
+of his trunk, and the tree itself too large for him to pull down. The
+next thing I saw was the elephant returning to the corpse of my
+companion, which he again threw on the ground, and placing one of his
+fore feet on it, he tore it with his trunk limb after limb; and dabbled
+in the blood that flowed from the shapeless mass of flesh which he was
+still holding under his foot."
+
+3. "In 1847 or '46," said another informant, "I was a superintendent of
+a coco-nut estate belonging to Mr. Armitage, situated about twelve miles
+from Negombo. A rogue elephant did considerable injury to the estate at
+that time; and one day, hearing that it was then on the plantation, a
+Mr. Lindsay, an Englishman, who was proprietor of the adjoining
+property, and myself, accompanied by some seven or eight people of the
+neighbouring village, went out, carrying with us six rifles loaded and
+primed. We continued to walk along a path which, near one of its turns,
+had some bushes on one side. We had calculated to come up with the brute
+where it had been seen half an hour before; but no sooner had one of our
+men, who was walking foremost, seen the animal at the distance of some
+fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he exclaimed, 'There! there!' and
+immediately took to his heels, and we all followed his example. The
+elephant did not see us until we had run some fifteen or twenty paces
+from the spot where we turned, when he gave us chase, screaming
+frightfully as he came on. The Englishman managed to climb a tree, and
+the rest of my companions did the same; as for myself I could not,
+although I made one or two superhuman efforts. But there was no time to
+be lost. The elephant was running at me with his trunk bent down in a
+curve towards the ground. At this critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out
+his foot to me, with the help of which and then of the branches of the
+tree, which were three or four feet above my head, I managed to scramble
+up to a branch. The elephant came directly to the tree and attempted to
+force it down, which he could not. He first coiled his trunk round the
+stem, and pulled it with all his might, but with no effect. He then
+applied his head to the tree, and pushed for several minutes, but with
+no better success. He then trampled with his feet all the projecting
+roots, moving, as he did so, several times round and round the tree.
+Lastly, failing in all this, and seeing a pile of timber, which I had
+lately cut, at a short distance from us, he removed it all (thirty-six
+pieces) one at a time to the root of the tree, and piled them up in a
+regular business-like manner; then placing his hind feet on this pile,
+he raised the fore part of his body, and reached out his trunk, but
+still he could not touch us, as we were too far above him. The
+Englishman then fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on the
+elephant's head, but did not kill him. It made him only the more
+furious. The next shot, however, levelled him to the ground. I
+afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo, and it is still
+to be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage."
+
+4. "One night a herd of elephants entered a village in the Four Corles.
+After doing considerable injury to plaintain bushes and young coco-nut
+trees, they retired, the villagers being unable to do anything to
+protect their fruit trees from destruction. But one elephant was left
+behind, who continued to scream the whole night through at the same
+spot. It was then discovered that the elephant, on seeing a jak fruit on
+a tree somewhat beyond the reach of his trunk, had raised himself on his
+hind legs, placing his fore feet against the stem, in order to lay hold
+of the fruit, but unluckily for him there happened to be another tree
+standing so close to it that the vacant space between the two stems was
+only a few inches. During his attempts to take hold of the fruit one of
+his legs happened to get in between the two trees, where, on account of
+his weight and his clumsy attempts to extricate himself, it got so
+firmly wedged that he could not remove it, and in this awkward position
+he remained for some days, till he died on the spot."
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Elephant Shooting._
+
+
+As the shooting of an elephant, whatever endurance and adroitness the
+sport may display in other respects, requires the smallest possible
+skill as a marksman, the numbers which are annually slain in this way
+may be regarded as evidence of the multitudes abounding in those parts
+of Ceylon to which they resort. One officer, Major ROGERS, killed
+upwards of 1400; another, Captain GALLWEY, has the credit of slaying
+more than half that number; Major SKINNER, the Commissioner of Roads,
+almost as many; and less persevering aspirants follow at humbler
+distances.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: To persons like myself, who are not addicted to what is
+called "sport," the statement of these wholesale slaughters is
+calculated to excite surprise and curiosity as to the nature of a
+passion that impels men to self-exposure and privation, in a pursuit
+which presents nothing but the monotonous recurrence of scenes of blood
+and suffering. Mr. BAKER, who has recently published, under the title of
+"_The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon_" an account of his exploits in the
+forest, gives us the assurance that "_all real sportsmen are
+tender-hearted men, who shun cruelty to an animal, and are easily moved
+by a tale of distress_;" and that although man is naturally
+bloodthirsty, and a beast of prey by instinct, yet that the true
+sportsman is distinguished from the rest of the human race by his "_love
+of nature, and of noble scenery_." In support of this pretension to a
+gentler nature than the rest of mankind, the author proceeds to attest
+his own abhorrence of cruelty by narrating the sufferings of an old
+hound, which, although "toothless," he cheered on to assail a boar at
+bay, but the poor dog recoiled "covered with blood, cut nearly in half,
+with a wound fourteen inches in length, from the lower part of the
+belly, passing up the flank, completely severing the muscles of the hind
+leg, and extending up the spine; his hind leg having the appearance of
+being nearly off." In this state, forgetful of the character he had so
+lately given of the true sportsman, as a lover of nature and a hater of
+cruelty, he encouraged "the poor old dog," as he calls him, to resume
+the fight with the boar, which lasted for an hour, when he managed to
+call the dogs off; and perfectly exhausted, the mangled hound crawled
+out of the jungle with several additional wounds, including a severe
+gash in his throat. "He fell from exhaustion, and we made a litter with
+two poles and a horsecloth to carry him home."--P. 314. If such were the
+habitual enjoyments of this class of sportsmen, their motiveless
+massacres would admit of no manly justification. In comparison with them
+one is disposed to regard almost with favour the exploits of a hunter
+like Major ROGERS, who is said to have applied the value of the ivory
+obtained from his encounters towards the purchase of his successive
+regimental commissions, and had, therefore, an object, however
+disproportionate, in his slaughter of 1400 elephants.
+
+One gentleman in Ceylon, not less distinguished for his genuine kindness
+of heart, than for his marvellous success in shooting elephants, avowed
+to me that the eagerness with which he found himself impelled to pursue
+them had often excited surprise in his own mind; and although he had
+never read the theory of Lord Kames, or the speculations of Vicesimus
+Knox, he had come to the conclusion that the passion thus excited within
+him was a remnant of the hunter's instinct, with which man was
+originally endowed, to enable him, by the chase, to support existence in
+a state of nature, and which, though rendered dormant by civilisation,
+had not been utterly eradicated.
+
+This theory is at least more consistent and intelligible than the "love
+of nature and scenery," sentimentally propounded by the author quoted
+above.]
+
+But notwithstanding this prodigious destruction, a reward of a few
+shillings per head offered by the Government for taking elephants was
+claimed for 3500 destroyed in part of the northern province alone, in
+less than three years prior to 1848: and between 1851 and 1856, a
+similar reward was paid for 2000 in the southern province, between Galle
+and Hambangtotte.
+
+Although there is little opportunity for the display of marksmanship in
+an elephant battue, there is one feature in the sport, as conducted in
+Ceylon, which contrasts favourably with the slaughterhouse details
+chronicled with revolting minuteness in some recent accounts of elephant
+shooting in South Africa. The practice in Ceylon is to aim invariably at
+the head, and the sportsman finds his safety to consist in boldly facing
+the animal, advancing to within fifteen paces, and lodging a bullet,
+either in the temple or in the hollow over the eye, or in a well-known
+spot immediately above the trunk, where the weaker structure of the
+skull affords an easy access to the brain.[1] The region of the ear is
+also a fatal spot, and often resorted to,--the places I have mentioned
+in the front of the head being only accessible when the animal is
+"charging." Professor HARRISON, in his communication to the Royal Irish
+Academy on the Anatomy of the Elephant, has rendered an intelligible
+explanation of this in the following passage descriptive of the
+cranium:--"it exhibits two remarkable facts: _first_, the small space
+occupied by the brain; and, _secondly_, the beautiful and curious
+structure of the bones of the head. The two tables of all these bones,
+except the occipital, are separated by rows of large cells, some from
+four to five inches in length, others only small, irregular, and
+honey-comb-like:--these all communicate with each other, and, through
+the frontal sinuses, with the cavity of the nose, and also with the
+tympanum or drum of each ear; consequently, as in some birds, these
+cells are filled with air, and thus while the skull attains a great size
+in order to afford an extensive surface for the attachment of muscles,
+and a mechanical support for the tusks, it is at the same time very
+light and buoyant in proportion to its bulk; a property the more
+valuable as the animal is fond of water and bathes in deep rivers."
+
+[Footnote 1: The vulnerability of the elephant in this region of the
+head was known to the ancients, and PLINY, describing a combat of
+elephants in the amphitheatre at Rome, says, that one was slain by a
+single blow, "pilum sub oculo adactum, in vitalia capitis venerat" (Lib.
+viii. c. 7.) Notwithstanding the comparative facility of access to the
+brain afforded at this spot, an ordinary leaden bullet is not certain to
+penetrate, and frequently becomes flattened. The hunters, to counteract
+this, are accustomed to harden the ball, by the introduction of a small
+portion of type-metal along with the lead.]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF ELEPHANT'S HEAD.]
+
+Generally speaking, a single ball, planted in the forehead, ends the
+existence of the noble creature instantaneously: and expert sportsmen
+have been known to kill right and left, one with each barrel; but
+occasionally an elephant will not fall before several shots have been
+lodged in his head.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "There is a wide difference of opinion as to the most
+deadly shot. I think the temple the most certain, but authority in
+Ceylon says the 'fronter,' that is, above the trunk. Behind the ear is
+said to be deadly, but that is a shot which I never fired or saw fired
+that I remember. If the ball go true to its mark, all shots (in the
+head) are certain; but the bones on either side of the honey-comb
+passage to the brain are so thick that there is in all a 'glorious
+uncertainty' which keeps a man on the _qui vive_ till he sees the
+elephant down."--From a paper on _Elephant Shooting in Ceylon_, by Major
+MACREADY, late Military Secretary at Colombo.]
+
+Contrasted with this, one reads with a shudder the sickening details of
+the African huntsman approaching _behind_ the retiring animal, and of
+the torture inflicted by the shower of bullets which tear up its flesh
+and lacerate its flank and shoulders.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: In Mr. GORDON CUMMING'S account of a _Hunter's Life in
+South Africa_, there is a narrative of his pursuit of a wounded elephant
+which he had lamed by lodging a ball in its shoulder-blade. It limped
+slowly towards a tree, against which it leaned itself in helpless agony,
+whilst its pursuer seated himself in front of it, in safety, to _boil
+his coffee_, and observe its sufferings. The story is continued as
+follows:--"Having admired him for a considerable time, _I resolved to
+make experiments on vulnerable points_; and approaching very near I
+fired several bullets at different parts of his enormous skull. He only
+acknowledged the shots by a salaam-like movement of his trunk, with the
+point of which he gently touched the wounds with a striking and peculiar
+action. Surprised and shocked at finding that I was only prolonging the
+sufferings of the noble beast, which bore its trials with such dignified
+composure, I resolved to finish the proceeding with all possible
+despatch, and accordingly opened fire upon him from the left side,
+aiming at the shoulder. I first fired _six_ shots with the two-grooved
+rifle, which must have eventually proved mortal. After which I fired
+_six_ shots at the same part with the Dutch six-pounder. _Large tears
+now trickled from his eyes, which he slowly shut and opened, his
+colossal frame shivered convulsively, and falling on his side, he
+expired_." (Vol. ii. p. 10.)
+
+In another place, after detailing the manner in which he assailed a poor
+animal--he says, "I was loading and firing as fast as could be,
+sometimes at the head, sometimes behind the shoulder, until my
+elephant's fore-quarter was a mass of gore; notwithstanding which he
+continued to hold on, leaving the grass and branches of the forest
+scarlet in his wake. * * * Having fired _thirty-five rounds_ with my
+two-grooved rifle, I opened upon him with the Dutch six-pounder, and
+when forty bullets had perforated his hide, he began for the first time,
+to evince signs of a dilapidated constitution." The disgusting
+description is closed thus: "Throughout the charge he repeatedly cooled
+his person with large quantities of water, which he ejected from his
+trunk over his sides and back, and just as the pangs of death came over
+him, he stood trembling violently beside a thorn tree, and kept pouring
+water into his bloody mouth until he died, when he pitched heavily
+forward with the whole weight of his fore-quarters resting on the points
+of his tusks. The strain was fair, and the tusks did not yield; but the
+portion of his head in which the tusks were embedded, extending a long
+way above the eye, yielded and burst with a muffled crash."--(_Ib_.,
+vol. ii. pp. 4, 5.)]
+
+The shooting of elephants in Ceylon has been described with tiresome
+iteration in the successive journals of sporting gentlemen, but one who
+turns to their pages for traits of the animal and his instincts is
+disappointed to find little beyond graphic sketches of the daring and
+exploits of his pursuers, most of whom, having had no further
+opportunity of observation than is derived from a casual encounter with
+the outraged animal, have apparently tried to exalt their own prowess,
+by misrepresenting the ordinary character of the elephant, describing
+him as "savage, wary, and revengeful."[1]
+
+These epithets may undoubtedly apply to the outcasts from the herd, the
+"Rogues" or _hora allia_, but so small is the proportion of these that
+there is not probably one _rogue_ to be found for every five hundred of
+those in herds; and it is a manifest error, arising from imperfect
+information, to extend this censure to them generally, or to suppose the
+elephant to be an animal "thirsting for blood, lying in wait in the
+jungle to rush on the unwary passer-by, and knowing no greater pleasure
+than the act of crushing his victim to a shapeless mass beneath his
+feet."[2] The cruelties practised by the hunters have no doubt taught
+these sagacious creatures to be cautious and alert, but their
+precautions are simply defensive; and beyond the alarm and apprehension
+which they evince on the approach of man, they exhibit no indication of
+hostility or thirst for blood.
+
+[Footnote 1: _The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon_; by S.W. BAKER, Esq.,
+pp. 8, 9. "Next to a rogue," says Mr. BAKER, "in ferocity, and even more
+persevering in the pursuit of her victim, is a female elephant." But he
+appends the significant qualification, "_when her young one has been
+killed_."--_Ibid_., p. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ibid_.]
+
+An ordinary traveller seldom comes upon elephants unless after sunset or
+towards daybreak, as they go to or return from their nightly visits to
+the tanks: but when by accident a herd is disturbed by day, they evince,
+if unattacked, no disposition to become assailants; and if the attitude
+of defence which they instinctively assume prove sufficent to check the
+approach of the intruder, no further demonstration is to be apprehended.
+
+Even the hunters who go in search of them find them in positions and
+occupations altogether inconsistent with the idea of their being savage,
+wary, or revengeful. Their demeanour when undisturbed is indicative of
+gentleness and timidity, and their actions bespeak lassitude and
+indolence, induced not alone by heat, but probably ascribable in some
+degree to the fact that the night has been spent in watchfulness and
+amusement. A few are generally browsing listlessly on the trees and
+plants within reach, others fanning themselves with leafy branches, and
+a few are asleep; whilst the young run playfully among the herd, the
+emblems of innocence, as the older ones are of peacefulness and gravity.
+
+Almost every elephant may be observed to exhibit some peculiar action of
+the limbs when standing at rest; some move the head monotonously in a
+circle, or from right to left; some swing their feet back and forward;
+others flap their ears or sway themselves from side to side, or rise and
+sink by alternately bending and straightening the fore knees. As the
+opportunities of observing this custom have been almost confined to
+elephants in captivity, it has been conjectured to arise from some
+morbid habit contracted during the length of a voyage by sea[1], or from
+an instinctive impulse to substitute a motion of this kind in lieu of
+their wonted exercise; but this supposition is erroneous; the propensity
+being equally displayed by those at liberty and those in captivity. When
+surprised by sportsmen in the depths of the jungle, individuals of a
+herd are always occupied in swinging their limbs in this manner; and in
+the several corrals which I have seen, where whole herds have been
+captured, the elephants in the midst of the utmost excitement, and even
+after the most vigorous charges, if they halted for a moment in stupor
+and exhaustion, manifested their wonted habit, and swung their limbs or
+swayed their bodies to and fro incessantly. So far from its being a
+substitute for exercise, those in the government employment in Ceylon
+are observed to practise their acquired motion, whatever it may be, with
+increased vigour when thoroughly fatigued after excessive work. Even the
+favourite practice of fanning themselves with a leafy branch seems less
+an enjoyment in itself than a resource when listless and at rest. The
+term "fidgetty" seems to describe appropriately the temperament of the
+elephant.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries_, &c., "The Elephant," ch. i. p. 21.]
+
+They evince the strongest love of retirement and a corresponding dislike
+to intrusion. The approach of a stranger is perceived less by the eye,
+the quickness of which is not remarkable (besides which its range is
+obscured by the foliage), than by sensitive smell and singular acuteness
+of hearing; and the whole herd is put in instant but noiseless motion
+towards some deeper and more secure retreat. The effectual manner in
+which an animal of the prodigious size of the elephant can conceal
+himself, and the motionless silence which he preserves, is quite
+surprising; whilst beaters pass and repass within a few yards of his
+hiding place, he will maintain his ground till the hunter, creeping
+almost close to his legs, sees his little eye peering out through the
+leaves, when, finding himself discovered, the elephant breaks away with
+a crash, levelling the brushwood in his headlong career.
+
+If surprised in open ground, where stealthy retreat is impracticable, a
+herd will hesitate in indecision, and, after a few meaningless
+movements, stand huddled together in a group, whilst one or two, more
+adventurous than the rest, advance a few steps to reconnoitre. Elephants
+are generally observed to be bolder in open ground than in cover, but,
+if bold at all, far more dangerous in cover than in open ground.
+
+In searching for them, sportsmen often avail themselves of the
+expertness of the native trackers; and notwithstanding the demonstration
+of Combe that the brain of the timid Singhalese is deficient in the
+organ of destructiveness[1], he shows an instinct for hunting, and
+exhibits in the pursuit of the elephant a courage and adroitness far
+surpassing in interest the mere handling of the rifle, which is the
+principal share of the proceeding that falls to his European companions.
+
+[Footnote 1: _System of Phrenology_, by GEO. COMBE, vol. i. p. 256.]
+
+The beater on these occasions has the double task of finding the game
+and carrying the guns; and, in an animated communication to me, an
+experienced sportsman describes "this light and active creature, with
+his long glossy hair hanging down his shoulders, every muscle quivering
+with excitement; and his countenance lighting up with intense animation,
+leaping from rock to rock, as nimble as a deer, tracking the gigantic
+game like a blood-hound, falling behind as he comes up with it, and as
+the elephants, baffled and irritated, make the first stand, passing one
+rifle into your eager hand and holding the other ready whilst right and
+left each barrel performs its mission, and if fortune does not flag, and
+the second gun is as successful as the first, three or four huge
+carcases are piled one on another within a space equal to the area of a
+dining room."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Private letter from Capt. PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY.]
+
+It is curious that in these encounters the herd never rush forward in a
+body, as buffaloes or bisons do, but only one elephant at a time moves
+in advance of the rest to confront, or, as it is called, to "charge,"
+the assailants. I have heard of but one instance in which _two_ so
+advanced as champions of their companions. Sometimes, indeed, the whole
+herd will follow a leader, and manoeuvre in his rear like a body of
+cavalry; but so large a party are necessarily liable to panic; and, one
+of them having turned in alarm, the entire body retreat with terrified
+precipitation.
+
+As regards boldness and courage, a strange variety of temperament is
+observable amongst elephants, but it may be affirmed that they are, much
+more generally timid than courageous. One herd may be as difficult to
+approach as deer, gliding away through the jungle so gently and quickly
+that scarcely a trace marks their passage; another, in apparent stupor,
+will huddle themselves together like swine, and allow their assailant to
+come within a few yards before they break away in terror; and a third
+will await his approach without motion, and then advance, with fury to
+the "charge."
+
+In individuals the same differences are discernible; one flies on the
+first appearance of danger, whilst another, alone and unsupported, will
+face a whole host of enemies. When wounded and infuriated with pain,
+many of them become literally savage[1]; but, so unaccustomed are they
+to act as assailants, and so awkward and inexpert in using their
+strength, that they rarely or ever exceed in killing a pursuer who falls
+into their power. Although the pressure of a foot, a blow with the
+trunk, or a thrust with the tusk, could scarcely fail to prove fatal,
+three-fourths of those who have fallen into their power have escaped
+without serious injury. So great is this chance of impunity, that the
+sportsman prefers to approach within about fifteen paces of the
+advancing elephant, a space which gives time for a second fire should
+the first shot prove ineffectual, and should both fail there is still
+opportunity for flight.
+
+[Footnote 1: Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by a
+native, near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the town, followed him
+along the street, trampled him to death in the bazaar before a crowd of
+spectators, and succeeded in making good its retreat to the jungle.]
+
+Amongst full-grown timber, a skilful runner can escape from an elephant
+by "dodging" round the trees, but in cleared land, and low brushwood,
+the difficulty is much increased, as the small growth of underwood which
+obstructs the movements of man presents no obstacle to those of an
+elephant. On the other hand, on level and open ground the chances are
+rather in favour of the elephant, as his pace in full flight exceeds
+that of man, although as a general rule, it is unequal to that of a
+horse, as has been sometimes asserted.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: SHAW, in his _Zoology_, asserts that an elephant can run as
+swiftly as a horse can gallop. London, 1800-6, vol. i. p. 216.]
+
+The incessant slaughter of elephants by sportsmen in Ceylon, appears to
+be merely in subordination to the influence of the organ of
+destructiveness, since the carcase is never applied to any useful
+purpose, but left to decompose and to defile the air of the forest. The
+flesh is occasionally tasted as a matter of curiosity: as a steak it is
+coarse and tough; but the tongue is as delicate as that of an ox; and
+the foot is said to make palatable soup. The Caffres attached to the
+pioneer corps in the Kandyan province are in the habit of securing the
+heart of any elephant shot in their vicinity, and say it is their custom
+to eat it in Africa. The hide it has been found impracticable to tan in
+Ceylon, or to convert to any useful purpose, but the bones of those shot
+have of late years been collected and used for manuring coffee estates.
+The hair of the tail, which is extremely strong and horny, is mounted by
+the native goldsmith, and made into bracelets; and the teeth are sawn by
+the Moormen at Galle (as they used to be by the Romans during a scarcity
+of ivory) into plates, out of which they fashion numerous articles of
+ornament, knife-handles, card racks, and "presse-papiers."
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+Amongst extraordinary recoveries from desperate wounds, I venture to
+record here an instance which occurred in Ceylon to a gentleman while
+engaged in the chase of elephants, and which, I apprehend, has few
+parallels in pathological experience. Lieutenant GERARD FRETZ, of the
+Ceylon Rifle Regiment, whilst firing at an elephant in the vicinity of
+Fort MacDonald, in Oovah, was wounded in the face by the bursting of his
+fowling-piece, on the 22nd January, 1828. He was then about thirty-two
+years of age. On raising him, it was found that part of the breech of
+the gun and about two inches of the barrel had been driven through the
+frontal sinus, at the junction of the nose and forehead. It had sunk
+almost perpendicularly till the iron-plate called "the tail-pin," by
+which the barrel is made fast to the stock by a screw, had descended
+through the palate, carrying with it the screw, one extremity of which
+had forced itself into the right nostril, where it was discernible
+externally, whilst the headed end lay in contact with his tongue. To
+extract the jagged mass of iron thus sunk in the ethmoidal and
+sphenoidal cells was found hopelessly impracticable; but, strange to
+tell, after the inflammation subsided, Mr. FRETZ recovered rapidly; his
+general health was unimpaired, and he returned to his regiment with
+this, singular appendage firmly embedded behind the bones of his face.
+He took his turn of duty as usual, attained the command of his company,
+participated in all the enjoyments of the mess-room, and died _eight
+years afterwards_, on the 1st of April, 1836, not from any consequences
+of this fearful wound, but from fever and inflammation brought on by
+other causes.
+
+So little was he apparently inconvenienced by the presence of the
+strange body in his palate that he was accustomed with his finger
+partially to undo the screw, which but for its extreme length he might
+altogether have withdrawn. To enable this to be done, and possibly to
+assist by this means the extraction of the breech itself through the
+original orifice (which never entirely closed), an attempt was made in
+1835 to take off a portion of the screw with a file; but, after having
+cut it three parts through the operation was interrupted, chiefly owing
+to the carelessness and indifference of Capt. FRETZ, whose death
+occurred before the attempt could be resumed. The piece of iron, on
+being removed after his decease, was found to measure 2-3/4 inches in
+length, and weighed two scruples more than two ounces and three
+quarters. A cast of the breech and screw now forms No. 2790 amongst the
+deposits in the Medical Museum of Chatham.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_An Elephant Corral_.
+
+So long as the elephants of Ceylon were merely required in small numbers
+for the pageantry of the native princes, or the sacred processions of
+the Buddhist temples, their capture was effected either by the
+instrumentality of female decoys, or by the artifices and agility of the
+individuals and castes who devoted themselves to their pursuit and
+training. But after the arrival of the European conquerors of the
+island, and when it had become expedient to take advantage of the
+strength and intelligence of these creatures in clearing forests and
+making roads and other works, establishments were organised on a great
+scale by the Portuguese and Dutch, and the supply of elephants kept up
+by periodical battues conducted at the cost of the government, on a plan
+similar to that adopted on the continent of India, when herds varying in
+number from twenty to one hundred and upwards are driven into concealed
+enclosures and secured.
+
+In both these processes, success is entirely dependent on the skill with
+which the captors turn to advantage the terror and inexperience of the
+wild elephant, since all attempts would be futile to subdue or confine
+by ordinary force an animal of such strength and sagacity.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The device of taking them by means of pitfalls still
+prevails in India: but in addition to the difficulty of providing
+against that caution with which the elephant is supposed to reconnoitre
+suspicious ground, it has the further disadvantage of exposing him to
+injury from bruises and dislocations in his fall. Still it was the mode
+of capture employed by the Singhalese, and so late as 1750 WOLF relates
+that the native chiefs of the Wanny, when capturing elephants for the
+Dutch, made "pits some fathoms deep in those places whither the elephant
+is wont to go in search of food, across which were laid poles covered
+with branches and baited with the food of which he is fondest, making
+towards which he finds himself taken unawares. Thereafter being subdued
+by fright and exhaustion, he was assisted to raise himself to the
+surface by means of hurdles and earth, which he placed underfoot as they
+were thrown down to him, till he was enabled to step out on solid
+ground, when the noosers and decoys were in readiness to tie him up to
+the nearest tree."--See WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 152. Shakspeare
+appears to have been acquainted with the plan of taking elephants in
+pitfalls: Decius, encouraging the conspirators, reminds them of Caesar's
+taste for anecdotes of animals, by which he would undertake to lure him
+to his fate:
+
+  "For he loves to hear
+  That unicorns may be betrayed with trees.
+  And bears with glasses; _elephants with holes_."
+
+JULIUS CAESAR, Act ii. Scene I.]
+
+Knox describes with circumstantiality the mode adopted, two centuries
+ago, by the servants of the King of Kandy to catch elephants for the
+royal stud. He says, "After discovering the retreat of such as have
+tusks, unto these they drive some _she elephants_, which they bring with
+them for the purpose, which, when once the males have got a sight of,
+they will never leave, but follow them wheresoever they go; and the
+females are so used to it that they will do whatsoever, either by word
+or a beck, their keepers bid them. And so they delude them along through
+towns and countries, and through the streets of the city, even to the
+very gates of the king's palace, where sometimes they seize upon them by
+snares, and sometimes by driving them into a kind of pound, they catch
+them."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, A.D. 1681, part i.
+ch. vi. p. 21.]
+
+In Nepaul and Burmah, and throughout the Chin-Indian Peninsula, when in
+pursuit of single elephants, either _rogues_ detached from the herd, or
+individuals who have been marked for the beauty of their ivory, the
+natives avail themselves of the aid of females in order to effect their
+approaches and secure an opportunity of casting a noose over the foot of
+the destined captive. All accounts concur in expressing high admiration
+of their courage and address; but from what has fallen under my own
+observation, added to the descriptions I have heard from other
+eye-witnesses, I am inclined to believe that in such exploits the
+Moormen of Ceylon evince a daring and adroitness, surpassing all others.
+
+These professional elephant catchers, or, as they are called, Panickeas,
+inhabit the Moorish villages in the north and north-east of the island,
+and from time immemorial have been engaged in taking elephants, which
+are afterwards trained by Arabs, chiefly for the use of the rajahs and
+native princes in the south of India, whose vakeels are periodically
+despatched to make purchases in Ceylon.
+
+The ability evinced by these men in tracing elephants through the woods
+has almost the certainty of instinct; and hence their services are
+eagerly sought by the European sportsmen who go down into their country
+in search of game. So keen is their glance, that like hounds running
+"breast high" they will follow the course of an elephant, almost at the
+top of their speed, over glades covered with stunted grass, where the
+eye of a stranger would fail to discover a trace of its passage, and on
+through forests strewn with dry leaves, where it seems impossible to
+perceive a footstep. Here they are guided by a bent or broken twig, or
+by a leaf dropped from the animal's mouth, on which the pressure of a
+tooth may be detected. If at fault, they fetch a circuit like a setter,
+till lighting on some fresh marks, they go a-head again with renewed
+vigour. So delicate is the sense of smell in the elephant, and so
+indispensable is it to go against the wind in approaching him, that on
+those occasions when the wind is so still that its direction cannot be
+otherwise discerned, the Panickeas will suspend the film of a gossamer
+to determine it and shape their course accordingly.
+
+They are enabled by the inspection of the footmarks, when impressed in
+soft clay, to describe the size as well as the number of a herd before
+it is seen; the height of an elephant at the shoulder being as nearly as
+possible twice the circumference of his fore foot.[1]
+
+On overtaking the game their courage is as conspicuous as their
+sagacity. If they have confidence in the sportsman for whom they are
+finding, they will advance to the very heel of the elephant, slap him on
+the quarter, and convert his timidity into anger, till he turns upon his
+tormentor and exposes his front to receive the bullet which is awaiting
+him.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Previous to the death of the female elephant in the
+Zoological Gardens, in the Regent's Park, in 1851, Mr. MITCHELL, the
+Secretary, caused measurements to be accurately made, and found the
+statement of the Singhalese hunters to be strictly correct, the height
+at the shoulders being precisely twice the circumference of the fore
+foot.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Major SKINNER, the Chief Officer at the head of the
+Commission of Roads, in Ceylon, in writing to me, mentions an anecdote
+illustrative of the daring of the Panickeas. "I once saw," he says, "a
+very beautiful example of the confidence with which these fellows, from
+their knowledge of the elephants, meet their worst defiance. It was in
+Neuera-Kalawa; I was bivouacking on the bank of a river, and had been
+kept out so late that I did not get to my tent until between 9 and 10 at
+night. On our return towards it we passed several single elephants
+making their way to the nearest water, but at length we came upon a
+large herd that had taken possession of the only road by which we could
+pass, and which no intimidation would induce to move off. I had some
+Panickeas with me; they knew the herd, and counselled extreme caution.
+After trying every device we could think of for a length of time, a
+little old Moorman of the party came to me and requested we should all
+retire to a distance. He then took a couple of chules (flambeaux of
+dried wood, or coco-nut leaves), one in each hand, and waving them above
+his head till they flamed out fiercely, he advanced at a deliberate pace
+to within a few yards of the elephant who was acting as leader of the
+party, and who was growling and trumpeting in his rage, and flourished
+the flaming torches in his face. The effect was instantaneous: the whole
+herd dashed away in a panic, bellowing, screaming, and crushing through
+the underwood, whilst we availed ourselves of the open path to make our
+way to our tents."]
+
+So fearless and confident are they that two men, without aid or
+attendants, will boldly attempt to capture the largest-sized elephant.
+Their only weapon is a flexible rope made of elk's or buffalo's hide,
+with which it is their object to secure one of the hind legs. This they
+effect either by following in its footsteps when in motion or by
+stealing close up to it when at rest, and availing themselves of its
+well-known propensity at such moments to swing the feet backwards and
+forwards, they contrive to slip a noose over the hind leg.
+
+At other times this is achieved by spreading the noose on the ground
+partially concealed by roots and leaves beneath a tree on which one of
+the party is stationed, whose business it is to lift it suddenly by
+means of a cord, raising it on the elephant's leg at the moment when his
+companion has succeeded in provoking him to place his foot within the
+circle, the other end having been previously made fast to the stem of
+the tree. Should the noosing be effected in open ground, and no tree of
+sufficient strength at hand round which to wind the rope, one of the
+Moors, allowing himself to be pursued by the enraged elephant, entices
+him towards the nearest grove; where his companion, dexterously laying
+hold of the rope as it trails along the ground, suddenly coils it round
+a suitable stem, and brings the fugitive to a stand still. On finding
+himself thus arrested, the natural impulse of the captive is to turn on
+the man who is engaged in making fast the rope, a movement which it is
+the duty of his colleague to present by running up close to the
+elephant's head and provoking the animal to confront him by irritating
+gesticulations and taunting shouts of _dah! dah!_ a monosyllable, the
+sound of which the elephant peculiarly dislikes. Meanwhile the first
+assailant, having secured one noose, comes up from behind with another,
+with which, amidst the vain rage and struggles of the victim, he entraps
+a fore leg, the rope being, as before, secured to another tree in front,
+and the whole four feet having been thus entangled, the capture is
+completed.
+
+A shelter is then run up with branches, to protect their prisoner from
+the sun, and the hunters proceed to build a wigwam for themselves in
+front of him, kindling their fires for cooking, and making all the
+necessary arrangements for remaining day and night on the spot to await
+the process of subduing and taming his rage. In my journeys through the
+forest I have come unexpectedly on the halting place of adventurous
+hunters when thus engaged; and on one occasion, about sunrise, in
+ascending the steep ridge from the bed of the Malwatte river, the
+foremost rider of our party was suddenly driven back by a furious
+elephant, which we found picketed by two Panickeas on the crest of the
+bank. In such a position, the elephant soon ceases to struggle; and what
+with the exhaustion of rage and resistance, the terror of fire which he
+dreads, and the constant annoyance of smoke which he detests, in a very
+short time, a few weeks at the most, his spirit becomes subdued; and
+being plentifully supplied with plantains and fresh food, and indulged
+with water, in which he luxuriates, he grows so far reconciled to his
+keepers that they at length venture to remove him to their own village,
+or to the sea-side for shipment to India.
+
+No part of the hunter's performances exhibits greater skill and audacity
+than this first forced march of the recently captured elephant from the
+great central forests to the sea-coast. As he is still too morose to
+submit to be ridden, and as it would be equally impossible to lead or to
+drive him by force, the ingenuity of the captors is displayed in
+alternately irritating and eluding him, but always so attracting his
+attention as to allure him along in the direction in which they want him
+to go. Some assistance is derived from the rope by which the original
+capture was effected, and which, as it serves to make him safe at night,
+is never removed from the leg till his taming is sufficiently advanced
+to permit of his being entrusted with partial liberty.
+
+In Ceylon the principal place for exporting these animals to India is
+Manaar, on the western coast, to which the Arabs from the continent
+resort, bringing with them horses to be bartered for elephants. In order
+to reach the sea, open plains must be traversed, across which it
+requires the utmost courage, agility, and patience of the Moors to coax
+their reluctant charge. At Manaar the elephants are usually detained
+till any wound on the leg caused by the rope has been healed, when the
+shipment is effected in the most primitive manner. It being next to
+impossible to induce the still untamed creature to walk on board, and no
+mechanical contrivances being provided to ship him; a dhoney, or native
+boat, of about forty tons' burthen, and about three parts filled with
+the strong ribbed leaves of the Palmyra palm, is brought alongside the
+quay in front of the Old Dutch Fort, and lashed so that the gunwale may
+be as nearly as possible on a line with the level of the wharf. The
+elephant being placed with his back to the water is forced by goads to
+retreat till his hind legs go over the side of the quay, but the main
+contest commences when it is attempted to disengage his fore feet from
+the shore, and force him to entrust himself on board. The scene becomes
+exciting from the screams and trumpeting of the elephants, the shouts of
+the Arabs, the calls of the Moors, and the rushing of the crowd.
+Meanwhile the huge creature strains every nerve to regain the land; and
+the day is often consumed before his efforts are overcome, and he finds
+himself fairly afloat. The same dhoney will take from four to five
+elephants, who place themselves athwart it, and exhibit amusing
+adroitness in accommodating their movements to the rolling of the little
+vessel; and in this way they are ferried across the narrow strait which
+separates the continent of India from Ceylon.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1701, there is "An
+Account of the taking of Elephants in Ceylon, by Mr. STRACHAN, a
+Physician who lived seventeen years there," in which the author
+describes the manner in which they were shipped by the Dutch, at Matura,
+Galle, and Negombo. A piece of strong sail-cloth having been wrapped
+round the elephant's chest and stomach, he was forced into the sea
+between two tame ones, and there made fast to a boat. The tame ones then
+returned to land, and he swam after the boat to the ship, where tackle
+was reeved to the sail-cloth, and he was hoisted on board.
+
+"But a better way has been invented lately," says Mr. Strachan; "a large
+flat-bottomed vessel is prepared, covered with planks like a floor; so
+that this floor is almost of a height with the key. Then the sides of
+the key and the vessel are adorned with green branches, so that the
+elephant sees no water till he is in the ship."--_Phil. Trans._, vol.
+xxiii. No. 227, p. 1051.]
+
+But the feat of ensnaring and subduing a single elephant, courageous as
+it is, and demonstrative of the supremacy with which man wields his
+"dominion over every beast of the earth," falls far short of the daring
+exploit of capturing a whole herd: when from thirty to one hundred wild
+elephants are entrapped in one vast decoy. The mode of effecting this,
+as it is practised in Ceylon, is no doubt imitated, but with
+considerable modifications, from the methods prevalent in various parts
+of India. It was introduced by the Portuguese, and continued by the
+Dutch, the latter of whom had two elephant hunts in each year, and
+conducted their operations on so large a scale, that the annual export
+after supplying the government establishments, was from one hundred to
+one hundred and fifty elephants, taken principally in the vicinity of
+Matura, in the southern province, and marched for shipment to Manaar.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: VALENTYN. _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien_, ch. xv. p. 272.]
+
+The custom in Bengal is to construct a strong enclosure (called a
+_keddah_), in the heart of the forest, formed of the trunks of trees
+firmly secured by transverse beams and buttresses, and leaving the gate
+for the entrance of the elephants. A second enclosure, opening from the
+first, contains water (if possible a rivulet): this, again, communicates
+with a third, which terminates in a funnel-shaped passage, too narrow to
+admit of an elephant turning, and within this the captives being driven
+in line, are secured with ropes introduced from the outside, and led
+away in custody of tame ones trained for the purpose.
+
+The _keddah_ being prepared, the first operation is to drive the
+elephants towards it, for which purpose vast bodies of men fetch a
+compass in the forest around the haunts of the herds, contracting it by
+degrees, till they complete the enclosure of a certain area, round which
+they kindle fires, and cut footpaths through the jungle, to enable the
+watchers to communicate and combine. All this is performed in cautious
+silence and by slow approaches, to avoid alarming the herd. A fresh
+circle nearer to the _keddah_ is then formed in the same way, and into
+this the elephants are admitted from the first one, the hunters
+following from behind, and lighting new fires around the newly inclosed
+space. Day after day the process is repeated; till the drove having been
+brought sufficiently close to make the final rush, the whole party close
+in from all sides, and with drums, guns, shouts, and flambeaux, force
+the terrified animals to enter the fatal enclosure, when the passage is
+barred behind them, and retreat rendered impossible.
+
+Their efforts to escape are repressed by the crowd, who drive them back
+from the stockade with spears and flaming torches; and at last compel
+them to pass on into the second enclosure. Here they are detained for a
+short time, and their feverish exhaustion relieved by free access to
+water;--until at last, being tempted by food, or otherwise induced to
+trust themselves in the narrow outlet, they are one after another made
+fast by ropes, passed in through the palisade; and picketed in the
+adjoining woods to enter on their course of systematic training.
+
+These arrangements vary in different districts of Bengal; and the method
+adopted in Ceylon differs in many essential particulars from them all;
+the Keddah, or, as it is here called, the corral or _korahl_[1] (from
+the Portuguese _curral_, a "cattle-pen"), consists of but one enclosure
+instead of three. A stream or watering-place is not uniformly enclosed
+within it, because, although water is indispensable after the long
+thirst and exhaustion of the captives, it has been found that a pond or
+rivulet within the corral itself adds to the difficulty of leading them
+out, and increases their reluctance to leave it; besides which, the
+smaller ones are often smothered by the others in their eagerness to
+crowd into the water. The funnel-shaped outlet is also dispensed with,
+as the animals are liable to bruise and injure themselves within the
+narrow stockade; and should one of them die in it, as is too often the
+case in the midst of the struggle, the difficulty of removing so great a
+carcase is extreme. The noosing and securing them, therefore, takes
+place in Ceylon within the area of the first enclosure into which they
+enter, and the dexterity and daring displayed in this portion of the
+work far surpasses that of merely attaching the rope through the
+openings of the paling, as in an Indian keddah.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is thus spelled by WOLF, in his _Life and Adventures_,
+p. 144. _Corral_ is at the present day a household word in South
+America, and especially in La Plata, to designate an _enclosure for
+cattle_.]
+
+One result of this change in the system is manifested in the increased
+proportion of healthy elephants which are eventually secured and trained
+out of the number originally enclosed. The reason of this is obvious:
+under the old arrangements, months were consumed in the preparatory
+steps of surrounding and driving in the herds, which at last arrived so
+wasted by excitement and exhausted by privation that numbers died within
+the corral itself, and still more died during the process of training.
+But in later years the labour of months is reduced to weeks, and the
+elephants are driven in fresh and full of vigour, so that comparatively
+few are lost either in the enclosure or the stables. A conception of the
+whole operation from commencement to end will be best conveyed by
+describing the progress of an elephant corral as I witnessed it in 1847
+in the great forest on the banks of the Alligator River, the Kimbul-oya,
+in the district of Kornegalle, about thirty miles north-west of Kandy.
+
+Kornegalle, or Kurunai-galle, was one of the ancient capitals of the
+island, and the residence of its kings from A.D. 1319 to 1347.[1] The
+dwelling-house of the principal civil officer in charge of the district
+now occupies the site of the former palace, and the ground is strewn
+with fragments of columns and carved stones, the remnants of the royal
+buildings. The modern town consists of the bungalows of the European
+officials, each surrounded with its own garden; two or three streets
+inhabited by Dutch descendants and by Moors; and a native bazaar, with
+the ordinary array of rice and curry stuffs and cooking chattees of
+brass or burnt clay.
+
+[Footnote 1: See SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, Vol. I. Pt. III. ch.
+xii. p. 415.]
+
+The charm of the village is the unusual beauty of its position. It rests
+within the shade of an enormous rock of gneiss upwards of 600 feet in
+height, nearly denuded of verdure, and so rounded and worn by time that
+it has acquired the form of a couchant elephant, from which it derives
+its name of AEtagalla, the Rock of the Tusker.[1] But AEtagalla is only
+the last eminence in a range of similarly-formed rocky mountains, which
+here terminate abruptly; and, which from the fantastic shapes into which
+their gigantic outlines have been wrought by the action of the
+atmosphere, are called by the names of the Tortoise Rock, the Eel Rock,
+and the Rock of the Tusked Elephant. So impressed are the Singhalese by
+the aspect of these stupendous masses that in ancient grants lands are
+conveyed in perpetuity, or "so long as the sun and the moon, so long as
+AEtagalla and Andagalla shall endure."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Another enormous mass of gneiss is called the
+Kuruminiagalla, or the Beetle-rock, from its resemblance in shape to the
+back of that insect, and hence is said to have been derived the name of
+the town, _Kuruna-galle_ or Kornegalle.]
+
+[Footnote 2: FORBES quotes a Tamil conveyance of land, the purchaser of
+which is to "possess and enjoy it as long as the sun and the moon, the
+earth and its vegetables, the mountains and the River Cauvery
+exist."--_Oriental Memoirs_, vol. ii. chap. ii. It will not fail to be
+observed, that the same figure was employed in Hebrew literature as a
+type of duration--" They shall fear thee, _so long as the sun and moon
+endure_; throughout all generations."--Psalm lxxii. 5, 17.]
+
+Kornegalle is the resort of Buddhists from the remotest parts of the
+island, who come to visit an ancient temple on the summit of the great
+rock, to which access is had from the valley below by means of steep
+paths and steps hewn out of the solid stone. Here the chief object of
+veneration is a copy of the sacred footstep hollowed in the granite,
+similar to that which confers sanctity on Adam's Peak, the towering apex
+of which, about forty miles distant, the pilgrims can discern from
+AEtagalla.
+
+At times the heat at Kornegalle is intense, in consequence of the
+perpetual glow diffused from these granite cliffs. The warmth they
+acquire during the blaze of noon becomes almost intolerable towards
+evening, and the sultry night is too short to permit them to cool
+between the setting and the rising of the sun. The district is also
+liable to occasional droughts when the watercourses fail, and the tanks
+are dried up. One of these calamities occurred about the period of my
+visit, and such was the suffering of the wild animals that numbers of
+crocodiles and bears made their way into the town to drink at the wells.
+The soil is prolific in the extreme; rice, cotton, and dry grain are
+cultivated largely in the valley. Every cottage is surrounded by gardens
+of coco-nuts, arecas, jak-fruit and coffee; the slopes, under tillage,
+are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and, as far as the eye can reach
+on every side, there are dense forests intersected by streams, in the
+shade of which the deer and the elephant abound.
+
+In 1847 arrangements were made for one of the great elephant hunts for
+the supply of the Civil Engineer's Department, and the spot fixed on by
+Mr. Morris, the Government officer who conducted the corral, was on the
+banks of the Kimbul river, about fifteen miles from Kornegalle. The
+country over which we rode to the scene of the approaching capture
+showed traces of the recent drought, the fields lay to a great extent
+untilled, owing to the want of water, and the tanks, almost reduced to
+dryness, were covered with the leaves of the rose-coloured lotus.
+
+Our cavalcade was as oriental as the scenery through which it moved; the
+Governor and the officers of his staff and household formed a long
+cortege, escorted by the native attendants, horse-keepers, and
+foot-runners. The ladies were borne in palankins, and the younger
+individuals of the party carried in chairs raised on poles, and covered
+with cool green awnings made of the fresh leaves of the talipat palm.
+
+After traversing the cultivated lands, the path led across open glades
+of park-like verdure and beauty, and at last entered the great-forest
+under the shade of ancient trees wreathed to their crowns with climbing
+plants and festooned by natural garlands of convolvulus and orchids.
+Here silence reigned, disturbed only by the murmuring hum of glittering
+insects, or the shrill clamour of the plum-headed parroquet and the
+flute-like calls of the golden oriole.
+
+We crossed the broad sandy beds of two rivers over-arched by tall trees,
+the most conspicuous of which is the Kombook[1], from the calcined bark
+of which the natives extract a species of lime to be used with their
+betel. And from the branches hung suspended over the water the gigantic
+pods of the huge puswael bean[2], the sheath of which measures six feet
+long by five or six inches broad.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Pentaptera paniculata_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Entada pursaetha_.]
+
+On ascending the steep bank of the second stream, we found ourselves in
+front of the residences which had been extemporised for our party in the
+immediate vicinity of the corral. These cool and enjoyable structures
+were formed of branches and thatched with palm leaves and fragrant lemon
+grass; and in addition to a dining-room and suites of bedrooms fitted
+with tent furniture, they included kitchens, stables, and storerooms,
+all run up by the natives in the course of a few days.
+
+In former times, the work connected with these elephant hunts was
+performed by the "forced labour" of the natives, as part of that feudal
+service which under the name of Raja-kariya was extorted from the
+Singhalese during the rule of their native sovereigns. This system was
+continued by the Portuguese and Dutch, and prevailed under the British
+Government till its abolition by the Earl of Ripon in 1832. Under it
+from fifteen hundred to two thousand men superintended by their headmen,
+used to be occupied, in constructing the corral, collecting the
+elephants, maintaining the cordon of watch-fires and watchers, and
+conducting all the laborious operations of the capture. Since the
+abolition of Raja-kariya, however, no difficulty has been found in
+obtaining the voluntary co-operation of the natives on these exciting
+occasions. The government defrays the expense of that portion of the
+preparations which involves actual cost,--for the skilled labour
+expended in the erection of the corral and its appurtenances, and the
+providing of spears, ropes, arms, flutes, drums, gunpowder, and other
+necessaries for the occasion.
+
+The period of the year selected is that which least interferes with the
+cultivation of the rice-lands (in the interval between seed time and
+harvest), and the people themselves, in addition to the excitement and
+enjoyment of the sport, have a personal interest in reducing the number
+of elephants, which inflict serious injury on their gardens and growing
+crops. For a similar reason the priests encourage the practice, because
+the elephants destroy their sacred Bo-trees, of the leaves of which they
+are passionately fond; besides which it promotes the facility for
+obtaining elephants for the processions of the temples: and the
+Rata-mahat-mayas and headmen have a pride in exhibiting the number of
+retainers who follow them to the field, and the performances of the tame
+elephants which they lend for the business of the corral. Thus vast
+numbers of the peasantry are voluntarily occupied for many weeks in
+putting up the stockades, cutting paths through the jungle, and
+relieving the beaters who are engaged in surrounding and driving in the
+elephants.
+
+In selecting the scene for the hunt a position is chosen which lies on
+some old and frequented route of the animals, in their periodical
+migrations in search of forage and water; and the vicinity of a stream
+is indispensable, not only for the supply of the elephants during the
+time spent in inducing them to approach the enclosure, but to enable
+them to bathe and cool themselves throughout the process of training
+after capture.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF A CORRAL, AND METHOD OF FENCING IT.]
+
+In constructing the corral itself, care is taken to avoid disturbing the
+trees or the brushwood within the included space, and especially on the
+side by which the elephants are to approach, where it is essential to
+conceal the stockade as much as possible by the density of the foliage.
+The trees used in the structure are from ten to twelve inches in
+diameter; and are sunk about three feet in the earth, so as to leave a
+length of from twelve to fifteen feet above ground; with spaces between
+each stanchion sufficiently wide to permit a man to glide through. The
+uprights are made fast by transverse beams, to which they are lashed
+securely by ratans and flexible climbing plants, or as they are called
+"jungle ropes," and the whole is steadied by means of forked supports,
+which grasp the tie beams, and prevent the work from being driven
+outward by the rush of the wild elephants.
+
+On the occasion I am now attempting to describe, the space thus enclosed
+was about 500 feet in length by 250 wide. At one end an entrance was
+left open, fitted with sliding bars, so prepared as to be capable of
+being instantly shut;--and from each angle of the end by which the
+elephants were to approach, two lines of the same strong fencing were
+continued, and cautiously concealed by the trees; so that if, instead of
+entering by the open passage, the herd should swerve to right, or left,
+they would find themselves suddenly stopped and forced to retrace their
+course to the gate.
+
+The preparations were completed by placing a stage for the Governor's
+party on a group of the nearest trees looking down into the enclosure,
+so that a view could be had of the entire proceeding, from the entrance
+of the herd, to the leading out of the captive elephants.
+
+It is hardly necessary to observe that the structure here described,
+massive as it is, would be entirely ineffectual to resist the shock, if
+assaulted by the full force of an enraged elephant; and accidents have
+sometimes happened by the breaking through of the herd; but reliance is
+placed not so much on the resistance of the stockade as on the timidity
+of the captives and their unconsciousness of their own strength, coupled
+with the daring of their captors and their devices for ensuring
+submission.
+
+The corral being prepared, the beaters address themselves to drive in
+the elephants. For this purpose it is often necessary to fetch a circuit
+of many miles in order to surround a sufficient number, and the caution
+to be observed involves patience and delay; as it is essential to avoid
+alarming the elephants, which might otherwise escape. Their disposition
+being essentially peaceful, and their only impulse to browse in solitude
+and security, they withdraw instinctively before the slightest
+intrusion, and advantage is taken of this timidity and love of seclusion
+to cause only just such an amount of disturbance as will induce them to
+return slowly in the direction which it is desired they should take.
+Several herds are by this means concentrated within such an area as will
+admit of their being completely surrounded by the watchers; and day
+after day, by degrees, they are moved gradually onwards to the immediate
+confines of the corral. When their suspicions become awakened and they
+exhibit restlessness and alarm, bolder measures are adopted for
+preventing their escape. Fires are kept burning at ten paces apart,
+night and day, along the circumference of the area within which they are
+detained; a corps of from two to three thousand beaters is completed,
+and pathways are carefully cleared through the jungle so as to keep open
+a communication along the entire circuit. The headmen keep up a constant
+patrol, to see that their followers are alert at their posts, since
+neglect at any one spot might permit the escape of the herd, and undo in
+a moment the vigilance of weeks. By this means any attempt of the
+elephants to break away is generally checked, and on any point
+threatened a sufficient force can be promptly assembled to drive them
+back. At last the elephants are forced onwards so close to the
+enclosure, that the investing cordon is united at either end with the
+wings of the corral, the whole forming a circle of about two miles,
+within the area of which the herd is detained to await the signal for
+the final drive.
+
+Two months had been spent in these preliminaries, and the preparations
+had been thus far completed, on the day when we arrived and took our
+places on the stage erected for us, overlooking the entrance to the
+corral. Close beneath us a group of tame elephants sent by the temples
+and the chiefs to assist in securing the wild ones, were picketed in the
+shade, and lazily fanning themselves with leaves. Three distinct herds,
+whose united numbers were variously represented at from forty to fifty
+elephants, were enclosed, and were at that moment concealed in the
+jungle within a short distance of the stockade. Not a sound was
+permitted to be made, each person spoke to his neighbour in whispers,
+and such was the silence observed by the multitude of the watchers at
+their posts, that occasionally we could hear the rustling of the
+branches as some of the elephants stripped off a leaf.
+
+Suddenly the signal was made, and the stillness of the forest was broken
+by the shouts of the guard, the rolling of the drums and tom-toms, and
+the discharge of muskets; and beginning at the most distant side of the
+area, the elephants were urged forward at a rapid pace towards the
+entrance into the corral.
+
+The watchers along the line kept silence only till the herd had passed
+them, and then joining the cry in their rear they drove them onward with
+redoubled shouts and noises. The tumult increased as the terrified rout
+drew near, swelling now on one side now on the other, as the herd in
+their panic dashed from point to point in their endeavours to force the
+line, but they were instantly driven back by screams, muskets, and
+drums.
+
+At length the breaking of the branches and the crackling of the
+brushwood announced their close approach, and the leader bursting from
+the jungle rushed wildly forward to within twenty yards of the entrance
+followed by the rest of the herd. Another moment and they would have
+plunged into the open gate, when suddenly they wheeled round, re-entered
+the forest, and in spite of the hunters resumed their original position.
+The chief headman came forward and accounted for the freak by saying
+that a wild pig[1], an animal which the elephants are said to dislike,
+had started out of the cover and run across the leader, who would
+otherwise have held on direct for the corral; and intimated that as the
+herd was now in the highest pitch of excitement: and it was at all times
+much more difficult to effect a successful capture by daylight than by
+night when the fires and flambeaux act with double effect, it was the
+wish of the hunters to defer their final effort till the evening, when
+the darkness would greatly aid their exertions.
+
+[Footnote 1: Fire, the sound of a horn, and the grunting of a boar are
+the three things which the Greeks, in the middle ages, believed the
+elephant specially to dislike:
+
+  [Greek:
+  Pyr de ptoeitai kai krion kerasphoron,
+  Kai ton monion ten boen ten athroan.]
+
+    --PHILE, _Expositio de Elephante_, 1. 177.]
+
+After sunset the scene exhibited was of extraordinary interest; the low
+fires, which had apparently only smouldered in the sunlight, assumed
+their ruddy glow amidst the darkness, and threw their tinge over the
+groups collected round them; while the smoke rose in eddies through the
+rich foliage of the trees. The crowds of spectators maintained a
+profound silence, and not a sound was perceptible beyond the hum of an
+insect. On a sudden the stillness was broken by the distant roll of a
+drum, followed by a discharge of musketry. This was the signal for the
+renewed assault, and the hunters entered the circle with shouts and
+clamour; dry leaves and sticks were flung upon the watch-fires till they
+blazed aloft, and formed a line of flame on every side, except in the
+direction of the corral, which was studiously kept dark; and thither the
+terrified elephants betook themselves, followed by the yells and racket
+of their pursuers.
+
+The elephants approached at a rapid pace, trampling down the brushwood
+and crushing the dry branches; the leader emerged in front of the
+corral, paused for an instant, stared wildly round, and then rushed
+headlong through the open gate, followed by the rest of the herd.
+Instantly, as if by magic, the entire circuit of the corral, which up to
+this moment had been kept in profound darkness, blazed with thousands of
+lights, every hunter on the instant that the elephants entered, rushing
+forward to the stockade with a torch kindled at the nearest watch-fire.
+
+The elephants first dashed to the very extremity of the enclosure, and
+being brought up by the fence, retreated to regain the gate, but found
+it closed. Their terror was sublime: they hurried round the corral at a
+rapid pace, but saw it now girt by fire on every side; they attempted to
+force the stockade, but were driven back by the guards with spears and
+flambeaux; and on whichever side they approached they were repulsed with
+shouts and volleys of musketry. Collecting into one group, they would
+pause for a moment in apparent bewilderment, then burst off in another
+direction, as if it had suddenly occurred to them to try some point
+which they had before overlooked; but again baffled, they slowly
+returned to their forlorn resting-place in the centre of the corral.
+
+The attraction of this strange scene was not confined to the spectators;
+it extended to the tame elephants which were stationed outside. At the
+first approach of the flying herd they evinced the utmost interest. Two
+in particular which were picketed near the front were intensely excited,
+and continued tossing their heads, pawing the ground, and starting as
+the noise drew near. At length, when the grand rush into the corral took
+place, one of them fairly burst from her fastenings and rushed towards
+the herd, levelling a tree of considerable size which obstructed her
+passage.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The other elephant, a fine tusker, which belonged to
+Dehigam Ratamahatmeya, continued in extreme excitement throughout all
+the subsequent operations of the capture, and at last, after attempting
+to break its way into the corral, shaking the bars with its forehead and
+tusks, it went off in a state of frenzy into the jungle. A few days
+after the Aratchy went in search of it with a female decoy, and watching
+its approach, sprang fairly on the infuriated beast, with a pair of
+sharp hooks in his hands, which he pressed into tender parts in front of
+the shoulder, and thus held the elephant firmly till chains were passed
+over its legs, and it permitted itself to be led quietly away.]
+
+For upwards of an hour the elephants continued to traverse the corral
+and assail the palisade with unabated energy, trumpeting and screaming
+with rage after each disappointment. Again and again they attempted to
+force the gate, as if aware, by experience, that it ought to afford an
+exit as it had already served as an entrance, but they shrank back
+stunned and bewildered. By degrees their efforts became less and less
+frequent. Single ones rushed excitedly here and there, returning
+sullenly to their companions after each effort; and at last the whole
+herd, stupified and exhausted, formed themselves into a single group,
+drawn up in a circle with the young in the centre, and stood motionless
+under the dark shade of the trees in the middle of the corral.
+
+Preparations were now made to keep watch during the night, the guard was
+reinforced around the enclosure, and wood heaped on the fires to keep up
+a high flame till sunrise.
+
+Three herds had been originally entrapped by the beaters outside; but
+with characteristic instinct they had each kept clear of the other,
+taking up different stations in the space invested by the watchers. When
+the final drive took place one herd only had entered the enclosure, the
+other two keeping behind; and as the gate had to be instantly shut on
+the first division, the last were unavoidably excluded and remained
+concealed in the jungle. To prevent their escape, the watchers were
+ordered to their former stations, the fires were replenished; and all
+precautions having been taken, we returned to pass the night in our
+bungalows by the river.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Captives._
+
+As our sleeping-place was not above two hundred yards from the corral,
+we were frequently awakened by the din of the multitude who were
+bivouacking in the forest, by the merriment round the watch-fires, and
+now and then by the shouts with which the guards repulsed some sudden
+charge of the elephants in attempts to force the stockade. But at
+daybreak, on going down to the corral, we found all still and vigilant.
+The fires were allowed to die out as the sun rose, and the watchers who
+had been relieved were sleeping near the great fence, the enclosure on
+all sides being surrounded by crowds of men and boys with spears or
+white peeled wands about ten feet long, whilst the elephants within were
+huddled together in a compact group, no longer turbulent and restless,
+but exhausted and calm, and utterly subdued by apprehension and
+amazement at all that had been passing around them.
+
+Nine only had been as yet entrapped[1], of which three were very large,
+and two were little creatures but a few months old. One of the large
+ones was a "rogue" and being unassociated with the rest of the herd, he
+was not admitted to their circle, although permitted to stand near them.
+
+[Footnote 1: In some of the elephant hunts conducted in the southern
+provinces of Ceylon by the earlier British Governors, as many as 170 and
+200 elephants were secured in a single corral, of which a portion only
+were taken out for the public service, and the rest shot, the motive
+being to rid the neighbourhood of them, and thus protect the crops from
+destruction. In the present instance, the object being to secure only as
+many as were required for the Government stud, it was not sought to
+entrap more than could conveniently be attended to and trained after
+capture.]
+
+Meanwhile, preparations were making outside to conduct the tame
+elephants into the corral, in order to secure the captives. Noosed ropes
+were in readiness; and far apart from all stood a party of the out-caste
+Rodiyas, the only tribe who will touch a dead carcase, to whom,
+therefore, the duty is assigned of preparing the fine flexible rope for
+noosing, which is made from the fresh hides of the deer and the buffalo.
+
+At length, the bars which secured the entrance to the corral were
+cautiously withdrawn, and two trained elephants passed stealthily in,
+each ridden by its mahout (or _ponnekella_, as the keeper is termed in
+Ceylon), and one attendant; and, carrying a strong collar, formed by
+coils of rope made from coco-nut fibre, from which hung on either side
+cords of elk's hide, prepared with a ready noose. Along with these, and
+concealed behind them, the headman of the "_cooroowe_," or noosers,
+crept in, eager to secure the honour of taking the first elephant, a
+distinction which this class jealously contests with the mahouts of the
+chiefs and temples. He was a wiry little man, nearly seventy years old,
+who had served in the same capacity under the Kandyan king, and wore two
+silver bangles, which had been conferred on him in testimony of his
+prowess. He was accompanied by his son, named Ranghanie, equally
+renowned for his courage and dexterity.
+
+On this occasion ten tame elephants were in attendance; two were the
+property of an adjoining temple (one of which had been caught but the
+year before, yet it was now ready to assist in capturing others), four
+belonged to the neighbouring chiefs, and the rest, including the two
+which first entered the corral, were part of the Government stud. Of the
+latter, one was of prodigious age, having been in the service of the
+Dutch and English Governments in succession for upwards of a century.[1]
+The other, called by her keeper "Siribeddi," was about fifty years old,
+and distinguished for gentleness and docility. She was a most
+accomplished decoy, and evinced the utmost relish for the sport. Having
+entered the corral noiselessly, carrying a mahout on her shoulders with
+the headman of the noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly along
+with a sly composure and an assumed air of easy indifference; sauntering
+leisurely in the direction of the captives, and halting now and then to
+pluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As she approached
+the herd, they put themselves in motion to meet her, and the leader,
+having advanced in front and passed his trunk gently over her head,
+turned and paced slowly back to his dejected companions. Siribeddi
+followed with the same listless step, and drew herself up close behind
+him, thus affording the nooser an opportunity to stoop under her and
+slip the noose over the hind foot of the wild one. The latter instantly
+perceived his danger, shook off the rope, and turned to attack the man.
+He would have suffered for his temerity had not Siribeddi protected him
+by raising her trunk and driving the assailant into the midst of the
+herd, when the old man, being slightly wounded, was helped out of the
+corral, and his son, Ranghanie, took his place.
+
+[Footnote 1: This elephant is since dead; she grew infirm and diseased,
+and died at Colombo in 1848. Her skeleton is now in the Museum of the
+Natural History Society at Belfast.]
+
+The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads towards the
+centre. The largest male was singled out, and two tame ones pushed
+boldly in, one on either side of him, till the three stood nearly
+abreast. He made no resistance, but betrayed his uneasiness by shifting
+restlessly from foot to foot. Ranghanie now crept up, and, holding the
+rope open with both hands (its other extremity being made fast to
+Siribeddi's collar), and watching the instant when the wild elephant
+lifted its hind-foot, succeeded in passing the noose over its leg, drew
+it close, and fled to the rear. The two tame elephants instantly fell
+back, Siribeddi stretched the rope to its full length, and, whilst she
+dragged out the captive, her companion placed himself between her and
+the herd to prevent any interference.
+
+In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn backwards some twenty
+or thirty yards, making furious resistance, bellowing in terror,
+plunging on all sides, and crushing the smaller timber, which bent like
+reeds beneath his clumsy struggles. Siribeddi drew him steadily after
+her, and wound the rope round the proper tree, holding it all the time
+at its full tension, and stepping cautiously across it when, in order to
+give it a second turn, it was necessary to pass between the tree and the
+elephant. With a coil round the stem, however, it was beyond her
+strength to haul the prisoner close up, which was, nevertheless,
+necessary in order to make him perfectly fast; but the second tame one,
+perceiving the difficulty, returned from the herd, confronted the
+struggling prisoner, pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head,
+forcing him backwards, whilst at every step Siribeddi hauled in the
+slackened rope till she brought him fairly up to the foot of the tree,
+where he was made fast by the cooroowe people. A second noose was then
+passed over the other hind-leg, and secured like the first, both legs
+being afterwards hobbled together by ropes made from the fibre of the
+kitool or jaggery palm, which, being more flexible than that of the
+coco-nut, occasions less formidable ulcerations. The two decoys then
+ranged themselves, as before, abreast of the prisoner on either side,
+thus enabling Ranghanie to stoop under them and noose the two fore-feet
+as he had already done the hind; and these ropes being made fast to a
+tree in front, the capture was complete, and the tame elephants and
+keepers withdrew to repeat the operation on another of the herd.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As long as the tame ones stood beside him the poor animal remained
+comparatively calm and almost passive under his distress, but the moment
+they moved off, and he was left utterly alone, he made the most
+surprising efforts to set himself free and rejoin his companions. He
+felt the ropes with his trunk and tried to untie the numerous knots; he
+drew backwards to liberate his fore-legs, then leaned forward to
+extricate the hind ones, till every branch of the tall tree vibrated
+with his struggles. He screamed in anguish, with his proboscis raised
+high in the air, then falling on his side he laid his head to the
+ground, first his cheek and then his brow, and pressed down his
+doubled-in trunk as though he would force it into the earth; then
+suddenly rising he balanced himself on his forehead and forelegs,
+holding his hind-feet fairly off the ground. This scene of distress
+continued some hours, with occasional pauses of apparent stupor, after
+which the struggle was from time to time renewed convulsively, and as if
+by some sudden impulse; but at last the vain strife subsided, and the
+poor animal remained perfectly motionless, the image of exhaustion and
+despair.
+
+Meanwhile Ranghanie presented himself in front of the governor's stage
+to claim the accustomed largesse for tying the first elephant. He was
+rewarded by a shower of rupees, and retired to resume his perilous
+duties in the corral.
+
+The rest of the herd were now in a state of pitiable dejection, and
+pressed closely together as if under a sense of common misfortune. For
+the most part they stood at rest in a compact body, fretful and uneasy.
+At intervals one more impatient than the rest would move out a few steps
+to reconnoitre; the others would follow at first slowly, then at a
+quicker pace, and at last the whole herd would rush off furiously to
+renew the often-baffled attempt to storm the stockade.
+
+There was a strange combination of the sublime and the ridiculous in
+these abortive onsets; the appearance of prodigious power in their
+ponderous limbs, coupled with the almost ludicrous shuffle of their
+clumsy gait, and the fury of their apparently resistless charge,
+converted in an instant into timid retreat. They rushed madly down the
+enclosure, their backs arched, their tails extended, their ears spread,
+and their trunks raised high above their heads, trumpeting and uttering
+shrill screams, yet when one step further would have dashed the opposing
+fence into fragments, they stopped short on a few white rods being
+pointed at them through the paling[1]; and, on catching the derisive
+shouts of the crowd, they turned in utter discomfiture, and after an
+objectless circle or two through the corral, they paced slowly back to
+their melancholy halting place in the shade.
+
+[Footnote 1: The fact of the elephant exhibiting timidity, on having a
+long rod pointed towards him, was known to the Romans; and PLINY,
+quoting from the annals of PISO, relates, that in order to inculcate
+contempt for want of courage in the elephant, they were introduced into
+the circus during the triumph of METELLUS, after the conquest of the
+Carthaginians in Sicily, and _driven round the area by workmen holding
+blunted spears_,--"Ab operariis hastas praepilatas habentibus, per circum
+totam actos."--Lib. viii. c. 6.]
+
+The crowd, chiefly comprised of young men and boys, exhibited
+astonishing nerve and composure at such moments, rushing up to the point
+towards which the elephants charged, pointing their wands at their
+trunks, and keeping up the continual cry of _whoop! whoop!_ which
+invariably turned them to flight.
+
+The second victim singled out from the herd was secured in the same
+manner as the first. It was a female. The tame ones forced themselves in
+on either side as before, cutting her off from her companions, whilst
+Ranghanie stooped under them and attached the fatal noose, and Siribeddi
+dragged her out amidst unavailing struggles, when she was made fast by
+each leg to the nearest group of strong trees. When the noose was placed
+upon her fore-foot, she seized it with her trunk, and succeeded in
+carrying it to her mouth, where she would speedily have severed it had
+not a tame elephant interfered, and placing his foot on the rope pressed
+it downwards out of her jaws. The individuals who acted as leaders in
+the successive charges on the palisades were always those selected by
+the noosers, and the operation of tying each, from the first approaches
+of the decoys, till the captive was left alone by the tree, occupied on
+an average somewhat less than three-quarters of an hour.
+
+It is strange that in these encounters the wild elephants made no
+attempt to attack or dislodge the mahouts or the cooroowes, who rode on
+the tame ones. They moved in the very midst of the herd, any individual
+in which could in a moment have pulled the riders from their seats; but
+no effort was made to molest them.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "In a corral, to be on a tame elephant, seems to insure
+perfect immunity from the attacks of the wild ones. I once saw the old
+chief Mollegodde ride in amongst a herd of wild elephants, on a small
+elephant; so small that the Adigar's head was on a level the back of the
+wild animals: I felt very nervous, but he rode right in among them, and
+received not the slightest molestation."--_Letter from_ MAJOR SKINNER.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As one after another their leaders wore entrapped and forced away from
+them, the remainder of the group evinced increased emotion and
+excitement; but whatever may have been their sympathy for their lost
+companions, their alarm seemed to prevent them at first from following
+them to the trees to which they had been tied. In passing them
+afterwards they sometimes stopped, mutually entwined their trunks,
+lapped them round each other's limbs and neck, and exhibited the most
+touching distress at their detention, but made no attempt to disturb the
+cords that bound them.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The variety of disposition in the herd as evidenced by difference of
+demeanour was very remarkable: some submitted with comparatively little
+resistance; whilst others in their fury dashed themselves on the ground
+with a force sufficient to destroy any weaker animal. They vented their
+rage upon every tree and plant within reach; if small enough to be torn
+down, they levelled them with their trunks, and stripping them of their
+leaves and branches, they tossed them wildly over their heads on all
+sides. Some in their struggles made no sound, whilst others bellowed and
+trumpeted furiously, then uttered short convulsive screams, and at last,
+exhausted and hopeless, gave vent to their anguish in low and piteous
+moanings. Some, after a few violent efforts of this kind, lay motionless
+on the ground, with no other indication of suffering than the tears
+which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly. Others in all the
+vigour of their rage exhibited the most surprising contortions; and to
+us who had been accustomed to associate with the unwieldy bulk of the
+elephant the idea that he must of necessity be stiff and inflexible, the
+attitudes into which they forced themselves were almost incredible. I
+saw one lie with the cheek pressed to the earth, and the fore-legs
+stretched in front, whilst the body was twisted round till the hind-legs
+extended in the opposite direction.
+
+It was astonishing that their trunks were not wounded by the violence
+with which they flung them on all sides. One twisted his proboscis into
+such fantastic shapes, that it resembled the writhings of a gigantic
+worm; he coiled it and uncoiled it with restless rapidity, curling it up
+like a watch-spring, and suddenly unfolding it again to its full length.
+Another, which lay otherwise motionless in all the stupor of hopeless
+anguish, slowly beat the ground with the extremity of his trunk, as a
+man in despair beats his knee with the palm of his hand.
+
+They displayed an amount of sensitiveness and delicacy of touch in the
+foot, which was very remarkable in a limb of such clumsy dimensions and
+protected by so thick a covering. The noosers could always force them to
+lift it from the ground by the gentlest touch of a leaf or twig,
+apparently applied so as to tickle; but the imposition of the rope was
+instantaneously perceived, and if it could not be reached by the trunk
+the other foot was applied to feel its position, and if possible remove
+it before the noose could be drawn tight.
+
+One practice was incessant with almost the entire herd: in the interval
+between their struggles they beat the ground with their fore feet, and
+taking up the dry earth in a coil of the trunk, they flung it
+dexterously over every part of their body. Even when lying down, the
+sand within reach was thus collected and scattered over their limbs:
+then inserting the extremity of the trunk in their mouths, they withdrew
+a quantity of water, which they discharged over their backs, repeating
+the operation again and again, till the dust was thoroughly saturated. I
+was astonished at the quantity of water thus applied, which was
+sufficient when the elephant, as was generally the case, had worked the
+spot where he lay into a hollow, to convert its surface into a coating
+of mud. Seeing that the herd had been now twenty-four hours without
+access to water of any kind, surrounded by watch-fires, and exhausted by
+struggling and terror, the supply of moisture an elephant is capable of
+containing in the receptacle attached to his stomach must be very
+considerable.
+
+The conduct of the tame ones during all these proceedings was truly
+wonderful. They displayed the most perfect conception of every movement,
+both of the object to be attained, and of the means to accomplish it.
+
+They manifested the utmost enjoyment in what was going on. There was no
+ill-humour, no malignity in the spirit displayed, in what was otherwise
+a heartless proceeding, but they set about it in a way that showed a
+thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime. Their caution was as
+remarkable as their sagacity; there was no hurrying, no contusion, they
+never ran foul of the ropes, were never in the way of the animals
+already noosed; and amidst the most violent struggles, when the tame
+ones had frequently to step across the captives, they in no instance
+trampled on them, or occasioned the slightest accident or annoyance. So
+far from this, they saw intuitively a difficulty or a danger, and
+addressed themselves unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of the
+larger elephants, he contrived before he could be hauled close up to the
+tree, to walk once or twice round it, carrying the rope with him; the
+decoy, perceiving the advantage he had thus gained over the nooser,
+walked up of her own accord, and pushed him backwards with her head,
+till she made him unwind himself again; upon which the rope was hauled
+tight and made fast. More than once, when a wild one was extending his
+trunk, and would have intercepted the rope about to be placed over his
+leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own trunk, pushed his aside,
+and prevented him; and on one occasion, when successive efforts had
+failed to put the noose over the fore-leg of an elephant which was
+already secured by one foot, but which wisely put the other to the
+ground as often as it was attempted to pass the noose under it, I saw
+the decoy watch her opportunity, and when his foot was again raised,
+suddenly push in her own leg beneath it, and hold it up till the noose
+was attached and drawn tight.
+
+One could almost fancy there was a display of dry humour in the manner
+in which the decoys thus played with the fears of the wild herd, and
+made light of their efforts at resistance. When reluctant they shoved
+them forward, when violent they drove them back; when the wild ones
+threw themselves down, the tame ones butted them with head and
+shoulders, and forced them up again. And when it was necessary to keep
+them down, they knelt upon them, and prevented them from rising, till
+the ropes were secured.
+
+At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with a bunch of
+leaves, and the graceful ease with which an elephant uses his trunk on
+such occasions is very striking. It is doubtless owing to the
+combination of a circular with a horizontal movement in that flexible
+limb; but it is impossible to see an elephant fanning himself without
+being struck by the singular elegance of motion which he displays. The
+tame ones, too, indulged in the luxury of dusting themselves with sand,
+by flinging it from their trunks; but it was a curious illustration of
+their delicate sagacity, that so long as the mahout was on their necks,
+they confined themselves to flinging the dust along their sides and
+stomach, as if aware, that to throw it over their heads and back would
+cause annoyance to their riders.
+
+One of the decoys which rendered good service, and was obviously held in
+special awe by the wild herd, was a tusker belonging to Dehigame
+Rata-mahatmeya. It was not that he used his tusks for purposes of
+offence, but he was enabled to insinuate himself between two elephants
+by wedging them in where he could not force his head; besides which they
+assisted him in raising up the fallen and refractory with greater ease.
+In some instances where the intervention of the other decoys failed to
+reduce a wild one to order, the mere presence and approach of the tusker
+seemed to inspire fear, and insure submission, without more active
+intervention.
+
+I do not know whether it was the surprising qualities exhibited by the
+tame elephants that cast the courage and dexterity of the men into the
+shade, but even when supported by the presence, the sagacity, and
+co-operation of these wonderful creatures, the part sustained by the
+noosers can bear no comparison with the address and daring displayed by
+the _picador_ and _matador_ in a Spanish bull-fight. They certainly
+possessed great quickness of eye in watching the slightest movement of
+the elephant, and great expertness in flinging the noose over its foot
+and attaching it firmly before the animal could tear it off with its
+trunk; but in all this they had the cover of the decoys to conceal them;
+and their shelter behind which to retreat. Apart from the services
+which, from their prodigious strength, the tame elephants are alone
+capable of rendering, in dragging out and securing the captives, it is
+perfectly obvious that without their co-operation the utmost prowess and
+dexterity of the hunters would not avail them, unsupported, to enter the
+corral and ensnare and lead out a single captive.
+
+Of the two tiny elephants which were entrapped, one was about ten months
+old, the other somewhat more. The smaller one had a little bolt head
+covered with woolly brown hair, and was the most amusing and interesting
+miniature imaginable. Both kept constantly with the herd, trotting after
+them in every charge; when the others stood at rest they ran in and out
+between the legs of the older ones; and not their own mothers alone, but
+every female in the group caressed them in turn.
+
+The dam of the youngest was the second elephant singled out by the
+noosers, and as she was dragged along by the decoys, the little creature
+kept by her side till she was drawn close to the fatal tree. The men at
+first were rather amused than otherwise by its anger; but they found
+that it would not permit them to place the second noose upon its mother;
+it ran between her and them, it tried to seize the rope, it pushed them
+and struck them with its little trunk, till they were forced to drive it
+back to the herd. It retreated slowly, shouting all the way, and pausing
+at every step to look back. It then attached itself to the largest
+female remaining in the group, and placed itself across her forelegs,
+whilst she hung down her trunk over its side and soothed and caressed
+it. Here it continued moaning and lamenting; till the noosers had left
+off securing its mother, when it instantly returned to her side; but as
+it became troublesome again, attacking every one who passed, it was at
+last tied up by a rope to an adjoining tree, to which the other young
+one was also tied. The second little one, equally with its playmate,
+exhibited great affection for its dam; it went willingly with its captor
+as far as the tree to which she was fastened, and in passing her
+stretched out its trunk and tried to rejoin her; but finding itself
+forced along, it caught at every twig and branch within its reach, and
+screamed with grief and disappointment.
+
+These two little creatures were the most vociferous of the whole herd,
+their shouts were incessant, they struggled to attack every one within
+reach; and as their bodies were more lithe and pliant than those of
+greater growth, their contortions were quite wonderful. The most amusing
+thing was, that in the midst of all their agony and affliction, the
+little fellows seized on every article of food that was thrown to them,
+and ate and roared simultaneously.
+
+Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the rogue. Though far more
+savage than the others, he joined in none of their charges and assaults
+on the fences, as they uniformly drove him off and would not permit him
+to enter their circle. When dragged past another of his companions in
+misfortune, who was lying exhausted on the ground, he flew upon him and
+attempted to fasten his teeth in his head; this was the only instance of
+viciousness which occurred during the progress of the corral. When tied
+up and overpowered, he was at first noisy and violent, but soon lay down
+peacefully, a sign, according to the hunters, that his death was at
+hand. Their prognostication was correct; he continued for about twelve
+hours to cover himself with dust like the others, and to moisten it with
+water from his trunk; but at length he lay exhausted, and died so
+calmly, that having been moving but a few moment before, his death was
+only perceived by the myriads of black flies by which his body was
+almost instantly covered, although not one was visible a moment
+before.[1] The Rodiyas were called in to loose the ropes that bound him,
+from the tree, and two tame elephants being harnessed to the dead body,
+it was dragged to a distance without the corral.
+
+[Footnote 1: The surprising faculty of vultures for discovering carrion,
+has been a subject of much speculation, as to whether it be dependent on
+their power of sight or of scent. It is not, however, more mysterious
+than the unerring certainty and rapidity with which some of the minor
+animals, and more especially insects, in warm climates congregate around
+the offal on which they feed. Circumstanced as they are, they must be
+guided towards their object mainly if not exclusively by the sense of
+smell; but that which excites astonishment is the small degree of odour
+which seems to suffice for the purpose; the subtlety and rapidity with
+which it traverses and impregnates the air; and the keen and quick
+perception with which it is taken up by the organs of those creatures.
+The instance of the scavenger beetles has been already alluded to; the
+promptitude with which they discern the existence of matter suited to
+their purposes, and the speed with which they hurry to it from all
+directions; often from distances as extraordinary, proportionably, as
+those traversed by the eye of the vulture. In the instance of the dying
+elephant referred to above, life was barely extinct when the flies, of
+which not one was visible but a moment before, arrived in clouds and
+blackened the body by their multitude; scarcely an instant was allowed
+to elapse for the commencement of decomposition; no odour of
+putrefaction could be discerned by us who stood close by; yet some
+peculiar smell of mortality, simultaneously with parting breath, must
+have summoned them to the feast. Ants exhibit an instinct equally
+surprising. I have sometimes covered up a particle of refined sugar with
+paper on the centre of a polished table; and counted the number of
+minutes which would elapse before it was fastened on by the small black
+ants of Ceylon, and a line formed to lower it safely to the floor. Here
+was a substance which, to our apprehension at least, is altogether
+inodorous, and yet the quick sense of smell must have been the only
+conductor of the ants. It has been observed of those fishes which travel
+overland on the evaporation of the ponds in which they live, that they
+invariably march in the direction of the nearest water, and even when
+captured, and placed on the floor of a room, their efforts to escape are
+always made towards the same point. Is the sense of smell sufficient to
+account for this display of instinct in them? or is it aided by special
+organs in the case of the others? Dr. MCGEE, formerly of the Royal Navy,
+writing to me on the subject of the instant appearance of flies in the
+vicinity of dead bodies, says: "In warm climates they do not wait for
+death to invite them to the banquet. In Jamaica I have again and again
+seen them settle on a patient, and hardly to be driven away by the
+nurse, the patient himself saying. 'Here are these flies coming to eat
+me ere I am dead.' At times they have enabled the doctor, when otherwise
+he would have been in doubt as to his prognosis, to determine whether
+the strange apyretic interval occasionally present in the last stage of
+yellow fever was the fatal lull or the lull of recovery; and 'What say
+the flies?' has been the settling question. Among many, many cases
+during a long period I have seen but one recovery after the assembling
+of the flies. I consider the foregoing as a confirmation of smell being
+the guide even to the attendants, a cadaverous smell has been perceived
+to arise from the body of a patient twenty-four hours before death."]
+
+When every wild elephant had been noosed and tied up, the scene
+presented was truly oriental. From one to two thousand natives, many of
+them in gaudy dresses and armed with spears, crowded about the
+enclosures. Their families had collected to see the spectacle; women,
+whose children clung like little bronzed Cupids by their sides; and
+girls, many of them in the graceful costume of that part of the
+country,--a scarf, which, after having been brought round the waist, is
+thrown over the left shoulder, leaving the right arm and side free and
+uncovered.
+
+At the foot of each tree was its captive elephant; some still struggling
+and writhing in feverish excitement, whilst others, in exhaustion and
+despair, lay motionless, except that, from time to time, they heaped
+fresh dust upon their heads. The mellow notes of a Kandyan flute, which
+was played at a distance, had a striking effect upon one or more of
+them; they turned their heads in the direction from which the music
+came, expanded their broad ears, and were evidently soothed with the
+plaintive sound. The two young ones alone still roared for freedom; they
+stamped their feet, and blew clouds of dust over their shoulders,
+brandishing their little trunks aloft, and attacking every one who came
+within their reach.
+
+At first the older ones, when secured, spurned every offer of food,
+trampled it under foot, and turned haughtily away. A few, however, as
+they became more composed, could not resist the temptation of the juicy
+stems of the plantain, but rolling them under foot, till they detached
+the layers, they raised them in their trunks, and commenced chewing
+listlessly.
+
+On the whole, whilst the sagacity, the composure, and docility of the
+decoys were such as to excite lively astonishment, it was not possible
+to withhold the highest admiration from the calm and dignified demeanour
+of the captives. Their entire bearing was at variance with the
+representation made by some of the "sportsmen" who harass them, that
+they are treacherous, savage, and revengeful; when tormented by the guns
+of their persecutors, they, no doubt, display their powers and sagacity
+in efforts to retaliate or escape; but here their every movement was
+indicative of innocence and timidity. After a struggle, in which they
+evinced no disposition to violence or revenge, they submitted with the
+calmness of despair. Their attitudes were pitiable, their grief was most
+touching, and their low moaning went to the heart. We could not have
+borne to witness their distress had their capture been effected by the
+needless infliction of pain, or had they been destined to ill-treatment
+afterwards.
+
+It was now about two hours after noon, and the first elephants that had
+entered the corral having been disposed of, preparations were made to
+reopen the gate, and drive in the other two herds, over which the
+watchers were still keeping guard. The area of the enclosure was
+cleared; and silence was again imposed on the crowds who surrounded the
+corral. The bars that secured the entrance were withdrawn and every
+precaution repeated as before; but as the space inside was now somewhat
+trodden down, especially near the entrance, by the frequent charges of
+the last herd, and as it was to be apprehended that the others might be
+earlier alarmed and retrace their steps, before the barricades could be
+replaced, two tame ones were stationed inside to protect the men to whom
+that duty was assigned.
+
+All preliminaries being at length completed, the signal was given; the
+beaters on the side most distant from the corral closed in with tom-toms
+and discordant noises; a hedge-fire of musketry was kept up in the rear
+of the terrified elephants; thousands of voices urged them forward; we
+heard the jungle crashing as they came on, and at last they advanced
+through an opening amongst the trees, bearing down all before them like
+a charge of locomotives. They were led by a huge female, nearly nine
+feet high, after whom one half of the herd dashed precipitately through
+the narrow entrance, but the rest turning suddenly towards the left,
+succeeded in forcing the cordon of guards and making good their escape
+to the forest.
+
+No sooner had the others passed the gate, than the two tame elephants
+stepped forward from either side, and before the herd could return from
+the further end of the enclosure, the bars were drawn, the entrance
+closed, and the men in charge glided outside the stockade. The elephants
+which had previously been made prisoners within exhibited intense
+excitement as the fresh din arose around them; they started to their
+feet, and stretched their trunks in the direction whence they winded the
+scent of the herd in its headlong flight; and as the latter rushed past,
+they renewed their struggles to get free and follow. It is not possible
+to imagine anything more exciting than the spectacle which the wild ones
+presented careering round the corral, uttering piercing screams, their
+heads erect and trunks aloft, the very emblems of rage and perplexity,
+of power and helplessness.
+
+Along with those which entered at the second drive was one that
+evidently belonged to another herd, and had been separated from them in
+the _melee_ when the latter effected their escape, and, as usual, his
+new companions in misfortune drove him off indignantly as often as he
+attempted to approach them.
+
+The demeanour of those taken in the second drive differed materially
+from that of the preceding captives, who, having entered the corral in
+darkness, to find themselves girt with fire and smoke, and beset by
+hideous sounds and sights on every side, were speedily reduced by fear
+to stupor and submission--whereas, the second herd having passed into
+the enclosure by daylight, and its area being trodden down in many
+places, could clearly discover the fences, and were consequently more
+alarmed and enraged at their confinement. They were thus as restless as
+the others had been calm, and so much more vigorous in their assaults
+that, on one occasion, their courageous leader, undaunted by the
+multitude of white wands thrust towards her, was only driven back from
+the stockade by a hunter hurling a blazing flambeau at her head. Her
+attitude as she stood repulsed, but still irresolute, was a study for a
+painter. Her eye dilated, her ears expanded, her back arched like a
+tiger, and her fore-foot in air, whilst she uttered those hideous
+screams that are imperfectly described by the term "_trumpeting_."
+
+Although repeatedly passing by the unfortunates from the former drove,
+the new herd seemed to take no friendly notice of them; they halted
+inquiringly for a minute, and then resumed their career round the
+corral, and once or twice in their headlong flight they rushed madly
+over the bodies of the prostrate captives as they lay in their misery on
+the ground.
+
+It was evening before the new captives had grown wearied with their
+furious and repeated charges, and stood still in the centre of the
+corral collected into a terrified and motionless group. The fires were
+then relighted, the guard redoubled by the addition of the watchers, who
+were now relieved from duty in the forest, and the spectators retired to
+their bungalows for the night. The business of the _third day_ began by
+noosing and tying up the new captives, and the first sought out was
+their magnificent leader. Siribeddi and the tame tusker having forced
+themselves on either side of her, a boy in the service of the
+Rata-Mahatmeya succeeded in attaching a rope to her hind-foot. Siribeddi
+moved off, but feeling her strength insufficient to drag the reluctant
+prize, she went down on her fore-knees, so as to add the full weight of
+her body to the pull. The tusker, seeing her difficulty, placed himself
+in front of the prisoner, and forced her backwards, step by step, till
+his companion, brought her fairly up to the tree, and wound the rope
+round the stem. Though overpowered by fear, she showed the fullest sense
+of the nature of the danger she had to apprehend. She kept her head
+turned towards the noosers, and tried to step in advance of the decoys;
+in spite of all their efforts, she tore off the first noose from her
+fore-leg, and placing it under her foot, snapped it into fathom lengths.
+When finally secured, her writhings were extraordinary. She doubled in
+her head under her chest, till she lay as round as a hedgehog, and
+rising again, stood on her fore-feet, and lifting her hind-feet off the
+ground, she wrung them from side to side, till the great tree above her
+quivered in every branch.
+
+Before proceeding to catch the others, we requested that the smaller
+trees and jungle, which partially obstructed our view, might be broken
+away, being no longer essential to screen the entrance to the corral;
+and five of the tame elephants were brought up for the purpose. They
+felt the strength of each tree with their trunks, then swaying it
+backwards and forwards, by pushing it with their foreheads, they watched
+the opportunity when it was in full swing to raise their fore-feet
+against the stem, and bear it down to the ground. Then tearing off the
+festoons of climbing plants, and trampling down the smaller branches and
+brushwood, they pitched them with their tusks, piling them into heaps
+along the side of the fence.
+
+[Illustration of elephant resisting capture.]
+
+Amongst the last that was secured was the solitary individual belonging
+to the fugitive herd. When they attempted to drag him backwards from the
+tree near which he was noosed, he laid hold of it with his trunk and lay
+down on his side immoveable. The temple tusker and another were ordered
+up to assist, and it required the combined efforts of the three
+elephants to force him along. When dragged to the place at which he was
+to be tied up, he continued the contest with desperation, and to prevent
+the second noose being placed on his foot, he sat down on his haunches,
+almost in the attitude of the "Florentine Boar," keeping his hind-feet
+beneath him, and defending his fore-feet with his trunk, with which he
+flung back the rope as often as it was attempted to attach it.
+
+[Illustration of elephant lying on ground after capture.]
+
+When overpowered and made fast, his grief was most affecting; his
+violence sunk to utter prostration, and he lay on the ground, uttering
+choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.
+
+The final operation was that of slackening the ropes, and marching each
+captive down to the river between two tame ones. This was effected very
+simply. A decoy, with a strong collar round its neck, stood on either
+side of the wild one, on which a similar collar was formed, by
+successive coils of coco-nut rope; and then, connecting the three
+collars together, the prisoner was effectually made safe between his two
+guards. During this operation, it was curious to see how the tame
+elephant, from time to time, used its trunk to shield the arm of its
+rider, and ward off the trunk of the prisoner, who resisted the placing
+the rope round his neck. This done, the nooses were removed from his
+feet, and he was marched off to the river, in which he and his
+companions were allowed to bathe; a privilege of which all availed
+themselves eagerly. Each was then made fast to a tree in the forest, and
+keepers being assigned to him, with a retinue of leaf-cutters, he was
+plentifully supplied with his favourite food, and left to the care and
+tuition of his new masters.
+
+Returning from a spectacle such as I have attempted to describe, one
+cannot help feeling how immeasurably it exceeds in interest those royal
+battues where timid deer are driven in crowds to unresisting slaughter;
+or those vaunted "wild sports" the amusement of which appears to be in
+proportion to the effusion of blood. Here the only display of power was
+the imposition of restraint; and though considerable mortality often
+occurs amongst the animals caught, the infliction of pain, so far from
+being an incident of the operation, is most cautiously avoided from its
+tendency to enrage, the policy of the captor being to conciliate and
+soothe. The whole scene exhibits the most marvellous example of the
+voluntary alliance of animal sagacity and instinct in active
+co-operation with human intelligence and courage; and nothing else in
+nature, not even the chase of the whale, can afford so vivid an
+illustration of the sovereignty of man over brute creation even when
+confronted with force in its most stupendous embodiment.
+
+Of the two young elephants which were taken in the corral, the smallest
+was sent down to my house at Colombo, where he became a general
+favourite with the servants. He attached himself especially to the
+coachman, who had a little shed erected for him near his own quarters at
+the stables. But his favourite resort was the kitchen, where he received
+a daily allowance of milk and plantains, and picked up several other
+delicacies besides. He was innocent and playful in the extreme, and when
+walking in the grounds he would trot up to me, twine his little trunk
+round my arm, and coax me to take him to the fruit-trees. In the evening
+the grass-cutters now and then indulged him by permitting him to carry
+home a load of fodder for the horses, on which occasions he assumed an
+air of gravity that was highly amusing, showing that he was deeply
+impressed with the importance and responsibility of the service
+entrusted to him. Being sometimes permitted to enter the dining-room,
+and helped to fruit at desert, he at last learned his way to the
+side-board; and on more than one occasion having stolen in, during the
+absence of the servants, he made a clear sweep of the wine-glasses and
+china in his endeavours to reach a basket of oranges. For these and
+similar pranks we were at last forced to put him away. He was sent to
+the Government stud, where he was affectionately received and adopted by
+Siribeddi, and he now takes his turn of public duty in the department of
+the Commissioner of Roads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VII.
+
+THE ELEPHANT.
+
+      *        *       *       *       *
+
+_Conduct in Captivity._
+
+The idea prevailed in ancient times, and obtains even at the present
+day, that the Indian elephant surpasses that of Africa in sagacity and
+tractability, and consequently in capacity for training, so as to render
+its services more available to man. There does not appear to me to be
+sufficient ground for this conclusion. It originated, in all
+probability, in the first impressions created by the accounts of the
+elephant brought back by the Greeks after the Indian expedition of
+Alexander, and above all by the descriptions of Aristotle, whose
+knowledge of the animal was derived exclusively from the East. A long
+interval elapsed before the elephant of Africa, and its capabilities,
+became known in Europe. The first elephants brought to Greece by
+Antipater, were from India, as were also those introduced by Pyrrhus
+into Italy. Taught by this example, the Carthaginians undertook to
+employ African elephants in war. Jugurtha led them against Metellus, and
+Juba against Caesar; but from inexperienced and deficient training, they
+proved less effective than the elephants of India[1], and the historians
+of these times ascribed to inferiority of race, that which was but the
+result of insufficient education.
+
+[Footnote 1: ARMANDI, _Hist. Milit. des Elephants_, liv. i. ch. i. p. 2.
+It is an interesting fact, noticed by ARMANDI, that the elephants
+figured on the coins of Alexander, and the Seleucidae invariably exhibit
+the characteristics of the Indian type, whilst those on Roman medals can
+at once be pronounced African, from the peculiarities of the convex
+forehead and expansive ears.--_Ibid_. liv. i. cap. i. p. 3.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ARMANDI has, with infinite industry, collected from original sources a
+mass of curious informations relative to the employment of elephants in
+ancient warfare, which he has published under the title of _Histoire
+Militaire des Elephants depuis les temps les plus recules jusqu' a
+l'introduction des armes a feu_. Paris. 1843.]
+
+It must, however, be remembered that the elephants which, at a later
+period, astonished the Romans by their sagacity, and whose performances
+in the amphitheatre have been described by AElian and Pliny, were brought
+from Africa, and acquired their accomplishments from European
+instructors[1]; a sufficient proof that under equally favourable
+auspices the African species are capable of developing similar docility
+and powers with those of India. It is one of the facts from which the
+inferiority of the Negro race has been inferred, that they alone, of all
+the nations amongst whom the elephant is found, have never manifested
+ability to domesticate it; and even as regards the more highly developed
+races who inhabited the valley of the Nile, it is observable that the
+elephant is nowhere to be found amongst the animals figured on the
+monuments of ancient Egypt, whilst the camelopard, the lion, and even
+the hippopotamus are represented. And although in later times the
+knowledge of the art of training appears to have existed under the
+Ptolemies, and on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, it admits of
+no doubt that it was communicated by the more accomplished natives of
+India who had settled there.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: AELIAN, lib. ii. cap. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See SCHLEGEL'S Essay on the Elephant and the Sphynx.
+_Classical Journal_, No. lx. Although the trained elephant nowhere
+appears upon the monuments of the Egyptians, the animal was not unknown
+to them, and ivory and elephants are figured on the walls of Thebes and
+Karnac amongst the spoils of Thothmes III., and the tribute paid to
+Rameses I. The Island of Elephantine, in the Nile, near Assouan (Syene)
+is styled in hieroglyphical writing "The Land of the Elephant;" but as
+it is a mere rock, it probably owes its designation to its form. See Sir
+GARDNER WILKINSON'S _Ancient Egyptians_, vol. i. pl. iv.; vol. v. p.
+176. Above the first cataract of the Nile are two small islands, each
+bearing the name of Phylae;--quaere, is the derivation of this word at all
+connected with the Arabic term _fil_? See ante, p. 76, note. The
+elephant figured in the sculptures of Nineveh is universally as wild,
+not domesticated.]
+
+Another favourite doctrine of the earlier visitors to the East seems to
+me to be equally fallacious; PYRARD, BERNIER, PHILLIPE, THEVENOT, and
+other travellers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, proclaimed
+the superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, in size, strength, and
+sagacity, above those of all other parts of India[1]; and TAVERNIER in
+particular is supposed to have stated that if a Ceylon elephant be
+introduced amongst those bred in any other place, by an instinct of
+nature they do him homage by laying their trunks to the ground, and
+raising them reverentially. This passage has been so repeatedly quoted
+in works on Ceylon that it has passed into an aphorism, and is always
+adduced as a testimony to the surpassing intelligence of the elephants
+of that island; although a reference to the original shows that
+Tavernier's observations are not only fanciful in themselves, but are
+restricted to the supposed excellence of the Ceylon animal _in war_.[2]
+This estimate of the superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, if it ever
+prevailed in India, was not current there at a very early period; for in
+the _Ramayana_, which is probably the oldest epic in the world, the stud
+of Dasartha, the king of Ayodhya, was supplied with elephants from the
+Himalaya and the Vindhya Mountains.[3] I have had no opportunity of
+testing by personal observation the justice of the assumption; but from
+all that I have heard of the elephants of the continent, and seen of
+those of Ceylon, I have reason to conclude that the difference, if not
+imaginary, is exceptional, and must have arisen in particular and
+individual instances, from more judicious or elaborate instruction.
+
+[Footnote 1: This is merely a reiteration of the statement of AELIAN, who
+ascribes to the elephants of Taprobane a vast superiority in size,
+strength, and intelligence, above, those of continental India,--[Greek:
+"Kai oide ge naesiotai elephantes ton haepiroton halkimoteroi te taen
+rhomaen kai meixous idein eisi, kai thumosophoteroi de panta pantae
+krinointo han."]--AELIAN, _De Nat. Anim_., lib. Xvi. Cap. xviii.
+
+AELIAN also, in the same chapter, states the fact of the shipment of
+elephants in large boats from Ceylon to the opposite continent of India,
+for sale to the king of Kalinga; so that the export from Manaar,
+described in a former passage, has been going on apparently without
+interruption since the time of the Romans.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The expression of TAVERNIER is to the effect that as
+compared with all others, the elephants of Ceylon are "plus courageux _a
+la guerre_." The rest of the passage is a curiosity:--
+
+"Il faut remarquer ici une chose qu'on aura peut-etre de la peine a
+croire main quit est toutefois tres-veritable: c'est que lorsque quelque
+roi on quelque seigneur a quelqu'un de ces elephants de Ceylan, et qu'on
+en amene quelqu'autre des lieux ou les marchands vont les prendre, comme
+d'Achen, de Siam, d'Arakan, de Pegu, du royaume de Boutan, d'Assam, des
+terres de Cochin et de la coste du Melinde, des que les elephants en
+voient un de Ceylan, par un instinct de nature, ils lui font la
+reverence, portant le bout de leur trompe a la terre et la relevant. Il
+est vrai que les elephants que les grand seigneurs entretiennent, quand
+en les amine devant eux, pour voir s'ils sent en bon point, font troi
+fois une espere de reverence avec leur troupe, _a que j'ai en souvent_,
+mais ils sont styles a cela, et leurs maitres le leur enseignent de
+bonne heure."--_Les Six Voyages de_ J.B. TAVERNIER, lib. iii. ch. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Ramayana_, sec. vi.: CAREY and MARSHMAN, i. 105: FAUCHE,
+t. i. p. 66.]
+
+The earliest knowledge of the elephant in Europe and the West, was
+derived from the conspicuous position assigned to it in the wars of the
+East: in India, from the remotest antiquity, it formed one of the most
+picturesque, if not the most effective, features in the armies of the
+native princes.[1] It is more than probable that the earliest attempts
+to take and train the elephant, were with a view to military uses, and
+that the art was perpetuated in later times to gratify the pride of the
+eastern kings, and sustain the pomp of their processions.
+
+[Footnote 1: The only mention of the elephant in Sacred History in the
+account given in _Maccabees_ of the invasion of Egypt by Antiochus, who
+entered it 170 B.C., "with chariots and elephants, and horsemen, and a
+great navy."--1 _Macc_. i. 17. Frequent allusions to the use of
+elephants in war occur in both books: and in chap. vi. 34, it is stated
+that "to provoke the elephants to fight they showed them the blood of
+grapes and of mulberries." The term showed, "[Greek: edeixan]," might be
+thought to imply that the animals were enraged by the sight of the wine
+and its colour, but in the Third Book of Maccabees, in the Greek
+Septuagint, various other passages show that wine, on such occasions,
+was administered to the elephants to render them furious.--Mace, v. 2.
+10, 45. PHILE mentions the same fact, _De Elephante_, i. 145.
+
+There is a very curious account of the mode in which the Arab conquerors
+of Seinde, in the 9th and 10th centuries, equipped the elephant for war;
+which being written with all the particularity of an eye-witness, bears
+the impress of truth and accuracy. MASSOUDI, who was born in Bagdad at
+the close of the 9th century, travelled in India in the year A.D. 913,
+and visited the Gulf of Cambay, the coast of Malabar, and the Island of
+Ceylon:--from a larger account of his journeys he compiled a summary
+under the title of "_Moroudj al-dzeheb," or the "Golden Meadows_," the
+MS. of which is now in the Bibliotheque Nationale. M. REINAUD, in
+describing this manuscript says on its authority, "The Prince of
+Mensura, whose dominions lay south of the Indus, maintained eighty
+elephants trained for war, each of which bore in his trunk a bent
+cymeter (carthel), with which he was taught to cut and thrust at all
+confronting him. The trunk itself was effectually protected by a coat of
+mail, and the rest of the body enveloped in a covering composed jointly
+of iron and horn. Other elephants were employed in drawing chariots,
+carrying baggage, and grinding forage, and the performance of all
+bespoke the utmost intelligence and docility."--REINAUD, _Memoires sur
+l'Inde, anterieurement au milieu du XIe siecle, d'apres les ecrivains
+arabes, persans et chinois_. Paris, M.D.CCC. XLIX. p. 215. See
+SPRENGER'S English Translation of Massoudi, vol. i. p. 383.]
+
+An impression prevails even to the present day, that the process of
+training is tedious and difficult, and the reduction of a full-grown
+elephant to obedience, slow and troublesome in the extreme.[1] In both
+particulars, however, the contrary is the truth. The training as it
+prevails in Ceylon is simple, and the conformity and obedience of the
+animal are developed with singular rapidity. For the first three days,
+or till they will eat freely, which they seldom do in a less time, the
+newly-captured elephants are allowed to stand quiet; and, if
+practicable, a tame elephant is tied near to give the wild ones
+confidence. Where many elephants are being trained at once, it is
+customary to put every new captive between the stalls of half-tamed
+ones, when it soon takes to its food. This stage being attained,
+training commences by placing tame elephants on either side. The
+"cooroowe vidahn," or the head of the stables, stands in front of the
+wild elephants holding a long stick with a sharp iron point. Two men are
+then stationed one on either side, assisted by the tame elephants, and
+each holding a _hendoo_ or crook[2] towards the wild one's trunk, whilst
+one or two others rub their hands over his back, keeping up all the
+while a soothing and plaintive chaunt, interlarded with endearing
+epithets, such as "ho! my son," or "ho! my father," or "my mother," as
+may be applicable to the age and sex of the captive. The elephant is at
+first furious, and strikes in all directions with his trunk; but the men
+in front receiving all these blows on the points of their weapons, the
+extremity of the trunk becomes so sore that the animal curls it up
+close, and seldom afterwards attempts to use it offensively. The first
+dread of man's power being thus established, the process of taking him
+to bathe between two tame elephants is greatly facilitated, and by
+lengthening the neck rope, and drawing the feet together as close as
+possible, the process of laying him down in the water is finally
+accomplished by the keepers pressing the sharp point of their hendoos
+over the backbone.
+
+[Footnote 1: BRODERIP, _Zoological Recreations_, p. 226.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The iron goad with which the keeper directs the movements
+of the elephants, called a _hendoo_ in Ceylon and _hawkus_ in Bengal,
+appears to have retained the present shape from the remotest antiquity.
+It is figured in the medals of Caracalla in the identical form in which
+it is in use at the present day in India.
+
+The Greeks called it [Greek: harpe], and the Romans _cuspis_.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Numidia.]
+
+[Illustration: Modern Hendoo.]]
+
+For many days the roaring and resistance which attend the operation are
+considerable, and it often requires the sagacious interference of the
+tame elephants to control the refractory wild ones. It soon, however,
+becomes practicable to leave the latter alone, only taking them to and
+from the stall by the aid of a decoy. This step lasts, under ordinary
+treatment, for about three weeks, when an elephant may be taken alone
+with his legs hobbled, and a man walking backwards in front with the
+point of the hendoo always presented to the elephant's head, and a
+keeper with an iron crook at each ear. On getting into the water, the
+fear of being pricked on his tender back induces him to lie down
+directly on the crook being only held over him _in terrorem_. Once this
+point has been achieved, the further process of taming is dependent upon
+the disposition of the creature.
+
+The greatest care is requisite, and daily medicines are applied to heal
+the fearful wounds on the legs which even the softest ropes occasion.
+This is the great difficulty of training; for the wounds fester
+grievously, and months and sometimes years will elapse before an
+elephant will allow his feet to be touched without indications of alarm
+and anger.
+
+The observation has been frequently made that the elephants most vicious
+and troublesome to tame, and the most worthless when tamed, are those
+distinguished by a thin trunk and flabby pendulous ears. The period of
+tuition does not appear to be influenced by the size or strength of the
+animals: some of the smallest give the greatest amount of trouble;
+whereas, in the instance of the two largest that have been taken in
+Ceylon within the last thirty years, both were docile in a remarkable
+degree. One in particular, which was caught and trained by Mr. Cripps,
+when Government agent, in the Seven Korles, fed from the hand the first
+night it was secured, and in a very few days evinced pleasure on being
+patted on the head.[1] There is none so obstinate, not even a _rogue_,
+that may not, when kindly and patiently treated, be conciliated and
+reconciled.
+
+[Footnote 1: This was the largest elephant that had been tamed in
+Ceylon; he measured upwards of nine feet at the shoulders and belonged
+to the caste so highly prized for the temples. He was gentle after his
+first capture, but his removal from the corral to the stables, though
+only a distance of six miles, was a matter of the extremest difficulty;
+his extraordinary strength rendering him more than a match for the
+attendant decoys. He, on one occasion, escaped, but was recaptured in
+the forest; and he afterwards became so docile as to perform a variety
+of tricks. He was at length ordered to be removed to Colombo; but such
+was his terror on approaching the gate, that on coaxing him to enter the
+gate, he became paralysed in the extraordinary way elsewhere alluded to,
+and _died on the spot_.]
+
+The males are generally more unmaneagable than the females, and in both
+an inclination to lie down to rest is regarded as a favourable symptom
+of approaching tractability, some of the most resolute having been known
+to stand for months together, even during sleep. Those which are the
+most obstinate and violent at first are the soonest and most effectually
+subdued, and generally prove permanently docile and submissive. But
+those which are sullen or morose, although they may provoke no
+chastisement by their viciousness, are always slower in being taught,
+and are rarely to be trusted in after life.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The natives profess that the high caste elephants, such as
+are allotted to the temples, are of all others the most difficult to
+tame, and M. BLES, the Dutch correspondent of BUFFON, mentions a caste
+of elephants which he had heard of, as being peculiar to the Kandyan
+kingdom, that were not higher than a heifer (genisse), covered with
+hair, and insusceptible of being tamed. (BUFFON, _Supp._ vol. vi. p.
+29.) Bishop HEBER, in the account of his journey from Bareilly towards
+the Himalayas, describes the Raja Gourman Sing, "mounted on a little
+female elephant, hardly bigger than a Durham ox, and almost as shaggy as
+a poodle."--_Journx._, ch. xvii. It will be remembered that the mammoth
+discovered in 1803 embedded in icy soil in Siberia, was covered with a
+coat of long hair, with a sort of wool at the roots. Hence there arose
+the question whether that northern region had been formerly inhabited by
+a race of elephants, so fortified by nature against cold; or whether the
+individual discovered had been borne thither by currents from some more
+temperate latitudes. To the latter theory the presence of hair seemed a
+fatal objection; but so far as my own observation goes, I believe the
+elephants are more or less provided with hair. In some it is more
+developed than in others, and it is particularly observable in the
+young, which when captured are frequently covered with a woolly fleece,
+especially about the head and shoulders. In the older individuals in
+Ceylon, this is less apparent: and in captivity the hair appears to be
+altogether removed by the custom of the mahouts to rub their skin daily
+with oil and a rough lump of burned clay. See a paper on the subject,
+_Asiat. Journ._ N.S. vol. xiv. p. 182, by Mr. G. FAIRHOLME.]
+
+But whatever may be its natural gentleness and docility, the temper of
+an elephant is seldom to be implicitly relied on in a state of captivity
+and coercion. The most amenable are subject to occasional fits of
+stubbornness; and even after years of submission, irritability and
+resentment will unaccountably manifest themselves. It may be that the
+restraints and severer discipline of training have not been entirely
+forgotten; or that incidents which in ordinary health would be
+productive of no demonstration whatever, may lead, in moments of
+temporary illness, to fretfulness and anger. The knowledge of this
+infirmity led to the popular belief recorded by PHILE, that the elephant
+had _two hearts_, under the respective influences of which it evinced
+ferocity of gentleness; subdued by the one to habitual tractability and
+obedience, but occasionally roused by the other to displays of rage and
+resistance.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1:
+  [Greek:
+  "Diples de phasin euporesai kardias
+  Kai te men einai thumikon to therion
+  Eis akrate kinesin erethismenon,
+  Te de prosenes kai thrasytetos xenon.
+  Kai pe men auton akroasthai ton logon
+  Ous an tis Indos eu tithaseuon legoi,
+  Pe de pros autous tous nomeis epitrechein
+  Eis tas palaias ektrapen kakoupgias."]
+       PHILE, _Expos. de Eleph._, l. 126, &c.]
+
+In the process of taming, the presence of the tame ones can generally be
+dispensed with after two months, and the captive may then be ridden by
+the driver alone; and after three or four months he may be entrusted
+with labour, so far as regards docility;--but it is undesirable, and
+even involves the risk of life, to work an elephant too soon; it has
+frequently happened that a valuable animal has lain down and died the
+first time it was tried in harness, from what the natives believe to be
+"broken heart,"--certainly without any cause inferable from injury or
+previous disease.[1] It is observable, that till a captured elephant
+begins to relish food, and grow fat upon it, he becomes so fretted by
+work, that it kills him in an incredibly short space of time.
+
+[Footnote 1: Captain YULE, in his _Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in_
+1855, records an illustration of this tendency of the elephant to sudden
+death; one newly captured, the process of taming which was exhibited to
+the British Envoy, "made vigorous resistance to the placing of a collar
+on its neck, and the people were proceeding to tighten it, when the
+elephant, which had lain down as if quite exhausted, reared suddenly on
+the hind quarters, and fell on its side--_dead_!"--P. 104.
+
+Mr. STRACHAN noticed the same liability of the elephants to sudden death
+from very slight causes; "of the fall." he says, "at any time, though on
+plain ground, they either die immediately, or languish till they die;
+their great weight occasioning them so much hurt by the fall."--_Phil.
+Trans._ A.D. 1701, vol. xxiii. p. 1052.]
+
+The first employment to which an elephant is put is to tread clay in a
+brick-field, or to draw a waggon in double harness with a tame
+companion. But the work in which the display of sagacity renders his
+labours of the highest value, is that which involves the use of heavy
+materials; and hence in dragging and piling timber, or moving stones[1]
+for the construction of retaining walls and the approaches to bridges,
+his services in an unopened country are of the utmost importance. When
+roads are to be constructed along the face of steep declivities, and the
+space is so contracted that risk is incurred either of the working
+elephant falling over the precipice or of rocks slipping down from
+above, not only are the measures to which he resorts the most judicious
+and reasonable that could be devised, but if urged by his keeper to
+adopt any other, he manifests a reluctance sufficient to show that he
+has balanced in his own mind the comparative advantages of each. An
+elephant appears on all occasions to comprehend the purpose and object
+that he is expected to promote, and hence he voluntarily executes a
+variety of details without any guidance whatever from his keeper. This
+is one characteristic in which this animal manifests a superiority over
+the horse; although his strength in proportion to his weight is not so
+great as that of the latter.
+
+[Footnote 1: A correspondent informs me that on the Malabar coast of
+India, the elephant, when employed in dragging stones, moves them by
+means of a rope, which he either draws with his forehead, or manages by
+seizing it in his teeth.]
+
+His minute motions when engrossed by such operations, the activity of
+his eye, and the earnestness of his attitudes, can only be comprehended
+by being seen. In moving timber and masses of rock his trunk is the
+instrument on which he mainly relies, but those which have tusks turn
+them to good account. To get a weighty stone out of a hollow an elephant
+will kneel down so as to apply the pressure of his head to move it
+upwards, then steadying it with one foot till he can raise himself, he
+will apply a fold of his trunk to shift it to its place, and fit it
+accurately in position: this done, he will step round to view it on
+either side, and adjust it with due precision. He appears to gauge his
+task by his eye, and to form a judgment whether the weight be
+proportionate to his strength. If doubtful of his own power, he
+hesitates and halts, and if urged against his will, he roars and shows
+temper.
+
+In clearing an opening through forest land, the power of the African
+elephant, and the strength ascribed to him by a recent traveller, as
+displayed in uprooting trees, have never been equalled or approached by
+anything I have seen of the elephant in Ceylon[1] or heard of them in
+India.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Here the trees were large and handsome, but not strong
+enough to resist the inconceivable strength of the mighty monarch of
+these forests; almost every tree had half its branches broken short by
+them and at every hundred yards I came upon entire trees, and these,
+_the largest in the forest_, uprooted clean out of the ground, and
+_broken short across their stems_."--_A Hunter's Life in South Africa_.
+By R. GORDON CUMMING, vol. ii. p. 305.--
+
+"Spreading out from one another, they smash and destroy all the finest
+trees in the forest which happen to be in their course.... I have rode
+through forests where the trees thus broken lay so thick across one
+another, that it was almost impossible to ride through the
+district."--_Ibid_., p. 310.
+
+Mr. Gordon Cumming does not name the trees which he saw thus "uprooted"
+and "broken across," nor has he given any idea of their size and weight;
+but Major DENHAM, who observed like traces of the elephant in Africa,
+saw only small trees overthrown by them; and Mr. PRINGLE, who had an
+opportunity of observing similar practices of the animals in the neutral
+territory of the Eastern frontier of the Cape of Good Hope, describes
+their ravages as being confined to the mimosas, "immense numbers of
+which had been torn out of the ground, and placed in an inverted
+position, in order to enable the animals to browse at their ease on the
+soft and juicy roots, which form a favourite part of their food. Many of
+the _larger mimosas had resisted all their efforts; and indeed, it is
+only after heavy rain, when the soil is soft and loose, that they ever
+successfully attempt this operation._"--Pringle's _Sketches of South
+Africa._]
+
+Of course much must depend on the nature of the timber and the moisture
+of the soil; thus a strong tree on the verge of a swamp may be
+overthrown with greater ease than a small and low one in parched and
+solid ground. I have seen no "tree" deserving the name, nothing but
+jungle and brushwood, thrown down by the mere movement of an elephant
+without some special exertion of force. But he is by no means fond of
+gratuitously tasking his strength; and food being so abundant that he
+obtains it without an effort, it is not altogether apparent, even were
+he able to do so, why he should assail "the largest trees in the
+forest," and encumber his own haunts with their broken stems; especially
+as there is scarcely anything which an elephant dislikes more than
+venturing amongst fallen timber.
+
+A tree of twelve inches in diameter resisted successfully the most
+strenuous struggles of the largest elephant I ever saw led to it; and
+when directed by their keepers to clear away jungle, the removal of even
+a small tree, or a healthy young coco-nut palm, is a matter both of time
+and exertion. Hence the services of an elephant are of much less value
+in clearing a forest than in dragging and piling felled timber. But in
+the latter occupation he manifests an intelligence and dexterity which
+is surprising to a stranger, because the sameness of the operation
+enables the animal to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almost
+without a hint or direction from his attendant. For example, two
+elephants employed in piling ebony and satinwood in the yards attached
+to the commissariat stores at Colombo, were so accustomed to their work,
+that they were able to accomplish it with equal precision and with
+greater rapidity than if it had been done by dock-labourers. When the
+pile attained a certain height, and they were no longer able by their
+conjoint efforts to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony to the summit,
+they had been taught to lean two pieces against the heap, up the
+inclined plane of which they gently rolled the remaining logs, and
+placed them trimly on the top.
+
+It has been asserted that in their occupations "elephants are to a
+surprising extent the creatures of habit,"[1] that their movements are
+altogether mechanical, and that "they are annoyed by any deviation from
+their accustomed practice, and resent any constrained departure from the
+regularity of their course." So far as my own observation goes, this is
+incorrect; and I am assured by officers of experience, that in regard to
+changing his treatment, his hours, or his occupation, an elephant
+evinces no more consideration than a horse, but exhibits the same
+pliancy and facility.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries_, &c., "The Elephant," vol. ii. p. 23.]
+
+At one point, however, the utility of the elephant stops short. Such is
+the intelligence and earnestness he displays in work, which he seems to
+conduct almost without supervision, that it has been assumed[1] that he
+would continue his labour, and accomplish his given task, as well in the
+absence of his keeper as during his presence. But here his innate love
+of ease displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn,
+the moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, he will stroll
+away lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning himself and
+blowing dust over his back.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ibid._, ch. vi. p. 138.]
+
+The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a question of difficulty
+to his attendants. Force being almost inapplicable, they try to work on
+his passions and feelings, by such expedients as altering the nature of
+his food or withholding it altogether for a time. Ou such occasions the
+demeanour of the creature will sometimes evince a sense of humiliation
+as well as of discontent. In some parts of India it is customary, in
+dealing with offenders, to stop their allowance of sugar canes or of
+jaggery; or to restrain them from eating their own share of fodder and
+leaves till their companions shall have finished; and in such cases the
+consciousness of degradation betrayed by the looks and attitudes of the
+culprit is quite sufficient to identify him, and to excite a feeling of
+sympathy and pity.
+
+The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result of affection, as
+well as of fear; and although his attachment becomes so strong that an
+elephant in Ceylon has been known to remain out all night, without food,
+rather than abandon his mahout, lying intoxicated in the jungle, yet he
+manifests little difficulty in yielding the same submission to a new
+driver in the event of a change of attendants. This is opposed to the
+popular belief that "the elephant cherishes such an enduring remembrance
+of his old mahout, that he cannot easily be brought to obey a
+stranger."[1] In the extensive establishments of the Ceylon Government,
+the keepers are changed without hesitation, and the animals, when
+equally kindly treated, are usually found to be as tractable and
+obedient to their new driver as to the old, in fact so soon as they have
+become familiarised with his voice. This is not, however, invariably the
+case; and Mr. CRIPPS, who had remarkable opportunities for observing the
+habits of the elephant in Ceylon, mentioned to me an instance in which
+one of a singularly stubborn disposition occasioned some inconvenience
+after the death of its keeper, by refusing to obey any other, till its
+attendants bethought them of a child about twelve years old, in a
+distant village, where the animal had been formerly picketed, and to
+whom it had displayed much attachment. The child was sent for: and on
+its arrival the elephant, as anticipated, manifested extreme
+satisfaction, and was managed with ease, till by degrees it became
+reconciled to the presence of a new superintendent.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c._, "The Elephant," vol. i. p. 19.]
+
+It has been said that the mahouts die young, owing to some supposed
+injury to the spinal column from the peculiar motion of the elephant;
+but this remark does not apply to those in Ceylon, who are healthy, and
+as long lived as other men. If the motion of the elephant be thus
+injurious, that of the camel must be still more so; yet we never hear of
+early death ascribed to this cause by the Arabs.
+
+The voice of the keeper, with a very limited vocabulary of articulate
+sounds, serves almost alone to guide the elephant in his domestic
+occupations.[1] Sir EVERARD HOME, from an examination of the muscular
+fibres in the drum of an elephant's ear, came to the conclusion, that
+notwithstanding the distinctness and power of his perception of sounds
+at a greater distance than other animals, he was insensible to their
+harmonious modulation and destitute of a musical ear.[2] But Professor
+HARRISON, in a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy in 1847, has
+stated that on a careful examination of the head of an elephant which he
+had dissected, he could "see no evidence of the muscular structure of
+the _membrana tympani_ so accurately described by Sir E. HOME." Sir
+EVERARD'S deduction, I may observe, is clearly inconsistent with the
+fact that the power of two elephants may be combined by singing to them
+a measured chant, somewhat resembling a sailor's capstan song; and in
+labour of a particular kind, such as hauling a stone with ropes, they
+will thus move conjointly a weight to which their divided strength would
+be unequal.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: The principal sound by which the mahouts in Ceylon direct
+the motions of the elephants is a repetition, with various modulations,
+of the words _ur-re! ur-re!_ This is one of those interjections in which
+the sound is so expressive of the sense that persons in charge of
+animals of almost every description throughout the world appear to have
+adopted it with a concurrence that is very curious. The drivers of
+camels in Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt encourage them to speed by
+shouting _ar-re! ar-re!_ The Arabs in Algeria cry _eirich!_ to their
+mules. The Moors seem to have carried the custom with them into Spain,
+where mules are still driven with cries of _arre_ (whence the muleteers
+derive their Spanish appellation of "arrieros"). In France the Sportsman
+excites the hound by shouts of _hare! hare!_ and the waggoner there
+turns his horses by his voice, and the use of the word _hurhaut!_ In the
+North, "_Hurs_ was a word used by the old Germans in urging their horses
+to speed;" and to the present day, the herdsmen in Ireland, and parts of
+Scotland, drive their pigs with shouts of _hurrish!_ a sound closely
+resembling that used by the mahouts in Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _On the Difference between the Human Membrana Tympani and
+that of the Elephant_. By Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart., Philos. Trans., 1823.
+Paper by Prof. HARRISON. Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. iii. p. 386.]
+
+[Footnote 3: I have already noticed the striking effect produced on the
+captive elephants in the corral, by the harmonious notes of an ivory
+flute; and on looking to the graphic description which is given by AELIAN
+of the exploits which he witnessed as performed by the elephants
+exhibited at Rome, it is remarkable how very large a share of their
+training appears to have been ascribed to the employment of music.
+
+PHILE, in the account which he has given of the elephant's fondness for
+music, would almost seem to have versified the prose narrative of AELIAN,
+as he describes its excitement at the more animated portions, its step
+being regulated to the time and movements of the harmony: the whole
+"_surprising in a creature whose limbs are without joints!_
+
+  [Greek:
+  "Kainon ti poion ex anarthron organon."]
+          PHILE, _Expos. de Eleph_, 1. 216.
+
+For an account of the training and performances of the elephants at
+Rome, as narrated by AELIAN see the appendix to this chapter.]
+
+Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to obedience in the
+elephant, than the patience with which, at the order of his keeper, he
+swallows the nauseous medicines of the native elephant-doctors; and it
+is impossible to witness the fortitude with which (without shrinking) he
+submits to excruciating surgical operations for the removal of tumours
+and ulcers to which he is subject, without conceiving a vivid impression
+of his gentleness and intelligence. Dr. DAVY when in Ceylon was
+consulted about an elephant in the government Stud, which was suffering
+from a deep, burrowing sore in the back, just over the back-bone, which
+had long resisted the treatment ordinarily employed. He recommended the
+use of the knife, that issue might be given to the accumulated matter,
+but no one of the attendants was competent to undertake the operation.
+"Being assured," he continues, "that the creature would behave well, I
+undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but was made to kneel
+down at his keeper's command--and with an amputating knife, using all my
+force, I made the incision required through the tough integuments. The
+elephant did not flinch, but rather inclined towards me when using the
+knife; and merely uttered a low, and as it were suppressed, groan. In
+short, he behaved as like a human being as possible, as if conscious (as
+I believe he was), that the operation was for his good, and the pain
+unavoidable."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The _Angler in the Lake District_, p. 23.]
+
+Obedience to the orders of his keepers is not, however, to be assumed as
+the result of a uniform perception of the object to be attained by
+compliance; and we cannot but remember the touching incident which took
+place during the slaughter of the elephant at Exeter Change in 1846,
+when, after receiving ineffectually upwards of 120 balls in various
+parts of his body, he turned his face to his assailants on hearing the
+voice of his keeper, and knelt down at the accustomed word of command,
+so as to bring his forehead within view of the rifles.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A shocking account of the death of this poor animal is
+given in HONE'S _Every-Day Book_, March, 1830, p. 337.]
+
+The working elephant is always a delicate animal, and requires
+watchfulness and care. As a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory; for
+although in point of mere strength there is scarcely any weight which
+could be conveniently placed on him that he could not carry, it is
+difficult to pack his load without causing abrasions that afterwards
+ulcerate. His skin is easily chafed by harness, especially in wet
+weather. During either long droughts or too much moisture, his feet
+become liable to sores, that render him non-effective for months. Many
+attempts have been made to provide him with some protection for the sole
+of the foot, but from his extreme weight and peculiar mode of planting
+the foot, they have all been unsuccessful. His eyes are also liable to
+frequent inflammations, and the skill of the native elephant-doctors,
+which has been renowned since the time of AElian, is nowhere more
+strikingly displayed than in the successful treatment of such
+attacks.[1] In Ceylon, the murrain among cattle is of frequent
+occurrence, and carries off great numbers of animals, wild as well as
+tame. In such visitations the elephants suffer severely, not only those
+at liberty in the forest, but those carefully tended in the government
+stables. Out of a stud of about 40 attached to the department of the
+Commission of Roads, the deaths between 1841 and 1849 were on an average
+_four_ in each year, and this was nearly doubled in those years when
+murrain prevailed.
+
+[Footnote 1: AELIAN, lib. xiii. c. 7.]
+
+Of 240 elephants, employed in the public departments of the Ceylon
+Government, which died in twenty-five years, from 1831 to 1856, the
+length of time that each lived in captivity has only been recorded in
+the instances of 138. Of these there died:--
+
+  Duration of Captivity.        No.     Male.   Female
+
+  Under 1 year                  72        29      43
+  From 1 to   2 years           14         5       9
+    "  2  "   3   "              8         5       3
+    "  3  "   4   "              8         3       5
+    "  4  "   5   "              3         2       1
+    "  5  "   6   "              2         2       .
+    "  6  "   7   "              3         1       2
+    "  7  "   8   "              5         2       3
+    "  8  "   9   "              5         5       .
+    "  9  "  10   "              2         2       .
+    " 10  "  11   "              2         2       .
+    " 11  "  12   "              3         1       2
+    " 12  "  13   "              3         .       3
+    " 13  "  14   "              .         .       .
+    " 14  "  15   "              3         1       2
+    " 15  "  16   "              1         1       .
+    " 16  "  17   "              1         .       1
+    " 17  "  18   "              .         .       .
+    " 18  "  19   "              2         1       1
+    " 19  "  20   "              1         .       1
+
+        Total                  138        62      76
+
+Of the 72 who died in one year's servitude, 35 expired within the first
+six months of their captivity. During training, many elephants die in
+the unaccountable manner already referred to, of what the natives
+designate _a broken heart_.
+
+On being first subjected to work, the elephant is liable to severe and
+often fatal swellings of the jaws and abdomen.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The elephant which was dissected by DR. HARRISON of Dublin,
+in 1847, died of a febrile attack, after four or five days' illness,
+which, as Dr. H. tells me in a private letter, was "very like
+scarlatina, at that time a prevailing disease; its skin in some places
+became almost scarlet."]
+
+  From these causes there died, between 1841 and 1849    9
+  Of cattle murrain                                     10
+  Sore feet                                              1
+  Colds and inflammation                                 6
+  Diarrhoea                                              1
+  Worms                                                  1
+  Of diseased liver                                      1
+  Injuries from a fall                                   1
+  General debility                                       1
+  Unknown causes                                         3
+
+Of the entire, twenty-three were females and eleven males.
+
+The ages of those that died could not be accurately stated, owing to the
+circumstance of their having been captured in corral. Two only were
+tuskers. Towards keeping the stud in health, nothing has been found so
+conducive as regularly bathing the elephants, and giving them the
+opportunity to stand with their feet in water, or in moistened earth.
+
+Elephants are said to be afflicted with tooth-ache; their tushes have
+likewise been found with symptoms of internal perforation by some
+parasite, and the natives assert that, in their agony, the animals have
+been known to break them off short.[1] I have never heard of the teeth
+themselves being so affected, and it is just possible that the operation
+of shedding the subsequent decay of the milk-tushes, may have in some
+instances been accompanied by incidents that gave rise to this story.
+
+[Footnote 1: See a paper entitled "_Recollections of Ceylon_," in
+_Fraser's Magazine_ for December, 1860.]
+
+At the same time the probabilities are in favour of its being true.
+CUVIER committed himself to the statement that the tusks of the elephant
+have no attachments to connect them with the pulp lodged in the cavity
+at their base, from which the peculiar modification of dentine, known as
+"ivory," is secreted[1]; and hence, by inference, that they would be
+devoid of sensation.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annales du Museum_ F. viii. 1805. p. 94, and _Ossemens
+Fossiles_, quoted by OWEN, in the article on "Teeth," in TODD'S _Cyclop.
+of Anatomy, &c_., vol. iv. p. 929.]
+
+But independently of the fact that ivory in permeated by tubes so fine
+that at their origin from the pulpy cavity they do not exceed 1/15000th
+part of an inch in diameter, OWEN had the tusk and pulp of the great
+elephant which died at the Zoological Gardens in London in 1847
+longitudinally divided, and found that, "although the pulp could be
+easily detached from the inner surface of the cavity, it was not without
+a certain resistance; and when the edges of the co-adapted pulp and tusk
+were examined by a strong lens, the filamentary processes from the outer
+surface of the former could be seen stretching, as they were drawn from
+the dentinal tubes, before they broke. These filaments are so minute, he
+adds, that to the naked eye the detached surface of the pulp seems to be
+entire; and hence CUVIER was deceived into supposing that there was no
+organic connexion between the pulp and the ivory. But if, as there seems
+no reason to doubt, these delicate nervous processes traverse the tusk
+by means of the numerous tubes already described, if attacked by caries
+the pain occasioned to the elephant would be excruciating.
+
+As to maintaining a stud of elephants for the purposes to which they are
+now assigned in Ceylon, there may be a question on the score of prudence
+and economy. In the rude and unopened parts of the country, where rivers
+are to be forded, and forests are only traversed by jungle paths, their
+labour is of value, in certain contingencies, in the conveyance of
+stores, and in the earlier operations for the construction of fords and
+rough bridges of timber. But in more highly civilised districts, and
+wherever macadamised roads admit of the employment of horses and oxen
+for draught, I apprehend that the services of elephants might, with
+advantage, be gradually reduced, if not altogether dispensed with.
+
+The love of the elephant for coolness and shade renders him at all times
+more or less impatient of work in the sun, and every moment of leisure
+he can snatch is employed in covering his back with dust, or fanning
+himself to diminish the annoyance of the insects and heat. From the
+tenderness of his skin and its liability to sores, the labour in which
+he can most advantageously be employed is that of draught; but the
+reluctance of horses to meet or pass elephants renders it difficult to
+work the latter with safety on frequented roads. Besides, were the full
+load which an elephant is capable of drawing, in proportion to his
+muscular strength, to be placed upon waggons of corresponding dimension,
+the to the roads would be such that the wear and tear of the highways
+and bridges would prove too costly to be borne. On the other hand, by
+restricting it to a somewhat more manageable quantity, and by limiting
+the weight, as at present, to about _one ton and a half_, it is doubtful
+whether an elephant performs so much more work than could be done by a
+horse or by bullocks, as to compensate for the greater cost of his
+feeding and attendance.
+
+Add to this, that from accidents and other causes, from ulcerations of
+the skin, and illnesses of many kinds, the elephant is so often
+invalided, that the actual cost of his labour, when at work, is very
+considerably enhanced. Exclusive of the salaries of higher officers
+attached to the government establishments, and other permanent charges,
+the expenses of an elephant, looking only to the wages of his attendants
+and the cost of his food and medicines, varies from _three shillings to
+four shillings and sixpence_, per diem, according to his size and
+class.[1] Taking the average at three shillings and nine-pence, and
+calculating that hardly any individual works more than four days out of
+seven, the charge for each day so employed would amount to _six
+shillings and sixpence_. The keep per day of a powerful dray-horse,
+working five days in the week, would not exceed half-a-crown, and two
+such would unquestionably do more work than any elephant under the
+present system. I do not know whether it be from a comparative
+calculation of this kind that the strength of the elephant
+establishments in Ceylon has been gradually diminished of late years,
+but in the department of the Commissioner of Roads, the stud, which
+formerly numbered upwards of sixty elephants, was reduced, some years
+ago, to thirty-six, and is at present less than half that number.
+
+[Footnote 1: An ordinary-sized elephant engrosses the undivided
+attention of _three_ men. One, as his mahout or superintendent, and two
+as leaf-cutters, who bring him branches and grass for his daily
+supplies. An animal of larger growth would probably require a third
+leaf-cutter. The daily consumption is two cwt. of green food with about
+half a bushel of grain. When in the vicinity of towns and villages, the
+attendants have no difficulty in procuring an abundant supply of the
+branches of the trees to which elephants are partial; and in journeys
+through the forests and unopened country, the leaf-cutters are
+sufficiently expert in the knowledge of those particular plants with
+which the elephant is satisfied. Those that would be likely to disagree
+with him he unerringly rejects. His favourites are the palms, especially
+the cluster of rich, unopened leaves, known as the "cabbage," of the
+coco-nut, and areca; and he delights to tear open the young trunks of
+the palmyra and jaggery (_Caryota urens_) in search of the farinaceous
+matter contained in the spongy pith. Next to these come the varieties of
+fig-trees. particularly the sacred _Bo_ (_F. religiosa_) which is found
+near every temple, and the _na gaha_ (_Messua ferrea_), with thick dark
+leaves and a scarlet flower. The leaves of the Jak-tree and bread-fruit
+(_Artocarpus integrifolia_, and _A. incisa_), the Wood apple (_AEgle
+Marmelos_), Palu (_Mimusops Indica_), and a number of others well known
+to their attendants, are all consumed in turn. The stems of the
+plaintain, the stalks of the sugar-cane, and the feathery tops of the
+bamboos, are irresistible luxuries. Pine-apples, water-melons, and
+fruits of every description, are voraciously devoured, and a coco-nut
+when found is first rolled under foot to detach it from the husk and
+fibre, and then raised in his trunk and crushed, almost without an
+effort, by his ponderous jaws.
+
+The grasses are not found in sufficient quantity to be an item of daily
+fodder; the Mauritius or the Guinea grass is seized with avidity; lemon
+grass is rejected from its overpowering perfume, but rice in the straw,
+and every description of grain, whether growing or dry; gram (_Cicer
+arietinum_), Indian Corn, and millet are his natural food. Of such of
+these as can be found, it is the duty of the leaf-cutters, when in the
+jungle and on march, to provide a daily supply.]
+
+The fallacy of the supposed reluctance of the elephant to breed in
+captivity has been demonstrated by many recent authorities; but with the
+exception of the birth of young elephants at Rome, as mentioned by
+AELIAN, the only instances that I am aware of their actually producing
+young under such circumstances, took place in Ceylon. Both parents had
+been for several years attached to the stud of the Commissioner of
+Roads, and in 1844 the female, whilst engaged in dragging a waggon, gave
+birth to a still-born calf. Some years before, an elephant that had been
+captured by Mr. Cripps, dropped a female calf, which he succeeded in
+rearing. As usual, the little one became the pet of the keepers; but as
+it increased in growth, it exhibited the utmost violence when thwarted;
+striking out with its hind-feet, throwing itself headlong on the ground,
+and pressing its trunk against any opposing object.
+
+The duration of life in the elephant has been from the remotest times a
+matter of uncertainty and speculation. Aristotle says it was reputed to
+live from two to three hundred years[1], and modern zoologists have
+assigned to it an age very little less; CUVIER[2] allots two hundred and
+DE BLAINVILLE one hundred and twenty. The only attempt which I know of
+to establish a period historically or physiologically is that of
+FLEURENS, who has advanced an ingenious theory on the subject in his
+treatise "_De la Longevite Humaine_." He assumes the sum total of life
+in all animals to be equivalent to five times the number of years
+requisite to perfect their growth and development;--and he adopts as
+evidence of the period at which growth ceases, the final consolidation
+of the bones with their _epiphyses_; which in the young consist of
+cartilages; but in the adult become uniformly osseous and solid. So long
+as the epiphyses are distinct from the bones, the growth of the animal
+is proceeding, but it ceases so soon as the consolidation is complete.
+In man, according to FLEURENS, this consummation takes place at 20 years
+of age, in the horse at 5, in the dog at 2; so that conformably to this
+theory the respective normal age for each would be 100 years for man, 25
+for the horse, and 10 for a dog. As a datum for his conclusion, FLEURENS
+cites the instance of one young elephant in which, at 26 years old, the
+epiphyses were still distinct, whereas in another, which died at 31,
+they were firm and adherent. Hence he draws the inference that the
+period of completed solidification is thirty years, and consequently
+that the normal age of the elephant is _one hundred and fifty_.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: ARISTOTELES _de Anim. l. viii._ c. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Menag. de Mus. Nat._ p. 107.]
+
+[Footnote 3: FLEURENS, _De la Longevite Humaine_, pp. 82, 89.]
+
+Amongst the Singhalese the ancient fable of the elephant attaining to
+the age of two or three hundred years still prevails; but the Europeans,
+and those in immediate charge of tame ones, entertain the opinion that
+the duration of life for about _seventy_ years is common both to man and
+the elephant; and that before the arrival of the latter period, symptoms
+of debility and decay ordinarily begin to manifest themselves. Still
+instances are not wanting in Ceylon of trained decoys that have lived
+for more than double the reputed period in actual servitude. One
+employed by Mr. Cripps in the Seven Korles was represented by the
+Cooroowe people to have served the king of Kandy in the same capacity
+sixty years before; and amongst the papers left by Colonel Robertson
+(son to the historian of "Charles V."), who held a command in Ceylon in
+1799, shortly after the capture of the island by the British, I have
+found a memorandum showing that a decoy was then attached to the
+elephant establishment at Matura, which the records proved to have
+served under the Dutch during the entire period of their occupation
+(extending to upwards of one hundred and forty years); and it was said
+to have been found in the stables by the Dutch on the expulsion of the
+Portugese in 1656.
+
+It is perhaps from this popular belief in their almost illimitable age,
+that the natives generally assert that the body of a dead elephant is
+seldom or never to be discovered in the woods. And certain it is that
+frequenters of the forest with whom I have conversed, whether European
+or Singhalese, are consistent in their assurances that they have never
+found the remains of an elephant that had died a natural death. One
+chief, the Wannyah of the Trincomalie district, told a friend of mine,
+that once after a severe murrain, which had swept the province, he found
+the carcases of elephants that had died of the disease. On the other
+hand, a European gentleman, who for thirty-six years without
+intermission has been living in the jungle, ascending to the summits of
+mountains in the prosecution of the trigonometrical survey, and
+penetrating valleys in tracing roads and opening means of
+communication,--one, too, who has made the habits of the wild elephant a
+subject of constant observation and study,--has often expressed to me
+his astonishment that after seeing many thousands of living elephants in
+all possible situations, he had never yet found a single skeleton of a
+dead one, except of those which had fallen by the rifle.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This remark regarding the elephant of Ceylon does not
+appear to extend to that of Africa, as I observe that BEAVER, in his
+_African Memoranda,_ says that "the skeletons of old ones that have died
+in the woods are frequently found."--_African Memoranda relative to an
+attempt to establish British Settlements at the Island of Bulama_. Lond.
+1815, p. 353.]
+
+It has been suggested that the bones of the elephant, may be so porous
+and spongy as to disappear in consequence of an early decomposition; but
+this remark would not apply to the grinders or to the tusks; besides
+which, the inference is at variance with the fact, that not only the
+horns and teeth, but entire skeletons of deer, are frequently found in
+the districts inhabited by the elephant.
+
+The natives, to account for this popular belief, declare that the
+survivors of the herd bury such of their companions as die a natural
+death.[1] It is curious that this belief was current also amongst the
+Greeks of the Lower Empire; and PHILE, writing early in the fourteenth
+century, not only describes the younger elephants as tending the
+wounded, but as burying the dead:
+
+[Greek: "Otan d' episte tes teleutes o chronos Koinou telous amunan o
+xenos pherei]."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: A corral was organised near Putlam in 1846, by Mr. Morris,
+the chief officer of the district. It was constructed across one of the
+paths which the elephants frequent in their frequent marches, and during
+the course of the proceedings two of the captured elephants died. Their
+carcases were left of course within the enclosure, which was abandoned
+as soon as the capture was complete. The wild elephants resumed their
+path through it, and a few days afterwards the headman reported to Mr.
+Morris that the bodies had been removed and carried outside the corral
+to a spot to which nothing but the elephants could have borne them.]
+
+[Footnote 2: PHILE, _Expositio de Eleph._ l. 243.]
+
+The Singhalese have a further superstition in relation to the close of
+life in the elephant: they believe that, on feeling the approach of
+dissolution, he repairs to a solitary valley, and there resigns himself
+to death. A native who accompanied Mr. Cripps, when hunting, in the
+forests of Anarajapoora, intimated to him that he was then in the
+immediate vicinity of the spot "_to which the elephants come to die_,"
+but that it was so mysteriously concealed, that although every one
+believed in its existence, no one had ever succeeded in penetrating to
+it. At the corral which I have described at Kornegalle, in 1847,
+Dehigame, one of the Kandyan chiefs, assured me it was the universal
+belief of his countrymen, that the elephants, when about to die,
+resorted to a valley in Saffragam, among the mountains to the east of
+Adam's Peak, which was reached by a narrow pass with walls of rock on
+either side, and that there, by the side of a lake of clear water, they
+took their last repose.[1] It was not without interest that I afterwards
+recognised this tradition in the story of _Sinbad of the Sea_, who in
+his Seventh Voyage, after conveying the presents of Haroun al Raschid to
+the king of Serendib, is wrecked on his return from Ceylon, and sold as
+a slave to a master who employs him in shooting elephants for the sake
+of their ivory; till one day the tree on which he was stationed having
+been uprooted by one of the herd, he fell senseless to the ground, and
+the great elephant approaching wound his trunk around him and carried
+him away, ceasing not to proceed, until he had taken him to a place
+where, his terror having subsided, _he found himself amongst the bones
+of elephants, and knew that this was their burial place_.[2] It is
+curious to find this legend of Ceylon in what has, not inaptly, been
+described as the "Arabian Odyssey" of Sinbad; the original of which
+evidently embodies the romantic recitals of the sailors returning from
+the navigation of the Indian Seas, in the middle ages[3], which were
+current amongst the Mussulmans, and are reproduced in various forms
+throughout the tales of the _Arabian Nights_.
+
+[Footnote 1: The selection by animals of a _place to die_, is not
+confined to the elephant, DARWIN says, that in South America "the
+guanacos (llamas) appear to have favourite spots for lying down to die;
+on the banks of the Santa Cruz river, in certain circumscribed spaces
+which were generally bushy and all near the water, the ground was
+actually white with their bones; on one such spot I counted between ten
+and twenty heads."--_Nat. Voy._ ch. viii. The same has been remarked in
+the Rio Gallegos; and at St. Jago in the Cape de Verde Islands, DARWIN
+saw a retired corner similarly covered with the bones of the goat, as if
+it were "the burial-ground of all the goats in the island."]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Arabian Nights' Entertainment_, LANE'S edition, vol. iii.
+p. 77.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See a disquisition on the origin of the story of Sinbad, by
+M. REINAUD, in the introduction prefixed to his translation of the
+_Arabian Geography of Aboulfeda_, vol. i. p. lxxvi.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VII.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As AElian's work on the _Nature of Animals_ has never, I believe, been
+republished in any English version, and the passage in relation to the
+training and performance of elephants is so pertinent to the present
+inquiry, I venture to subjoin a translation of the 11th Chapter of his
+2nd Book.
+
+"Of the cleverness of the elephant I have spoken elsewhere, and likewise
+of the manner of hunting. I have mentioned these things, a few out of
+the many which others have stated; but for the present I purpose to
+speak of their musical feeling, their tractability, and facility in
+learning what it is difficult for even a human being to acquire, much
+less a beast, hitherto so wild:--such as to dance, as is done on the
+stage; to walk with a measured gait; to listen to the melody of the
+flute and to perceive the difference of sounds, that, being pitched low
+lead to a slow movement, or high to a quick one: all this the elephant
+learns and understands, and is accurate withal, and makes no mistake.
+Thus has Nature formed him not only the greatest in size, but the most
+gentle and the most easily taught. Now if I were going to write about
+the tractability and aptitude to learn amongst those of India, AEthiopia,
+and Libya, I should probably appear to be concocting a tale and acting
+the braggart, or to be telling a falsehood respecting the nature of the
+animal founded on a mere report, all which it behoves a philosopher, and
+most of all one who is an ardent lover of truth, not to do. But what I
+have seen myself, and what others have described as having occurred at
+Rome, this I have chosen to relate, selecting a few facts out of many,
+to show the particular nature of those creatures. The elephant when
+tamed is an animal most gentle and most easily led to do whatever he is
+directed. And by way of showing honour to time, I will first narrate
+events of the oldest date. Caesar Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius,
+exhibited once a public show, wherein there were many full-grown
+elephants, male and female, and some of their breed born in this
+country. When their limbs were beginning to become firm, a person
+familiar with such animals instructed them by a strange and surpassing
+method of teaching; using only gentleness and kindness, and adding to
+his mild lessons the bait of pleasant and varied food. By this means he
+led them by degrees to throw off all wildness, and, as it were, to
+desert to a state of civilisation, conducting themselves in a manner
+almost human. He taught them neither to be excited on hearing the pipe,
+nor to be disturbed by the beat of drum, but to be soothed by the sounds
+of the reed, and to endure unmusical noises and the clatter of feet from
+persons while marching; and they were trained to feel no fear of a mass
+of men, nor to be enraged at the infliction of blows, not even when
+compelled to twist their limbs and to bend them like a stage-dancer, and
+this too although endowed with strength and might. And there is in this
+a very noble addition to nature, not to conduct themselves in a
+disorderly manner and disobediently towards the instructions of man; for
+after the dancing-master had made them expert, and they had learnt their
+lessons accurately, they did not belie the labour of his instruction
+whenever a necessity and opportunity called upon them to exhibit what
+they had been taught. For the whole troop came forward from this and
+that side of the theatre, and divided themselves into parties: they
+advanced walking with a mincing gait and exhibiting in their whole body
+and persons the manners of a beau, clothed in the flowery dresses of
+dancers; and on the ballet-master giving a signal with his voice, they
+fell into line and went round in a circle, and if it were requisite to
+deploy they did so. They ornamented the floor of the stage by throwing
+flowers upon it, and this they did in moderation and sparingly, and
+straightway they beat a measure with their feet and kept time together.
+
+"Now that Damon and Spintharus and Aristoxenus and Xenophilus and
+Philoxenus and others should know music excellently well, and for their
+cleverness be ranked amongst the few, is indeed a thing of wonder, but
+not incredible nor contrary at all to reason. For this reason that a man
+is a rational animal, and the recipient of mind and intelligence. But
+that a jointless animal ([Greek: anarthron]) should understand rhythm
+and melody, and preserve a gesture, and not deviate from a measured
+movement, and fulfil the requirements of those who laid down
+instructions, these are gifts of nature, I think, and a peculiarity in
+every way astounding. Added to these there were things enough to drive
+the spectator out of his senses; when the strewn rushes and other
+materials for beds on the ground were placed on the sand of the theatre,
+and they received stuffed mattrasses such as belonged to rich houses and
+variegated bed coverings, and goblets were placed there, very expensive,
+and bowls of gold and silver, and in them a great quantity of water; and
+tables were placed there of sweet-smelling wood and ivory very superb:
+and upon them flesh meats and loaves enough to fill the stomachs of
+animals the most voracious. When the preparations were completed and
+abundant, the banqueters came forward, six male and an equal number of
+female elephants; the former had on a male dress, and the latter a
+female; and on a signal being given they stretched forward their trunks
+in a subdued manner, and took their food in great moderation, and not
+one of them appeared to be gluttonous greedy, or to snatch at a greater
+portion, as did the Persian mentioned by Xenophon. And when it was
+requisite to drink, a bowl was placed by the side of each; and inhaling
+with their trunks they took a draught very orderly; and then they
+scattered the drink about in fun; but not as in insult. Many other acts
+of a similar kind, both clever and astonishing, have persons described,
+relating to the peculiarities of these animals, and I saw them writing
+letters on Roman tablets with their trunks, neither looking awry nor
+turning aside. The hand, however, of the teacher was placed so as to be
+a guide in the formation of the letters; and while it was writing the
+animal kept its eye fixed down in an accomplished and scholarlike
+manner."
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VIII.
+
+BIRDS.
+
+
+Of the _Birds_ of the island, upwards of three hundred and twenty
+species have been indicated, for which we are indebted to the
+persevering labours of Dr. Templeton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr. Layard; but
+many yet remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye of a stranger,
+their prodigious numbers, and especially the myriads of waterfowl which,
+notwithstanding the presence of the crocodiles, people the lakes and
+marshes in the eastern provinces, form one of the marvels of Ceylon.
+
+In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the interior are surpassed
+by those of South America and Northern India; and the melody of their
+song bears no comparison with that of the warblers of Europe, but the
+want of brilliancy is compensated by their singular grace of form, and
+the absence of prolonged and modulated harmony by the rich and melodious
+tones of their clear and musical calls. In the elevations of the Kandyan
+country there are a few, such as the robin of Neuera-ellia[1] and the
+long-tailed thrush[2], whose song rivals that of their European
+namesakes; but, far beyond the attraction of their notes, the traveller
+rejoices in the flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird[3], and
+some others equally charming; when at the first dawn of day, they wake
+the forest with their clear _reveil_.
+
+[Footnote 1: Pratincola atrata, _Kelaart_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Kittacincla macrura, _Gm_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Copsychussaularis, _Linn._. Called by the Europeans in
+Ceylon the "Magpie Robin." This is not to be confounded with the other
+popular favourite the "Indian Robin" (Thamnobia fulicata, _Linn._),
+which is "never seen in the unfrequented jungle, but, like the coco-nut
+palm, which the Singhalese assert will only flourish within the sound of
+the human voice, it is always found near the habitations of men."--E.L.
+LAYARD.]
+
+It is only on emerging from the dense woods and coming into the vicinity
+of the lakes and pasture of the low country, that birds become visible
+in great quantities. In the close jungle one occasionally hears the call
+of the copper-smith[1], or the strokes of the great orange-coloured
+woodpecker[2] as it beats the decaying trees in search of insects,
+whilst clinging to the bark with its finely-pointed claws, and leaning
+for support upon the short stiff feathers of its tail. And on the lofty
+branches of the higher trees, the hornbill[3] (the toucan of the East),
+with its enormous double casque, sits to watch the motions of the tiny
+reptiles and smaller birds on which it preys, tossing them into the air
+when seized, and catching them in its gigantic mandibles as they
+fall.[4] The remarkable excrescence on the beak of this extraordinary
+bird may serve to explain the statement of the Minorite friar Odoric, of
+Portenau in Friuli, who travelled in Ceylon in the fourteenth century,
+and brought suspicion on the veracity of his narrative by asserting that
+he had there seen "_birds with two heads_."[5]
+
+[Footnote 1: The greater red-headed Barbet (Megalaima indica, _Lath_.;
+M. Philippensis, _var. A. Lath_.), the incessant din of which resembles
+the blows of a smith hammering a cauldron.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Brachypternus aurantius, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 3: Buceros pica, _Scop_.; B. Malaharicus, _Jerd_. The natives
+assert that B. pica builds in holes in the trees, and that when
+incubation has fairly commenced, the female takes her seat on the eggs,
+and the male closes up the orifice by which she entered, leaving only a
+small aperture through which he feeds his partner, whilst she
+successfully guards their treasures from the monkey tribes; her
+formidable bill nearly filling the entire entrance. See a paper by Edgar
+L. Layard, Esq. _Mag. Nat. Hist._ March, 1853. Dr. Horsfield had
+previously observed the same habit in a species of Buceros in Java. (See
+HORSFIELD and MOORE'S _Catal. Birds_, E.I. Comp. Mus. vol. ii.) It is
+curious that a similar trait, though necessarily from very different
+instincts, is exhibited by the termites, who literally build a cell
+round the great progenitrix of the community, and feed her through
+apertures.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The hornbill is also frugivorous, and the natives assert
+that when endeavouring to detach a fruit, if the stem is too tough to be
+severed by his mandibles, he flings himself off the branch so as to add
+the weight of his body to the pressure of his beak. The hornbill abounds
+in Cuttack, and bears there the name of "Kuchila-Kai," or Kuchila-eater,
+from its partiality for the fruit of the Strychnus nuxvomica. The
+natives regard its flesh as a sovereign specific for rheumatic
+affections.--_Asiat. Res._ ch. xv. p. 184.]
+
+[Footnote 5: _Itinerarius_ FRATRIS ODORICI, de Foro Julii de
+Portu-vahonis, &c.--HAKLUYT, vol. ii. p. 39.]
+
+[Illustration: THE HORNBILL.]
+
+The Singhalese have a belief that the hornbill never resorts to the
+water to drink; but that it subsists exclusively by what it catches in
+its prodigious bill while rain is falling. This they allege is
+associated with the incessant screaming which it keeps up during
+showers.
+
+As we emerge from the dark shade, and approach park-like openings on the
+verge of the low country, quantities of pea-fowl are to be found either
+feeding on the seeds among the long grass or sunning themselves on the
+branches of the surrounding trees. Nothing to be met with in English
+demesnes can give an adequate idea of the size and magnificence of this
+matchless bird when seen in his native solitudes. Here he generally
+selects some projecting branch, from which his plumage may hang free of
+the foliage, and, if there be a dead and leafless bough, he is certain
+to choose it for his resting-place, whence he droops his wings and
+suspends his gorgeous train, or spreads it in the morning sun to drive
+off the damps and dews of the night.
+
+In some of the unfrequented portions of the eastern province, to which
+Europeans rarely resort, and where the pea-fowl are unmolested by the
+natives, their number is so extraordinary that, regarded as game, it
+ceases to be "sport" to destroy them; and their cries at early dawn are
+so tumultuous and incessant as to banish sleep, and amount to an actual
+inconvenience. Their flesh is excellent in flavour when served up hot,
+though it is said to be indigestible; but, when cold, it contracts a
+reddish and disagreeable tinge.
+
+The European fable of the jackdaw borrowing the plumage of the peacock,
+has its counterpart in Ceylon, where the popular legend runs that the
+pea-fowl stole the plumage of a bird called by the natives _avitchia_. I
+have not been able to identify the species which bears this name; but it
+utters a cry resembling the word _matkiang!_ which in Singhalese means,
+"I _will_ complain!" This they believe is addressed by the bird to the
+rising sun, imploring redress for its wrongs. The _avitchia_ is
+described as somewhat less than a crow, the colours of its plumage being
+green, mingled with red.
+
+But of all, the most astonishing in point of multitude, as well as the
+most interesting from their endless variety, are the myriads of aquatic
+birds and waders which frequent the lakes and watercourses; especially
+those along the coast near Batticaloa, between the mainland and the sand
+formations of the shore, and the innumerable salt marshes and lagoons to
+the south of Trincomalie. These, and the profusion of perching birds,
+fly-catchers, finches, and thrushes, that appear in the open country,
+afford sufficient quarry for the raptorial and predatory
+species--eagles, hawks, and falcons--whose daring sweeps and effortless
+undulations are striking objects in the cloudless sky.
+
+I. ACCIPITRES. _Eagles_.--The Eagles, however, are small, and as
+compared with other countries rare; except, perhaps, the crested
+eagle[1], which haunts the mountain provinces and the lower hills,
+disquieting the peasantry by its ravages amongst their poultry; and the
+gloomy serpent eagle[2], which, descending from its eyrie in the lofty
+jungle, and uttering a loud and plaintive cry, sweeps cautiously around
+the lonely tanks and marshes, to feed upon the reptiles on their margin.
+The largest eagle is the great sea Erne[3], seen on the northern coasts
+and the salt lakes of the eastern provinces, particularly when the
+receding tide leaves bare an expanse of beach, over which it hunts, in
+company with the fishing eagle[4], sacred to Siva. Unlike its
+companions, however, the sea eagle rejects garbage for living prey, and
+especially for the sea snakes which abound on the northern coasts. These
+it seizes by descending with its wings half closed, and, suddenly
+darting down its talons, it soars aloft again with its writhing
+victim.[5]
+
+[Footnote 1: Spizaetuslimnaetus, _Horsf_. The race of these birds in the
+Deccan and Ceylon are rather more crested, originating the Sp.
+Cristatellus, _Auct_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Which Gould believes to be the _Haematornis Bacha_, Daud.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Pontoaetus leucogaster, _Gmel_.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Haliastur Indus, _Bodd._]
+
+[Footnote 5: E.L. Layard. Europeans have given this bird the name of the
+"Brahminy Kite," probably from observing the superstitious feeling of
+the natives regarding it, who believe that when two armies are about to
+engage, its appearance prognosticates victory to the party over whom it
+hovers.]
+
+_Hawks_.--The beautiful Peregrine Falcon[1] is rare, but the Kestrel[2]
+is found almost universally; and the bold and daring Goshawk[3] wherever
+wild crags and precipices afford safe breeding places. In the district
+of Anarajapoora, where it is trained for hawking, it is usual, in lieu
+of a hood, to darken its eyes by means of a silken thread passed through
+holes in the eyelids. The ignoble birds of prey, the Kites[4], keep
+close by the shore, and hover round the returning boats of the fishermen
+to feast on the fry rejected from their nets.
+
+[Footnote 1: Falco peregrinus, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Tinnunculus alaudarius, _Briss._]
+
+[Footnote 3: Astur trivirgatus, _Temm._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Milvus govinda, _Sykes._ Dr. Hamilton Buchanan remarks that
+when gorged this bird delights to sit on the entablature of buildings,
+exposing its back to the hottest rays of the sun, placing its breast
+against the wall, and stretching out its wings _exactly as the Egyptian
+Hawk is represented on the monuments_.]
+
+_Owls_.--Of the nocturnal accipitres the most remarkable is the brown
+owl, which, from its hideous yell, has acquired the name of the
+"Devil-Bird."[1] The Singhalese regard it literally with horror, and its
+scream by night in the vicinity of a village is bewailed as the
+harbinger of impending calamity.[2] There is a popular legend in
+connection with it, to the effect that a morose and savage husband, who
+suspected the fidelity of his wife, availed himself of her absence to
+kill her child, of whose paternity he was doubtful, and on her return
+placed before her a curry prepared from its flesh. Of this the unhappy
+woman partook, till discovering the crime by finding the finger of her
+infant, she fled in frenzy to the forest, and there destroyed herself.
+On her death she was metamorphosed, according to the Buddhist belief,
+into an _ulama_, or Devil-bird, which still at nightfall horrifies the
+villagers by repeating the frantic screams of the bereaved mother in her
+agony.
+
+[Footnote 1: Syrnium Indranee, _Sykes._ Mr. Blyth writes to me from
+Calcutta that there are some doubts about this bird. There would appear
+to be three or four distinguishable races, the Ceylon bird approximating
+most nearly to that of the Malayan Peninsula.]
+
+[Illustration: THE "DEVIL BIRD."]
+
+[Footnote 2: The horror of this nocturnal scream was equally prevalent
+in the West as in the East. Ovid introduces it in his _Fasti_, L. vi. l.
+139; and Tibullus in his Elegies, L. i. El. 5. Statius says--
+
+  Nocturnaeque gemunt striges, et feralla bubo
+  _Damna canens_.       Theb. iii. l. 511.
+
+But Pliny, l. xi. c. 93, doubts as to what bird produced the sound;--and
+the details of Ovid's description do not apply to an owl.
+
+Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, to whom I am indebted for many
+valuable notes relative to the birds of the island, regards the
+identification of the Singhalese Devil-Bird as open to similar doubt: he
+says--"The Devil-Bird is not an owl. I never heard it until I came to
+Kornegalle, where it haunts the rocky hill at the back of
+Government-house. Its ordinary note is a magnificent clear shout like
+that of a human being, and which can be heard at a great distance, and
+has a fine effect in the silence of the closing night. It has another
+cry like that of a hen just caught, but the sounds which have earned for
+it its bad name, and which I have heard but once to perfection, are
+indescribable, the most appalling that can be imagined, and scarcely to
+be heard without shuddering; I can only compare it to a boy in torture,
+whose screams are being stopped by being strangled. I have offered
+rewards for a specimen, but without success. The only European who had
+seen and fired at one agreed with the natives that it is of the size of
+a pigeon, with a long tail. I believe it is a Podargus or Night Hawk."
+In a subsequent note he further says--"I have since seen two birds by
+moonlight, one of the size and shape of a cuckoo, the other a large
+black bird, which I imagine to be the one which gives these calls."]
+
+II. PASSERES. _Swallows_.--Within thirty-five miles of Caltura, on the
+western coast, are inland caves, to which the Esculent Swift[1] resorts,
+and there builds the "edible bird's nest," so highly prized in China.
+Near the spot a few Chinese immigrants have established themselves, who
+rent the nests as a royalty from the government, and make an annual
+export of the produce. But the Swifts are not confined to this district,
+and caves containing them have been found far in the interior, a fact
+which complicates the still unexplained mystery of the composition of
+their nest; and, notwithstanding the power of wing possessed by these
+birds, adds something to the difficulty of believing that it consists of
+glutinous material obtained from algae.[2] In the nests brought to me
+there was no trace of organisation; and the original material, whatever
+it be, is so elaborated by the swallow as to present somewhat the
+appearance and consistency of strings of isinglass. The quantity of
+these nests exported from Ceylon is trifling.
+
+[Footnote 1: Collocalia brevirostris, _McClell_.; C. nidifica, _Gray_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: An epitome of what has been written on this subject will be
+found in _Dr. Horsfield's Catalogue_ of the Birds in the E.I. Comp.
+Museum, vol. i. p. 101, &c. Mr. Morris assures me, that he has found the
+nests of the Esculent Swallow eighty miles distant from the sea.]
+
+_Kingfishers_.--In solitary places, where no sound breaks the silence
+except the gurgle of the river as it sweeps round the rocks, the lonely
+Kingfisher, the emblem of vigilance and patience, sits upon an
+overhanging branch, his turquoise plumage hardly less intense in its
+lustre than the deep blue of the sky above him; and so intent is his
+watch upon the passing fish that intrusion fails to scare him from his
+post.
+
+_Sun Birds_.--In the gardens the tiny Sun Birds[1] (known as the Humming
+Birds of Ceylon) hover all day long, attracted to the plants, over which
+they hang poised on their glittering wings, and inserting their curved
+beaks to extract the insects that nestle in the flowers.
+
+[Footnote 1: Nectarina Zeylanica, _Linn._]
+
+Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in form and motions,
+and the most chaste in colouring, is the one which Europeans call "the
+Bird of Paradise,"[1] and natives "the Cotton Thief," from the
+circumstance that its tail consists of two long white feathers, which
+stream behind it as it flies. Mr. Layard says:--"I have often watched
+them, when seeking their insect prey, turn suddenly on their perch and
+_whisk their long tails with a jerk_ over the bough, as if to protect
+them from injury."
+
+[Footnote 1: Tchitrea paradisi, _Linn._]
+
+[Illustration: TCHITREA PARADISI.]
+
+The tail is sometimes brown, and the natives have the idea that the bird
+changes its plumage at stated periods, and that the tail-feathers become
+white and brown in alternate years. The fact of the variety of plumage
+is no doubt true, but this story as to the alternation of colours in the
+same individual requires confirmation.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The engraving of the Tchitrea given on page 244 is copied
+by permission from one of the splendid drawings in. MR. GOULD'S _Birds
+of India_.]
+
+_The Bulbul_.--The _Condatchee Bulbul_[1], which, from the crest on its
+head, is called by the Singhalese the "Konda Cooroola," or _Tuft bird_,
+is regarded by the natives as the most "_game_" of all birds; and
+training it to fight was one of the duties entrusted by the Kings of
+Kandy to the Cooroowa, or Head-man, who had charge of the King's animals
+and Birds. For this purpose the Bulbul is taken from the nest as soon as
+the sex is distinguishable by the tufted crown; and secured by a string,
+is taught to fly from hand to hand of its keeper. When pitted against an
+antagonist, such is the obstinate courage of this little creature that
+it will sink from exhaustion rather than release its hold. This
+propensity, and the ordinary character of its notes, render it
+impossible that the Bulbul of India could be identical with the Bulbul
+of Iran, the "Bird of a Thousand Songs,"[2] of which, poets say that its
+delicate passion for the rose gives a plaintive character to its note.
+
+[Footnote 1: Pycnonotus haemorrhous, _Gmel_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Hazardasitaum" the Persian name for the bulbul. "The
+Persians," according to Zakary ben Mohamed al Caswini, "say the bulbul
+has a passion for the rose, and laments and cries when he sees it
+pulled."--OUSELEY'S _Oriental Collections_, vol. i. p. 16. According to
+Pallas it is the true nightingale of Europe, Sylvia luscinia, which the
+Armenians call _boulboul_, and the Crim-Tartars _byl-byl-i_.]
+
+_Tailor-Bird_.--_The Weaver-Bird_.--The tailor-bird[1] having completed
+her nest, sewing together leaves by passing through them a cotton thread
+twisted by herself, leaps from branch to branch to testify her happiness
+by a clear and merry note; and the Indian weaver[2], a still more
+ingenious artist, hangs its pendulous dwelling from a projecting bough;
+twisting it with grass into a form somewhat resembling a bottle with a
+prolonged neck, the entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the
+approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles. The
+natives assert that the male bird carries fire flies to the nest, and
+fastens them to its sides by a particle of soft mud;--Mr. Layard assures
+me that although he has never succeeded in finding the fire fly, the
+nest of the male bird (for the female occupies another during
+incubation) invariably contains a patch of mud on each side of the
+perch. Grass is apparently the most convenient material for the purposes
+of the Weaver-bird when constructing its nest, but other substances are
+often substituted, and some nests which I brought from Ceylon proved to
+be formed with delicate strips from the fronds of the dwarf date-palm,
+_Phoenix paludosa_, which happened to grow near the breeding place.
+
+[Footnote 1: Orthotomus longicauda, _Gmel_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Ploceus baya, _Blyth_.; P. Philippinus, _Auct_.]
+
+[Illustration: "CISSA PUELLA."]
+
+Amongst the birds of this order, one which, as far as I know, is
+peculiar to the island is _Layard's Mountain-jay_ (_Cissa puella_, Blyth
+and Layard), is distinguished not less by the beautiful blue colour
+which enlivens its plumage, than by the elegance of its form and the
+grace of its attitudes. It frequents the hill country, and is found
+about the mountain streams at Neuera-ellia, and elsewhere.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The engraving above is taken by permission of Mr. Gould
+from one of his drawings for his _Birds of India_.]
+
+_Crows_.--Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the most familiar and
+notorious are the small glossy crows, whose shining black plumage shot
+with blue has suggested the title of _Corvus splendens_.[1] They
+frequent the towns in companies, and domesticate themselves in the close
+vicinity of every house; and it may possibly serve to account for the
+familiarity and audacity which they exhibit in their intercourse with
+men, that the Dutch during their sovereignty in Ceylon, enforced severe
+penalties against any one killing a crow, under the belief that they
+were instrumental in extending the growth of cinnamon by feeding on the
+fruit, and thus disseminating the undigested seed.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: There is another species, the _C. culminatus_, so called
+from the convexity of its bill; but though seen in the towns, it lives
+chiefly in the open country, and may be constantly observed wherever
+there are buffaloes, perched on their backs and engaged, in company with
+the small Minah (_Acridotheres tristis_), in freeing them from ticks.]
+
+[Footnote 2: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 117.]
+
+So accustomed are the natives to their presence and exploits, that, like
+the Greeks and Romans, they have made the movements of crows the basis
+of their auguries; and there is no end to the vicissitudes of good and
+evil fortune which may not be predicted from the direction of their
+flight, the hoarse or mellow notes of their croaking, the variety of
+trees on which they rest, and the numbers in which they are seen to
+assemble.
+
+All day long these birds are engaged in watching either the offal of the
+offices, or the preparation for meals in the dining-room: and as doors
+and windows are necessarily opened to relieve the heat, nothing is more
+common than the passage of a crow across the room, lifting on the wing
+some ill-guarded morsel from the dinner-table. No article, however
+unpromising its quality, provided only it be portable, can with safety
+be left unguarded in any apartment accessible to them. The contents of
+ladies' work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket handkerchiefs vanish
+instantly if exposed near a window or open door. They open paper parcels
+to ascertain the contents; they will undo the knot on a napkin if it
+encloses anything eatable, and I have known a crow to extract the peg
+which fastened the lid of a basket in order to plunder the provender
+within.
+
+On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining a regimental
+mess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody clasp-knife drop from the
+air at her feet; but the mystery was explained on learning that a crow,
+which had been watching the cook chopping mince-meat, had seized the
+moment when his head was turned to carry off the knife.
+
+One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly attitudinising in front
+of a chained watch-dog, that was lazily gnawing a bone, and after
+fruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention by dancing before him,
+with head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for a moment, and
+returned bringing a companion which perched itself on a branch a few
+yards in the rear. The crow's grimaces were now actively renewed, but
+with no better success, till its confederate, poising itself on its
+wings, descended with the utmost velocity, striking the dog upon the
+spine with all the force of its strong beak. The _ruse_ was successful;
+the dog started with surprise and pain, but not quickly enough to seize
+his assailant, whilst the bone he had been gnawing was snatched away by
+the first crow the instant his head was turned. Two well-authenticated
+instances of the recurrence of this device came within my knowledge at
+Colombo, and attest the sagacity and powers of communication and
+combination possessed by these astute and courageous birds.
+
+On the approach of evening the crows near Colombo assemble in noisy
+groups along the margin of the freshwater lake which surrounds the fort
+on the eastern side; and here for an hour or two they enjoy the luxury
+of throwing the water over their shining backs, and arranging their
+plumage decorously, after which they disperse, each taking the direction
+of his accustomed quarters for the night.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A similar habit has been noticed in the damask Parrots of
+Africa (_Palaeornis fuscus_) which daily resort at the same hour to their
+accustomed pools to bathe.]
+
+During the storms which usher in the monsoon, it has been observed, that
+when coco-nut palms are destroyed by lightning, the effect frequently
+extends beyond a single tree, and from the contiguity and conduction of
+the spreading leaves, or some other peculiar cause, large groups will be
+affected by a single flash, a few killed instantly, and the rest doomed
+to rapid decay. In Belligam Bay, a little to the east of Point-de-Galle,
+a small island, which is covered with coco-nuts, has acquired the name
+of "Crow Island," from being the resort of those birds, which are seen
+hastening towards it in thousands towards sunset. A few years ago,
+during a violent storm of thunder, such was the destruction of the crows
+that the beach for some distance was covered with a black line of their
+remains, and the grove on which they had been resting was to a great
+extent destroyed by the same flash.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Similar instances are recorded in other countries of sudden
+and prodigious mortality amongst crows; but whether occasioned by
+lightning seems uncertain. In 1839 thirty-three thousand dead crows were
+found on the shores of a lake in the county Westmeath in Ireland after a
+storm.--THOMPSON'S _Nat. Hist. Ireland_, vol. i. p. 319. PATTERSON in
+his _Zoology_, p. 356, mentions other cases.]
+
+III. SCANSORES. _Parroquets_.--Of the Psittacidae the only examples are
+the parroquets, of which the most renowned is the _Palaeornis Alexandri_,
+which has the historic distinction of bearing the name of the great
+conqueror of India, having been the first of its race introduced to the
+knowledge of Europe on the return of his expedition. An idea of their
+number may be formed from the following statement of Mr. Layard, as to
+the multitudes which are to be found on the western coast. "At Chilaw, I
+have seen such vast flights of parroquets hurrying towards the coco-nut
+trees which overhang the bazaar, that their noise drowned the Babel of
+tongues bargaining for the evening provisions. Hearing of the swarms
+that resorted to this spot, I posted myself on a bridge some half mile
+distant, and attempted to count the flocks which came from a single
+direction to the eastward. About four o'clock in the afternoon,
+straggling parties began to wend towards home, and in the course of half
+an hour the current fairly set in. But I soon found that I had no longer
+distinct flocks to count, it became one living screaming stream. Some
+flew high in the air till right above their homes, and dived abruptly
+downward with many evolutions till on a level with the trees; others
+kept along the ground and dashed close by my face with the rapidity of
+thought, their brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre in the
+sun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening closed, when I could
+hear, though no longer distinguish, the birds fighting for their
+perches, and on firing a shot they rose with a noise like the 'rushing
+of a mighty wind,' but soon settled again, and such a din commenced as I
+shall never forget; the shrill screams of the birds, the fluttering of
+their innumerable wings, and the rustling of the leaves of the palm
+trees was almost deafening, and I was glad at last to escape to the
+Government Rest House."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annals of Nat. Hist._ vol. xiii. p. 263.]
+
+IV. COLUMBIDAE. _Pigeons_.--Of pigeons and doves there are at least a
+dozen species. Some live entirely on trees[1], never alighting on the
+ground; others, notwithstanding the abundance of food and warmth, are
+migratory[2], allured, as the Singhalese allege, by the ripening of the
+cinnamon berries, and hence one species is known in the southern
+provinces as the "Cinnamon Dove." Others feed on the fruits of the
+banyan: and it is probably to their instrumentality that this marvellous
+tree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being carried by them to
+remote localities. A very beautiful pigeon, peculiar to the mountain
+range, discovered in the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has, in compliment
+to the Viscountess Torrington, been named _Carpophaga Torringtoniae_.
+
+[Footnote 1: Treron bicincta. _Jerd_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Alsocomus puniceus_, the "Season Pigeon" of Ceylon, so
+called from its periodical arrival and departure.]
+
+Another, called by the natives _neela-cobeya_[1], although strikingly
+elegant both in shape and colour, is still more remarkable for the
+singularly soothing effect of its low and harmonious voice. A gentleman
+who has spent many years in the jungle, in writing to me of this bird
+and of the effects of its melodious song, says, that "its soft and
+melancholy notes, as they came from some solitary place in the forest,
+were the most gentle sounds I ever listened to. Some sentimental smokers
+assert that the influence of the propensity is to make them feel _as if
+they could freely forgive all who had ever offended them_; and I can say
+with truth such has been the effect on my own nerves of the plaintive
+murmurs of the neela-cobeya, that sometimes, when irritated, and not
+without reason, by the perverseness of some of my native followers, the
+feeling has almost instantly subsided into placidity on suddenly hearing
+the loving tones of these beautiful birds."
+
+[Footnote 1: Chalcophaps Indicus, _Linn._]
+
+V. GALLINAE. _The Ceylon Jungle-fowl_.--The jungle-fowl of Ceylon[1] is
+shown by the peculiarity of its plumage to be not only distinct from the
+Indian species, but peculiar to the island. It has never yet bred or
+survived long in captivity, and no living specimens have been
+successfully transmitted to Europe. It abounds in all parts of the
+island, but chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains; and one of the
+vivid memorials which are associated with our journeys through the
+hills, is its clear cry, which sounds like a person calling "George
+Joyce,"[2] and rises at early morning amidst mist and dew, giving life
+to the scenery, that has scarcely yet been touched by the sun-light.
+
+[Footnote 1: Gallus Lafayetti, _Lesson_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: I apprehend that in the particular of the peculiar cry the
+Ceylon jungle fowl differs from that of the Dekkan, where _I am told_
+that it crows like a bantam cock.]
+
+The female of this handsome bird was figured many years ago by Dr. GRAY
+in his illustrations of "_Indian Zoology_," under the name of _G.
+Stanleyi_. The cock bird subsequently received from LESSON, the name by
+which the species is now known: but its habitat was not discovered,
+until a specimen having been forwarded from Ceylon to Calcutta, Dr.
+BLYTH recognised it as the long-sought-for male of Dr. Gray's specimen.
+
+Another of the Gallinae of Ceylon, remarkable for the delicate
+pencillings of its plumage, as well as for the peculiarity of the double
+spur, from which it has acquired its trivial name, is the _Galloperdix
+bicalcaratus_, of which a figure is given from a drawing by Mr. Gould.
+
+[Illustration: GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATUS.]
+
+VI. GRALLAE.--On reaching the marshy plains and shallow lagoons on either
+side of the island, the astonishment of the stranger is excited by the
+endless multitudes of stilt-birds and waders which stand in long array
+within the wash of the water, or sweep in vast clouds above it.
+Ibises[1], storks[2], egrets, spoonbills[3], herons[4], and the smaller
+races of sand larks and plovers, are seen busily traversing the wet
+sand, in search of the red worm which burrows there, or peering with
+steady eye to watch the motions of the small fry and aquatic insects in
+the ripple on the shore.
+
+[Footnote 1: Tantalus leucocephalus, and Ibis falcinellus.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The violet-headed Stork (Ciconia leticocephala).]
+
+[Footnote 3: Platalea leucorodia, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Ardea cinerea. A. purpurea.]
+
+VII. ANSERES.--Preeminent in size and beauty, the tall _flamingoes_[1],
+with rose-coloured plumage, line the beach in long files. The Singhalese
+have been led, from their colour and their military order, to designate
+them the "_English Soldier birds_." Nothing can be more startling than
+the sudden flight of these splendid creatures when alarmed; their strong
+wings beating the air with a sound like distant thunder; and as they
+soar over head, the flock which appeared almost white but a moment
+before, is converted into crimson by the sudden display of the red
+lining of their wings. A peculiarity in the beak of this bird has
+scarcely attracted the attention it merits, as a striking illustration
+of creative wisdom in adapting the organs of animals to their local
+necessities.
+
+[Illustration: FLAMINGO.]
+
+[Footnote 1: Phoenicopterus roseus, _Pallas_.]
+
+The upper mandible, which is convex in other birds, is flattened in the
+flamingo, whilst the lower, instead of being flat, is convex. To those
+who have had an opportunity of witnessing the action of the bird in its
+native haunts, the expediency of this arrangement is at once apparent.
+To counteract the extraordinary length of its legs, it is provided with
+a proportionately long neck, so that in feeding in shallow water the
+crown of the head becomes inverted and the upper mandible brought into
+contact with the bottom; where its flattened surface qualifies it for
+performing the functions of the lower one in birds of the same class;
+and the edges of both being laminated, it is thus enabled, like the
+duck, by the aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift before swallowing its
+food.
+
+Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets of the Anatidae,
+the Coromandel teal[1], the Indian hooded gull[2], the Caspian tern, and
+a countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl--pintails[3], teal[4],
+red-crested pochards[5], shovellers[6], and terns.[7] Pelicans[8] in
+great numbers resort to the mouths of the rivers, taking up their
+position at sunrise on some projecting rock, from which to dart on the
+passing fish, and returning far inland at night to their retreats among
+the trees, which overshadow some solitary river or deserted tank.
+
+[Footnote 1: Nettapus coromandelianus, _Gm_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Larus brunnicephalus, _Jerd_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Dafila acuta, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Querquedula creeca, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 5: Fuligula rufina, _Pallas_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Spatula clypeata, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 7: Sterna minuta, _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 8: Pelicanus Philippensis, _Gmel_.]
+
+I chanced upon one occasion to come unexpectedly upon one of these
+remarkable breeding places during a visit which I made to the great tank
+of Padivil, one of those gigantic constructions by which the early kings
+of Ceylon have left imperishable records of their reigns.
+
+It is situated in the depth of the forests to the north-west of
+Trincomalie; and the tank is itself the basin of a broad and shallow
+valley, enclosed between two lines of low hills, that gradually sink
+into the plain as they approach towards the sea. The extreme breadth of
+the included space may be twelve or fourteen miles, narrowing to eleven
+at the spot where the retaining bund has been constructed across the
+valley; and when this enormous embankment was in effectual repair, and
+the reservoir filled by the rains, the water must have been thrown back
+along the basin of the valley for at least fifteen miles. It is
+difficult now to determine the precise distances, as the overgrowth of
+wood and jungle has obliterated all lines left by the original level of
+the lake at its junction with the forest. Even when we rode along it,
+the centre of the tank was deeply submerged, so that notwithstanding the
+partial escape, the water still covered an area of ten miles in
+diameter. Even now its depth when full must be very considerable, for
+high on the branches of the trees that grow in the area, the last flood
+had left quantities of driftwood and withered grass; and the rocks and
+banks were coated with the yeasty foam, that remains after the
+subsidence of an agitated flood.
+
+The bed of the tank was difficult to ride over, being still soft and
+treacherous, although covered everywhere with tall and waving grass; and
+in every direction it was poched into deep holes by the innumerable
+elephants that had congregated to roll in the soft mud, to bathe in the
+collected water, or to luxuriate in the rich herbage, under the cool
+shade of the trees. The ground, too, was thrown up into hummocks like
+great molehills which, the natives told us, were formed by a huge
+earthworm, common in Ceylon, nearly two feet in length, and as thick as
+a small snake. Through these inequalities the water was still running
+off in natural drains towards the great channel in the centre, that
+conducts it to the broken sluice; and across these it was sometimes
+difficult to find a safe footing for our horses.
+
+In a lonely spot, towards the very centre of the tank, we came
+unexpectedly upon an extraordinary scene. A sheet of still water, two or
+three hundred yards broad, and about half a mile long, was surrounded by
+a line of tall forest-trees, whose branches stretched above its margin.
+The sun had not yet risen, when we perceived some white objects in large
+numbers on the tops of the trees; and as we came nearer, we discovered
+that a vast colony of pelicans had formed their settlement and
+breeding-place in this solitary retreat. They literally covered the
+trees in hundreds; and their heavy nests, like those of the swan,
+constructed of large sticks, forming great platforms, were sustained by
+the horizontal branches. Each nest contained three eggs, rather larger
+than those of a goose; and the male bird stood placidly beside the
+female as she sat upon them.
+
+Nor was this all; along with the pelicans prodigious numbers of other
+water-birds had selected this for their dwelling-place, and covered the
+trees in thousands, standing on the topmost branches; tall flamingoes,
+herons, egrets, storks, ibises, and other waders. We had disturbed them
+thus early, before their habitual hour for betaking themselves to their
+fishing-fields. By degrees, as the light increased, we saw them
+beginning to move upon the trees; they looked around them on every side,
+stretched their awkward legs behind them, extended their broad wings,
+gradually rose in groups, and slowly soared away in the direction of the
+seashore.
+
+The pelicans were apparently later in their movements; they allowed us
+to approach as near them as the swampy nature of the soil would permit;
+and even when a gun was discharged amongst them, only those moved off
+which the particles of shot disturbed. They were in such numbers at this
+favourite place; that the water over which they had taken up their
+residence was swarming with crocodiles, attracted by the frequent fall
+of the young birds; and the natives refused, from fear of them, to wade
+in for one of the larger pelicans which had fallen, struck by a rifle
+ball. It was altogether a very remarkable sight.
+
+Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, partridges and quails are
+to be had at all times; the woodcock has occasionally been shot in the
+hills, and the ubiquitous snipe, which arrives in September from
+Southern India, is identified not alone by the eccentricity of its
+flight, but by retaining in high perfection the qualities which have
+endeared it to the gastronome at home. But the magnificent pheasants,
+which inhabit the Himalayan range and the woody hills of the Chin-Indian
+peninsula, have no representative amongst the tribes that people the
+woods of Ceylon; although a bird believed to be a pheasant has more than
+once been seen in the jungle, close to Rangbodde, on the road to
+Neuera-ellia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Birds_.
+
+In submitting this Catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, I am anxious to
+state that the copious mass of its contents is mainly due to the
+untiring energy and exertions of my friend, Mr. E.L. Layard. Nearly
+every bird in the list has fallen by his gun; so that the most ample
+facilities have been thus provided, not only for extending the limited
+amount of knowledge which formerly existed on this branch of the zoology
+of the island; but for correcting, by actual comparison with recent
+specimens, the errors which had previously prevailed as to imperfectly
+described species. The whole of Mr. Layard's fine collection is at
+present in England.
+
+
+      ACCIPITRES.
+
+  Aquila
+    Bonelli, _Temm_.
+    pennata, _Gm_.
+  Spizaetus
+    Nipalensis, _Hodgs_.
+    limnaeetus, _Horsf_.
+  Ictinaetus
+    Malayensis, _Reinw_.
+  Haematornis
+    Bacha, _Daud_.
+    spilogaster, _Blyth_.
+  Pontoaetus
+    leucogaster, _Gm_.
+    ichthyaetus, _Horsf_.
+  Haliastur
+    Indus, _Bodd_.
+  Falco
+    peregrinus, _Linn._
+    peregrinator, _Sund_.
+  Tinnunculus
+    alaudarius, _Briss_.
+  Hypotriorchis
+    chicquera, _Daud_.
+  Baza
+    lophotes, _Cuv_.
+  Milvus
+    govinda, _Sykes_.
+  Elanus
+    melanopterus, _Daud_.
+  Astur
+    trivirgatus, _Temm_.
+  Accipiter
+    badius, _Gm_.
+  Circus
+    Swainsonii, _A. Smith_.
+    cinerascens, _Mont_.
+    melanoleucos, _Gm_.
+    _aeruginosus, Linn_.
+  Athene
+    castonatus, _Blyth_.
+    scutulata, _Raffles_.
+  Ephialtes
+    scops, _Linn._
+    lempijii, _Horsf_.
+    sunia, _Hodgs_.
+  Ketupa
+    Ceylonensis, _Gm_.
+  Syrnium
+    Indranee, _Sykes_.
+  Strix
+    Javanica, _Gm_.
+
+
+      PASSERES.
+
+  Batrachostomus
+    moniliger, _Layard_.
+  Caprimulgus
+    _Mahrattensis, Sykes_.
+    Kelaarti, _Blyth_.
+    Asiaticus, _Lath_.
+  Cypselus
+    batassiensis, _Gray_.
+    melba, _Linn._
+    affinis, _Gray_.
+  Macropteryx
+    coronatus, _Tickell_.
+  Collocalia
+    brevirostris, _McClel_.
+  Acanthylis
+    caudacuta, _Lath_.
+  Hirundo
+    panayana, _Gm_.
+    daurica, _Linn._
+    hyperythra, _Layard_.
+    domicola, _Jerdon_.
+  Coracias
+    Indica, _Linn._
+  Harpactes
+    fasciatus, _Gm_.
+  Eurystomus
+    orientalis, _Linn._
+  Halcyon
+    Capensis, _Linn._
+    atricapillus, _Gm_.
+    Smyrnensis, _Linn._
+  Ceyx
+    tridactyla, _Linn._
+  Alcedo
+    Bengalensis, _Gm_.
+  Ceryle
+    rudis, _Linn._
+  Merops
+    Philippinus, _Linn._
+    viridis, _Linn._
+    quincticolor, _Vieill_.
+  Upupa
+    nigripennis, _Gould_.
+  Nectarina
+    Zeylanica, _Linn._
+    minima, _Sykes_.
+    Asiatica, _Lath_.
+    Lotenia, _Linn._
+  Dicaeum
+    minimum, _Tickell_.
+  Phyllornis
+    Malabarica, _Lath_.
+    Jerdoni, _Blyth_.
+  Dendrophila
+    frontalis, _Horsf_.
+  Piprisoma
+    agile, _Blyth_.
+  Orthotomus
+    longicauda, _Gm_.
+  Cisticola
+    cursitans, _Frankl_.
+    omalura, _Blyth_.
+  Drymoica
+    valida, _Blyth_.
+    inornata, _Sykes_.
+  Prinia
+    socialis, _Sykes_.
+  Acrocephalus
+    dumetorum, _Blyth_.
+  Phyllopneuste
+    nitidus, _Blyth_.
+    montanus, _Blyth_.
+    viridanus, _Blyth_.
+  Copsychus
+    saularis, _Linn._
+  Kittacincla
+    macrura, _Gm_.
+  Pratincola
+    caprata, _Linn._
+    atrata, _Kelaart_.
+  Calliope
+    cyanea, _Hodgs_.
+  Thamnobia
+    fulicata, _Linn._
+  Cyanecula
+    Suecica, _Linn._
+  Sylvia
+    affinis, _Blyth_.
+  Parus
+    cinereus, _Vieill_.
+  Zosterops
+    palpebrosus, _Temm_.
+  Ioera
+    Zeylanica, _Gm_.
+    typhia, _Linn._
+  Motacilla
+    sulphurea, _Becks_.
+    Indica, _Gm_.
+    Madraspatana, _Briss_.
+  Budytes
+    viridis, _Gm_.
+  Anthus
+    rutulus, _Vieill_.
+    Richardii, _Vieill_.
+    striolatus, _Blyth_.
+  Brachypteryx
+    Palliseri, _Kelaart_.
+  Alcippe
+    nigrifrons, _Blyth_.
+  Pitta
+    brachyura, _Jerd_.
+  Oreocincla
+    spiloptera, _Blyth_.
+  Merula
+    Wardii, _Jerd_.
+    Kinnisii, _Kelaart_.
+  Zoothera
+    imbricata, _Layard_.
+  Garrulax
+    cinereifrons, _Blyth_.
+  Pormatorhinus
+    melanurus, _Blyth_.
+  Malacocercus
+    rufescens, _Blyth_.
+    griseus, _Gm_.
+    striatus, _Swains_.
+  Pellorneum
+    fuscocapillum, _Blyth_.
+  Dumetia
+    albogularis, _Blyth_.
+  Chrysomma
+    Sinense, _Gm_.
+  Oriolus
+    melanocephalus, _Linn._
+    _Indicus, Briss_.
+  Criniger
+    ictericus, _Stickl_.
+  Pycnonotus
+    pencillatus, _Kelaart_.
+    flavirictus, _Strickl_.
+    haemorrhous, _Gm_.
+    atricapillus, _Vieill_.
+  Hemipus
+    picatus, _Sykes_.
+  Hypsipetes
+    Nilgherriensis, _Jerd_.
+  Cyornis
+    rubeculoides, _Vig_.
+  Myiagra
+    azurea, _Bodd_.
+  Cryptolopha
+    cinereocapilla, _Vieill_.
+  Leucocerca
+    _compressirostris, Blyth_.
+  Tchitrea
+    paradisi, _Linn._
+  *Butalis
+    latirostris, _Raffles_.
+    Muttui, _Layard_.
+  Stoparola
+    melanops, _Vig_.
+  Pericrocotus
+    flammeus, _Forst_.
+    peregrinus, _Linn._
+  Campephaga
+    Macei, _Less_.
+    Sykesii, _Strickl_.
+  Artamus
+    fuscus, _Vieill_.
+  Edolius
+    paradiseus, _Gm_.
+  Dicrurus
+    macrocereus, _Vieill_.
+    edoliformis, _Blyth_.
+    longicaudatus, _A. Hoy_.
+    leucopygialis, _Blyth_.
+    _caerulescens_, _Linn._
+  Irena
+    puella, _Lath_.
+  Lanius
+    superciliosus, _Lath_.
+    _erythronotus, Vig_.
+  Tephrodornis
+    affinis, _Blyth_.
+  Cissa
+    puella, _Blyth & Layard_.
+  Corvus
+    splendens, _Vieill_.
+    culminatus, _Sykes_.
+  Eulabes
+    religiosa, _Linn._
+    ptilogenys, _Blyth_.
+  Pastor
+    roseus, _Linn._
+  Hetaerornis
+    pagodarum, _Gm_.
+    _albifrontata, Layard_.
+  Acridotheres
+    tristis, _Linn._
+  Ploceus
+    manyar, _Horsf_.
+    baya, _Blyth_.
+  Munia
+    undulata, _Latr_.
+    _Malabarica, Linn_.
+    Malacca, _Linn._
+    rubronigra, _Hodgs_.
+    striata, _Linn._
+    Kelaarti, _Blyth_.
+  Passer
+    Indicus, _Jard. & Selb._
+  Alauda
+    gulgula, _Frank_.
+    _Malabarica, Scop_.
+  Pyrrhulauda
+    grisea, _Scop_.
+  Mirafra
+    affinis, _Jerd_.
+  Buceros
+    gingalensis, _Shaw_.
+    Malabaricus, _Jerd_.
+
+
+      SCANSORES.
+
+  Loriculus
+    Asiaticus, _Lath_.
+  Palaecornis
+    Alexandri, _Linn._
+    torquatus, _Briss_.
+    cyanocephalus, _Linn._
+    Calthropae, _Layard_.
+  Megalaima
+    Indica, _Latr_.
+    Zeylanica, _Gmel_.
+    flavifrons, _Cuv_.
+    rubicapilla, _Gm_.
+  Picus
+    gymnophthalmus, Blth.
+    Mahrattensis, _Lath_.
+    _Macei, Vieill_.
+  Gecinus
+    chlorophanes, _Vieill_.
+  Brachypternus
+    aurantius, _Linn._
+    Ceylonus, _Forst_.
+    _rubescens, Vieill_.
+    Stricklandi, _Layard_.
+  Micropternus
+    gularis, _Jerd_.
+  Centropus
+    rufipennis, _Illiger_.
+    chlororhynchos, _Blyth_.
+  Oxylophus
+    melanoleucos, _Gm_.
+    Coromandus, _Linn._
+  Endynamys
+    orientalis, _Linn._
+  Cuculus
+    Poliocephalus, _Lath_.
+    striatus, _Drapiex_.
+    canorus, _Linn._
+  Polyphasia
+    tenuirostris, _Gray_.
+    Sonneratii, _Lath_.
+  Hierococcyx
+    varius, _Vahl_.
+  Surniculus
+    dicruroides, _Hodgs_.
+  Phoenicophaus
+    pyrrhocephalus, _Forst_.
+  Zanclostomus
+    viridirostris, _Jerd_.
+
+
+      COLUMBAE.
+
+  Treron
+    bicincta, _Jerd_.
+    flavogularis, _Blyth_.
+    Pompadoura, _Gm_.
+    chlorogaster, _Blyth_.
+  Carpophaga
+    pusilla, _Blyth_.
+    Torringtoniae, _Kelaart_.
+  Alsocomus
+    puniceus, _Tickel_.
+  Columba
+    intermedia, _Strickl_.
+  Turtur
+    risorius, _Linn._
+    Suratensis, _Lath_.
+    humilis, _Temm_.
+    orientalis, _Lath_.
+  Chalcophaps
+    Indicus, _Linn._
+
+
+      GALLINAE.
+
+  Pavo
+    cristatus, _Linn._
+  Gallus
+    Lafayetti, _Lesson_.
+  Galloperdix
+    bicalcaratus, _Linn._
+  Francolinus
+    Ponticerianus, _Gm_.
+  Perdicula
+    agoondah, _Sykes_.
+  Coturnix
+    Chinensis, _Linn._
+  Turnix ocellatus
+    _var._ Bengalensis, _Blyth_.
+    _var._ taigoor, _Sykes_.
+
+
+      GRALLAE.
+
+  Esacus
+    recurvirostris, _Cuv_.
+  Oedienemus
+    crepitans, _Temm_.
+  Cursorius
+    Coromandelicus, _Gm_.
+  Lobivanellus
+    bilobus, _Gm_.
+    Goeensis, _Gm_.
+  Charadrius
+    virginicus, _Bechs_.
+  Hiaticula
+    Philippensis, _Scop_.
+    Cantiana, _Lath_.
+    Leschenaultii, _Less_.
+  Strepsilas
+    Interpres, _Linn._
+  Ardea
+    purpurea, _Linn._
+    cinerea, _Linn._
+    asha, _Sykes_.
+    intermedia, _Wagler_.
+    garzetta, _Linn._
+    _alba, Linn_.
+    bubulcus, _Savig_.
+  Ardeola
+    leucoptera, _Bodd_.
+  Ardetta
+    cinnamomea, _Gm_.
+    flavicollis, _Lath_.
+    Sinensis, _Gm_.
+  Butoroides
+    Javanica, _Horsf_.
+  Platalea
+    leucorodia, _Linn._
+  Nycticorax
+    griseus, _Linn._
+  Tigrisoma
+    melanolopha, _Raffl_.
+  Mycteria
+    australis, _Shaw_.
+  Leptophilus
+    Javanica, _Horsf_.
+  Ciconia
+    leucocephala, _Gm_.
+  Anastomus
+    oscitans, _Bodd_.
+  Tantalus
+    leucocephalus, _Gm_.
+  Geronticus
+    melanocephalus, _Lath_.
+  Falcinellus
+    igneus, _Gm_.
+  Numenias
+    arquatus, _Linn._
+    phaeopus, _Linn._
+  Totanus
+    fuscus, _Linn._
+    calidris, _Linn._
+    glottis, _Linn._
+    stagnalis, _Bechst_.
+  Actitis
+    glareola, _Gm_.
+    ochropus, _Linn._
+    hypoleucos, _Linn._
+  Tringa
+    minuta, _Leist_.
+    subarquata, _Gm_.
+  Limicola
+    platyrhyncha, _Temm_.
+  Limosa
+    aegocephala, _Linn._
+  Himantopus
+    candidus, _Bon_.
+  Recurvirostra
+    avocetta, _Linn._
+  Haematopus
+    ostralegus, _Linn._
+  Rhynchoea
+    Bengalensis, _Linn._
+  Scolopax
+    rusticola, _Linn._
+  Gallinago
+    stenura, _Temm_.
+    _scolopacina, Bon_.
+    _gallinula, Linn_.
+  Hydrophasianus
+    Sinensis, _Gm_.
+  Ortygometra
+    rubiginosa, _Temm_.
+  Corethura
+    Zeylanica, _Gm_.
+  Rallus
+    striatus, _Linn._
+    Indicus, _Blyth_.
+  Porphyrio
+    poliocephalus, _Lath_.
+  Porzana
+    pygmaea, _Nan_.
+  Gallinula
+    phoenicura, _Penn_.
+    chloropus, _Linn._
+    cristata, _Lath_.
+
+
+      ANSERES.
+
+  Phoenicopterus
+    ruber, _Linn._
+  Sarkidiornis
+    melanonotos, _Penn_.
+  Nettapus
+    Coromandelianus, _Gm_.
+  Anas
+    poecilorhyncha, _Penn_.
+  Dendrocygnus
+    arcuatus, _Cuv_.
+  Dafila
+    acuta, _Linn._
+  Querquedula
+    crecca, _Linn._
+    circia, _Linn._
+  _Fuligula
+    rufina, Pall_.
+  Spatula
+    clypeata, _Linn._
+  Podiceps
+    Philippensis, _Gm_.
+  Larus
+    brunnicephalus, _Jerd_.
+    ichthyaetus, _Pall_.
+  Sylochelidon
+    Caspius, _Lath_.
+  Hydrochelidon
+    Indicus, _Steph_.
+  Gelochelidon
+    Anglicus, _Mont_.
+  Onychoprion
+    anasthaetus, _Scop_.
+  Sterna
+    Javanica, _Horsf_.
+    melanogaster, _Temm_.
+    minuta, _Linn._
+  Seena
+    aurantia, _Gray_.
+  Thalasseus
+    Bengalensis, _Less_.
+    cristata, _Stepth_.
+  Dromas
+    ardeola, _Payk_.
+  Atagen
+    ariel, _Gould_.
+  Thalassidroma
+    _melanogaster, Gould_.
+  Plotus
+    melanogaster, _Gm_.
+  Pelicanus
+    Philippensis, _Gm_.
+  Graculus
+    Sinensis, _Shaw_.
+    pygmaeus, _Pallas_.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+The following is a list of the birds which are, as far as is at present
+known, peculiar to the island; it will probably be determined at some
+future day that some included in it have a wider geographical range.
+
+Haematornis spilogaster. The "Ceylon eagle;" was discovered by Mr. Layard
+in the Wanny, and by Dr. Kelaart at Trincomalie.
+
+Athene castonotus. The chestnut-winged hawk owl. This pretty little owl
+was added to the list of Ceylon birds by Dr. Templeton. Mr. Blyth is at
+present of opinion that this bird is identical with Ath. Castanopterus,
+_Horsf_. of Java as figured by Temminck: _P. Col._
+
+Batrachostomus moniliger. The oil bird; was discovered amongst the
+precipitous rocks of the Adam's Peak range by Mr. Layard. Another
+specimen was sent about the same time to Sir James Emerson Tennent from
+Avisavelle. Mr. Mitford has met with it at Ratnapoora.
+
+Caprimulgus Kelaarti. Kelaart's nightjar; swarms on the marshy plains of
+Neuera-ellia at dusk.
+
+Hirundo hyperythra. The red-bellied swallow; was discovered in 1849, by
+Mr. Layard at Ambepusse. They build a globular nest, with a round hole
+at top. A pair built in the ring for a hanging lamp in Dr. Gardner's
+study at Peradenia, and hatched their young, undisturbed by the daily
+trimming and lighting of the lamp.
+
+Cisticola omalura. Layard's mountain grass warbler; is found in
+abundance on Horton Plain and Neuera-ellia, among the long Patena grass.
+
+Drymoica valida. Layard's wren-warbler; frequents tufts of grass and low
+bushes, feeding on insects.
+
+Pratincola atrata. The Neuera-ellia robin; a melodious songster; added
+to our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart.
+
+Brachypteryx Palliseri. Ant thrush. A rare bird, added by Dr. Kelaart
+from Dimboola and Neuera-ellia.
+
+Pellorneum fuscocapillum. Mr. Layard found two specimens of this rare
+thrush creeping about shrubs and bushes, feeding on insects.
+
+Alcippe nigrifrons. This thrush frequents low impenetrable thickets, and
+seems to be widely distributed.
+
+Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted thrush is only found in the mountain
+zone about lofty trees.
+
+Merula Kinnisii. The Neuera-ellia blackbird; was added by Dr. Kelaart.
+
+Garrulax cinereifrons. The ashy-headed babbler; was found by Mr. Layard
+near Ratnapoora.
+
+Pomatorhinus melanurus. Mr. Layard states that the mountain babbler
+frequents low, scraggy, impenetrable brush, along the margins of
+deserted cheena land. This may turn out to be little more than a local
+yet striking variety of P. Horsfieldii of the Indian Peninsula.
+
+Malacocercus rufescens. The red dung thrush added by Dr. Templeton to
+the Singhalese Fauna, is found in thick jungle in the southern and
+midland districts.
+
+Pycnonotus penicillatus. The yellow-eared bulbul; was found by Dr.
+Kelaart at Neuera-ellia.
+
+Butalis Muttui. This very handsome flycatcher was procured at Point
+Pedro, by Mr. Layard.
+
+Dicrurus edoliformis. Dr. Templeton found this kingcrow at the Bibloo
+Oya. Mr. Layard has since got it at Ambogammoa.
+
+Dicrurus leucopygialis. The Ceylon kingcrow was sent to Mr. Blyth from
+the vicinity of Colombo, by Dr. Templeton. A species very closely allied
+to D. coerulescens of the Indian continent.
+
+Tephrodornis affinis. The Ceylon butcher-bird. A migatory species found
+in the wooded grass lands in October.
+
+Cissa puella. Layard's mountain jay. A most lovely bird, found along
+mountain streams at Neuera-ellia and elsewhere.
+
+Eulabes ptilogenys. Templeton's mynah. The largest and most beautiful of
+the species. It is found in flocks perching on the highest trees,
+feeding on berries.
+
+Munia Kelaarti. This Grosbeak previously assumed to be M. pectoralls of
+Jerdon; is most probably peculiar to Ceylon.
+
+Loriculus asiaticus. The small parroquet, abundant in various districts.
+
+Palaeornis Calthropae. Layard's purple-headed parroquet, found at Kandy,
+is a very handsome bird, flying in flocks, and resting on the summits of
+the very highest trees. Dr. Kelaart states that it is the only parroquet
+of the Neuera-ellia range.
+
+Megalaima flavifrons. The yellow-headed barbet, is not uncommon.
+
+Megalaima rubricapilla, is found in most parts of the island.
+
+Picus gymnophthalmus. Layard's woodpecker. The smallest of the species,
+was discovered near Colombo, amongst jak-trees.
+
+Brachypternus Ceylonus. The Ceylon woodpecker, is found in abundance
+near Neuera-ellia.
+
+Brachypternus rubescens. The red woodpecker.
+
+Centropus chlororhynchus. The yellow-billed cuckoo, was detected by Mr.
+Layard in dense jungle near Colombo and Avisavelle.
+
+Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. The malkoha, is confined to the southern
+highlands.
+
+Treron Pompadoura. The Pompadour pigeon. "The Prince of Canino has shown
+that this is a totally distinct bird from Tr. flavogularis, with which
+it was confounded: it is much smaller, with the quantity of maroon
+colour on the mantle greatly reduced."--Paper by Mr. BLYTH, _Mag. Nat.
+Hist._ p. 514: 1857.
+
+Carpophaga Torringtoniae. Lady Torrington's pigeon; a very handsome
+pigeon discovered in the highlands by Dr. Kelaart. It flies high in long
+sweeps, and makes its nest on the loftiest trees. Mr. Blyth is of
+opinion that it is no more than a local race, barely separable from C.
+Elphinstonii of the Nilgiris and Malabar coast.
+
+Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill dove a migratory species found by
+Mr. Layard in the mountain zone, only appearing with the ripened fruit
+of the teak, banyan, &c., on which they feed.
+
+Gallus Lafayetti.--The Ceylon jungle fowl. The female of this handsome
+bird was figured by Mr. GRAY (_Ill. Ind. Zool._) under the name of G.
+Stanleyi. The cock bird had long been lost to naturalists, until a
+specimen was forwarded by Dr. Templeton to Mr. Blyth, who at once
+recognised it as the long-looked-for male of Mr. Gray's recently
+described female. It is abundant in all the uncultivated portions of
+Ceylon; coming out into the open spaces to feed in the mornings and
+evenings. Mr. Blyth states that there can be no doubt that Hardwicke's
+published figure refers to the hen of this species, long afterwards
+termed G. Lafayetti.
+
+Galloperdix bicalcaratus. Not uncommon in suitable situations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IX.
+
+REPTILES.
+
+
+LIZARDS. _Iguana_.--One of the earliest, if not the first remarkable
+animal to startle a stranger on arriving in Ceylon, whilst wending his
+way from Point-de-Galle to Colombo, is a huge lizard of from four to
+five feet in length, the _Talla-goy[=a]_ of the Singhalese, and
+Iguana[1] of the Europeans. It may be seen at noonday searching for ants
+and insects in the middle of the highway and along the fences; when
+disturbed, but by no means alarmed, by the approach of man, it moves off
+to a safe distance; and, the intrusion being at an end, it returns again
+to the occupation in which it had been interrupted. Repulsive as it is
+in appearance, it is perfectly harmless, and is hunted down by dogs in
+the maritime provinces, and its delicate flesh, which is believed to be
+a specific in dysentery, is converted into curry, and its skin into
+shoes. When seized, it has the power of inflicting a smart blow with its
+tail. The Talla-goy[=a] lives in almost any convenient hollow, such as a
+hole in the ground, or a deserted nest of the termites; and some small
+ones, which frequented my garden at Colombo, made their retreat in the
+heart of a decayed tree.
+
+[Footnote 1: Monitor dracaena, _Linn._ Among the barbarous nostrums of
+the uneducated natives, both Singhalese and Tamil, is the tongue of the
+iguana, which they regard as a specific for consumption, if plucked from
+the living animal and swallowed whole.]
+
+A still larger species, the _Kabara-goy[=a]_[1], is partial to marshy
+ground, and when disturbed upon land, will take refuge in the nearest
+water. From the somewhat eruptive appearance of the yellow blotches on
+its scales, a closely allied species, similarly spotted, formerly
+obtained amongst naturalists the name of _Monitor exanthematicus_, and
+it is curious that the native appellation of this one, _kabara_[2], is
+suggestive of the same idea. The Singhalese, on a strictly homoeopathic
+principle, believe that its fat, externally applied, is a cure for
+cutaneous disorders, but that taken inwardly it is poisonous. The
+skilfulness of the Singhalese in their preparation of poisons, and their
+addiction to using them, are unfortunately notorious traits in the
+character of the rural population. Amongst these preparations, the one
+which above all others excites the utmost dread, from the number of
+murders attributed to its agency, is the potent kabara-tel--a term which
+Europeans sometimes corrupt into _cobra-tel_, implying that the venom is
+obtained from the hooded-snake; whereas it professes to be extracted
+from the "kabara-goy[=a]." Such is the bad renown of this formidable
+poison, that an individual suspected of having it in his possession, is
+cautiously shunned by his neighbours. Those especially who are on
+doubtful terms with him, suspect their servants lest they should be
+suborned to mix kabara-tel in the curry. So subtle is the virus supposed
+to be, that one method of administering it, is to introduce it within
+the midrib of a leaf of betel, and close the orifice with chunam; and,
+as it is an habitual act of courtesy for one Singhalese on meeting
+another to offer the compliment of a betel-leaf, which it would be
+rudeness to refuse, facilities are thus afforded for presenting the
+concealed drug. It is curious that to this latent suspicion has been
+traced the origin of a custom universal amongst the natives, of nipping
+off with the thumb nail the thick end of the stem before chewing the
+betel.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hydrosaurus salvator, _Laur_. Tail compressed; fingers
+long; nostrils near the extremity of the snout. A black band on each
+temple; round yellow spots disposed in transverse series on the back.
+Teeth with the crown compressed and notched.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In the _Mahawanso_ the hero Tissa, is said to have been
+"afflicted with a cutaneous complaint which made his skin scaly like
+that of the _godho_."--Ch. xxiv. p. 148. "Godho" is the Pali name for
+the Kabara-goy[=a].]
+
+[Illustration: THE KABARA-GOYA.]
+
+In the preparation of this mysterious compound, the unfortunate
+Kabara-goya is forced to take a painfully prominent part. The receipt,
+as written down by a Kandyan, was sent to me from Kornegalle, by Mr.
+Morris, the civil officer of that district; and in dramatic arrangement
+it far outdoes the cauldron of _Macbeth's_ witches. The ingredients are
+extracted from venomous snakes, the cobra de capello, the Carawilla, and
+the Tic-polonga, by making incisions in the head of these reptiles and
+suspending them over a chattie to collect the poison as it flows. To
+this, arsenic and other drugs are added, and the whole is "boiled in a
+human skull, with the aid of the three Kabara-goyas, which are tied on
+three sides of the fire, with their heads directed towards it, and
+tormented by whips to make them hiss, so that the fire may blaze. The
+froth from their lips is then added to the boiling mixture, and so soon
+as an oily scum rises to the surface, the _kabara-tel_ is complete."
+
+It is obvious that arsenic is the main ingredient in the poison, and Mr.
+Morris reported to me that the mode of preparing it, described above,
+was actually practised in his district. This account was transmitted by
+him apropos to the murder of a Mohatal[1] and his wife, which had been
+committed with the _kabara-tel_, and was then under investigation.
+Before commencing the operation of preparing the poison, a cock has to
+be sacrificed to the _yakhos_ or demons.
+
+[Footnote 1: A native head-man of low rank.]
+
+This ugly lizard is itself regarded with such aversion by the
+Singhalese, that if a _kabara_ enter a house or walk over the roof, it
+is regarded as an omen of ill fortune, sickness, or death; and in order
+to avert the evil, a priest is employed to go through a rhythmical
+incantation; one portion of which consists in the repetition of the
+words
+
+  Kabara goyin wan d[=o]sey
+  Ada palayan e d[=o]sey.
+
+"These are the inflictions caused by the Kabara-goya--let them now be
+averted!"
+
+It is one of the incidents that serve to indicate that Ceylon may belong
+to a separate circle of physical geography, that this lizard, though
+found to the eastward in Burmah[1], has not hitherto been discovered in
+the Dekkan or Hindustan.
+
+[Footnote 1: In corroboration of the view propounded elsewhere (see pp.
+7, 84, &c), and opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon, at some
+remote period, was detached from the continent of India by the
+interposition of the sea, a list of reptiles will be found at p. 319,
+including not only individual species, but whole genera peculiar to the
+island, and not to be found on the mainland. See a paper by Dr. A.
+GUeNTHER on _The Geog. Distribution of Reptiles_. Magaz. Nat. Hist. for
+March, 1859, p. 230.]
+
+[Illustration: CALOTES OPHIOMACHUS]
+
+_Blood-suckers_.--The lizards already mentioned, however, are but the
+stranger's introduction to innumerable varieties of others, all most
+attractive in their sudden movements, and some unsurpassed in the
+brilliancy of their colouring, which bask on banks, dart over rocks, and
+peer curiously out of the chinks of every ruined wall. In all their
+motions there is that vivid and brief energy, the rapid but restrained
+action associated with their limited power of respiration, which
+justifies the accurate picture of--
+
+  "The green lizard, rustling thro' the grass,
+  And up the fluted shaft, _with short, quick, spring_
+  To vanish in the chinks which time has made."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: ROGERS' _Paestum._]
+
+The most beautiful of the race is the _green calotes_[1], in length
+about twelve inches, which, with the exception of a few dark streaks
+about the head, is as brilliant as the purest emerald or malachite.
+Unlike its congeners of the same family, it never alters this dazzling
+hue; whilst many of them possess, but in a less degree, the power, like
+the chameleon, of exchanging their ordinary colours for others less
+conspicuous. One of the most remarkable features in the physiognomy of
+those lizards is the prominence of their cheeks. This results from the
+great development of the muscles of the jaws; the strength of which is
+such that they can crush the hardest integuments of the beetles on which
+they feed. The calotes will permit its teeth to be broken, rather than
+quit its hold of a stick into which it may have struck them. It is not
+provided, like so many other tropical lizards, with a gular sac or
+throat-pouch, capable of inflation when in a state of high excitement.
+The tail, too, is rounded, not compressed, thus clearly indicating that
+its habits are those of a land-animal.
+
+[Footnote 1: Calotes sp.]
+
+The _Calotes versicolor_; and another, the _Calotes ophioimachus_, of
+which a figure is attached, possess in a remarkable degree the faculty,
+above alluded to, of changing their hue. The head and neck, when the
+animal is irritated or hastily swallowing its food, become of a
+brilliant red (whence the latter species has acquired the name of the
+"blood-sucker"), whilst the usual tint of the rest of the body is
+converted into pale yellow.[1] The _sitana_[2], and a number of others,
+exhibit similar phenomena.
+
+[Footnote 1: The characteristics by which the _Calotes ophiomachus_ may
+be readily recognised, are a small crest formed by long spines running
+on each side of the neck to above the ear, coupled with a green
+ground-colour of the scales. Many specimens are uniform, others banded
+transversely with white, and others again have a black band on each side
+of the neck.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Sitana Ponticereana, _Cuv_.]
+
+The lyre-headed lizard[1], which is not uncommon in the woods about
+Kandy, is more bulky than any of the species of Calotes, and not nearly
+so active in its movements.
+
+[Footnote 1: Lyriocephalus scutatus, _Linn._]
+
+As usually observed it is of a dull greenish brown, but when excited its
+back becomes a rich olive green, leaving the head yellowish: the
+underside of the body is of a very pale blue, almost approaching white.
+The open mouth exhibits the fauces of an intense vermilion tint; so
+that, although extremely handsome, this lizard presents, from its
+extraordinarily shaped head and threatening gestures, a most malignant
+aspect. It is, however, perfectly harmless.
+
+_Chameleon_.--The true chameleon[1] is found, but not in great numbers,
+in the dry districts to the north of Ceylon, where it frequents the
+trees, in slow pursuit of its insect prey; but compensated for the
+sluggishness of its other movements, by the electric rapidity of its
+extensible tongue. Apparently sluggish in its general habits, the
+chameleon rests motionless on a branch, from which its varied hues
+render it scarcely distinguishable in colour; and there patiently awaits
+the approach of the insects on which it feeds. Instantly on their
+appearance its wonderful tongue comes into play.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chameleo vulgaris, _Daud_.]
+
+[Illustration: TONGUE OF CHAMELEON.]
+
+Though ordinarily concealed, it is capable of protrusion till it exceeds
+in length the whole body of the creature. No sooner does an incautious
+fly venture within reach than the extremity of this treacherous weapon
+is disclosed, broad and cuneiform, and covered with a viscid fluid; and
+this, extended to its full length, is darted at its prey with an
+unerring aim, and redrawn within the jaws with a rapidity that renders
+the act almost invisible.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Prof. RYMER JONES, art. _Reptilia_, in TODD'S _Cyclop. of
+Anat_. vol. iv. pt. i. p. 292.]
+
+Whilst the faculty of this creature to assume all the colours of the
+rainbow has attracted the wonder of all ages, sufficient attention has
+hardly been given to the imperfect sympathy which subsists between the
+two lobes of its brain, and the two sets of nerves that permeate the
+opposite sides of its frame. Hence, not only has each of the eyes an
+action quite independent of the other, but one side of its body appears
+to be sometimes asleep whilst the other is vigilant and active; one will
+assume a green tinge whilst the opposite one is red; and it is said that
+the chameleon is utterly unable to swim, from the incapacity of the
+muscles of the two sides to act in concert.
+
+_Ceratophora_.--This which till lately was an unique lizard, known by
+only two specimens, one in the British Museum, and another in that of
+Leyden, was ascertained by Dr. Kelaart, about five years ago, to be a
+native of the higher Kandyan hills, where it is sometimes seen in the
+older trees in pursuit of insect larvae. The first specimen brought to
+Europe was called _Ceratophora Stoddartii_, after the name of its
+finder; and the recent discovery of several others in the National
+Collection has enabled me, by the aid of Dr. A. Guenther, to add some
+important facts to their history.
+
+This lizard is remarkable for having no external ear; and it has
+acquired its generic name from the curious horn-like process on the
+extremity of the nose. This horn, as it is found in mature males of ten
+inches in length, is five lines long, conical, pointed, and slightly
+curved; a miniature form of the formidable weapon, from which the
+_Rhinoceros_ takes its name. But the comparison does not hold good
+either from an anatomical or a physiological point of view. For, whilst
+the horn of the rhinoceros is merely a dermal production, a
+conglomeration of hairs cemented into one dense mass as hard as bone,
+and answering the purpose of a defensive weapon, besides being used for
+digging up the roots on which the animal lives; the horn of the
+_ceratophora_ is formed of a soft, spongy substance, coated by the
+rostral shield, which is produced into a kind of sheath. Although
+flexible, it always remains erect, owing to the elasticity of its
+substance. Not having access to a living specimen, which would afford
+the opportunity of testing conjecture, we are left to infer from the
+internal structure of this horn, that it is an erectile organ which, in
+moments of irritation, will swell like the comb of a cock. This opinion
+as to its physiological nature is confirmed by the remarkable
+circumstance that, like the rudimentary comb of the hen and young cocks,
+the female and the immature males of the _ceratophora_ have the horn
+exceedingly small. In mature females of eight inches in length (and the
+females appear always to be smaller than the males), the horn is only
+one half or one line long; while in immature males five inches in
+length, it is one line and a half.
+
+[Illustration: CERATOPHORA TENNENTII and C. STODDARTII]
+
+Among the specimens sent from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, and now in the
+British Museum, there is one which so remarkably differs from _C.
+Stoddartii_, that it attracted my attention, by the peculiar form of
+this rostral appendage. Dr. Guenther pronounced it to be a new species;
+and Dr. Gray concurring in this opinion, they have done me the honour to
+call it _Ceratophora Tennentii_. Its "horn" somewhat resembles the comb
+of a cock not only in its internal structure, but also in its external
+appearance; it is nearly six lines long by two broad, slightly
+compressed, soft, flexile, and extensible, and covered with a
+corrugated, granular skin. It bears no resemblance to the depressed
+rostral hump of _Lyriocephalus_, and the differences of the new species
+from the latter lizard may be easily seen from the annexed drawing and
+the notes given below.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The specimen in the British Museum is apparently an adult
+male, ten inches long, and is, with regard to the distribution of the
+scales and the form of the head very similar to _C. Stoddartii_. The
+posterior angles of the orbit are not projecting, but there is a small
+tubercle behind them; and a pair of somewhat larger tubercles on the
+neck. The gular sac is absent. There are five longitudinal quadrangular,
+imbricate scales on each side of the throat; and the sides of the body
+present a nearly horizontal series of similar scales. The scales on the
+median line of the back scarcely form a crest; it is, however distinct
+on the nape of the neck. The scales on the belly, on the extremities,
+and on the tail are slightly keeled. Tail nearly round. This species is
+more uniformly coloured than _C. Stoddartii_; it is greenish, darker on
+the sides.]
+
+_Geckoes_.--The most familiar and attractive of the lizard class are the
+_Geckoes_[1], that frequent the sitting-rooms, and being furnished with
+pads to each toe, they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and
+adhere to glass and ceilings. Being nocturnal in their habits, the pupil
+of the eye, instead of being circular as in the diurnal species, is
+linear and vertical like that of the cat. As soon as evening arrives,
+the geckoes are to be seen in every house in keen and crafty pursuit of
+their prey; emerging from the chinks and recesses where they conceal
+themselves during the day, to search for insects that then retire to
+settle for the night. In a boudoir where the ladies of my family spent
+their evenings, one of these familiar and amusing little creatures had
+its hiding-place behind a gilt picture frame. Punctually as the candles
+were lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be fed with its
+accustomed crumbs; and if neglected, it reiterated it sharp, quick call
+of _chic, chic, chit,_ till attended to. It was of a delicate gray
+colour, tinged with pink; and having by accident fallen on a work-table,
+it fled, leaving part of its tail behind it, which, however, it
+reproduced within less than a month. This faculty of reproduction is
+doubtless designed to enable the creature to escape from its assailants:
+the detaching of the limb is evidently its own act; and it is
+observable, that when reproduced, the tail generally exhibits some
+variation from the previous form, the diverging spines being absent, the
+new portion covered with small square uniform scales placed in a cross
+series, and the scuta below being seldom so distinct as in the original
+member.[2] In an officer's quarters in the fort of Colombo, a geckoe had
+been taught to come daily to the dinner-table, and always made its
+appearance along with the dessert. The family were absent for some
+months, during which the house underwent extensive repairs, the roof
+having been raised, the walls stuccoed, and the ceilings whitened. It
+was naturally surmised that so long a suspension of its accustomed
+habits would have led to the disappearance of the little lizard; but on
+the return of its old friends, it made its entrance as usual at their
+first dinner the instant the cloth was removed.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hemidactylus maculatus, _Dum_. et _Bib_., H. Leschenaultii,
+_Dum_, et _Bib_; H. frenatus, _Schlegel_. Of these the last is very
+common in the houses of Colombo. Colour, grey; sides with small
+granules; thumb short; chin-shields four; tail rounded with transverse
+series of small spines; femoral and preanal pores in a continuous line.
+GRAY, _Lizard_, p. 155.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Brit. Mus. Cat._ p. 143; KELAART's _Prod. Faun. Zeylan.,_
+p. 183.]
+
+_Crocodile._--The Portuguese in India, like the Spaniards in South
+America, affixed the name of _lagarto_ to the huge reptiles that
+infested the rivers and estuaries of both continents; and to the present
+day the Europeans in Ceylon apply the term _alligator_ to what are in
+reality _crocodiles_, which literally swarm in the still waters and
+tanks in the low country, but rarely frequent rapid streams, and have
+never been found in the marshes among the hills. The differences,
+however, between the two, when once ascertained, are sufficiently
+marked, to prevent their being afterwards confounded. The head of the
+alligator is broader and the snout less prolonged, and the canine teeth
+of the under jaw, instead of being received into foramina in the upper,
+as in the crocodile, fit into furrows on each side of it. The legs of
+the alligator, too, are not denticulated, and the feet are only
+semi-palmate.
+
+The following drawing exhibits a cranium of each.
+
+[Illustration: SKULLS OF ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILE]
+
+The instincts of the crocodiles in Ceylon do not lead to any variation
+from the habits of those found in other countries. There would appear to
+be two well-distinguished species found in the island, the
+_Eli-kimboola_[1], the Indian crocodile, inhabiting the rivers and
+estuaries throughout the low countries of the coasts, attaining the
+length of sixteen or eighteen feet, and ready to assail man when pressed
+by hunger; and the marsh-crocodile[2], which lives exclusively in fresh
+water, frequenting the tanks in the northern and central provinces, and
+confining its attacks to the smaller animals: in length it seldom
+exceeds twelve or thirteen feet. Sportsmen complain that their dogs are
+constantly seized by both species; and water-fowl, when shot, frequently
+disappear before they can be secured by the fowler.[3] It is generally
+believed in Ceylon that, in the case of larger animals, the crocodile
+abstains from devouring them till the commencement of decomposition
+facilitates the operation of swallowing. To assist in this, the natives
+assure me that the reptile contrives to fasten the carcase behind the
+roots of a mangrove or some other convenient tree and tears off each
+piece by a backward spring.
+
+[Footnote 1: Crocodilus biporcatus. _Cuvier_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Crododilus palustris, _Less_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: In Siam the flesh of the crocodile is sold for food in the
+markets and bazaars, "Un jour je vis plus de cinquante crocodiles,
+petits et grands, attaches aux colonnes de leurs maisons. Ils es vendent
+la chair comme on vendrait de la chair de porc, mais a bien meilleur
+marche."-PALLEGOIX, _Siam_, vol. i. p. 174.]
+
+There is another popular belief that the crocodile is exceedingly
+sensitive to tickling; and that it will relax its hold of a man, if he
+can only contrive to reach and rub with his hand the softer parts of its
+under side.[1] An incident indicative of some reality in this piece of
+folklore, once came under my own observation. One morning, about
+sunrise, when riding across the sandy plain near the old fort of
+Moeletivoe, we came suddenly upon a crocodile asleep under some bushes
+of the Buffalo-thorn, several hundred yards from the water. The terror
+of the poor wretch was extreme, when it awoke and found itself
+discovered and completely surrounded. It was a hideous creature, upwards
+of ten feet long, and evidently of prodigious strength, had it been in a
+condition to exert it, but consternation completely paralysed it. It
+started to its feet and turned round in a circle hissing and clanking
+its bony jaws, with its ugly green eye intently fixed upon us. On being
+struck with a stick, it lay perfectly quiet and apparently dead.
+Presently it looked cunningly round, and made a rush towards the water,
+but on a second blow it lay again motionless and feigning death. We
+tried to rouse it, but without effect, pulled its tail, slapped its
+back, struck its hard scales, and teased it in every way, but all in
+vain; nothing would induce it to move till accidentally my son, then a
+boy of twelve years old, tickled it gently under the arm, and in an
+instant it drew the limb close to its side and turned to avoid a
+repetition of the experiment. Again it was touched under the other arm,
+and the same emotion was exhibited, the great monster twisting about
+like an infant to avoid being tickled. The scene was highly amusing, but
+the sun was rising high, and we pursued our journey to Moeletivoe,
+leaving the crocodile to make its way to the adjoining lake.
+
+[Footnote 1: A native gentleman who resided for a long time at Caltura
+tells me that in the rivers which flow into the sea, both there and at
+Bentotte, crocodiles are frequently caught in corrals, formed of stakes
+driven into the ground in shallow water, and so constructed, that when
+the reptile enters to seize the bait placed within, the aperture closes
+behind and secures him. A professional "crocodile charmer" then enters
+muttering a spell, and with one end of a stick pats the creature gently
+on the head for a time. The operator then boldly mounts astride upon its
+shoulders, and continues to soothe it with his one hand, whilst with the
+other he contrives to pass a rope under its body, by which it is at last
+dragged on shore. This story serves to corroborate the narrative of Mr.
+Waterton and his alligator.]
+
+The Singhalese believe that the crocodile can only move swiftly on sand
+or smooth clay, its feet being too tender to tread firmly on hard or
+stony ground. In the dry season, when the watercourses begin to fail and
+the tanks become exhausted, the marsh-crocodiles have occasionally been
+encountered in the jungle, wandering in search of water. During a severe
+drought in 1844, they deserted a tank near Kornegalle and traversed the
+town during the night, on their way to another reservoir in the suburb;
+two or three fell into the wells; others in their trepidation, laid eggs
+in the street, and some were found entangled in garden fences and
+killed.
+
+Generally, however, during the extreme drought, when unable to procure
+their ordinary food from the drying up of the watercourses, they bury
+themselves in the mud, and remain in a state of torpor till released by
+the recurrence of rains.[1] At Arne-tivoe, in the eastern province,
+whilst riding across the parched bed of the tank, I was shown the
+recess, still bearing the form and impress of a crocodile, out of which
+the animal had been seen to emerge the day before. A story was also
+related to me of an officer attached to the department of the
+Surveyor-General, who, having pitched his tent in a similar position,
+was disturbed during the night by feeling a movement of the earth below
+his bed, from which on the following day a crocodile emerged, making its
+appearance from beneath the matting.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: HERODOTUS records the observations of the Egyptians that
+the crocodile of the Nile abstains from food during the four winter
+months.--_Euterpe_, lviii.]
+
+[Footnote 2: HUMBOLDT relates a similar story as occurring at Calabazo,
+in Venezuela.--_Personal Narrative_, c, xvi.]
+
+The fresh water species that inhabits the tanks is essentially cowardly
+in it instincts, and hastens to conceal itself on the appearance of man.
+A gentleman (who told me the circumstance), when riding in the jungle,
+overtook a crocodile, evidently roaming in search of water. It fled to a
+shallow pool almost dried by the sun, and, thrusting its head into the
+mud till it covered up its eyes, remained unmoved in profound confidence
+of perfect concealment. In 1833, during the progress of the Pearl
+Fishery, Sir Robert Wilmot Horton employed men to drag for crocodiles in
+a pond which was infested by them in the immediate vicinity of Aripo.
+The pool was about fifty yards in length, by ten or twelve wide,
+shallowing gradually to the edge, and not exceeding four or five feet at
+the deepest part. As the party approached the bund, from twenty to
+thirty reptiles, which had been basking in the sun, rose and fled to the
+water. A net, specially weighted so as to sink its lower edge to the
+bottom, was then stretched from bank to bank and swept to the further
+end of the pond, followed by a line of men with poles to drive the
+crocodiles forward: so complete was the arrangement, that no individual
+could have evaded the net, yet, to the astonishment of the Governor's
+party, not one was to be found when it was drawn on shore, and no means
+of escape for them was apparent or possible except by their descending
+into the mud at the bottom of the pond.
+
+The lagoon of Batticaloa, and indeed all the still waters of this
+district, are remarkable for the numbers and prodigious size of the
+crocodiles which infest them. Their teeth are sometimes so large that
+the natives mount them with silver lids and use them for boxes to carry
+the powdered chunam, which they chew with the betel leaf. During one of
+my visits to the lake a crocodile was caught within a few yards of the
+government agent's residence, a hook having been laid the night before,
+baited with the entrails of a goat; and made fast, in the native
+fashion, by a bunch of fine cords, which the creature cannot gnaw
+asunder as it would a solid rope, since they sink into the spaces
+between its teeth. The one taken was small, being only about ten or
+eleven feet in length, whereas they are frequently killed from fifteen
+to nineteen feet long. As long as it was in the water, it made strong
+resistance to being hauled on shore, carrying the canoe out into the
+deep channel, and occasionally raising its head above the surface, and
+clashing its jaws together menacingly. This action has a horrid sound,
+as the crocodile has no fleshy lips; and it brings its teeth and the
+bones of the mouth together with a loud crash, like the clank of two
+pieces of hard wood. After playing it a little, the boatmen drew it to
+land, and when once fairly on the shore all courage and energy seemed
+utterly to desert it. It tried once or twice to regain the water, but at
+last lay motionless and perfectly helpless on the sand. It was no easy
+matter to kill it; a rifle ball sent diagonally through its breast had
+little or no effect, and even when the shot had been repeated more than
+once, it was as full of life as ever.[1] It feigned death and lay
+motionless, with its eye closed; but, on being pricked with a spear, it
+suddenly regained all its activity. It was at last finished by a
+harpoon, and then opened. Its maw contained several small tortoises, and
+a quantity of broken bricks and gravel, taken medicinally, to promote
+digestion.
+
+[Footnote 1: A remarkable instance of the vitality of the common
+crocodile, _C. biporcatus_, was related to me by a gentleman at Galle:
+he had caught on a baited hook an unusually large one, which his coolies
+disembowelled, the aperture in the stomach being left expanded by a
+stick placed across it. On returning in the afternoon with a view to
+secure the head, they found that the creature had crawled for some
+distance, and made its escape into the water.
+
+"A curious incident occurred some years ago on the Maguruganga, a stream
+which flows through the Pasdun Corle, to join the Bentolle river. A man
+was fishing seated on the branch of a tree that overhung the water; and
+to shelter himself from the drizzling rain, he covered his head and
+shoulder with a bag folded into a shape common with the natives. While
+in this attitude, a leopard sprang upon him from the jungle, but missing
+its aim, seized the bag and not the man, and fell with it into the
+river. Here a crocodile, which had been eyeing the angler is despair,
+seized the leopard as it fell, and sunk with it to the
+bottom."--_Letter_ from GOONE-RATNE Modliar, interpreter of the Supreme
+Court, 10th Jany., 1861.]
+
+During our journeys we had numerous opportunities of observing the
+habits of these hideous creatures, and I am far from considering them so
+formidable as they are usually supposed to be. They are evidently not
+wantonly destructive; they act only under the influence of hunger, and
+even then their motions on land are awkward and ungainly, their action
+timid, and their whole demeanour devoid of the sagacity and courage
+which characterise other animals of prey.
+
+TESTUDINATA. _Tortoise_.--Land tortoises are numerous, but present no
+remarkable features beyond the beautiful marking of the starred
+variety[1], which is common in the north-western province around Putlam
+and Chilaw, and is distinguished by the bright yellow rays which
+diversify the deep black of its dorsal shield. From one of these which
+was kept in my garden I took a number of flat ticks (_Ixodes_), which
+adhere to its fleshy neck in such a position as to baffle any attempt of
+the animal itself to remove them; but as they are exposed to constant
+danger of being crushed against the plastron during the protrusion and
+retraction of the head, each is covered with a horny case almost as
+resistant as the carapace of the tortoise itself. Such an adaptation of
+structure is scarcely less striking than that of the parasites found on
+the spotted lizard of Berar by Dr. Hooker, each of which presents the
+distinct colour of the scale to which it adheres.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Testudo stellata.]
+
+[Illustration: THE THREE-RIDGED TORTOISE (EMYS TRIJUGA)]
+
+[Footnote 2: HOOKER'S _Himalayan Journals_, vol. i. p. 37.]
+
+The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented by _terrapins_[1],
+which the natives are in the habit of keeping alive in wells under the
+conviction that they clear them of impurities. These fresh-water
+tortoises, the greater number of which are included in the genus _Emys_
+of naturalists, are distinguished by having their toes webbed. Their
+shell is less convex than that of their congeners on land (but more
+elevated than that of the sea-turtle); and it has been observed that the
+more rounded the shell, the nearer does the terrapin approach to the
+land-tortoise both in its habits and in the choice of its food. Some of
+them live upon animal as well as vegetable food, and those which subsist
+exclusively on the former, are noted as having the flattest shells.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cryptopus granum_, SCHOePF; DR. KELAART, in his _Prodromus_
+(p. 179), refers this to the common Indian species, _C. punctata_; but
+it is distinct. It is generally distributed in the lower parts of
+Ceylon, in lakes and tanks. It is the one usually put into wells to act
+the part of a scavenger. By the Singhalese it is named _Kiri-ibba_.]
+
+The terrapins lay about thirty eggs in the course of several weeks, and
+these are round, with a calcareous shell. They thrive in captivity,
+provided that they have a regular supply of water and of meat, cut into
+small pieces and thrown to them. The tropical species, if transferred to
+a colder climate, should have arrangements made for enabling them to
+hybernate during the winter: they will die in a very short time if
+exposed to a temperature below the freezing point.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Of the _Emys trijuga_, the fresh water tortoise figured on
+preceding page, the technical characteristics are;--vertical plates
+lozenge-shaped; shell convex and oval; with three more or less distinct
+longitudinal keels; shields corrugated; with areola situated in the
+upper posterior corner. Shell brown, with the areolae and the keels
+yellowish; head brown, with a yellow streak over each eye.]
+
+The edible turtle[1] is found on all the coasts of the island, and sells
+for a few shillings or a few pence, according to its size and abundance
+at the moment. A very repulsive spectacle is exhibited in the markets of
+Jaffna by the mode in which the flesh of the turtle is sold piece-meal,
+whilst the animal is still alive, by the families of the Tamil
+fishermen. The creatures are to be seen in the market-place undergoing
+this frightful mutilation; the plastron and its integuments having been
+previously removed, and the animal thrown on its back, so as to display
+all the motions of the heart, viscera, and lungs. A broad knife, from
+twelve to eighteen inches in length, is first inserted at the left side,
+and the women, who are generally the operators, introduce one hand to
+scoop out the blood, which oozes slowly. The blade is next passed round,
+till the lower shell is detached and placed on one side, and the
+internal organs exposed in full action. A customer, as he applies, is
+served with any part selected, which is cut off as ordered, and sold by
+weight. Each of the fins is thus successively removed, with portions of
+the fat and flesh, the turtle showing, by its contortions, that each act
+of severance is productive of agony. In this state it lies for hours,
+writhing in the sun, the heart[2] and head being usually the last pieces
+selected, and till the latter is cut off the snapping of the mouth, and
+the opening and closing of the eyes, show that life is still inherent,
+even when the shell has been nearly divested of its contents.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chelonia virgata, _Schweig_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: ARISTOTLE was aware of the fact that the turtle will live
+after the removal of the heart.--_De Vita et Morte_, ch. ii.]
+
+At certain seasons the flesh of turtle on the south-western coast of
+Ceylon is avoided as poisonous, and some lamentable instances are
+recorded of deaths ascribed to its use. At Pantura, to the south of
+Colombo, twenty-eight persons who had partaken of turtle in October,
+1840, were immediately seized with sickness, after which coma
+supervened, and eighteen died during the night. Those who survived said
+there was nothing unusual in the appearance of the flesh except that it
+was fatter than ordinary. Other similarly fatal occurrences have been
+attributed to turtle curry; but as they have never been proved to
+proceed exclusively from that source, there is room for believing that
+the poison may have been contained in some other ingredient.
+
+In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently found of such a size as to
+measure between four and five feet in length; and on one occasion, in
+riding along the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a man in charge of
+some sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle shell, which he had
+erected on sticks to protect him from the sun--almost verifying the
+statement of AElian, that in the seas off Ceylon there are tortoises so
+large that several persons may find ample shelter beneath a single
+shell.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: "Tiktontai de ara en taute te thalatte, kai
+chelonai megistai, onper oun ta elytra orophoi ginontai kai gar esti kai
+pentekaideka pechon en cheloneion, os hypoikein ouk oligous, kai tous
+helious pyrodestatous apostegei, kai skian asmenois parechei."]--Lib.
+xvi. c. 17. AElian copied this statement literatim from MEGASTHESES,
+_Indica Frag._ lix. 31. May not Megasthenes have referred to some
+tradition connected with the gigantic fossilised species discovered on
+the Sewalik Hills, the remains of which are now in the Museum at the
+East India House?]
+
+The hawksbill-turtle[1], which supplies the tortoise-shell of commerce,
+was at former times taken in great numbers in the vicinity of
+Hambangtotte during the season when they came to deposit their eggs.
+This gave rise to the trade in tortoise-shell at Point de Galle, where
+it is still manufactured into articles of ornament by the Moors; but the
+shell they employ is almost entirely imported from the Maldives.
+
+[Footnote 1: Caretta imbricata, _Linn._]
+
+If taken from the animal after death and decomposition, the colour of
+the shell becomes clouded and milky, and hence the cruel expedient is
+resorted to of seizing the turtles as they repair to the shore to
+deposit their eggs, and suspending them over fires till heat makes the
+plates on the dorsal shields start from the bone of the carapace, after
+which the creature is permitted to escape to the water.[1] In
+illustration of the resistless influence of instinct at the period of
+breeding, it may be mentioned that the identical tortoise is believed to
+return again and again to the same spot, notwithstanding that at each
+visit she may have to undergo a repetition of this torture. In the year
+1826, a hawksbill turtle was taken near Hambangtotte, which bore a ring
+attached to one of its fins that had been placed there by a Dutch
+officer thirty years before, with a view to establish the fact of these
+recurring visits to the same beach.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: At Celebes, whence the finest tortoise-shell is exported to
+China, the natives kill the turtle by blows on the head, and immerse the
+shell in boiling water to detach the plates. Dry heat is only resorted
+to by the unskilful, who frequently destroy the tortoise-shell in the
+operation--_Journal Indian Archipel_. vol. iii. p. 227, 1849.]
+
+[Footnote 2: BENNETT'S _Ceylon, &c._, c. xxxiv.]
+
+An opportunity is afforded on the sea-shore of Ceylon for observing a
+remarkable illustration of instinct in the turtle, when about to deposit
+its eggs. As if conscious that if she went and returned by one and the
+same line across the sandy beach, her hiding place would be discovered
+at its farthest extremity, she resorts to the expedient of curving her
+course, so as to regain the sea by a different track; and after
+depositing the eggs, burying them about eighteen inches deep, she
+carefully smoothes over the surface to render the precise spot
+indiscernible. The Singhalese, aware of this device, sound her line of,
+march with a rod till they come upon the concealed nest.
+
+_Snakes_.--It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited by the ferocious
+expression and unusual action of serpents, combined with an instinctive
+dread of attack[1], that exaggerated ideas prevail both as to their
+numbers in Ceylon, and the danger to be apprehended from encountering
+them. The Singhalese profess to distinguish a great many kinds, of which
+they say not more than one half have as yet been scientifically
+identified[2]; but so cautiously do serpents make their appearance, that
+the surprise of persons long resident is invariably expressed at the
+rarity with which they are to be seen; and from my own journeys through
+the jungle, often of from two to five hundred miles, I have frequently
+returned without observing a single snake. Mr. Bennett, who resided much
+in the south-east of the island, ascribes the rarity of serpents in the
+jungle to the abundance of the wild peafowl, whose partiality to young
+snakes renders them the chief destroyers of these reptiles. It is
+likely, too, that they are killed by the jungle-cocks; for they are
+frequently eaten by the common barn-door fowl in Ceylon. This is
+rendered the more probable by the fact, that in those districts where
+the extension of cultivation, and the visits of sportsmen, have reduced
+the numbers of the jungle-cocks and pea-fowl, snakes have perceptibly
+increased. The deer also are enemies of the snakes, and the natives who
+have had opportunities of watching their encounters assert that they
+have seen deer rush upon a serpent and crush it by leaping on it with
+all its four feet. As to the venomous powers of snakes, DR. DAVY, whose
+attention was carefully directed to the poisonous serpents of Ceylon[3],
+came to the conclusion that but _four_, out of twenty species examined
+by him, were venomous, and that of these only two (the _tic-polonga_[4]
+and _cobra de capello_[5]) were capable of inflicting a wound likely to
+be fatal to man. The third is the _carawala_[6], a brown snake of about
+two feet in length; and for the fourth, of which only a few specimens
+have been procured, the Singhalese have no name in their vernacular--a
+proof that it is neither deadly nor abundant. But Dr. Davy's estimate of
+the venom of the _carawala_ is below the truth, as cases have been
+authenticated to me, in which death from its bite ensued within a few
+days. The effect, however, is not uniformly fatal; a circumstance which
+the natives explain by asserting that there are three varieties of the
+carawala, named the _hil-la_, the _dunu_, and the _mal_-carawala; the
+second being the largest and the most dreaded.
+
+[Footnote 1: Genesis iii. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 2: This is not likely to be true: in a very large collection
+of snakes made in Ceylon by Mr. C.R. Butler, and recently examined by
+Dr. Guenther, of the British Museum, only a single-specimen proved to be
+new.
+
+There is, however, one venomous snake, of the existence of which I am
+assured by a native correspondent in Ceylon, no mention has yet been
+made by European naturalists. It is called M[=a]pil[=a] by the
+Singhalese; it is described to me as being about four feet in length, of
+the diameter of the little finger, and of a uniform dark brown colour.
+It is said to be often seen in company with another snake called in
+Singhalese _Lay Medilla_, a name which implies its deep red hue. The
+latter is believed to be venomous. It would be well if some collector in
+Ceylon would send home for examination the species which respectively
+bear these names.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See DAVY'S _Ceylon_, ch. xiv.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Daboia elegans, _Daud._]
+
+[Footnote 5: Naja tripudians, _Merr._]
+
+[Footnote 6: Trigonocephalus hypnale, _Merr._]
+
+In like manner, the _tic-polonga_, particularised by Dr. Davy, is said
+to be but one out of seven varieties of that formidable reptile. The
+word "tic" means literally the "spotted" polonga, from the superior
+clearness of the markings on its scales. Another, the _nidi_, or
+"sleeping" polonga, is so called from the fact that a person bitten by
+it is soon prostrated by a lethargy from which he never awakes.[1] These
+formidable serpents so infested the official residence of the District
+Judge of Trincomalie in 1858, as to compel his family to abandon it. In
+another instance, a friend of mine, going hastily to take a supply of
+wafers from an open tin case which stood in his office, drew back his
+hand, on finding the box occupied by a tic-polonga coiled within it.
+During my residence in Ceylon, I never heard of the death of a European
+which was caused by the bite of a snake; and in the returns of coroners'
+inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the natives
+appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the animal, having been
+surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in self-defence.[2] For
+these reasons the Singhalese, when obliged to leave their houses in the
+dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the noise[3] of which as they
+strike it on the ground is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their
+path.
+
+[Footnote 1: The other varieties are the _getta, lay, alu, kunu,_ and
+_nil-polongas._ I have heard of an eighth, the _palla-polonga_.
+
+Amongst the numerous pieces of folk-lore in Ceylon in connexion with
+snakes, is the belief that a deadly enmity subsists between the polonga
+and the cobra de capello, and that the latter, which is naturally shy
+and retiring, is provoked to conflicts by the audacity of its rival.
+Hence the proverb applied to persons at enmity, that "they hate like the
+polonga and cobra."
+
+The Singhalese believe the polonga to be by far the most savage and
+wanton of the two, and they illustrate this by a popular legend, that
+once upon a time a child, in the absence of its mother, was playing
+beside a tub of water, which a cobra, impelled by thirst during a
+long-continued drought, approached to drink, the unconscious child all
+the while striking it with its hands to prevent the intrusion. The
+cobra, on returning, was met by a tic-polonga, which seeing its scales
+dripping with delicious moisture, entreated to be told the way to the
+well. The cobra, knowing the vicious habits of the other snake, and
+anticipating that it would kill the innocent child which it had so
+recently spared, at first refused, and only yielded on condition that
+the infant was not to be molested. But the polonga, on reaching the tub,
+was no sooner obstructed by the little one, than it stung him to death.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In a return of 112 coroners' inquests, in cases of death
+from wild animals, held in Ceylon in five years, from 1851 to 1855
+inclusive, 68 are ascribed to the bites of serpents; and in almost every
+instance the assault is set down as having taken place _at night_. The
+majority of the sufferers were children and women.]
+
+[Footnote 3: PLINY notices that the serpent has the sense of hearing
+more acute than that of sight; and that it is more frequently put in
+motion by the sound of footsteps than by the appearance of the intruder,
+"excitatur pede saepius."--Lib, viii. c. 36.]
+
+_Cobra de Capello._--The cobra de capello is the only one exhibited by
+the itinerant snake-charmers: and the truth of Davy's conjecture, that
+they control it, not by extracting its fangs, but by courageously
+availing themselves of its well-known timidity and extreme reluctance to
+use its fatal weapons, received a painful confirmation during my
+residence in Ceylon, by the death of one of these performers, whom his
+audience had provoked to attempt some unaccustomed familiarity with the
+cobra; it bit him on the wrist, and he expired the same evening. The
+hill near Kandy, on which the official residences of the Governor and
+Colonial Secretary are built, is covered in many places with the
+deserted nests of the white ants (_termites_), and these are the
+favourite retreats of the sluggish and spiritless cobra, which watches
+from their apertures the toads and lizards on which it preys. Here, when
+I have repeatedly come upon them, their only impulse was concealment;
+and on one occasion, when a cobra of considerable length could not
+escape, owing to the bank being nearly precipitous on both sides of the
+road, a few blows from my whip were sufficient to deprive it of life.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A Singhalese work, the _Sarpados[=a]_, enumerates four
+castes of the cobra;--the _raja_, or king: the _bamunu_, or Brahman; the
+_velanda_, or trader; and the _gori_, or agriculturist. Of these the
+raja, or "king of the cobras," is said to have the head and the anterior
+half of the body of so light a colour, that at a distance it seems like
+a silvery white. The work is quoted, but not correctly, in the _Ceylon
+Times_ for January, 1857. It is more than probable, as the division
+represents the four castes of the Hindus, Chastriyas, Brahmans Vaisyas,
+and Sudras; that the insertion of the _gori_ instead of the latter was a
+pious fraud of some copyist to confer rank upon the Vellales, the
+agricultural caste of Ceylon.]
+
+A gentleman who held a civil appointment at Kornegalle, had a servant
+who was bitten by a snake and he informed me that on enlarging a hole
+near the foot of the tree under which the accident occurred, he
+unearthed a cobra of upwards of three feet long, and so purely white as
+to induce him to believe that it was an albino. With the exception of
+the _rat-snake_[1], the cobra de capello is the only serpent which seems
+from choice to frequent the vicinity of human dwellings, doubtless
+attracted by the young of the domestic fowl and by the moisture of the
+wells and drainage.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Coryphodon Blumenbachii._ There is a belief in Ceylon that
+the bite of the rat-snake, though harmless to man, is fatal to black
+cattle. The Singhalese add that it would be equally so to man were the
+wound to be touched by cow-dung. WOLF, in the interesting story of his
+_Life and Adventures in Ceylon_, mentions that rat-snakes were often so
+domesticated by the native as to feed at their table. He says: "I once
+saw an example of this in the house of a native. It being meal time, he
+called his snake, which immediately came forth from the roof under which
+he and I were sitting. He gave it victuals from his own dish, which the
+snake took of itself from off a fig-leaf that was laid for it, and ate
+along with its host. When it had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss, and
+bade it go to its hole." Major SKINNER, writing to me 12th Dec., 1858,
+mentions the still more remarkable case of the domestication of the
+cobra de capello in Ceylon. "Did you ever hear," he says, "of tame
+cobras being kept and domesticated about a house, going in and out at
+pleasure, and in common with the rest of the inmates? In one family,
+near Negombo, cobras are kept as protectors, in the place of dogs, by a
+wealthy man who has always large sums of money in his house. But this is
+not a solitary case of the kind. I heard of it only the other day, but
+from undoubtedly good authority. The snakes glide about the house, a
+terror to thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates."]
+
+The young cobras, it is said, in the _Sarpa-dosa_, are not venomous till
+after the thirteenth day, when they shed their coat for the first time.
+
+The Singhalese remark that if one cobra be destroyed near a house, its
+companion is almost certain to be discovered immediately after,--a
+popular belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more than one
+occasion. Once, when a snake of this description was killed in a bath of
+the Government House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot the
+day after; and again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long,
+having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its escape,
+its companion of the same size was found the same morning in an
+adjoining drain.[1] On this occasion the snake, which had been several
+hours in the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood above
+water; and instances have repeatedly occurred of the cobra de capello
+voluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea. When the
+"Wellington," a government vessel employed in the conservancy of the
+pearl banks, was anchored about a quarter of a mile from the land, in
+the bay of Koodremale, a cobra was seen, about an hour before sunset,
+swimming vigorously towards the ship. It came within twelve yards, when
+the sailors assailed it with billets of wood and other missiles, and
+forced it to return to land. The following morning they discovered the
+track which it had left on the shore, and traced it along the sand till
+it was lost in the jungle. On a later occasion, in the vicinity of the
+same spot, when the "Wellington" was lying at some distance from the
+shore, a cobra was found and killed on board, where it could only have
+gained access by climbing up the cable. It was first discovered by a
+sailor, who felt the chill as it glided over his foot.
+
+[Footnote 1: PLINY notices the affection that subsists between the male
+and female asp; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other
+seeks to avenge its death.--Lib. viii. c. 37.]
+
+One curious tradition in Ceylon embodies the popular legend, that the
+stomach of the cobra de capello occasionally contains a precious stone
+of such unapproachable brilliancy as to surpass all known jewels. This
+inestimable stone is called the _n[=a]ga-m[=a]nik-kya_; but not one
+snake in thousands is supposed to possess such a treasure. The cobra,
+before eating, is believed to cast it up and conceal it for the moment;
+else its splendour, like a flambeau, would attract all beholders. The
+tales of the peasantry, in relation to it, all turn upon the devices of
+those in search of the gem, and the vigilance and cunning of the cobra
+by which they are baffled; the reptile itself being more enamoured of
+the priceless jewel than even its most ardent pursuers.
+
+In BENNETT'S account of "_Ceylon and its Capabilities_," there is
+another curious piece of Singhalese folk-lore, to the effect, that the
+cobra de capello every time it expends its poison _loses a joint of its
+tail_, and eventually acquires a head resembling that of a toad. A
+recent addition to zoological knowledge has thrown light on the origin
+of this popular fallacy. The family of "false snakes" (_pseudo
+typhlops_, as Schlegel names the group) have till lately consisted of
+but three species, of which only one was known to inhabit Ceylon. They
+belong to a family intermediate between the serpents and that Saurian
+group-commonly called _Slow-worms_ or _Glass-snakes_; they in fact
+represent the slow-worms of the temperate regions in Ceylon. They have
+the body of a snake, but the cleft of their mouth is very narrow, and
+they are unable to detach the lateral parts of the lower jaw from each
+other, as the true snakes do when devouring a prey. The most striking
+character of the group, however, is the size and form of the tail; this
+is very short, and according to the observations of Professor Peters of
+Berlin[1], shorter in the female than in the male. It does not terminate
+in a point as in other snakes, but is truncated obliquely, the abrupt
+surface of its extremity being either entirely flat, or more or less
+convex, and always covered with rough keels. The reptile assists its own
+movements by pressing the rough end to the ground, and from this
+peculiar form of the tail, the family has received the name of
+_Uropeltidae_, or "Shield-tails." Within a very recent period important
+additions have been made to this family. which now consists of four
+genera and eleven species. Those occurring in Ceylon are enumerated in
+the List appended to this chapter. One of these, the _Uropeltis grandis_
+of Kelaart[2], is distinguished by its dark brown colour, shot with a
+bluish metallic lustre, closely approaching the ordinary shade of the
+cobra; and the tail is abruptly and flatly compressed as though it had
+been severed by a knife. The form of this singular reptile will be best
+understood by a reference to the accompanying figure; and there can, I
+think, be little doubt that to its strange and anomalous structure is to
+be traced the fable of the transformation of the cobra de capello. The
+colour alone would seem to identify the two reptiles, but the head and
+mouth are no longer those of a serpent, and the disappearance of the
+tail might readily suggest the mutilation which the tradition asserts.
+
+[Illustration: THE UROPELTIS PHILIPPINUS.]
+
+[Footnote 1: PETERS, _De Serpentum familia Uropeltaceorum_. Berol, 4.
+1861.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The _Uropeltis grandis_ of Kelaart, which was at first
+supposed to be a new species, proves to be identical with _U.
+Phillippinus_ of Cuvier. It is doubtful, however, whether this species
+be found in the Phillippine Islands, as stated by Cuvier; and it is more
+than, probable that the typical specimen came from Ceylon--a further
+illustration of the affinity of the fauna of Ceylon to that of the
+Eastern Archipelago. The characteristics of this reptile, as given by
+Dr. GRAY, are as follows:--"Caudal disc subcircular, with large
+scattered tubercles; snout subacute, slightly produced. Dark brown,
+lighter below, with some of the scales dark brown in the centre near the
+posterior edge. GRAY, _Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1858, p. 262.]
+
+The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence from inflicting
+death on any creature, are accustomed, after securing a venomous snake,
+to enclose it in a basket woven of palm leaves, and to set it afloat on
+a river.
+
+_The Python._--The great python[1] (the "boa," as it is commonly
+designated by Europeans, the "anaconda" of Eastern story), which is
+supposed to crush the bones of an elephant, and to swallow the tiger, is
+found, though not of such portentous dimensions, in the cinnamon gardens
+within a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it feeds on hog-deer, and
+other smaller animals.
+
+[Footnote 1: Python reticulatus, _Gray_.]
+
+The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it to a pole expose
+it for sale as a curiosity. One that was brought to me tied in this way
+measured seventeen feet with a proportionate thickness: but one more
+fully grown, which crossed my path on a coffee estate on the Peacock
+Mountain at Pusilawa, considerably exceeded these dimensions. Another
+which I watched in the garden at Elie House, near Colombo, surprised me
+by the ease with which it erected itself almost perpendicularly in order
+to scale a wall upwards of ten feet high.
+
+The Singhalese assert that when it has swallowed a deer, or any animal
+of similarly inconvenient bulk, the python draws itself through the
+narrow aperture between two trees, in order to crush the bones and
+assist in the process of deglutition.
+
+It is a singular fact that the small and innocuous ground-snakes called
+_Calamariae_, which abound on the continent of India and in the islands
+are not to be found in Ceylon; where they would appear to be replaced by
+two singular genera, the _Aspidura_ and _Haplocercus_, These latter have
+only one series of shields below the tail, whilst most other harmless
+snakes (_Calamaria_ included) have a double series of sub-candals. The
+_Aspidura_ has been known to naturalists for many years[1]; the
+_Haplocercus_ of Ceylon has only recently been described by Dr. Guenther,
+and of it not more than three existing specimens are known: hence its
+habits and the extent of its distribution over the island are still left
+in uncertainty.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Boie in Isis 1827 p. 517.]
+
+[Footnote 2: GUeNTH. _Col. Snakes_, p. 14. In the hope that some inquirer
+in Ceylon will be able to furnish such information as may fill up this
+blank in the history of the haplocercus, the following particulars are
+here appended. The largest of the specimens in the British Museum is
+about twenty-five inches in length; the body thin, and much elongated;
+the head narrow, and not distinct from the neck, the tail of moderate
+length. Forehead covered by three shields, one anterior and two
+posterior frontals; no loreal shield; one small shield before, two
+behind the eye; seven shields along the upper lip, the eye being above
+the fourth. The scales are disposed in seventeen longitudinal series;
+they are lanceolate and strongly keeled. The upper parts are uniform
+blackish or brown, with two dorsal rows of small indistinct black spots;
+occiput with a whitish collar, edged with darker. The lower parts
+uniform yellowish.]
+
+Of ten species of snakes that ascend trees in Ceylon to search for
+squirrels and lizards, and to rifle the nests of birds, one half,
+including the green _carawala_, and the deadly _tic polonga_, are
+believed by the natives to be venomous; but the truth of this is very
+dubious. I have heard of the cobra being found on the crown of a
+coco-nut palm, attracted, it was said, by the toddy which was flowing at
+the time, it being the season for drawing it. Surrounding Elie House,
+near Colombo, in which I resided, were a number of tall _casuarinas_ and
+India-rubber trees, whose branches almost touched the lattices of the
+window of the room in which I usually sat. These were a favourite resort
+of the tree-snakes, and in the early morning the numbers which clung to
+them were sometimes quite remarkable. I had thus an opportunity of
+observing the action of these creatures, which seems to me one of
+vigilance rather than of effort, the tongue being in perpetual activity,
+as if it were an organ of feeling; and in those in which the nose is
+elongated, a similar mobility and restlessness, especially when alarmed,
+affords evidence of the same faculty.
+
+The general characteristic of the Tree-snake is an exceedingly thin and
+delicate body, often adorned with colours exquisite as those of the
+foliage amongst which they live concealed. In some of the South American
+species the tints vie in brilliancy with those of the humming-birds;
+whilst their forms are so flexible and slender as to justify the name
+conferred on them of "_whip-snakes_." The Siamese, to denote these
+combinations of grace and splendour, call them "Sun-beams." A
+naturalist[1], describing a bright green species in Brazil (_Philodryas
+viridissimus_), writes: "I am always delighted when I find that another
+tree-snake has settled in my garden. You look for a bird's nest, the
+young ones have gone, but you find their bed occupied by one of these
+beautiful creatures, which will coil up its body of two feet in length
+within a space no larger than the hollow of your hand. They appear to be
+always watchful; for at the instant you discover one, the quick playing
+of the long, black, forked tongue will show you that you too are
+observed. On perceiving the slightest sign of your intention to disturb
+it, the snake will dart upwards through the branches and over the leaves
+which scarcely appear to bend beneath the weight. A moment more, and you
+have lost sight of it. Whenever I return to Europe, you may be sure that
+in my hot-house those harmless, lovely creatures shall not be missing."
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. WUCHERER of Bahia.]
+
+[Illustration: TREE SNAKE. Passerita fusca.]
+
+Ceylon has several species of Tree-snakes, and one of the most common is
+the green _Passerita_, easily recognized from its bright colour and from
+the pointed moveable appendage, into which the snout is prolonged. The
+snakes of this genus being active chiefly during the night, the pupil of
+the eye is linear and horizontal. They never willingly descend from
+trees, but prey there upon nocturnal Saurians, geckoes, small birds and
+their young; and they are perfectly harmless, although they often try to
+bite. It is strange that none of the numerous specimens which it has
+been attempted to bring to Europe have ever fed in captivity; whilst in
+South America they take their food freely in confinement, provided that
+some green plants are placed in their cage.
+
+In Ceylon I have never seen any specimen of a larger size than three
+feet; whilst they are known to attain to more than five on the Indian
+Continent.
+
+The inference is obvious, that the green coloration of the majority of
+tree-snakes has more or less connection with their habits and mode of
+life. Indeed, whenever a green-coloured snake is observed, it may at
+once be pronounced, if slender or provided with a prehensile tail, to be
+of the kind which passes its life on trees; but if it be short-bodied
+then it lives on the prairies. There are nevertheless tree-snakes which
+have a very different coloration; and one of the most remarkable species
+is the _Passerita fusca_ or _Dryinus fuscus_, of which a figure is
+annexed. It closely resembles the green Passerita in form, so that
+naturalists have considered it to be a mere variety. It is entirely of a
+shining brown, shot with purple, and the yellow longitudinal stripe
+which runs along the side of the belly of the green species, is absent
+in this one. It is much more rare than the green one, and does not
+appear to be found in Hindostan: no intermediate forms have been
+observed in Ceylon.
+
+_Water-Snakes._--The fresh-water snakes, of which several species[1]
+inhabit the still waters and pools, are all harmless in Ceylon. A
+gentleman, who found near a river an agglutinated cluster of the eggs of
+one variety (_Tropidophis schistosus_), placed them under a glass shade
+on his drawing-room table, where one by one the young reptiles emerged
+from the shell to the number of twenty.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chersydrus granulatus, _Merr_.; Cerberus cinereus. _Daud._;
+Tropidophis schistosus, _Daud._]
+
+The _sea-snakes_ of the Indian tropics did not escape the notice of the
+early Greek mariners who navigated those seas; and amongst the facts
+collected by them, AElian has briefly recorded that the Indian Ocean
+produces serpents _with flattened tails_[1], whose bite, he adds, is to
+be dreaded less for its venom than the laceration of its teeth. The
+first statement is accurate, but the latter is incorrect, as there is an
+all but unanimous concurrence of opinion that every species of this
+family of serpents is more or less poisonous. The compression of the
+tail noticed by AElian is one of the principal characteristics of these
+reptiles, as their motion through the water is mainly effected by its
+aid, coupled with the undulating movement of the rest of the body. Their
+scales, instead of being imbricated like those of land-snakes, form
+hexagons; and those on the belly, instead of being scutate and enlarged,
+are nearly of the same size and form as on other parts of the body.
+
+[Footnote 1: "[Greek: Plateis tas ouras]." AELIAN, L. xvi. c. 8.
+
+AElian speaks elsewhere of fresh-water snakes. His remark on the
+compression of the tail shows that his informants were aware of this
+speciality in those that inhabit the sea.]
+
+Sea-snakes (_Hydrophis_) are found on all the coasts of Ceylon. I have
+sailed through large shoals of them in the Gulf of Manaar, close to the
+pearl-banks of Aripo. The fishermen of Calpentyn on the west live in
+perpetual dread of them, and believe their bite to be fatal. In the
+course of an attempt which was recently made to place a lighthouse on
+the great rocks of the south-east coast, known by seamen as the
+Basses[1], or _Baxos_, the workmen who first landed found the portion of
+the surface liable to be covered by the tides, honeycombed, and hollowed
+into deep holes filled with water, in which were abundance of fishes and
+some molluscs. Some of these cavities also contained sea-snakes from
+four to five feet long, which were described as having the head "hooded
+like the cobra de capello, and of a light grey colour, slightly
+speckled. They coiled themselves like serpents on land, and darted at
+poles thrust in among them. The Singhalese who accompanied the party,
+said that they not only bit venomously, but crushed the limb of any
+intruder in their coils."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: The Basses are believed to be the remnants of the great
+island of Giri, swallowed up by the sea.--_Mahawanso_, ch. i. p. 4. They
+may possibly be the _Bassae_ of Ptolemy's map of _Taprobane_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Official Report to the Governor of Ceylon.]
+
+Still, sea-snakes, though well-known to the natives, are not abundant
+round Ceylon, as compared with their numbers in other places. Their
+principal habitat is the ocean between the southern shores of China and
+the northern coast of New Holland; and their western limit appears to be
+about the longitude of Cape Comorin. It has long since been ascertained
+that they frequent the seas that separate the islands of the Pacific;
+but they have never yet been found in the Atlantic, nor even on the
+western shores of tropical America. And if, as has been stated[1], they
+have been seen on a late occasion in considerable numbers in the Bay of
+Panama, the fact can only be regarded as one of the rare instances, in
+which a change in the primary distribution of a race of animals has
+occurred, either by an active or a passive immigration. Being
+exclusively inhabitants of the sea, they are liable to be swept along by
+the influence of currents; but to compensate for this they have been
+endowed with a wonderful power of swimming. The individuals of all the
+groups of terrestrial serpents are observed to be possessed of this
+faculty to a greater or a less degree; and they can swim for a certain
+distance without having any organs specially modified for the purpose;
+except, perhaps, the lung, which is a long sac capable of taking in a
+sufficient quantity of air, to keep the body of the snake above water.
+Nor do we find any peculiar or specially adapted organs even in the
+freshwater-snakes, although they can catch frogs or fishes while
+swimming. But in the _hydrophids_, which are permanent inhabitants of
+the ocean, and which in an adult state, approach the beach only
+occasionally, and for very short times, the tail, which is rounded and
+tapering in the others, is compressed into a vertical rudder-like organ,
+similar to, and answering all the purposes of, the caudal fin in a fish.
+When these snakes are brought on shore or on the deck of a ship, they
+are helpless and struggle vainly in awkward attitudes. Their food
+consists exclusively of such fishes as are found near the surface; a
+fact which affords ample proof that they do not descend to great depths,
+although they can dive as well as swim. They are often found in groups
+during calm weather, sleeping on the sea; but owing to their extreme
+caution and shyness, attempts to catch them are rarely successful; on
+the least alarm, they suddenly expel the air from their lungs and
+descend below the surface; a long stream of rising air-bubbles marking
+the rapid course which they make below. Their poisonous nature has been
+questioned; but the presence of a strong perforated tooth and of a
+venomous gland sufficiently attest their dangerous powers, even if these
+had not been demonstrated by the effects of their bite. But fortunately
+for the fishermen, who sometimes find them unexpectedly among the
+contents of their nets, sea-snakes are unable, like other venomous
+serpents, to open the jaws widely, and in reality they rarely inflict a
+wound. Dr. Cantor believes, that, they are blinded by the light when
+removed from their own element; and he adds that they become sluggish
+and speedily die.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Catal. Mal. Rept_. p. 136.]
+
+[Illustration: SEA SNAKE Hydrophis subloevis]
+
+Those found near the coasts of Ceylon are generally small,--from one to
+three feet in length, and apparently immature; and it is certain that
+the largest specimens taken in the Pacific do not attain to greater
+length than eight feet. In colour they are generally of a greenish
+brown, in parts inclining to yellow, with occasionally cross bands of
+black. The species figured in the accompanying drawing is the _Hydrophis
+subloevis_ of Gray; or _Hydrus cyanocinctus_ of Boie.[1] The specimen
+from which the drawing is taken, was obtained by Dr. Templeton at
+Colombo.
+
+[Footnote 1: Its technical characteristics are as follows,--Body rather
+slender; ground colour yellowish with irregular black rings. Scales
+nearly smooth; ventral plates broad, six-sided, smooth, some divided
+into two, by a slight central groove. Occipital shields large,
+triangular, and produced, with a small central shield behind them; a
+series of four large temporal shields; chin shields in two pairs; eyes
+very small, over the fourth and fifth labials; one ante-and two
+post-oculars; the second upper labial shield elongated.]
+
+The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-stone, as a remedy in cases of
+wounds by venomous serpents, has probably been communicated to the
+Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island from
+the coast of Coromandel; and more than one well-authenticated instance
+of its successful application has been told to me by persons who had
+been eye-witnesses to what they described. On one occasion, in March,
+1854, a friend of mine was riding, with some other civil officers of the
+Government, along a jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he saw
+one of two Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart into
+the forest and return, holding in both hands a cobra de capello which he
+had seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion for
+assistance to place it in their covered basket, but, in doing this, he
+handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and retained
+its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract its fangs. The blood
+flowed, and intense pain appeared to follow almost immediately; but,
+with all expedition, the friend of the sufferer undid his waistcloth,
+and took from it two snake-stones, each of the size of a small almond,
+intensely black and highly polished, though of an extremely light
+substance. These he applied, one to each wound inflicted by the teeth of
+the serpent, to which they attached themselves closely; the blood that
+oozed from the bites being rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of the
+article applied. The stones adhered tenaciously for three or four
+minutes, the wounded man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing his arm
+downwards from the shoulder towards the fingers. At length the
+snake-stones dropped off of their own accord; the suffering of the man
+appeared to subside; he twisted his fingers till the joints cracked, and
+went on his way without concern. Whilst this had been going on, another
+Indian of the party who had come up took from his bag a small piece of
+white wood, which resembled a root, and passed it gently near the head
+of the cobra, which the latter immediately inclined close to the ground;
+he then lifted the snake without hesitation, and coiled it into a circle
+at the bottom of his basket. The root by which he professed to be
+enabled to perform this operation with safety he called the _Naya-thalic
+Kalanga_ (the root of the snake-plant), protected by which he professed
+his ability to approach any reptile with impunity.
+
+In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, then District Judge of
+Kandy, informed me that he saw a snake-charmer in the jungle, close by
+the town, search for a cobra de capello, and, after disturbing one in
+its retreat, the man tried to secure it, but, in the attempt, he was
+bitten in the thigh till blood trickled from the wound. He instantly
+applied the _Pamboo-Kaloo_, which adhered closely for about ten minutes,
+during which time he passed the root which he held in his hand backwards
+and forwards above the stone, till the latter dropped to the ground. He
+assured Mr. Lavalliere that all danger was then past. That gentleman
+obtained from him the snake-stone he had relied on, and saw him
+repeatedly afterwards in perfect health.
+
+The substances used on both these occasions are now in my possession.
+The roots employed by the several parties are not identical. One appears
+to be a bit of the stem of an Aristolochia; the other is so dried as to
+render its identification difficult, but it resembles the quadrangular
+stem of a jungle vine. Some species of Aristolochia, such as the _A.
+serpentaria_ of North America, are supposed to act as specifics in the
+cure of snakebites; and the _A. indica_ is the plant to which the
+ichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an antidote when bitten[1];
+but it is probable that the use of any particular plant by the
+snake-charmers is a pretence, or rather a delusion, the reptile being
+overpowered by the resolute action of the operator[2], and not by the
+influence of any secondary appliance. In other words, the confidence
+inspired by the supposed talisman enables its possessor to address
+himself fearlessly to his task, and thus to effect, by determination and
+will, what is popularly believed to be the result of charms and
+stupefaction. Still it is curious that, amongst the natives of Northern
+Africa, who lay hold of the _Cerastes_ without fear or hesitation,
+impunity is ascribed to the use of a plant with the juice of which they
+anoint themselves before touching the reptile[3]; and Bruce says of the
+people of Sennar, that they acquire exemption from the fatal
+consequences of the bite by chewing a particular root, and washing
+themselves with an infusion of certain plants. He adds that a portion of
+this root was given him, with a view to test its efficacy in his own
+person, but that he had not sufficient resolution to make the
+experiment.
+
+[Footnote 1: For an account of the encounter between the ichneumon and
+the venomous snakes of Ceylon, see Ch. I. p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The following narrative of the operations of a
+snake-charmer in Ceylon is contained in a note from Mr. Reyne, of the
+department of public works: "A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in
+1851, requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing. As I had
+frequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee if he would
+accompany me to the jungle, and catch a cobra, that I knew frequented
+the place. He was willing, and as I was anxious to test the truth of the
+charm, I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch over them until I
+returned with him. Before going I examined the man, and satisfied myself
+he had no snake about his person. When we arrived at the spot, he played
+on a small pipe, and after persevering for some time out came a large
+cobra from an ant hill, which I knew it occupied. On seeing the man it
+tried to escape, but he caught it by the tail and kept swinging it round
+until we reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long it
+bit him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the bite,
+and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He was in
+great pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually went away, the
+stone falling off just before he was relieved. When he recovered he held
+a cloth up which the snake flew at, and caught its fangs in it; while in
+that position, the man passed his hand up its back, and having seized it
+by the throat, he extracted the fangs in my presence and gave them to
+me. He then squeezed out the poison on to a leaf. It was a clear oily
+substance, and when rubbed on the hand produced a fine lather. I
+carefully watched the whole operation, which was also witnessed by my
+clerk and two or three other persons. _Colombo, 13th January_
+1860.--H.E. REYNE."]
+
+[Footnote 3: Hasselquist.]
+
+As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the application of which
+I have been describing, to Mr. Faraday, who has communicated to me, as
+the result of his analysis, his belief that it is "a piece of charred
+bone which has been filled with blood perhaps several times, and then
+carefully charred again. Evidence of this is afforded, as well by the
+apertures of cells or tubes on its surface as by the fact that it yields
+and breaks, under pressure; and exhibits an organic structure within.
+When heated slightly, water rises from it, and also a little ammonia;
+and, if heated still more highly in the air, carbon burns away, and a
+bulky white ash is left, retaining the shape and size of the stone."
+This ash, as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged toany
+vegetable substance, for it is almost entirely composed of phosphate of
+lime. Mr. Faraday adds that "if the piece of matter has ever been
+employed as a spongy absorbent, it seems hardly fit for that purpose in
+its present state: but who can say to what treatment it has been
+subjected since it was fit for use, or to what treatment the natives may
+submit it when expecting to have occasion to use it?"
+
+The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when instantaneously
+applied, may be sufficiently porous and absorbent to extract the venom
+from the recent wound, together with a portion of the blood, before it
+has had time to be carried into the system; and that the blood which Mr.
+Faraday detected in the specimen submitted to him was that of the Indian
+on whose person the effect was exhibited on the occasion to which my
+informant was an eye-witness. The snake-charmers from the coast who
+visit Ceylon profess to prepare the snake-stones for themselves, and to
+preserve the composition a secret. Dr. Davy[1], on the authority of Sir
+Alexander Johnston, says the manufacture of them is a lucrative trade,
+carried on by the monks of Manilla, who supply the merchants of
+India--and his analysis confirms that of Mr. Faraday. Of the three
+different kinds which he examined--one being of partially burnt bone,
+and another of chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of vegetable matter,
+resembled bezoar,--all of them (except the first, which possessed a
+slight absorbent power) were quite inert, and incapable of having any
+effect except on the imagination of the patient. Thunberg was shown the
+snake-stone used by the boers at the Cape in 1772, which was imported
+for them "from the Indies, especially from Malabar," at so high a price
+that few of the farmers could afford to possess themselves of it; he
+describes it as convex on one side, black and so porous that "when
+thrown into water, it caused bubbles to rise;" and hence, by its
+absorbent qualities, it served, if speedily applied, to extract the
+poison from the wound.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Account of the Interior of Ceylon_, ch. iii. p. 101.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Thunberg_, vol. i. p. 155. Since the foregoing account was
+published, I have received a note from Mr. HARDY, relative to the
+_piedra ponsona_, the snake-stone of Mexico, in which he gives the
+following account of the method of preparing and applying it: "Take a
+piece of hart's horn of any convenient size and shape; cover it well
+round with grass or hay, enclose both in a thin piece of sheet copper
+well wrapped round them, and place the parcel in a charcoal fire till
+the bone is sufficiently charred.
+
+"When cold, remove the calcined horn from its envelope, when it will be
+ready for immediate use. In this state it will resemble a solid black
+fibrous substance, of the same shape and size as before it was subjected
+to this treatment.
+
+"USE.--The wound being slightly punctured, apply the bone to the
+opening, to which it will adhere firmly for the space of two minutes;
+and when it falls, it should be received into a basin of water. It
+should then be dried in a cloth, and again applied to the wound. But it
+will not adhere longer than about one minute. In like manner it may be
+applied a third time; but now it will fall almost immediately, and
+nothing will cause it to adhere any more.
+
+"These effects I witnessed in the case of a bite of a rattle-snake at
+Oposura, a town in the province of Sonora, in Mexico, from whence I
+obtained my recipe; and I have given other particulars respecting it in
+my Travels in the Interior of Mexico, published in 1830. R.W.H. HARDY.
+_Bath_, 30_th January_, 1860."]
+
+_Coecilia_.--The rocky jungle, bordering the higher coffee estates,
+provides a safe retreat for a very singular animal, first introduced to
+the notice of European naturalists about a century ago by Linnaeus, who
+gave it the name _Coecilia glutinosa_, to indicate two peculiarities
+manifest to the ordinary observer--an apparent defect of vision, from
+the eyes being so small and embedded as to be scarcely distinguishable;
+and a power of secreting from minute pores in the skin a viscous fluid,
+resembling that of snails, eels, and some salamanders. Specimens are
+rare in Europe owing to the readiness with which it decomposes, breaking
+down into a flaky mass in the spirits in which it is attempted to
+preserve it.
+
+The creature is about the length and thickness of an ordinary round desk
+ruler, a little flattened before and rounded behind. It is brownish,
+with a pale stripe along either side. The skin is furrowed into 350
+circular folds, in which are imbedded minute scales. The head is
+tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine curved teeth for seizing
+the insects and worms on which it is supposed to live.
+
+Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and metamorphoses of this
+creature should be carefully ascertained, for great doubts have been
+entertained as to the position it is entitled to occupy in the chain of
+creation.
+
+_Batrachians._--In the numerous marshes formed by the overflowing of the
+rivers in the plains of the low country, there are many varieties of
+frogs, which, both by their colours and by their extraordinary size, are
+calculated to excite the surprise of a stranger. In the lakes around
+Colombo and the still water near Trincomalie, there are huge creatures
+of this family, from six to eight inches in length[1], of an olive hue,
+deepening into brown on the back and yellow on the under side. A Kandyan
+species, recently described, is of much smaller dimensions, but
+distinguished by its brilliant colouring, a beautiful grass green above
+and deep orange underneath[2].
+
+[Footnote 1: A Singhalese variety of the _Rana cutipora?_ and the
+Malabar bull-frog, _Hylarana Malabarica_. A frog named by BLYTH _Rana
+robusta_ proves to be a Ceylon specimen of the _R. cutipora_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _R. Kandiana_, Kelaart.]
+
+In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the graceful little
+tree-frogs[1] were to be found in great numbers, sheltered under broad
+leaves to protect them from the scorching sun;--some of them utter a
+sharp metallic sound at night, similar to that produced by smacking the
+lips.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Polypedates maculatus,_ Gray.]
+
+In the gardens and grounds toads[1] crouch in the shade, and pursue the
+flies and minute coleoptera. In Ceylon, as in Europe, these creatures
+suffer from the bad renown of injecting a poison into the wound
+inflicted by their bite.[2] The main calumny is confuted by the fact
+that no toad has yet been discovered furnished with any teeth
+whatsoever; but the obnoxious repute still attaches to the milky
+exudation sometimes perceptible from glands situated on either side
+behind the head; nevertheless experiments have shown, that though acrid,
+the secretions of the toad are incapable of exciting more than a slight
+erythema on the most delicate skins. The smell is, however, fetid and
+offensive, and hence toads are less exposed to the attacks of
+carnivorous animals and of birds than frogs, in which such glands do not
+exist.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Bufo melanostictus_, Schneid.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In Ceylon this error is as old as the third century, B.C.,
+when, as the _Mahawanso_ tells us, the wife of "King Asoka attempted to
+destroy the great bo-tree (at Magadha) _with, the poisoned fang of a
+toad._"--Ch. xx. p. 122.]
+
+In the class of Reptiles, those only are included in the order of
+Batrachians which undergo a metamorphosis before attaining maturity; and
+as they offer the only example amongst Vertebrate animals of this
+marvellous transformation, they are justly considered as the lowest in
+the scale, with the exception of fishes, which remain during life in
+that stage of development which is only the commencement of existence to
+a frog.
+
+In undergoing this change, it is chiefly the organs of respiration that
+manifest alteration. In its earliest form the young batrachian, living
+in the water, breathes as a fish does by _gills_, either free and
+projecting as in the water-newt, or partially covered by integument as
+in the tadpole. But the gills disappear as the lungs gradually become
+developed: the duration of the process being on an average one hundred
+days from the time the eggs were first deposited. After this important
+change, the true batrachian is incapable any longer of living
+continuously in water, and either betakes itself altogether to the land,
+or seeks the surface from time to time to replenish its exhausted
+lungs.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A few Batrachians, such as the _Siren_ of Carolina, the
+_Proteus_ of Illyria, the _Axolotl_ of Mexico, and the _Menobranchus_ of
+the North American Lakes, retain their gills during life; but although
+provided with lungs in mature age, they are not capable of living out of
+the water. Such batrachians form an intermediate link between reptiles
+and fishes.]
+
+The change in the digestive functions during metamorphosis is scarcely
+less extraordinary; frogs, for example, which feed on animal substances
+at maturity, subsist entirely upon vegetable when in the condition of
+larvae, and the subsidiary organs undergo remarkable development, the
+intestinal canal in the earlier stage being five times its length in the
+later one.
+
+Of the family of tailed batrachians, Ceylon does not furnish a single
+example; but of those without this appendage, the island, as above
+remarked, affords many varieties; seven distinguishable species
+pertaining to the genus _rana_, or true frogs with webs to the hind
+feet; two to the genus _bufo_, or true toads, and five to the
+_Polypedates_, or East Indian "tree-frogs;" besides a few others in
+allied genera. The "tree-frog," whose toes are terminated by rounded
+discs which assist it in climbing, possesses, in a high degree, the
+faculty of changing its hues; and one as green as a leaf to-day, will be
+found grey and spotted like the bark to-morrow. One of these beautiful
+little creatures, which had seated itself on the gilt pillar of a lamp
+on my dinner-table, became in a few minutes scarcely distinguishable in
+colour from the or-molu ornament to which it clung.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Reptiles._
+
+I am indebted to Dr. Gray and Dr. Guenther, of the British Museum, for a
+list of the reptiles of Ceylon; but many of those new to Europeans have
+been carefully described by the late Dr. Kelaart in his _Prodromus Fauna
+Zeylanicae_ and its appendices, as well as in the 13th vol. _Magaz. Nat.
+Hist._ (1854).
+
+
+
+      SAURA.
+
+  Hydrosaurus
+    salvator, _Wagler._
+  Monitor
+    dracaena, _Linn._
+  Riopa
+    punctata, _Linn._
+    Hardwickii, _Gray._
+  Brachymeles
+    Bonitae, _Dum. & Bib._
+  Tiliqua
+    rufescens, _Shaw._
+  Eumeces
+    Taprobanius, _Kel._
+  Nessia
+    Burtoni, _Gray._
+  Acontias
+    Layardi, _Kelaart._
+  Argyrophis
+    bramicus, _Daud._
+  Lygosoma
+    fallax, _Peters._
+  Rhinophis
+    oxyrhynchus, _Schn._
+    punctatus, _J. Muell_
+    philippinus, _J. Muell_
+    homolepis, _Hempr._
+    planiceps, _Peters._
+    Blythii, _Kelaart._
+    melanogaster, _Gray._
+  Uropeltis
+    grandis, _Kelaart._
+    _saffragamus, Kelaart._
+  Silybura
+    Ceylonica, _Cuv._
+  Hemidactylus
+    frenatus, _Schleg._
+    Leschenaultii, _Dum. & Bib._
+    trihedrus, _Daud._
+    maculatus, _Dum. & Bib._
+    Piresii, _Kelaart._
+    Coctoei, _Dum. & Bib._
+    pustulatus, _Dum._
+    sublaevis, _Cantor._
+  Peripia
+    Peronii, _Dum. & Bib._
+  Gymnodactylus
+    Kandianus, _Kelaart._
+  Sitana
+    Ponticereana, _Cuv._
+  Lyriocephalus
+    scutatus, _Linn._
+  Ceratophora
+    Stoddartii, _Gray._
+    Tennentii, _Guenther._
+  Otocryptis
+    bivittata, _Wiegm._
+  _Salea Jerdoni, Gray._
+  Calotes
+    ophiomachus, _Merr._
+    nigrilabris, _Peters._
+    versicolor, _Daud._
+    Rouxii, _Dum. & Bib._
+    mystaceus, _Dum._
+  Chameleo
+    vulgaris, _Daud._
+
+
+      OPHIDIA.
+
+  Megaera
+    trigonocephala, _Latr._
+  Trigonocephalus
+    hypnalis, _Merr._
+  Daboia
+    elegans, _Daud._
+  _Pelamys_
+    _bicolor, Daud._
+  _Aturia_
+    _lapemoides, Gray._
+  Hydrophis
+    sublaevis, _Gray._
+    cyanocinctus, _Daud._
+  Chersydrus
+    granulatus, _Schneid_.
+  Cerberus
+    cinereus, _Daud._
+  Tropidophis
+    schistosus, _Daud._
+  Python
+    reticulatus, _Gray._
+  Cylindrophis
+    rufa, _Schneid._
+    maculata, _Linn._
+  Aspidura
+    brachyorrhos, _Boie._
+    trachyprocta, _Cope._
+  Haplocercus
+    Ceylonensis, _Guenth._
+  Oligodon
+    subquadratus, _Dum. & Bib._
+    subgriseus, _Dum. & Bib._
+    sublineatus, _Dum. & Bib._
+  Simotes
+    Russellii, _Daud._
+    purpurascens, _Schleg._
+  Ablabes
+    collaris, _Gray._
+  Tropidonotus
+    quincunciatus, _Schleg._
+      var. funebris.
+      var. carinatus.
+    stolatus, _Linn._
+    chrysargus, _Boie._
+  Cynophis
+    Helena, _Daud._
+  Coryphodon
+    Blumenbachii, _Merr._
+  Cyclophis
+    calamaria, _Guenth._
+  Chrysopelea
+    ornata, _Shaw._
+  Dendrophis
+    picta, _Gm._
+  Passerita
+    mycterizans, _Linn._
+    fusca.
+  Dipsadomorphus
+    Ceylonensis, _Guenth._
+  Lycodon
+    aulicus, _Linn._
+  Cercaspis
+    carinata, _Kuhl._
+  Bungarus
+    fasciatus, _Schneid._
+    var. Ceylonensis, _Gthr._
+  Naja
+    tripudians, _Merr._
+
+
+      CHELONIA.
+
+  Testudo
+    stellata, _Schweig._
+  Emys
+    Sebae, _Gray._
+    trijuga, _Schweigg._
+  Caretta
+    imbricata, _Linn._
+  Chelonia
+    virgata, _Schweigg._
+
+
+      EMYDOSAURI.
+
+  Crocodilus
+    biporcatus. _Cuv._
+    palustris, _Less._
+
+
+      BATRACHIA.
+
+  Rana
+    hexadactyla, _Less._
+    Kuhlii, _Schleg._
+    cutipora, _Dum. & Bib._
+    tigrina, _Daud._
+    vittigera, _Wiegm._
+    Malabarica, _Dum. & Bib._
+    Kandiana, _Kelaart._
+    Neuera-elliana, _Kel._
+  Bufo
+    melanostictus, _Schneid._
+    Kelaartii, _Guenth._
+  Ixalus
+    variabilis, _Guenth._
+    leucorhinus, _Martens._
+    poecilopleurus, _Mart._
+    aurifasciatus, _Schleg._
+    schmardanus, _Kelaart._
+  Polypedates
+    maculatus, _Gray._
+    microtympanum, _Gth._
+    eques, _Guenth._
+  Limnodytes
+    lividus, _Blyth._
+    macularis, _Blyth._
+    mutabilis, _Kelaart._
+    maculatus, _Kelaart._
+  Kaloula
+    pulchra, _Gray._
+    balteata, var. _Guenth._
+    stellata, _Kelaart._
+  Adenomus
+    badioflavus, _Copr._
+  Pyxicephalus
+    fodiens, _Jerd._
+  Engystoma
+    rubrum, _Jerd._
+
+
+      PSEUDOPHIDIA.
+
+  Caecilia
+    glutinosa, _Linn._
+
+
+NOTE.--The following species are peculiar to Ceylon (and the genera
+Ceratophora, Otocryptis, Uropeltis, Aspidura. Cercaspis, and Haplocercus
+would appear to be similarly restricted);--Lygosoma fallax; Trimesurus
+Ceylonensis, T. nigromarginatus; Megaera Trigonocephala; Trigonocephalus
+hypnalis; Daboia elegans; Rhinophis punctatus, Rh. homolepis, Rh.
+planiceps, Rh. Blythii, Rh. melanogaster; Uropeltis grandis; Silybura
+Ceylonica; Cylindrophis maculata; Aspidura brachyorrhos; Haplocercus
+Ceylonensis; Oligodon sublineatus; Cynophis Helena; Cyclophis calamaria;
+Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis; Cercaspis carinata; Ixalus variabilis, I.
+leucorhinus, I. poecilopleurus; Polypedates microtympanum. P. eques.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. X.
+
+FISHES.
+
+
+Hitherto no branch of the zoology of Ceylon has been so imperfectly
+investigated as its Ichthyology. Little has been done in the examination
+and description of its fishes, especially those which frequent the
+rivers and inland waters. Mr. BENNETT, who was for some years employed
+in the Civil Service, directed his attention to the subject, and
+published in 1830 some portions of a projected work on the marine fishes
+of the island[1], but it never proceeded beyond the description of
+thirty individuals. The great work of Cuvier and Valenciennes[2]
+particularises about one hundred species, specimens of which were
+procured from Ceylon by Reynard, Leschenault and other correspondents;
+but of these not more than half a dozen belong to fresh water.
+
+[Footnote 1: _A Selection of the most Remarkable and Interesting Fishes
+found on the Coast of Ceylon._ By J.W. BENNETT, Esp. London, 1830.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Histoire Naturelle des Poissons._]
+
+The fishes of the coast, as far as they have been examined, present few
+that are not in all probability common to the seas of Ceylon and India.
+A series of drawings, including upwards of six hundred species and
+varieties of Ceylon fish, all made from recently-captured specimens,
+have been submitted to Professor Huxley, and a notice of their general
+characteristics forms an interesting appendix to the present chapter.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See note B appended to this chapter.]
+
+Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far is the
+Seir-fish[1], a species of Scomberoids, which is called _Tora-malu_ by
+the natives. It is in size and form very similar to the salmon, to which
+the flesh of the female fish, notwithstanding its white colour, bears a
+very close resemblance both in firmness and flavour.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cybium_ (_Scomber_, Linn.) _guttatum_.]
+
+Mackerel, carp, whitings, mullet both red and striped, perches and soles
+are abundant, and a sardine (_Sardinella Neohowii_, Val.) frequents the
+southern and eastern coast in such profusion that in one instance in
+1839, a gentleman who was present saw upwards of four hundred thousand
+taken in a haul of the nets in the little bay of Goyapanna, east of
+Point-de-Galle. As this vast shoal approached the shore the broken water
+became as smooth as if a sheet of ice had been floating below the
+surface.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: These facts serve to explain the story told by the friar
+ODORIC of Friuli, who visited Ceylon about the year 1320 A.D., and says
+there are "fishes in those seas that come swimming towards the said
+country in such abundance that for a great distance into the sea nothing
+can be seen but the backs of fishes, which casting themselves on the
+shore, do suffer men for the space of three daies to come and to take as
+many of them as they please, and then they return again into the
+sea."--_Hakluyt_, vol. ii. p. 57.]
+
+_Poisonous Fishes._--The sardine has the reputation of being poisonous
+at certain seasons, and accidents ascribed to eating it are recorded in
+all parts of the island. Whole families of fishermen who have partaken
+of it have died. Twelve persons in the jail of Chilaw were thus
+poisoned, about the year 1829; and the deaths of soldiers have
+repeatedly been ascribed to the same cause. It is difficult in such
+instances to say with certainty whether the fish were in fault; whether
+there was not a peculiar susceptibility in the condition of the
+recipients; or whether the mischief may not have been occasioned by the
+wilful administration of poison, or its accidental occurrence in the
+brass cooking vessels used by the natives. The popular belief was,
+however, deferred to by an order passed by the Governor in Council in
+February, 1824, which, after reciting that "Whereas it appears by
+information conveyed to the Government that at three several periods at
+Trincomalie, death has been the consequence to several persons from
+eating the fish called Sardinia during the months of January and
+December," enacts that it shall not be lawful in that district to catch
+sardines during these months, under pain of fine and imprisonment. This
+order is still in force, but the fishing continues notwithstanding.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: There are other species of Sardine found at Ceylon besides
+the _S. Neohowii_; such as the _S. lineolata_, Cuv. and Val. and the _S.
+leiogaster_, Cuv. and Val. xx. 270, which was found by M. Reynaud at
+Trincomalie. It occurs also off the coast of Java. Another Ceylon fish
+of the same group, a Clupea, is known as the "poisonous sprat;" the
+bonito (_Thynnus affinis_, Cang.), the kangewena, or unicorn fish
+(_Balistes?_), and a number of others, are more or less in bad repute
+from the same imputation.]
+
+_Sharks._--Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and instances
+continually occur of persons being seized by them whilst bathing even in
+the harbours of Trincomalie and Colombo. In the Gulf of Manaar they are
+taken for the sake of their oil, of which they yield such a quantity
+that "shark's oil" is a recognised export. A trade also exists in drying
+their fins, for which, owing to the gelatine contained in them, a ready
+market is found in China; whither the skin of the basking shark is also
+sent, to be converted, it is said, into shagreen.
+
+_Saw Fish._--The huge _Pristis antiquorum_[1] infests the eastern coast
+of the island, where it attains a length of from twelve to fifteen feet,
+including the serrated rostrum from which its name is derived. This
+powerful weapon seems designed to compensate for the inadequacy of the
+ordinary maxillary teeth which are unusually small, obtuse, and
+insufficient to capture and kill the animals which form the food of this
+predatory shark. To remedy this, the fore part of the head and its
+cartilages are prolonged into a flattened plate, the length of which is
+nearly equal to one third of the whole body, its edges being armed with
+formidable teeth, that are never shed or renewed, but increase in size
+with the growth of the creature.
+
+[Footnote 1: Two other species are found in the Ceylon waters, _P.
+cuspidatus_ and _P. pectinatus_.]
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF THE SAWFISH (PRISTIS ANTIQUORUM)]
+
+The _Rays_ form a large tribe of cartilaginous fishes in which, although
+the skeleton is not osseous, the development of organs is so advanced
+that they would appear to be the highest of the class, approaching
+nearest to amphibians. They are easily distinguished from the sharks by
+their broad and flat body, the pectoral fins being expanded like wings
+on each side of the trunk. They are all inhabitants of the ocean, and
+some grow to a prodigious size. Specimens have been caught of twenty
+feet in breadth. These, however, are of rare occurrence, as such huge
+monsters usually retreat into the depths of the sea, where they are
+secure from the molestation of man. It is, generally speaking, only the
+young and the smaller species that approach the coasts, where they find
+a greater supply of those marine animals which form their food. The Rays
+have been divided into several generic groups, and the one of which a
+drawing (_Aetobates narinari_[1]) is given, has very marked
+characteristics in its produced snout, pointed and winged-like pectoral
+fins, and exceedingly long, flagelliform tail. The latter is armed with
+a strong, serrated spine, which is always broken off by the fishermen
+immediately on capture, under the impression that wounds inflicted by it
+are poisonous. Their fears, however, are utterly groundless, as the ray
+has no gland for secreting any venomous fluid. The apprehension may,
+however, have originated in the fact that a lacerated wound such as
+would be produced by a serrated spine, is not unlikely to assume a
+serious character, under the influence of a tropical climate. The
+species figured on the last page is brownish-olive on the upper surface,
+with numerous greenish-white round spots, darkening towards the edges.
+The anterior annulations of the tail are black and white, the posterior
+entirely black. Its mouth is transverse and paved with a band of
+flattened teeth calculated to crush the hard shells of the animals on
+which it feeds. It moves slowly along the bottom in search of its food,
+which consists of crustacea and mollusca, and seems to be unable to
+catch fishes or other quickly moving animals. Specimens have been taken
+near Ceylon, of six feet in width. Like most deep-sea fishes, the ray
+has a wide geographical range, and occurs not only in all the Indian
+Ocean, but also in the tropical tracts of the Atlantic.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAY (AETOBATES NARINARI).]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Raja narinari_, Bl. Schn. p. 361. _Aetobates narinari_,
+Muell. und Henle., Plagiost. p. 179.]
+
+Another armed fish, renowned since the times of AElian and Pliny for its
+courage in attacking the whale, and even a ship, is the sword-fish
+(_Xiphias gladius_).[1] Like the thunny and bonito, it is an inhabitant
+of the deeper seas, and, though known in the Mediterranean, is chiefly
+confined to the tropics. The dangerous weapon with which nature has
+equipped it is formed by the prolongation and intertexture of the bones
+of the upper jaw into an exceedingly compact cylindrical protuberance,
+somewhat flattened at the base, but tapering to a sharp point. In
+strange inconsistence with its possession of so formidable an armature,
+the general disposition of the sword-fish is represented to be gentle
+and inoffensive; and although the fact of its assaults upon the whale
+has been incontestably established, yet the motive for such conflicts,
+and the causes of its enmity, are beyond conjecture. Competition for
+food is out of the question, as the Xiphias can find its own supplies
+without rivalry on the part of its gigantic antagonist; and as to
+converting the whale itself into food, the sword-fish, from the
+construction of its mouth and the small size of its teeth, is quite
+incapable of feeding on animals of such dimensions.
+
+[Footnote 1: AELIAN tells a story of a ship in the Black Sea, the bottom
+of which was penetrated by the sword of a _Xiphias_ (L. xiv. c. 23); and
+PLINY (L. xxxii. c. 8) speaks of a similar accident on the coast of
+Mauritania. In the British Museum there is a specimen of a plank of oak,
+pierced by a sword-fish, and still retaining the broken weapon.]
+
+In the seas around Ceylon sword-fishes sometimes attain to the length of
+twenty feet, and are distinguished by the unusual height of the dorsal
+fin. Those both of the Atlantic and Mediterranean possess this fin in
+its full proportions, only during the earlier stages of their growth.
+Its dimensions even then are much smaller than in the Indian species;
+and it is a curious fact that it gradually decreases as the fish
+approaches to maturity; whereas in the seas around Ceylon, it retains
+its full size throughout the entire period of life. They raise it above
+the water, whilst dashing along the surface in their rapid course; and
+there is no reason to doubt that it occasionally acts as a sail.
+
+The Indian species (which are provided with two long and filamentous
+ventral fins) have been formed into the genus _Histiophorus_; to which
+belongs the individual figured on the next page. It is distinguished
+from others most closely allied to it, by having the immense dorsal fin
+of one uniform dark violet colour; whilst in its congeners, it is
+spotted with blue. The fish from which the engraving has been made, was
+procured by Dr. Templeton, near Colombo. The species was previously
+known only by a single specimen captured in the Red Sea, by Rueppell, who
+conferred upon it the specific designation of "_immaculatus_."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Trans. Zool. Soc. ii. p. 71. Pl. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SWORD FISH (MISMOPHORUS IMMACULATUS).]
+
+AElian, in his graphic account of the strange forms presented by the
+fishes inhabiting the seas around Ceylon, says that one in particular is
+so grotesque in its configuration, that no painter would venture to
+depict it; its main peculiarity being that it has feet or claws rather
+than fins.[1] The annexed drawing[2] may probably represent the creature
+to which the informants of AElian referred. It is a cheironectes; one of
+a group in which the bones of the carpus form arms that support the
+pectoral fins, and enable these fishes to walk along the moist ground,
+almost like quadrupeds.
+
+[Footnote 1: [Greek: Podas ge men chelas e pterygia.]--Lib. xvi. c. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The fish from which this drawing of the _Cheironectes_ was
+made, was taken near Colombo, and from the peculiarities which it
+presents it is in all probability a new and undescribed species. Dr.
+GUeNTHER has remarked, that in it, whilst the first and second dorsal
+spines are situated as usual over the eye (and form, one the angling
+bait of the fish, the other the crest above the nose), the third is at
+an unusual distance from the second, and is not separated, as in the
+other species, from the soft fin by a notch.]
+
+They belong to the family of _Lophiads_ or "anglers," not unfrequent on
+the English coast; which conceal themselves in the mud, displaying only
+the erectile ray, situated on the head, which bears an excrescence on
+its extremity resembling a worm; by agitating which, they attract the
+smaller fishes, that thus become an easy prey.
+
+[Illustration: CHEIRONECTES]
+
+On the rocks in Ceylon which are washed by the surf there are quantities
+of the curious little fish, _Salarius alticus_[1], which possesses the
+faculty of darting along the surface of the water, and running up the
+wet stones, with the utmost ease and rapidity. By aid of the pectoral
+and ventral fins and gill-cases, they move across the damp sand, ascend
+the roots of the mangroves, and climb up the smooth face of the rocks in
+search of flies; adhering so securely as not to be detached by repeated
+assaults of the waves. These little creatures are so nimble, that it is
+almost impossible to lay hold of them, as they scramble to the edge, and
+plunge into the sea on the slightest attempt to molest them. They are
+from three to four inches in length, and of a dark brown colour, almost
+undistinguishable from the rocks they frequent.
+
+[Footnote 1: Cuv. and VALEN., _Hist. Nat. des Poissons_, tom. xi. p.
+249. It is identical with _S. tridactylus,_ Schn.]
+
+But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are those fishes whose
+brilliancy of colouring has won for them the wonder even of the listless
+Singhalese. Some, like the Red Sea Perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_, Forsk)
+and the Great Fire Fish[1], are of the deepest scarlet and flame colour;
+in others purple predominates, as in the _Serranus flavo-caeruleus_; in
+others yellow, as in the _Choetodon Brownriggii_[2], and _Acanthurus
+vittatus_, of Bennett[3], and numbers, from the lustrous green of their
+scales, have obtained from the natives the appropriate name of
+_Giraway_, or _parrots_, of which one, the _Sparus Hardwickii_ of
+Bennett, is called the "Flower Parrot," from its exquisite colouring,
+being barred with irregular bands of blue, crimson, and purple, green,
+yellow, and grey, and crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Pterois muricata_, Cuv. and Val. iv. 363. _Scarpaena
+miles_, Bennett; named, by the Singhalese, "_Maharata-gini_," the Great
+Red Fire, a very brilliant red species spotted with black. It is very
+voracious, and is regarded on some parts of the coast as edible, while
+on others it is rejected.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Glyphisodon Brownriggii_, Cuv. and Val. v. 484; _Choetodon
+Brownriggii_, Bennett. A very small fish about two inches long, called
+_Kaha hartikyha_ by the natives. It is distinct from Choetodon, in which
+BENNETT placed it. Numerous species of this genus are scattered
+throughout the Indian Ocean. It derives its name from the fine hair-like
+character of its teeth. They are found chiefly among coral reefs, and,
+though eaten, are not much esteemed. In the French colonies they are
+called "Chauffe-soleil." One species is found on the shores of the New
+World (_G. saxatalis_), and it is curious that Messrs. QUOY and GAIMARD
+found this fish at the Cape de Verde Islands in 1827.]
+
+[Footnote 3: This fish has a sharp round spine on the side of the body
+near the tail; a formidable weapon, which is generally partially
+concealed within a scabbard-like incision. It raises or depresses this
+spine at pleasure. The fish is yellow, with several nearly parallel blue
+stripes on the back and sides; the belly is white, the tail and fins
+brownish green, edged with blue.
+
+It is found in rocky places; and according to BENNETT, who has figured
+it in his second plate, it is named _Seweya_. It has been known,
+however, to all the old ichthyologists, Valentyn, Renard, Seba, Artedi,
+and has been named _Chaetodon lineatus_, by Linne. It is scarce on the
+southern coast of Ceylon.]
+
+Of these richly coloured fishes the most familiar in the Indian seas are
+the _Pteroids_. They are well known on the coast of Africa, and thence
+eastward to Polynesia; but they do not extend to the west coast of
+America, and are utterly absent from the Atlantic. The rays of the
+dorsal and pectoral fins are so elongated, that when specimens were
+first brought to Europe it was conjectured that these fishes have the
+faculty of flight, and hence the specific name of "_volitans_" But this
+is an error, for, owing to the deep incisions between the pectoral rays,
+the pteroids are wholly unable to sustain themselves in the air. They
+are not even bold swimmers, living close to the shore and never
+venturing into the deep sea. Their head is ornamented with a number of
+filaments and cutaneous appendages, of which one over each eye and
+another at the angles of the mouth are the most conspicuous. Sharp
+spines project on the crown and on the side of the gill-apparatus, as in
+the other sea-perches, _Scorpaena, Serranus_, &c., of which these are
+only a modified and ornate form. The extraordinary expansion of their
+fins is not, however, accompanied by a similar development of the bones
+to which they are attached, simply because they appear to have no
+peculiar function, as in flying fishes, or in those where the spines of
+the fins are weapons of offence. They attain to the length of twelve
+inches, and to a weight of about two pounds; they live on small marine
+animals, and by the Singhalese the flesh (of some at least) is
+considered good for table. Nine or ten species are known to occur in the
+East Indian Seas, and of these the one figured above is, perhaps, the
+most common.
+
+[Illustration: PTEROIS VOLITANS.]
+
+Another species known to occur on the coasts of Ceylon is the _Scorpaena
+miles_, Bennett, or _Pterois miles_, Guenther[1], of which Bennett has
+given a figure[2], but it is not altogether correct in some particulars.
+
+[Footnote 1: The fish from the Sea of Pinang, described by Dr. CANTOR
+with this name (Catal. Mal. Fish. p. 42), is again different, and
+belongs to a third species.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Fishes of Ceylon_, Pl. ix.]
+
+In the fishes of Ceylon, however, beauty is not confined to the
+brilliancy of their tints. In some, as in the _/Scarus harid_, Forsk[1],
+the arrangement of the scales is so graceful, and the effect is so
+heightened by modifications of colour, as to present the appearance of
+tessellation, or mosaic work.
+
+[Footnote 1: This is the fish figured by BENNETT as _Sparus pepo_.
+_Fishes of Ceylon_, Plate xxviii.]
+
+[Illustration: SCARUS HARID. After Bennett.]
+
+_Fresh-water Fishes_.--Of the fresh-water fish, which inhabit the rivers
+and tanks, so very little has hitherto been known to naturalists[1],
+that of nineteen drawings sent home by Major Skinner in 1852, although
+specimens of well-known genera, Colonel Hamilton Smith pronounced nearly
+the whole to be new and undescribed species.
+
+[Footnote 1: In extenuation of the little that is known of the
+fresh-water fishes of Ceylon, it may be observed that very few of them
+are used at table by Europeans, and there is therefore no stimulus on
+the part of the natives to catch them. The burbot and grey mullet are
+occasionally eaten, but they taste of mud, and are not in request.
+
+Some years ago the experiment was made, with success, of introducing
+into Mauritius the _Osphromenus olfax_ of Java, which has also been
+taken to French Guiana. In both places it is now highly esteemed as a
+fish for table. As it belongs to a family which possesses the faculty,
+hereafter alluded to, of surviving in the damp soil after the subsidence
+of the water in the tanks and rivers, it might with equal advantage be
+acclimated in Ceylon. It grows to 20 lbs. weight and upwards.]
+
+Of eight of these, which were from the Mahawelliganga, and caught in the
+vicinity of Kandy, five were carps; two were _Leucisci_, and one a
+_Mastacembelus_ (_M. armatus_, Lacep); one was an _Ophiocephalus_, and
+one a _Polyacanthus_, with no serrae on the gills. Six were from the
+Kalanyganga, close to Colombo, of which two were _Helostoma_, in shape
+approaching the Chaetodon; two _Ophiocephali_, one a _Silurus_, and one
+an _Anabas_, but the gills were without denticulation. From the still
+water of the lake, close to the walls of Colombo, there were two species
+of _Eleotris_, one _Silurus_ with barbels, and two _Malacopterygians_,
+which appear to be _Bagri_.
+
+The _fresh-water Perches_ of Europe and of the North of America are
+represented in Ceylon and India by several genera, which bear to them a
+great external similarity (_Lates, Therapon_). They have the same habits
+as their European allies, and their flesh is considered equally
+wholesome, but they appear to enter salt-water, or at least brackish
+water, more freely. It is, however, in their internal organisation that
+they differ most from the perches of Europe; their skeletons are
+composed of fewer vertebrae, and the air bladder of the _Therapon_ is
+divided into two portions, as in the carps. Four species at least of
+this genus inhabit the lakes and rivers of Ceylon, and one of them, of
+which a figure is given above, has been but imperfectly described in any
+ichthyological work[1]; it attains to the length of seven inches.
+
+[Footnote 1: Holocentrus quadrilineatus, _Bloch_. It is allied to
+_Helotes polytoenia_, Bleek., from Halmaheira which it can be readily
+distinguished by having only five or six blackish longitudinal bands,
+the black humeral spot being between the first and second; another
+blackish blotch is in the spinous dorsal fin. There are two specimens in
+the British Museum collection, one of which has recently arrived from
+Amoy; of the other the locality is unknown. See GUeNTHER, _Acanthopt.
+Fishes_, vol. i. p. 282, where mention of the black humeral spot has
+been omitted.]
+
+[Illustration: THERAPON QUADRILINEATUS.]
+
+In addition to marine eels, in which the Indian coasts abound, Ceylon
+has some true fresh-water eels, which never enter the sea. These are
+known to the natives under the name of _Theliya_, and to naturalists by
+that of _Mastacembelus_. They have sometimes in ichthyological systems
+been referred to the Scombridae and other marine families, from the
+circumstance that the dorsal fin anteriorly is composed of spines. But,
+in addition to the general shape of the body, their affinity to the eel
+is attested, by their confluent fins, by the absence of ventral fins, by
+the structure of the mouth and its dentition, by the apparatus of the
+gills, which opens with an inferior slit, and above all by the formation
+of the skeleton itself.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See GUeNTHER'S _Acanthopt. Fishes_, vol. iii. (Family
+Mastacembelidae).]
+
+Their skin is covered with minute scales, coated by a slimy exudation,
+and the upper jaw is produced into a soft tripartite tentacle, with
+which they are enabled to feel for their prey in the mud. They are very
+tenacious of life, and belong, without doubt, to those fishes which in
+Ceylon descend during the drought into the muddy soil.[1] Their flesh
+very much resembles that of the eel; and is highly esteemed.[2] They
+were first made known to European naturalists by Russell[3], who brought
+to Europe from the rivers round Aleppo specimens, some of which are
+still preserved in the collection of the British Museum. Aleppo is the
+most western point of their geographical range, the group being mainly
+confined to the East-Indian continent and its islands.
+
+In Ceylon only one species appears to occur, the
+
+[Footnote 1: See post, p. 351.]
+
+[Footnote 2: CUV. and VAL., _Hist. Poiss._ vol. iii. p. 459.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Nat. Hist. Aleppo_, 2nd edit. Lond. 1794, vol. ii. p. 208,
+pl. vi.]
+
+[Illustration: MASTACEMBELUS ARMATUS]
+
+_Mastacembelus armatus_.[1] The back is armed with from thirty-five to
+thirty-nine short, stout spines; there being three others before the
+anal fin. The ground colour of the fish is brown, and the head has two
+rather irregular longitudinal black bands; deep-brown spots run along
+the back as well as along the dorsal and anal fins; and the sides are
+ornamented with irregular and reticulated brown lines. This eel attains
+to the length of two feet. The old females do not show any markings,
+being of a uniform brown colour.
+
+[Footnote 1: Macrognathus armatus, _Lacep._; Mastacembelus armatus,
+_Cuv., Val._]
+
+In the collection of Major Skinner, before alluded to, brought together
+without premeditation, the naturalist will be struck by the
+preponderance of those genera which are adapted by nature to endure, a
+temporary privation of moisture; and this, taken in connection with the
+vicissitudes affecting the waters they inhabit, exhibits a surprising
+illustration of the wisdom of the Creator in adapting the organisation
+of his creatures to the peculiar circumstances under which they are
+destined to exist.
+
+So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that Knox says, not the
+running streams alone, but the reservoirs and ponds, "nay, every ditch
+and little plash of water but ankle deep hath fish in it."[1] But many
+of these reservoirs and tanks are, twice in each year, liable to be
+evaporated to dryness till the mud of the bottom is converted into dust,
+and the clay cleft by the heat into gaping apertures; yet within a very
+few days after the change of the monsoon, the natives are busily engaged
+in fishing in those very spots and in the hollows contiguous to them,
+although the latter are entirely unconnected with any pool or running
+streams. Here they fish in the same way which Knox described nearly 200
+years ago, with a funnel-shaped basket, open at bottom and top, "which,"
+as he says, "they jibb down, and the end sticks in the mud, which often
+happens upon a fish; which, when they feel beating itself against the
+sides, they put in their hands and take it out, and reive a ratan
+through their gills, and so let them drag after them."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Knox's _Historical Relation of Ceylon,_ Part i. ch. vii.
+The occurrence of fish in the most unlooked-for situations, is one of
+the mysteries of other eastern countries as well as Ceylon and India. In
+Persia irrigation is carried on to a great extent by means of wells sunk
+in line in the direction in which it is desired to lead a supply of
+water, and these are connected by channels, which are carefully arched
+over to protect them from evaporation. These _kanats,_ as they are
+called, are full of fish, although neither they nor the wells they unite
+have any connection with streams or lakes.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Knox, _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, Part i. ch vi.]
+
+[Illustration: FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, A.D. 1681]
+
+This operation may be seen in the lowlands, traversed by the high road
+leading from Colombo to Kandy. Before the change of the monsoon, the
+hollows on either side of the highway are covered with dust or stunted
+grass; but when flooded by the rains, they are immediately resorted to
+by the peasants with baskets, constructed precisely as Knox has stated,
+in which the fish are entrapped and taken out by the hand.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: As anglers, the native Singhalese exhibit little
+expertness; but for fishing the rivers, they construct with singular
+ingenuity fences formed of strong stakes, protected by screens of ratan,
+that stretch diagonally across the current; and along these the fish are
+conducted into a series of enclosures from which retreat is
+impracticable. MR. LAYARD, in the _Magazine of Natural History_ for May,
+1853, has given a diagram of one of these fish "corrals," as they are
+called, of which a copy is shown on the next page.]
+
+So singular a phenomenon as the sudden re-appearance of full-grown
+fishes in places that a few days before had been encrusted with hardened
+clay, has not failed to attract attention; but the European residents
+have been content to explain it by hazarding conjectures, either that
+the spawn must have lain imbedded in the dried earth till released by
+the rains, or that the fish, so unexpectedly discovered, fall from the
+clouds during the deluge of the monsoon.
+
+As to the latter conjecture; the fall of fish during showers, even were
+it not so problematical in theory, is too rare an event to account for
+the punctual appearance of those found in the rice-fields, at stated
+periods of the year. Both at Galle and Colombo in the south-west
+monsoon, fish are popularly believed to have fallen from the clouds
+during violent showers, but those found on the occasions that give rise
+to this belief, consist of the smallest fry, such as could be caught up
+by waterspouts, and vortices analogous to them, or otherwise blown on
+shore from the surf; whereas those which suddenly appear in the
+replenished tanks and in the hollows which they overflow, are mature and
+well-grown fish.[1] Besides, the latter are found, under the
+circumstances I have described, in all parts of the interior, whilst the
+prodigy of a supposed fall of fish from the sky has been noticed, I
+apprehend, only in the vicinity of the sea, or of some inland water.
+
+[Footnote 1: I had an opportunity, on one occasion only, of witnessing
+the phenomenon which gives rise to this popular belief. I was driving in
+the cinnamon gardens near the fort of Colombo, and saw a violent but
+partial shower descend at no great distance before me. On coming to the
+spot I found a multitude of small silvery fish from one and a half to
+two inches in length, leaping on the gravel of the high road, numbers of
+which I collected and brought away in my palankin. The spot was about
+half a mile from the sea, and entirely unconnected with any watercourse
+or pool.
+
+Mr. Whiting, who was many years resident in Trincomadie, writes me that
+he "had often been told by the natives on that side of the island that
+it sometimes rained fishes; and on one occasion" (he adds) "I was taken
+by them, in 1849, to a field at the village of Karrancotta-tivo, near
+Batticaloa, which was dry when I passed over it in the morning, but, had
+been covered in two hours by sudden rain to the depth of three inches,
+in which there was then a quantity of small fish. The water had no
+connection with any pond or stream whatsoever." Mr. Cripps, in like
+manner, in speaking of Galle, says: "I have seen in the vicinity of the
+fort, fish taken from rain-water that had accumulated in the hollow
+parts of land that in the hot season are perfectly dry and parched. The
+place is accessible to no running stream or tank; and either the fish or
+the spawn from which they were produced, must of necessity have fallen
+with the rain."
+
+Mr. J. PRINSEP, the eminent secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
+found a fish in the pulviometer at Calcutta, in 1838.--_Journ. Asiat.
+Soc. Bengal_, vol. vi. p. 465.
+
+A series of instances in which fishes have been found on the continent
+of India under circumstances which lead to the conclusion that they must
+have fallen from the clouds, have been collected by the late Dr. BUIST
+of Bombay, and will be found in the appendix to this chapter.]
+
+[Illustration: FISH CORRAL]
+
+The surmise of the buried spawn is one sanctioned by the very highest
+authority. Mr. Yarrell in his "_History of British Fishes_," adverting
+to the fact that ponds (in India) which had been previously converted
+into hardened mud, are replenished with small fish in a very few days
+after the commencement of each rainy season, offers this solution of the
+problem as probably the true one: "The impregnated ova of the fish of
+one rainy season are left unhatched in the mud through the dry season,
+and from their low state of organisation as ova, the vitality is
+preserved till the recurrence, and contact of the rain and oxygen in the
+next wet season, when vivification takes place from their joint
+influence."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: YARRELL, _History of British Fishes_, introd. vol. i. p.
+xxvi. This too was the opinion of Aristotle, _De Respiratione_, c. ix.]
+
+This hypothesis, however, appears to have been advanced upon imperfect
+data; for although some fish, like the salmon, scrape grooves in the
+sand and place their spawn in inequalities and fissures; yet as a
+general rule spawn is deposited not beneath but on the surface of the
+ground or sand over which the water flows, the adhesive nature of each
+egg supplying the means of attachment. But in the Ceylon tanks not only
+is the surface of the soil dried to dust after the evaporation of the
+water, but earth itself, twelve or eighteen inches deep, is converted
+into sun-burnt clay, in which, although the eggs of mollusca, in their
+calcareous covering, are in some instances preserved, it would appear to
+be as impossible for the ova of fish to be kept from decomposition as
+for the fish themselves to sustain life. Besides, moisture in such
+situations is only to be found at a depth to which spawn could not be
+conveyed by the parent fish, by any means with which we are yet
+acquainted.
+
+But supposing it possible to carry the spawn sufficiently deep, and to
+deposit it safely in the mud below, which is still damp, whence it could
+be liberated on the return of the rains, a considerable interval would
+still be necessary after the replenishing of the ponds with water to
+admit of vivification and growth. Yet so far from this interval being
+allowed to elapse, the rains have no sooner fallen than the taking of
+the fish commences, and those captured by the natives in wicker cages
+are mature and full grown instead of being "small fish" or fry, as
+supposed by Mr. Yarrell.
+
+Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the probability that,
+under favourable circumstances, the spawn in the tanks might be
+preserved during the dry season so as to contribute to the perpetuation
+of their breed, the fact is no longer doubtful, that adult fish in
+Ceylon, like some of those that inhabit similar waters both in the New
+and Old World, have been endowed by the Creator with the singular
+faculty of providing against the periodical droughts either by
+journeying overland in search of still unexhausted water, or, on its
+utter disappearance, by burying themselves in the mud to await the
+return of the rains.
+
+It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after the expedition
+of Alexander the Great, particulars connected with the natural history
+of India were sought for and arranged by the Greeks, that in the works
+both of ARISTOTLE and THEOPHRASTUS facts are recorded of the fishes in
+the Indian rivers migrating in search of water, of their burying
+themselves in the mud on its failure, of their being dug out thence
+alive during the dry season, and of their spontaneous reappearance on
+the return of the rains. The earliest notice is in ARISTOTLE'S treatise
+_De Respiratione_[1], where he mentions the strange discovery of living
+fish found beneath the surface of the soil, "[Greek: ton ichthyon oi
+polloi zosin en te ge, akinetizontes mentoi, kai euriskontai
+oryttomenoi?]" and in his History of Animals he conjectures that in
+ponds periodically dried the ova of the fish so buried become vivified
+at the change of the season.[2] HERODOTUS had previously hazarded a
+similar theory to account for the sudden appearance of fry in the
+Egyptian marshes on the rising of the Nile; but the cases are not
+parallel. THEOPHRASTUS, the friend and pupil of Aristotle, gave
+importance to the subject by devoting to it his essay [Greek: Peri tes
+ton ichthyon en zero diamones], _De Piscibus in sicco degentibus_. In
+this, after adverting to the fish called _exocoetus_, from its habit of
+going on shore to sleep, "[Greek: apo tes koites,]" he instances the
+small fish ([Greek: ichthydia]), that leave the rivers of India to
+wander like frogs on the land; and likewise a species found near
+Babylon, which, when the Euphrates runs low, leave the dry channels in
+search of food, "moving themselves along by means of their fins and
+tail." He proceeds to state that at Heraclea Pontica there are places in
+which fish are dug out of the earth, "[Greek: oryktoi ton ichthyon],"
+and he accounts for their being found under such circumstances by the
+subsidence of the rivers, "when the water being evaporated the fish
+gradually descend beneath the soil in search of moisture; and the
+surface becoming hard they are preserved in the damp clay below it, in a
+state of torpor, but are capable of vigorous movements when disturbed."
+"In, this manner, too," adds Theophrastus, "the buried fish propagate,
+leaving behind them their spawn, which becomes vivified on the return of
+the waters to their accustomed bed." This work of Theophrastus became
+the great authority for all subsequent writers on this question.
+ATHENAEUS quotes it[3], and adds the further testimony of POLYBIUS, that
+in Gallia Narbonensis fish are similarly dug out of the ground.[4]
+STRABO repeats the story[5], and the Greek naturalists one and all
+received the statement as founded on reliable authority.
+
+[Footnote 1: Chap. ix.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Lib. vi. ch. 15, 16, 17.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Lib. viii. ch. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Ib._ ch. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Lib. iv. and xii.]
+
+Not so the Romans. LIVY mentions it as one of the prodigies which were
+to be "expiated" on the approach of a rupture with Macedon, that "in
+Gallico agro qua induceretur aratrum sub glebis pisces emersisse,"[1]
+thus taking it out of the category of natural occurrences. POMPONIUS
+MELA, obliged to notice the matter in his account of Narbon Gaul,
+accompanies it with the intimation that although asserted by both Greek
+and Roman authorities, the story was either a delusion or a fraud,
+JUVENAL has a sneer for the rustic--
+
+          "miranti sub aratro
+   Piscibus inventis."--_Sat_. xiii. 63.
+
+[Footnote 1: Lib. xlii. ch. 2.]
+
+And SENECA, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds ironically, that now we
+must go to fish with a _hatchet_ instead of a hook; "non cum hamis, sed
+cum dolabra ire piscatum." PLINY, who devotes the 35th chapter of his
+9th book to this subject, uses the narrative of Theophrastus, but with
+obvious caution, and universally the Latin writers treated the story as
+a fable.
+
+In later times the subject received more enlightened attention, and
+Beekman, who in 1736 published his commentary on the collection [Greek:
+Peri Thaumasion akousmaton], ascribed to Aristotle, has given a list of
+the authorities about his own times,--GEORGIUS AGRICOLA, GESNER,
+RONDELET, DALECHAMP, BOMARE, and GRONOVIUS, who not only gave credence
+to the assertions of Theophrastus, but adduced modern instances in
+corroboration of his Indian authorities.
+
+As regards the fresh-water fishes of India and Ceylon, the fact is now
+established that certain of them possess the power of leaving the rivers
+and returning to them again after long migrations on dry land, and
+modern observation has fully confirmed their statements. They leave the
+pools and nullahs in the dry season, and led by an instinct as yet
+unexplained, shape their course through the grass towards the nearest
+pool of water. A similar phenomenon is observable in countries similarly
+circumstanced. The Doras of Guiana[1] have been seen travelling over
+land during the dry season in search of their natural element[2], in
+such droves that the negroes fill baskets with them during these
+terrestrial excursions. PALLEGOIX in his account of Siam, enumerates
+three species of fishes which leave the tanks and channels and traverse
+the damp grass[3]; and SIR JOHN BOWRING, in his account of his embassy
+to the Siamese kings in 1855, states, that in ascending and descending
+the river Meinam to Bankok, he was amused with the novel sight of fish
+leaving the river, gliding over the wet banks, and losing themselves
+amongst the trees of the jungle.[4]
+
+[Footnote 1: _D. Hancockii_, CUV. et VAL.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Sir R. Schomburgk's _Fishes of Guiana_, vol. i. pp. 113,
+151, 160. Another migratory fish was found by Bose very numerous in the
+fresh waters of Carolina and in ponds liable to become dry in summer.
+When captured and placed on the ground, "they _always, directed
+themselves towards the nearest water, which they could not possibly
+see_, and which they must have discovered by some internal index. They
+belong to the genus _Hydrargyra_ and are called Swampines.--KIRBY,
+_Bridgewater Treatise_, vol. i. p. 143.
+
+Eels kept in a garden, when August arrived (the period at which instinct
+impels them to go to the sea to spawn) were in the habit of leaving the
+pond, and were invariably found moving eastward _in the direction of the
+sea_.--YARRELL, vol. ii. p. 384. Anglers observe that fish newly caught,
+when placed out of sight of water, always struggle towards it to
+escape.]
+
+[Footnote 3: PALLEGOIX, vol. i. p. 144.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Sir J. BOWERING'S _Siam,_ &c., vol. i. p. 10.]
+
+The class of fishes endowed with this power are chiefly those with
+labyrinthiform pharyngeal bones, so disposed in plates and cells as to
+retain a supply of moisture, which, whilst they are crawling on land,
+gradually exudes so as to keep the gills damp.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: CUVIER and VALENCIENNES, _Hist. Nat. des Poissons_, tom.
+vii. p. 246.]
+
+The individual most frequently seen in these excursions in Ceylon is a
+perch called by the Singhalese _Kavaya_ or _Kawhy-ya_, and by the Tamils
+_Pannei-eri_, or _Sennal_. It is closely allied to the _Anabas scandens_
+of Cuvier, the _Perca scandens_ of Daldorf. It grows to about six inches
+in length, the head round and covered with scales, and the edges of the
+gill-covers strongly denticulated. Aided by the apparatus already
+adverted to in its head, this little creature issues boldly from its
+native pools and addresses itself to its toilsome march generally at
+night or in the early morning, whilst the grass is still damp with the
+dew; but in its distress it is sometimes compelled to move by day, and
+Mr. E.L. Layard on one occasion encountered a number of them travelling
+along a hot and dusty road under the midday sun.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist_., May, 1853, p. 390. Mr.
+Morris, the government-agent of Trincomalie, writing to me on this
+subject in 1856, says--"I was lately on duty inspecting the kind of a
+large tank at Nade-cadua, which, being out of repair, the remaining
+water was confined in a small hollow in the otherwise dry bed. Whilst
+there heavy rain came on, and, as we stood on the high ground, we,
+observed a pelican on the margin of the shallow pool gorging himself;
+our people went towards him and raised a cry of fish! fish! We hurried
+down, and found numbers of fish struggling upwards through the grass in
+the rills formed by the trickling of the rain. There was scarcely water
+enough to cover them, but nevertheless they made rapid progress up the
+bank, on which our followers collected about two bushels of them at a
+distance of forty yards from the tank. They were forcing their way up
+the knoll, and, had they not been intercepted first by the pelican and
+afterwards by ourselves, they would in a few minutes have gained the
+highest point and descended on the other side into a pool which formed
+another portion of the tank. They were chub, the same as are found in
+the mud after the tanks dry up." In a subsequent communication in July,
+1857, the same gentleman says--"As the tanks dry up the fish congregate
+in the little pools till at last you find them in thousands in the
+moistest parts of the beds, rolling in the blue mud which is at that
+time about the consistence of thick gruel."
+
+"As the moisture further evaporates the surface fish are left uncovered,
+and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In one place I saw
+hundreds diverging in every direction, from the tank they had just
+abandoned to a distance of fifty or sixty yards, and still travelling
+onwards. In going this distance, however, they must have used muscular
+exertion sufficient to have taken them half a mile on level ground, for
+at these places all the cattle and wild animals of the neighbourhood had
+latterly come to drink; so that the surface was everywhere indented with
+footmarks in addition to the cracks in the surrounding baked mud, into
+which the fish tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deep
+and the sides perpendicular they remained to die, and were carried off
+by kites and crows."
+
+"My impression is that this migration takes place at night or before
+sunrise, for it was only early in the morning that I have seen them
+progressing, and I found that those I brought away with me in chatties
+appeared quiet by day, but a large proportion managed to get out of the
+chatties at night--some escaped altogether, others were trodden on and
+killed."
+
+"One peculiarity is the large size of the vertebral column, quite
+disproportioned to the bulk of the fish. I particularly noticed that all
+in the act of migrating had their gills expanded."]
+
+Referring to the _Anabas scandens_, DR. HAMILTON BUCHANAN says, that of
+all the fish with which he was acquainted it is the most teliacious of
+life; and he has known boatmen on the Ganges to keep them for five or
+six days in an earthen pot without water, and daily to use what they
+wanted, finding them as lively and fresh as when caught.[1] Two Danish
+naturalists residing at Tranquebar, have contributed their authority to
+the fact of this fish ascending trees on the coast of Coromandel, an
+exploit from which it acquired its epithet of _Perca scandens_. DALDORF,
+who was a lieutenant in the Danish East India Company's service,
+communicated to Sir Joseph Banks, that in the year 1791 he had taken
+this fish from a moist cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, that grew
+near a lake. He saw it when already five feet above the ground
+struggling to ascend still higher;--"suspending itself by its
+gill-covers, and bending its tail to the left, it fixed its anal fin in
+the cavity of the bark, and sought by expanding its body to urge its way
+upwards, and its march was only arrested by the hand with which he
+seized it."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Fishes of the Ganges_, 4to. 1822.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Transactions Linn. Soc._ vol. iii. p. 63. It is
+remarkable, however, that this discovery of Daldorf, which excited so
+great an interest in 1791, had been anticipated by an Arabian voyager a
+thousand years before. Abou-zeyd, the compiler of the remarkable MS.
+known since Renaudot's translation by the title of the _Travels of the
+Two Mahometans_, states that Suleyman, one of his informants, who
+visited India at the close of the ninth century, was told there of a
+fish which, issuing from the waters, ascended the coco-nut palms to
+drink their sap, and returned to the sea. "On parle d'un poisson de mer
+qui, sortant de l'eau, monte sur la cocotier et boit le suc de la
+plante; ensuite il retourne a la mer." See REINAUD, _Relations des
+Voyages faits par les Arabes et Persans dans le neuvieme siecle_, tom.
+i. p, 21, tom. ii. p. 93.]
+
+There is considerable obscurity about the story of this ascent, although
+corroborated by M. JOHN. Its motive for climbing is not apparent, since
+water being close at hand it could not have gone for sake of the
+moisture contained in the fissures of the palm; nor could it be in
+search of food, as it lives not on fruit but on aquatic insects.[1] The
+descent, too, is a question of difficulty.
+
+[Footnote 1: Kirby says that it is "in pursuit of certain crustaceans
+that form its food" (_Bridgewater Treatise_, vol i. p. 144); but I am
+not aware of any crustaceans in the island which ascend the palmyra or
+feed upon its fruit. The _Birgus latro_, which inhabits Mauritius, and
+is said to climb the coco-nut for this purpose, has not been observed in
+Ceylon.]
+
+The position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-covers, might
+assist its journey upwards, but the same apparatus would prove anything
+but a facility in steadying its journey down. The probability is, as
+suggested by Buchanan, that the ascent which was witnessed by Daldorf
+was accidental, and ought not to be regarded as the habit of the animal.
+In Ceylon I heard of no instance of the perch ascending trees[1], but
+the fact is well established that both it, the _pullata_ (a species of
+_polyacanthus_), and others, are capable of long journeys on the level
+ground.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: This assertion must be qualified by a fact stated by Mr.
+E.A. Layard, who mentions that on visiting one of the fishing stations
+on a Singhalese river, where the fish are caught in staked enclosures,
+as described at p. 342, and observing that the chambers were covered
+with netting, he asked the reason, and was told "_that some of the fish
+climbed up the sticks and got over._"--Mag. Nat. Hist, for May 1823, p.
+390-1.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Strange accidents have more than once occurred at Ceylon
+arising from the habit of the native anglers; who, having neither
+baskets nor pockets in which to place what they catch, will seize a fish
+in their teeth whilst putting fresh bait on their hook. In August, 1853,
+a man was carried into the Pettah hospital at Colombo, having a climbing
+perch, which he thus attempted to hold, firmly imbedded in his throat.
+The spines of its dorsal fin prevented its descent, whilst those of the
+gill-covers equally forbade its return. It was eventually extracted by
+the forceps through an incision in the oesophagus, and the patient
+recovered. Other similar cases have proved fatal.]
+
+_Burying Fishes._--But a still more remarkable power possessed by some
+of the Ceylon fishes, is that already alluded to, of secreting
+themselves in the earth in the dry season, at the bottom of the
+exhausted ponds, and there awaiting the renewal of the water at the
+change of the monsoon. The instinct of the crocodile to resort to the
+same expedient has been already referred to[1], and in like manner the
+fish, when distressed by the evaporation of the tanks, seek relief by
+immersing first their heads, and by degrees their whole bodies, in the
+mud; sinking to a depth at which they find sufficient moisture to
+preserve life in a state of lethargy long after the bed of the tank has
+been consolidated by the intense heat of the sun. It is possible, too,
+that the cracks which reticulate the surface may admit air to some
+extent to sustain their faint respiration.
+
+[Footnote 1: See _ante_, p. 285.]
+
+The same thing takes place in other tropical regions, subject to
+vicissitudes of drought and moisture. The Protopterus[1], which inhabits
+the Gambia (and which though demonstrated by Professor Owen to possess
+all the essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless provided with
+true lungs), is accustomed in the dry season, when the river retires
+into its channel, to bury itself to the depth of twelve or sixteen
+inches in the indurated mud of the banks, and to remain in a state of
+torpor till the rising of the stream after the rains enables it to
+resume its active habits. At this period the natives of the Gambia, like
+those of Ceylon, resort to the river, and secure the fish in
+considerable numbers as they flounder in the still shallow water. A
+parallel instance occurs, in Abyssinia in relation to the fish of the
+Mareb, one of the sources of the Nile, the waters of which are partially
+absorbed in traversing the plains of Taka. During the summer its bed is
+dry, and in the slime at the depth of more than six feet is found a
+species of fish without scales, different from any known to inhabit the
+Nile.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Lepidosiren annectans_, Owen. See _Linn. Trans._ 1839.]
+
+[Footnote 2: This statement will be found in QUATREMERE'S Memoires sur
+l'Egypte, tom. i. p. 17, on the authority of Abdullah ben Ahmed ben
+Solaim Assouany, in his _History of Nubia_, "Simon, heritier presomptif
+du royanme d'Alouah, m'a assure que l'on trouve, dans la vase qui couvre
+fond de cette riviere, un grand poisson sans ecailles, qui ne ressemble
+en rien aux poissons du Nil, et que, pour l'avoir, il faut creuser a une
+toise et plus de profondeur." To this passage, there is appended this
+note:--"Le patriarche Mendes, cite par Legrand (_Relation Hist. d'
+Abyssinie_, du P. LOBO, p. 212-3) rapporte que le fleuve Mareb, apres
+avoir arrose une etendue de pays considerable, se perd sous terre; et
+que quand les Portugais faisaient la guerre dans ce pays, ils
+fouilloient dans le sable, et y trouvoient de la bonne eau et du ban
+poisson. An rapport de l'auteur de _l' Ayin Akbery_ (tom. ii, p. 146,
+ed. 1800), dans le Soubah do Caschmir, pres du lieu nomme Tilahmoulah,
+est une grande piece de terre qui est inondee pendant la saison des
+pluies. Lorsque les eaux se sont evaporees, et que la vase est presque
+seche, les habitans prennant des batons d'environ une aune do long,
+qu'ils enfoncent dans la vase, et ils y trouvent quantite de grands et
+petits poissons." In the library of the British Museum there is an
+unique MS. of MANOEL DE ALMEIDA, written in the sixteenth century, from
+which Balthasar Tellec compiled his _Historia General de Ethiopia alta_,
+printed at Coimbra in 1660, and in it the above statement of Mendes is
+corroborated by Almeida, who says that he was told by Joao Gabriel, a
+Creole Portuguese, born in Abyssinia, who had visited the Mareb, and who
+said that the "fish were to be found everywhere eight or ten palms down,
+and that he had eaten of them."]
+
+In South America the "round-headed hassar" of Guiana, _Callicthys
+littoralis_, and the "yarrow," a species of the family Esocidae, although
+they possess no specially modified respiratory organs, are accustomed to
+bury themselves in the mud on the subsidence of water in the pools
+during the dry season.[1] The _Loricaria_ of Surinam, another Siluridan,
+exhibits a similar instinct, and resorts to the same expedient. Sir R.
+Schomburgk, in his account of the fishes of Guiana, confirms this
+account of the Callicthys, and says "they can exist in muddy lakes
+without any water whatever, and great numbers of them are sometimes dug
+up from such situations."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Paper "_on some Species of Fishes and Reptiles in
+Demerara_," by J. HANDCOCK, Esq., M.D., _Zoological Journal_, vol. iv.
+p. 243.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A curious account of the _borachung_ or "ground fish" of
+Bhootan, will be found in Note (C.) appended to this chapter.]
+
+In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat, and small tanks
+are extremely numerous, the natives are accustomed in the hot season to
+dig in the mud for fish. Mr. Whiting, the chief civil officer of the
+eastern province, informs me that, on two occasions, he was present
+accidentally when the villagers were so engaged, once at the tank of
+Malliativoe, within a few miles of Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie,
+and again at a tank between Ellendetorre and Arnitivoe, on the bank of
+the Vergel river. The clay was firm, but moist, and as the men flung out
+lumps of it with a spade, it fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nine
+to twelve inches long, which were full grown and healthy, and jumped on
+the bank when exposed to the sun light.
+
+[Illustration: THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS.]
+
+Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of fish so exhumed, I received
+from the Moodliar of Matura, A.B. Wickremeratne, a fish taken along with
+others of the same kind from a tank in which the water had dried up; it
+was found at a depth of a foot and a half where the mud was still moist,
+whilst the surface was dry and hard. The fish which the moodliar sent to
+me is an Anabas, closely resembling the _Perca scandens_ of Daldorf; but
+on minute examination it proves to be a species unknown in India, and
+hitherto found only in Boreno and China. It is the _A. oligolepis_ of
+Bleek.
+
+But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is not confined in
+Ceylon to the crocodile sand fishes;--it is also possessed by some of
+the fresh-water mollusca and aquatic coleoptera. One of the former, the
+_Ampullaria glauca_, is found in still water in all parts of the island,
+not alone in the tanks, but in rice-fields and the watercourses by which
+they are irrigated. When, during the dry season, the water is about to
+evaporate, it burrows and conceals itself[1] till the returning rains
+restore it to activity, and reproduce its accustomed food. There, at a
+considerable depth in the soft mud, it deposits a bundle of eggs with a
+white calcareous shell, to the number of one hundred or more in each
+group. The _Melania Paludina_ in the same way retires during the
+droughts into the muddy soil of the rice lands; and it can only be by
+such an instinct that this and other mollusca are preserved when the
+tanks evaporate, to re-appear in full growth and vigour immediately on
+the return of the rains.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: A knowledge of this fact was turned to prompt account by
+Mr. Edgar S. Layard, when holding a judicial office at Point Pedro in
+1849. A native who had been defrauded of his land complained before him
+of his neighbour, who, during his absence, had removed their common
+landmark, diverting the original watercourse and obliterating its traces
+by filling it up to a level with the rest of the field. Mr. Layard
+directed a trench to be sunk at the contested spot, and discovering
+numbers of the Ampullaria, the remains of the eggs, and the living
+animal which had been buried for months, the evidence was so resistless
+as to confound the wrong-doer, and terminate the suit.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For a similar fact relative to the shells and water beetles
+in the pools near Rio Janeiro, see DARWIN'S _Nat. Journal_, ch. v. p.
+99. BENSON, in the first vol. of _Gleanings of Science_, published at
+Calcutta in 1829, describes a species of _Paludina_ found in pools,
+which are periodically dried up in the hot season but reappear with the
+rains, p. 363. And in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ for
+Sept. 1832, Lieut. HUTTON, in a singularly interesting paper, has
+followed up the same subject by a narrative of his own observations at
+Mirzapore, wherein June, 1832, after a few heavy showers of rain, that
+formed pools on the surface of the ground near a mango grove, he saw the
+_Paludinae_ issuing from the ground, "pushing aside the moistened earth
+and coming forth from their retreats; but on the disappearance of the
+water not one of them was to be seen above ground. Wishing to ascertain
+what had become of them he turned up the earth at the base of several
+trees, and invariably found the shells buried from an inch to two inches
+below the surface." Lieut. Hutton adds that the _Ampullariae_ and
+_Planorbes_, as well as the _Paludinae_ are found in similar situations
+during the heats of the dry season. The British _Pisidea_ exibit the
+same faculty (see a monograph in the _Camb. Phil. Trans._ vol. iv.). The
+fact is elsewhere alluded to in the present work of the power possessed
+by the land leech of Ceylon of retaining vitality even after being
+parched to hardness during the heat of the rainless season. LYELL
+mentions the instance of some snails in Italy which, when they
+hybernate, descend to the depth of five feet and more below the surface.
+_Princip. of Geology,_ &c, p. 373.]
+
+Dr. John Hunter[1] has advanced an opinion that hybernation, although a
+result of cold, is not its immediate consequence, but is attributable to
+that deprivation of food and other essentials which extreme cold
+occasions, and against the recurrence of which nature makes a timely
+provision by a suspension of her functions. Excessive heat in the
+tropics produces an effect upon animals and vegetables analogous to that
+of excessive cold in northern regions, and hence it is reasonable to
+suppose that the torpor induced by the one may be but the counterpart of
+the hybernation which results from the other. The frost that imprisons
+the alligator in the Mississippi as effectually cuts it off from food
+and action as the drought which incarcerates the crocodile in the
+sun-burnt clay of a Ceylon tank. The hedgehog of Europe enters on a
+period of absolute torpidity as soon as the inclemency of winter
+deprives it of its ordinary supply of slugs and insects; and the
+_tenrec_[2] of Madagascar, its tropical representative, exhibits the
+same tendency during the period when excessive heat produces in that
+climate a like result.
+
+[Footnote 1: HUNTER'S _Observations on parts of the Animal oeconomy_, p.
+88.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Centetes ecaudatus_, Illiger.]
+
+The descent of the _Ampullaria_, and other fresh-water molluscs, into
+the mud of the tanks, has its parallel in the conduct of the _Bulimi_
+and _Helices_ on land. The European snail, in the beginning of winter,
+either buries itself in the earth or withdraws to some crevice or
+overarching stone to await the returning vegetation of spring. So, in
+the season of intense heat, the _Helix Waltoni_ of Ceylon, and others of
+the same family, before retiring under cover, close the aperture of
+their shells with an impervious epiphragm, which effectually protects
+their moisture and juices from evaporation during the period of their
+aestivation. The Bulimi of Chili have been found alive in England in a
+box packed in cotton after an interval of two years, and the animal
+inhabiting a land-shell from Suez, which was attached to a tablet and
+deposited in the British Museum in 1846, was found in 1850 to have
+formed a fresh epiphragm, and on being immersed in tepid water, it
+emerged from its shell. It became torpid again on the 15th November,
+1851, and was found dead and dried up in March, 1852.[1] But exceptions
+serve to prove the accuracy of Hunter's opinion almost as strikingly as
+accordances, since the same genera of animals that hybernate in Europe,
+where extreme cold disarranges their oeconomy, evince no symptoms of
+lethargy in the tropics, provided their food be not diminished by the
+heat. Ants, which are torpid in Europe during winter, work all the year
+round in India, where sustenance is uniform.[2] The shrews of Ceylon
+(_Sorex montanus_ and _S. ferrugineus_ of Kelaart), like those at home,
+subsist upon insects, but as they inhabit a region where the equable
+temperature admits of the pursuit of their prey at all seasons of the
+year, unlike those of Europe, they never hybernate. A similar
+observation applies to bats, which are dormant during a northern winter
+when insects are rare, but never become torpid in any part of the
+tropics. The bear, in like manner, is nowhere deprived of its activity
+except when the rigour of severe frost cuts off its access to its
+accustomed food. On the other hand, the tortoise, which in Venezuela
+immerses itself in indurated mud during the hot months shows no tendency
+to torpor in Ceylon, where its food is permanent; and yet it is subject
+to hybernation when carried to the colder regions of Europe.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Annals of Natural History_, 1860. See Dr. BAIRD'S _Account
+of Helix desertorum; Excelsior,_ &c., ch. i. p. 345.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Colonel SKYES has described in the _Entomological Trans._
+the operations of an ant in India which lays up a store of hay against
+the rainy season.]
+
+To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the heat, by exhausting
+the water, deprives them at once of motion and sustenance, the practical
+effect must be the same as when the frost of a northern winter encases
+them in ice. Nor is it difficult to believe that they can successfully
+undergo the one crisis when we know beyond question that they may
+survive the other.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: YARRELL, vol. i. p. 364, quotes the authority of Dr. J.
+Hunter in his _Animal oeconomy_, that fish, "after being frozen still
+retain so much of life as when thawed to resume their vital actions;"
+and in-the same volume (_Introd_. vol. i. p. xvii.) he relates from
+JESSE'S _Gleanings in Natural History_, the story of a gold fish
+(_Cyprinus auratus_), which, together with the a marble basin, was
+frozen into one solid lump of ice, yet, on the water being thawed, the
+fish became as lively as usual. Dr. RICHARDSON in the third vol of his
+_Fauna Borealis Americana_, says the grey sucking carp, found in the fur
+countries of North America, may be frozen and thawed again without being
+killed in the process.]
+
+_Hot-water Fishes_.--Another incident is striking in connection with the
+fresh-water fishes of Ceylon. I have described elsewhere the hot springs
+of Kannea[1], in the vicinity of Trincomalie, the water in which flows
+at a temperature varying at different seasons from 85 deg. to 115 deg.. In the
+stream formed by these wells M. Reynaud found and forwarded to Cuvier
+two fishes which he took from the water at a time when his thermometer
+indicated a temperature of 37 deg. Reaumur, equal to 115 deg. of Fahrenheit. The
+one was an Apogon, the other an Ambassis, and to each, from the heat of
+its habitat, he assigned the specific name of "thermalis."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: See SIR J. EMERSON TENNET's _Ceylon_, &c., vol. ii. p.
+496.]
+
+[Footnote 2: CUV. and VAL., vol. iii. p. 363. In addition to the two
+fishes above named, a loche _Cobitis thermalis_, and a carp, _Nuria
+thermoicos_, were found in the hot-springs of Kannea, at a heat 40 deg.
+Cent., 114 deg. Fahr., and a roach, _Leuciscus thermalis_, when the
+thermometer indicated 50 deg. Cent, 122 deg. Fahr.--_Ib_. xviii. p. 59, xvi. p.
+182, xvii. p. 94. Fish have been taken from a hot spring at Pooree when
+the thermometer stood at 112 deg. Fahr., and as they belonged to a
+carnivorous genus, they must have found prey living in the same high
+temperature.--_Journ. Asiatic Soc. of Beng._ vol. vi. p. 465. Fishes
+have been observed in a hot spring at Manila which raises the
+thermometer to 187 deg., and in another in Barbary, the usual temperature of
+which is 172 deg.; and Humboldt and Bonpland, when travelling in South
+America, saw fishes thrown up alive from a volcano, in water that raised
+the temperature to 210 deg., being two degrees below the boiling point.
+PATTERSON'S _Zoology_, Pt. ii. p. 211; YARRELL'S _History of British
+Fishes_, vol. i. In. p. xvi.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Fishes._
+
+In the following list, the Acanthopterygian fishes of Ceylon has been
+prepared for me by Dr. GUeNTHER, and will be found the most complete
+which has appeared of this order. I am also indebted to him for the
+correction of the list of Malacopterygians, which I hope ere long to
+render still more extended, as well as that of the Cartilaginous fishes.
+
+
+I. OSSEOUS.
+
+ACANTHOPTERYGII
+
+BERYCIDAE, _Lowe_.
+  Myripristis murdjan, _Forsk_.
+  Holocentrum rubrum, _Forsk_.
+     spiniferum, _Forsk_.
+     diadema, _Lacep_.
+
+PERCIDAE, _Guenther_.
+ *Lates calcarifer, _Bl._
+  Serranus louti, _Forsk_.
+     pachycentrum, _C. & V._
+     guttatus, _Bl._
+     Sonneratii, _C. & V._
+     angularis, _C.& V._
+     marginalis, _Bl._
+     hexagonatis, _Forsk_.
+     flavocoeruleus, _Lacep_.
+     biguttatus, _C. & V._
+     lemniscatus, _C. & V._
+     Amboinensis, _Bleek_.
+     boenak, _C. & V._
+  Grammistes orientalis,  _Bl._
+  Genyoroge Sebae, _C. & V._
+     Bengalensis, _C. & V._
+     marginata, _C. & V._
+     rivulata, _C. & V._
+     gibba, _Forsk_.
+     spilura, _Benn_.
+  Mesoprion aurolineatus, _C. & V._
+     rangus, _C. & V._
+     quinquelineatus, _Ruepp_.
+     Johnii, _Bl._
+     annularis, _C. & V._
+  ?Priacanthus Blochii, _Bleek_.
+  Ambassis n. sp., _Guenth_.
+     Commersonii, _C. & V._
+     thermalis, _C. & V._
+  Apogon Ceylonicus, _C. & V._
+     thermalis, _C. & V._
+     annularis, _Ruepp_. Var. roseipinnis.
+  Chilodipterus quinquelineatus, _C. & V._
+
+PRISTIPOMATIDAE, _Guenther_.
+  Dules Bennettii, _Bleek_.
+ *Therapon servus, _Bloch_.
+    *trivittatus, _Buch. Ham_.
+     quadrilineatus, _Bl._
+ *Helotes polytaenia, _Bleek_.
+  Pristipoma hasta, _Bloch_.
+     maculatum, _Bl._
+  Diagramma punctatum, _Ehrenb_.
+     orientale, _Bl._
+     poecilopterum, _C. & V._
+     Blochii, _C. & V._
+     lineatum, _Gm_.
+     Radja, _Bleek_.
+  Lobotes auctorum, _Guenth_.
+  Gerres oblongus, _C & V._
+  Scolopsia Japonicus, _Bl._
+     bimaculatus, _Ruepp_.
+     monogramma, _k. & v. H._
+  Synagris furcosus, _C. & V._
+  Pentapus aurolineatus, _Lacep_.
+  Smaris balteatus, _C. & V._
+  Caesio coerulaureus, _Lacep_.
+
+MULLIDAE, _Gray_.
+  Upeneus taeniopterus, _C. & V._
+     Indicus, _Shaw_.
+     cyclostoma, _Lacep_.
+  Upe. trifasciatus, _Lacep_.
+     cinnabarinus, _C. & V._
+  Upeneoides vittatus, _Forsk._
+     tragula.
+     sulphureus, _C. & V._
+  Mulloides flavolineatus, _Lacep_.
+     Ceylonicus, _C. & V._
+
+SPARIDAE, _Guenther_.
+  Lethrinus frenatus, _C. & V._
+     cinereus, _C. & V._
+     fasciatus, _C. & V._
+    ?ramak, _Forsk._
+     opercularis, _C. & V._
+     erythrurus, _C. & V._
+  Pagrus spinifer, _Forsk_.
+  Crysophrys hasta, _Bl._
+ ?Pimelepterus Ternatensis, _Bleek_.
+
+SQUAMIPINNES, _Guenthier_.
+  Chaetodon Layardi, _Blyth_.
+     oligacanthus, _Bleek_.
+     setifer, _Bl._
+     vagabundus, _L._
+     guttatissimus, _Benn_.
+     pictus, _Forsk_.
+     xanthocephalus, _Benn_.
+     Sebae, _C. & V._
+  Heniochus macrolepidotus, _Artedi_.
+  Holacanthus annularis, _Bl._
+     xanthurus, _Benn_.
+     imperator, _B1_.
+  Scatophagus argus, _Gm_.
+  Ephippus orbis, _Bl._
+  Drepane punctata, _Gm_.
+
+CIRRHITIDAE, _Gray_.
+  Cirrhites Forsteri, _Schn_.
+
+CATAPHRACTI, _Cuv_.
+  Scorpaena polyprion, _Bleek_.
+  Pterois volitans, _L._
+     miles, _Benn_.
+  Tetraroge longispinis, _C. & V._
+  Platycephalus insidiator, _Forsk_.
+     punctatus, _C. & V._
+     serratus, _C. & V._
+     tuberculatus, _C. & V._
+     suppositus, _Trosch_.
+  Dactylopterus orientalis, _C. & V._
+
+TRACHINIDAE, _Guenther_.
+ ?Uranoscopus guttatus, _C. & V._
+  Percis millepunctata, _Guenth_.
+  Sillago siliama, _Forsk_.
+
+SCIAENIDAE, _Guenther_.
+  Sciaena diacantha, _Lacep_.
+     maculata, _Schn_.
+     Dussumieri, _C & V._
+  Corvina miles, _C. & V._
+  Otolithus argenteus, _k. & v. H._
+
+POLYNEMIDAE, _Guenther_.
+  Polynemus heptadactylus, _C. & V._
+     hexanemus, _C. & V._
+     Indicus, _Shaw_.
+     plebeius, _Gm._
+     tetradactylus, _Shaw_.
+
+SPHYRAENIDAE, _Agass_.
+  Sphyraena jello, _C. & V._
+     obtusata, _C. & V._
+
+TRICHIURIDAE, _Guenther_.
+  Trichiurus savala, _Cuv._
+
+SCOMBRIDAE, _Guenther_.
+ ?Thynnus affinis, _Cant._
+  Cybium Commersonii, _Lacep._
+     guttatum, _Schn._
+  Naucrates ductor, _L._
+  Elacate nigra, _Bl._
+    ?n. sp.
+  Echeneis remora, _L._
+     scutata, _Guenth._
+     naucrates, _L._
+  Stromateus cinereus, _Bl._
+     niger, _Bl._
+  Coryphaena hippurus, _L._
+  Mene maculata, _Schn._
+
+CARANGIDAE, _Guenther._
+  Caranx Heberi, _Benn._
+  Rottleri, _Bl._
+     calla, _C.&V._
+     xanthurus, _K.&v.H._
+     talamparoides, _Bleek._
+     Malabaricus, _Schn._
+     speciosus, _Forsk._
+     carangus, _Bl._
+     hippos, _L._
+     armatus, _Forsk._
+     ciliaris, _Bl._
+     gallus, _L._
+  Micropteryx chrysurus, _L._
+  Seriola nigro-fasciata, _Ruepp._
+  Chorinemus lysan, _Forsk._
+     Sancti Petri, _C. & V._
+  Trachynotus oblongus, _C. & V._
+     ovatus, _L._
+  Psettus argenteus, _L._
+  Platax vespertilio, _Bl._
+     Raynaldi, _C.&V._
+  Zanclus sp. n.
+  Lactarius delicatulus, _C. & V._
+  Equula fasciata, _Lacep._
+     edentula, _Bl._
+     daura, _Cuv._
+     inlerrupta.
+  Gazza minuta, _Bl._
+     equulaeformis, _Ruepp._
+  Pempheris sp.
+
+XIPHIIDAE, _Agass._
+  Histiophorus immaculatus, _Ruepp._
+
+THEUTYIDAE, _Guenther._
+  Theutys Javus, _L._
+     stellata, _Forsk._
+     nebulosa, _A. & G._
+
+ACRONURIDAE, _Guenther._
+  Acanthurus triostegus, _L._
+     nigrofuscus, _Forsk._
+     lineatus, _L._
+     Tennentii, _Gthr._
+     leucosternon, _Bennett._
+     ctenodon, _C.&V._
+     rhombeus, _Kittl._
+     xanthurus, _Blyth._
+  Acronurus melas, _C. & V._
+     melanurus, _C. & V._
+  Naseus unicornis, _Forsk,_
+     brevirostris, _C. & V._
+     tuberosus, _Lacep._
+     lituratus, _Forster._
+
+AULOSTOMATA, _Cuvier._
+  Fistularia serrata, _Bl._
+
+BLENNIIDAE, _Muell._
+  Salarias fasclatus, _Bl._
+  Sal. marmoratus, _Benn._
+     tridactylus, _Schn._
+     quadricornis, _C.&V._
+
+GOBIIDAE, _Muell._
+  Gobius ornatus, _Ruepp._
+     giuris, _Buch. Ham._
+     albopunctatus, _C. & V._
+     grammepomus, _Bleek._
+  Apocryptes lanceolatus, _Bl._
+  Periophthalmus Koelreuteri, _Pall._
+  Eleotris ophiocephalus, _K. & v.H._
+     fusca, _Bl._
+     sexguttata, _C. & V._
+     muralis, _A. & G._
+
+MASTACEMBELIDAE. _Guenther._
+  Mastacembelus armatus, _Lacep._
+
+PEDICULATI, _Cuv._
+  Antennarius marmoratus, _Guenth._
+     hispidus, _Schn._
+     pinniceps, _Commers._
+     Commersonii, _Lacep._
+     multiocellatus _Guenth._
+     bigibbus, _Lacep._
+
+ATHERINIDAE, _Guenther._
+  Atherina Forskalii, _Ruepp._
+     duodecimalis, _C. & V._
+
+MUGILIDAE, _Guenther._
+  Mugil planiceps, _C. & V._
+     Waigiensis, _A.G._
+     Ceylonensis, _Guenth._
+
+OPHIOCEPHALIDAE, _Guenther._
+  Ophiocephalus punctatus, _Bl._
+     Kelaartii, _Guenth._
+     striatus, _Bl._
+     marulius, _Ham. Buch._
+  Channa orientalis, _Schn._
+
+LABYRINTHICI, _Cuv._
+  Anabas oligolepis, _Bleek._
+  Polyacanthus signatus, _Guenth._
+
+PHARYNGOGNATHI.
+  Amphiprion Clarkii, _J. Benn._
+  Dascyllus aruanus, _C. & V._
+  trimaculatus, _Ruepp._
+  Glyphisodon septem-fasciatus, _C. & V._
+     Brownrigii, _Benn,_
+     coelestinus, _Sol._
+  Etroplus Suratensis, _Bl._
+  Julis lunaris _Linn._
+     decussatus, _W Benn._
+     formosus, _C.&V._
+     quadricolor. _Lesson._
+     dorsalis, _Quoy & Gaim._
+     aureomaculatus, _W. Benn._
+     Cellanicus, _E. Benn._
+     Finlaysoni, _C. & V._
+     purpureo-lineatus, _C. & V._
+     cingulum, _C. & V._
+  Gomphosus fuscus, _C. & V._
+     coeruleus, _Comm._
+     viridis, _W. Benn._
+  Scarus pepo, _W. Benn._
+     harid. _Forsk._
+  Tautoga fasciata, _Thunb._
+  Hemirhamphus Reynaldi, _C. & V._
+     Georgii _C.& V._
+  Exocoetus evolans. _Linn._
+  Belone annulata, _C. & V._
+
+MALACOPTERYGII (ABDOMINALES).
+  Bagrus gulio, _Buch_.
+     albilabris, _C. & V._
+  Plotosus lineatus, _C. & V._
+  Barbus tor, _C. & V._
+  Nuria thermoicos, _C. & V._
+  Leuciscus dandia, _C. & V._
+     scalpellus, _C. & V._
+     Ceylonicus, _E. Benn_.
+     thermalis, _C. & V._
+  Cobitis thermalis, _C. & V._
+  Chirocentrus dorab, _Forsk_.
+  Elops saurus, _L._
+  Megalops cundinga, _Buch_.
+  Engraulis Brownii, _Gm_.
+  Sardinella leiogaster, _C. & V._
+     lineolata, _C. & V._
+     Neohowii.
+  Saurus myops, _Val_.
+  Saurida tombil, _Bl._
+
+MALACOPTERYGII (SUB-BRANCHIATI).
+  Pleuronectes, _L._
+
+MALACOPTERYGII (APODA).
+  Muraena.
+
+LOPHOBRANCHI.
+  Syngnathus, _L._
+
+PLECTOGNATHII.
+  Tetraodon ocellatus, _W. Benn_.
+     tepa, _Buch_.
+     argyropleura, _E. Bennett_.
+     argentatus, _Blyth_.
+  Balistes biaculeatus, _W. Benn_.
+     lineatus, _Bl._
+  Triacanthus biaculeatus, _W. Benn_.
+  Alutarius laevis, _Bl._
+
+
+II. CARTILAGINOUS.
+
+  Pristis antiquorum, _Lath_.
+     cuspidatus, _Lath_.
+     pectinatus, _Lath_.
+  Chiloscyllium plagiosum, _Benn_.
+  Stegostoma fasciatum, _Bl._
+  Carcharias acutus, _Ruepp_.
+  Sphyrna zygaena, _L._
+  Rhynchobatus laevis, _Bl._
+  Trygon uarnak, _Forsk_.
+  Pteroplatea micrura, _Bl._
+  Taeniura lymna, _Forsk_.
+  Myliobatis Nieuhofii, _Bl._
+  Aetobates narinari, _Bl._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE (A.)
+
+INSTANCES OF FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA.
+
+
+(_From the Bombay Times,_ 1856.)
+
+See Page 343.
+
+The late Dr. Buist, after enumerating cases in which fishes were said to
+have been thrown out from volcanoes in South America and precipitated
+from clouds in various parts of the world, adduced the following
+instances of similar occurrences in India. "In 1824," he says, "fishes
+fell at Meerut, on the men of Her Majesty's 14th Regiment, then out at
+drill, and were caught in numbers. In July, 1826, live fish were seen to
+fall on the grass at Moradabad during a storm. They were the common
+cyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian waters. On the 19th of February,
+1830, at noon, a heavy fall of fish occurred at the Nokulhatty factory,
+in the Daccah zillah; depositions on the subject were obtained from nine
+different parties. The fish were all dead; most of them were large; some
+were fresh, others were rotten and mutilated. They were seen at first in
+the sky, like a flock of birds, descending rapidly to the ground; there
+was rain drizzling, but no storm. On the 16th and 17th of May, 1833, a
+fall of fish occurred in the zillah of Futtehpoor, about three miles
+north of the Jumna, after a violent storm of wind and rain. The fish
+were from a pound and a half to three pounds in weight, and of the same
+species as those found in the tanks in the neighbourhood. They were all
+dead and dry. A fall of fish occurred at Allahabad, during a storm in
+May, 1835; they were of the chowla species, and were found dead and dry
+after the storm had passed over the district. On the 20th of September,
+1839, after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of live fish, about three
+inches in length and all of the same kind, fell at the Sunderbunds,
+about twenty miles south of Calcutta. On this occasion it was remarked
+that the fish did not fall here and there irregularly over the ground,
+but in a continuous straight line, not more than a span in breadth. The
+vast multitudes of fish, with which the low grounds round Bombay are
+covered, about a week or ten days after the first burst of the monsoon,
+appear to be derived from the adjoining pools or rivulets, and not to
+descend from the sky. They are not, so far as I know, found in the
+higher parts of the island. I have never seen them, (though I have
+watched carefully,) in casks collecting water from the roofs of
+buildings, or heard of them on the decks or awnings of vessels in the
+harbour, where they must have appeared had they descended from the sky.
+One of the most remarkable phenomena of this kind occurred during a
+tremendous deluge of rain at Kattywar, on the 25th of July, 1850, when
+the ground around Rajkote was found literally covered with fish; some of
+them were found on the tops of haystacks, where probably they had been
+drifted by the storm. In the course of twenty-four successive hours
+twenty-seven inches of rain fell, thirty-five fell in twenty-six hours,
+seven inches within one hour and a half, being the heaviest fall on
+record. At Poonah, on the 3rd of August, 1852, after a very heavy fall
+of rain, multitudes of fish were caught on the ground in the
+cantonments, full half a mile from the nearest stream. If showers of
+fish are to be explained on the assumption that they are carried up by
+squalls or violent winds, from rivers or spaces of water not far away
+from where they fall, it would be nothing wonderful were they seen to
+descend from the air during the furious squalls which occasionally occur
+in June."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOTE (B.)
+
+CEYLON FISHES.
+
+
+(_Memorandum by Professor Huxley._)
+
+See Page 324.
+
+The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the fishes of
+Ceylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, possesses an unusual
+value for several reasons.
+
+The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and even had those
+from other parts of Ceylon been added, the geographical area would not
+have been very extended. Nevertheless there are more than 600 drawings,
+and though it is possible that some of these represent varieties in
+different stages of growth of the same species, I have not been able to
+find definite evidence of the fact in any of those groups which I have
+particularly tested. If, however, these drawings represent _six hundred_
+distinct species of fish, they constitute, so far as I know, the largest
+collection of fish from one locality in existence.
+
+The number of known British fishes may be safely assumed to be less than
+250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr. Cantor's valuable work on
+Malayan fishes enumerates not more than 238, while Dr. Russell has
+figured only 200 from Coromandel. Even the enormous area of the Chinese
+and Japanese seas has as yet not yielded 800 species of fishes.
+
+The large extent of the collection alone, then, renders it of great
+importance: but its value is immeasurably enhanced by the two
+circumstances,--_first_, that every drawing was made while the fish
+retained all that vividness of colouring which becomes lost so soon
+after its removal from its native element; and _secondly_, that when the
+sketch was finished its subject was carefully labelled, preserved in
+spirits, and forwarded to England, so that at the present moment the
+original of every drawing can be subjected to anatomical examination,
+and compared with already named species.
+
+Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the collection
+is one of the most valuable in existence, and might, if properly worked
+out, become a large and secure foundation for all future investigation
+into the ichthyology of the Indian Ocean.
+
+It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the novelty or
+otherwise of the species and genera figured without the study of the
+specimens themselves, as the specific distinctions of fish are for the
+most part based upon character--the fin-rays, teeth, the operculum, &c.,
+which can only be made out by close and careful examination of the
+object, and cannot be represented in ordinary drawings however accurate.
+
+There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family traits are so
+marked as to render it almost impossible to mistake even their
+portraits, and hence I may venture, without fear of being far wrong,
+upon a few remarks as to the general features of the ichthyological
+fauna of Ceylon.
+
+In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of fishes belong
+to the cod tribe. I have not found one represented in these drawings,
+nor do either Russell or Cantor mention any in the surrounding seas, and
+the result is in general harmony with the known laws of distribution of
+these most useful of fishes.
+
+On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tunnies, the
+bonitas, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &c., which form not more than
+one sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but which are known to increase
+their proportion in hot climates, appear in wonderful variety of form
+and colour, and constitute not less than one fifth of the whole of the
+species of Ceylon fish. In Russell's catalogue they form less than one
+fifth, in Cantor's less than one sixth.
+
+Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the continent
+of Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country, constitute one
+twentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell's and Cantor's lists they
+form about one thirtieth of the whole.
+
+The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish fauna. They
+constitute about one tenth or one eleventh of Russell's and Cantor's
+lists, while among these Ceylon drawings I find not more than twenty, or
+about one thirtieth of the whole, which can be referred to this group of
+fishes. It must be extremely interesting to know whether this
+circumstance is owing to accident, or to the local peculiarities of
+Colombo, or whether the fauna of Ceylon really is deficient in such
+fishes.
+
+The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the proportion of the
+tribe of flat fishes, or _Pleuronectidae_. Soles, turbots, and the like,
+form nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both Cantor and Russell give
+the flat fishes as making one twenty-second part of their collection,
+while in the whole 600 Ceylon drawings I can find but five
+_Pleuronectidae_.
+
+When this great collection has been carefully studied, I doubt not that
+many more interesting distributional facts will be evolved.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the drawings in
+question have been submitted to Dr. Gray, of the British Museum. That
+eminent naturalist, after a careful analysis, has favoured me with the
+following memorandum of the fishes they represent, numerically
+contrasting them with those of China and Japan, so far as we are
+acquainted with the ichthyology of those seas:--
+
+
+  CARTILAGINEA.
+
+                         Ceylon.      China and Japan.
+
+  Squali                   12               15
+  Raiae                     19               20
+  Sturiones                 0                1
+
+  OSTINOPTERYGII.
+
+  Plectognathi.
+       tetraodontidae       10               21
+       balistidae            9               19
+  Lophobranchii.
+       syngnathidae          2                2
+       pegasidae             0                3
+  Ctenobranchii.
+       lophidae              1                3
+  Cyclopodi.
+       echeneidae            0                1
+       cyclopteridae         0                1
+       gobidae               7               35
+  Percini.
+       callionymidae         0                7
+       uranoscopidae         0                7
+       cottidae              0               13
+       triglidae            11               37
+       polynemidae          12                3
+       mullidae              1                7
+       perecidae            26               12
+       berycidae             0                5
+       sillaginidae          3                1
+       sciaenidae            19               13
+       haemullinidae          6               12
+       serranidae           31               38
+       theraponidae          8               20
+       cirrhitidae           0                2
+       maenidiae             37               25
+       sparidae             16               17
+       acanthuridae         14                6
+       chaetodontidae        25               21
+       fistularidae          2                3
+  Periodopharyngi.
+       mugilidae             5                7
+       anabantidae           6               15
+       pomacentridae        10               11
+  Pharyngognathi.
+       labridae             16               35
+       scomberesocidae      13                6
+       blenniidae            3                8
+  Scomberina.
+       zeidae                0                2
+       sphyraenidae           5                4
+       scomberidae         118               62
+       xiphlidae             0                1
+       cepolidae             0                5
+  Heterosomata.
+       platessoideae         5               22
+       siluridae            31               24
+       cyprinidae           19               52
+       scopelinidae          2                7
+       salmonidae            0                1
+       clupeidae            43               22
+       gadidae               0                2
+       macruridae            1                0
+  Apodes.
+       anguillidae           8               12
+       muraenidae             8                6
+       sphagebranchidae      8               10
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTE (C).
+
+ON THE BORA-CHUNG, OR "GROUND-FISH" OF BHOOTAN.
+
+
+See P. 353.
+
+In Bhootan, at the south-eastern extremity of the Himalayas, a fish is
+found, the scientific name of which is unknown to me, but it is called
+by the natives the _Bora-chung_, and by European residents the
+"ground-fish of Bhootan." It is described in the _Journal of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal for_ 1839, by a writer (who had seen it alive), as
+being about two feet in length, and cylindrical, with a thick body,
+somewhat shaped like a pike, but rounder, the nose curved upwards, the
+colour olive-green, with orange stripes, and the head speckled with
+crimson.[1] This fish, according to the native story, is caught not in
+the rivers in whose vicinity it is found, but "in perfectly dry places
+in the middle of grassy jungle, sometimes as far as two miles from the
+banks." Here, on finding a hole four or five inches in diameter, they
+commence to dig, and continue till they come to water; and presently the
+_bora-chung_ rises to the surface, sometimes from a depth of nineteen
+feet. In these extemporised wells these fishes are found always in
+pairs, and I when brought to the surface they glide rapidly over the
+ground with a serpentine motion. This account appeared in 1839; but some
+years later, Mr. Campbell, the Superintendent of Darjeeling, in a
+communication to the same journal[2], divested the story of much of its
+exaggeration, by stating, as the result of personal inquiry in Bhootan,
+that the _bora-chung_ inhabits the jheels and slow-running streams near
+the hills, but lives principally on the banks, into which it penetrates
+from one to five or six feet. The entrance to these retreats leading
+from the river into the bank is generally a few inches below the
+surface, so that the fish can return to the water at pleasure. The mode
+of catching them is by introducing the hand into these holes; and the
+_bora-chungs_ are found generally two in each chamber, coiled
+concentrically like snakes. It is not believed that they bore their own
+burrows, but that they take possession of those made by land-crabs. Mr.
+Campbell denies that they are more capable than other fish of moving on
+dry ground. From the particulars given, the _bora-chung_ would appear to
+be an _Ophiocephalus_, probably the _O. barka_ described by Buchanan, as
+inhabiting holes in the banks of rivers tributary to the Ganges.
+
+[Footnote 1: Paper by Mr. J.T. PEARSON, _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng._, vol.
+viii p. 551.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng._, vol. xi. p. 963.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XI.
+
+SHELLS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Mollusca.--Radiata, &c._
+
+Ceylon has long been renowned for the beauty and variety of the shells
+which abound in its seas and inland waters, and in which an active trade
+has been organised by the industrious Moors, who clean them with great
+expertness, arrange them in satin-wood boxes, and send them to Colombo
+and all parts of the island for sale. In general, however, these
+specimens are more prized for their beauty than valued for their rarity,
+though some of the "Argus" cowries[1] have been sold as high as _four
+guineas_ a pair.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cypraea Argus_.]
+
+One of the principal sources whence their supplies are derived is the
+beautiful Bay of Venloos, to the north of Batticaloa, formed by the
+embouchure of the Natoor river. The scenery at this spot is enchanting.
+The sea is overhung by gentle acclivities wooded to the summit; and in
+an opening between two of these eminences the river flows through a
+cluster of little islands covered with mangroves and acacias. A bar of
+rocks projects across it, at a short distance from the shore; and these
+are frequented all day long by pelicans, that come at sunrise to fish,
+and at evening return to their solitary breeding-places remote from the
+beach. The strand is literally covered with beautiful shells in rich
+profusion, and the dealers from Trincomalie know the proper season to
+visit the bay for each particular description. The entire coast,
+however, as far north as the Elephant Pass, is indented by little rocky
+inlets, where shells of endless variety may be collected in great
+abundance.[1] During the north-east monsoon a formidable surf bursts
+upon the shore, which is here piled high with mounds of yellow sand; and
+the remains of shells upon the water mark show how rich the sea is in
+mollusca. Amongst them are prodigious numbers of the ubiquitous
+violet-coloured _Ianthina_[2], which rises when the ocean is calm, and
+by means of its inflated vesicles floats lightly on the surface.
+
+[Footnote 1: In one of these beautiful little bays near Catchavelly,
+between Trincomalie and Batticaloa, I found the sand within the wash of
+the sea literally covered with mollusca and shells, and amongst others a
+species of _Bullia_ (B. vittata, I think), the inhabitant of which, has
+the faculty of mooring itself firmly by sending down its membranous foot
+into the wet sand, where, imbibing the water, this organ expands
+horizontally into a broad, fleshy disc, by which the animal anchors
+itself, and thus secured, collects its food in the ripple of the waves.
+On the slightest alarm, the water is discharged, the disc collapses into
+its original dimensions, and the shell and its inhabitant disappear
+together beneath the sand.]
+
+[Illustration: BULLIA VITTATA]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ianthina communis_, Krause and _I. prolongata_, Blainv.]
+
+[Illustration: IANTHINA.]
+
+The trade in shells is one of extreme antiquity in Ceylon. The Gulf of
+Manaar has been fished from the earliest times for the large chank
+shell, _Turbinella_ _rapa_, to be exported to India, where it is still
+sawn into rings and worn as anklets and bracelets by the women of
+Hindustan. Another use for these shells is their conversion into wind
+instruments, which are sounded in the temples on all occasions of
+ceremony. A chank, in which the whorls, instead of running from left to
+right, as in the ordinary shell, are reversed, and run from right to
+left, is regarded with such reverence that a specimen formerly sold for
+its weight in gold, but one may now be had for four or five pounds.
+COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, writing in the fifth century, describes a place
+on the west coast of Ceylon, which he calls Marallo, and says it
+produced "[Greek: kochlious]," which THEVENOT translates "oysters;" in
+which case Marallo might be conjectured to be Bentotte, near Colombo,
+which yields the best edible "oysters" in Ceylon.[1] But the shell in
+question was most probably the chank, and Marallo was Mantotte, off
+which it is found in great numbers.[2] In fact, two centuries later
+Abouzeyd, an Arab, who wrote an account of the trade and productions of
+India, speaks of these shells by the name they still bear, which he
+states to be _schenek_[3]; but "schenek" is not an Arabic word, and is
+merely an attempt to spell the local term, _chank_, in Arabic
+characters.
+
+[Footnote 1: COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, in Thevenot's ed. t i. p. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 2: At Kottiar, near Trincomalie, I was struck with the
+prodigious size of the edible oysters, which were brought to us at the
+rest-house. The shell of one of these measured a little more than eleven
+inches in length, by half as many broad: thus unexpectedly attesting the
+correctness of one of the stories related by the historians of
+Alexander's expedition, that in India they had found oysters a foot
+long. PLINY says: "In Indico mari Alexandri rerum auctores pedalia
+inveniri prodidere."--_Nat. Hist._ lib. xxxii. ch. 31. DARWIN says, that
+amongst the fossils of Patagonia, he found "a massive gigantic oyster,
+sometimes even a foot in diameter."--_Nat. Voy._, ch. viii.]
+
+[Footnote 3:--ABOUZEYD, _Voyages Arabes,_ &c., t. i. p. 6; REINAUD,
+_Memoire sur l'Inde,_ &c p. 222.]
+
+BERTOLACCI mentions a curious local peculiarity[1] observed by the
+fishermen in the natural history of the chank. "All shells," he says,
+"found to the northward of a line drawn from a point about midway from
+Manaar to the opposite coast (of India) are of the kind called _patty_,
+and are distinguished by a short flat head; and all those found to the
+southward of that line are of the kind called _pajel_, and are known
+from having a longer and more pointed head than the former. Nor is there
+ever an instance of deviation from this singular law of nature. The
+_Wallampory_, or 'right-hand chanks,' are found of both kinds."
+
+[Footnote 1: See also the _Asiatic Journal for_ 1827, p. 469.]
+
+This tendency of particular localities to re-produce certain
+specialities of form and colour is not confined to the sea or to the
+instance of the chank shell. In the gardens which line the suburbs of
+Galle in the direction of Matura the stems of the coco-nut and jak trees
+are profusely covered with the shells of the beautiful striped _Helix
+hamastoma_. Stopping frequently to collect them, I was led to observe
+that each separate garden seemed to possess a variety almost peculiar to
+itself; in one the mouth of every individual shell was _red_; in
+another, separated from the first only by a wall, _black_; and in others
+(but less frequently) _pure white_; whilst the varieties of external
+colouring were equally local. In one enclosure they were nearly all red,
+and in an adjoining one brown.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: DARWIN, in his _Naturalist's Voyage_, mentions a parallel
+instance of the localised propagation of colours amoungst the cattle
+which range the pasturage of East Falkland Island: "Round Mount Osborne
+about half of some of the herds were mouse-coloured, a tint no common
+anywhere else,--near Mount Pleasant dark-brown prevailed; whereas south
+of Choiseul Sound white beasts with black heads and feet were
+common."--Ch. ix. p. 192.]
+
+A trade more ancient by far than that carried on in chanks, and
+infinitely more renowned, is the fishery of pearls on the west coast of
+Ceylon, bordering the Gulf of Manaar. No scene in Ceylon presents so
+dreary an aspect as the long sweep of desolate shore to which, from time
+immemorial, adventurers have resorted from the uttermost ends of the
+earth in search of the precious pearls for which this gulf is renowned.
+On approaching it from sea the only perceptible landmark is a building
+erected by Lord Guildford, as a temporary residence for the Governor,
+and known by the name of the "Doric," from the style of its
+architecture. A few coco-nut palms appear next above the low sandy
+beach, and presently are discovered the scattered houses which form the
+villages of Aripo and Condatchy.
+
+Between these two places, or rather between the Kalaar and Arrive river,
+the shore is raised to a height of many feet, by enormous mounds of
+shells, the accumulations of ages, the millions of oysters[1], robbed of
+their pearls, having been year after year flung into heaps, that extend
+for a distance of many miles.
+
+[Footnote 1: It is almost unnecessary to say that the shell fish which
+produces the true Oriental pearls is not an oyster, but belongs to the
+genus Avicula, or more correctly, Meleagrina. It is the _Meleagrina
+Margaritifera_ of Lamarck.]
+
+During the progress of a pearl-fishery, this singular and dreary expanse
+becomes suddenly enlivened by the crowds who congregate from distant
+parts of India; a town is improvised by the construction of temporary
+dwellings, huts of timber and cajans[1], with tents of palm leaves or
+canvas; and bazaars spring up, to feed the multitude on land, as well as
+the seamen and divers in the fleets of boats that cover the bay.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Cajan_ is the local term for the plaited fronds of a
+coco-nut.]
+
+I visited the pearl banks officially in 1848 in company with Capt.
+Stenart, the official inspector. My immediate object was to inquire into
+the causes of the suspension of the fisheries, and to ascertain the
+probability of reviving a source of revenue, the gross receipts from
+which had failed for several years to defray the cost of conservancy. In
+fact, between 1837 and 1854, the pearl banks were an annual charge,
+instead of producing an annual income, to the colony. The conjecture,
+hastily adopted, to account for the disappearance of mature shells, had
+reference to mechanical causes; the received hypothesis being that the
+young broods had been swept off their accustomed feeding grounds, by the
+establishment of unusual currents, occasioned by deepening the narrow
+passage between Ceylon and India at Paumbam. It was also suggested, that
+a previous Governor, in his eagerness to replenish the colonial
+treasury, had so "scraped" and impoverished the beds as to exterminate
+the oysters. To me, neither of these suppositions appeared worthy of
+acceptance; for, in the frequent disruptions of Adam's Bridge, there was
+ample evidence that the currents in the Gulf of Manaar had been changed
+at former times without destroying the pearl beds: and moreover the
+oysters had disappeared on many former occasions, without any imputation
+of improper management on the part of the conservators; and returned
+after much longer intervals of absence than that which fell under my own
+notice, and which was then creating serious apprehension in the colony.
+
+A similar interruption had been experienced between 1820 and 1828: the
+Dutch had had no fishing for twenty-seven years, from 1768 till 1796[1];
+and they had been equally unsuccessful from 1732 till 1746. The Arabs
+were well acquainted with similar vicissitudes, and Albyronni (a
+contemporary of Avicenna), who served under Mahmoud of Ghuznee, and
+wrote in the eleventh century, says that the pearl fishery, which
+formerly existed in the Gulf of Serendib, had become exhausted in his
+time, simultaneously with the appearance of a fishery at Sofala, in the
+country of the Zends, where pearls were unknown before; and hence, he
+says, arose the conjecture that the pearl oyster of Serendib had
+migrated to Sofala.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: This suspension was in some degree attributable to disputes
+with the Nabob of Arcot and other chiefs, and the proprietors of temples
+on the opposite coast of India, who claimed, a right to participate in
+the fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Il y avait autrefois dans le Golfe de Serendyb, une
+pecherie de perles qui s'est epuisee de notre temps. D'un autre cote il
+s'est forme une pecherie de Sofala dans le pays des Zends, la ou il n'en
+existait pas auparavant--on dit que c'est la pecherie de Serendyb qui
+s'est transportee a Sofala."--ALBYROUNI, _in_ RENAUD'S _Fragmens Arabes,
+&c_, p. 125; see also REINAUD'S _Memoire sur l'Inde_, p. 228.]
+
+It appeared to me that the explanation of the phenomenon was to be
+sought, not merely in external causes, but also in the instincts and
+faculties of the animals themselves, and, on my return to Colombo, I
+ventured to renew a recommendation, which had been made years before,
+that a scientific inspector should be appointed to study the habits and
+the natural history of the pearl-oyster, and that his investigations
+should be facilitated by the means at the disposal of the Government.
+
+Dr. Kelaart was appointed to this office, by Sir H.G. Ward, in 1857, and
+his researches speedily developed results of great interest. In
+opposition to the received opinion that the pearl-oyster is incapable of
+voluntary movement, and unable of itself to quit the place to which it
+is originally attached[1], he demonstrated, not only that it possesses
+locomotive powers, but also that their exercise is indispensable to its
+oeconomy when obliged to search for food, or compelled to escape from
+local impurities. He showed that, for this purpose, it can sever its
+byssus, and re-form it at pleasure, so as to migrate and moor itself in
+favourable situations.[2] The establishment of this important fact may
+tend to solve the mystery of the occasional disappearances of the
+oyster; and if coupled with the further discovery that it is susceptible
+of translation from place to place, and even from salt to brackish
+water, it seems reasonable to expect that beds may be formed with
+advantage in positions suitable for its growth and protection. Thus,
+like the edible oyster of our own shores, the pearl-oyster may be
+brought within the domain of pisciculture, and banks may be created in
+suitable places, just as the southern shores of France are now being
+colonised with oysters, under the direction of M. Coste.[3] The
+operation of sowing the sea with pearl, should the experiment succeed,
+would be as gorgeous in reality, as it is grand in conception: and the
+wealth of Ceylon, in her "treasures of the deep," might eclipse the
+renown of her gems when she merited the title of the "Island of Rubies."
+
+[Footnote 1: STEUART'S _Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon_, p. 27: CORDINER'S
+_Ceylon, &c_, vol. ii. p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See Dr. KELAART'S Report on the Pearl Oyster in the _Ceylon
+Calendar for 1858--Appendix_, p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Rapport de_ M. COSTE, Professeur d'Embryogenie, &c.,
+Paris, 1858.]
+
+On my arrival at Aripo, the pearl-divers, under the orders of their
+Adapanaar, put to sea, and commenced the examination of the banks.[1]
+The persons engaged in this calling are chiefly Tamils and Moors, who
+are trained for the service by diving for chanks. The pieces of
+apparatus employed to assist the diver in his operations are exceedingly
+simple in their character: they consist merely of a stone, about thirty
+pounds' weight, (to accelerate the rapidity of his descent,) which is
+suspended over the side of the boat, with a loop attached to it for
+receiving the foot; and of a net-work basket, which he takes down to the
+bottom and fills with the oysters as he collects them. MASSOUDI, one of
+the earliest Arabian geographers, describing, in the ninth century, the
+habits of the pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf, says that, before
+descending, each filled his ears with cotton steeped in oil, and
+compressed his nostrils by a piece of tortoise-shell.[2] This practice
+continues there to the present day[3]; but the diver of Ceylon rejects
+all such expedients; he inserts his foot in the "sinking stone" and
+inhales a full breath; presses his nostrils with his left hand; raises
+his body as high as possible above water, to give force to his descent:
+and, liberating the stone from its fastenings, he sinks rapidly below
+the surface. As soon as he has reached the bottom, the stone is drawn
+up, and the diver, throwing himself on his face, commences with alacrity
+to fill his basket with oysters. This, on a concerted signal, is hauled
+rapidly to the surface; the diver assisting his own ascent by springing
+on the rope as it rises.
+
+[Footnote 1: Detailed accounts of the pearl fishery of Ceylon and the
+conduct of the divers, will be found in PERCIVAL's _Ceylon_, ch. iii.:
+and in CORDINER'S _Ceylon_, vol. ii. ch. xvi. There is also a valuable
+paper on the same subject by Mr. LE BECK, in the _Asiatic Researches_,
+vol. v. p. 993; but by far the most able and intelligent description is
+contained in the _Account of the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon_, by JAMES
+STEUART, Esq., Inspector of the Pearl Banks, 4to. Colombo, 1843.]
+
+[Footnote 2: MASSOUDI says that the Persian divers, as they could not
+breathe through their nostrils, _cleft the root of the ear_ for that
+purpose: "_Ils se fendaient la racine de l'oreille pour respirer_; en
+effet, ils ne peuvent se servir pour cet objet des narines, vu qu'ils se
+les bouchent avec des morceaux d'ecailles de tortue marine on bien avec
+des morceaux de corne ayant la forme d'un fer de lance. En meme temps
+ils se mettent dans l'oreille du coton trempe dans de
+l'huile."--_Moroudj-al-Dzeheb,_ &c., REINAUD, _Memoire sur l'Inde,_ p.
+228.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Colonel WILSON says they compress the nose with horn, and
+close the ears with beeswax. See _Memorandum on the Pearl Fisheries in
+Persian Gulf.--Journ. Geogr. Soc._ 1833, vol. iii. p. 283.]
+
+Improbable tales have been told of the capacity which these men acquire
+of remaining for prolonged periods under water. The divers who attended
+on this occasion were amongst the most expert on the coast, yet not one
+of them was able to complete a full minute below. Captain Steuart, who
+filled for many years the office of Inspector of the Pearl Banks,
+assured me that he had never known a diver to continue at the bottom
+longer than eighty-seven seconds, nor to attain a greater depth than
+thirteen fathoms; and on ordinary occasions they seldom exceeded
+fifty-five seconds in nine fathom water[1].
+
+[Footnote 1: RIBEYRO says that a diver could remain below whilst two
+_credos_ were being repeated: "Il s'y tient l'espace de deux
+_credo_."--Lib. i. ch. xxii. p. 169. PERCIVAL says the usual time for
+them to be under water was two minutes, but that some divers stayed
+_four_ or _five_, and one _six_ minutes,--_Ceylon_ p. 91; LE BECK says
+that in 1797 he saw a Caffre boy from Karical remain down for the space
+of seven minutes.--_Asiat. Res_ vol. v. p. 402.]
+
+The only precaution to which the Ceylon diver devotedly resorts, is the
+mystic ceremony of the shark-charmer, whose exorcism is an indispensable
+preliminary to every fishery. His power is believed to be hereditary;
+nor is it supposed that the value of his incantations is at all
+dependent upon the religious faith professed by the operator, for the
+present head of the family happens to be a Roman Catholic. At the time
+of our visit this mysterious functionary was ill and unable to attend;
+but he sent an accredited substitute, who assured me that although he
+himself was ignorant of the grand and mystic secret, the mere fact of
+his presence, as a representative of the higher authority, would be
+recognised and respected by the sharks.
+
+Strange to say, though the Gulf of Manaar abounds with these hideous
+creatures, not more than one well authenticated accident[1] is known to
+have occurred from this source during any pearl fishery since the
+British have had possession of Ceylon. In all probability the reason is
+that the sharks are alarmed by the unusual number of boats, the
+multitude of divers, the noise of the crews, the incessant plunging of
+the sinking stones, and the descent and ascent of the baskets filled
+with shells. The dark colour of the divers themselves may also be a
+protection; whiter skins might not experience an equal impunity.
+Massoudi relates that the divers of the Persian Gulf were so conscious
+of this advantage of colour, that they were accustomed to blacken their
+limbs, in order to baffle the sea monsters.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: CORDINER'S _Ceylon_, vol. ii p. 52.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "Ils s'enduisaient les pieds et les jambes d'une substance
+noiratre, atin de faire peur aux monstres marins, que, sans cela,
+seraient tentes de les devorer."--_Moroudj-al-Dzekeb,_ REINAUD, _Mem.
+sur l'Inde_, p. 228.]
+
+The result of our examination of the pearl banks, on this occasion, was
+such as to discourage the hope of an early fishery. The oysters in point
+of number were abundant, but in size they were little more than "spat,"
+the largest being barely a fourth of an inch in diameter. As at least
+seven years are required to furnish the growth at which pearls may be
+sought with advantage[1], the inspection served only to suggest the
+prospect (which has since been realised) that in time the income from
+this source might be expected to revive;--and, forced to content
+ourselves with this anticipation, we weighed anchor from Condatchy, on
+the 30th March, and arrived on the following day at Colombo.
+
+[Footnote 1: Along with this two plates are given from drawings made for
+the Official Inspector, and exhibiting the ascertained size of the pearl
+oyster at every period of its growth, from the "spat" to the mature
+shell. The young "brood" are shown at Nos. 1 and 2. The shell at four
+months old, No. 3, No. 4. six months, No. 5. one year, No. 6, two years.
+The second plate exhibits the shell at its full growth.]
+
+The banks of Aripo are not the only localities, nor is the _acicula_ the
+only mollusc, by which pearls are furnished. The Bay of Tamblegam,
+connected with the magnificent harbour of Trincomalie, is the seat of
+another pearl fishery, and the shell which produces them is the thin
+transparent oyster (_Placuna placenta_). whose clear white shells are
+used, in China and elsewhere, as a substitute for window glass. They are
+also collected annually for the sake of the diminutive pearls contained
+in them. These are exported to the coast of India, to be calcined for
+lime, which the luxurious affect to chew with their betel. These pearls
+are also burned in the mouths of the dead. So prolific are the mollusca
+of the _Placuna_, that the quantity of shells taken by the licensed
+renter in the three years prior to 1858, could not have been less than
+eighteen millions.[1] They delight in brackish water, and on more than
+one recent occasion, an excess of either salt water or fresh has proved
+fatal to great numbers of them.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Report of_ Dr. KELAART, Oct. 1857.]
+
+[Illustration: PEARL OYSTER.
+
+1, 2. The young brood or spat.
+3. Four months old.
+4. Six months old.
+5. One year old.
+6. Two years old.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PEARL OYSTER. Full Growth.]
+
+On the occasion of a visit which I made to Batticaloa. in September,
+1848, I made some inquiries relative to a story which had reached me of
+musical sounds, said to be often heard issuing from the bottom of the
+lake, at several places, both above and below the ferry opposite the old
+Dutch Fort; and which the natives suppose to proceed from some fish
+peculiar to the locality. The report was confirmed in all its
+particulars, and one of the spots whence the sounds proceed was pointed
+out between the pier and a rock that intersects the channel, two or
+three hundred yards to the eastward. They were said to be heard at
+night, and most distinctly when the moon was nearest the full, and they
+were described as resembling the faint sweet notes of an AEolian harp. I
+sent for some of the fishermen, who said they were perfectly aware of
+the fact, and that their fathers had always known of the existence of
+the musical sounds, heard, they said, at the spot alluded to, but only
+during the dry season, as they cease when the lake is swollen by the
+freshes after the rain. They believed them to proceed not from a fish,
+but from a shell, which is known by the Tamil name of (_oorie cooleeroo
+cradoo_, or) the "crying shell," a name in which the sound seems to have
+been adopted as an echo to the sense. I sent them in search of the
+shell, and they returned bringing me some living specimens of different
+shells, chiefly _littorina_ and _cerithium._[1]
+
+[Illustration: CERITHIUM PALUSTRE.]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Littorina laevis. Cerithium palustre._ Of the latter the
+specimens brought to me were dwarfed and solid, exhibiting in this
+particular the usual peculiarities that distinguish (1) shells
+inhabiting a rocky locality from (2) their congeners in a sandy bottom.
+Their longitudinal development was less, with greater breadth, and
+increased strength and weight.]
+
+In the evening when the moon rose, I took a boat and accompanied the
+fishermen to the spot. We rowed about two hundred yards north-east of
+the jetty by the fort gate; there was not a breath of wind, nor a ripple
+except those caused by the dip of our oars. On coming to the point
+mentioned, I distinctly heard the sounds in question. They came up from
+the water like the gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint
+vibrations of a wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a moistened finger.
+It was not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny, sounds, each
+clear and distinct in itself; the sweetest treble mingling with the
+lowest bass. On applying the ear to the woodwork of the boat, the
+vibration was greatly increased in volume. The sounds varied
+considerably at different points, as we moved across the lake, as if the
+number of the animals from which they proceeded was greatest in
+particular spots; and occasionally we rowed out of hearing of them
+altogether, until on returning to the original locality the sounds were
+at once renewed.
+
+This fact seems to indicate that the causes of the sounds, whatever they
+may be, are stationary at several points; and this agrees with the
+statement of the natives, that they are produced by mollusca, and not by
+fish. They came evidently and sensibly from the depth of the lake, and
+there was nothing in the surrounding circumstances to support the
+conjecture that they could be the reverberation of noises made by
+insects on the shore conveyed along the surface of the water; for they
+were loudest and most distinct at points where the nature of the land,
+and the intervention of the fort and its buildings, forbade the
+possibility of this kind of conduction.
+
+Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some places on the
+western coast of India, especially in the harbour of Bombay.[1] At
+Caldera, in Chili, musical cadences are stated to issue from the sea
+near the landing-place; they are described as rising and falling fully
+four notes, resembling the tones of harp strings, and mingling like
+those at Batticaloa, till they produce a musical discord of great
+delicacy and sweetness. The same interesting phenomenon has been
+observed at the mouth of the Pascagoula, in the State of Mississippi,
+and of another river called the "Bayou coq del Inde," on the northern
+shore of the Gulf of Mexico. The animals from which they proceed have
+not been identified at either of these places, and the mystery remains
+unsolved, whether the sounds at Batticaloa are given forth by fishes or
+by molluscs.
+
+[Footnote 1: These sounds are thus described by Dr. BUIST in the _Bombay
+Times_ of January 1847: "A party lately crossing from the promontory in
+Salsette called the 'Neat's Tongue,' to near Sewree, were, about sunset,
+struck by hearing long distinct sounds like the protracted booming of a
+distant bell, the dying cadence of an AEolian harp, the note of a
+pitchpipe or pitch-fork, or any other long-drawn-out musical note. It
+was, at first, supposed to be music from Parell floating at intervals on
+the breeze; then it was perceived to come from all directions, almost in
+equal strength, and to arise from the surface of the water all around
+the vessel. The boatmen at once intimated that the sounds were produced
+by fish, abounding in the muddy creeks and shoals around Bombay and
+Salsette; they were perfectly well known, and very often heard.
+Accordingly, on inclining the ear towards the surface of the water; or,
+better still, by placing it close to the planks of the vessel, the notes
+appeared loud and distinct, and followed each other in constant
+succession. The boatmen next day produced specimens of the fish--a
+creature closely resembling, in size and shape the fresh-water perch of
+the north of Europe--and spoke of them as plentiful and perfectly well
+known. It is hoped they may be procured alive, and the means afforded of
+determining how the musical sounds are produced and emitted, with other
+particulars of interest supposed new in Ichthyology. We shall be
+thankful to receive from our readers any information they can give us in
+regard to a phenomenon which does not appear to have been heretofore
+noticed, and which cannot fail to attract the attention of the
+naturalist. Of the perfect accuracy with which the singular facts above
+related have been given, no doubt will be entertained when it is
+mentioned that the writer was one of a party of five intelligent
+persons, by all of whom they were most carefully observed, and the
+impressions of all of whom in regard to them were uniform. It is
+supposed that the fish are confined to particular localities--shallows,
+estuaries, and muddy creeks, rarely visited by Europeans; and that this
+is the reason why hitherto no mention, so far as we know, has been made
+of the peculiarity in any work on Natural History."
+
+This communication elicited one from Vizagapatam, relative to "musical
+sounds like the prolonged notes on the harp" heard to proceed from under
+water at that station. It appeared in the _Bombay Times_ of Feb. 13,
+1849.]
+
+Certain fishes are known to utter sounds when removed from the water[1],
+and some are capable of making noises when under it[2]; but all the
+circumstances connected with the sounds which I heard at Batticaloa are
+unfavourable to the conjecture that they were produced by either.
+
+[Footnote 1: The Cuckoo Gurnard (_Triglia cuculus_) and the maigre
+(_Sciaena aquila_) utter sounds when taken out of the water (YARRELL,
+vol. i. p. 44, 107); and herrings when the net has just been drawn have
+been observed to do the same. This effect has been attributed to the
+escape of air from the air bladder, but no air bladder has been found in
+the _Cottus_, which makes a similar noise.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The fishermen assert that a fish about five inches in
+length, found in the lake at Colombo, and called by them "_magoora_,"
+makes a grunt when disturbed under water. PALLEGOIX, in his account of
+Siam, speaks of a fish resembling a sole, but of brilliant colouring
+with black spots, which the natives call the "dog's tongue," that
+attaches itself to the bottom of a boat, "et fait entendre un bruit
+tres-sonore et meme harmonieux."--Tom. i. p. 194. A _Silurus_, found in
+the Rio Parana, and called the "armado," is remarkable for making a
+harsh grating noise when caught by hook or line, which can be distinctly
+heard when the fish is beneath the water. DARWIN, _Nat. Journ._ ch. vii.
+Aristotle and AElian were aware of the existence of this faculty in some
+of the fishes of the Mediterranean. ARISTOTLE, _De Anim_., lib. iv. ch.
+ix.; AELIAN, _De Nat. Anim._, lib. x. ch. xi.; see also PLINY, lib. ix.
+ch. vii.. lib. xi. ch. cxiii.; ATHENAEUS, lib. vii. ch. iii. vi. I have
+heard of sounds produced under water at Baltimore, and supposed to be
+produced by the "cat-fish;" and at Swan River in Australia, where they
+are ascribed to the "trumpeter." A similar noise heard in the Tagus is
+attributed by the Lisbon fishermen to the "_Corvina_"--but what fish is
+meant by that name, I am unable to tell.]
+
+Organs of hearing have been clearly ascertained to exist, mot only in
+fishes[1], but in mollusca. In the oyster the presence of an acoustic
+apparatus of the simplest possible construction has been established by
+the discoveries of Siebold[2], and from our knowledge of the reciprocal
+relations existing between the faculties of hearing and of producing
+sounds, the ascertained existence of the one affords legitimate grounds
+for inferring the coexistence of the other in animals of the same
+class.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: AGASSIZ, _Comparative Physiology_, sec. ii. 158.]
+
+[Footnote 2: It consists of two round vesicles containing fluid, and
+crystalline or elliptical calcareous particles or otolites, remarkable
+for their oscillatory action in the living or recently killed animal.
+OWEN'S _Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the
+Invertebrate Animals_, 1855, p. 511-552.]
+
+[Footnote 3: I am informed that Professor MUeLLER read a paper on
+"Musical fishes" before the Academy of Berlin, in 1856. It will probably
+be found in the volume of MUeLLER'S _Archiv. fuer Physiologie_ for that
+year; but I have not had an opportunity of reading it.]
+
+Besides, it has been clearly established, that one at least of the
+gasteropoda is furnished with the power of producing sounds. Dr. Grant,
+in 1826, communicated to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society the fact,
+that on placing some specimens of the _Tritonia arborescens_ in a glass
+vessel filled with sea water, his attention was attracted by a noise
+which he ascertained to proceed from these mollusca. It resembled the
+"clink" of a steel wire on the side of the jar, one stroke only being
+given at a time, and repeated at short intervals.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Edinburgh Philosophical Journ_., vol. xiv. p. 188. See
+also the Appendix to this chapter.]
+
+The affinity of structure between the _Tritonia_ and the mollusca
+inhabiting the shells brought to me at Batticaloa, might justify the
+belief of the natives of Ceylon, that the latter are the authors of the
+sounds I heard; and the description of those emitted by the former as
+given by Dr. Grant, so nearly resemble them, that I have always
+regretted my inability, on the occasion of my visits to Batticaloa, to
+investigate the subject more narrowly. At subsequent periods I have
+since renewed my efforts, but without success, to obtain specimens or
+observations of the habits of the living mollusca.
+
+The only species afterwards sent to me were _Cerithia_; but no vigilance
+sufficed to catch the desired sounds, and I still hesitate to accept the
+dictum of the fishermen, as the same mollusc abounds in all the other
+brackish estuaries on the coast; and it would be singular, if true, that
+the phenomenon of its uttering a musical note should be confined to a
+single spot in the lagoon of Batticaloa.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The letter which I received from Dr. Grant on this subject,
+I have placed in a note to the present chapter, in the hope that it may
+stimulate some other inquirer in Ceylon to prosecute the investigation
+which I was unable to carry out successfully.]
+
+Although naturalists have long been familiar with the marine testacea of
+Ceylon, no successful attempt has yet been made to form a classified
+catalogue of the species; and I am indebted to the eminent conchologist,
+Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, for the list which accompanies this notice.
+
+In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it a task of more
+difficulty than would at first be surmised, owing to the almost total
+absence of reliable data from which to construct it. Three sources were
+available: collections formed by resident naturalists, the contents of
+the well-known satin-wood boxes prepared at Trincomalie, and the
+laborious elimination of locality from the habitats ascribed to all the
+known species in the multitude of works on conchology in general.
+
+But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious. There is no
+large collection in this country composed exclusively of Ceylon
+shells;--and as the very few cabinets rich in the marine treasures of
+the island have been filled as much by purchase as by personal exertion,
+there is an absence of the requisite confidence that all professing to
+be Singhalese have been actually captured in the island and its waters.
+
+The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though professing to
+contain the productions of Ceylon, include shells which have been
+obtained from other islands in the Indian seas; and the information
+contained in books, probably from these very circumstances, is either
+obscure or deceptive. The old writers content themselves with assigning
+to any particular shell the too-comprehensive habitat of "the Indian
+Ocean," and seldom discriminate between a specimen from Ceylon and one
+from the Eastern Archipelago or Hindustan. In a very few instances,
+Ceylon has been indicated with precision as the habitat of particular
+shells, but even here the views of specific essentials adopted by modern
+conchologists, and the subdivisions established in consequence, leave us
+in doubt for which of the described forms the collective locality should
+be retained.
+
+Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in detached papers, in
+periodicals, and in the scientific surveys of exploring voyages. The
+authentic facts embodied in the monographs of REEVE, KUSTER, SOWERBY,
+and KIENER, have greatly enlarged our knowledge of the marine testacea;
+and the land and fresh-water mollusca have been similarly illustrated by
+the contributions of BENSON and LAYARD to the _Annals of Natural
+History_.
+
+The dredge has been used, but only in a few insulated spots along the
+coasts of Ceylon; European explorers have been rare; and the natives,
+anxious only to secure the showy and saleable shells of the sea, have
+neglected the less attractive ones of the land and the lakes. Hence Mr.
+Hanley finds it necessary to premise that the list appended, although
+the result of infinite labour and research, is less satisfactory than
+could have been wished. "It is offered," he says, "with diffidence, not
+pretending to the merit of completeness as a shell-fauna of the island,
+but rather as a form, which the zeal of other collectors may hereafter
+elaborate and fill up."
+
+Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared with the vast and
+almost untried field which invites explorers, an assiduous collector may
+quadruple the species hitherto described. The minute shells especially
+may be said to be unknown; a vigilant examination of the corals and
+excrescences upon the spondyli and pearl-oysters would signally increase
+our knowledge of the Rissoae, Chemnitziae, and other perforating testacea,
+whilst the dredge from the deep water will astonish the amateur by the
+wholly new forms it can scarcely fail to display.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_List of Ceylon Shells._
+
+The arrangement here adopted is a modified Lamarckian one, very similar
+to that used by Reeve and Sowerby, and by Mr. HANLEY, in his
+_Illustrated Catalogue of Recent Shells_.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Below will be found a general reference to the Works or
+Papers in which are given descriptive notices of the shells contained in
+the following list; the names of the authors (in full or abbreviated)
+being, as usual, annexed to each species.
+
+ADAMS, _Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1853, 54, 56; _Thesaur. Conch._ ALBERS,
+_Zeitsch. Malakoz._ 1853. ANTON, _Wiegm. Arch. Nat._ 1837; _Verzeichn.
+Conch_. BECK in _Pfeiffer, Symbol. Helic._ BENSON, _Ann. Nat. Hist._
+vii. 1851; xii. 1853, xviii, 1856. BLAINVILLE, _Dict. Sc. Nat.; Nouv.
+Ann. Mus. His. Nat._ i. BOLTEN, _Mus._ BORN, _Test. Mus. Caecs. Vind._
+BRODERIP, _Zool. Journ._ i. iii. BRUGUIERE, _Encyc. Method. Vers._
+CARPENTER, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1856. CHEMNITZ, _Conch. Cab._ CHENU,
+_Illus. Conch._ DESHAYES. _Encyc. Meth. Vers.; Mag. Zool. 1831; Voy.
+Belanger; Edit. Lam. An. s. Vert.; Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1853, 54, 55.
+DILLWYN. _Deser. Cat. Shells._ DOHRN, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1857, 58;
+_Malak. Blaetter; Land and Fluviatile Shells of Ceylon._ DUCLOS, _Monog.
+of Oliva._ FABRICIUS, _in Pfeiffer Monog. Helic.; in Dohrn's MSS._
+FERUSSAC, _Hist. Mollusques._ FORSKAL, _Anim. Orient._ GMELIN, _Syst.
+Nat._ GRAY, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1834, 52; _Index Testaceologicus Suppl.;
+Spicilegia Zool.; Zool. Journ._ i.; _Zool. Beechey Voy._ GRATELOUP,
+_Act. Linn. Bordeaux,_ xi. GUERIN, _Rev. Zool._ 1847. HANLEY, _Thesaur.
+Conch,_ i.; _Recent Bivalves; Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1858. HINDS, _Zool. Voy.
+Sulphur; Proc. Zool. Soc._ HUTTON, _Journ. As. Soc._ KARSTEN, _Mus.
+Lesk._ KIENER, _Coquilles Vivantes._ KRAUSS, _Sud-Afrik Mollusk._
+LAMARCK, _An. sans Verteb._ LAYARD, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1854. LEA,
+_Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1850. LINNAEUS, _Syst. Nat._ MARTINI, _Conch. Cab._
+MAWE. _Introd. Linn. Conch.; Index Test. Suppl._ MEUSCHEN, in _Gronor.
+Zoophylac._ MENKE, _Synop. Mollus._ MULLER, _Hist. Verm. Terrest._
+PETIT, _Pro. Zool. Soc._ 1842. PFEIFFER, _Monog. Helic.: Monog.
+Pneumon.; Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1852, 53, 54, 55. 56; _Zeitschr.
+Malacoz._ 1853. PHILIPPI, _Zeitsch. Mal._ 1846, 47: _Abbild. Neuer
+Conch._ POTIEZ et MICHAUD. _Galeric Douai._ RANG, _Mag. Zool._ ser. i.
+p. 100. RECLUZ, _Proceed. Zool. Soc._ 1845; _Revue Zool. Cur._ 1841:
+_Mag. Conch._ REEVE, _Conch. Icon.; Proc. Zool. Soc_: 1842, 52.
+SCHUMACHER. _Syst._ SHUTTLEWORTH. SOLANDER. in _Dillwyn's Desc. Cat.
+Shells;_ SOWERBY, _Genera Shells; Species Conch.; Conch. Misc.; Thesaur.
+Conch.; Conch. Illus.; Proc. Zool. Soc.; App. to Tankerrille Cat._
+SPENGLER, _Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kiobenhav._ 1792. SWAINSON, _Zool.
+Illust._ ser. ii. TEMPLETON, _Ann. Nat. Hist._ 1858. TROSCHEL, in
+_Pfeiffer, Mon. Pneum; Zeitschr. Malak._ 1847; _Wiegm. Arch. Nat._ 1837.
+WOOD, _General Conch_.]
+
+Aspergillum Javanum. _Brug._ Enc. Met.
+  sparsum, _Sowerby_, Gen. Shells.[1]
+  clavatum, _Chenu,_ lllust. Conch.
+
+Teredo nucivorus. _Sp_ Skr. Nat. Sels.[2]
+
+Solen truncatus. _Wood_, Gen. Couch.
+  linearis, _Wood_, Gen. Conch.
+  cultellus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  radiatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+
+Anatina subrostrata, _Lam._ Ani. s. Vert.
+
+Anatinella Nicobarica, _Gm._ Syst. Nat.
+
+Lutraria Egyptiaca, _Chemn._ Couch. Cab.
+
+Blainvillea vitrea, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[3]
+
+Scrobicularia angulata. _Chem._ Con. Cab.[4]
+
+Mactra complanata, _Desh._ Proc. Zl. Soc.[5]
+  tumida, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  antiquata, _Reeve_ (as of _Spengl._), C. Icon.
+  cygnea, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Corbiculoides, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zl. S. 1854.
+
+Mesodesma
+  Layardi, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  striata, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[6]
+
+Cras-atella rostrata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  sulcata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+Amphidesma
+  duplicatum, _Sowerby_. Species Conch.
+
+Pandora Ceylanica, _Sowerby_, Couch. Mis.
+
+Galeomma Layardi. _Desh._ Pr. Zl. S. 1856.
+
+Kellia peculiaris, _Adams_, Pr. Zl. S. 1856.
+
+Petricola cultellus, _Desh._ Pr. Zl. S. 1853.
+
+Sangumoiaria rosea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+Psammobia rostrata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  orcidens, _Gm._ Systems Naturae.
+  Skinneri, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.[7]
+  Layardi, _Desh_. P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+
+[Footnote 1: A. dichotomum, _Chenu._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Fistulana gregata, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 3: Blainvillea, _Hupe._]
+
+[Footnote 4: Latraria tellinoides, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 5: I have also seen M. hians of Philippi
+in a Ceylon collection.]
+
+[Footnote 6: M. Taprobanensis, _Index Test. Suppl._]
+
+[Footnote 7: Psammotella Skinneri, _Reeve._]
+
+  lunulata, _Desh_. P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  amethystus, _Wood_, Gen. Conch.[1]
+  rugosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[2]
+Tellina virgata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[3]
+  rugosa, _Born_, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind.
+  ostracea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ala, _Hanley_, Thesaur. Conch. i.
+  inaequalis, _Hanley_, Thesaur. Conch. i.
+  Layardi, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  callosa, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  rubra, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  abbreviata, _Deshayes_, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
+  foliacea, _Linn._ Systema Naturae.
+  lingua-felis, _Linn._ Systema Naturae.
+  vulsella, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[4]
+Lucina interrupta, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[5]
+  Layardi, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1855.
+Donax scortum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  cuneata,  _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  faba, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  spinosa, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  paxillus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Cyrena Ceylanica, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Tennentii, _Hanley_, P.Z. Soc. 1858.
+Cytherea Erycina, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[6]
+  meretrix, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[7]
+  castanea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  castrensis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  casta, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  costata, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  laeta, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  trimaculata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Hebraea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  rugifera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  scripta, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  gibbia, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Meroe, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  testudinalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  seminuda, _Anton_. Wiegm. A. Nat. 1837.[8]
+Venus reticulata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[9]
+  pinguis, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  recens, _Philippi_, Abbild. Neuer Conch.
+  thiara, _Dillw_. Descriptive Cat. Shells.
+  Malabarica, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Bruguieri, _Hanley_, Recent Bivalves.
+  papilionacea, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Indica, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. ii.
+  inflata, _Deshayes_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.[10]
+  Ceylonensis, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch. ii.
+  literata, _Linn._ Systema Naturae.
+  textrix, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[11]
+Cardium unedo, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  maculosum, _Wood_, Gen. Con.
+  leucostomum, _Born_, Tt. M. Caes. Vind.
+  rugosum, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  biradiatum, _Bruguiere_, En. Meth. Vers.
+  attenuatum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  enode, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  papyraceum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  ringiculum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  subrugosum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust.
+  latum, _Born_, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind.
+  Asiaticum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+Cardita variegata, _Brug_. Enc. Meth. Vers.
+  bicolor, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Arca rhombea, _Born_, Test. Mus.
+  vellicata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  cruciata, _Philippi_, Ab. Neur Conch.
+  decussata, _Reeve_ (as of Sowerby), C.I.[12]
+  scapha, _Meuschen_, in Gronov. Zoo.
+Pectunculus nodosus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  pectiniformis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Nucula mitralis, _Hinds_, Zool. voy. Sul.
+  Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+  Mauritii (_Hanley_ as of _Hinds_), Rec. Biv.
+Unio
+  corrugatus, _Mueller_, Hist. Verm. Ter.[13]
+  marginalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Lithodomus
+  cinnamoneus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Mytilus viridis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[14]
+  bilocularis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Pinna inflata, _Chamn_. Conch. Cab.
+  cancellata, _Mawe_, Intr. Lin. Conch.
+Malleus vulgaris, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  albus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Meleagrina margaritifera, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  vexillum, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.[15]
+Avicula macroptera, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Lima squamosa, _Linn._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Pecten plica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  radula, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  pleuronectes, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  pallium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  senator, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  histrionicus, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  Indicus, _Deshayes_, Voyage Belanger.
+  Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Spondylus Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  candidus, _Reeve_ (as of _Lam._) C. Icon.
+Ostrea hyotis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  glaucina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Mytiloides, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  cucullata? var., _Born_, Test. M. Vind.[16]
+Vulsella
+  Pholadiformis, _Reeve_, C. Icn. (immat.)
+Placuna placenta, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Lingula anatina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+[Footnote 1: P. caerulesens, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 2: Sanguinolaria rugosa, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 3: T. striatula of Lamarck is also supposed to be indigenous
+to Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 4: T. rostrata, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 5: L. divaricata is found, also, in mixed Ceylon collections.]
+
+[Footnote 6: C. dispar of Chemnitz is occasionally found in Ceylon
+collections.]
+
+[Footnote 7: C. impudica. _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 8: As Donax.]
+
+[Footnote 9: V. corbis, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 10: As Tapes.]
+
+[Footnote 11: V. textile, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 12:?Arca Helblingii, _Chemn._]
+
+[Footnote 13: Mr. Cuming informs me that he has forwarded no less than
+six distinct _Uniones_ from Ceylon to Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, for
+determination or description.]
+
+[Footnote 14: M. smaragdinus, _Chemn._]
+
+[Footnote 15: As Avicula.]
+
+[Footnote 16: The specimens are not in a fitting state for positive
+determination. They are strong, extremely narrow, with the beak of the
+lower valve much produced, and the inner edge of the upper valve
+denticulated throughout. The muscular impressions are dusky brown.]
+
+Hyalaea tridentata, _For_. Anim. Orient.[1]
+Chiton, 2 species (_Layard_).
+Patella Reynaudii, _Deshayes_, Voy. Be.
+  testodinaria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Emarginula fissurata, _Ch_. C. Cab.[2] _Lam._
+Calyptraea (Crucibulum) violascens, _Carpenter_,
+  Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+Dentalium
+  octogonum, _Lam_ Anim. s. Vert.
+  aprinum. _Linn_ Syst. Nat.
+Bulla soluta, _Chemn_ Conch. Cab.[3]
+  vexillum, _Chemn_ Conch. Cab.
+  Bruguieri, _Adams_, Thes. Conch.
+  elongata, _Adams_, Thes. Conch.
+  ampulla, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Lamellaria (as Marsenia Indica, _Leach_.
+  in Brit. Mus.) allied to L. Mauritiana,
+  if not it.
+Vaginula maculata, _Templ._ An. Nat.
+Lunax, 2 sp.
+Parmacella Tennentii, _Templ._[4]
+Vitrina irradians, _Pfeiffer_, Mon. Helic.
+  Edgariana, _Ben._ Ann. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  membranacea, _Ben._ A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+Helix haemastoma, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  vittata, _Mueller_, Vermium Terrestrium.
+  bistrialis, _Beck_, in Pfeiff. Symb. Helic.
+  Tranquebarica, _Fabricius_, in _Pfeiff_.
+  Monog. Helic.
+  Juliana, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
+  Waltoni, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.
+  Skinneri. _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. vii.
+  corylus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. vii.
+  umbrina (_Reeve_, as of _Pfeiff._.), C. Ic. vii.
+  fallaciosa. _Ferussac_, Hist. Mollus.
+  Rivolii, _Deshayes_. Enc. Meth. Vers. ii.
+  Charpentieri, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  erronea, _Albers. Zeitschr_. Mal. 18S3.
+  carneola, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  convexiuscula, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  gnoma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Chenui, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  semidecussata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  phoenix, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  superba, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Gardnerii, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  coriaria, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Layardi, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  concavospira, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  novella, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  verrucula, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  hyphasma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Emiliana, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Woodiana, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  partita, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  biciliata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  Isabellina, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc.
+  trifilosa, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  politissima, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Sc. 1854.
+  Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  nepos, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.
+  subopaca, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+  subconoidea, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. S. 18S4.
+  ceraria, _Benson_, An. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)
+  vilipensa, _Benson_, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  perfucata, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  puteolus, _Benson_, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  mononema, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  marcida, _Benson_, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  galerus, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  albizonata. _Dohrn_, Proc. Zoo. Soc. 1858.
+  Nictneri, _Dohrn_, MS.[5]
+  Grevillei, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+Streptaxis Layardi, _Pfeiff._ Mon. Helic.
+  Cingalensis, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Helic.
+Pupa
+  muscerda, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  mimula, _Benson_, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+Bulimus
+  trifasciatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  pullus, _Gray._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
+  gracilis, _Hutton_, Journ. Asiat. Soc. iii.
+  punctatus, _Anton_, Verzeichn. Conch.
+  Ceylanicus, _Pfeiff_. (?Blaevis, _iGray_, in
+  Index Testaceologicus.)
+  adumbratus, _Pfieff_. Monog. Helic.
+  intermedius, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  proletarius, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  albizonatus. _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Mavortius, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  luscoventris, _Ben_. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  rufopictus, _Ben_. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  panos, _Benson_, Ann. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)
+Achatina nitens, _Gray_, Spicilegia Zool.
+  inornata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic.
+  capillacea, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+  Punctogaliana. _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+  pachycheila, _Benson_
+  veruina, _Bens_, A. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)
+  parabilis, _Bens_, A.N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)
+Succinea Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic.
+Auricula
+  Ceylanica, _Adams._ Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.[6]
+  Ceylanica, _Petit_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.[7]
+  Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[8]
+  pellucens, _Menke_, Synopsis Moll.
+Pythia
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Zeits. Malacoz. 1853.
+  ovata, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Truncatella
+  Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+Cyclostoma (_Cyclophorus_) Ceylanicum,
+  _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch.
+  involvulum, _Mueller_, Verm. Terrest.
+  Menkeanum, _Philippi_, Zeit. Mal. 1847.
+  punctatum, _Gratel_. A.L. Bordeaux (xi.)
+  loxostoma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Pneumon.
+
+[Footnote 1: As Anomia.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The fissurata of Humphreys and Dacosta, pl. 4.--E. rubra,
+_Lamarck_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: B. Ceylanica, _Brug_.]
+
+[Footnote 4: P. Tennentii. "Greyish brown, with longitudinal rows of
+rufous spots, forming interrupted bands along the sides. A singularly
+handsome species, having similar habits to _Limax_. Found in the valleys
+of the Kalany Ganga, near Ruanwelle."--_Templeton_ MSS.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Not far from bistrialis and Ceylanica. The manuscript
+species of Mr. Dohrn will shortly appear in his intended work upon the
+land and fluviatile shells of Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 6: As Ellobium.]
+
+[Footnote 7: As Melampus.]
+
+[Footnote 8: As Ophicardelis.]
+
+  alabastrum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  Bairdii, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  annulatum, _Trosch._ in Pfeiff. M. Pneum.
+  parapsis, _Bens._ An. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)
+  parma, _Bens._ An. Nat. His. 1856 (xviii.)
+  cratera, _Bens._ An. N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)
+  (_Leptopoma_) halophilum, _Benson_, Ann. Nat. Hist. (ser. 2 vii.) 1851.
+  orophilum, _Bens._ A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)
+  apicatum, _Bens._ A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
+  conulus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  flammeum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  semiclausum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  poecilum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  elatum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+Cyclostoma (_Aulopoma_).
+  Iteri, _Guerin_, Rev. Zool. 1847.
+  helicinum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Hoffmeisteri, _Troschel_, Zeit. Mat. 1847.
+  grande, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  spheroideum, _Dohrn_, Malak. Blaetter.
+  (?) gradatum, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+Cyclostoma (_Pterocyclos_).
+  Cingalense, _Bens._ A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)
+  Troscheli, _Bens._ Ann. Nat. Hist. 1851.
+  Cumingii, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+  bifrons, _Pfeiff._ Monog. Pneumon.
+Cataulus Templemani, _Pfeiff._ Mon. Pneu.
+  eurytrema, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  marginatus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+  duplicatus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  aureus, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.
+  Layardi, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  Austenianus _Bens._ A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
+  Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
+  Cumingii, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
+  decorus, _Bens._ Ann. Nat. Hist. 1853.
+  haemastoma, _Pfeiff._ Proc. Zo. Soc. 1856.
+Planorbis
+  Coromandelianus, _Fab._ in _Dorhn's_ MS.
+  Stelzeneri, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  elegantulus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z. Soc. 1858.
+Limnaea
+  tigrina, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  pinguis, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+Melania
+  tuberculata, _Mueller_, Verm. Ter.[1]
+  spinulosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  corrugata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  rudis, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
+  acanthica, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
+  Zeylanica, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
+  confusa, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  datura, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  Layardi, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+Paludomus
+  abbreviatus, _Reeve_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  clavatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  dilatatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  globulosus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  decussatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  nigricans, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  constrictus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
+  bicinctus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  phaslaninus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
+  laevis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  palustris, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  fulguratus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+  nasutus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  sphaericus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+  solidus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  distinguendus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
+  Cumingianus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
+  dromedarius, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
+  Skinneri, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  Swainsoni, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+  nodulosus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
+Paludomus (_Tanalia_).
+  loricatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  erinaceus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  aereus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  Layardi, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
+  undatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Gardneri, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Tennentii, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Reevei, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  violaceus, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  similis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  funiculatus, _Layard_, Pr. Z. Soc. 1854.
+Paludomus (_Philopotamis_).
+  sulcatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  regalis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  Thwaitesii, _Layard_, P. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Pirena atra, _Linn._ Systema Naturae.
+Paludina melanostoma, _Bens._
+  Ceylanica, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+Bythinia stenothyroides, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+  modesta, _Dohrn_, MS.
+  inconspicua, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.
+Ampullaria Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  moesta, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  cinerea, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Woodwardi, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  Tischbeini, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  carinata, _Swainson_, Zool. Illus. ser. 2.
+  paludinoides, Cat. _Cristofori & Jan._[2]
+  Malabarica, _Philippi_, monog. Ampul.[2]
+  Luzonica, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.[2]
+  Sumatrensis, _Philippi_, monog. Ampul.[2]
+Navicella eximia, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  reticulata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Livesayi, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  squamata, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
+  depressa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Neritina
+  crepidularia, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  melanostoma, _Trosch._ W.A. Nat. 1837.
+  triserialis, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illustr.
+  Colombaria, _Recluz_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1845.
+  Perottetiana, _Recluz_, Rev. Z. Cuv. 1841.
+  Ceylanensis, _Recluz_, Mag. Conch. 1851.
+  Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  rostrata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  reticulata, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illustr.
+Nerita plicata, _Linn._ Systema Naturae.
+  costata, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  plexa, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.[3]
+Natica aurantia, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  mammilla, _Linn._ Systema Naturae.
+  picta, _Reeve_, (as of _Recluz_), C. Icon.
+  arachnoidea, _Gm._ Systema Naturae.
+  lineata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+
+[Footnote 1: M. fasciolata, _Olivier_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: These four species are included on the authority of Mr.
+Dohrn.]
+
+[Footnote 3: N. exuvia, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+  adusta, _Ch_. C. C. f. 1926-7, & _Karsten_.[1]
+  pellis-tigrina, _Karsten_, Mus. Lesk.[2]
+  didyma, _Bolten_, Mus.[3]
+Ianthina prolongata, _Blainv_., D.S.N. xxiv.
+  communis, _Kr_., (as of _L._ in part) S.A.M.
+Sigaretus, sp.[4]
+Stomatella
+  calliostoma, _Adams_, Thesaur. Conch.
+Haliotis varia, _Linn._ Systema Naturae.
+  striata, _Martini_ (as of _Linn._), C. Cab. i.
+  semistriata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Tornatella solidula, _Linn._ Systema Nat.
+Pyramidella
+  maculosa, _Lam._, Anim. s. Vert.
+Eulima Martini, _Adams_, Thes. Conch, ii.
+Siliquaria
+  muricata, _Born_, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind.
+Scalaria raricostata, _Lam._, Anim. s. Vert.
+Delphinula laciniata, _Lam._, Anim. s. Vert.
+  distorta, _Linn._, Syst. Nat.[5]
+Solarium perdix, _Hinds_., Proc. Zool. Soc.
+  Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[6]
+Rotella vestiaria, _Linn._, Syst. Nat.
+Phorus pallidulus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. i.
+Trochus
+  elegantulus, _Gray_, Index Tes. Suppl.
+  Niloticus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Monodonta labio, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  canaliculata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Turbo versicolor, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  princeps, _Philippi_.[7]
+Planaxis undulatus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[8]
+Littorina angulifera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  melanostoma, _Gray_, Zool., _Beech_. Voy.[9]
+Chemnitzia
+  trilineata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+  lirata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
+Phasianella
+  lineolata, _Gray_, Index Test. Suppl.
+Turritella
+  bacillum, _Kiener_, Coquilles Vivantes.
+  columnaris, _Kiener_, Coquilies Vivantes.
+  duplicata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  attenuata, _Reeve_, Syst. Nat.
+Cerithium fluviatile, _Potrez & Michaud_, Galerie Douai.
+Layardi (Cerithidea), _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+  palustre, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  aluco, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  asperula, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  telescopium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  palustre obeliscus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  fasciatum, _Brug_., Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  rubus, _Sower_. (as of _Mart_.), Thes. C. ii.
+  Sowerbyi, _Kiener_, Coquilles Vivantes (teste Sir E. Tennent).
+Pleurotoma Indica, _Deshayes_, Voyage Belanger.
+  virgo, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Turbinella pyrum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  rapa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert. (the Chank.)
+  cornigera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  spirillus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Cancellaria
+  trigonostoma, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.[10]
+  scalata, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch.
+  articularis, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch.
+  Littoriniformis, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch.
+  contabulata, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch.
+Fasciolaria
+  filamentosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  trapezium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Fusus longissimus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  colus, _Linn._ Mus. Lud. Ulricae.
+  toreuma, _Deshayes_, (as Mur. t. _Martyn_).[11]
+  laticostatus, _Deshayes_, Mag. Zool. 1831.
+  Blosvillei, _Deshayes_, E. Meth. Vers., ii.
+Pyrula rapa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[12]
+  citrina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  pugilina, _Born_, Test. Mus. Vind.[13]
+  ficus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  ficoides, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Ranella crumena, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  spinosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  rana, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[14]
+  margaritula, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belanger.
+Murex baustellum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  adustus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  microphyllus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  anguliferus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  palmarosae, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ternispina, _Kiener_, (as of _Lam._), Coquilles Vivantes.
+  tenuispina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ferrugo, _Mawe_, Index. Test. Suppl.[15]
+  Reeveanus, _Shuttleworth_, (teste _Cuming_)
+Triton anus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[16]
+  mulus, _Dillwyn_, Descript. Cat. Shells.
+  retusus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  pyrum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  clavator, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Ceylonensis, _Sowerby_, Proc. Zool. Soc.
+  lotorium, _Lam._ (not _Linn_.), An. s. Vert.
+  lampas, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Pterocera lambis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  millepeda, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Strombus canarium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[17]
+  succinotus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  fasciatus, _Born_, Test. Mus. Caes. Vind.
+
+[Footnote 1: Conch. Cab. f. 1926-7, and N. melanostoma, _Lam._ in part.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Chemn. Conch. Cab. 1892-3.]
+
+[Footnote 3: N. glauciua, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 4: A species (possibly Javanicus) is known to have been
+collected. I have not seen it.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Not of _Lamarck_. D. atrata. _Reeve_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Philippia L.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Zeit. Mal. 1846 for T. argyrostoma, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 8: Buccinum pyramidatum, _Gm_. in part: B. sulcatum, var. C.
+of _Brug_.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Teste Cuming.]
+
+[Footnote 10: As Delphinulat.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Ed. _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.]
+
+[Footnote 12: P. papyracea, _Lam._ In mixed collections I have seen the
+Chinese P. bezoar of _Lamarck_ as from Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 13: P. vespertilio, _Gm_.]
+
+[Footnote 14: R. albivaricosa, _Reeve_.]
+
+[Footnote 15: M. anguliferus var. _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 16: T. cynocephalus of _Lamarck_ is also met with in Ceylon
+collections.]
+
+[Footnote 17: S. incisus of the Index Testaceologicus (urceus, var.
+_Sow_. Thesaur.) is found in mixed Ceylon collections.]
+
+  Sibbaldii, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. t.
+  lentiginosus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  marginatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Lamarckii, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch.
+Cassis glauca, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[1]
+  canaliculata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Zeylanica, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  areola, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Ricinula albolabris, _Blainv_. Nouv. Ann. Mus. H. N. i.[2]
+  horrida, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  morus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Purpura tiscella, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Persica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  hystrix, _Lam._ (not _Linn._) An. s. Vert.
+  granatina, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belanger.
+  mancinella, _Lam._ (as of _Linn._) An. s.V.
+  buto, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  carinitera, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Harpa conoldalis, _Lam._ Anim, s. Vert.
+  minor, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Dolium pomum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  olearium, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  perdix, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  maculatum, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Nassa ornata, _Kiener_, Coq. Vivantes. [3]
+  verrucosa, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  crenulata, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  olivacea, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  glans, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  arcularia, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  papillosa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Phos virgatus, _Hinds_. Zool. Sul. Moll.
+  retecosus, _Hinds_, Zool. Sulphur, Moll.
+  senticosus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Buccinum melanostoma, _Sowerby_, App. to Tankerv. Cat.
+  erythrostoma, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  Proteus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  rubiginosum, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+Eburna spirata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[4]
+  canaliculata, _Schumacher_, S.A. s. V.[5]
+  Ceylanica, _Bruguiere_, En. Meth. Vers.
+Bullia vittata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  lineolata, _Sowerby_, Tankerv. Cat.[6]
+  Melanoides, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belan.
+Terebra chlorata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  muscaria, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  laevigata, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
+  maculata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  subulata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  concinna, _Deshayes_, ed. _Lam._ A. s. V.
+  myurus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  tigrina, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+  cerithina, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Columbella flavida, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  fulgurans, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  mendicaria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  scripta, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert. (Teste _Jay_).
+Mitra
+  episcopalis, _Dillwyn_, Des. Cat. Shells.
+  cardinalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  crebrilirata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon.
+  punctostriata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. So. 1854.
+  insculpta, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.[7]
+Voluta vexillum, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  Lapponica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Melo Indicus, _Gm_. Syst. Nat.
+Marginella Sarda, _Kiener_, Coq. Vivantes.
+Ovulum ovum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  verrucosum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  pudicum, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
+Cypraea Argus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Arabica, _Linn._ Syst Nat.
+  Mauritiana, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  hirundo, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Lynx, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  asellus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  erosa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  vitellus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  stolida, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  mappa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  helvola, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  errones, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  cribraria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  globulus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  clandestina, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  ocellata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  caurica, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  tabescens, _Soland_. in Dillwyn Des. C. Sh.
+  gangrenosa, _Soland_. in Dillw. D.C. Sh.
+  interrupta, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. i.
+  lentiginosa, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. i.
+  pyriformis, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. i.
+  nivosa, _Broderip_, Zool. Journ. iii.
+  poraria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  testudinaria, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+Terebellum
+  subulatum, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Ancillaria glabrata, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  candida, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Oliva Maura, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert,
+  erythrostoma, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  gibbesa, _Born_, Test. Mus. Caes.[8]
+  nebulosa, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  Macleayana, _Duclos_, Monogr. of Oliva.
+  episcopalis, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  elegans, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  ispidula, _Linn._ Syst. Nat. (partly).[9]
+  Zeilanica, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  undata, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  irisans, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert. (teste _Duclos_).
+Conus miles, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  generalis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  betulinus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  stercus-muscarum, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Hebraeus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  virgo, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  geographicus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  aulicus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  figutinus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  striatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  senator, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.[10]
+  literatus, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+
+[Footnote 1: C. plicaria of _Lamarck_, and C. coronulata of _Sowerby_,
+are also said to be found in Ceylon.]
+
+[Footnote 2: As Purpura.]
+
+[Footnote 3: N. suturalis, _Reeve_ (as of _Lam._), is met with in mixed
+Ceylon collections.]
+
+[Footnote 4: E. areolata, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 5: E. spirata, _Lam._ not _Linn._]
+
+[Footnote 6: B. Belangeri, _Kiener_.]
+
+[Footnote 7: As Turricula L.]
+
+[Footnote 8: O. utriculus, _Dillwyn_.]
+
+[Footnote 9: C. planorbis, _Born_; C. vulpinus, _Lam._]
+
+[Footnote 10: Conus ermineus, _Born_, in part.]
+
+  imperialis, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  textile, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  terebra, _Born_, Test. Must. Caes. Vind.
+  tessellatus, _Born,_ Test. Mus. Caes. Vind.
+  augur, _Bruguiere_, Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  obesus, _Bruguiere_, Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  araneosus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  gubernator, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  monite, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  nimbosus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  eburneus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  vitulinus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  quercinus _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  lividus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  Omaria, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  Maldivus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  nocturnus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  Ceylonensis, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  arenatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  Nicobaricus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  glans, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  Amadis, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  punctatus, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  minimus, _Reeve_. (as of _Linn_), C. Icon.
+  terminus, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+  lineatus, _Chemn._ Conch. Cab.
+  episcopus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  verriculum, _Reeve_. Conch. Cab.
+  zonatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  rattus. _Brug_. En. Mth. V. (teste _Chemn._)
+  pertusus, _Brug_. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
+  Nussatella, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  lithoglyphus, _Brug_. En. Meth. Vers.[4]
+  tulipa, _Linn._ Syst. Nat.
+  Ammiralis, var. _Linn._ teste _Brug_.
+Spirula Peronii, _Lam._ Anim. s. Vert.
+Sepia Hieredda, _Rang_. M.Z., ser. i. p. 100.
+Sepioteuthis, _Sp_.
+Loligo, _Sp_.
+
+A conclusion not unworthy of observation may be deduced from this
+catalogue; namely, that Ceylon was the unknown, and hence
+unacknowledged, source of almost every extra-European shell which has
+been described by Linnaeus without a recorded habitat. This fact gives to
+Ceylon specimens an importance which can only be appreciated by
+collectors and the students of Mollusca.
+
+
+
+2. RADIATA.
+
+The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated animals, but it is
+to be regretted that they have as yet received but little attention from
+English naturalists. Recently, however, Dr. Kelaart has devoted himself
+to the investigation of some of the Singhalese species, and has
+published his discoveries in the Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the
+Asiatic Society for 1856-8. Our information respecting the radiata on
+the confines of the island is, therefore, very scanty; with the
+exception of the genera[1] examined by him. Hence the notice of this
+extensive class of animals must be limited to indicating a few of those
+which exhibit striking peculiarities, or which admit of the most common
+observation.
+
+[Footnote 1: Actinia, 9 sp.; Anthea, 4 sp.; Actinodendron, 3 sp.;
+Dioscosoma, 1 sp.; Peechea, 1 sp.; Zoanthura, 1 sp.]
+
+_Star Fish_.--Very large species of _Ophiuridae_ are to be met with at
+Trincomalie, crawling busily about, and insinuating their long
+serpentine arms into the irregularities and perforations in the rocks.
+To these they attach themselves with such a firm grasp, especially when
+they perceive that they have attracted attention, that it is almost
+impossible to procure unmutilated specimens without previously depriving
+them of life, or at least modifying their muscular tenacity. The upper
+surface is of a dark purple colour, and coarsely spined; the arms of the
+largest specimens are more than a foot in length, and very fragile.
+
+The star fishes, with immovable rays[1], are by no means rare; many
+kinds are brought up in the nets, or maybe extracted from the stomachs
+of the larger market fish. One very large species[2], figured by
+Joinville in the manuscript volume in the library at the India House, is
+not uncommon; it has thick arms, from which and the disc numerous large
+fleshy cirrhi of a bright crimson colour project downwards, giving the
+creature a remarkable aspect. No description of it, so far as I am
+aware, has appeared in any systematic work on zoology.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Asterias_, Linn.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Pentaceros?_]
+
+_Sea Slugs_.--There are a few species of _Holothuria_, of which the
+trepang is the best known example. It is largely collected in the Gulf
+of Manaar, and dried in the sun to prepare it for export to China. A
+good description and figures of its varieties are still desiderata.
+
+_Parasitic Worms_.--Of these entozoa, the _Filaria medinensis_, or
+Guinea-worm, which burrows in the cellular tissue under the skin, is
+well known in the north of the island, but rarely found in the damper
+districts of the south and west. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, the natives
+attribute its occurrence to drinking the waters of particular wells; but
+this belief is inconsistent with the fact that its lodgment in the human
+body is almost always effected just above the ankle. This shows that the
+minute parasites are transferred to the skin of the leg from the moist
+vegetation bordering the footpaths leading to wells. At this period the
+creatures are very small, and the process of insinuation is painless and
+imperceptible. It is only when they attain to considerable size, a foot
+or more in length, that the operation of extracting them is resorted to,
+when exercise may have given rise to inconvenience and inflammation.
+
+These pests in all probability received their popular name of
+_Guinea-worms_, from the narrative of Bruno or Braun, a citizen and
+surgeon of Basle, who about the year 1611 made several voyages to that
+part of the African coast, and on his return published, amongst other
+things, an account of the local diseases.[1] But Linschoten, the Dutch
+navigator, had previously observed the same worms at Ormus in 1584, and
+they are thus described, together with the method of removing them, in
+the English version of his voyage.
+
+[Footnote 1: In DE BRY'S, _Collect_, vol. i. p. 49.]
+
+"There is in Ormus a sickenesse or common plague of wormes, which growe
+in their legges, it is thought that they proceede of the water that they
+drink. These wormes are like, unto lute strings, and about two or three
+fadomes longe, which they must plucke out and winde them aboute a straw
+or a feather, everie day some part thereof, so longe as they feele them
+creepe; and when they hold still, letting it rest in that sort till the
+next daye, they bind it fast and annoynt the hole, and the swelling from
+whence it commeth foorth, with fresh butter, and so in ten or twelve
+dayes, they winde them out without any let, in the meanetime they must
+sit still with their legges, for if it should breake, they should not,
+without great paine get it out of their legge, as I have seen some men
+doe." [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: JOHN HUIGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN _his Discours of Voyages into
+the Easte and West Indies._ London, 1599, p, 16.]
+
+The worm is of a whitish colour, sometimes inclining to brown. Its
+thickness is from a half to two-thirds of a line, and its length has
+sometimes reached to ten or twelve feet. Small specimens have been found
+beneath the tunica conjunctiva of the eye; and one species of the same
+genus of _Nematoidea_ infests the cavity of the eye itself.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: OWEN'S _Lectures on the Invertebrata_, p. 96.]
+
+_Planaria_.--In the journal already mentioned, Dr. Kelaart has given
+descriptions of fifteen species of planaria, and four of a new genus,
+instituted by him for the reception of those differing from the normal
+kinds by some peculiarities which they exhibit in common. At Point
+Pedro, Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on the bark of trees, after heavy
+rain, which would appear to belong to the subgenus _geoplana_.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: "A curious species, which is of a light brown above, white
+underneath; very broad and thin, and has a peculiarly shaped tail,
+half-moon-shaped in fact, like a grocer's cheese knife."]
+
+_Acalephae_.--Acalephae[1] are plentiful, so much so, indeed, that they
+occasionally tempt the larger cetacea into the Gulf of Manaar. In the
+calmer months of the year, when the sea is glassy, and for hours
+together undisturbed by a ripple, the minute descriptions are rendered
+perceptible by their beautiful prismatic tinting. So great is their
+transparency that they are only to be distinguished from the water by
+the return to the eye of the reflected light that glances from their
+delicate and polished surfaces. Less frequently they are traced by the
+faint hues of their tiny peduncles, arms, or tentaculae; and it has been
+well observed that they often give the seas in which they abound the
+appearance of being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow. The larger
+kinds, when undisturbed in their native haunts, attain to considerable
+size. A faintly blue medusa, nearly a foot across, may be seen in the
+Gulf of Manaar, where, no doubt, others of still larger growth are to be
+found.
+
+[Footnote 1: Jelly-fish.]
+
+[Illustration: PHYSALUS URTICULUS.]
+
+Occasionally after storms, the beach at Colombo is strewn with the thin
+transparent globes of the "Portuguese Man of War," _Physalus urticulus_,
+which are piled upon the lines left by the waves, like globules of glass
+delicately tinted with purple and blue. They sting, as their trivial
+name indicates, like a nettle when incautiously touched.
+
+_Red infusoria_.--On both sides of the island (but most frequently on
+the west), during the south-west monsoon, a broad expanse of the sea
+assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter than brick-dust; and this is
+confined to a space so distinct that a line seems to separate it from
+the green water which flows on either side. Observing at Colombo that
+the whole area so tinged changed its position without parting with any
+portion of its colouring, I had some of the water brought on shore, and,
+on examination with the microscope, found it to be filled with
+_infusoria_, probably similar to those which have been noticed near the
+shores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted a name to the
+"Vermilion Sea" off the coast of California.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The late Dr. BUIST, of Bombay, in commenting on this
+statement, writes to the _Athenaeum_ that: "The red colour with which the
+sea is tinged, round the shores of Ceylon, during a part of the S.W.
+monsoon is due to the _Proto-coccus nivalis_, or the Himatta-coccus,
+which presents different colours at different periods of the
+year--giving us the seas of milk as well as those of blood. The coloured
+water at times is to be seen all along the coast north to Kurrachee, and
+far out, and of a much more intense tint in the Arabian Sea. The
+frequency of its appearance in the Red Sea has conferred on it its
+name."]
+
+The remaining orders, including the corals, madrepores, and other
+polypi, have yet to find a naturalist to undertake their investigation,
+but in all probability the new species are not very numerous.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+TRITONIA ARBORESCENS.
+
+
+The following is the letter of Dr. Grant, referred to at page 385:--
+
+Sir,--I have perused, with much interest, your remarkable communication
+received yesterday, respecting the musical sounds which you heard
+proceeding from under water, on the east coast of Ceylon. I cannot
+parallel the phenomenon you witnessed at Batticaloa, as produced by
+marine animals, with anything with which my past experience has made me
+acquainted in marine zoology. Excepting the faint clink of the _Tritonia
+arborescens_, repeated only once every minute or two, and apparently
+produced by the mouth armed with two dense horny laminae, I am not aware
+of any sounds produced in the sea by branchiated invertebrata. It is to
+be regretted that in the memorandum you have not mentioned your
+observations on the living specimens brought you by the sailors as the
+animals which produced the sounds. Your authentication of the hitherto
+unknown fact, would probably lead to the discovery of the same
+phenomenon in other common accessible paludinae, and other allied
+branchiated animals, and to the solution of a problem, which is still to
+me a mystery, even regarding the _tritonia_.
+
+My two living _tritonia_, contained in a large clear colourless glass
+cylinder, filled with pure sea water, and placed on the central table of
+the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, around which many
+members were sitting, continued to clink audibly within the distance of
+twelve feet during the whole meeting. These small animals were
+individually not half the size of the last joint of my little finger.
+What effect the mellow sounds of millions of these, covering the shallow
+bottom of a tranquil estuary, in the silence of night, might produce, I
+can scarcely conjecture.
+
+In the absence of your authentication, and of all geological explanation
+of the continuous sounds, and of all source of fallacy from the hum and
+buzz of living creatures in the air or on the land, or swimming on the
+waters, I must say that I should be inclined to seek for the source of
+sounds so audible as those you describe rather among the pulmonated
+vertebrata, which swarm in the depths of these seas--as fishes, serpents
+(of which my friend Dr. Cantor has described about twelve species he
+found in the Bay of Bengal), turtles, palmated birds, pinnipedous and
+cetaceous mammalia, &c.
+
+The publication of your memorandum in its present form, though not quite
+satisfactory, will, I think, be eminently calculated to excite useful
+inquiry into a neglected and curious part of the economy of nature.
+
+I remain, Sir,
+
+Yours most respectfully,
+
+ROBERT E. GRANT.
+
+_Sir J. Emerson Tennent, &c. &c._
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XII.
+
+INSECTS.
+
+
+Owing to the favourable combination of heat, moisture, and vegetation,
+the myriads of insects in Ceylon form one of the characteristic features
+of the island. In the solitude of the forests there is a perpetual music
+from their soothing and melodious hum, which frequently swells to a
+startling sound as the cicada trills his sonorous drum on the sunny bark
+of some tall tree. At morning the dew hangs in diamond drops on the
+threads and gossamer which the spiders suspend across every pathway; and
+above the pool dragon-flies, of more than metallic lustre, flash in the
+early sunbeams. The earth teems with countless ants, which emerge from
+beneath its surface, or make their devious highways to ascend to their
+nests in the trees. Lustrous beetles, with their golden elytra, bask on
+the leaves, whilst minuter species dash through the air in circles,
+which the ear can follow by the booming of their tiny wings. Butterflies
+of large size and gorgeous colouring, flutter over the endless expanse
+of flowers, and at times the extraordinary sight presents itself of
+flights of these delicate creatures, generally of a white or pale yellow
+hue, apparently miles in breadth, and of such prodigious extension as to
+occupy hours, and even days, uninterruptedly in their passage--whence
+coming no one knows; whither going no one can tell.[1] As day declines,
+the moths issue from their retreats, the crickets add their shrill
+voices to swell the din; and when darkness descends, the eye is charmed
+with the millions of emerald lamps lighted up by the fire-flies amidst
+the surrounding gloom.
+
+[Footnote 1: The butterflies I have seen in these wonderful migrations
+in Ceylon were mostly _Callidryas Hilariae, C. Alcmeone_, and _C.
+Pyranthe_, with straggling individuals of the genus _Euplaea, E. Coras_,
+and _E. Prothoe_. Their passage took place in April and May, generally
+in a north-easterly direction. The natives have a superstitious belief
+that their flight is ultimately directed to Adam's Peak, and that their
+pilgrimage ends on reaching the sacred mountain. A friend of mine
+travelling from Kandy to Kornegalle, drove for nine miles through a
+cloud of white butterflies, which were passing across the road by which
+he went.]
+
+As yet no attempt has been made to describe the insects of Ceylon
+systematically, much less to enumerate the prodigous number of species
+that abound in every locality. Occasional observers have, from time to
+time, contributed notices of particular families to the Scientific
+Associations of Europe, but their papers remain undigested, and the time
+has not yet arrived for the preparation of an Entomology of the island.
+
+What DARWIN remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is nearly as applicable
+to the same order of insects in Ceylon: "The number of minute and
+obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great; the cabinets of Europe
+can as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only of the larger species
+from tropical climates, and it is sufficient to disturb the composure of
+an entomologist to look forward to the future dimensions of a catalogue
+with any pretensions to completeness."[1] M. Nietner, a German
+entomologist, who has spent some years in Ceylon, has recently
+published, in one of the local periodicals, a series of papers on the
+Coleoptera of the island, in which every species introduced is stated to
+be previously undescribed.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Nat. Journal_, p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Republished in the _Ann. Nat. Hist._]
+
+COLEOPTERA.--_Buprestidae; Golden Beetles_.--In the morning the
+herbaceous plants, especially on the eastern side of the island, are
+studded with these gorgeous beetles, whose golden wing-cases[1] are used
+to enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana, whilst the lustrous
+joints of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form necklaces and
+bracelets of singular brilliancy.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Sternocera Chrysis; S. sternicornis_.]
+
+These exquisite colours are not confined to one order, and some of the
+Elateridae[1] and Lamellicorns exhibit hues of green and blue, that rival
+the deepest tints of the emerald and sapphire.
+
+[Footnote 1: Of the family of _Elateridae_, one of the finest is a
+Singhalese species, the _Campsosternus Templetonii_, of an exquisite
+golden green colour, with blue reflections (described and figured by Mr.
+WESTWOOD in his _Cabinet of Oriental Entomology_, pl. 35, f. 1). In the
+same work is figured another species of large size, also from Ceylon,
+this is the _Alaus sordidus_.--WESTWOOD, l. c. pl. 35, f. 9.]
+
+_Scavenger Beetles_.--Scavenger beetles[1] are to be seen wherever the
+presence of putrescent and offensive matter affords opportunity for the
+display of their repulsive but most curious instincts; fastening on it
+with eagerness, severing it into lumps proportionate to their strength,
+and rolling it along in search of some place sufficiently soft in which
+to bury it, after having deposited their eggs in the centre. I had
+frequent opportunities, especially in traversing the sandy jungles in
+the level plains to the north of the island, of observing the unfailing
+appearance of these creatures instantly on the dropping of horse dung,
+or any other substance suitable for their purpose; although not one was
+visible but a moment before. Their approach on the wing is announced by
+a loud and joyous booming sound, as they dash in rapid circles in search
+of the desired object, led by their sense of smell, and evidently little
+assisted by the eye in shaping their course towards it. In these
+excursions they exhibit a strength of wing and sustained power of
+flight, such as is possessed by no other class of beetles with which I
+am acquainted, but which is obviously indispensable for the due
+performance of the useful functions they discharge.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ateuchus sacer; Copris sagax; C. capucinus_, &c. &c.]
+
+[Illustration: LONGHORN BEETLE (BATEROCERA RUBUS).]
+
+_The Coco-nut Beetle_.--In the luxuriant forests of Ceylon the extensive
+family of _Longicorns_[1] and _Passalidae_ live in destructive abundance.
+To the coco-nut planters the ravages committed by beetles are painfully
+familiar.[2] The larva of one species of _Dynastida_, the _Oryctes
+rhinoceros_, called by the Singhalese "_Gascooroominiya_," makes its way
+into the younger trees, descending from the top, and after perforating
+them in all directions, forms a cocoon of the gnawed wood and sawdust,
+in which it reposes during its sleep as a pupa, till the arrival of the
+period when it emerges as a perfect beetle. Notwithstanding the
+repulsive aspect of the large pulpy larvae of these beetles, they are
+esteemed a luxury by the Malabar coolies, who so far avail themselves of
+the privilege accorded by the Levitical law, which permitted the Hebrews
+to eat "the beetle after his kind."[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: The engraving on the preceding page represents in its
+various transformations one of the most familiar and graceful of the
+longicorn beetles of Ceylon, the _Batocera rubus_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: There is a paper in the _Journ. of the Asiat. Society of
+Ceylon_, May, 1845, by Mr. CAPPER, on the ravages perpetrated by these
+beetles. The writer had recently passed through several coco-nut
+plantations, "varying in extent from 20 to 150 acres, and about two to
+three years old: and in these he did not discover a single young tree
+untouched by the cooroominiya."--P. 49.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Leviticus, xi. 22.]
+
+Amongst the superstitions of the Singhalese arising out of their belief
+in demonology, one remarkable one is connected with the appearance of a
+beetle when observed on the floor of a dwelling-house after nightfall.
+The popular belief is that in obedience to a certain form of incantation
+(called _cooroominiya-pilli_) a demon in the shape of a beetle is sent
+to the house of some person or family whose destruction it is intended
+to compass, and who presently falls sick and dies. The only means of
+averting this catastrophe is, that some one, himself an adept in
+necromancy, should perform a counter-charm, the effect of which is to
+send back the disguised beetle to destroy his original employer; for in
+such a conjuncture the death of one or the other is essential to appease
+the demon whose intervention has been invoked. Hence the discomfort of a
+Singhalese on finding a beetle in his house after sunset, and his
+anxiety to expel but not to kill it.
+
+_Tortoise Beetles_.--There is one family of insects, the members of
+which cannot fail to strike the traveller by their singular beauty, the
+_Cassididae_ or tortoise beetles, in which the outer shell overlaps the
+body, and the limbs are susceptible of being drawn entirely within it.
+The rim is frequently of a different tint from the centre, and one
+species which I have seen is quite startling from the brilliancy of its
+colouring, which gives it the appearance of a ruby enclosed in a frame
+of pearl; but this wonderful effect disappears immediately on the death
+of the insect.
+
+ORTHOPTERA. _Leaf-insects_.--But in relation to the insects of Ceylon
+the admiration of their colours is still less exciting than the
+astonishment created by the forms in which some of the families present
+themselves; especially the "soothsayers" (_Mantidae_) and "walking
+leaves." The latter[1], exhibiting the most cunning of all nature's
+devices for the preservation of her creatures, are found in the jungle
+in all varieties of hues, from the pale yellow of an opening bud to the
+rich green of the full-blown leaf, and the withered tint of decay. So
+perfect is the imitation of a leaf in structure and articulation, that
+this amazing insect when at rest is almost undistinguishable from the
+foliage around: not only are the wings modelled to resemble ribbed and
+fibrous follicles, but every joint of the legs is expanded into a broad
+plait like a half-opened leaflet.
+
+[Footnote 1: Phyllium siccifolium.]
+
+[Illustration: STICK INSECT AND MANTIS]
+
+It rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it slowly along, and
+thus the flatness of its attitude serves still further to add to the
+appearance of a leaf. One of the most marvellous incidents connected
+with its organisation was exhibited by one which I kept under a glass
+shade on my table, it laid a quantity of eggs, that, in colour and
+shape, were not to be distinguished from _seeds_. They were brown, and
+pentangular, with a short stem, and slightly punctured at the
+intersections.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The "soothsayer," on the other hand (_Mantis superstitiosa._ Fab.[1]),
+little justifies by its propensities the appearance of gentleness, and
+the attitudes of sanctity, which have obtained for it the title of the
+"praying mantis." Its habits are carnivorous, and degenerate into
+cannibalism, as it preys on the weaker individuals of its own species.
+Two which I enclosed in a box were both found dead a few hours after,
+literally severed limb from limb in their encounter. The formation of
+the foreleg enables the tibia to be so closed on the sharp edge of the
+thigh as to amputate any slender substance grasped within it.
+
+[Footnote 1: _M. aridifolia_ and _M. extensicollis_, as well as _Empusa
+gongylodes_, remarkable for the long leaf-like head, and dilatations on
+the posterior thighs, are common in the island.]
+
+_The Stick-insect_.--The _Phasmidae_ or spectres, another class of
+orthoptera, present as close a resemblance to small branches or leafless
+twigs as their congeners do to green leaves. The wing-covers, where they
+exist, instead of being expanded, are applied so closely to the body as
+to detract nothing from its rounded form, and hence the name which they
+have acquired of "_walking-sticks_." Like the _Phyllium_, the _Phasma_
+lives exclusively on vegetables, and some attain the length of several
+inches.
+
+Of all the other tribes of the _Orthoptera_ Ceylon possesses many
+representatives; in swarms of cockroaches, grasshoppers, locusts, and
+crickets.
+
+NEUROPTERA. _Dragon-flies_.--Of the _Neuroptera_, some of the
+dragon-flies are pre-eminently beautiful; one species, with rich
+brown-coloured spots upon its gauzy wings, is to be seen near every
+pool.[1] Another[2], which dances above the mountain streams in Oovah,
+and amongst the hills descending towards Kandy, gleams in the sun as if
+each of its green enamelled wings had been sliced from an emerald.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Libellula pulchella_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Euphaea splendens_.]
+
+_The Ant-Lion._--Of the ant-lion, whose larvae have earned a bad renown
+from their predaceous ingenuity, Ceylon has, at least, four species,
+which seem peculiar to the island.[1] This singular creature,
+preparatory to its pupal transformation, contrives to excavate a conical
+pitfall in the dust to the depth of about an inch, in the bottom of
+which it conceals itself, exposing only its open mandibles above the
+surface; and here every ant and soft-bodied insect which curiosity
+tempts to descend, or accident may precipitate into the trap, is
+ruthlessly seized and devoured by its ambushed inhabitant.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Palpares contrarius_, Walker; _Myrmeleon gravis_, Walker;
+_M. dirus_, Walker; _M. barbarus_, Walker.]
+
+_The White Ant_.--But of the insects of this order the most noted are
+the _white ants_ or termites (which are ants only by a misnomer). They
+are, unfortunately, at once ubiquitous and innumerable in every spot
+where the climate is not too chilly, or the soil too sandy, for them to
+construct their domed edifices.
+
+These they raise from a considerable depth under ground, excavating the
+clay with their mandibles, and moistening it with tenacious saliva[1]
+until it assume the appearance, and almost the consistency, of
+sandstone. So delicate is the trituration to which they subject this
+material, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the powdered clay of the
+ant hills in preference to all other substances in the preparation of
+crucibles and moulds for their finer castings: and KNOX says, "the
+people use this finer clay to make their earthen gods of, it is so pure
+and fine."[2] These structures the termites erect with such perseverance
+and durability that they frequently rise to the height of ten or twelve
+feet from the ground, with a corresponding diameter. They are so firm in
+their texture that the weight of a horse makes no apparent indentation
+on their solidity; and even the intense rains of the monsoon, which no
+cement or mortar can long resist, fail to penetrate the surface or
+substance of an ant hill.[3] In their earlier stages the termites
+proceed with such energetic rapidity, that I have seen a pinnacle of
+moist clay, six inches in height and twice as large in diameter,
+constructed underneath a table between sitting down to dinner and the
+removal of the cloth.
+
+[Footnote 1: It becomes an interesting question whence the termites
+derive the large supplies of moisture with which they not only temper
+the clay for the construction of their long covered ways above ground,
+but for keeping their passages uniformly damp and cool below the
+surface. Yet their habits in this particular are unvarying, in the
+seasons of droughts as well as after rain; in the driest and least
+promising positions, in situations inaccessible to drainage from above,
+and cut off by rocks and impervious strata from springs from below. Dr.
+Livingstone, struck with this phenomenon in Southern Africa, asks: "Can
+the white ants possess the power of combining the oxygen and hydrogen of
+their vegetable food by vital force so as to form water?"--_Travels_, p.
+22. And he describes at Angola, an insect[A] resembling the _Aphrophora
+spumaria_; seven or eight individuals of which distil several pints of
+water every night.--P. 414. It is highly probable that the termites are
+endowed with some such faculty: nor is it more remarkable that an insect
+should combine the gases of its food to produce water, than that a fish
+should decompose water in order to provide itself with gas. FOURCROIX
+found the contents of the air-bladder in a carp to be pure
+nitrogen.--_Yarrell_, vol. i. p. 42. And the aquatic larva of the
+dragon-fly extracts air for its respiration from the water in which it
+is submerged. A similar mystery pervades the inquiry whence plants under
+peculiar circumstances derive the water essential to vegetation.]
+
+[Footnote A: _A. goudotti?_ Bennett.]
+
+[Footnote 2: KNOX'S _Ceylon_, Part i, ch. vi, p.24.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Dr. HOOKER, in his _Himalayan Journal_ (vol. i. p. 20) is
+of opinion that the nests of the termites are not independent
+structures, but that their nucleus is "the debris of clumps of bamboos
+or the trunks of large trees which these insects have destroyed." He
+supposes that the dead tree falls leaving the stump coated with sand,
+_which the action of the weather soon fashions into a cone_. But
+independently of the fact that the "action of the weather" produces
+little or no effect on the closely cemented clay of the white ants'
+nest, they may be daily seen constructing their edifices in the very
+form of a cone, which they ever after retain. Besides which, they appear
+in the midst of terraces and fields where no trees are to be seen: and
+Dr. Hooker seems to overlook the fact that the termites rarely attack a
+living tree; and although their nests may be built against one, it
+continues to flourish not the less for their presence.]
+
+As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried up from beneath the
+surface, a cave of corresponding dimensions is necessarily scooped out
+below, and here, under the multitude of miniature cupolas and pinnacles
+which canopy it above, the termites hollow out the royal chamber for
+their queen, with spacious nurseries surrounding it on all sides; and
+all are connected by arched galleries, long passages, and doorways of
+the most intricate and elaborate construction. In the centre and
+underneath the spacious dome is the recess for the queen--a hideous
+creature, with the head and thorax of an ordinary termite, but a body
+swollen to a hundred times its usual and proportionate bulk, and
+presenting the appearance of a mass of shapeless pulp. From this great
+progenitrix proceed the myriads that people the subterranean hive,
+consisting, like the communities of the genuine ants, of labourers and
+soldiers, which are destined never to acquire a fuller development than
+that of larvae, and the perfect insects which in due time become invested
+with wings and take their departing flight from the cave. But their new
+equipment seems only destined to facilitate their dispersion from the
+parent nest, which takes place at dusk; and almost as quickly as they
+leave it they divest themselves of their ineffectual wings, waving them
+impatiently and twisting them in every direction till they become
+detached and drop off, and the swarm, within a few hours of their
+emancipation, become a prey to the night-jars and bats, which are
+instantly attracted to them as they issue in a cloud from the ground. I
+am not prepared to say that the other insectivorous birds would not
+gladly make a meal of the termites, but, seeing that in Ceylon their
+numbers are chiefly kept in check by the crepuscular birds, it is
+observable, at least as a coincidence, that the dispersion of the swarm
+generally takes place at _twilight_. Those that escape the _caprimulgi_
+fall a prey to the crows, on the morning succeeding their flight.
+
+The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages of the white ants is
+that they shrink from the light; in all their expeditions for providing
+food they construct a covered pathway of moistened clay, and their
+galleries above ground extend to an incredible distance from the central
+nest. No timber, except ebony and ironwood, which are too hard, and
+those which are strongly impregnated with camphor or aromatic oils,
+which they dislike, presents any obstacle to their ingress. I have had a
+case of wine filled, in the course of two days, with almost solid clay,
+and only discovered the presence of the white ants by the escape from
+the corks. I have had a portmanteau in my tent so peopled with them in
+the course of a single night that the contents were found worthless in
+the morning. In an incredibly short time a detachment of these pests
+will destroy a press full of records, reducing the paper to fragments;
+and a shelf of books will be tunnelled into a gallery if it happen to be
+in their line of march. The timbers of a house when fairly attacked are
+eaten from within till the beams are reduced to an absolute shell, so
+thin that it may be punched through with the point of the finger: and
+even kyanized wood, unless impregnated with an extra quantity of
+corrosive sublimate, appears to occasion them no inconvenience. The only
+effectual precaution for the protection of furniture is incessant
+vigilance--the constant watching of every article, and its daily removal
+from place to place, in order to baffle their assaults.
+
+They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of 4000 or 5000
+feet. One species of white ant, the _Termes Taprobanes_, was at one time
+believed by Mr. Walker to be peculiar to the island, but it has recently
+been found in Sumatra and Borneo, and in some parts of Hindustan.
+
+There is a species of Termes in Ceylon (_T. monoceros_), which always
+builds its nest in the hollow of an old tree; and, unlike the others,
+carries on its labours without the secrecy and protection of a covered
+way. A marching column of these creatures may be observed at early
+morning in the vicinity of their nest, returning laden with the spoils
+collected during their foraging excursions. These consist of comminuted
+vegetable matter, derived, it may be, from a thatched roof, if one
+happens to be within reach, or from the decaying leaves of a coco-nut.
+Each little worker in the column carries its tiny load in its jaws; and
+the number of individuals in one of these lines of march must be
+immense, for the column is generally about two inches in width, and very
+densely crowded. One was measured which had most likely been in motion
+for hours, moving in the direction of the nest, and was found to be
+upwards of sixty paces in length. If attention be directed to the mass
+in motion, it will be observed that flanking it on each side throughout
+its whole length are stationed a number of horned soldier termites,
+whose duty it is to protect the labourers, and to give notice of any
+danger threatening them. This latter duty they perform by a peculiar
+quivering motion of the whole body, which is rapidly communicated from
+one to the other for a considerable distance: a portion of the column is
+then thrown into confusion for a short time, but confidence soon
+returns, and the progress of the little creatures goes on with
+steadiness and order as before. The nest is of a black colour, and
+resembles a mass of scoriae; the insects themselves are of a pitchy
+brown.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: For these particulars of the _termes monoceros_, I am
+indebted to Mr. Thwaites, of the Roy. Botanic Garden at Kandy.]
+
+HYMENOPTERA. _Mason Wasp_.--In Ceylon as in all other countries, the
+order of hymenopterous insects arrests us less by the beauty of their
+forms than the marvels of their sagacity and the achievements of their
+instinct. A fossorial wasp of the family of _Sphegidae_,[1] which is
+distinguished by its metallic lustre, enters by the open windows, and
+converts irritation at its movements into admiration of the graceful
+industry with which it stops up the keyholes and similar apertures with
+clay in order to build in them a cell. Into this it thrusts the pupa of
+some other insect, within whose body it has previously introduced its
+own eggs. The whole is surrounded with moistened earth, through which
+the young parasite, after undergoing its transformations, gnaws its way
+into light, to emerge as a four-winged fly.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: It belongs to the genus _Pelopaeus, P. Spinolae_, of St.
+Fargean. The _Ampulex compressa_, which drags about the larvae of
+cockroaches into which it has implanted its eggs, belongs, to the same
+family.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Mr. E.L. Layard has given an interesting account of this
+Mason wasp in the _Annals and Magazine of Nat. History_ for May, 1853.
+"I have frequently," he says, "selected one of these flies for
+observation, and have seen their labours extend over a period of a
+fortnight or twenty days; sometimes only half a cell was completed in a
+day, at others as much as two. I never saw more than twenty cells in one
+nest, seldom indeed that number, and whence the caterpillars were
+procured was always to me a mystery. I have seen thirty or forty brought
+in of a species which I knew to be very rare in the perfect state, and
+which I had sought for in vain, although I knew on what plant they fed.
+
+"Then again how are they disabled by the wasp, and yet not injured so as
+to cause their immediate death? Die they all do, at least all that I
+have ever tried to rear, after taking them from the nest.
+
+"The perfected fly never effects its egress from the closed aperture,
+through which the caterpillars were inserted, and when cells are placed
+end to end, as they are in many instances, the outward end of each is
+always selected. I cannot detect any difference in the thickness in the
+crust of the cell to cause this uniformity of practice. It is often as
+much as half an inch through, of great hardness, and as far as I can see
+impervious to air and light. How then does the enclosed fly always
+select the right end, and with what secretion is it supplied to
+decompose this mortar?"]
+
+A formidable species (_Sphex ferruginea_ of St. Fargeau), which is
+common to India and most of the eastern islands, is regarded with the
+utmost dread by the unclad natives, who fly precipitately on finding
+themselves in the vicinity[1] of its nests. These are of such ample
+dimensions, that when suspended from a branch, they often measure
+upwards of six feet in length.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: It ought to be remembered in travelling in the forests of
+Ceylon that sal volatile applied immediately is a specific for the sting
+of a wasp.]
+
+[Footnote 2: At the January (1839) meeting of the Entomological Society,
+Mr. Whitehouse exhibited portions of a wasps' nest from Ceylon, between
+seven and eight feet long and two feet in diameter, and showed that the
+construction of the cells was perfectly analogous to those of the hive
+bee, and that when connected each has a tendency to assume a circular
+outline. In one specimen where there were three cells united the outer
+part was circular, whilst the portions common to the three formed
+straight walls. From this Singhalese nest Mr. Whitehouse demonstrated
+that the wasps at the commencement of their comb proceed slowly, forming
+the bases of several together, whereby they assume the hexagonal shape,
+whereas, if constructed separately, he thought each single cell would be
+circular. See _Proc. Ent. Soc._, vol. iii. p. 16.]
+
+_Bees._--Bees of several species and genera, some unprovided with
+stings, and some in size scarcely exceeding a house-fly, deposit their
+honey in hollow trees, or suspend their combs from a branch. The spoils
+of their industry form one of the chief resources of the uncivilised
+Veddahs, who collect the wax in the upland forests, to be bartered for
+arrow points and clothes in the lowlands.[1] I have never heard of an
+instance of persons being attacked by the bees of Ceylon, and hence the
+natives assert, that those most productive of honey are destitute of
+stings.
+
+[Footnote 1: A gentleman connected with the department of the
+Surveyor-General writes to me that he measured a honey-comb which he
+found fastened to the overhanging branch of a small tree in the forest
+near Adam's Peak, and found it nine links of his chain or about six feet
+in length and a foot in breadth where it was attached to the branch, but
+tapering towards the other extremity. "It was a single comb with a layer
+of cells on either side, but so weighty that the branch broke by the
+strain."]
+
+_The Carpenter Bee._--The operations of one of the most interesting of
+the tribe, the Carpenter bee[1], I have watched with admiration from the
+window of the Colonial Secretary's official residence at Kandy. So soon
+as the day grew warm, these active creatures were at work perforating
+the wooden columns which supported the verandah. They poised themselves
+on their shining purple wings, as they made the first lodgment in the
+wood, enlivening the work with an uninterrupted hum of delight, which
+was audible to a considerable distance. When the excavation had
+proceeded so far that the insect could descend into it, the music was
+suspended, but renewed from time to time, as the little creature came to
+the orifice to throw out the chips, to rest, or to enjoy the fresh air.
+By degrees, a mound of saw-dust was formed at the base of the pillar,
+consisting of particles abraded by the mandibles of the bee. These, when
+the hollow was completed to the depth of several inches, were partially
+replaced in the excavation after being agglutinated to form partitions
+between the eggs, as they were deposited within. The mandibles[2] of
+these bees are admirably formed for the purpose of working out the
+tunnels required, being short, stout, and usually furnished at the tip
+with two teeth which are rounded somewhat into the form of
+cheese-cutters.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Xylocopa tenuiscapa_, Westw.; Another species found in
+Ceylon is the _X. latipes_, Drury.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See figure above.]
+
+[Illustration: THE CARPENTER BEE]
+
+These when brought into operation cut out the wood in the same way as a
+carpenter's double gouge, the teeth being more or less hollowed out
+within. The female alone is furnished with these powerful instruments.
+In the males the mandibles are slender as compared with those of the
+females. The bores of some of these bees are described as being from
+twelve to fourteen inches in length.
+
+_Ants_.--As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstanding their numbers and
+familiarity, information is very imperfect relative to the varieties and
+habits of these marvellous insects in Ceylon.[1] In point of multitude
+it is scarcely an exaggeration to apply to them the figure of "the sands
+of the sea." They are everywhere; in the earth, in the houses, and on
+the trees; they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and almost on
+every plant in the jungle. To some of the latter they are, perhaps,
+attracted by the sweet juices secreted by the aphides and coccidae.[2]
+Such is the passion of the ants for sugar, and their wonderful faculty
+of discovering it, that the smallest particle of a substance containing
+it is quickly covered with them, though placed in the least conspicuous
+position, where not a single one may have been visible a moment before.
+But it is not sweet substances alone that they attack; no animal or
+vegetable matter comes amiss to them: no aperture appears too small to
+admit them; it is necessary to place everything which it may be
+desirable to keep free from their invasion, under the closest cover, or
+on tables with cups of water under every foot. As scavengers, they are
+invaluable; and as ants never sleep, but work without cessation during
+the night as well as by day, every particle of decaying vegetable or
+putrid animal matter is removed with inconceiveable speed and certainty.
+In collecting shells, I have been able to turn this propensity to good
+account; by placing them within their reach, the ants in a few days
+removed every vestige of the mollusc from the innermost and otherwise
+inaccessible whorls; thus avoiding all risk of injuring the enamel by
+any mechanical process.
+
+[Footnote 1: Mr. Jerdan, in a series of papers in the thirteenth volume
+of the _Annals of Natural History_, has described forty-seven species of
+ants in Southern India. But M. Nietner has recently forwarded to the
+Berlin Museum upwards of seventy species taken by him in Ceylon, chiefly
+in the western province and the vicinity of Colombo. Of these many are
+identical with those noted by Mr. Jerdan as belonging to the Indian
+continent. One (probably _Drepanognathus saltator_ of Jerdan) is
+described by M. Nietner as occasionally "moving by jumps of several
+inches at a spring."]
+
+[Footnote 2: Dr. DAVY, in a paper on Tropical Plants, has introduced the
+following passage relative to the purification of sugar by ants:
+
+"If the juice of the sugar-cane--the common syrup as expressed by the
+mill--be exposed to the air, it gradually evaporates, yielding a
+light-brown residue, like the ordinary muscovado sugar of the best
+quality. If not protected, it is presently attacked by ants, and in a
+short time is, as it were, converted into white crystalline sugar, the
+ants having refined it by removing the darker portion, probably
+preferring that part from it containing azotized matter. The negroes, I
+may remark, prefer brown sugar to white: they say its sweetening power
+is greater; no doubt its nourishing quality is greater, and therefore as
+an article of diet deserving of preference. In refining sugar as in
+refining salt (coarse bay salt containing a little iodine), an error may
+be committed in abstracting matter designed by nature for a useful
+purpose."]
+
+But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead animals alone,
+they attack equally such small insects as they can overcome, or find
+disabled by accidents or wounds; and it is not unusual to see some
+hundreds of them surrounding a maimed beetle, or a bruised cockroach,
+and hurrying it along in spite of its struggles. I have, on more than
+one occasion, seen a contest between, them and one of the viscous
+ophidians, _Caecilia, glutinosa_[1], a reptile resembling an enormous
+earthworm, common in the Kandyan hills, of an inch in diameter, and
+nearly two feet in length. On these occasions it would seem as if the
+whole community had been summoned and turned out for such a prodigious
+effort; they surround their victim literally in tens of thousands,
+inflicting wounds on all parts, and forcing it along towards their nest
+in spite of resistance. In one instance to which I was a witness, the
+conflict lasted for the latter part of a day, but towards evening the
+Coecilia was completely exhausted, and in the morning it had totally
+disappeared, having been carried away either whole or piecemeal by its
+assailants.
+
+[Footnote 1: See _ante_, p. 317.]
+
+The species I here allude to is a very small ant, which the Singhalese
+call by the generic name of _Koombiya_. There is a species still more
+minute, and evidently distinct, which frequents the caraffes and toilet
+vessels. A third, probably the _Formica nidificans_ of Jerdan, is black,
+of the same size as that last mentioned, and, from its colour, called
+the _Kalu koombiga_ by the natives. In the houses its propensities and
+habits are the same as those of the others; but I have observed that it
+frequents the trees more profusely, forming small paper cells for its
+young, like miniature wasps' nests, in which it deposits its eggs,
+suspending them from a twig.
+
+The most formidable of all is the great red ant or Dimiya.[1] It is
+particularly abundant in gardens, and on fruit trees; it constructs its
+dwellings by glueing the leaves of such species as are suitable from
+their shape and pliancy into hollow balls, and these it lines with a
+kind of transparent paper, like that manufactured by the wasp. I have
+watched them at the interesting operation of forming these dwellings;--a
+line of ants standing on the edge of one leaf bring another into contact
+with it, and hold both together with their mandibles till their
+companions within attach them firmly by means of their adhesive paper,
+the assistants outside moving along as the work proceeds. If it be
+necessary to draw closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by the
+immediate workers, they form a chain by depending one from the other
+till the object is reached, when it is at length brought into contact,
+and made fast by cement.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Formica smaragdina,_ Fab.]
+
+Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual motion, forming lines
+on the ground along which they pass, in continual procession to and from
+the trees on which they reside. They are the most irritable of the whole
+order in Ceylon, biting with such intense ferocity as to render it
+difficult for the unclad natives to collect the fruit from the mango
+trees, which the red ants especially frequent. They drop from the
+branches upon travellers in the jungle, attacking them with venom and
+fury, and inflicting intolerable pain both upon animals and man. On
+examining the structure of the head through a microscope, I found that
+the mandibles, instead of merely meeting in contact, are so hooked as to
+cross each other at the points, whilst the inner line is sharply
+serrated throughout its entire length; thus occasioning the intense pain
+of their bite, as compared with that of the ordinary ant.
+
+To check the ravages of the coffee bug[1] (_Lecanium coffeae_, Walker),
+which for some years past has devastated some of the plantations in
+Ceylon, the experiment was made of introducing the red ants, who feed
+greedily on the Coccus. But the remedy threatened to be attended with
+some inconvenience, for the Malabar Coolies, with bare and oiled skins,
+were so frequently and fiercely assaulted by the ants as to endanger
+their stay on the estates.
+
+[Footnote 1: For an account of this pest, see p. 437.]
+
+The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are generally, but not
+invariably, black, and some of them are of considerable size. One
+species, about the third of an inch in length, is abundant in the hills,
+and especially about the roots of trees, where they pile up the earth in
+circular heaps round the entrance to their nests, and in doing this I
+have observed a singular illustration of their instinct. To carry up
+each particle of sand by itself would be an endless waste of labour, and
+to carry two or more loose ones securely would be to them embarrassing,
+if not impossible. To overcome the difficulty they glue together with
+their saliva so much earth or sand as is sufficient for a burden, and
+each ant may be seen hurrying up from below with his load, carrying it
+to the top of the circular heap outside, and throwing it over, the mass
+being so strongly attached as to roll to the bottom without breaking
+asunder.
+
+The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, differing in this
+particular from the Dimiya and another of similar size and ferocity,
+which is called by the Singhalese _Kaddiya_. They have a legend
+illustrative of their alarm for the bites of the latter, to the effect
+that the cobra de capello invested the Kaddiya with her own venom in
+admiration of the singular courage displayed by these little
+creatures.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, pt. i. ch. vi. p.
+23.]
+
+LEPIDOPTERA. _Butterflies_.--In the interior of the island butterflies
+are comparatively rare, and, contrary to the ordinary belief, they are
+seldom to be seen in the sunshine. They frequent the neighbourhood of
+the jungle, and especially the vicinity of the rivers and waterfalls,
+living mainly in the shade of the moist foliage, and returning to it in
+haste after the shortest flights, as if their slender bodies were
+speedily dried up and exhausted by exposure to the intense heat.
+
+Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon Lepidoptera is the great
+black and yellow butterfly (_Ornithoptera darsius_, Gray); the upper
+wings of which measure six inches across, and are of deep velvet black,
+the lower ornamented by large particles of satiny yellow, through which
+the sunlight passes. Few insects can compare with it in beauty, as it
+hovers over the flowers of the heliotrope, which furnish the favourite
+food of the perfect fly, although the caterpillar feeds on the
+aristolochia and the _betel leaf_, and suspends its chrysalis from its
+drooping tendrils.
+
+Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often exceeding it in
+breadth, is the black and blue _Papilio Polymnestor_, which darts
+rapidly through the air, alighting on the ruddy flowers of the hibiscus,
+or the dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it deposits its eggs.
+The larvae of this species are green with white bands, and have a hump on
+the fourth or fifth segment. From this hump the caterpillar, on being
+irritated, protrudes a singular horn of an orange colour, bifurcate at
+the extremity, and covered with a pungent mucilaginous secretion. This
+is evidently intended as a weapon of defence against the attack of the
+ichneumon flies, that deposit their eggs in its soft body, for when the
+grub is pricked, either by the ovipositor of the ichneumon, or by any
+other sharp instrument, the horn is at once protruded, and struck upon
+the offending object with unerring aim.
+
+Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies is the _P. Hector_,
+with gorgeous crimson spots set in the black velvet of the inferior
+wings; these, when fresh, are shot with a purple blush, equalling in
+splendour the azure of the European "_Emperor._"
+
+_The Spectre Butterfly._--Another butterfly, but belonging to a widely
+different group, is the "sylph" (_Hestia Jasonia_), called by the
+Europeans by the various names of _Floater, Spectre_, and _Silver-paper
+fly_, as indicative of its graceful flight. It is found only in the deep
+shade of the damp forest, usually frequenting the vicinity of pools of
+water and cascades, about which it sails heedless of the spray, the
+moisture of which may even be beneficial in preserving the elasticity of
+its thin and delicate wings, that bend and undulate in the act of
+flight.
+
+The _Lycanidae_[1], a particularly attractive group, abound near the
+enclosures of cultivated grounds, and amongst the low shrubs edging the
+patenas, flitting from flower to flower, inspecting each in turn, as if
+attracted by their beauty, in the full blaze of sun-light; and shunning
+exposure less sedulously than the other diurnals. Some of the more
+robust kinds[2] are magnificent in the bright light, from the splendour
+of their metallic blues and glowing purples, but they yield in elegance
+of form and variety to their tinier and more delicately-coloured
+congeners.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Lycaena polyommatus, &c._]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Amblypodia pseudocentaurus, &c._]
+
+Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar forms, and the
+naturalist marks with interest the small, but strong, _Hesperidae_[1],
+hurrying, by abrupt and jerking flights, to the scented blossoms of the
+champac or the sweet night-blowing moon-flower; and, when darkness
+gathers around, we can hear, though hardly distinguish amid the gloom,
+the humming of the powerful wings of innumerable hawk moths, which hover
+with their long proboscides inserted into the starry petals of the
+periwinkle.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Pamphila hesperia, &c._]
+
+Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the richly-coloured
+_Acherontia Satanas_, one of the Singhalese representatives of our
+Death's-head moth, which utters a sharp and stridulous cry when seized.
+This sound has been conjectured to be produced by the friction of its
+thorax against the abdomen;--Reaumur believed it to be caused by the
+rubbing of the palpi against the tongue. I have never been able to
+observe either motion, and Mr. E.L. Layard is of opinion that the sound
+is emitted from two apertures concealed by tufts of wiry bristles thrown
+out from each side of the inferior portion of the thorax.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: There is another variety of the same moth in Ceylon which
+closely resembles it in its markings, but in which I have never detected
+the uttering of this curious cry. It is smaller than the _A. Satanas_,
+and, like it, often enters dwellings at night, attracted by the lights;
+but I have not found its larvae, although that of the other species is
+common on several widely different plants.]
+
+_Moths._--Among the strictly nocturnal _Lepidoptera_ are some gigantic
+species. Of these the cinnamon-eating _Atlas_, often attains the
+dimensions of nearly a foot in the stretch of its superior wings. It is
+very common in the gardens about Colombo, and its size, and the
+transparent talc-like spots in its wings, cannot fail to strike even the
+most careless saunterer. But little inferior to it in size is the famed
+Tusseh silk moth[1], which feeds on the country almond (_Terminalia
+catappa_) and the palma Christi or Castor-oil plant; it is easily
+distinguishable from the Atlas, which has a triangular wing, whilst its
+is falcated, and the transparent spots are covered with a curious
+thread-like division drawn across them.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Antheraea mylitta,_ Drury.]
+
+Towards the northern portions of the island this valuable species
+entirely displaces the other, owing to the fact that the almond and
+_palma Christi_ abound there. The latter plant springs up spontaneously
+on every manure-heap or neglected spot of ground; and might be
+cultivated, as in India, with great advantage, the leaf to be used as
+food for the caterpillar, the stalk as fodder for cattle, and the seed
+for the expression of castor-oil. The Dutch took advantage of this
+facility, and gave every encouragement to the cultivation of silk at
+Jaffna[1], but it never attained such a development as to become an
+article of commercial importance. Ceylon now cultivates no silkworms
+whatever, notwithstanding this abundance of the favourite food of one
+species; and the rich silken robes sometimes worn by the Buddhist
+priesthood are imported from China and the continent of India.
+
+[Footnote 1: The Portuguese had made the attempt previous to the arrival
+of the Dutch, and a strip of land on the banks of the Kalany river near
+Colombo, still bears the name of Orta Seda, the silk garden. The attempt
+of the Dutch to introduce the true silkworm, the _Bombyx mori_, took
+place under the governorship; of Ryklof Van Goens, who, on handing over
+the administration to his successor in A.D. 1663, thus apprises him of
+the initiation of the experiment:--"At Jaffna Palace a trial has been
+undertaken to feed silkworms, and to ascertain whether silk may be
+reared at that station. I have planted a quantity of mulberry trees,
+which grow well there, and they ought to be planted in other
+directions."--VALENTYN, chap. xiii. The growth of the mulberry trees is
+noticed the year after in a report to the governor-general of India, but
+the subject afterwards ceased to be attended to.]
+
+In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there are many other
+_Bombycidae_; in Ceylon; and, though the silk of some of them, were it
+susceptible of being unwound from the cocoon, would not bear a
+comparison with that of the _Bombyx mori_, or even of the Tusseh moth,
+it might still prove to be valuable when carded and spun. If the
+European residents in the colony would rear the larvae of these
+Lepidoptera, and make drawings of their various changes, they would
+render a possible service to commerce, and a certain one to
+entomological knowledge.
+
+_Stinging Caterpillars_.--The Dutch carried to their Eastern settlements
+two of their home propensities, which distinguish and embellish the
+towns of the Low Countries; they indulged in the excavation of canals,
+and they planted long lines of trees to diffuse shade over the sultry
+passages in their Indian fortresses. For the latter purpose they
+employed the Suriya (_Hibiscus populneus_), whose broad umbrageous
+leaves and delicate yellow flowers impart a delicious coolness, and give
+to the streets of Galle and Colombo the fresh and enlivening aspect of
+walks in a garden.
+
+In the towns, however, the suriya trees are productive of one serious
+inconvenience. They are the resort of a hairy greenish caterpillar[1],
+longitudinally striped, great numbers of which frequent them, and at a
+certain stage of growth descend by a silken thread to the ground and
+hurry away, probably in search of a suitable spot in which to pass
+through their metamorphoses. Should they happen to alight, as they often
+do, upon some lounger below, and find their way to his unprotected skin,
+they inflict, if molested, a sting as pungent, but far more lasting,
+than that of a nettle or a star-fish.
+
+[Footnote 1: The species of moth with which it is identified has not yet
+been determined, but it most probably belongs to a section of
+Boisduval's genus _Bombyx_ allied to _Cnethocampa_, Stephens.]
+
+Attention being thus directed to the quarter whence an assailant has
+lowered himself down, the caterpillars above will be found in clusters,
+sometimes amounting to hundreds, clinging to the branches and the bark,
+with a few straggling over the leaves or suspended from them by lines.
+These pests are so annoying to children as well as destructive to the
+foliage, that it is often necessary to singe them off the trees by a
+flambeau fixed on the extremity of a pole; and as they fall to the
+ground they are eagerly devoured by the crows and domestic fowls.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Another caterpillar which feeds on the jasmine flowering
+Carissa, stings with such fury that I have known a gentleman to shed
+tears while the pain was at its height. It is short and broad, of a pale
+green, with fleshy spines on the upper surface, each of which seems to
+be charged with the venom that occasions this acute suffering. The moth
+which this caterpillar produces, _Neaera lepida_, Cramer; _Limacodes
+graciosa_, Westw., has dark brown wings, the primary traversed by a
+broad green band. It is common in the western side of Ceylon. The larvae
+of the genus _Adolia_ are also hairy, and sting with virulence.]
+
+_The Wood-carrying Moth_.--There is another family of insects, the
+singular habits of which will not fail to attract the traveller in the
+cultivated tracts of Ceylon--these are moths of the genus
+_Oiketicus_[1], of which the females are devoid of wings, and some
+possess no articulated feet. Their larvae construct for themselves cases,
+which they suspend to a branch frequently of the pomegranate[2],
+surrounding them with the stems of leaves, and thorns or pieces of twigs
+bound together by threads, till the whole presents the appearance of a
+bundle of rods about an inch and a half long; and, from the resemblance
+of this to a Roman fasces, one African species has obtained the name of
+"Lictor." The German entomologists denominated the group _Sacktraeger_,
+the Singhalese call them _Dara-kattea_ or "billets of firewood," and
+regard the inmates as human beings, who, as a punishment for stealing
+wood in some former state of existence, have been condemned to undergo a
+metempsychosis under the form of these insects.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Eumeta_, Wlk.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The singular instincts of a species of Thecla, _Dipsas
+Isocrates_, Fab., in connection with the fruit of the pomegranate, were
+fully described by Mr. Westwood, in a paper read before the
+Entomological Society of London in 1835.]
+
+[Illustration: THE WOOD-CARRYING MOTH.]
+
+The male, at the close of the pupal rest, escapes from one end of this
+singular covering, but the female makes it her dwelling for life; moving
+about with it at pleasure, and entrenching herself within it, when
+alarmed, by drawing together the purse-like aperture at the open end. Of
+these remarkable creatures there are five ascertained species in Ceylon:
+_Psyche Doubledaii_, Westw.; _Metisa plana_; Walker; _Eumeta Cramerii_,
+Westw.; _E. Templetonii_, Westw.; and _Cryptothelea consorta_, Temp.
+
+All the other tribes of minute _Lepitoptera_ have abundant
+representatives in Ceylon; some of them most attractive from the great
+beauty of their markings and colouring. The curious little split-winged
+moth (_Pterophorus_) is frequently seen in the cinnamon gardens and in
+the vicinity of the fort, hid from the noon-day heat among the cool
+grass shaded by the coco-nut topes. Three species have been captured,
+all characterised by the same singular feature of having the wings
+fan-like, separated nearly their entire length into detached sections,
+resembling feathers in the pinions of a bird expanded for flight.
+
+HOMOPTERA. _Cicada._--Of the _Homoptera_, the one which will most
+frequently arrest attention is the cicada, which, resting high up on the
+bark of a tree, makes the forest re-echo with a long-sustained noise so
+curiously resembling that of a cutler's wheel that the creature
+producing it has acquired the highly-appropriate name of the
+"knife-grinder."
+
+[Illustration: CICADA--"THE KNIFE GRINDER."]
+
+In the jungle which adjoined the grounds attached to my official
+residence at Kandy, the shrubs were frequented by an insect covered
+profusely with a snow-white powder, arranged in delicate filaments that
+curl like a head of dressed celery. These it moves without dispersing
+the powder: but when dead they fall rapidly to dust. I regret that I did
+not preserve specimens, but I have reason to think that they are the
+larvae of the _Flata limbata_, or of some other closely allied
+species[1], though I have not seen in Ceylon any of the wax produced by
+the _flata_.
+
+[Footnote 1: Amongst the specimens of this order which I brought from
+Ceylon, two proved to be new and undescribed, and have been named by Mr.
+A. WHITE _Elidiptera Emersoniana_ and _Poeciloptera Tennentina_.]
+
+HEMIPTERA. _Bugs_.--On the shrubs in his compound the newly-arrived
+traveller will be attracted by an insect of a pale green hue and
+delicately-thin configuration, which, resting from its recent flight,
+composes its scanty wings, and moves languidly along the leaf. But
+experience will teach him to limit his examination to a respectful view
+of its attitudes; it is one of a numerous family of bugs, (some of them
+most attractive[1] in their colouring,) which are inoffensive if
+unmolested, but if touched or irritated, exhale an odour that, once
+endured, is never afterwards forgotten.
+
+[Footnote 1: Such as _Cantuo ocellatus, Leptoscelis Marginalis, Callidea
+Stockerius_, &c. &c. Of the aquatic species, the gigantic _Belostoma
+Indicum_ cannot escape notice, attaining a size of nearly three inches.]
+
+APHANIPTERA. _Fleas_.--Fleas are equally numerous, and may be seen in
+myriads in the dust of the streets or skipping in the sunbeams which
+fall on the clay floors of the cottages. The dogs, to escape them,
+select for their sleeping places spots where a wood fire has been
+previously kindled; and here prone on the white ashes, their stomachs
+close to the earth, and their hind legs extended behind, they repose in
+comparative coolness, and bid defiance to their persecutors.
+
+[Illustration: POECILOPTERA TENNENTINA.]
+
+[Illustration: ELIDIPTERA EMERSONIANA.]
+
+DIPTERA. _Mosquitoes_.--But of all the insect pests that beset an
+unseasoned European the most provoking by far is the truculent
+mosquito.[1] Next to the torture which it inflicts, its most annoying
+peculiarities are the booming hum of its approach, its cunning, its
+audacity, and the perseverance with which it renews its attacks however
+frequently repulsed. These characteristics are so remarkable as fully to
+justify the conjecture that the mosquito, and not the ordinary fly,
+constituted the plague inflicted upon Pharaoh and the Egyptians.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Culex laniger?_ Wied. In Kandy Mr. Thwaites finds _C.
+fuscanns, C. circumcolans,_ &c., and one with a most formidable hooked
+proboscis, to which he has assigned the appropriate name _C. Regius_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The precise species of insect by means of which the
+Almighty signalised the plague of flies, remains uncertain, as the
+Hebrew term _arob_ or _oror_ which has been rendered in one place.
+"Divers sorts of flies," Ps. cv. 31; and in another, "swarms of flies,"
+Exod. viii. 21, &c., means merely "an assemblage." a "mixture" or a
+"swarm," and the expletive. "_of flies_" is an interpolation of the
+translators. This, however, serves to show that the fly implied was one
+easily recognisable by its habit of _swarming_; and the further fact
+that it _bites_, or rather stings, is elicited from the expression of
+the Psalmist, Ps. lxxviii. 45, that the insects by which the Egyptians
+were tormented "devoured them," so that here are two peculiarities
+inapplicable to the domestic fly, but strongly characteristic of gnats
+and mosquitoes.
+
+Bruce thought that the fly of the fourth plague was the "zimb" of
+Abyssinia which he so graphically describes: and WESTWOOD, in an
+ingenious passage in his _Entomologist's Text-book._ p. 17, combats the
+strange idea of one of the bishops, that it was a cockroach! and argues
+in favour of the mosquito. This view he sustains by a reference to the
+habits of the creature, the swarms in which it invades a locality, and
+the audacity with which it enters the houses; and he accounts for the
+exemption of "the land of Goshen in which the Israelites dwelt," by the
+fact of its being sandy pasture above the level of the river; whilst the
+mosquitoes were produced freely in the rest of Egypt, the soil of which
+was submerged by the rising of the Nile.
+
+In all the passages in the Old Testament in which flies are alluded to,
+otherwise than in connection with the Egyptian infliction, the word used
+in the Hebrew is _zevor_, which the Septuagint renders by the ordinary
+generic term for flies in general, [Greek: muia], "_musca_" (Eccles. x.
+1, Isaiah vii. 10); but in every instance in which mention is made of
+the miracle of Moses, the Septuagint says that the fly produced was the
+[Greek: kunomyia], the "dog-fly." What insect was meant by this name it
+is not now easy to determine, but AELIAN intimates that the dogfly both
+inflicts a wound and emits a booming sound, in both of which particulars
+it accords with the mosquito (lib. iv, 51); and PHILO-JUDAEUS, in his
+_Vita Mosis_, lib. i. ch. xxiii., descanting on the plague of flies, and
+using the term of the Septuagint, [Greek: kunomyia], describes it as
+combining the characteristic of "the most impudent of all animals, the
+fly and the dog, exhibiting the courage and the cunning of both, and
+fastening on its victim with the noise and rapidity of an
+arrow"--[Greek: meta roizou kathaper belos]. This seems to identify the
+dog-fly of the Septuagint with the description of the Psalmist, Ps.
+lxxviii. 45, and to vindicate the conjecture that the tormenting
+mosquito, and not the house-fly, was commissioned by the Lord to humble
+the obstinacy of the Egyptian tyrant.]
+
+Even in the midst of endurance from their onslaughts one cannot but be
+amused by the ingenuity of their movements; as if aware of the risk
+incident to an open assault, a favourite mode of attack is, when
+concealed by a table, to assail the ankles through the meshes of the
+stocking, or the knees which are ineffectually protected by a fold of
+Russian duck. When you are reading, a mosquito will rarely settle on
+that portion of your hand which is within range of your eyes, but
+cunningly stealing by the underside of the book fastens on the wrist or
+little finger, and noiselessly inserts his proboscis there. I have
+tested the classical expedient recorded by Herodotus, who states that
+the fishermen inhabiting the fens of Egypt, cover their beds with their
+nets, knowing that the mosquitoes, although they bite through linen
+robes, will not venture through a net.[1] But, notwithstanding the
+opinion of Spence[2], that nets with meshes an inch square will
+effectually exclude them, I have been satisfied by painful experience
+that (if the theory be not altogether fallacious) at least the modern
+mosquitoes of Ceylon are uninfluenced by the same considerations which
+restrained those of the Nile under the successors of Cambyses.
+
+[Footnote 1: HERODOTUS, _Euterpe._ xcv.]
+
+[Footnote 2: KIRBY and SPENCE'S _Entomology_, letter iv.]
+
+_The Coffee-Bug_.--Allusion has been made in a previous passage to the
+coccus known in Ceylon as the "Coffee-Bug" (_Lecanium Caffeae_, Wlk.),
+which of late years has made such destructive ravages in the plantations
+in the Mountain Zone.[1] The first thing that attracts attention on
+looking at a coffee tree infested by it, is the number of brownish
+wart-like bodies that stud the young shoots and occasionally the margins
+on the underside of the leaves.[2] Each of these warts or scales is a
+transformed female, containing a large number of eggs which are hatched
+within it.
+
+[Footnote 1: The following notice of the "coffee-bug," and of the
+singularly destructive effects produced by it on the plants, has been
+prepared chiefly from a memoir presented to the Ceylon Government by the
+late Dr. Gardner, in which he traces the history of the insect from its
+first appearance in the coffee districts, until it had established
+itself more or less permanently in all the estates in full cultivation
+throughout the island.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See the annexed drawing, Fig. 1.]
+
+When the young ones come out from their nest, they run about over the
+plant like diminutive wood-lice, and at this period there is no apparent
+distinction between male and female. Shortly after being hatched the
+males seek the underside of the leaves, while the females prefer the
+young shoots as a place of abode. If the under surface of a leaf be
+examined, it will be found to be studded, particularly on its basil
+half, with minute yellowish-white specks of an oblong form.[1] These are
+the larvae of the males undergoing transformation into pupae, beneath
+their own skins; some of these specks are always in a more advanced
+state than the others, the full-grown ones being whitish and scarcely a
+line long. Some of this size are translucent, the insect having escaped;
+the darker ones still retain it within, of an oblong form, with the
+rudiment of a wing on each side attached to the lower part of the thorax
+and closely applied to the sides; the legs are six in number, the four
+hind ones being directed backwards, the anterior forwards (a peculiarity
+not common in other insects); the two antennae are also inclined
+backwards, and from the tail protrude three short bristles, the middle
+one thinner and longer than the rest.
+
+[Footnote 1: Figs. 2, and 3 and 5 in the engraving, where these and all
+the other figures are considerably enlarged.]
+
+When the transformation is complete, the mature insect makes its way
+from beneath the pellucid case[1], all its organs having then attained
+their full size: the head is sub-globular, with two rather prominent
+black eyes, and two antennae, each with eleven joints, hairy throughout,
+and a tuft of rather longer hairs at the apices; the legs are also
+covered with hairs, the wings are horizontal, of an obovate oblong
+shape, membranous, and extending a little farther than the bristles of
+the tail. They have only two nerves, neither of which reaches so far as
+the tips; one of them runs close to the costal margin, and is much
+thicker than the other, which branches off from its base and skirts
+along the inner margin; behind the wings is attached a pair of minute
+halteres of peculiar form. The possession of wings would appear to be
+the cause why the full-grown male is more rarely seen on the coffee
+bushes than the female.
+
+[Footnote 1: Fig. 4. Mr. WESTWOOD, who observed the operation in one
+species, states that they escape backwards, the wings being extended
+flatly over the head.]
+
+The female, like the male, attaches herself to the surface of the plant,
+the place selected being usually the young shoots; but she is also to be
+met with on the margins of the undersides of the leaves (on the upper
+surface neither the male nor female ever attach themselves); but, unlike
+the male, which derives no nourishment from the juices of the tree (the
+mouth being obsolete in the perfect state), she punctures the cuticle
+with a proboscis (a very short three-jointed _promuscis_), springing as
+it were from the breast, but capable of being greatly porrected, and
+inserted in the cuticle of the plant, and through this she abstracts her
+nutriment. In the early pupa state the female is easily distinguishable
+from the male, by being more elliptical and much more convex. As she
+increases in size her skin distends and she becomes smooth and dry; the
+rings of the body become effaced; and losing entirely the form of an
+insect, she presents, for some time, a yellowish pustular shape, but
+ultimately assumes a roundish conical form, of a dark brown colour.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Figs. 6 and 7. There are many other species of the Coccus
+tribe in Ceylon, some (Pseudococcus?) never appearing as a scale, the
+female wrapping herself up in a white cottony exudation; many species
+nearly allied to the true Coccus infest common plants about gardens,
+such as the Nerium Oleander, Plumeria Acuminata, and others with milky
+juices; another subgenus (Ceroplastes?), the female of which produces a
+protecting waxy material, infests the Gendurassa Vulgaris, the Furrcaea
+Gigantea, the Jak Tree, Mango, and other common trees.]
+
+Until she has nearly reached her full size, she still possesses the
+power of locomotion, and her six legs are easily distinguishable in the
+under surface of her corpulent body; but at no period of her existence
+has she wings. It is about the time of her obtaining full size that
+impregnation takes place[1]; after which the scale becomes somewhat more
+conical, assumes a darker colour, and at length is permanently fixed to
+the surface of the plant, by means of a cottony substance interposed
+between it and the vegetable cuticle to which it adheres. The scale,
+when full grown, exactly resembles in miniature the hat of a Cornish
+miner[2], there being a narrow rim at the base, which gives increased
+surface of attachment. It is about 1/8 inch in diameter, by about 1/12
+deep, and it appears perfectly smooth to the naked eye; but it is in
+reality studded over with a multitude of very minute warts, giving it a
+dotted appearance. Except the margin, which is ciliated, it is entirely
+destitute of hairs. The number of eggs contained in one of the scales is
+enormous, amounting in a single one to 691. The eggs are of an oblong
+shape, of a pale flesh colour, and perfectly smooth.[3] In some of the
+scales, the eggs when laid on the field of the microscope resemble those
+masses of life sometimes seen in decayed cheese.[4] A few small
+yellowish maggots are sometimes found with them, and these are the
+larvae[5] of insects, the eggs of which have been deposited in the female
+while the scale was soft. They escape when mature by cutting a small
+round hole in the dorsum of the scale.
+
+[Footnote 1: REAUMUR has described the singular manner in which this
+occurs. _Mem._ tom. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Fig. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Fig. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Figs. 10, 11.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Of the parasitic Chalcididiae, many genera of which are well
+known to deposit their eggs in the soft Coccus, viz.: Encystus,
+Coccophagus, Pteromalus, Mesosela, Agonioneurus; besides Aphidius, a
+minutely sized genus of Ichneumonidae. Most, if not all, of these genera
+are Singhalese.]
+
+[Illustration: THE COFFEE BUG. Lecanium Coffeae.]
+
+It is not till after this pest has been on an estate for two or three
+years that it shows itself to an alarming extent. During the first year
+a few only of the ripe scales are seen scattered over the bushes,
+generally on the younger shoots; but that year's crop does not suffer
+much, and the appearance of the tree is little altered.
+
+The second year, however, brings a change for the worse; if the young
+shoots and the underside of the leaves he now examined, the scales will
+be found to have become much more numerous, and with them appear a
+multitude of white specks, which are the young scales in a more or less
+forward state. The clusters of berries now assume a black sooty look,
+and a great number of them fall off before coming to maturity; the
+general health of the tree also begins to fail, and it acquires a
+blighted appearance. A loss of crop is this year sustained, but to no
+great extent.
+
+The third year brings about a more serious change, the whole plant
+acquires a black hue, appearing as if soot had been thrown over it in
+great quantities; this is caused by the growth of a parasitic fungus[1]
+over the shoots and the upper surface of the leaves, forming a fibrous
+coating, somewhat resembling velvet or felt. This never makes its
+appearance till the insect has been a considerable time on the bush, and
+probably owes its existence there to an unhealthy condition of the
+juices of the leaf, consequent on the irritation produced by the coccus,
+since it never visits the upper surface of the leaf until the latter has
+fully established itself on the lower. At this period the young shoots
+have an exceedingly disgusting look from the dense mass of yellow
+pustular bodies forming on them, the leaves get shrivelled, and the
+infected trees become conspicuous in the row. The black ants are
+assiduous in their visits to them. Two-thirds of the crop is lost, and
+on many trees not a single berry forms.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Racodium?_ Species of this genus are not confined to the
+coffee plant alone in Ceylon, but follow the "bugs" in their attacks on
+other bushes. It appears like a dense interlaced mesh of fibres, each
+made up of a single series of minute oblong vesicles applied end to
+end.]
+
+This _Lecanium_, or a very closely allied species, has been observed in
+the Botanic Garden at Peradenia, on the _Citrus acida, Psidium
+pomiferum, Myrtus Zeylanica, Rosa Indica, Careya arborea, Vitex
+Negundo_, and other plants. The coffee coccus has generally been first
+observed in moist, hollow places sheltered from the wind; and thence it
+has spread itself even over the driest and most exposed parts of the
+island. On some estates, after attaining a maximum, it has generally
+declined, but has shown a liability to reappear, especially in low
+sheltered situations, and it is believed to prevail most extensively in
+wet seasons. While in its earlier stages, it is easily transmitted from
+one estate to another, on the clothes of human beings, and in various
+other ways, which will readily suggest themselves. Dr. Gardner, after a
+careful consideration and minute examination of estates, arrived at the
+conclusion, that all remedies suggested up to that time had utterly
+failed, and that none at once cheap and effectual was likely to be
+discovered. He seems also to have been of opinion that the insect was
+not under human control; and that even if it should disappear, it would
+only be when it should have worn itself out as other blighte have been
+known to do in some mysterious way. Whether this may prove to be the
+case or not, is still very uncertain, but every thing observed by Dr.
+Gardner tends to indicate the permanency of the pest.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+_List of Ceylon Insects._
+
+For the following list of the insects of the island, and the remarks
+prefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F. Walker, by whom it has been
+prepared after a careful inspection of the collections made by Dr.
+Templeton, Mr. E.L. Layard, and others: as well as of those in the
+British Museum and in the Museum of the East India Company.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: The entire of the new species contained in this list have
+been described in a series of papers by Mr. WALKER in successive numbers
+of the _Annals of Natural History_ (1858-61): those, from Dr.
+TEMPLETON'S collection of which descriptions have been taken, have been
+at his desire transferred to the British Museum for future reference and
+comparison.]
+
+"A short notice of the aspect of the island will afford the best means
+of accounting, in some degree, for its entomological Fauna: first, as it
+is an island, and has a mountainous central region, the tropical
+character of its productions, as in most other cases, rather diminishes,
+and somewhat approaches that of higher latitudes.
+
+"The coast-region of Ceylon, and fully one-third of its northern part,
+have a much drier atmosphere than that of the rest of its surface; and
+their climate and vegetation are nearly similar to those of the
+Carnatic, with which this island may have been connected at no very
+remote period.[1] But if, on the contrary, the land in Ceylon is
+gradually rising, the difference of its Fauna from that of Central
+Hindustan is less remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then be
+conjectured to have been nearly or wholly separated from the central
+part of Hindustan, and confined to the range of mountains along the
+eastern coast; the insect-fauna of which is as yet almost unknown, but
+will probably be found to have more resemblance to that of Ceylon than
+to the insects of northern and western India--just as the insect-fauna
+of Malaya appears more to resemble the similar productions of
+Australasia than those of the more northern continent.
+
+[Footnote 1: On the subject of this conjecture see _ante_, p. 60.]
+
+"Mr. Layard's collection was partly formed in the dry northern province
+of Ceylon; and among them more Hindustan insects are to be observed than
+among those collected by Dr. Templeton, and found wholly in the district
+between Colombo and Kandy. According to this view the faunas of the
+Nilgherry Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of the peninsula of Malacca, and
+of Australasia would be found to form one group;--while those of
+Northern Ceylon, of the western Dekkan, and of the level parts of
+Central Hindustan would form another of more recent origin. The
+insect-fauna of the Carnatic is also probably similar to that of the
+lowlands of Ceylon; but it is still unexplored. The regions of Hindustan
+in which species have been chiefly collected, such as Bengal, Silbet,
+and the Punjaub, are at the distance of from 1300 to 1600 miles from
+Ceylon, and therefore the insects of the latter are fully as different
+from those of the above regions as they are from those of Australasia,
+to which Ceylon is as near in point of distance, and agrees more with
+regard to latitude.
+
+"Dr. Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the mountains of
+Ceylon to be quite different from that of the plains and of the shores.
+The south and west districts have a very moist climate, and as their
+vegetation is like that of Malabar, their insect-fauna will probably
+also resemble that of the latter region.
+
+"The insects mentioned in the following list are thus distributed:--
+
+"Order COLEOPTERA.
+
+"The recorded species of _Cicindelidae_ inhabit the plains or the coast
+country of Ceylon, and several of them are also found in Hindustan.
+
+"Many of the species of _Carabidae_ and of _Staphylinidae_, especially
+those collected by Mr. Thwaites, near Kandy, and by M. Nietner at
+Colombo, have much resemblance to the insects of these two families in
+North Europe; in the _Scydmaenid, Ptiliadae, Phalacridae, Nitidulidae,
+Colydiadae_, and _Lathridiadae_ the northern form is still more striking,
+and strongly contrasts with the tropical forms of the gigantic _Copridae,
+Buprestidae, and Cerambycidae_, and with the _Elateridae, Lampyridae,
+Tenebrionidae, Helopidae, Meloidae, Curculionidae, Prionidae, Cerambycidae,
+Lamiidae_, and _Endomychidae_.
+
+"The _Copridae, Dynastidae, Melolonthidae, Cetoniadae_, and _Passalidae_ are
+well represented on the plains and on the coast, and the species are
+mostly of a tropical character.
+
+"The _Hydrophilidae_ have a more northern aspect, as is generally the
+case with aquatic species.
+
+"The order _Strepsiptera_ is here considered as belonging to the
+_Mordellidae_, and is represented by the genus _Myrmecolax_, which is
+peculiar, as yet, to Ceylon.
+
+"In the _Curculionidae_ the single species of _Apion_ will recall to mind
+the great abundance of that genus in North Europe.
+
+"The _Prionidae_ and the two following families have been investigated by
+Mr. Pascoe, and the _Hispidae_, with the five following families, by Mr.
+Baly; these two gentlemen are well acquainted with the above tribes of
+beetles, and kindly supplied me with the names of the Ceylon species.
+
+
+
+Order ORTHOPTERA.
+
+"These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. The _Physapoda_,
+which will probably be soon incorporated with them, are likely to be
+numerous, though only one species has as yet been noticed.
+
+
+
+Order NEUROPTERA.
+
+"The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue published by
+Dr. Hagen, and containing descriptions of the species named by him or by
+M. Nietner. They were found in the most elevated parts of the island,
+near Rangbodde, and Dr. Hagen informs me that not less than 500 species
+have been noticed in Ceylon, but that they are not yet recorded, with
+the exception of the species here enumerated. It has been remarked that
+the _Trichoptera_ and other aquatic _Neuroptera_ are less local than the
+land species, owing to the more equable temperature of the habitation of
+their larvae, and on account of their being often conveyed along the
+whole length of rivers. The species of _Psocus_ in the list are far more
+numerous than those yet observed in any other country, with the
+exception of Europe.
+
+
+
+Order HYMENOPTERA.
+
+"In this order the _Formicidae_ and the _Poneridae_ are very numerous, as
+they are in other damp and woody tropical countries. Seventy species of
+ants have been observed, but as yet few of them have been named. The
+various other families of aculeate _Hymenoptera_ are doubtless more
+abundant than the species recorded indicate, and it may be safely
+reckoned that the parasitic _Hymenoptera_ in Ceylon far exceed one
+thousand species in number, though they are yet only known by means of
+about two dozen kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites.
+
+
+
+Order LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+"The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order than in any
+other of the insect tribes, but as yet the _Lepidoptera_ alone in their
+class afford materials for a comparison of the productions of Ceylon
+with those of Hindustan and of Australasia; nine hundred and thirty-two
+species have been collected by Dr. Templeton and by Mr. Layard in the
+central, western, and northern parts of the island. All the families,
+from the _Papilionidae_ to the _Tineidae_, abound, and numerous species
+and several genera appear, as yet, to be peculiar to the island. As
+Ceylon is situate at the entrance to the eastern regions, the list in
+this volume will suitably precede the descriptive catalogues of the
+heterocerous _Lepidoptera_ of Hindustan, Java, Borneo, and of other
+parts of Australasia, which are being prepared for publication. In some
+of the heterocerous families several species are common to Ceylon and to
+Australasia, and in various cases the faunas of Ceylon and of
+Australasia seem to be more similar than those of Ceylon and of
+Hindustan. The long intercourse between those two regions may have been
+the means of conveying some species from one to the other. Among the
+_Pyralites, Hymenia recurvalis_ inhabits also the West Indies, South
+America, West Africa, Hindustan, China, Australasia, Australia, and New
+Zealand; and its food-plant is probably some vegetable which is
+cultivated in all those regions; so also _Desmia afflictalis_ is found
+in Sierra Leone, Abyssinia, Ceylon, and China.
+
+
+
+Order DIPTERA.
+
+"About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but most of those
+here recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at Kandy, and have a great
+likeness to North European species. The mosquitoes are very annoying on
+account of their numbers, as might be expected from the moisture and
+heat of the climate. _Culex laniger_ is the coast species, and the other
+kinds here mentioned are from Kandy. Humboldt observed that in some
+parts of South America each stream had its peculiar mosquitoes, and it
+yet remains to be seen whether the gnats in Ceylon are also thus
+restricted in their habitation. The genera _Sciara, Cecidomyia_, and
+_Simulium_, which abound so exceedingly in temperate countries, have
+each one representative species in the collection made by Mr. Thwaites.
+Thus an almost new field remains for the Entomologist in the study of
+the yet unknown Singhalese Diptera, which must be very numerous.
+
+
+Order HEMIPTERA.
+
+"The species of this order in the list are too few and too similar to
+those of Hindustan to need any particular mention. _Lecanium coffeae_ may
+be noticed, on account of its infesting the coffee plant, as its name
+indicates, and the ravages of other species of the genus will be
+remembered, from the fact that one of them, in other regions, has put a
+stop to the cultivation of the orange as an article of commerce.
+
+
+"In conclusion, it may be observed that the species of insects in Ceylon
+may be estimated as exceeding 10,000 in number, of which about 2000 are
+enumerated in this volume.
+
+
+Class ARACHNIDA.
+
+"Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens cannot be
+satisfactorily described; one _Ixodes_ and one _Chelifer_ have been
+forwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr. Thwaites."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE.--The asterisk prefixed denotes the species discovered in Ceylon
+since Sir J.E. Tennent's departure from the Island in 1849.
+
+
+Order COLEOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. CICINDELIDAE, _Steph._
+
+Cicindela, _Linn._
+  flavopunctata, _Aud._
+  discrepans, _Wlk._
+  aurofasciaca, _Guer._
+  quadrilineata, _Fabr._
+  biramosa, _Fabr._
+  catena, _Fabr._
+  *insignificans, _Dohrn._
+
+Tricondyla, _Latr._
+  femorata, _Wlk._
+  *tumidula, _Wlk._
+  *scitiscabra, _Wlk._
+  *concinna, _Dohrn._
+
+Fam. CARABIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Casnonia, _Latr._
+  *punctata, _Niet._
+  *pilifera, _Niet._
+
+Ophionea, _Klug._
+  *cyanocephala, _Fabr._
+
+Euplynes, _Niet._
+  Dohrni, _Niet._
+
+Heteroglossa, _Niet._
+  *elegans, _Niet._
+  *ruficollis, _Niet._
+  *bimaculata, _Niet._
+
+Zuphium, _Latr._
+  *pubescens, _Niet._
+
+Pheropsophos, _Solier._
+  Cateisei, _Dej._
+  bimaculatus, _Fabr._
+
+Cymindis, _Latr_
+  rufiventris, _Wlk._
+
+Anchisia, _Niet._
+  *modesta, _Niet._
+
+Dromius, _Bon._
+  marginiter, _Wlk._
+  repandens, _Wlk._
+
+Lebia, _Latr._
+  *bipars, _Wlk,_
+
+Creagris, _Niet._
+  labrosa, _Niet._
+
+Elliotia, _Niet._
+  paltipes, _Niet._
+
+Maraga, _Wlk._
+  planigera, _Wlk._
+
+Catascopus, _Kirby._
+  facialis, _Wied._
+  reductus, _Wlk._
+
+Scarites, _Fabr._
+  obliterans, _Wlk._
+  subsignans, _Wlk._
+  designans, _Wlk._
+  *minor, _Wlk._
+
+Clivina, _Latr._
+  *rugosifrons, _Niet._
+  *elongatula, _Niet._
+  *maculata, _Niet._
+  recta, _Wlk._
+
+Leistus, _Fraehl._
+  linearis, _Wlk._
+
+Isotarsus, _Laferle_
+  quadrimaculatus, _Oliv._
+
+Panagaeus, _Latr._
+  retractus, _Wlk._
+
+Chlaenius, _Bon._
+  bimaculatus, _Dej._
+  diffinis, _Reiche._
+  *Ceylanicus, _Niet._
+  *quinque-maculatus, _Niet._
+  pulcher, _Niet._
+  cupricollis, _Niet._
+  ruginosus, _Niet._
+
+Anchomenus, _Bon._
+  illocatus, _Wlk._
+
+Agonum, _Bon._
+  placidulum, _Wlk._
+
+Corpodes?, _Macl._
+  marginicallis, _Wlk._
+
+Argutor, _Meg._
+  degener, _Wlk._
+  relinquens, _Wlk._
+
+Simphyus, _Niet._
+  *unicolor, _Niet._
+
+Bradytus, _Steph._
+  stolidus, _Wlk._
+ Curtonotus, _Wlk._
+
+Harpalus, _Latr._
+  *advolans, _Niet._
+  dispellens, _Wlk._
+
+Calodromus, _Niet._
+  *exornatus, _Niet._
+
+Megaristerus, _Niet._
+  *mandibularis, _Niet._
+  *stenolophoides, _Niet._
+  *Indicus, _Niet._
+
+Platysma, _Bon._
+  retinens, _Wlk._
+
+Morio, _Latr._
+  trogositoides, _Wlk._
+  cucujoides, _Wlk._
+
+Barysomus, _Dej._
+  *Gyllenhalii, _Dej._
+
+Oodes, _Bon._
+  *piceus, _Niet._
+
+Selenophorus, _Dej._
+  inuxus, _Wlk._
+
+Orthogonius, _Dej._
+  femoratus, _Dej._
+
+Helluodes, _Westw._
+  Taprobanae, _Westw._
+
+Physocrotaphus, _Parry._
+  Ceylonicus, _Parry._
+  *minax, _West._
+
+Physodera, _Esch._
+  Eschscholtzii, _Parry._
+
+Omphra, _Latr._
+  *ovipennis, _Reiche._
+
+Planetes, _Macl._
+  bimaculatus, _Macleay._
+
+Cardiaderus, _Dej._
+  scitus, _Wlk._
+
+Distrigus, _Dej._
+  *costatus, _Niet._
+  *submetallicus, _Niet._
+  rufopiceus, _Niet._
+  *aeneus, _Niet._
+  *Dejeani, _Niet._
+
+Drimostoma, _Dej._
+  *Ceylanicum, _Niet._
+  *marginale, _Wlk_.
+
+Cyclosomus, _Latr_.
+  flexuosus, _Fabr_.
+
+Ochthephilus, _Niet_.
+  *Ceylanicus, _Niet_.
+
+Spathinus, _Niet_.
+  *nigriceps, _Niet_.
+
+Acuparpus, _Latr_.
+  derogatus, _Wlk_.
+  extremus, _Wlk_.
+
+Bembidium, _Latr_.
+  finitimum, _Wlk_.
+  *opulentum, _Niet_.
+  *truncatum, _Niet_.
+  *tropicum, _Niet_.
+  *triangulare, _Niet_.
+  *Ceylanicum, _Niet_.
+  Klugii, _Niet_.
+  *ebeninum, _Niet_.
+  *orientale, _Niet_.
+  *emarginatum, _Niet_.
+  *ornatum, _Niet_.
+  *scydmaenoides, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PAUSSIDAE, _Westw_.
+
+Cerapterus, _Swed_.
+  latipes, _Swed_.
+
+Pleuropterus, _West_.
+  Westermanni, _West_.
+
+Paussus, _Linn._
+  pacificus, _West_.
+
+Fam. DYTISCIDAE, _Macl_.
+
+Cybister, _Curt_.
+  limbatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Dytiscus, _Linn._
+  extenuans, _Wlk_.
+
+Eunectes, _Erich_.
+  griseus, _Fabr_.
+
+Hydaticus, _Leach_.
+  festivus, _Ill_.
+  vittatus, _Fabr_.
+  dislocans, _Wlk_.
+  fractifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Colymbetes, _Clairv_.
+  interclusus, _Wlk_.
+
+Hydroporus, _Clairv_.
+  interpulsus, _Wlk_.
+  intermixtus, _Wlk_.
+  laetabilis, _Wlk_.
+  *inefficiens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GYRINIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Dineutes, _Macl_.
+  spinosus, _Fabr_.
+
+Porrorhynchus, _Lap_.
+  indicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Gyretes, _Brulle_.
+  discifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Gyrinus, _Linn._
+  nitidulus, _Fabr_.
+  obliquus, _Wlk_.
+
+Orectochilus, _Esch_.
+  *lenocinium, _Dohrn_.
+
+Fam. STAPHILINIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Ocypus, _Kirby_.
+  longipennis, _Wlk_.
+  congruus, _Wlk_.
+  punctilinea, _Wlk_.
+  *lineatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Philonthus, _Leach_.
+  *pedestris, _Wlk_.
+
+Xantholinus, _Dahl_.
+  cinctus, _Wlk_.
+  *inclinans, _Wlk_.
+
+Sunius, _Leach_.
+  *obliquus, _Wlk_.
+
+Oedichirus, _Erich_.
+  *alatus, _Niet_.
+
+Poederus, _Fabr_.
+  alternans, _Wlk_.
+
+Stenus, _Latr_.
+  *barbatus, _Niet_.
+  *laertoides, _Niet_.
+
+Osorius? _Leach_.
+  *compactus, _Wlk_.
+
+Prognatha, _Latr_.
+  decisi, _Wlk_.
+  *tenuis, _Wlk_.
+
+Leptochirus, _Perty_.
+  *piscinus, _Erich_.
+
+Oxytelus, _Grav_.
+  rudis, _Wlk_.
+  productus, _Wlk_.
+  *bicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Trogophloeus, _Mann_.
+  *Taprobanae, _Wlk_.
+
+Omalium, _Grav_.
+  filiforme, _Wlk_.
+
+Aleochara, _Grav_.
+  postica, _Wlk_.
+  *translata, _Wlk_.
+  *subjecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Dinarda, _Leach_.
+  serricornis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PSELAPHIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Pselaphanax, _Wlk_.
+  setosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SCYDMAENIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Erineus, _Wlk_.
+  monstrosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Scydmaenus, _Latr_.
+  *megamelas, _Wlk_.
+  *alatus, _Niet_.
+  *femoralis, _Niet_.
+  *Ceylanicus, _Niet_.
+  *intermedius, _Niet_.
+  *pselaphoides, _Niet_.
+  *advolans, _Niet_.
+  *pubescens, _Niet_.
+  *pygmaeus, _Niet_.
+  *glanduliferus, _Niet_.
+  *graminicola, _Niet_.
+  *pyriformis, _Niet_.
+  *angusticeps, _Niet_.
+  *ovatus, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PTILIADAE, _Wo_.
+
+Trichopteryx, _Kirby_.
+  *cursitans, _Niet_.
+  *immatura, _Niet_.
+  *invisibilis, _Niet_.
+
+Ptilium, _Schuepp_.
+  *subquadratum, _Niet_.
+
+Ptenidium, _Erich_.
+  *macrocephalum, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PHALACRIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Phalacrus, _Payk_.
+  conjiciens, _Wlk_.
+  confectus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. NITUDULIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Nitidula, _Fabr_.
+  contigens, _Wlk_.
+  intendens, _Wlk_.
+  significans, _Wik_.
+  tomentifera, _Wlk_.
+  *submaculata, _Wlk_.
+  *glabricula, _Dohrn_.
+
+Nitidulopsis, _Wlk_.
+  aequalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Meligethes, _Kirby_.
+  *orientalis, _Niet_.
+  *respondens, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhizophagus, _Herbst_.
+  parallelus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. COLYDIADAE, _Woll_.
+
+Lyctus, _Fabr_.
+  retractus, _Wlk_.
+  disputans, _Wlk_.
+
+Ditoma, _Illig_.
+  rugicollis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TROGOSITIDAE, _Kirby_.
+
+Trogosita, _Oliv_.
+  insinuans, _Wlk_.
+  *rhyzophagoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CUCUJIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Loemophloeus, _Dej_.
+  ferrugineus, _Wlk_.
+
+Cucujus? _Fabr_.
+  *incommodus, _Wlk_.
+
+Silvanus, _Latr_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  *scuticollis, _Wlk_.
+  *Porrectus, _Wlk_.
+
+Brontes, _Fabr_.
+  *orientalis, _Dej_.
+
+Fam. LATHRIDIANAE, _Wall_.
+
+Lathridius, _Herbst_.
+  perpusillus, _Wlk_.
+
+Corticaria, _Marsh_.
+  resecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Monotoma, _Herbst_.
+  concinnula, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DERMESTIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Dermestes, _Linn._
+  vulpinus, _Fabr_.
+
+Attagenus, _Latr_.
+  detectus, _Wlk_.
+  rufipes, _Wlk_.
+
+Trinodes, _Meg_.
+  hirtellus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BYRRHIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Inclica, _Wlk_.
+  solida, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HISTERIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Hister, _Linn._
+  Bengalensis, _Weid_.
+  encaustus, _Mars._
+  orientalis, _Payk_.
+  bipustulatus, _Fabr._
+  *mundissimus, _Wlk._
+
+Saprinus, _Erich_.
+  semipunctatus, _Fabr._
+
+Platysoma, _Leach._
+  atratum? _Erichs._
+  desmens, _Wlk._
+  restoratum, _Wlk._
+
+Dendrophilus, _Leach._
+  finitimus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. APHODIADAE, _Macl._
+
+Aphodius, _Illig._
+  robustus, _Wlk._
+  dynastoides, _Wlk._
+  pallidicornis, _Wlk._
+  mutans, _Wlk_.
+  sequens, _Wlk._
+
+Psammodius, _Gyll._
+  inscitus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. TROGIDAE, _Macl._
+
+Trox, _Fabr._
+  inclusus, _Wlk._
+  cornutus, _Fabr._
+
+Fam. COPRIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Ateuchus, _Weber._
+  sacer, _Linn._
+
+Gymnopleurus, _Illig_
+  smaragdifer, _Wlk._
+  Koenigii, _Fabr._
+
+Sisyphus, _Latr._
+  setosulus _Wlk._
+  subsideus, _Wlk._
+
+Orepanocerus, _Kirby._
+  Taprobanae, _West._
+
+Cobris, _Geoffr._
+  Pirmal, _Fabr._
+  sagax, _Quens._
+  capucinus, _Fabr._
+  cribricollis, _Wlk._
+  repertus, _Wlk._
+  sodalis, _Wlk._
+  signatus, _Wlk._
+  diminutivus, _Wlk._
+
+Onthophagus, _Latr._
+  Bonassus, _Fabr._
+  cervicornis, _Fabr._
+  prolixus, _Wlk._
+  gravis, _Wlk._
+  difficilis, _Wlk._
+  lucens, _Wlk._
+  negligens, _Wlk._
+  moerens, _Wlk._
+  turbatus. _Wlk._
+
+Onitis, _Fabr._
+  Philemon, _Fabr._
+
+Fam. DYNASTIDAE, _Macl._
+
+Oryctes, _Illig._
+  rhinoceros, _Linn._
+
+Xylotrupes, _Hope._
+  Gideon, _Linn._
+  reductus, _Wlk._
+  solidipes, _Wlk._
+
+Phileurus, _Latr._
+  detractus, _Wlk._
+
+Orphnus, _Macl._
+  detegens, _Wlk._
+  scitissimus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. GECTRUPIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Bolboceras, _Kirby_.
+  lineatus, _Westw_.
+
+Fam. MELOLONTHIDAE, _Macl_.
+
+Melolontha, _Fabr_.
+  nummicudens, _Newm_.
+  rubiginosa, _Wlk_.
+  ferruginosa, _Wlk_.
+  seriata, _Hope_.
+  pinguis, _Wlk_.
+  setosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhizotrogus, _Latr_.
+  hirtipectus, _Wlk_.
+  aequalis, _Wlk_.
+  costatus, _Wlk_.
+  inductus, _Wlk_.
+  exactus, _Wlk_.
+  sulcifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Phyllopertha, _Kirby_.
+  transversa, _Burm_.
+
+Silphodes, _Westw_.
+  Indica, _Westw_.
+
+Trigonostoma, _Dej_.
+  assimile, _Hope_.
+  compressum? _Weid_.
+  nanum, _Wlk_.
+
+Serica, _Macl_.
+  pruinosa, _Hope_.
+
+Popilia, _Leach_.
+  marginicollis, _Newm_.
+  cyanella, _Hope_.
+  discalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Scricesthis, _Dej_.
+  rotundata, _Wlk_.
+  subsignata, _Wlk_.
+  mollis, _Wlk_.
+  confirmata, _Wlk_.
+
+Plectris, _Lep. & Serv_.
+  solida, _Wlk_.
+  punctigera, _Wlk_.
+  glabsilinea, _Wlk_.
+
+Isonychus, _Mann_.
+  ventralis, _Wlk_.
+  pectoralis, _Wlk_.
+
+Omaloplia, _Meg_.
+  fracta, _Wlk_.
+  interrupta, _Wlk_.
+  semicincta, _Wlk_.
+  *hamifera, _Wlk_.
+  *picta, _Dohrn_.
+  *nana, _Dohrn_.
+
+Apogenia, _Kirby_.
+  nigricans, _Hope_.
+
+Phytalos _Erich_.
+  eurystomus, _Burm_.
+
+Ancylon cha. _Dej_.
+  Reynaudii, _Blanch_.
+
+Leucopholis, _Dej_.
+  Mellei, _Guer_.
+  pinguis, _Burm_.
+
+Anomala, _Meg_.
+  elata, _Fabr_.
+  humeralis, _Wlk_.
+  discalis, _Wlk_.
+  varicolor, _Sch_.
+  conformis, _Wlk_.
+  similis, _Hope_.
+  punctatissima, _Wlk_.
+  infixa, _Wlk_.
+
+Mimela, _Kirby_.
+  variegata, _Wlk_.
+  mundissima, _Wlk_.
+
+Parastasia, _Westw_.
+  rufopic a. _Westw_.
+
+Euchlora, _Macl_.
+  viridis, _Fabr_.
+  perplexa, _Hope_.
+
+Fam. CETONIADAE, _Kirby_.
+
+Glycyphana, _Burm_.
+  versicolor, _Fabr_.
+  luctuosa, _Gory_.
+  variegata, _Fabr_.
+  marginicollis, _Gory_.
+
+Clinteria, _Burm_.
+  imperalis, _Schaum_.
+  incerta, _Parry_.
+  chloronota, _Blanch_.
+
+Taeniodera, _Burm_.
+  Malabariensis, _Gory_.
+  quadrivittata, _White_.
+  alboguttata, _Vigors_.
+
+Protaetia, _Burm_.
+  maculata, _Fabr_.
+  Whitehousii, _Parry_.
+
+Agestrata, _Erich_.
+  nigrita, _Fabr_.
+  orichalcea, _Linn._
+
+Coryphocera, _Burm_.
+  elegans, _Fabr_.
+
+Nacronota, _Hoffm_.
+  quadrivittata, _Sch_.
+
+Fam. TRICHIADAE, _Leach_.
+
+Valgus, _Scriba_.
+  addendus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LUCANIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Odontolabis, _Burm_.
+  Bengalensis, _Parry_.
+  emarginatus, _Dej_.
+
+AEgus, _Macl_.
+  acuminatus, _Fabr_.
+  lunatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Singuala, _Blanch_.
+  tenella, _Blanch_.
+
+Fam. PASSALIDAE, _Macl_.
+
+Passalus, _Fabr_.
+  transversus, _Dohrn_.
+  interstitialis, _Perch_.
+  punctiger? _Lefeb_.
+  bicolor, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. SPHAERIDIADAE, _Leach_.
+
+Sphaeridium, _Fabr_.
+  tricolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Cercyon, _Leach_.
+  *vicinale, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. HYDROPHILIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Hydrous, _Leach_.
+  *rufiventris, _Niet_.
+  *inconspicuus, _Niet._
+
+Hydrobius, _Leach._
+  stultus, _Wlk._
+
+Philydrus, _Solier._
+  esurieus, _Wlk._
+
+Berosus, _Leach._
+  *decrescens, _Wlk._
+
+Hydrochus, _Germ._
+  *lacustris, _Niet._
+
+Georyssus, _Latr._
+  *gemma, _Niet._
+  *insularis, _Dohrn._
+
+Dastareus, _Wlk._
+  porosus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. BUPRESTIDIE, _Steph._
+
+Sternocera, _Esch._
+  chrysis, _Linn._
+  sternicornis, _Linn._
+
+Chrysochroa, _Solier._
+  ignita, _Linn._
+  Chinensis, _Lap._
+  Rajah, _Lap._
+  *cyaneocephala, _Fabr._
+
+Chyrsodema, _Lap_
+  sulcata, _Thunb._
+
+Belionota, _Esch._
+  scutellaris, _Fabr._
+  *Petiri, _Gory._
+
+Chrysobothris, _Esch._
+  suturalis, _Wlk._
+
+Agrilus, _Meg._
+  sulcicollis, _Wlk._
+  *cupreiceps, _Wlk._
+  *cupreicollis, _Wlk._
+  *armatus, _Fabr._
+
+Fam. ELATERIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Campsosternos, _Latr._
+  Templetonii, _Westw._
+  aureolus, _Hope._
+  Bohemannii, _Cand._
+  venustulus, _Cand._
+  pallidipes, _Cand._
+
+Agrypnus, _Esch._
+  fuscipes, _Fabr._
+
+Alaus, _Esch._
+  speciosus, _Linn._
+  sordidus, _Westw._
+
+Cardiophorus, _Esch._
+  humerifer, _Wlk._
+
+Corymbites, _Latr._
+  dividens, _Wlk._
+  divisa, _Wlk._
+  *bivittava, _Wlk._
+
+Lacon, _Lap._
+  *obesus, _Cand._
+
+Athous, _Esch._
+  punctosus, _Wlk._
+  inapertus, _Wlk._
+  decretus, _Wlk._
+  inefficiens, _Wlk._
+
+Ampedus, _Meg._
+  *acutifer, _Wlk._
+  *discicollis, _Wlk._
+
+Legna, _Wlk._
+  idonea, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. LAMPYRIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Lycus, _Fabr_.
+  triangularis, _Hope._
+  geminus, _Wlk._
+  astutus, _Wlk._
+  fallix, _Wlk._
+  planicornis, _Wlk._
+  melanopterus, _Wlk._
+  pubicornis, _Wlk._
+  duplex, _Wlk._
+  costifer, _Wlk._
+  revocans, _Wlk._
+  dispellens, _Wlk._
+  *pubipennis, _Wlk._
+  *humerifer, _Wlk._
+  expansicornis, _Wlk._
+  divisus, _Wlk._
+
+Dictyopterus, _Latr._
+  internexus, _Wlk._
+
+Lampyris, _Geoff._
+  tenebrosa, _Wlk._
+  diffinis, _Wlk._
+  lutescens, _Wlk._
+  *vitrifera, _Wlk._
+
+Colophotia, _Dej._
+  humeralis, _Wlk._
+  [vespertina, _Febr._
+  perplexa, _Wlk._?]
+  intricata, _Wlk._
+  extricans, _Wlk._
+  promelas, _Wlk._
+
+Harmatelia, _Wlk._
+  discalis, _Wlk_
+  bilinea, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. TELEPHORIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Telephorus, _Schaeff._
+  dimidiatus, _Fabr._
+  malthinoides, _Wlk._
+
+Eugeusis, _Westw._
+  palpator, _Westw._
+  gryphus, _Hope._
+  olivaceus, _Hope._
+
+Fam. CEBRIONIDAE, _Steph._
+
+Callirhipis, _Latr._
+  Templetonii, _Westw._
+  Championii, _Westw._
+
+Fam. MERLYRIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Malachius, _Fabr._
+  plagiatus, _Wlk._
+
+Malthinus, _Latr._
+  *forticornis, _Wlk._
+  *retractus, _Wlk._
+  fragilis, _Dohrn._
+
+Enciopus, _Steph._
+  proficiens, _Wlk._
+
+Honosca, _Wlk._
+  necrobioides, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. CLERIDAE, _Kirby._
+
+Cylidrus, _Lap._
+  sobrinus, _Dohrn._
+
+Stigmatium, _Gray._
+  elaphroides, _Westw._
+
+Necrobia, _Latr._
+  rufipes, _Fabr._
+  aspera, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. PTINIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Ptinus, _Linn._
+  *nigerrimus, _Boield._
+
+Fam. DIAPERIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Diaperis, _Geoff._
+  velutina, _Wlk._
+  fragilis, _Dohrn._
+
+Fam. TENEBRIONIDAE, _Leach._
+
+Zophobas, _Dej._
+  errans? _Dej._
+  clavipes, _Wlk._
+  ?solidus, _Wlk._
+
+Pseudoblaps, _Guer._
+  nigrita, _Fabr._
+
+Tenebrio, _Linn._
+  rubripes, _Hope._
+  retenta, _Wlk._
+
+Trachyscelis, _Latr._
+  brunnea, _Dohrn._
+
+Fam. OPATRIDAE, _Shuck._
+
+Opatrum, _Fabr._
+  contrahens, _Wlk._
+  bilineatum, _Wlk._
+  planatum, _Wlk._
+  serricolle, _Wlk._
+
+Asida, _Latr._
+  horrida, _Wlk._
+
+Crypticus, _Latr._
+  detersus, _Wlk._
+  longipennis, _Wlk._
+
+Phaleria, _Latr._
+  rutipes, _Wlk._
+
+Toxicum, _Latr._
+  oppugnans, _Wlk._
+  biluna, _Wlk._
+
+Boletophagus, _Ill._
+  *inorosus, _Dohrn._
+  *exasperatus, _Dohrn._
+
+Uloma, _Meg._
+  scita, _Wlk._
+
+Alphitophagus, _Steph._
+  subFascia, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. HELOPIDAE, _Steph._
+
+Osdara, _Wlk._
+  picipes, _Wlk._
+
+Cholipus, _Dej._
+  brevicornis, _Dej._
+  parabolicus, _Wlk._
+  laeviusculus, _Wlk._
+
+Helops, _Fabr._
+  ebeninus, _Wlk._
+
+Camaria, _Lep. & Serv._
+  amethystina, _L.&S._
+
+Amarygmus, _Dalm._
+  chrysomeloides, _Dej._
+
+Fam. MELOIDAE, _Woll._
+
+Epicanta, _Dej._
+  nigrifinis, _Wlk._
+
+Cissites, _Latr._
+  testaceus, _Febr._
+
+Mylabris, _Fabr._
+  humeralis, _Wlk._
+  alterna, _Wlk._
+  *recognita, _Wlk._
+
+Atratocerus, _Pal., Bv._
+  debilis, _Wlk._
+  reversus, _Wlk._
+
+Fam. OEDEMERIDAE, _Steph._
+
+Cistela, _Fabr_.
+  congrua, _Wlk_.
+  *falsifica, _Wlk_.
+
+Allecula, _Fabr_.
+  fusiformis, _Wlk_.
+  elegans, _Wlk_.
+  *flavifemur, _Wlk_.
+
+Sora, _Wlk_.
+  *marginata, _Wlk_.
+
+Thaceona, _Wlk_.
+  dimelas, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. MORDELLIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Acosmas, _Dej_.
+  languidus, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhipiphorus, _Fabr_.
+  *tropicus, _Niet_.
+
+Mordella, _Linn._
+  composita, _Wlk_.
+  *detectiva, _Wlk_.
+
+Myrmecolax, _Westir_.
+  *Nietneri, _Westir_.
+
+Fam. ANTHICIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Anthicus, _Payk_.
+  *quisquilairius, _Niet_.
+  *insularius, _Niet_.
+  *sticticollis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CISSIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Cis, _Latr_.
+  contendens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TOMICIDAE, _Shuck_.
+
+Apate, _Fabr_.
+  submedia, _Wlk_.
+
+Bostrichus, _Geoff_.
+  mutuatus, _Wlk_.
+  *vertens, _Wlk_.
+  *moderatus, _Wlk_..
+  *testaceus, _Wlk_.
+  *exiguns, _Wlk_.
+
+Platypus, _Herbst_.
+  minex, _Wlk_.
+  solidus, _Wlk_.
+  *latifinis, _Wlk_.
+
+Hylurgus, _Latr_.
+  determinans, _Wlk_.
+  *concinnulus, _Wlk_.
+
+Hylesinus, _Fahr_.
+  curvifer, _Wlk_.
+  despectus, _Wlk_.
+  irresolutus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CURCULIONIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Bruchus, _Linn._
+  scutellaris, _Fabr_.
+
+Spermophagus, _Steven_.
+  convolvuli, _Thunb_.
+  figuratus, _Wlk_.
+  Cisti, _Fabr_.
+  incertus, _Wlk_.
+  decretus, _Wlk_.
+
+Dendropemon, _Schoen_.
+  *melancholicus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Dendrotrogus, _Jek_.
+  Dohrnii, _Jek_.
+  discrepans, _Dohrn_.
+
+Eucorynus, _Schoen_.
+  colligendus, _Wlk_.
+  colligens, _Wlk_.
+
+Basitropis, _Jek_.
+  *disconotatus, _Jek_.
+
+Litocerus, _Schoen_.
+  punctulatus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Tropideres, _Sch_.
+  punctulifer, _Dohrn_.
+  tragilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cedus, _Waterh_.
+  *cancellatus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Xylinades, _Latr_.
+  sobrinulus, _Dohrn_.
+  indignus, _Wlk_.
+
+Xenocerus, _Germ_.
+  anguliterus, _Wlk_.
+  revocans, _Wlk_.
+  *anchoralis, _Dohrn_.
+
+Callistocerus, _Dohrn_.
+  *Nietneri, _Dohrn_.
+
+Anthribus, _Geoff_.
+  longicornis, _Fabr_.
+  apicalis, _Wlk_.
+  facilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Araecerus, _Schoen_.
+  coffeae, _Fabr_.
+  *insidiosus, _Fabr_.
+  *musculus, _Dohrn_.
+  *intangens, _Wlk_.
+  *bifovea, _Wlk_.
+
+Dipieza, _Pasc_.
+  *insignis, _Dohrn_.
+
+Apolecta, _Pasc_.
+  *Nietneri, _Dohrn_.
+  *musculus, _Dohrn_.
+
+Arrhenodes, _Steven_.
+  miles, _Sch_.
+  pilicornis, _Sch_.
+  dentirosiris, _Jek_.
+  approximans, _Wlk_.
+  Veneris, _Dohrn_.
+
+Cerobates, _Schoen_.
+  thrasco, _Dohrn_.
+  aciculatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ceocephalus, _Schoen_.
+  cavus, _Wlk_.
+  reticulatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Nemocephalus, _Latr_.
+  sulcirostris, _De Haan_.
+  planicollis, _Wlk_.
+  spinirostris, _Wlk_.
+
+Apoderus, _Oliv_.
+  longicollis? _Fabr_.
+  Tranquebaricus, _Fabr_.
+  cygneus, _Fabr_.
+  scitulus, _Wlk_.
+  *triangularis, _Fabr_.
+  *echinatus, _Sch_.
+
+Rhynchites, _Herbst_.
+  suffundens, _Wlk_.
+  *restituens, _Wlk_.
+
+Apion, _Herbst_.
+  *Cingalense, _Wlk_.
+
+Strophosomus, _Bilbug_.
+  *suturalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Piazomias, _Schoen_.
+  aequalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Astycus, _Schoen_.
+  lateralis, _Fabr_.?
+  ebeninus, _Wlk_.
+  *immunis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cleonus, _Schoen_.
+  inducens, _Wlk_.
+
+Myllocerus, _Schoen_.
+  transmarinus, _Herbst_.?
+  spurcatus, _Wlk_.
+  *retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  *posticus, _Wlk_.
+
+Phyllobius, _Schoen_.
+  *mimicus, _Wlk_.
+
+Episomus, _Schoen_.
+  pauperatus, _Fabr_.
+
+Lixus, _Fabr_.
+  nebulitascia, _Wlk_.
+
+Aclees, _Schoen_.
+  cribratus, _Dej_.
+
+Alcides, _Dalm_.
+  signatus, _Boh_.
+  obliquus, _Wlk_.
+  transversus, _Wlk_.
+  *clausus, _Wlk_.
+
+Acienemis, _Fairm_.
+  Ceylonicus, _Jek_.
+
+Apotomorhinus, _Schoen_.
+  signatus, _Wlk_.
+  alboater, _Wlk_.
+
+Cryptorhynchus, _Illig_.
+  ineffectus, _Wlk_.
+  assimilans, _Wlk_.
+  declaratus, _Wlk_.
+  notabilis, _Wlk_.
+  vexatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Camptorhinus, _Schoen_.?
+  reversus, _Wlk_.
+  *indiscretus, _Wlk_.
+
+Desmidophorus, _Chevr_.
+  hebes, _Fabr_.
+  communicans, _Wlk_.
+  strenuus, _Wlk_.
+  *discriminans, _Wlk_.
+  inexpertus, _Wlk_.
+  fasciculicollis, _Wlk_.
+
+Sipaius, _Schoen_.
+  granulatus, _Fabr_.
+  porosus, _Wlk_.
+  tinctus, _Wlk_.
+
+Mecopus, _Dalm_.
+  *Waterhousei, _Dohrn_.
+
+Rhynchophorus, _Herbst_.
+  ferrugineus, _Fabr_.
+  introducens, _Wlk_.
+
+Protocerus, _Schoen_.
+  molossus? _Oliv_.
+
+Sphaenophorus, _Schoen_.
+  glabridiscus, _Wlk_.
+  exquisitus, _Wlk_.
+  Debaani?, _Jek_.
+  cribricollis, _Wlk_.
+  ?panops, _Wlk_.
+
+Cossonus, _Clairv_.
+  *quadrimacula, _Wlk_.
+  ?hebes, _Wlk_.
+  ambiguus, _Sch_.?
+
+Scitophilus, _Schoen_.
+  orizae, _Linn._
+  disciferus, _Wlk_.
+
+Mecinus, Germ.
+  *?relictus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PRIONIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Trictenotoma, _G.R. Gray_.
+  Templetoni, _Westw_.
+
+Prionomina, _White_.
+  orientalis, _Oliv_.
+
+Acanthophorus, _Serv_.
+  serraticornis, _Oliv_.
+
+Cnemoplites, _Newm_.
+  Rhesus, _Motch_.
+
+AEgosoma, _Serv_.
+  Cingalense, _White_.
+
+Fam. CERAMBYCIDAE, _Kirby_.
+
+Cerambyx, _Linn._
+  indutus, _Newm_.
+  vernicosus, _Pasc_.
+  consocius, _Pasc_.
+  versutus, _Pasc_.
+  nitidus, _Pasc_.
+  macilentus, _Pasc_.
+  venustus, _Pasc_.
+  torticollis, _Dohrn_.
+
+Sebasmia, _Pasc_.
+  Templetoni, _Pasc_.
+
+Callichroma, _Latr_.
+  trogoninum, _Pasc_.
+  telephoroides, _Westw_.
+
+Homalomelas, _White_.
+  gracilipes, _Parry_.
+  zonatus, _Pasc_.
+
+Colobus, _Serv_.
+  Cingalensis, _White_.
+
+Thramus, _Pasc_.
+  gibbosus, _Pasc_.
+
+Deuteromina, _Pasc_.
+  mutica, _Pasc_.
+
+Obrium, _Meg_.
+  laterale, _Pasc_.
+  moestum, _Pasc_.
+
+Psilomerus, _Blanch_.
+  macilentus, _Pasc_.
+
+Clytus, _Fabr_.
+  vicinus, _Hope_.
+  ascendens, _Pasc_.
+  Walkeri, _Pasc_.
+  annularis, _Fabr_.
+  *aurilinea, _Dohrn_.
+
+Rhaphuma, _Pasc_.
+  leucoscutellata, _Hope_.
+
+Ceresium, _Newm_.
+  cretatum, _White_.
+  Zeylanicum, _White_.
+
+Stromatium, _Serv_.
+  barbatum, _Fabr_.
+  maculatum, _White_.
+
+Hespherophanes, _Muls_.
+  simplex, _Gyll_.
+
+Fam. LAMIDIAE, _Kirby_.
+
+Nyphona, _Muls_.
+  cylindracea, _White_.
+
+Mesosa, _Serv_.
+  columba, _Pasc_.
+
+Coptops, _Serv_.
+  bidens, _Fabr_.
+
+Xylorhiza, _Dej_.
+  adusta, _Wied_.
+
+Cacia, _Newm_.
+  triloba, _Pasc_.
+
+Batocera, _Blanch_.
+  rubus, _Fabr_.
+  ferruginea, _Blanch_.
+
+Monohammus, _Meg_.
+  tistulator, _Germ_.
+  crucifer, _Fabr_.
+  nivosus, _White_.
+  commixtus, _Pasc_.
+
+Cereposius, _Dup_.
+  patronus, _Pasc_.
+
+Pelargoderus, _Serv_.
+  tigrinus, _Chevr_.
+
+Olenocamptus, _Chevr_.
+  bilobus, _Fabr_.
+
+Praonetha, _Dej_.
+  annulata, _Chevr_.
+  posticalis, _Pasc_.
+
+Apomecyna, _Serv_.
+  histrio, _Fabr_., var.?
+
+Ropica, _Pasc_.
+  praeusta, _Pasc_.
+
+Hathlia, _Serv_.
+  procera, _Pasc_.
+
+Iolea, _Pasc_.
+  proxima, _Pasc_.
+  histrio, _Pasc_.
+
+Glenea, _Newm_.
+  sulphurella, _White_.
+  commissa, _Pasc_.
+  scapitera, _Pasc_.
+  vexator, _Pasc_.
+
+Stibara, _Hope_.
+  nigricornis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. HISPIDAE, _Kirby_.
+
+Oncocephala, _Dohrn_.
+  deltoides, _Dohrn_.
+
+Leptispa, _Baly_.
+  pygmaea, _Baly_.
+
+Amplistea, _Baly_.
+  Doehrnii, _Baly_.
+
+Estigmena, _Hope_.
+  Chinensis, _Hope_.
+
+Hispa, _Linn._
+  hystrix, _Fabr_.
+  erinacea, _Fabr_.
+  nigrina, _Dohrn_.
+  *Walkeri, _Baly_.
+
+Platypria, _Guer_.
+   echidna, _Guer_.
+
+Fam. CASSIDIDAE, _Westw_.
+
+Episticia, _Boh_.
+  matronula, _Boh_.
+
+Hoplionota, _Hope_.
+  tetraspilota, _Baly_.
+  rubromarginata, _Boh_.
+  horrifica, _Boh_.
+
+Aspidomorpha, _Hope_.
+  St. crucis, _Fabr_.
+  miliaris, _Fabr_.
+  pallidimarginata, _Baly_.
+  dorsata, _Fabr_.
+  calligera, _Boh_.
+  micans, _Fabr_.
+
+Cassida, _Linn._
+  clathrata, _Fabr_.
+  timefacta, _Boh_.
+  farinosa, _Boh_.
+
+Laccoptera, _Boh_.
+  14-notata, _Boh_.
+
+Coptcycla, _Chevr_.
+  sex-notata, _Fabr_.
+  13-signata, _Boh_.
+  13-notata, _Boh_.
+  ornata, _Fabr_.
+  Ceylonica, _Boh_.
+  Balyi, _Boh_.
+  trivittata, _Fabr_.
+  15-punctuata, _Boh_.
+  catenata, _Dej_.
+
+Fam. SAGRIDAE, _Kirby_.
+
+Sagra, _Fabr_.
+  nigrita, _Oliv_.
+
+Fam. DONACIDAE, _Lacord_.
+
+Donacia, _Fabr_.
+  Delesserti, _Guer_.
+
+Coptocephala, _Chev_.
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+
+Fam. EUMOLFIDAE, _Baly_.
+
+Corynodes, _Hope_.
+  cyaneus, _Hope_.
+  aeneus, _Baly_.
+
+Glyptoscelis, _Chevr_.
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+  pyrospilotus, _Baly_.
+  micans, _Baly_.
+  cupreus, _Baly_.
+
+Eumolpus, _Fabr_.
+  lemoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CRYPTOCEPHALIDAE, _Kirby_.
+
+Cryptocephalus, _Geoff_.
+  sex-punctatus, _Fabr_.
+  Walkeri, _Baly_.
+
+Diapromorpha, _Lac_.
+  Turcica, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. CHRYSOMELIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Chalcolampa, _Baly_.
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+
+Lina, _Meg_.
+  convexa, _Baly_.
+
+Chrysomela, _Linn._
+  Templetoni, _Baly_.
+
+Fam. GALERUCIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Galeruca, _Geoff_.
+  *pectinata, _Dohrn_.
+
+Graphodera, _Chevr_.
+  cyanea, _Fabr_.
+
+Monolepta, _Chevr_.
+  pulchella, _Baly_.
+
+Thyamis, _Steph_.
+  Ceylonicus, _Baly_.
+
+Fam. COCCINELLIDAE, _Latr_.
+
+Epilachna, _Chevr_.
+  28-punctata, _Fabr_.
+  Delessortii, _Guer_.
+  pubescens, _Hope_.
+  innuba, _Oliv_.
+
+Coccinella, _Linn._
+  tricincta, _Fabr_.
+  *repanda, _Muls_.
+  tenuilinea, _Wlk_.
+  rejiciens, _Wlk_.
+  interrumpens, _Wlk_.
+  quinqueplaga, _Wlk_.
+  simplex, _Wlk_.
+  antica, _Wlk_.
+  flaviceps, _Wlk_.
+
+Neda, _Muls_.
+  tricolor, _Fabr_.
+
+Coelophora, _Muls_.
+  9-maculata, _Fabr_.?
+
+Chilocorus, _Leach_.
+  opponens, _Wlk_.
+
+Scymnus, _Kug_.
+  varibilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EROTYLIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Fatua, _Dej_.
+  Nepalensis, _Hope_.
+
+Triplax, _Payk_.
+  decorus, _Wlk_.
+
+Tritoma, _Fabr_.
+  *bilactes, _Wlk_.
+  *preposita, _Wlk_.
+
+Ischyrus, _Cherz_.
+  grandis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. ENDOMYCHIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Eugonius, _Gerst_.
+  annularis, _Gerst_.
+  lunulatus, _Gerst_.
+
+Eumorphus, _Weber_.
+  pulcripes, _Gerst_.
+  *tener, _Dohrn_.
+
+Stenotarsus, _Perty_.
+  Nietneri, _Gerst_.
+  *castaneus, _Gerst_.
+  *tormentosus, _Gerst_.
+  *vallatus, _Gerst_.
+
+Lycoperdina, _Latr_.
+  glabrata, _Wlk_.
+
+Ancylopus, _Gerst_.
+  melanocephalus, _Oliv_.
+
+Saula, _Gerst_.
+  *nigripes, _Gerst_.
+  *ferruginea, _Gerst_.
+
+Mycerina, _Gerst_.
+  castanea, _Gerst_.
+
+
+Order ORTHOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. FORFICULIDAE, _Steph_.
+  Forficula, _Linn._
+       ------?
+
+Fam. BLATTIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Panesthia, _Serv_.
+  Javanica, _Serv_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+
+Polyxosteria, _Burm_.
+  larva.
+
+Corydia, _Serv_.
+  Petiveriana, _Linn._
+
+Fam. MANTIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Empusa, _Illig_.
+  gongylodes, _Linn._
+
+Harpax, _Serv_.
+  signiter, _Wlk_.
+
+Schizocephala, _Serv_.
+  bicornis, _Linn._
+
+Mantis, _Linn._
+  superstitiosa, _Fabr_.
+  aridifolia, _Stoll_.
+  extensicollis, ? _Serv_.
+
+Fam. PHASMIDAE, _Serv_.
+
+Acrophylla, _Gray_.
+  systropedon, _Westw_.
+
+Phasma, _Licht_.
+  sordidium, _DeHaan_.
+
+Phyllium, _Illig_.
+ siccifolium, _Linn._
+
+Fam. GRYLLIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Acheta, _Linn._
+  bimaculata, _Deg_.
+  supplicans, _Wlk_.
+  aequalis, _Wlk_.
+  confirmata, _Wlk_.
+
+Platydactylus, _Brull_.
+  crassipes, _Wlk_.
+
+Steirodon, _Serv_.
+  lanceolatum, _Wlk_.
+
+Phyllophora, _Thunb_.
+  falsifolia, _Wlk_.
+
+Acanthodis, _Serv_.
+  rugosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Phaneroptera, _Serv_.
+  attenuata, _Wlk_.
+
+Phymateus, _Thunb_.
+  miliaris, _Linn._
+
+Truxalis, _Linn._
+  exaltata, _Wlk_.
+  porrecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Acridium, _Geoffr_.
+  extensum, _Wlk_.
+  deponens, _Wlk_.
+  rutitibia, _Wlk_.
+  cinctifemur, _Wlk_.
+  respondens, _Wlk_.
+  nigrifascia, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order PHYSAPODA, _Dum_.
+
+Thrips, _Linn._
+  stenomeras, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order NEUROPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. SERICOSTOMIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Mormonia, _Curt_.
+  *ursina, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. LEPTOCERIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Macronema, _Pict_.
+   multifarium, _Wlk_.
+  *splendidum, _Hagen_.
+  *nebulosum, _Hagen_.
+  *obliquum, _Hagen_.
+  *Ceylanicum, _Niet_.
+  *annulicorne, _Niet_.
+
+Molanna, _Curt_.
+  mixta, _Hagen_.
+
+Setodes, _Ramb_.
+  *Iris, _Hagen_.
+  *Ino, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. PSYCHOMIDAE, _Curt_.
+
+Chimarra, _Leach_.
+  *aurieps, _Hagen_.
+  *tunesta, _Hagen_.
+  *sepulcralis, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. HYDROPSYCHIDAE, _Curt_.
+
+Hydropsyche, _Pict_.
+  *Taprobanes, _Hagen_.
+  *mitis, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. RHYACOPHILIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Rhyacophila, _Pict_.
+  *castanea, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. PERLIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Perla, _Geoffr_.
+  angulata, _Wlk_.
+  *testacea, _Hagen_.
+  *limosa, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. SILIDAE, _Westw_.
+
+Dilar, _Ramb_.
+  *Nietneri, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. HEMEROBIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Mantispa, _Illig_.
+  *Indica, _Westw_.
+  mutata, _Wlk_.
+
+Chrysopa, _Leach_.
+  invaria, _Wlk_.
+  *tropica, _Hagen_.
+  auritera, _Wlk_.
+  *punctata, _Hagen_.
+
+Micromerus, _Ramb_.
+  *linearis, _Hagen_.
+  *australis, _Hagen_.
+
+Hemerobius, _Linn._
+  *frontalis, _Hagen_.
+
+Coniopteryx, _Hal_.
+  *cerata, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. MYRMELEONIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Palpares, _Ramb_.
+  contrarius, _Wlk_.
+
+Acanthoclisis, _Ramb_.
+  *--n. s. _Hagen_.
+  *molestus, _Wlk_.
+
+Myrmeleon, _Linn._
+  gravis, _Wlk_.
+  nirus, _Wlk_.
+  barbarus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ascalaphus, _Fabr_.
+  nugax, _Wlk_.
+  incusans, _Wlk_.
+  *cervinus, _Niet_.
+
+Fam. PSOCIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Psocus, _Latr_.
+  *Taprobanes, _Hagen_.
+  *oblitus, _Hagen_.
+  *consitus, _Hagen_.
+  *trimaculatus, _Hagen_.
+  *obtusus, _Hagen_.
+  *elongatus, _Hagen_.
+  *chloroticus, _Hagen_.
+  *aridus, _Hagen_.
+  *coleoptratus, _Hagen_.
+  *dolabratus, _Hagen_.
+  *infelix, _Hagen_.
+
+Fam. TERMITIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Termes, _Linn._
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+  fatalis, _Koen_.
+  monocerous, _Koen_.
+  *umbilicatus, _Hagen_.
+  *n. s., _Jouv_.
+  *n. s., _Jouv_.
+
+Fam. EMBIDAE, _Hagen_.
+
+Oligotoma, _Westw_.
+  *Saundersii, _Westw_.
+
+Fam. EPHEMERIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Baetis, _Leach_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Potamanthus, _Pict_.
+  *fasciatus, _Hagen_.
+  *annulatus, _Hagen_.
+  *femoralis, _Hagen_.
+
+Cloe, _Burm_.
+  *tristis, _Hagen_.
+  *consueta, _Hagen_.
+  *solida, _Hagen_.
+  *sigmata, _Hagen_.
+  *marginalis, _Hagen_.
+
+Caenis, _Steph_.
+  perpusida, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LIBELLULIDAE.
+
+Calopteryx, _Leach_.
+  Chinensis, _Linn._
+
+Euphoea, _Selys_.
+  splendens, _Hagen_.
+
+Micromerus, _Ramb_.
+   lineatus, _Burm_.
+
+Trichoenemys, _Selys_.
+  *serapica, _Hagen_.
+
+Lestes, _Leach_.
+  *elata, _Hagen_.
+  *gracilis, _Hagen_.
+
+Agrion, _Fabr_.
+  *Coromandelianum, _F._
+  *tenax, _Hagen_.
+  *hilare, _Hagen_.
+  *velare, _Hagen_.
+  *delicatum, _Hagen_.
+
+Gynacantha, _Ramb_.
+  subinterrupta, _Ramb_.
+
+Epophthalmia, _Burm_.
+  vittata, _Burm_.
+
+Zyxomma, _Ramb_.
+  petiolatum, _Ramb_.
+
+Acisoma, _Ramb_.
+  panorpoides, _Ramb_.
+
+Libellula, _Linn._
+  Marcia, _Drury_.
+  Tillarga, _Fabr_.
+  variegata, _Linn._
+  flavescens, _Fabr_.
+  Sabina, _Drury_.
+  viridula, _Pal. Beauv_.
+  congener, _Ramb_.
+  soror, _Ramb_.
+  Aurora, _Burm_.
+  violacea, _Niet_.
+  perla, _Hagen_.
+  sanguinea, _Burm_.
+  trivialis, _Ramb_.
+  contaminata, _Fabr_.
+  equestris, _Fabr_.
+  nebulosa, _Fabr_.
+
+
+Order HYMENOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. FORMICIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Formica, _Linn._
+  smaragdina, _Fabr_.
+  mitis, _Smith_.
+  *Taprobane, _Smith_.
+  *variegata, _Smith_.
+  *exercita, _Wlk_.
+  *exundans, _Wlk_.
+  *meritans, _Wlk_.
+  *latebrosa, _Wlk_.
+  *pangens, _Wlk_.
+  *ingruens, _Wlk_.
+  *detorquens, _Wlk_.
+  *diffidens, _Wlk_.
+  *obscurans, _Wlk_.
+  *indeflexa, _Wlk_.
+  consultans, _Wlk_.
+
+Polyrhachis, _Smith_.
+  *illandatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PONERIDAE, _Smith_.
+
+Odontomachus, _Latr_.
+  simillimus, _Smith_.
+
+Typhlopone, _Westw_.
+  Curtisii, _Shuck_.
+
+Myrmica, _Latr_.
+  basalis, _Smith_.
+  contigua, _Smith_.
+  glyciphila, _Smith_.
+  *consternens, _Wlk_.
+
+Crematogaster, _Lund_.
+  *pellens, _Wlk_.
+  *deponens, _Wlk_.
+  *forticulus, _Wlk_.
+
+Pseudomyrma, _Gure_.
+  *atrata, _Smith_.
+  allaborans, _Wlk_.
+
+Atta, _St. Farg_.
+  didita, _Wlk_.
+
+Pheidole, _Westw_.
+  Janus, _Smith_.
+  *Taprobanae, _Smith_.
+  *rugosa, _Smith_.
+
+Meranopius, _Smith_.
+  *dimicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Cataulacus, _Smith_.
+  Taprobanae, _Smith_.
+
+Fam. MUTILLIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Mutilla, _Linn._
+  *Sibylla, _Smith_.
+
+Tiphia, _Fabr_.
+  *decrescens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EUMENIDAE, _Westw_.
+
+Odynerus, _Latr_.
+  *tinctipennis, _Wlk_.
+  *intendens, _Wlk_.
+  *intendens, _Wlk_.
+
+Scolia, _Fabr_.
+  auricollis, _St. Farg_.
+
+Fam. CRABRONIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Philanthus, _Fabr_.
+  basalis, _Smith_.
+
+Stigmus, _Jur_.
+  *congruus, _Wilk_.
+
+Fam. SPHEGIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Ammophila, _Kirby_.
+  atripes, _Smith_.
+
+Pelopaeus, _Latr_.
+  spinolae, _St. Farg_.
+
+Sphex, _Fabr_.
+  ferruginea, _St. Farg_.
+
+Ampulex, _Jur_.
+  compressa, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. LARRIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Larrada, _Smith_.
+  *extensa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. POMPILIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Pompilus, _Fabr_.
+  analis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. APIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Andrena, _Fabr_.
+  *exagens, _Wlk_.
+
+Nomia, _Latr_.
+  rustica, _Westw_.
+  *vincta, _Wlk_.
+
+Allodaps, _Smith_.
+  *marginata, _Smith_.
+
+Ceratina, _Latr_.
+  viridis, _Guer_.
+  picta, _Smith_.
+  *similliana, _Smith_.
+
+Coelioxys, _Latr_.
+  capitata, _Smith_.
+
+Croeisa, _Jur_.
+  *ramosa, _St. Farg_.
+
+Stelis, _Panz_.
+  carbonaria, _Smith_.
+
+Anthophora, _Latr_.
+  zonarta, _Smith_.
+
+Xylocopa, _Latr_.
+  tenuiscatia, _Westw_.
+  latipes, _Drury_.
+
+Apis, _Linn._
+  Indica, _Smith_.
+
+Trigona, _Jur_.
+  iridipennis, _Smith_.
+  *praeterita, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHRYSIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Stilbum, _Spin_.
+  splendidum, _Dahl_.
+
+Fam. DORYLIDAE, _Shuck_.
+
+Enictus, _Shuck_.
+  porizonoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ICHNEUONIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Cryptus, _Fabr_.
+  *onustus, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemiteles?, _Grav_.
+  *varius, _Wlk_.
+
+Porizon, _Fabr_.
+  *dominans, _Wlk_.
+
+Pimpla, _Fabr_.
+  albopicta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BRACONIDAE, _Hal_.
+
+Microgaster, _Latr_.
+  *recusans, _Wlk_.
+  *significans, _Wlk_.
+  *subducens, _Wlk_.
+  *detracta, _Wlk_.
+
+Spathius, _Nees_.
+  *bisignatus, _Wlk_.
+  *signipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Heratemis, _Wlk_.
+  *tilosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Nebartha, _Wlk_.
+  *macropoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Psyttalia, _Wlk_.
+  *testacea, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHALCIDIAE, _Spin_.
+
+Chalcis, _Fabr_.
+  *dividens, _Wlk_.
+  *pandens, _Wlk_.
+
+Halticella, _Spin_.
+  *rufimanus, _Wlk_.
+  *inticiens, _Wlk_.
+
+Dirrhinus, _Dalm_.
+  *anthracia, _Wlk_.
+
+Eurytoma, _Ill_.
+  *contraria, _Wlk_.
+  indefensa, _Wlk_.
+
+Eucharis, _Latr_.
+  *convergens, _Wlk_.
+  *deprivata, _Wlk_.
+
+Pteromalus, _Swed_.
+  *magniceps, _Wlk_.
+
+Encyrtus, _Latr_.
+  *obstructus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DIAPRIDAE, _Hal_.
+
+Diapria, _Latr_.
+  apicalis, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order LEPIDOPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. PAPILIONIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Ornithoptera, _Boisd_.
+  Darsius, _G.R. Gray_.
+
+Papilio, _Linn._
+  Diphilus, _Esp_.
+  Jophon, _G.R. Gray_.
+  Hector, _Linn._
+  Romulus, _Cram_.
+  Polymnestor, _Cram_.
+  Crino, _Fabr_.
+  Helenus, _Linn._
+  Pammon, _Linn._
+  Polytes, _Linn._
+  Erithonius, _Cram_.
+  Antipathis, _Cram_.
+  Agamemnon, _Linn._
+  Eurypilus, _Linn._
+  Bathycles, _Zinck-Som_.
+  Sarpedon, _Linn._
+  dissimilis, _Linn._
+
+Pontia, _Fabr_.
+  Nina, _Fabr_.
+
+Pleris, _Schr_.
+  Eucharis, _Drury_.
+  Coronis, _Cram_.
+  Epicharis, _Godt_.
+  Nama, _Doubl_.
+  Remba, _Moore_.
+  Mesentina, _Godt_.
+  Severina, _Cram_.
+  Namouna, _Doubl_.
+  Phryne, _Fabr_.
+  Paulina, _Godt_.
+  Thestylis, _Doubl_.
+
+Callosune, _Doubl_.
+  Eucharis, _Fabr_.
+  Danae, _Fabr_.
+  Etrida, _Boisd_.
+
+Idmais, _Boisd_.
+  Calais, _Cram_.
+
+Thestias, _Boisd_.
+  Marianne, _Cram_.
+  Pirene, _Linn._
+
+Hebomoia, _Huebn_.
+  Glaucippe, _Linn._
+
+Eronia, _Huebn_.
+  Valeria, _Cram_.
+
+Callidryas, _Boisd_.
+  Philippina, _Boisd_.
+  Pyranthe, _Linn._
+  Hilaria, _Cram_.
+  Alcmeone, _Cram_.
+  Thisorella, _Boisd_.
+
+Terias, _Swain_.
+  Drona, _Horsf_.
+  Hecabe, _Linn._
+
+Fam. NYMPHALIDAE, _Swain_.
+
+Euploea, _Fabr_.
+  Prothoe, _Godt_.
+  Core, _Cram_.
+  Alcathoe, _Godt_.
+
+Danais, _Latr_.
+  Chrysippus, _Linn._
+  Plexippus, _Linn._
+  Aglae, _Cram_.
+  Melissa, _Cram_.
+  Limniacae, _Cram_.
+  Juventa, _Cram_.
+
+Hestia, _Huebn_.
+  Jasonia, _Westw_.
+
+Telchinia, _Huebn_.
+  violae, _Fabr_.
+
+Cethosia, _Fabr_.
+  Cyane, _Fabr_.
+
+Messarus, _Doubl_.
+  Erymanthis, _Drury_.
+
+Atella, _Doubl_.
+  Phalanta, _Drury_.
+
+Argychis, _Fabr_.
+  Niphe, _Linn._
+  Clagia, _Godt_.
+
+Ergolis, _Boisd_.
+  Taprobana, _West_.
+
+Vanessa, _Fabr_.
+  Charonia, _Drury_.
+
+Libythea, _Fabr_.
+  Medhavina, _Wlk_.
+  Pushcara, _Wlk_.
+
+Pyrameis, _Huebn_.
+  Charonia, _Drury_.
+  Cardui, _Linn._
+  Callirhoe, _Huebn_.
+
+Junonia, _Huebn_.
+  Limomas, _Linn._
+  Oenone, _Linn._
+  Orithia, _Linn._
+  Laomedia, _Linn._
+  Asterie, _Linn._
+
+Precis, _Huebn_.
+  Iphita, _Cram_.
+
+Cynthia, _Fabr_.
+  Arsinoe, _Cram_.
+
+Parthenos, _Huebn_.
+  Gambrisius, _Fabr_.
+
+Limenitis, _Fabr_.
+  Calidusa, _Moore_.
+
+Neptis, _Fabr_.
+  Heliodore, _Fabr_.
+  Columelia, _Cram_.
+  aceris, _Fabr_.
+  Jumbah, _Moore_.
+  Hordonia, _Stoll_.
+
+Diadema, _Boisd_.
+  Auge, _Cram_.
+  Bolina, _Linn._
+
+Symphaedra, _Hubn_.
+  Thyelia, _Fabr_.
+
+Adolias, _Boisd_.
+  Evelina, _Stoll_.
+  Lutentina, _Fabr_.
+  Vasanta, _Moore_.
+  Garuda, _Moore_.
+
+Nymphalis, _Latr_.
+  Psaphon, _Westw_.
+  Bernardus, _Fabr_.
+  Athamas, _Cram_.
+  Fabius, _Fabr_.
+  Katlima, _Doubl_.
+  Philarchus, _Westw_.
+  Melanitis, _Fabr_.
+  Banksia, _Fabr_.
+  Leda, _Linn._
+  Casiphone, _G.R. Gray_.
+  undularis, _Boisd_.
+
+Ypththima, _Huebn_.
+  Lysandra, _Cram_.
+  Parthalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cyllo, _Boisd_.
+  Gorya, _Wlk_.
+  Cathaena, _Wlk_.
+  Embolima, _Wlk_.
+  Neilgherriensis, _Guer_.
+  Purimata, _WLk_.
+  Pushpamitra, _Wlk_.
+
+Mycalesis, _Huebn_.
+  Patnia, _Moore_.
+  *Gamaliba, _Wlk_.
+  Dosaron, _Wlk_.
+  Samba, _Moore_.
+
+Caenonympha, _Huebn_.
+  Euaspla, _Wlk_.
+
+Emesis, _Fabr_.
+  Echerius, _Stoll_.
+
+Fam. LYCAENIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Anops, _Boisd_.
+  Bulis, _Boisd_.
+  Thetys, _Drury_.
+
+Loxura, _Horsf_.
+  Atymnus, _Cram_.
+
+Myrina, _Godt_.
+  Schumous, _Doubled_.
+  Triopas, _Cram_.
+
+Amblypodia, _Horsf_.
+  Longinus, _Fabr_.
+  Narada, _Horsf_.
+  pseudocentaurus, _Do_.
+  quercetorum, _Boisd_.
+
+Aphnaeus, _Huebn_.
+  Pindarus, _Fabr_.
+  Etolus, _Cram_.
+  Hephaestos, _Doubled_.
+  Crotus, _Doubled_.
+
+Dipsas, _Doubled_.
+  chrysomallus, _Huebn_.
+  Isocrates, _Fabr_.
+
+Lycaena, _Fabr_.
+  Alexis, _Stoll_.
+  Boetica, _Linn._
+  Chejus, _Horsf_.
+  Rosimon, _Fabr_.
+  Theophrasius, _Fabr_.
+  Pluto, _Fabr_.
+  Parana, _Horsf_.
+  Nyseus, _Guer_.
+  Ethion, _Basd_.
+  Celeno, _Cram_.
+  Kandarpa, _Horsf_.
+  Elpis, _Godt_.
+  Chimonas, _Wlk_.
+  Gandara, _Wlk_.
+  Chorienis, _Wlk_.
+  Geria, _Wlk_.
+  Doanas, _Wlk_.
+  Sunya, _Wlk_.
+  Audhra, _Wlk_.
+
+Polyommatus, _Latr_.
+  Akasa, _Horsf_.
+  Puspa, _Horsf_.
+  Laius, _Cram_.
+  Ethion, _Boisd_.
+  Cataigara, _Wlk_.
+  Gorgippia, _Wlk_.
+
+Lucia, _Westw_.
+  Epius, _Westw_.
+
+Pithecops, _Horsf_.
+  Hylax, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. HESPERIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Goniloba, _Westw_.
+  Iapetus, _Cram_.
+
+Pyrgus, _Huebn_.
+  Superna, _Moore_.
+  Danna, _Moore_.
+  Genta, _Wlk_.
+  Sydrus, _Wlk_.
+
+Nisoniades, _Huebn_.
+  Diocles, _Boisd_.
+  Salsala, _Moore_.
+  Toides, _Wlk_.
+
+Pamphila, _Fabr_.
+  Angias, _Linn._
+
+Achylodes, _Huebn_.
+  Temata, _Wlk_.
+
+Hesperia, _Fabr_.
+  Indrani, _Moore_.
+  Chaya, _Moore_.
+  Cinnara, _Moore_.
+  gremius, _Latr_.
+  Ceodochates, _Wlk_.
+  Tiagara, _Wlk_.
+  Cetiaris, _Wlk_.
+  Sigala, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SPHINGIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Sesia, _Fabr_.
+  Hylas, _Linn._
+
+Macroglossa, _Ochs_.
+  Stenatarum, _Linn._
+  gyrans, _Borsd_.
+  Corythus, _Borsd_.
+  divergens, _Wlk_.
+
+Calymina, _Borsd_.
+  Panopus, _Cram_.
+
+Choerocampa, _Dup_.
+  Thyslia, _Linn._
+  Nyssus, _Drury_.
+  Clotho, _Drury_.
+  Oldenlandiae, _Fabr_.
+  Lycetus, _Cram_.
+  Silhetensis, _Boisd_.
+
+Pergesa, _Wlk_.
+  Acteus, _Cram_.
+
+Panacia, _Wlk_.
+  vigil, _Guer_.
+
+Daphnis, _Huebn_.
+  Nern, _Linn._
+
+Zonitia, _Boisd_.
+  Morpheus, _Cram_.
+
+Macrosila, _Boisd_.
+  ordiqua, _Wlk_.
+  discistriga, _Wlk_.
+
+Sphinx, _Linn._
+  convolvuli, _Linn._
+
+Acherontia, _Ochs_.
+  Satanas, _Boisd_.
+
+Smerintinis, _Latr_.
+  Dryas, _Boisd_.
+
+Fam. CASTNIIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Eusemia, _Dalm_.
+  beliatrix, _Westw_.
+
+AEgocera, _Latr_.
+  Venuia, _Cram_.
+  bimacula, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ZYGAENIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Syntomis, _Ochs_.
+  Schoenherri, _Boisd_.
+  Creusa, _Linn._
+  Imaoa, _Cram_.
+
+Glaucopis, _Fabr_.
+  subaurata, _Wlk_.
+
+Enchiomia, _Huebn_.
+  Polymena, _Cram_.
+  diminuta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LITHOSIIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Scaptesyle, _Wlk_.
+  bicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Nyctemera, _Huebn_.
+  lacticima, _Cram_.
+  latistriga, _Wlk_.
+  Coleta, _Cram_.
+
+Euschema, _Huebn_.
+  subrepleta, _Wlk_.
+  transversa, _Wlk_.
+  vilis, _Wlk_.
+
+Chalcosia, _Huebn_.
+  Tiberina, _Cram_.
+  venosa, _Anon_.
+
+Eterusia, _Hope_.
+  AEdea, _Linn._
+
+Trypanophora, _Koll_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Heteropan, _Wlk_.
+  scintillans, _Wlk_.
+
+Hypsa, _Huebn_.
+  plana, _Wlk_.
+  caricae, _Fabr_.
+  ficus, _Fabr_.
+
+Vitessa, _Moor_.
+  Zeinire, _Cram_.
+
+Lithosia, _Fabr_.
+  autica, _Wlk_.
+  brevipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Setina, _Schr_.
+  semitascia, _Wlk_.
+  solita, _Wlk_.
+
+Doliche, _Wlk_.
+  hilaris, _Wlk_.
+
+Pitane, _Wlk_.
+  conserta, _Wlk_.
+
+AEmene, _Wlk_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Dirade, _Wlk_.
+  attacoides, _Wlk_.
+
+Cyllene, _Wlk_.
+  transversa, _Wlk_.
+  *spoliata, _Wlk_.
+
+Bizone, _Wlk_.
+  subornata, _Wlk_.
+  peregrina, _Wlk_.
+
+Delopeia, _Steph_.
+  pulcella, _Linn._
+  Astrea, _Drury_.
+  Argus, _Kodar_.
+
+Fam. ARCHTIIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Alope, _Wlk_.
+  ocellitera, _Wlk_.
+  Sangalida, _Cram_.
+
+Tinolius, _Wlk_.
+  eburneigutta, _Wlk_.
+
+Creatonotos, _Huebn_.
+  interrupta, _Linn._
+  emitteus, _Wlk_.
+
+Acmonia, _Wlk_.
+  Etnosioides, _Wlk_.
+
+Spilosoma, _Steph_.
+  subtascia, _Wlk_.
+
+Cycnia, _Huebn_.
+  rubida, _Wlk_.
+  sparsigutta, _Wlk_.
+
+Antheua, _Wlk_.
+  discalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Atoa, _Wlk_.
+  lactmea, _Cram_.
+  candidula, _Wlk_.
+  erisa, _Wlk_.
+
+Amerila, _Wlk_.
+  Melipithus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ammotho, _Wlk_.
+  cunionotatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LIPARIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Artaxa, _Wlk_.
+  guttata, _Wlk_.
+  *varians, _Wlk_.
+  atomaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Acyphas, _Wlk_.
+  viridescens, _Wlk_.
+
+Lacida, _Wlk_.
+  rotundata, _Wlk_.
+  antica, _Wlk_.
+  subnotata, _Wlk_.
+  complens, _Wlk_.
+  promittens, _Wlk_.
+  strigulitera, _Wlk_.
+
+Amsacta? _Wlk_.
+  tenebrosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Antipha, _Wlk_.
+  costalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Anaxila, _Wlk_.
+  norata, _Wlk_.
+
+Procodeca, _Wlk_.
+  angulifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Redoa, _Wlk_.
+  submarginata, _Wlk_.
+
+Euproctis, _Huebn_.
+  virguncula, _Wlk_.
+  bimaculata, _Wlk_.
+  lunata, _Wlk_.
+  tinctifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Cispia, _Wlk_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+
+Dasychira, _Huebn_.
+  pudibunda, _Linn._
+
+Lymantria, _Huehn_.
+  grandis, _Wlk_.
+  marginata, _Wlk_.
+
+Enome, _Wlk_.
+  ampla, _Wlk_.
+
+Dreata, _Wlk_.
+  plumipes, _Wlk_.
+  geminata, _Wlk_.
+  mutans, _Wlk_.
+  mollifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Pandala, _Wlk_.
+  dolosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Charnidas, _Wlk_.
+  junctifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PSYCHIDAE, _Bru_.
+
+Psyche, _Schr_.
+  Doubledaii, _Westw_.
+
+Metisa, _Wlk_.
+  plana, _Wlk_.
+
+Eumeta, _Wlk_.
+  Cramerii, _Westw_.
+  Templetonii, _Westw_.
+
+Cryptothelea, _Templ_.
+  consorta, _Templ_.
+
+Fam. NOTODONTIDAE, _St_.
+
+Cerura, _Schr_.
+  liturata, _Wlk_.
+
+Stauropus, _Germ_.
+  alternans, _Wlk_.
+
+Nioda, _Wlk_.
+  fusiformis, _Wlk_.
+  transversa, _Wlk_.
+
+Rilia, _Wlk_.
+  lanceolata, _Wlk_.
+  basivitta, _Wlk_.
+
+Ptilomacra, _Wlk_.
+  juvenis, _Wlk_.
+
+Elavia, _Wlk_.
+  metaphaea, _Wlk_.
+
+Notodonta, _Ochs_.
+  ejecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Ichthyura, _Huebn_.
+  restituens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LIMACODIDAE, _Dup_.
+
+Scopelodes, _Westw_.
+  unicolor, _Westw_.
+
+Messata, _Wlk_.
+  rubiginosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Miresa, _Wlk_.
+  argeutifera, _Wlk_.
+  aperiens, _Wlks_.
+
+Nyssia, _Herr Sch_.
+  laeta, _Westw_.
+
+Neaera, _Herr. Sch_.
+  graciosa, _Westw_.
+
+Narosa, _Wlk_.
+  conspersa, _Wlk_.
+
+Naprepa, _Wlk_.
+  varians, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DREPANULIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Oreta, _Wlk_.
+  suffusa, _Wlk_.
+  extensa, _Wlk_.
+
+Arna, _Wlk_.
+  apicaus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ganisa, _Wlk_.
+  postica, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SATURINIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Attacus, _Linn._
+  Atlas, _Linn._
+  lunula, _Anon_.
+
+Antheraea, _Huebn_.
+  Mylitta, _Drury_.
+  Assama, _Westw_.
+
+Tropaea, _Huebn_.
+  Selene, _Huebn_.
+
+Fam. BOMBYCIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Trabala, _Wlk_.
+  basalis, _Wlk_.
+  prasina, _Wlk_.
+
+Lasiocampa, _Schr_.
+  trifascia, _Wlk_.
+
+Megasoma, _Boisd_.
+  venustum, _Wlk_.
+
+Lebeda, _Wlk_.
+  repanda, _Wlk_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+  bimaculata, _Wlk_.
+  scriptiplaga, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. COSSIDAE, _Newm_.
+
+Cossus, _Fabr_.
+  quadrinotatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Zeuzera, _Latr_.
+  leuconota, _Steph_.
+  pusilla, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HEPIALIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Phassus, _Steph_.
+  signifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CYMATOPHORIDAE, _Herr. Sch_.
+
+Thyatira, _Ochs_.
+  repugnans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BRYOPHILIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Bryophila, _Treit_.
+  semipars, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BOMBYGOIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Diphtera, _Ochs_.
+  deceptura, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LEUCANIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Leucania, _Ochs_.
+  confusa, _Wlk_.
+  exempta, _Wlk_.
+  interens, _Wlk_.
+  collecta, _Wlk_.
+
+Brada, _Wlk_.
+  truncata, _Wlk_.
+
+Crambopsis, _Wlk_.
+  excludens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GLOTTULIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Polytela, _Guen_.
+  gloriosa, _Fabr_.
+
+Glottula, _Guen_.
+  Dominic, _Cram_.
+
+Chasmma, _Wlk_.
+  pavo, _Wlk_.
+  cygnus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. APAMIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Laphygma, _Guer_.
+  obstans, _Wlk_.
+  trajiciens, _Wlk_.
+
+Prodenia, _Guen_.
+  retina, _Friv_.
+  glaucistriga, _Wlk_.
+  apertura, _Wlk_.
+
+Calogramma, _Wlk_.
+  festiva, _Don_.
+
+Heliophobus, _Boisd_.
+  discrepans, _Wlk_.
+
+Hydraecia, _Guer_.
+  lampadifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Apamea, _Ochs_.
+  undecilia, _Wlk_.
+
+Celaena, _Steph_.
+  serva, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CARADRINIDAE, _Guer_.
+
+Amyna, _Guer_.
+  selenampha, _Guer_.
+
+Fam. NOCTUIDAE, _Guer_.
+
+Agrotis, _Ochs_.
+  aristifera, _Guer_.
+  congrua, _Wlk_.
+  punctipes, _Wlk_.
+  mundata, _Wlk_.
+  transducta, _Wlk_.
+  plagiata, _Wlk_.
+  plagifera, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HADENIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Eurois, _Huebn_.
+  auriplena, _Wlk_.
+  inclusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Epiceia, _Wlk_.
+  subsignata, _Wlk_.
+
+Hadena, _Treit_.
+  subcurva, _Wlk_.
+  postica, _Wlk_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  confundens, _Wlk_.
+  congressa, _Wlk_.
+  ruptistriga, _Wlk_.
+
+Ansa, _Wlk_.
+  filipalpis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. XYLINIDAE, _Guen._
+
+Ragada, _Wlk_.
+  pyrorchroma, _Wlk._
+
+Cryassa, _Wlk_.
+  bifacies, _Wlk_.
+
+Egelista, _Wlk_.
+ rudivitta, _Wlk_.
+
+Xylina, _Ochs_.
+  deflexa, _Wlk_.
+  inchoans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HELIOTHIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Heliothis, _Ochs_.
+  armigera, _Huebn_.
+
+Fam. HEMEROSIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Ariola, _Wlk_.
+  coelisigna, _Wlk_.
+  dilectissima, _Wlk_.
+  saturata, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ACONTIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Xanthodes, _Guen_.
+  intersepta, _Guen_.
+
+Acontia, _Ochs_.
+  tropica, _Guen_.
+  olivacea, _Wlk_.
+  fasciculosa, _Wlk_.
+  signifera, _Wlk_.
+  turpis, _Wlk_.
+  mianoeides, _Wlk_.
+  approximans, _Wlk_.
+  divulsa, _Wlk_.
+  *egens, _Wlk_.
+  plenicosta, _Wlk_.
+  determinata, _Wlk_.
+  hypaetroides, _Wlk_.
+
+Chlumetia, _Wlk_.
+  multilinea, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ANTHOPILIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Micra, _Guen_.
+  destituta, _Wlk_.
+  derogata, _Wlk_.
+  simplex, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ERIOPIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Callopistria, _Huebn_.
+  exotiac, _Guen_.
+  rivularis, _Wlk_.
+  duplicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EURHIPIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Penicillaria, _Guen_.
+  nugatrix, _Guen_.
+  resoluta, _Wlk_.
+  solida, _Wlk_.
+  lodatrix, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhesala, _Wlk_.
+  imparata, _Wlk_.
+
+Eutelia, _Huebn_.
+  favillatrix, _Wlk_.
+  thermesiides, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PLUSIIDAE, _Boisd_.
+
+Abrostola, _Ochs_.
+  transfixa, _Wlk_.
+
+Plusia, _Ochs_.
+  aurilera, _Huebn_.
+  verticillata, _Guen_.
+  agramma, _Guen_.
+  obtusisigna, _Wlk_.
+  nigriluna, _Wlk_.
+  signata, _Wlk_.
+  dispellens, _Wlk_.
+  propulsa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CALPIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Calpe, _Treit_.
+  minuticornis, _Guen_.
+
+Oroesia, _Guen_.
+  emarginata, _Fabr_.
+
+Deva, _Wlk_.
+  conducens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HEMICERIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Westermannia, _Huebn_.
+  supberba, _Huebn_.
+
+Fam. HYBLAEIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Hyblaea, _Guen_.
+  Puera, _Cram_.
+  constellica, _Guen_.
+
+Nolasena, _Wlk_.
+  ferrifervens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GONOPTERIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Cosmophila, _Boisd_.
+  Indica, _Guen_.
+  xanthindvina, _Boisd_.
+
+Anomis, _Huebn_.
+  fulvida, _Guen_.
+  icomea, _Wlk_.
+
+Gonitis, _Guen_.
+  combinans, _Wlk_.
+  albitibia, _Wlk_.
+  mesogona, _Wlk_.
+  guttanivis, _Wlk_.
+  involuta, _Wlk_.
+  basalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Eporedia, _Wlk_.
+  damnipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Rusicada, _Wlk_.
+  nigritarsis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pasipeda, _Wlk_.
+  rutipalpis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TOXOCAMPIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Toxocampa, _Guen_.
+  metaspila, _Wlk_.
+  sexlinea, _Wlk_.
+  quinquelina, _Wlk_.
+
+Albonica, _Wlk_.
+  reversa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. POLYDESMIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Polydesma, _Boisd_.
+  boarmoides, _Wlk_.
+  erubescens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HOMOPTERIDAE, _Bois_.
+
+Alamis, _Guen_.
+  spoliata, _Wlk_.
+
+Homoptera, _Boisd_.
+  basipallens, _Wlk_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+  costifera, _Wlk_.
+  divisistriga, _Wlk_.
+  procumbens, _Wlk_.
+
+Diacuista, _Wlk_.
+  homopteroides, _Wlk_.
+
+Daxata, _Wlk_.
+  bijungens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYPOGRAMMIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Briarda, _Wlk_.
+  precedens, _Wlk_.
+
+Brana, _Wlk_.
+  calopasa, _Wlk_.
+
+Corsa, _Wlk_.
+  lignicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Avatha, _Wlk_.
+  includens, _Wlk_.
+
+Gadirtha, _Wlk_.
+  decrescens, _Wlk_.
+  impingens, _Wlk_.
+  spurcata, _Wlk_.
+  rectifera, _Wlk_.
+  duplicans, _Wlk_.
+  intrusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Ercheia, _Wlk_.
+  diversipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Plotheia, _Wlk_.
+  frontalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Diomea, _Wlk_.
+  rotundata, _Wlk_.
+  chloromela, _Wlk_.
+  orbicularis, _Wlk_.
+  muscosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Dinumma, _Wlk_.
+  placens, _Wlk_.
+
+Lusia, _Wlk_.
+  geometroids, _Wlk_.
+  perficita, _Wlk_.
+  replusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Abunis, _Wlk_.
+  trimesa, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CATEPHIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Cocytodes, _Guen_.
+  coerula, _Guen_.
+  modesta, _Wlk_.
+
+Catephia, _Ochs_.
+  linteola, _Guen_.
+
+Anophia, _Guen_.
+  acronyctoids, _Guen_.
+
+Steiria, _Wlk_.
+  subobliqua, _Wlk_.
+  trajiciens, _Wlk_.
+
+Aucha, _Wlk_.
+  velans, _Wlk_.
+
+AEgilia, _Wlk_.
+  describens, _Wlk_.
+
+Maceda, _Wlk_.
+  mansueta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYPOCALIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Hypocala, _Guen_.
+  efflorescens, _Guen_.
+  subsatura, _Guen_.
+
+Fam. CATOCALIDAE, _Boisd_.
+
+Blenina, _Wlk_.
+  donans, _Wlk_.
+  accipiens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. OPHIDERIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Ophideres, _Boisd_.
+  Materna, _Linn._
+  fullonica, _Linn._
+  Cajeta, _Cram_.
+  Ancilla, _Cram_.
+  Salaminia, _Cram_.
+  Hypermnestra, _Cram_.
+  multiscripta, _Wlk_.
+  bilineosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Potamophera, _Guen_.
+  Maulia, _Cram_.
+
+Lygniodes, _Guen_.
+  reducens, _Wlk_.
+  disparans, _Wlk_.
+  hypolenca, _Guen_.
+
+Fam. EREBIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Oxyodes, _Guen_.
+  Clytia, _Cram_.
+
+Fam. OMMATOPHORIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Speiredonia, _Huebn_.
+  retrahens, _Wlk_.
+
+Sericia, _Guen_.
+  atrops, _Guen_.
+  parvipennis, _Wlk_.
+
+Patula, _Guen_.
+  macrops, _Linn._
+
+Argiva, _Huebn_.
+  hieroglyphica, _Drury_.
+
+Beregra, _Wlk_.
+  replenens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYPOPYRIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Spiramia, _Guen_.
+  Heliconia, _Huebn_.
+  triloba, _Guen_.
+
+Hypopyra, _Guen_.
+  vespertilio, _Fabr_.
+
+Ortospana, _Wlk_.
+  connectens, _Wlk_.
+
+Entomogramma, _Guen_.
+  fautrix, _Guen_.
+
+Fam. BENDIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Homaea, _Guen_.
+  clathrum, _Guen_.
+
+Hulodes, _Guen_.
+  caranea, _Cram_.
+  palumba, _Guen_.
+
+Fam. OPHIUSIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Sphingomorpha, _Guen_.
+  Chlorea, _Cram_.
+
+Lagoptera, _Guen_.
+  honesta, _Huebn_.
+  magica, _Huebn_.
+  dotata, _Fabr_.
+
+Ophiodes, _Guen_.
+  discriminans, _Wlk_.
+  basistigma, _Wlk_.
+
+Cerbia, _Wlk_.
+  fugitiva, _Wlk_.
+
+Ophisma, _Guen_.
+  laetabilis, _Guen_.
+  deficiens, _Wlk_.
+  gravata, _Wlk_.
+  circumferens, _Wlk_.
+  terminans, _Wlk_.
+
+Achaea, _Huebn_.
+  Melicerta, _Drury_.
+  Mezentia, _Cram_.
+  Cyllota, _Guen_.
+  Cyllaria, _Cram_.
+  fusifera, _Wlk_.
+  signivitta, _Wlk_.
+  reversa, _Wlk_.
+  combinans, _Wlk_.
+  expectans, _Wlk_.
+
+Serrodes, _Guen_.
+  campana, _Guen_.
+
+Naxia, _Guen_.
+  absentimacula, _Guen_.
+  Onelia, _Guen_.
+  calefaciens, _Wlk_.
+  calorifica, _Wlk_.
+
+Catesia, _Guen_.
+  hoemorrhoda, _Guen_.
+
+Hypaetra, _Guen_.
+  trigonifera, _Wlk_.
+  curvifera, _Wlk_.
+  condita, _Wlk_.
+  complacens, _Wlk_.
+  divisa, _Wlk_.
+
+Ophiusa, _Ochs_.
+  myops, _Guen_.
+  albivitta, _Guen_.
+  Achatina, _Sulz_.
+  fulvotaenia, _Guen_.
+  simillima, _Guen_.
+  festinata, _Wlk_.
+  pallidilinea, _Wlk_.
+  luteipalpis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fodina, _Guen_.
+  stola, _Guen_.
+
+Grammodes, _Guen_.
+  Ammonia, _Cram_.
+  Mygdon, _Cram_.
+  stolida, _Fabr_.
+  mundicolor, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EUCLIDIDAE, _Guen_.
+Trigonodes, _Guen_.
+  Hippasia, _Cram_.
+
+Fam. REMIGIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Remigia, _Guen_.
+  Archesia, _Cram_.
+  frugalis, _Fabr_.
+  pertendens, _Wlk_.
+  congregata, _Wlk_.
+  opturata, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. FOCILLIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Focilla, _Guen_.
+  submemorans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. AMPHIGANIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Lacera, _Guen_.
+  capella, _Guen_.
+
+Amphigonia, _Guen_.
+  hepatizans, _Guen_.
+
+Fam. THERMISIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Sympis, _Guen_.
+  rutibasis, _Guen_.
+
+Thermesia, _Huebn_.
+  finipalpis, _Wlk_.
+  soluta, _Wlk_.
+
+Azazia, _Wlk_.
+  rubricans, _Boisd_.
+
+Selenis, _Guen_.
+  nivisapex, _Wlk_.
+  multiguttata, _Wlk_.
+  semilux, _Wlk_.
+
+Ephyrodes, _Guen_.
+  excipiens, _Wlk_.
+  crististera, _Wlk_.
+  lineitera, _Wlk_.
+
+Capnodes, _Guen_.
+  *maculicosta, _Wlk_.
+
+Ballatha, _Wlk_.
+  atrotumens, _Wlk_.
+
+Daranissa, _Wlk_.
+  digramma, _Wlk_.
+
+Darsa, _Wlk_.
+  detectissima, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. URAPTERYDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Lagyra, _Wlk_.
+  Talaca, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ENNOMIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Hyperythra, _Guen_.
+  limbolaria, _Guen_.
+
+Orsonoba, _Wlk_.
+  Rajaca, _Wlk_.
+
+Fascelima, _Wlk_.
+  chromataria, _Wlk_.
+
+Laginia, _Wlk_.
+  bractiaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BOARMIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Amblychia, _Guen_.
+  angeronia, _Guen_.
+  poststrigaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Boarmia, _Treit_.
+  sublavaria, _Guen_.
+  admissaria, _Guen_.
+  raptaria, _Wlk_.
+  Medasina, _Wlk_.
+  Bhurmitra, _Wlk_.
+  Suiasasa, _Wlk_.
+  diffluaria, _Wlk_.
+  caritaria, _Wlk_.
+  exclusaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Hypochroma, _Guen_.
+  minimaria, _Guen_.
+
+Gnophos, _Treit_.
+  Pulinda, _Wlk_.
+  Culataria, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemerophila, _Steph_.
+  vidhisara, _Wlk_.
+
+Agathia, _Guen_.
+  blandiaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Bulonga, _Wlk_.
+  Ajaia, _Wlk_.
+  Chacoraca, _Wlk_.
+  Chandubija, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GEOMETRIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Geometra, _Linn._
+  specularia, _Guen_.
+  Nanda, _Wlk_.
+
+Nemoria, _Hubn_.
+  caudularia, _Guen_.
+  solidaria, _Guen_.
+
+Thalassodes, _Guen_.
+  quadraria, _Guen_.
+  catenaria, _Wlk_.
+  immissaria, _Wlk_.
+  Sisunaga, _Wlk_.
+  adornataria, _Wlk_.
+  meritaria, _Wlk_.
+  coelataria, _WlK_.
+  gratularia, _Wlk_.
+  chlorozonaria, _Wlk_.
+  laesaria, _Wlk_.
+  simplicaria, _Wlk_.
+  immissaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Comibaena, _Wlk_.
+  Divapala, _Wlk_.
+  impulsaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Celenna, _Wlk_.
+  saturaturia, _Wlk_.
+
+Pseudoterpna, _Wlk_.
+  Vivilaca, _Wlk_.
+
+Amaurima, _Guen_.
+  rubrolimbaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PALYADAE, _Guen_.
+
+Eumelea, _Dunc_.
+  ludovicata, _Guen_.
+  aureliata, _Guen_.
+  *carnearia, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EPHYRIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Ephyra, _Dap_.
+  obrinaria, _Wlk_.
+  decursaria, _Wlk_.
+  Cacavena, _Wlk_.
+  abhadraca, _Wlk_.
+  Vasudeva, _Wlk_.
+  Susarmana, _Wlk_.
+  Vutumana, _Wlk_.
+  inaequata, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ACIDALIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Drapetodes, _Guen_.
+  mitaria, _Guen_.
+
+Pomasia, _Guen_.
+  Psylaria, _Guen_.
+  Sunandaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Acidaria, _Treit_.
+  obliviaria, _Wlk_.
+  adeptaria, _Wlk_.
+  nexiaria, _Wlk_.
+  addictaria, _Wlk_.
+  actiosaria, _Wlk_.
+  defamataria, _Wlk_.
+  negataria, _Wlk_.
+  actuaria, _Wlk_.
+  caesaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Cabera, _Steph_.
+  falsaria, _Wlk_.
+  decussaria, _Wlk_.
+  famularia, _Wlk_.
+  nigrarenaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Hyria, _Steph_.
+  elataria, _Wlk_.
+  marcidaria, _Wlk_.
+  oblataria, _Wlk_.
+  grataria, _Wlk_.
+  rhodinaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Timandra, _Dup_.
+  Ajura, _Wlk_.
+  Vijura, _Wlk_.
+
+Agyris, _Guen_.
+  deharia, _Guen_.
+
+Zanclopteryx, _Herr. Sch_.
+  saponaria, _Herr. Sch_.
+
+Fam. MICRONIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Micronia, _Guen_.
+  caudata, _Fabr_.
+  aculeata, _Guen_.
+
+Fam. MACARIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Macaria, _Curt_.
+  Eleonora, _Cram_.
+  Varisara, _Wlk_.
+  Rhagivata, _Wlk_.
+  Palaca, _Wlk_.
+  honestaria, _Wlk_.
+  Sangata, _Wlk_.
+  honoraria, _Wlk_.
+  cessaria, _Wlk_.
+  subcandaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Doava, _Wlk_.
+  adjutaria, _Wlk_.
+  figuraria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LARENTIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Sauris, _Guen_.
+  hirudinata, _Guen_.
+
+Camptogramma, _Steph_.
+  baceata, _Guen_.
+
+Blemyia, _Wlk_.
+  Bataca, _Wlk_.
+  blitiaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Corenna, _Guen_.
+  Comatina, _Wlk_.
+
+Lobophora, _Curt_.
+  Salisnea, _Wlk_.
+  Ghosha, _Wlk_.
+  contributaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Mesogramma, _Steph_.
+  lactularia, _Wlk_.
+  scitaria, _WLk_.
+
+Eupithecia, _Curt_.
+  recensitaria, _Wlk_.
+  admixtaria, _Wlk_.
+  immixtaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Gathynia, _Wlk_.
+  miraria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PLATYDIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Trigonia, _Guen_.
+  Cydoniatis, _Cram_.
+
+Fam. HYPENIDAE, _Herr_.
+
+Dichromia, _Guen_.
+  Orosialis, _Cram_.
+
+Hypena, _Schr_.
+  rhombalis, _Guen_.
+  jocosalis, _Wlk_.
+  mandatalis, _Wlk_.
+  quaesitalis, _Wlk_.
+  laceratalis, _Wlk_.
+  iconicalis, _Wlk_.
+  labatalis, _Wlk_.
+  obacerralis, _Wlk_.
+  pactalis, _Wlk_.
+  raralis, _Wlk_.
+  paritalis, _Wlk_.
+  surreptalis, _Wlk_.
+  detersalis, _Wlk_.
+  ineffectalis, _Wlk_.
+  incongrualis, _Wlk_.
+  rubripunctum, _Wlk_.
+
+Gesonia, _Wlk_.
+ *obeditalis, _Wlk_.
+  duplex, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HERMINIDAE, _Dup_.
+
+Herminia, _Latr_.
+  Timonaris, _Wlk_.
+  diffusalis, _Wlk_.
+  interstans, _Wlk_.
+
+Adrapsa, _Wlk_.
+  ablualis, _Wlk_.
+
+Bertula, _Wlk_.
+  abjudicalis, _Wlk_.
+  raptatalis, _Wlk_.
+  contigens, _Wlk_.
+
+Bocana, _Wlk_.
+  jutalis, _Wlk_.
+  manifestalis, _Wlk_.
+  ophinsalis, _Wlk_.
+  vagalis, _Wlk_.
+  turpatalis, _Wlk_.
+  hypernalis, _Wlk_.
+  gravatalis, _Wlk_.
+  tomodalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Orthaga, _Wlk_.
+  Euadrusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Hipoepa, _Wlk_.
+  lapsalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Lamura, _Wlk_.
+  oberratans, _Wlk_.
+
+Echana, _Wlk_.
+  abavalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Dragana, _Wlk_.
+  pansalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pingrasa, _Wlk_.
+  accuralis, _Wlk_.
+
+Egnasia, _Wlk_.
+  ephiradalis, _Wlk_.
+  accingalis, _Wlk_.
+  participalis, _Wlk_.
+  usurpatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Berresa, _Wlk_.
+  natalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Imma, _Wlk_.
+  rugosalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Chusaris, _Wlk_.
+  retatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Corgatha, _Wlk_.
+  zonalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Catada, _Wlk_.
+  glomeralis, _Wlk_.
+  captiosalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PYRALADAE, _Guen_.
+
+Pyralis, _Linn._
+  igniflualis, _Wlk_.
+  Palesalis, _Wlk_.
+  reconditalis, _Wlk_.
+  Idahalis, _Wlk_.
+  Janassalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Aglossa, _Latr_.
+  Guidusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Labanda, _Wlk_.
+  herbealis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ENNYCHIDAE, _Dup._
+
+Pyrausta. _Schr._
+  *absistalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ASOPIDAE, _Guen_
+
+Desmia, _Westw_.
+  afflictalis, _Guen_.
+  concisalis, _Wlk_.
+
+AEdiodes, _Guen._.
+  flavibasalis. _Guen_.
+  effertalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Samea, _Guen_.
+  gratiosalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Asopia. _Guen_.
+  vulgalis, _Guen_.
+  falsidicalis, _Wlk_.
+  abruptalis, _Wlk_.
+  latim orginalis, _Wlk_.
+  praeteritalis, _Wlk_.
+  Eryxelis, _Wlk_.
+  rofidalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Agathodes, _Guen_.
+  ostentalis, _Geyer_.
+
+Leucinades, _Guen_.
+  orbonalis, _Guen_.
+
+Hymenia, _Huebn_.
+  recurvalis, _Fabr_.
+
+Agrotera, _Schr_.
+  suffusalis, _Wlk_.
+  decessalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Isopteryx, _Guen_.
+  *melaleucalis, _Wlk_.
+  *impulsalis, _Wlk_.
+  *spromelalis, _Wlk_.
+  acclaralis, _Wlk_.
+  abnegatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYDROCAMPIDAE, _Guen_.
+Oligostigma, _Guen_.
+  obitalis, _Wlk_.
+  votalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Cataclysia, _Herr Sch_.
+  diaicidalis, _Guen_.
+  bisectalis, _Wlk_.
+  blaudialis, _Wlk_.
+  elutalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SPILOMELIDAE, _Guen_.
+Lepyrodes, _Guen_.
+  geometralis, _Guen_.
+  lepidalis, _Wlk_.
+  peritalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Phalangiodes, _Guen_.
+  Neptisalis, _Cram_.
+
+Spilomela, _Guen_.
+  meritalis, _Wlk_.
+  abdicatis, _Wlk_.
+  decussalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Nistra, _Wlk_.
+  coelatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pagyda. _Wlk_.
+  salvalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Massepha, _Wlk_.
+  absolutalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. MARGORODIDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Glyphodes, _Guen_.
+  diurnalis, _Guen_.
+  decretalis, _Guen_.
+  coesalis, _Wlk_.
+  univocalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Phakellura, _L. Guild_.
+  gazorialis, _Guen_.
+
+Margarodes, _Guen_.
+  psittaealis, _Huebn_.
+  pomonalis, _Guen_.
+  hilaralis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pygospila, _Guen_.
+  Tyresalis, _Cram_.
+
+Neurina, _Guen_.
+  Procopalis, _Cram_.
+  ignibasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Hurgia, _Wlk_.
+  detamalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Maruca, _Wlk_.
+  ruptalis, _Wlk_.
+  caritalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. BOTYDAE, _Guen_.
+
+Botys, _Latr_.
+  marginalis, _Cram_.
+  sillalis, _Guen_.
+  multilineatis, _Guen_.
+  admensalis, _Wlk_.
+  abjungalis, _Wlk_.
+  rutilalis, _Wlk_.
+  admixtalis, _Wlk_.
+  celatalis, _Wlk_.
+  deductalis, _Wlk_.
+  celsalis, _Wlk_.
+  vulsalis, _Wlk_.
+  ultimalis, _Wlk_.
+  tropicalis, _Wlk_.
+  abstrusalis, _Wlk_.
+  ruralis, _Wlk_.
+  adhoesalis, _Wlk_.
+  illisalis, _Wlk_.
+  stultalis, _Wlk_.
+  adductalis, _Wlk_.
+  histricalis, _Wlk_.
+  illectalis, _Wlk_.
+  suspictalis, _Wlk_.
+  Janassalis, _Wlk_.
+  Cynaralis, _Wlk_.
+  Dialis, _Wlk_.
+  Thaisalis, _Wlk_.
+  Dryopealis, _Wlk_.
+  Myrinalis, _Wlk_.
+  phycidalis, _Wlk_.
+  annulalis, _Wlk_.
+  brevilinealis, _Wlk_.
+  plagiatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Ebulea, _Guen_.
+  aberratalis, _Wlk_.
+  Camillalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pionea, _Guen_.
+  actualis, _Wlk_.
+  Optiletalis, _Wlk_.
+  Jubesalis, _Wlk_.
+  brevialis, _Wlk_.
+  suffusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Scopula, _Schr_.
+  revocatalis, _Wlk_.
+  turgidalis, _Wlk_.
+  volutatalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Godara, _Wlk_.
+  pervasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Herculia, _Wlk_.
+  bractialis, _Wlk_.
+
+Mecyna. _Guen_.
+  deprivalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SCOPARIDAE, _Guen_.
+Scoparia. _Haw_.
+  murificalis, _Wlk_.
+  congestalis, _Wlk_.
+  Alconalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Davana. _Wlk_.
+  Phalantalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Darsania, _Wlk_.
+  Niobesalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Dosara. _Wlk_.
+  coelatella, _Wlk_.
+  lapsalis, _Wlk_.
+  immeritalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHOREUTIDAE, _Staint_.
+
+Niaccaba. _Wlk_.
+  sumptialis, _Wlk_.
+
+Simaethis. _Leach_.
+  Clatella, _Wlk_.
+  Damonella, _Wlk_.
+  Bathusella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PHYCIDAE, _Staint_.
+
+Myelois, _Huebn_.
+  actiosella, _Wlk_.
+  bractiatella, _Wlk_.
+  cantella, _Wlk_.
+  adaptella, _Wlk_.
+  illusella, _Wlk_.
+  basifuscella, _Wlk_.
+  Ligeralis, _Wlk_.
+  Marsyasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Dascusa, _Wlk_.
+  Valensalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Daroma, _Wlk_.
+  Zeuxoalis, _Wlk_.
+  Epulusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Timeusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Homoesoma, _Curt_.
+  gratella, _Wlk_.
+ Getusella, _Wlk_.
+
+Nephopteryx, _Huebn_.
+  Etolusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Cyllusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Hylasalis, _Wlk_.
+  Acisalis, _Wlk_.
+  Harpaxalis, _Wlk_.
+  AEolusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Argiadesalis, _Wlk_.
+  Philiasalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pempelia, _Huebn_.
+  laudatella, _Wlk_.
+
+Prionapteryx, _Steph_.
+  Lincusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Pindicitora, _Wlk_.
+  Acreonalis, _Wlk_.
+  Annusalis, _Wlk_.
+  Thysbesalis, _Wlk_.
+  Linceusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Lacipea, _Wlk_.
+  muscosella, _Wlk_.
+
+Araxes, _Steph_.
+  admotella, _Wlk_.
+  decusella, _Wlk_.
+  celsella, _Wlk_.
+  admigratella, _Wlk_.
+  coesella, _Wlk_.
+  candidatella, _Wlk_.
+Catagela, _Wlk_.
+  adjurella, _Wlk_.
+  acricuella, _Wlk_.
+  lunulella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CRAMBIDAE, _Dup_.
+
+Crambus, _Fabr_.
+  concinellus, _Wlk_.
+
+Darbhaca, _Wlk_.
+  inceptella, _Wlk_.
+
+Jartheza, _Wlk_.
+  honosella, _Wlk_.
+
+Bulina, _Wlk_.
+  solitella, _Wlk_.
+
+Bembina, _Wlk_.
+  Cyanusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Chilo, _Zinck_.
+  dodatella, _Wlk_.
+  gratiosella, _Wlk_.
+  aditella, _Wlk_.
+  blitella, _Wlk_.
+
+Dariausa, _Wlk_.
+  Eubusalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Arrhade, _Wlk_.
+  Ematheonalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Darnensis, _Wlk_.
+  Strephonella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHLOEPHORIDAE. _Staint_.
+
+Thagora, _Wlk_.
+  tigurans, _Wlk_.
+
+Earias, _Huebn_.
+  chromatana, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TORTRICIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Lozotaenia, _Steph_.
+  retractana, _Wlk_.
+
+Peronea, _Curt_.
+  divisana, _Wlk_.
+
+Lithogramma, _Steph_.
+  flexilineana, _Wlk_.
+
+Dictyopteryx, _Steph_.
+  punctana, _Wlk_.
+
+Homona, _Wlk_.
+  fasciculana, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemonia, _Wlk_.
+  obiterana, _Wlk_.
+
+Achroia, _Huebn_.
+  tricingulana, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. YPONOMEUTIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Atteva, _Wlk_.
+  niveigutta, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GELICHIDAE, _Staint_.
+
+Depressaria, _Haw_.
+  obligatella, _Wlk_.
+  fimbriella, _Wlk_.
+
+Decuaria, _Wlk_.
+  mendicella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gelechia, _Huebn_.
+  nugatella, _Wlk_.
+  calatella, _Wlk_.
+  deductella, _Wlk_.
+  Perionella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gizama, _Wlk_.
+  blandiella, _Wlk_.
+
+Enisima, _Wlk_.
+  falsella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gapharia, _Wlk_.
+  recitatella, _Wlk_.
+
+Goesa. _Wlk_.
+  decusella, _Wlk_.
+
+Cimitra, _Wlk_.
+  secinsella, _Wlk_.
+
+Ficulea, _Wlk_.
+  blandinella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fresilia, _Wlk_.
+  nesciatella, _Wlk_.
+
+Gesontha, _Wlk_.
+  cantiosella, _Wlk_.
+
+Aginis, _Wlk_.
+  hilariella, _Wlk_.
+
+Cadra, _Wlk_.
+  delectella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. GLYPHYPTIDAE, _Staint_.
+
+Glyphyteryx, _Huebn_.
+  scitulella, _Wlk_.
+
+Hybele, _Wlk_.
+  mansuetella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TINEIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Tinea, _Linn._
+  tapetzella, _Linn._
+  receptella, _Wlk_.
+  pelionella, _Linn._
+  plagiferella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LYONETIDAE, _Staint_.
+
+Cachura, _Wlk_.
+  objectella, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PTEROPHORIDAE, _Zell_.
+
+Pterophorus, _Geoffr_.
+  leucadacivius, _Wlk_.
+  oxydactylus, _Wlk_.
+  anisodactylus, _Wlk_.
+
+
+
+Order DIPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. MYCETOPHILIDAE, _Hal_.
+
+Sciara, _Meig_.
+  *valida, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CECIDOMYZIDAE, _Hal_.
+
+Cecidomyia, _Latr_.
+  *primaria, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SIMULIDAE, _Hal_.
+
+Simulium, _Latr_.
+  *destinatum, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CHIRONOMIDAE, _Hal_.
+
+Ceratopogon, _Meig_.
+  *albocinctus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CULICIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Culex, _Linn._
+  regius, _Thwaites_.
+  fuscanns, _Wlk_.
+  circumvolans, _Wlk_.
+  contrahens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TIPULIDAE, _Hal_.
+
+Ctenophora, _Fabr_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+Gymnoplistia? _Westw_.
+  hebes, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. STRATIOMIDAE, _Latr_.
+
+Ptilocera, _Wied_.
+  quadridentata, _Fabr_.
+  tastuosa, _Geist_.
+
+Pachygaster, _Meig_.
+  rutitarsis, _Macq_.
+
+Acanthina, _Wied_.
+  azurea, _Geist_.
+
+Fam. TABANIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Pangonia, _Latr_.
+  Taprobanes, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Fam. ASILIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Trupanea, _Macq_.
+  Ceylanica _Macq_.
+
+Asilus, _Linn._
+  flavicornis, _Macq_.
+  Barium, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Fam. DOLICHOPIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Psilopus, _Meig_.
+  *procuratus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. MUSCIDAE, _Latr_.
+
+Tachina? _Fabr_.
+ *tenebrosa, _Wlk_.
+
+Musca. _Linn._
+  domestica, _Linn._
+
+Dacus, _Fabr_.
+  *interclusus, _Wlk_.
+  *nigroaeneus, _Wlk_.
+  *detentus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ortalis, _*Fall_.
+  *confundens, _Wlk_.
+
+Sciomyza, _Fall_.
+  eucotelus, _Wlk_.
+
+Drosophila, _*Fall_.
+  *restituens, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. NYCTERIBIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Nycteribia, _Latr_.
+   ----? a species
+     parasitic on Scatophilus
+     Coromandelicus,
+     _Bligh_.
+
+
+
+Order HEMIPTERA, _Linn._
+
+Fam. PACHYCORIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Cantuo, _Amyot & Serv_.
+  ocellatus, _Thunb_.
+
+Callidea, _Lap_.
+  superba, _Dall_.
+  Stockerus, _Linn._
+
+Fam. EURYGASTERIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Trigonosoma, _Lap_.
+  Destontainii, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. PLATASPIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Coptosoma, _Lap_.
+  laticeps, _Dall_.
+
+Fam. HALYDIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Halys, _Fabr_.
+  dentata, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. PENTATOMIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Pentatoma, _Oliv_.
+  Timorensis, _Hope_.
+  Taprobanensis, _Dall_.
+
+Catacanthus, _Spin_.
+  Incarnatus, _Drury_.
+
+Rhaphigaster, _Lap_.
+  congrua, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. EDESSIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Aspongopus, _Lap_.
+  anus, _Fabr_.
+
+Tesseratoma, _Lep. & Serv_.
+  papillosa, _Drury_.
+
+Cyclopelta, _Am. & Serv_.
+  siccifolia, _Hope_.
+
+Fam. PHYLLOCEPHALIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Phyllocephala, _Lap_.
+  AEgyptiaca, _Lefeb_.
+
+Fam. MICTIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Mictis, _Leach_.
+  castanea, _Dall_.
+  valida, _Dall_.
+  punctum, _Hope_.
+
+Crinocerus, _Burm_.
+  ponderosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ANISOSCELIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Leptoscelis, _Lap_.
+  ventralis, _Dall_.
+  turpis, _Wlk_.
+  marginalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Serinetha, _Spin_.
+  Taprobanensis, _Dall_.
+  abdominalis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. ALYDIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Alydus, _Fabr_.
+  linearis, _Fabr_.
+
+Fam. STENOCEPHALIDAE, _Dall_.
+
+Leptocorisa, _Latr_.
+  Chinensis, _Dall_.
+
+Fam. COREIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Rhopalus, _Schill_.
+  interruptus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. LYGAEIDAE, _Westw_.
+
+Lygaeus, _Fabr_.
+  lutescens, _Wlk_.
+  figuratus, _Wlk_.
+  discifer, _Wlk_.
+
+Rhyparochromus, _Curt_.
+  testacelpes, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ARADIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Piestosoma, _Lap_.
+  pierpes, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TINGIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Calloniana, _Wlk_.
+  *elegans, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CIMICIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Cimex, _Linn._
+  lectularius, _Linn._?
+
+Fam. REDUVIIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Pirates, _Burm_.
+  marginatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Acanthaspis, _Am. & Serv_.
+  sanguimpes, _Wlk_.
+ fulvispina, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. HYDROMETRIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Ptilomera, _Am. & Serv_.
+  laticanda, _Hardw_.
+
+Fam. NEPIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Belostoma, _Latr_.
+  Indicum, _St. Farg_.
+
+Nepa, _Linn._
+  minor, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. NOTONECTIDAE, _Steph_.
+
+Notonecta, _Linn._
+  abbreviata, _Wlk_.
+  simplex, _Wlk_.
+
+Corixa, _Geoff._
+  *subjacens, _Wlk_.
+
+
+Order HOMOPTERA, _Latr_.
+
+Fam. CICADIDAE, _Westw_.
+
+Dundubia, _Am. & Serv_.
+  stipata, _Wlk_.
+  Clonia, _Wlk_.
+  Larus, _Wlk_.
+
+Cicada, _Linn._
+  limitaris, _Wlk_.
+  nubifurca, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. FULGORIDAE, _Schaum_.
+
+Hotinus, _Am. & Serv_.
+  maculatus, _Oliv_.
+  fulvirostris, _Wlk_.
+  coccineus, _Wlk_.
+
+Pyrops, _Spin_.
+  punctata, _Oliv_.
+
+Aphaena, _Guer_.
+  sanguinalis, _Westw_.
+
+Elidiptera, _Spin_.
+  Emersoniana, _White_.
+
+Fam. CIXIIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Eurybrachys, _Guer_.
+  tomentosa, _Fabr_.
+  dilatata, _Wlk_.
+  crudelis, _Westw_.
+
+Cixius, _Latr_.
+  *nubilus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. ISSIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Hemisphaerius, _Schaum_.
+  *Schaumi, _Staf_.
+  *bipustulatus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. DERBIDAE, _Schaum_.
+
+Thracia, _Westw_.
+  pterophorides, _Westw_.
+
+Derbe, _Fabr_.
+  *furcato-vittata, _Stal_.
+
+Fam. FLATTIDAE, _Schaum_.
+
+Flatoides, _Guer_.
+  hyalinus, _Fabr_.
+  tenebrosus, _Wlk_.
+
+Ricania, _Germ_.
+  Hemerobii, _Wlk_.
+
+Poeciloptera, _Latr_.
+  pulvernlenta, _Guer_.
+  stellaris, _Wlk_.
+  Tennentina, _White_.
+
+Fam. MEMBRACIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Oxyrhachis, _Germ_.
+  *indicans, _Wlk_.
+
+Centrotus, _Fabr_.
+  *reponens, _Wlk_.
+  *malleus, _Wlk_.
+  substitutus, _Wlk_.
+  *decipiens, _Wlk_.
+  *relinquens, _Wlk_.
+  *imitator, _Wlk_.
+  *repressus, _Wlk_.
+  *terminalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. CERCOPIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Cercopis, _Fabr_.
+  inclusa, _Wlk_.
+
+Ptyelus, _Lep. & Serv_.
+  costalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. TETTIGONIIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Tettigonia, _Latr_.
+  paulula, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. SCARIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Ledra, _Fabr_.
+  rugosa, _Wlk_.
+  conica, _Wlk_.
+
+Gypona, _Germ_.
+  prasina, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. IASSIDAE, _Wlk_.
+
+Acocephalus, _Germ_.
+  porrectus, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. PSYLLIDAE, _Latr_.
+
+Psylla, _Goff_.
+  *marginalis, _Wlk_.
+
+Fam. COCCIDAE, _Leach_.
+
+Lecanium, _Illig_.
+  Coffeae, _Wlk_.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XIII.
+
+ARTICULATA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Arachinida--Myriopoda--Crustacea, etc._
+
+With a few striking exceptions, the true _spiders_ of Ceylon resemble in
+oeconomy and appearance those we are accustomed to see at home;--they
+frequent the houses, the gardens, the rocks and the stems of trees, and
+along the sunny paths, where the forest meets the open country, the
+_Epeira_ and her congeners, the true net-weaving spiders, extend their
+lacework, the grace of the designs being even less attractive than the
+beauty of the creatures that elaborate them.
+
+Such of them as live in the woods select with singular sagacity the
+bridle-paths and narrow passages for expanding their nets; perceiving no
+doubt that the larger insects frequent these openings for facility of
+movement through the jungle; and that the smaller ones are carried
+towards them by currents of air. Their nets are stretched across the
+path from four to eight feet above the ground, suspended from projecting
+shoots, and attached, if possible, to thorny shrubs; and they sometimes
+exhibit the most remarkable scenes of carnage and destruction. I have
+taken down a ball as large as a man's head consisting of successive
+layers rolled together, in the heart of which was the original den of
+the family, whilst the envelope was formed, sheet after sheet, by coils
+of the old web filled with the wings and limbs of insects of all
+descriptions, from large moths and butterflies to mosquitoes and minute
+coleoptera. Each layer appeared to have been originally hung across the
+passage to intercept the expected prey; and, when it had become
+surcharged with carcases, to have been loosened, tossed over by the wind
+or its own weight, and wrapped round the nucleus in the centre, the
+spider replacing it by a fresh sheet, to be in turn detached and added
+to the mass within.
+
+[Illustration: Spider]
+
+Separated by marked peculiarities both of structure and instinct, from
+the spiders which live in the open air, and busy themselves in providing
+food during the day, the _Mygale fasciata_ is not only sluggish in its
+habits, but disgusting in its form and dimensions. Its colour is a
+gloomy brown, interrupted by irregular blotches and faint bands (whence
+its trivial name); it is sparingly sprinkled with hairs, and its limbs,
+when expanded, stretch over an area of six to eight inches in diameter.
+It is familiar to Europeans in Ceylon, who have given it the name, and
+ascribed to it the fabulous propensities, of the Tarentula.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Species of the true _Tarentula_ are not uncommon in Ceylon;
+they are all of very small size, and perfectly harmless.]
+
+The Mygale is found abundantly in the northern and eastern parts of the
+island, and occasionally in dark unfrequented apartments in the western
+province; but its inclinations are solitary, and it shuns the busy
+traffic of towns.
+
+The largest specimens I have seen were at Gampola in the vicinity of
+Kandy, and one taken in the store-room of the rest-house there, nearly
+covered with its legs an ordinary-sized breakfast plate.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Plate opposite.]
+
+This hideous creature does not weave a broad web or spin a net like
+other spiders, but nevertheless it forms a comfortable mansion in the
+wall of a neglected building, the hollow of a tree, or under the eave of
+an overhanging stone. This it lines throughout with a tapestry of silk
+of a tubular form; and of a texture so exquisitely fine and closely
+woven, that no moisture can penetrate it. The extremity of the tube is
+carried out to the entrance, where it expands into a little platform,
+stayed by braces to the nearest objects that afford a firm hold. In
+particular situations, where the entrance is exposed to the wind, the
+mygale, on the approach of the monsoon, extends the strong tissue above
+it so as to serve as an awning to prevent the access of rain.
+
+The construction of this silken dwelling is exclusively designed for the
+domestic luxury of the spider; it serves no purpose in trapping or
+securing prey, and no external disturbance of the web tempts the
+creature to sally out to surprise an intruder, as the epeira and its
+congeners would.
+
+By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it issues at night to
+feed on larvae and worms, devouring cockroaches and their pupae, and
+attacking the millepeds, gryllotalpae, and other fleshy insects.
+
+Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD has described[1] an encounter between a Mygale and a
+cockroach, which he witnessed in the madua of a temple at Alittane,
+between Anarajapoora and Dambool. When about a yard apart, each
+discerned the other and stood still, the spider with his legs slightly
+bent and his body raised, the cockroach confronting him and directing
+his antennae with a restless undulation towards his enemy. The spider, by
+stealthy movements, approached to within a few inches and paused, both
+parties eyeing each other intently; then suddenly a rush, a scuffle, and
+both fell to the ground, when the blatta's wings closed, the spider
+seized it under the throat with his claws, and dragged it into a corner,
+when the action of his jaws was distinctly audible. Next morning Mr.
+Layard found that the soft parts of the body had been eaten, nothing but
+the head, thorax, and clytra remaining.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ May, 1853.]
+
+But, in addition to minor and ignoble prey, the Mygale rests under the
+imputation of seizing small birds and feasting on their blood. The
+author who first gave popular currency to this story was Madame MERIAN,
+a zoological artist of the last century, many of whose drawings are
+still preserved in the Museums of St. Petersburg, Holland, and England.
+In a work on the Insects of Surinam, published in 1705[1], she figured
+the _Mygale aricularia_, in the act of devouring a humming-bird. The
+accuracy of her statement has since been impugned[2] by a correspondent
+of the Zoological Society of London, on the ground that the mygale makes
+no net, but lives in recesses, to which no humming-bird would resort;
+and hence, the writer somewhat illogically declares, that he
+"disbelieves the existence of any bird-catching spider."
+
+[Footnote 1: _Dissertatio de Generatione et Metamorphosibus Insectorum
+Surinamensium_, Amst. 1701. Fol.]
+
+[Footnote 2: By Mr. MACLEAY in a paper communicated to the Zoological
+Society of London, _Proc._ 1834, p. 12.]
+
+Some years later, however, the same writer felt it incumbent on him to
+qualify this hasty conclusion[1], in consequence of having seen at
+Sydney an enormous spider, the _Epeira diadema_, in the act of sucking
+the juices of a bird (the _Zosterops dorsalis_ of Vigors and Horsfield),
+which, it had caught in the meshes of its geometrical net. This
+circumstance, however, did not in his opinion affect the case of the
+_Mygale_; and even as regards the _Epeira_, Mr. MacLeay, who witnessed
+the occurrence, was inclined to believe the instance to be accidental
+and exceptional; "an exception indeed so rare, that no other person had
+ever witnessed the fact."
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist._ for 1842, vol. viii. p.
+324.]
+
+Subsequent observation has, however, served to sustain the story of
+Madame Merian.[1] Baron Walckenaer and Latreille both corroborated it by
+other authorities; and M. Moreau da Jonnes, who studied the habits of
+the Mygale in Martinique, says it hunts far and wide in search of its
+prey, conceals itself beneath leaves for the purpose of surprising them,
+and climbs the branches of trees to devour the young of the
+humming-bird, and of the _Certhia flaveola_. As to its mode of attack,
+M. Jonnes says that when it throws itself on its victim it clings to it
+by the double hooks of its tarsi, and strives to reach the back of the
+head, to insert its jaws between the skull and the vertebrae.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: See authorities quoted by Mr. SHUCKARD in the _Ann. and
+Mag. of Nat. Hist._ 1842, vol. viii. p. 436, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 2: At a meeting of the Entomological Society, July 20, 1855, a
+paper was read by Mr. H.W. BATES, who stated that in 1849 at Cameta in
+Brazil, he "was attracted by a curious movement of the large grayish
+brown Mygale on the trunk of a vast tree: it was close beneath a deep
+crevice or chink in the tree, across which this species weaves a dense
+web, at one end open for its exit and entrance. In the present instance
+the lower part of the web was broken, and two small finches were
+entangled in its folds. The finch was about the size of the common
+Siskin of Europe, and he judged the two to be male and female; one of
+them was quite dead, but secured in the broken web; the other was under
+the body of the spider, not quite dead, and was covered in parts with a
+filthy liquor or saliva exuded by the monster. "The species of spider,"
+Mr. Bates says, "I cannot name; it is wholly of a gray brown colour, and
+clothed with coarse pile." "If the Mygales," he adds, "did not prey upon
+vertebrated animals, I do not see how they could find sufficient
+subsistence."--_The Zoologist_, vol. xiii. p. 480.]
+
+For my own part, no instance came to my knowledge in Ceylon of a mygale
+attacking a bird; but PERCIVAL, who wrote his account of the island in
+1805, describes an enormous spider (possibly an Epeirid) thinly covered
+with hair which "makes webs strong enough to entangle and hold even
+small birds that form its usual food."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: PERCIVAL'S _Ceylon_, p. 313.]
+
+The fact of its living on millepeds, blattae, and crickets, is
+universally known; and a lady who lived at Marandahn, near Colombo, told
+me that she had, on one occasion, seen a little house-lizard (_gecko_)
+seized and devoured by one of these ugly spiders.
+
+Walckenaer has described a spider of large size, under the name of _Olios
+Taprobanius_, which is very common in Ceylon, and conspicuous from the
+fiery hue of the under surface, the remainder being covered with gray
+hair so short and fine that the body seems almost denuded. It spins a
+moderate-sized web, hung vertically between two sets of strong lines,
+stretched one above the other athwart the pathways. Some of the threads
+thus carried horizontally from tree to tree at a considerable height
+from the ground are so strong as to cause a painful check across the
+face when moving quickly against them; and more than once in riding I
+have had my hat lifted off my head by one of these cords.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Over the country generally are scattered species of
+_Gasteracantha_, remarkable for their firm shell-covered bodies, with
+projecting knobs arranged in pairs. In habit these anomalous-looking
+_Epeirdae_ appear to differ in no respect from the rest of the family,
+waylaying their prey in similar situations and in the same manner.
+
+Another very singular subgenus, met with in Ceylon, is distinguished by
+the abdomen being dilated behind, and armed with two long spines,
+arching obliquely backwards. These abnormal kinds are not so handsomely
+coloured as the smaller species of typical form.]
+
+An officer in the East India Company's Service[1], in a communication to
+the Asiatic Society of Bengal, describes the gigantic web of a black and
+red spider six inches in diameter, (his description of which, both in
+colour and size, seems to point to some species closely allied to the
+_Olios Taprobanius_,) which he saw near Monghyr on the Ganges; in this
+web "a bird was entangled, and the young spiders, eight in number, and
+entirely of a brick red colour, were feeding on the carcase."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Capt. Sherwill.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, 1850, vol. xix. p. 475.]
+
+The voracious _Galeodes_ has not yet been noticed in Ceylon; but its
+carnivorous propensities are well known in those parts of Hindustan,
+where it is found, and where it lives upon crickets, coleoptera and
+other insects, as well as small lizards and birds. This "tiger of the
+insect world," as it has aptly been designated by a gentleman who was a
+witness to its ferocity[1], was seen to attack a young sparrow half
+grown, and seize it by the thigh, _which it sawed through_. The "savage
+then caught the bird by the throat, and put an end to its sufferings by
+cutting off its head." "On another occasion," says the same authority,
+"Dr. Baddeley confined one of these spiders under a glass wall-shade
+with two young musk-rats (_Sorex Indicus_), both of which it destroyed."
+It must be added, however, that neither in the instance of the bird, of
+the lizard, or the rats, did the galeodes devour its prey after killing
+it.
+
+[Footnote 1: Capt. Hutton. See a paper on the _Galeodes vorae_ in the
+_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. xi. Part 11. p. 860.]
+
+In the hills around Pusilawa, I have seen the haunts of a curious
+species of long-legged spiders[1], popularly called "harvest-men," which
+congregate in hollow trees and in holes in the banks by the roadside, in
+groups of from fifty to a hundred, that to a casual observer look like
+bunches of horse-hair. This appearance is produced by the long and
+slender legs of these creatures, which are of a shining black, whilst
+their bodies, so small as to be mere specks, are concealed beneath them.
+The same spider is found in the low country near Galle, but there it
+shows no tendency to become gregarious. Can it be that they thus
+assemble in groups in the hills for the sake of accumulated warmth at
+the cool altitude of 4000 feet?
+
+[Footnote 1: _Phalangium bisignatum_.]
+
+_Ticks_.--Ticks are to be classed among the intolerable nuisances to the
+Ceylon traveller. They live in immense numbers in the jungle[1], and
+attaching themselves to the plants by the two forelegs, lie in wait to
+catch at unwary animals as they pass. A shower of these diminutive
+vermin will sometimes drop from a branch, if unluckily shaken, and
+disperse themselves over the body, each fastening on the neck, the ears,
+and eyelids, and inserting a barbed proboscis. They burrow, with their
+heads pressed as far as practicable under the skin, causing a sensation
+of smarting, as if particles of red hot sand had been scattered over the
+flesh. If torn from their hold, the suckers remain behind and form an
+ulcer. The only safe expedient is to tolerate the agony of their
+penetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the juice of a lime can be
+applied, when these little furies drop off without further ill
+consequences. One very large species, dappled with grey, attaches itself
+to the buffaloes.
+
+[Footnote 1: Dr. HOOKER, in his _Himalayan Journal_, vol. i. p. 279, in
+speaking of the multitude of those creatures in the mountains of Nepal,
+wonders what they tend to feed on, as in these humid forests in which
+they literally swarmed, there was neither pathway nor animal life. In
+Ceylon they abound everywhere in the plains on the low brush-wood; and
+in the very driest seasons they are quite as numerous as at other times.
+In the mountain zone, which is more humid, they are less prevalent. Dogs
+are tormented by them: and they display something closely allied to
+cunning in always fastening on an animal in those parts where they
+cannot be torn off by his paws; on his eye-brows, the tips of his ears,
+and the back of his neck. With a corresponding instinct I have always
+observed in the gambols of the Pariah dogs, that they invariably
+commence their attentions by mutually gnawing each other's ears and
+necks, as if in pursuit of ticks from places from which each is unable
+to expel them for himself. Horses have a similar instinct; and when they
+meet, they apply their teeth to the roots of the ears of their
+companions, to the neck and the crown of the head. The buffaloes and
+oxen are relieved of ticks by the crows which rest on their backs as
+they browse, and free them from these pests. In the low country the same
+acceptable office is performed by the "cattle-keeper heron" (_Ardea
+bubulcus_), which is "sure to be found in attendance on them while
+grazing; and the animals seem to know their benefactors, and stand
+quietly, while the birds peck their tormentors from their
+flanks."--_Mag. Nat. Hist._ p. 111, 1844.]
+
+_Mites_.--The _Trombidium tinctorum_ of Hermann is found about Aripo,
+and generally over the northern provinces,--where after a shower of rain
+or heavy night's dew, they appear in countless myriads. It is about half
+an inch long, like a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts its colouring
+matter readily to any fluid in which it may be immersed. It feeds on
+vegetable juices, and is perfectly innocuous. Its European
+representative, similarly tinted, and found in garden mould, is commonly
+called the "Little red pillion."
+
+MYRIAPODS.--The certainty with which an accidental pressure or unguarded
+touch is resented and retorted by a bite, makes the centipede, when it
+has taken up its temporary abode, within a sleeve or the fold of a
+dress, by far the most unwelcome of all the Singhalese assailants. The
+great size, too (little short of a foot in length), to which it
+sometimes attains, renders it formidable, and, apart from the
+apprehension of unpleasant consequences from a wound, one shudders at
+the bare idea of such a hideous creature crawling over the skin, beneath
+the innermost folds of one's garments.
+
+[Illustration: CERMATIA.]
+
+At the head of the _Myriapods_, and pre-eminent from a
+superiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus _Cermatia_:
+singular-looking objects; mounted upon slender legs, of gradually
+increasing length from front to rear, the hind ones in some species
+being amazingly prolonged, and all handsomely marked with brown annuli
+in concentric arches. These myriapods are harmless, excepting to
+woodlice, spiders, and young cockroaches, which form their ordinary
+prey. They are rarely to be seen; but occasionally at daybreak, after a
+more than usually abundant repast, they may be observed motionless, and
+resting with their regularly extended limbs nearly flat against the
+walls. On being disturbed they dart away with a surprising velocity, to
+conceal themselves in chinks until the return of night.
+
+But the species to be really dreaded are the true _Scolopendrae_, which
+are active and carnivorous, living in holes in old walls and other
+gloomy dens. One species[1] attains to nearly the length of a foot, with
+corresponding breadth; it is of a dark purple colour, approaching black,
+with yellowish legs and antennae, and in its whole aspect repulsive and
+frightful. It is strong and active, and evinces an eager disposition to
+fight when molested. The _Scolopendrae_ are gifted by nature with a rigid
+coriaceous armour, which does not yield to common pressure, or even to a
+moderate blow; so that they often escape the most well-deserved and
+well-directed attempts to destroy them, seeking refuge in retreats which
+effectually conceal them from sight.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Scolopendra crassa_, Temp.]
+
+There is a smaller species[1], that frequents dwelling-houses; it is
+about one quarter the size of the preceding, and of a dirty olive
+colour, with pale ferruginous legs. It is this species that generally
+inflicts the wound, when persons complain of being bitten by a scorpion;
+and it has a mischievous propensity for insinuating itself into the
+folds of dress. The bite at first does not occasion more suffering than
+would arise from the penetration of two coarsely-pointed needles; but
+after a little time the wound swells, becomes acutely painful, and if it
+be over a bone or any other resisting part, the sensation is so
+intolerable as to produce fever. The agony subsides after a few hours'
+duration. In some cases the bite is unattended by any particular degree
+of annoyance, and in these instances it is to be supposed that the
+contents of the poison gland had become exhausted by previous efforts,
+since, if much tasked, the organ requires rest to enable it to resume
+its accustomed functions and to secrete a supply of venom.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Scolopendra pallipes_.]
+
+_The Fish-insect_.--The chief inconvenience of a residence in Ceylon,
+both on the coast and in the mountains, is the prevalence of damp, and
+the difficulty of protecting articles liable to injury from this cause.
+Books, papers, and manuscripts rapidly decay; especially during the
+south-west monsoon, when the atmosphere is saturated with moisture.
+Unless great precautions are taken, the binding fades and yields, the
+leaves grow mouldy and stained, and letter-paper, in an incredibly short
+time, becomes so spotted and spongy as to be unfit for use. After a very
+few seasons of neglect, a book falls to pieces, and its decomposition
+attracts hordes of minute insects, that swarm to assist in the work of
+destruction. The concealment of these tiny creatures during daylight
+renders it difficult to watch their proceedings, or to discriminate the
+precise species most actively engaged; but there is every reason to
+believe that the larvae of the death-watch and numerous acari are amongst
+the most active. As nature seldom peoples a region supplied with
+abundance of suitable food, without, at the same time, taking measures
+of precaution against the disproportionate increase of individuals; so
+have these vegetable depredators been provided with foes who pursue and
+feed greedily upon them. These are of widely different genera; but
+instead of their services being gratefully recognised, they are
+popularly branded as accomplices in the work of destruction. One of
+these ill-used creatures is a tiny, tail-less scorpion (_Chelifer_[1]),
+and another is the pretty little silvery creature (_Lepisma_), called by
+Europeans the "fish-insect."[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: Of the first of these, three species have been noticed in
+Ceylon, all with the common characteristics of being nocturnal, very
+active, very minute, of a pale chesnut colour, and each armed with a
+crab-like claw. They are
+
+  _Chelifer Librorum_, Temp.
+  _Chelifer oblongus_, Temp.
+  _Chelifer acaroides_, Hermann.
+
+Dr. Templeton appears to have been puzzled to account for the appearance
+of the latter species in Ceylon, so far from its native country, but it
+has most certainly been introduced from Europe, in Dutch or Portuguese
+books.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Lepisma niveo-fasciata_, Templeton, and _L. niger_, Temp.
+It was called "Lepisma" by Fabricius, from its fish-like scales. It has
+six legs, filiform antenna, and the abdomen terminated by three
+elongated setae, two of which are placed nearly at right angles to the
+central one. LINNAEUS states that the European species, with which book
+collectors are familiar, was first brought in sugar ships from America.
+Hence, possibly, these are more common in seaport towns in the South of
+England and elsewhere, and it is almost certain that, like the chelifer,
+one of the species found on book-shelves in Ceylon, has been brought
+thither from Europe.]
+
+The latter, which is a familiar genus, comprises several species, of
+which only two have as yet been described; one is of a large size, most
+graceful in its movements, and singularly beautiful in appearance, owing
+to the whiteness of the pearly scales from which its name is derived.
+These, contrasted with the dark hue of the other parts, and its
+tri-partite tail, attract the eye as the insect darts rapidly along.
+Like the chelifer, it shuns the light, hiding in chinks till sunset, but
+is actively engaged throughout the night feasting on the acari and
+soft-bodied insects which assail books and papers.
+
+_Millepeds_.--In the hot dry season, and more especially in the northern
+portions of the island, the eye is attracted along the edges of the
+sandy roads by fragments of the dislocated rings of a huge species of
+millepede[1], lying in short curved tubes, the cavity admitting the tip
+of the little finger. When perfect the creature is two-thirds of a foot
+long, of a brilliant jet black, and with above a hundred yellow legs,
+which, when moving onward, present the appearance of a series of
+undulations from rear to front, bearing the animal gently forwards. This
+_Julus_ is harmless, and may be handled with perfect impunity. Its food
+consists chiefly of fruits and the roots and stems of succulent
+vegetables, its jaws not being framed for any more formidable purpose.
+Another and a very pretty species[2], quite as black, but with a bright
+crimson band down the back, and the legs similarly tinted, is common in
+the gardens about Colombo and throughout the western province.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Julus ater_.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Julus carnifex_, Fab.]
+
+CRUSTACEA.--The seas around Ceylon abound with marine articulata; but a
+knowledge of the crustacea of the island is at present a desideratum;
+and with the exception of the few commoner species that frequent the
+shores, or are offered in the markets, we are literally without
+information, excepting the little that can be gleaned from already
+published systematic works.
+
+[Illustration: CALLING CRAB OF CEYLON.]
+
+In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are exposed for sale; and
+amongst the delicacies at the tables of Europeans, curries made from
+prawns and lobsters are the triumphs of the Ceylon cuisine. Of these
+latter the fishermen sometimes exhibit specimens[1] of extraordinary
+dimensions and of a beautiful purple hue, variegated with white. Along
+the level shore north and south of Colombo, and in no less profusion
+elsewhere, the nimble little Calling Crabs[2] scamper over the moist
+sands, carrying aloft the enormous hand (sometimes larger than the rest
+of the body), which is their peculiar characteristic, and which, from
+its beckoning gesture has suggested their popular name. They hurry to
+conceal themselves in the deep retreats which they hollow out in the
+banks that border the sea.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Palinurus ornatus_, Fab. P--n. s.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Gelasimus tetragonon_? Edw.; _G. annulipes_? Edw.; _G.
+Dussumieri_? Edw.]
+
+_Sand Crabs_.--In the same localities, or a little farther inland, the
+_Ocypode_[1] burrows in the dry soil, making deep excavations, bringing
+up literally armfulls of sand; which with a spring in the air, and
+employing its other limbs, it jerks far from its burrows, distributing
+it in a circle to the distance of several feet.[2] So inconvenient are
+the operations of these industrious pests that men are kept regularly
+employed at Colombo in filling up the holes formed by them on the
+surface of the Galle face. This, the only equestrian promenade of the
+capital, is so infested by these active little creatures that accidents
+often occur through horses stumbling in their troublesome excavations.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Ocypode ceratophthamus_. Pall.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Ann. Nat. Hist_. April, 1852. Paper by Mr. EDGAR L.
+LAYARD.]
+
+_Painted Crabs_.--On the reef of rocks which lies to the south of the
+harbour at Colombo, the beautiful little painted crabs[1], distinguished
+by dark red markings on a yellow ground, may be seen all day long
+running nimbly in the spray, and ascending and descending in security
+the almost perpendicular sides of the rocks which are washed by the
+waves. _Paddling Crabs_[2], with the hind pair of legs terminated by
+flattened plates to assist them in swimming, are brought up in the
+fishermen's nets. _Hermit Crabs_ take possession of the deserted shells
+of the univalves, and crawl in pursuit of garbage along the moist beach.
+Prawns and shrimps furnish delicacies for the breakfast table; and the
+delicate little pea crab, _Pontonia inflata_[3], recalls its
+Mediterranean congener[4], which attracted the attention of Aristotle,
+from taking up its habitation in the shell of the living pinna.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Grapsus strigosus_, Herbst.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Neptunus pelagicus_, Linn.; _N. sanguinolentus_, Herbst,
+&c. &c.]
+
+[Footnote 3: MILNE EDW., _Hist. Nat. Crust_., vol. ii. p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Pinnotheres veterum_.]
+
+ANNELIDAE.--The marine _Annelides_ of the island have not as yet been
+investigated; a cursory glance, however, amongst the stones, on the
+beach at Trincomalie and in the pools that afford convenient basins for
+examining them, would lead to the belief that the marine species are not
+numerous; tubicole genera, as well as some nereids, are found, but there
+seems to be little diversity, though it is not impossible that a closer
+scrutiny might be repaid by the discovery of some interesting forms.
+
+_Leeches_.--Of all the plagues which beset the traveller in the rising
+grounds of Ceylon, the most detested are the land leeches.[1] They are
+not frequent in the plains. which are too hot and dry for them; but
+amongst the rank vegetation in the lower ranges of the hill country,
+which is kept damp by frequent showers, they are found in tormenting
+profusion. They are terrestrial, never visiting ponds or streams. In
+size they are about an inch in length, and as fine as a common knitting
+needle; but they are capable of distension till they equal a quill in
+thickness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their structure is
+so flexible that they can insinuate themselves through the meshes of the
+finest stocking, not only seizing on the feet and ankles, but ascending
+to the back and throat and fastening on the tenderest parts of the body.
+In order to exclude them, the coffee planters, who live amongst these
+pests, are obliged to envelope their legs in "leech gaiters" made of
+closely woven cloth. The natives smear their bodies with oil, tobacco
+ashes, or lemon juice[2]; the latter serving not only to stop the flow
+of blood, but to expedite the healing of the wounds. In moving, the land
+leeches have the power of planting one extremity on the earth and
+raising the other perpendicularly to watch for their victim. Such is
+their vigilance and instinct, that on the approach of a passer-by to a
+spot which they infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen
+leaves on the edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for
+their attack on man and horse. On descrying their prey they advance
+rapidly by semi-circular strides, fixing one end firmly and arching the
+other forwards, till by successive advances they can lay hold of the
+traveller's foot, when they disengage themselves from the ground and
+ascend his dress in search of an aperture to enter. In these encounters
+the individuals in the rear of a party of travellers in the jungle
+invariably fare worst, as the leeches, once warned of their approach,
+congregate with singular celerity. Their size is so insignificant, and
+the wound they make is so skilfully punctured, that both are generally
+imperceptible, and the first intimation of their onslaught is the
+trickling of the blood or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins to
+hang heavily on the skin from being distended by its repast. Horses are
+driven wild by them, and stamp the ground in fury to shake them from
+their fetlocks, to which they hang in bloody tassels. The bare legs of
+the palankin bearers and coolies are a favourite resort; and, as their
+hands are too much engaged to be spared to pull them off, the leeches
+hang like bunches of grapes round their ankles; and I have seen the
+blood literally flowing over the ledge of a European's shoe from their
+innumerable bites. In healthy constitutions the wounds, if not
+irritated, generally heal, occasioning no other inconvenience than a
+slight inflammation and itching; but in those with a bad state of body,
+the punctures, if rubbed, are liable to degenerate into ulcers, which
+may lead to the loss of limb or even of life. Both Marshall and Davy
+mention, that during the march of troops in the mountains, when the
+Kandyans were in rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and especially the
+Madras sepoys, with the pioneers and coolies, suffered so severely from
+this cause that numbers perished.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Haemadipsa Ceylanica_. Bose. Blainv. These pests are not,
+however, confined to Ceylon, they infest the lower ranges of the
+Himalaya.--HOOKER, vol. i. p. 107; vol. ii. p. 54. THUNBERG, who records
+(_Travels_, vol. iv. p. 232) having seen them in Ceylon, likewise met
+with them in the forests and slopes of Batavia. MARSDEN (_Hist_. p. 311)
+complains of them dropping on travellers in Sumatra. KNORR found them at
+Japan; and it is affirmed that they abound in islands farther to the
+eastward. M. GAY encountered them in Chili.--(MOQUIN-TANDON,
+_Hirudinees_, p. 211, 346). It is very doubtful, however, whether all
+these are to be referred to one species. M. DE BLAINVILLE, under _H.
+Ceylanica_, in the _Dict. de Scien. Nat_. vol. xlvii. p. 271, quotes M.
+Bosc as authority for the kind, which that naturalist describes being
+"rouges et tachetees;" which is scarcely applicable to the Singhalese
+species. It is more than probable therefore, considering the period at
+which M. BOSC wrote, that he obtained his information from travellers to
+the further east, and has connected with the habitat universally
+ascribed to them from old KNOX'S work (Part 1. chap. vi.) a meagre
+description, more properly belonging to the land leech of Batavia or
+Japan. In all likelihood, therefore, there may be a _H. Boscii_,
+distinct from the _H. Ceylanica_. That which is found in Ceylon is
+round, a little flattened on the inferior surface, largest at the anal
+extremity, thence gradually tapering forward, and with the anal sucker
+composed of four rings, and wider in proportion than in other species.
+
+[Illustration: EYES AND TEETH OF THE LAND LEECH OF CEYLON]
+
+It is of a clear brown colour, with a yellow stripe the entire length of
+each side, and a greenish dorsal one. The body is formed of 100 rings;
+the eyes, of which there are five pairs, are placed in an arch on the
+dorsal surface; the first four pairs occupying contiguous rings (thus
+differing from the water-leeches, which have an unoccupied ring betwixt
+the third and fourth); the fifth pair are located on the seventh ring,
+two vacant rings intervening. To Mr. Thwaites, Director of the Botanic
+Garden at Peradenia, who at my request examined their structure
+minutely, I am indebted for the following most interesting particulars
+respecting them. "I have been giving a little time to the examination of
+the land leech. I find it to have five pairs of ocelli, the first four
+seated on corresponding segments, and the posterior pair on the seventh
+segment or ring, the fifth and sixth rings being eyeless (_fig_. A). The
+mouth is very retractile, and the aperture is shaped as in ordinary
+leeches. The serratures of the teeth, or rather the teeth themselves,
+are very beautiful. Each of the three 'teeth,' or cutting instruments,
+is principally muscular, the muscular body being very clearly seen. The
+rounded edge in which the teeth are set appears to be cartilaginous in
+structure; the teeth are very numerous, (_fig_. B); but some near the
+base have a curious appendage, apparently (I have not yet made this out
+quite satisfactorily) set upon one side. I have not yet been able to
+detect the anal or sexual pores. The anal sucker seems to be formed of
+four rings, and on each side above is a sort of crenated flesh-like
+appendage. The tint of the common species is yellowish-brown or
+snuff-coloured, streaked with black, with a yellow-greenish dorsal, and
+another lateral line along its whole length. There is a larger species
+to be found in this garden with a broad green dorsal fascia; but I have
+not been able to procure one although I have offered a small reward to
+any coolie who will bring me one." In a subsequent communication Mr.
+Thwaites remarks "that the dorsal longitudinal fascia is of the same
+width as the lateral ones, and differs only in being perhaps slightly
+more green; the colour of the three fasciae varies from brownish-yellow
+to bright green." He likewise states "that the rings which compose the
+body are just 100, and the teeth 70 to 80 in each set, in a single row,
+except to one end, where they are in a double row."]
+
+[Illustration: LAND LEECHES IN PURSUIT]
+
+[Footnote 2: The Minorite friar, ODORIC of Portenau. writing in A.D.
+1320, says that the gem-finders who sought the jewels around Adam's
+Peak, "take lemons which they peel, anointing themselves with the juice
+thereof, so that the leeches may not be able to hurt them."--HAKLUYT,
+_Voy._ vol. ii. p. 58.]
+
+[Footnote 3: DAVY'S _Ceylon_, p. 104; MARSHALL'S _Ceylon_, p. 15.]
+
+One circumstance regarding these land leeches is remarkable and
+unexplained; they are helpless without moisture, and in the hills where
+they abound at all other times, they entirely disappear during long
+droughts;--yet re-appear instantaneously on the very first fall of rain;
+and in spots previously parched, where not one was visible an hour
+before, a single shower is sufficient to reproduce them in thousands,
+lurking beneath the decaying leaves, or striding with rapid movements
+across the gravel. Whence do they re-appear? Do they, too, take a
+"summer sleep," like the reptiles, molluscs, and tank fishes? or may
+they, like the _Rotifera_, be dried up and preserved for an indefinite
+period, resuming their vital activity on the mere recurrence of
+moisture?[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See an account of the _Rotifera_ and their faculty of
+repeated vivifaction, in the note appended to this chapter.]
+
+Besides a species of the medicinal leech, which[1] is found in Ceylon,
+nearly double the size of the European one, and with a prodigious
+faculty of engorging blood, there is another pest in the low country,
+which is a source of considerable annoyance, and often of loss, to the
+husbandman. This is the cattle leech[2], which infests the stagnant
+pools, chiefly in the alluvial lands around the base of the mountain
+zone, whither the cattle resort by day, and the wild animals by night,
+to quench their thirst and to bathe. Lurking amongst the rank vegetation
+that fringes these deep pools, and hid by the broad leaves, or concealed
+among the stems and roots covered by the water, there are quantities of
+these pests in wait to attack the animals on their approach to drink.
+Their natural food consists of the juices of lumbrici and other
+invertebrata; but they generally avail themselves of the opportunity
+afforded by the dipping of the muzzles of the animals in the water to
+fasten on their nostrils, and by degrees to make their way to the deeper
+recesses of the nasal passages, and the mucous membranes of the throat
+and gullet. As many as a dozen have been found attached to the
+epiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing such irritation and
+submucous effusion that death has eventually ensued; and so tenacious
+are the leeches that even after death they retain their hold for some
+hours.[3]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Hirudo sanguisorba_. The paddi-field leech of Ceylon, used
+for surgical purposes, has the dorsal surface of blackish olive, with
+several longitudinal striae, more or less defined; the crenated margin
+yellow. The ventral surface is fulvous, bordered laterally with olive;
+the extreme margin yellow. The eyes are ranged as in the common
+medicinal leech of Europe; the four anterior ones rather larger than the
+others. The teeth are 140 in each series, appearing as a single row; in
+size diminishing gradually from one end, very close set, and about half
+the width of a tooth apart. When full grown, these leeches are about two
+inches long, but reaching to six inches when extended. Mr. Thwaites, to
+whom I am indebted for these particulars, adds that he saw in a tank at
+Kolona Korle leeches which appeared to him flatter and of a darker
+colour than those described above, but that he had not an opportunity of
+examining them particularly.
+
+[Illustration: DORSAL.]
+
+[Illustration: VENTRAL.]
+
+Mr. Thwaites states that there is a smaller tank leech of an olive-green
+colour, with some indistinct longitudinal striae on the upper surface;
+the crenated margin of a pale yellowish-green; ocelli as in the
+paddi-field leech; length, one inch at rest, three inches when extended.
+
+Mr. E.L. LAYARD informs us, _Mag. Nat. Hist_. p. 225, 1853, that a
+bubbling spring at the village of Tonniotoo, three miles S.W. of
+Moeletivoe, supplies most of the leeches used in the island. Those in
+use at Colombo are obtained in the immediate vicinity.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Haemopsis paludum_. In size the cattle leech of Ceylon is
+somewhat larger than the medicinal leech of Europe: in colour it is of a
+uniform brown without bands, unless a rufous margin may be so
+considered. It has dark striae. The body is somewhat rounded, flat when
+swimming, and composed of rather more than ninety rings. The greatest
+dimension is a little in advance of the anal sucker; the body thence
+tapers to the other extremity, which ends in an upper lip projecting
+considerably beyond the mouth. The eyes, ten in number, are disposed as
+in the common leech. The mouth is oval, the biting apparatus with
+difficulty seen, and the teeth not very numerous. The bite is so little
+acute that the moment of attachment, and the incision of the membrane is
+scarcely perceived by the sufferer from its attack.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Even men, when stooping to drink at a pool, are not safe
+from the assault of the cattle leeches. They cannot penetrate the human
+skin, but the delicate membrane of the mucous passages is easily
+ruptured by their serrated jaws. Instances have come to my knowledge of
+Europeans into whose nostrils they had gained admission and caused
+serious disturbance.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARTICULATA.
+
+_APTERA_.
+
+
+THYSANURA.
+
+Podura _albicollis_.
+  _atricollis_.
+  _viduata_.
+  _pilosa_.
+
+Archoreutes _coccinea_.
+
+Lepisma nigrofasciara, _Temp_.
+  _nigra._
+
+
+ARACHNIDA.
+
+Buthus afer. _Linn_.
+  Ceylonicus, _Koch_.
+
+Scorpio _linearis_.
+
+Chelifer librorum.
+  _oblongus_.
+
+Obisium _crassifemur_.
+
+Phrynus lunatus, _Pall_.
+
+Thelyphonus caudatus, _Linn._
+
+Phalangium _bisignatum_.
+
+Mygale fasciata, _Walck_.
+
+Olios taprobanius, _Walck_.
+
+Nephila ... ?
+
+Trombidium tinctorum, _Herm_.
+
+Oribata ... ?
+
+Ixodes ... ?
+
+
+MYRIAPODA.
+
+Cermatia _dispar_.
+
+Lithobius _umbratilis_.
+
+Scolopendra _crassa_.
+  spinosa, _Newp_.
+  _pallipes_.
+  _Grayii_? _Newp_.
+  tuberculidens, _Newp_.
+  Ceylonensis, _Newp_.
+  flava, _Newp_.
+  _olivacea_.
+  _abdominalis_,
+
+Cryptops _sordidus_.
+  _assimilis_.
+
+Geophilus _tegularius_.
+  _speciosus_.
+
+Julus _ater_.
+  carnifex, _Fabr_.
+  _pallipes_.
+  _fiaviceps_.
+  _pallidus_.
+
+Craspedosoma _juloides_.
+  _praeusta_.
+
+Polydesmus _granulatus_.
+
+Cambala _catenulata_.
+
+Zephronia _conspicua_.
+
+
+_CRUSTACEA_.
+
+DECAPODA BHACHTUEA.
+
+_Polybius_.
+
+Neptunus pelagicus, _Linn._
+  sanguinolentus, _Herbst_.
+
+Thalamlta ... ?
+
+Thelphusa _Indica, Latr_.
+
+_Cardisoma_ ... ?
+
+Ocypoda ceratophthalmus, _Pall_,
+  _macrocera, Edw_.
+
+Gelasimus _tetragonon, Edw_.
+  _annulipes, Edw_.
+
+Macrophthalmus _carinimanus, Latr_.
+
+Grapsus _messor, Forsk_.
+  strigosus, _Herbst_.
+
+Plagusia depressa, _Fabr_.
+
+Calappa philargus, _Linn._
+  _tuberculata, Fabr_.
+
+Matota victor, _Fabr_.
+
+Leucosia _fugax, Fabr_.
+
+_Dorippe_.
+
+DECAPODA ANOMURA.
+
+_Dromia_ ... ?
+
+Hippa Asiatica, _Edw_.
+
+Pagurus affinis, _Edw_.
+  _punctulatus, Oliv_.
+
+_Porcellana_ ... ?
+
+DECAPODA MACRURA.
+
+Scyllarus _orientalis, Fabr_.
+
+Palinurus ornatus, _Fabr_.
+  affinis, _N.S._
+
+_Crangon_ ... ?
+
+_Alpheus_ ... ?
+
+Pomonia inflata, _Edw_.
+
+Palaemon carcinus, _Fabr_.
+
+Steaopus ... ?
+
+Peneus ...?
+
+STOMATOPODA.
+
+_Squilla_ ... ?
+
+Gonodactylus chiragra, _Fabr_.
+
+
+_CIRRHIPEDIA_.
+
+_Lepas_.
+
+_Balanus_.
+
+
+_ANNELIDA_.
+
+Tubicolae.
+
+Dorsibranchiata.
+
+Abranchia.
+  Hirudo _sanguisorba_.
+    _Thwaitesii_.
+  Haemopsis _paludum_.
+  Haemadipsa Ceylana. _Blainv_.
+
+Lumbricus ... ?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE
+
+ON THE FACULTY OF REPEATED RE-VIVIFICATION POSSESSED BY THE _ROTIFERA_,
+ETC.
+
+
+The _Rotifer_, a singular creature, although it can only truly live in
+water, inhabits the moss on house-tops, dying each time the sun dries up
+its place of retreat, to revive as often as a shower of rain supplies it
+with the moisture essential to its existence; thus employing several
+years to exhaust the eighteen days of life which nature has allotted to
+it. These creatures were discovered by LEUWENHOECK, and have become the
+types of a class already numerous, which undergo the same conditions of
+life, and possess the same faculty. Besides the _Rotifera_, the
+_Tardigrades_, (which belong to the _Acari_,) and certain paste-eels,
+all exhibit a similar phenomenon. But although these different species
+may die and be resuscitated several times in succession, this power has
+its limits, and each successive experiment generally proves fatal to one
+or more individuals. SPALLANZANI, in his experiments on the _Rotifera_,
+did not find that any survived after the sixteenth alternation of
+desiccation and damping, but paste-eels bore seventeen of those
+vicissitudes.
+
+SPALLANZANI, after thoroughly drying sand rich in _Rotifera_, kept it
+for more than three years, moistening portions taken from it every five
+or six months. BAKER went further still in his experiments on
+paste-eels, for he kept the paste from which they had been taken,
+without moistening it in any way, for twenty-seven years, and at the end
+of that time the eels revived on being immersed in a drop of water. _If
+they had exhausted their lives all at once and without these
+intermissions, these Rotifera and paste-eels would not have lived beyond
+sixteen or eighteen consecutive days._
+
+To remove all doubt as to the complete desiccation of the animalcules
+experimented on by SPALLANZANI and BAKER, M. DOYERE has published, in
+the _Annales des Sciences Naturales_ for 1842, the results of his own
+observation, in cases in which the mosses containing the insects were
+dried under the receiver of an air-pump and left there for a week; after
+which they were placed in a stove heated to 267 deg. Fahr., and yet, when
+again immersed in water, a number of the _Rotifera_ became as lively as
+ever.
+
+Further particulars of these experiments will be found in the Appendix
+to the _Rambles of a Naturalist, &c._, by M. QUARTREFAGE.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ABOU-ZEYD, his account of fish on dry land, 350 n.
+Abyssinia, fishes of, 352.
+_Acalephae_, 398. _See_ Radiata.
+Acanthopterygii, 360.
+Accipitres, 245.
+_Acherontia Sathanas_, 427
+Adam's Peak, elephants on the summit, 109.
+AElian's account of the mermaid, 69.
+his statement as to the export of elephants from Ceylon, 77 _n_., 209 _n_.
+  error as to the shedding of the elephant's tusks, 79 _n_.
+  describes elephants killing criminals with their knees. 87 _n_.
+  error as to elephants' joints, 102.
+  his account of Ceylon tortoises, 293.
+  his account of the superiority of the elephants of Ceylon, 209 _n_.
+  his description of the performances of the trained elephants at
+    Rome, 237.
+  his account of the sword-fish, 328.
+  describes a _Cheironectes_, 331.
+African elephant, its peculiarities, 65.
+  not inferior to the Indian in tractability, 208.
+Albino buffalo, 57.
+  deer, 59.
+Albyrouni, on the pearl oyster, 375.
+Alce, described by Pliny and Caesar, 101 _n_.
+Alexandria, story of the dogs at, 34.
+Alligator, 283. _See_ Crocodile.
+Almeida, Manoel de, on burying fishes, 353 _n_.
+Amboina, mermaids at, 70.
+Ampullaria, its faculty of burying itself, 355.
+_Anabas_, 354.
+  Daldorf's account of, doubted, 349, 350.
+  accidents from, 351 n.
+Angling bad in Ceylon, 335 _n_., 341.
+_Annelidae_, leeches, 479.
+  land-leech, its varieties, 482.
+  land-leech, its teeth and eyes, 480.
+  its tormenting bite, 482.
+  list of, 485.
+Anseres, 260.
+Ansted, Prof., on the geology of Ceylon, 61.
+  his statement as to the height of Indian elephants, 100 _n_.
+Antiochus, elephants used by, 208.
+Antipater, the first to bring the Indian elephant to Europe, 207.
+Ant-lion, 411. _See_ Insects.
+Ants, 420 _See_ Insects.
+  red, 420, 422.
+  white, 412. _See Termites_.
+  their faculty in discovering food, 421.
+Armandi's work on the use of elephants in war, 208 _n_.
+Aphaniptera, 433.
+_Arachnidae_, spiders, 464.
+  extraordinary webs, _ib_.
+  _Olios Taprobanius_, 470.
+  _Mygale fasciata_, 465.
+  erroneously called "tarentula," _ib_.
+  anecdote of, 466.
+  spiders, the Mygale, 465.
+  birds killed by it, 468.
+  Galeodes, 470.
+  ticks, their multitude, 471.
+  mites, 472.
+  _Trombidium tinctorum_, 472.
+  list of, 485.
+Argus cowrie, 369.
+Aripo, the sea-shore, 373.
+Aristotle, account of fishes migrating overland, 344.
+  sounds made by elephants, 97.
+  his error as to the elephant's knees, 101.
+Armitage, Mr., story of an elephant on his estate, 139.
+Articulata, list of, 485.
+Athenaeus, anecdotes of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Avicula, 373. _See_ Pearl Fishery.
+Avitchia, story of, 244. _See_ Jackdaw.
+Ayeen Akbery, elephant stomach described in, 128.
+
+Baker, Mr., his theory of the passion for sporting, 142 n.
+  its accuracy questionable, 142 _n_.
+Badger, the Ceylon, 38. _See_ Mongoos.
+Bandicoot rat, 44.
+Barbezieux, on the elephant, 104.
+_Batocera rubus_, 406.
+Batrachia, 318.
+Bats, 13 _See_ Mammalia _and_ Cheiroptera.
+  orange-coloured bats, 14.
+  bats do not hybernate in Ceylon, 18.
+  horse-shoe bat, 19.
+  sense of smell and touch, 19.
+  small bat, _Scotophilus Coromandelicus_, 20.
+  their parasite (Nycteribia), 20-22.
+Batticaloa, musical fish, 380.
+Bears, 22. _See_ Mammalia.
+  ferocity of, 23.
+  charm to protect from, 25 _n_.
+Beaters for elephants, 150.
+Beaver, on African elephant, 234.
+Beckman's account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Bees, 419. _See_ Insects.
+Beetles, 405. _See_ Insects.
+  instincts of the scavenger beetle, 405.
+  coco-nut beetle, 407.
+  tortoise beetle, 408.
+Bell, Sir Charles, on the elephant's shoulder, 108.
+Benary, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 _n_.
+Bengal mode of taking elephants, 164.
+Bennett's account of Ceylon, _Introd_.
+  work on its Ichthyology, 323.
+Bernier, on the Ceylon elephant, 209.
+Bertolacci, on form of _chank shell_, 372.
+Bestiaries, 104.
+Bicho de Mar. _See_ Holothuria.
+Birds of Ceylon, 241.
+  their number and character, _ib_.
+  few songsters, 242.
+  pea-fowl, 244.
+  eagles and hawks, 245.
+  owls, devil bird, 246, 247.
+  swallows, 248.
+  edible bird' nests, 248.
+  kingfisher, sun birds, 249.
+  bulbul, tailor bird, weaver bird, 251.
+  crows, anecdotes of, 253.
+  paroquets, 256.
+  pigeons, 257.
+  jungle-fowl, 259.
+  _grallae_, flamingoes, 260.
+  list of Ceylon birds, 265.
+Bird-eating spiders, 469.
+Birds' nests, edible, 248.
+Blainville, De, on the age of the elephant, 232.
+Blair, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_.
+Bles, Marcellus, on the elephants of Ceylon. 113 _n_., 215 _n_.
+Blood-suckers, 275.
+Blyth, Mr., of Calcutta, his cultivation of zoology, 4.
+  his revision of this work, _Introd_.
+Boa, 303. _See_ Python.
+Boar, wild, 59.
+Bochart, 68.
+  his derivation of the word "elephant," 76 _n_.
+Bora-chung, a curious fish, 367.
+Bosquez, Demas, account of a mermaid, 70.
+Bowring, Sir John, on the fishes of Siam, 348.
+Broderip, on the elephant, 122.
+Browne, Sir Thomas, _vulgar errors_, 100, 105.
+  error as to elephants' joints, 102.
+Brun, Le, account of the elephants at Colombo, 77 _n_.
+Bruno _or_ Braun, his account of the Guinea worm, 397.
+Buchanan, story of buffalo "rogues," 115 _n_.
+Buffalo, 54. _See_ Mammalia.
+  its temper, 54.
+  sporting buffaloe, 55.
+  peculiar structure of its foot, 56.
+  rogue buffalo, 115 _n_.
+  buffalo's stomach and its water-cells, 129 _n_.
+Buffon, on the elephant, 113 _n_., 215.
+Bugs, 433. _See_ Insects _and_ Coffee-bug.
+Buist, Dr., account of fish fallen from clouds, 362.
+Bulbul, 251. _See_ Birds.
+_Bulimi_, their vitality, 357.
+_Bullia_, curious property of, 370.
+Bullocks for draught, 50.
+Burying fishes, 351.
+Butterflies, 403, 425. _See_ Insects.
+  migration of, 403 _n_.
+  the spectre butterfly, 426.
+
+Caecilia, 317. _See_ Reptiles.
+Caesar's description of the "_alce_," 100 _n_.
+Cajan, 373 _n_.
+Caldera, in Chili, musical sounds under water, 383.
+Calotes, the green, 276.
+Camel, attempt to domesticate in Ceylon, 53 _n_.
+  stomach of, 128.
+  antipathy to the horse, 83 _n_.
+Camper, on the anatomy of the elephant's stomach, 125.
+Carawala, 296. _See_ Reptiles.
+Carnivora, 74.
+Carpenter bee, 418. _See_ Insects.
+Caterpillars, stings of, 429.
+Cats attracted by the _Cuppa-may-niya,_ 33.
+Centipede, 474. _See_ Myriapoda _and_ Scolopendrae.
+_Ceratophora_, 279.
+_Cerithia_, 381.
+  probably musical, 381 _n._
+_Cermatia_, 473. _See_ Myriapoda.
+Cetacea, 68, 74.
+  described by Megasthenes and AElian, 69.
+Chameleon, 278. _See_ Reptiles.
+Chank shell, Turbinella rapa, 371. _See_ [Greek: Kochlious] and
+  _Schenek_.
+Cheetah, 26. _See_ Leopard.
+Cheironectes, described by AElian, 331.
+Cheiroptera, 13, 74.
+_Chelifer_, 475.
+Chelonia, 322.
+Chena cultivation, 130.
+Cicada, 432. _See_ Insects.
+_Cirrhipeda_, 486.
+Cissa, 252.
+Civet, 32. _See_ Genette.
+Climbing fish (_Anabas scandens_), 349.
+Cluverius, 68.
+Cobra de Capello, anecdotes of, 297.
+  legend of, 297 _n_.
+  a white cobra, 298 _n_.
+  a tame cobra, 299 _n_.
+  cobra crossing the sea, 300.
+  curious belief as to the cobra, 300, 301.
+  worship of, 303.
+Cobra-tel, poison, 272. _See_ Kabara-tel.
+Coecilia glutinosa, 317.
+  attacked and killed by ants, 422.
+Coco-nut beetle, 407.
+Coffee-bug, _Lecanium Caffeae_, 436.
+Coffee rat, 43.
+Coleoptera, 405.
+Columbidae, 257.
+Conchology. _See_ Shells.
+Cooroowe, elephant catchers, 181.
+Corral for taking elephants, 156, 164. _See_ Elephant.
+  process of its construction, 170.
+  mode of conducting the capture, 156, 169.
+Corse, Mr., account of elephants, 114.
+Cosmas Indico pleustes, his reference to chanks at Marallo, 371.
+Cotton-thief, 250. _See_ Tchitrea.
+Crabs, 477. _See_ Crustacea.
+Cripps, Mr., on sounds produced by elephants, 98.
+  his story of an elephant which feigned death, 135.
+  his account of fishes after rain, 343.
+Crocodile, 282. _See_ Reptiles.
+  its sensibility to tickling, 285.
+  habit of the crocodile to bury itself in the mud, 286.
+  its flesh eaten, 284 _n._
+  their vitality, 288 _n_.
+  one killed at Batticaloa, 287.
+Crows, 233. _See_ Birds.
+  anecdotes of, 254.
+  story of a crow and a dog, 255.
+Cruelty to turtle, &c., 291.
+_Crustacea_, calling crabs, 477.
+  Sand crabs (ocypode), 478.
+  Painted crabs, 478.
+  Paddling crabs, 478.
+  Hermit crabs, 478.
+  Pea crabs, 479.
+  List of Ceylon Crustacea, 486.
+Ctesias' error as to the elephant's knee, 101.
+Cumming, Mr. Gordon, on the power of the elephant in overturning trees,
+  218 _n_.
+_Cuppa-moy niya_ plant, its attraction for cats, 33 _n_.
+Cuvier, on the elephant, 133.
+  on the structure of its tusks, 228.
+  on the elephant's age, 232.
+
+Daldorf's account of climbing fish, 350.
+   his story doubted, 350.
+Darwin, burying-place of llamas and goats,
+  236 _n_.
+  on the coleoptera of Brazil, 405.
+Davy, Dr. John, describes the reptiles of
+  Ceylon, 3.
+  stimulates study of natural history, 3.
+  operation on a diseased elephant, 224.
+Dawson, Captain, story of an elephant, 107.
+Deafness frequent in elephants, 98.
+Death's-head moth, 427.
+Decoy elephants, 157.
+_Decapoda brachyura_, 486.
+  _anomura_, 486.
+  _macrura_, 486.
+Deer, 57.
+  meminna, 58.
+  Ceylon elk, 59.
+  milk-white, 59 _n_.
+Demon-worship, anecdote of, 408.
+Denham, error as to height of elephants, 99.
+Devil-bird, 246. _See_ Owls.
+  Mr. Mitford's account of, 247 _n_.
+Diard, M., sends home an elephant for dissection, 123 _n_.
+Dicuil on the elephant, 103.
+Diptera, 434.
+Dogs, 33.
+  device of, to escape fleas, 433, 434.
+  dog-tax, 33.
+  republican instincts, 34.
+  disliked by elephants, 82, 84.
+Donne, on the elephant, 105.
+Doras, fish of Guiana, 347.
+Dragon-flies, 411. _See_ Insects.
+Dugong, 68, 69.
+  abundant at Manaar, 69.
+  origin of the fable of the mermaid, 69.
+Dutch belief in the mermaid, 70.
+
+Eagles, 245. _See_ Birds.
+Edentata, 46, 74.
+Edrisi, the Arabian geographer, his account of musk, 32 _n_.
+Eels, 337, 347 _n_.
+Eginhard, life of Charlemagne, 103.
+Elephant, 64, 75.
+  Sumatran species, 64.
+  points of distinction, 65.
+  those of Ceylon extolled, 209.
+  elephants on Adam's Peak, 109.
+  numbers in Ceylon, 76.
+  [Greek: Elephas], derivation of the word, 76 _n_.
+  antiquity of the trade in, 77.
+  numbers diminishing, 77.
+  mode of poisoning, 77 _n_.
+  tusks and their uses, 78.
+  disposition gentle, 81.
+  accidents from, 81.
+  antipathy to other animals, 82; to the horse, 83.
+  jealousy of each other, 86.
+  mode of attacking man, 87.
+  anecdote of a tame elephant, 89.
+  African elephant differs from that of Ceylon, 64.
+  skin, 91.
+  white elephant, 92.
+  love of shade, 94.
+  water, not heat, essential to them, 94.
+  sight limited--smell acute, 95.
+  anatomy of the brain, 95.
+  power of smell, 96.
+  sounds uttered by, 96.
+  subject to deafness, 98.
+  exaggeration as to size, 98.
+  source of this mistake, 98 _n_.
+  stealthy motions, 100.
+  error as to the elephant's want of joints, 100.
+  probable origin of this mistake, 106.
+  mode of lying down, 107.
+  ability to climb acclivities, 108.
+  mode of descending a mountain, 110.
+  a herd is a family, 111.
+  attachment to young, 112.
+  young suckled by all the females in a herd, 113.
+  theory of this, according to White, 113 _n_.
+  a rogue, what, 114.
+  savage attacks of rogues, 116.
+  character of the rogues, 116, 147.
+  habits of the herd, 117.
+  anecdote of, 118.
+  elephant's mode of drinking, 120.
+  their method of swimming, 121.
+  wells sunk by, 122.
+  receptacle in the stomach, 122.
+  stomach, anatomy of, 124.
+  food of the elephant, 129.
+  instinct in search of food, 130.
+  dread of fences, 131.
+  their caution exaggerated, 132.
+  spirit of curiosity in elephants, 132.
+  anecdote of Col. Hardy, 132, 133.
+  sagacity in freedom over-estimated, 134.
+  leave the forests during thunder, 134.
+  cunning, feign death, 135.
+  stories of encounters with wild elephants, 136.
+  sporting, numbers shot, 142.
+  butchery by expert shots, 142 _n_.
+  fatal spots in the head, 144, 145.
+  peculiar actions of elephants, 148.
+  love of retirement, 149.
+  elephant-trackers, 150.
+  herd charging, 151.
+  carcase useless 153.
+  remarkable recovery from a wound, 154. _See Lieut_. Fretz.
+  mode of taking in India, 157-162.
+  height measured by the circumference of the foot, 159.
+  mode of shipping elephants at Manaar, 162.
+  mode of shipping elephants at Galle, in 1701, 163 _n_.
+  _keddah_ for taking elephants in Bengal, 164.
+  a corral (kraal) described, 165, 166.
+  derivation of the word _corral_, 165 _n_.
+  corral, its construction, 167, 172.
+  corral, driving in the elephants, 173.
+  the capture, 177.
+  mode of securing, 181.
+  the "cooroowe," or noosers, 181.
+  tame elephants, their conduct, 182, 191.
+  captives, their resistance and demeanour, 184.
+  dread of white rods, 186.
+  their contortions, 190.
+  a young one, 206.
+  conduct in captivity, 207.
+  mode of training, 211.
+  their employment in ancient warfare, 207.
+  superiority of Ceylon, a fallacy, 209.
+  elephant driver's crook (hendoo), 212.
+  hairy elephants in Ceylon, 215 _n_.
+Elephants, capricious disposition of, 215.
+  first labour intrusted to them, 217.
+  his comprehension of his duties, 218.
+  exaggeration of his strength in uprooting trees, 218 _n_.
+  Mahouts and their duties, 221.
+  Their cry of _urre!_ 222 _n_.
+  elephant's sense of musical notes, 223.
+  its endurance of pain, 224.
+  diseases in captivity, 225.
+  subject to tooth-ache, 227.
+  questionable economy of keeping trained elephants for labour, 229.
+  their cost, 230.
+  their food, 230 _n_.
+  fallacy of their alleged reluctance to breed in captivity, 231.
+  duration of life in the elephant, 232.
+  theory of M. Fleurens, 232.
+  instances of very old elephants in Ceylon, 233.
+  dead elephant never found, 234.
+  Sinbad's story, 236.
+  passage from AElian regarding the, 237.
+Elk, 59. _See_ Deer; Mammalia.
+Emydosauri, 321.
+Emys trijuga, 290.
+Englishman, anonymous, his story of a fight between elephants and horses,
+84.
+
+Falconer, Dr., height of Indian elephant, 99 _n_.
+Falkland Islands, peculiarity in the cattle there, 372 _n_.
+Fauna of Ceylon, not common to India, _Introd_. 62.
+  peculiar and independent, _Introd_. 62.
+  have received insufficient attention, 3.
+  first study due to Dr. Davy, 3.
+  subsequent, due to Templeton, Layard, and Kelaart, 3, 4.
+Fishes of Ceylon, little known, 323.
+  seir fish, and others for table, 324.
+  abundance of perch, soles, and sardines, 324.
+  explanation of Odoric's statement, 324 _n_.
+  sardines, said to be poisonous, 324.
+  shark, and sawfish, 325.
+  sawfish, 325.
+  ray, 326.
+  swordfish, 328.
+  cheironectes of AElian, 331.
+  fishes of rare forms, and of beautiful colours, 332.
+  fresh-water fishes, their peculiarities, 335.
+  fresh-water, little known, _ib_.; reason, 335 _n_.
+  eels, 337.
+  reappearance of fishes after the dry season, 340.
+Fishes, similar mysterious re-appearances elsewhere, 342 _n_.
+  method of taking them by hand, 340.
+  a fish decoy, 342.
+  fish filling from clouds, 342 _n_., 362.
+  buried alive in mud, 347.
+  Mr. Yarrell's theory controverted, 344.
+  travelling overland, 345.
+  the fact was known to the Greeks and Romans, 345.
+  instances in Guiana and Siam, 347.
+  faculty of all migratory fish for discovering water, 347 _n_.
+  on dry land in Ceylon, 348.
+  fish ascending trees, 349.
+  excerpt from letter by Mr. Morris, 348 _n_.
+  Anabas scandens, 349, 350.
+  Daldorf's statement, anticipated by Abou-zeyd, 350 _n_.
+  accidents when fishing, 351 _n_.
+  burying fishes and travelling fish, 351.
+  occurrence of similar fish in Abyssinia and elsewhere, 352.
+  statement of the patriarch Mendes, 553 _n_.
+knowledge of habits of Melania employed judicially by E.L. Layard, 355
+_n_.
+  illustrations of aestivating fish and animals, 356.
+  aestivating shell-fish and water-beetlea, 351.
+  fish in hot water, 358.
+  list of Ceylon fishes, 359.
+  Professor Huxley's memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364.
+  Dr. Gray's memorandum, 366.
+  _Note_ on the _Bora-chung_, 367.
+Fishing, native mode of, 340.
+Fish insect, 475.
+Flamingoes, 261. _See_ Birds.
+Fleas, 433. _See_ Insects.
+Fleurens, on the duration of life in the elephant, 232.
+Flies, their instinct in discovering carrion, 196 _n_.
+  mosquitoes, the plague of, 434.
+Flowers, fondness of monkeys for, 7.
+Flying Fox. _Pteropus Edwardsii_, 14. _See_ Mammalia.
+  its sizes, 14.
+  skeleton of, 15.
+  food, 16.
+  habits, 16.
+  numbers, 16.
+  strange attitudes, 17.
+  food and habits, 18.
+  drinking toddy, 18.
+Flying squirrels, 41.
+Fresh-water fishes, 335.
+Fretz, Lieut., his singular wound, 154.
+Frogs, 318.
+  tree frogs, 319, 320.
+
+Galle, elephants shipped in 1701, 163 _n_.
+Gallinae, 259.
+Galloperdix bicalcaratus, 259.
+Gallwey, Capt. P.P., great number of elephants shot by him, 142.
+Game birds, 265.
+Gardner, Dr., his account of the coffee bug, 436-441.
+Gaur, 49 _See_ Mammalia.
+  Knox's account of the gaur, 49.
+Geckoes, 281.
+Gemma Frisius, 68.
+Genette, 32.
+Geology of Ceylon, errors as to, 60.
+  previous accounts, 61.
+  traditions of ancient submersion, 61, 67.
+  Ceylon has a fauna distinct from India, 62.
+"Golden Meadows," 211 _n_. _See_ Massoude.
+Golunda rat, 43.
+_Goondah_, 114. _See_ Rogue.
+Gooneratne, Mr., _Introd_.
+  his story of the jackal, 35.
+Gordon Cumming, his butchery of elephants in Africa, 146 _n_.
+Gowra-ellia, 49.
+Grallae, 260.
+Gray, Dr. J.E., Brit. Mus., _Introd_.
+  notice of Ceylon fishes, 366.
+Great fire-fish, 332.
+Guinea worm, 397.
+Guenther, Dr. A., on Ceylon reptiles, 275 _n_., 304.
+Gwillim's Heraldry, error as to elephants, 105 _n_.
+
+Hambangtotte, elephants of, 99.
+Hardy, Col, anecdote of, when chased by an elephant, 133.
+Hardy, Rev. Spence, describes a white monkey, 8.
+Haroun Alraschid, sends an elephant to Charlemagne, 103.
+Harrison, Dr., 95.
+  his anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_., 126.
+  his account of elephant's head, 142.
+  of the elephant's ear, 223.
+Hastisilpe, a work on elephants, 87 _n_., 91.
+Hawking, 246.
+Hawks. _See_ Birds, 246.
+Hedge-hog, 46.
+Helix haemastoma, its colouring, 372.
+Hemiptera, 433, 462.
+Hendoo, crook for driving elephants, 212.
+Herd, a, of elephants, is a family, 111.
+  its mode of electing a leader, 117.
+Herodotus, on mosquitoes, 435.
+  antipathy of the elephant to the camel, 83 _n_.
+Herpestes, 38.
+Herport, Albrecht, his work on India, 71 _n_.
+_Hesperidae_, 426.
+Hill, Sir John, error as to elephants, 98.
+Hippopotamus rogues, 115 _n_.
+Histiophorus, 330. _See_ Sword-fish.
+Holland, Dr., his theory as to the formation of tusks, 89 _n_.
+_Holothurin_, sea-slug and Trepang, 396.
+Home, Sir Everard, on the elephant's stomach, 124.
+  error as to the elephant's ear, 223.
+Home, Randal, error as to elephant, 105 _n_.
+Homoptera, 462, 463.
+Honey-comb, great size of, 418.
+Hooker, Dr. J.D., on the elephants of the Himalaya, 110 _n_.
+  error as to white ants' nests, 413.
+  on ticks in Nepal, 471 _n_., 472.
+_Hora_, 115. _See_ Rogue.
+Horace, alludes to a white elephant, 92 _n_.
+Hornbill, _Buceros_, 242, 243.
+Horse, alleged antipathy to the elephant, 83.
+  to the camel, 83 _n_.
+  story of, and an elephant, 89.
+  horses taught to fight with elephants, 84.
+Hotambeya, 40. _See_ Mongoos.
+Hot-water fishes, 358.
+Hunt, mode of conducting an elephant-hunt, 157.
+Hunter, Dr. John, his theory of aestivation, 356.
+Hurra! 223 _n_.
+Huxley, Prof., _Introd_.
+  his memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364.
+Hydrophobia in jackals, 36.
+Hymenoptera, 416.
+
+_Ianthina_, 370.
+Ichneumon, 39. _See_ Mongoos.
+Iguana, 271. _See_ Reptiles.
+_Infusoria_, Red, in the Ceylon seas, 400.
+Insects of Ceylon, 403.
+  their profusion and beauty, 403.
+  hitherto imperfectly described, 404.
+  coleoptera, 405.
+  Beetles, scavengers, 405.
+  coco-nut beetle, tortoise beetle, 407.
+  tortoise beetle, 408.
+  Orthoptera, 408.
+  the soothsayer, leaf-insect, 410.
+  Neuroptera, 411.
+  dragon-flies, 411.
+  ant-lion, 411.
+  white ant, termites, 411.
+Insects, _Hymenoptera_, mason-wasp, 416.
+  wasps, bees, wasps' nest, 418.
+  carpenter bee, 418.
+  ants, 420.
+  value of scavenger ants to conchologists, 421.
+  dimiya or red ant, 422.
+  introduced to destroy coffee-bug, 423.
+  _Lepidoptera_, butterflies, 424.
+  _lycaenidae, hesperidae_, 426.
+  _acherontia sathanas_, 427.
+  moths, silk-worm, 427.
+  stinging caterpillars, 429.
+  oiketicus, 430.
+  _Homoptera, cicada_, the "knife-grinder," 432.
+  Flata, 433.
+  _Aphaniptera_--fleas, 433.
+  _Diptera_--mosquitoes, 434.
+  Coffee bug, 436-441.
+  Mr. Walker's memorandum on Ceylon insects, 442.
+  list, 447.
+Ivory, annual consumption, 78 _n_.
+  superiority of Chinese, _ib_.
+
+Jackal, 35.
+  its cunning, 35.
+  probably the "fox" of Scripture, 35.
+  its sagacity in hunting, 36.
+  subject to hydrophobia, 36.
+  jackal's horn, the _narric comboo_, 37.
+  superstitions connected with, 37.
+Jackdaw, fable of, 244. _See_ Avitchia.
+Jardine, Sir W., error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_.
+Jay, the mountain, 252. _See_ Cissa.
+Joinville, on the parasite of the bat, 20.
+_Julus_, 477.
+Jungle fowl, 259. _See_ Birds.
+Juvenal's allusion to fishes on land, 346.
+
+Kabragoya, 272, 273. _See_ Iguana.
+  Kabara-tel, poison, 274.
+  Kanats in Persia, 339 _n_.
+Keddah, for taking elephants, 164.
+Kelaart, Dr., work on the Zoology of Ceylon, 4.
+  examination of the Radiata, 395.
+  discoveries as to the pearl oyster, 375.
+Kingfisher, 249. _See_ Birds.
+Kinnis, Dr., cultivates zoology, 4.
+Kite, on Egyptian sculpture, 246 _n_.
+Knife-grinder, 432. _See_ Cicada.
+Knox, R., account of Ceylon fauna, _Introd_.
+  his description of the Wanderoo, 5.
+  of elephants executing criminals, 87.
+  of the mode of catching elephants, 157.
+Knox, his description of natives fishing, 340.
+[Greek: Kochlious], 371.
+Kombook tree, its bark, 170.
+_Korahl_, 165. _See_ Kraal _and_ Corral.
+  derivation of the word, 165 _n_.
+Kornegalle, beauty of the place, 167.
+Kottiar, immense oysters, 371 _n_. _See_ Cottiar.
+Kraal, 165. _See_ Corral _and_ Korahl.
+Krank-bezoeker, 71 _n_.
+
+Layard, E.A., his knowledge of Ceylon zoology, 4.
+  his collections of Ceylon birds, 241.
+  story of fish on dry land, 318.
+  anecdote of burying molluscs, 355.
+Leaf insect. 408-410. _See_ Insects.
+Leaping fish, 332. _See Salarias alticus_.
+_Lecanium Caffeae_, 436.
+Leeches, 479. _See Annelidae_.
+  land leech, 479.
+  medicinal leech, 483.
+  cattle leech, 344.
+Leopard, 25.
+  in Ceylon confounded with the _cheetah_, 26.
+  superstitions regarding, 26.
+  anecdotes of their ferocity, 27.
+  attracted by the small-pox, 28.
+  story of Major Skinner, 29.
+  monkeys killed by leopards, 31.
+Lepidoptera, 424.
+_Lepisma_, the fish insect, 474.
+Lima, General de, his account of the weight of elephants' tusks at
+Mozambique, 79 _n_.
+Livingstone's account of the "rogue" hippopotamus, 115 _n_.
+Llama of the Andes, its stomach, 128 _n_.
+Livy, account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Lizards, 271. _See_ Reptiles.
+Lophobranchi, 362.
+_Loris_, 12. _See_ Mammalia.
+  two varieties in Ceylon, 12.
+  torture inflicted on it, 13.
+Lucan, description of the ichneumon, 39.
+_Lycaenidae_, 426.
+Lyre-headed lizard, 277.
+
+Macabbees iii. Book, allusion to elephants, 87 _n_., 211 _n_.
+Macacus monkey, 5.
+Machlis described by Caesar, 101.
+Macready, Major, account of a noise made by elephants, 97.
+his opinion as to the vulnerable point in the elephant's head. 145
+_n_.
+Mahawanso, mentions a white elephant, 93.
+Mahout, an elephant driver, 181. _See_ Ponnekella.
+Mahout, alleged short life, 222.
+_Malacopterygii abdominales_, 362.
+  _sub-branchiati_, 362.
+  _apoda_, 362.
+Mammalia, 3.
+  Monkeys, 5.
+  Rilawa,5.
+  Wanderoo, 6.
+  error as to the Ceylon Wanderoo, 6, _n_.
+  Wanderoo, mode of flight among trees, 9.
+  monkeys never found dead, 11.
+  _Loris_, 12.
+  tortures inflicted on it, 13.
+  Bat, flying fox, 14.
+  skeleton of, 14.
+  attracted by toddy to the coco-nut palms, 18.
+  horse-shoe bat, 18.
+  parasite of the bat, Nycteribia, 20, 21.
+  bears, 22.
+  bears dreaded in Ceylon, 24.
+  leopards, 25.
+  attracted by the odour of small pox, 28.
+  anecdote of a leopard, 29.
+  lesser felines, 32.
+  dogs, Pariah, 34.
+  jackal, 34.
+  the jackal's horn, 36.
+  Mongoos, 37.
+  assaults of Mongoos on the serpent, 38.
+  squirrels, 41.
+  the flying squirrel, 41.
+  rats, the rat snake, 42.
+  coffee rat, 43, 44.
+  bandicoot, 44, 45.
+  porcupine, 45.
+  pengolin, 46-48.
+  the gaur, 49.
+  the ox, 50.
+  anecdote of, 51.
+  draft oxen, 51-53.
+  the buffalo, 54.
+  sporting buffaloes, 55.
+  peculiarity of the buffalo's foot, 56.
+  deer, 57.
+  meminna, 57, 58.
+  Ceylon elk, 59.
+  wild boar, 59.
+  elephant, 69, 75.
+  whale and dugong, 68, 69.
+  peculiarities of Ceylon mammalia, 73.
+  list of, 73.
+Manaar, mermaid taken at, 69.
+  elephants shipped at, 162.
+  pearl fishery, 373.
+Manis. _See_ Pengolin, 46.
+Mantis, 410.
+Massoudi, on the use of elephants in war, 211 _n_.
+  his account of pearl-diving, 377 _n_.
+_Mastacembelus_, 338. _See_ Eels.
+Megasthenes' account of the mermaid, 69.
+Mehemet Ali, story of, 34.
+_Melania Paludina_, its habit of burying itself, 355.
+  its hybernation, 355.
+Melania, story of a law suit decided by, 355 _n_.
+Meleagrina, 373 _n_. _See_ Pearl fishery.
+Meminna deer, 58.
+Mercator, 68.
+Mercer, Mr., his story of an elephant fight, 86.
+Mermaid, 68. _See_ Dugong.
+Mermaids, at Manaar, 69.
+  at Amboina, 70.
+  at Booro, 71.
+  at Edam, 72.
+Millipeds, _Julus_, 477.
+Mites, 472.
+Mollusca. _See_ Shells.
+Molyneux, on the anatomy of the elephant, 122 _n_.
+Mongoos, 38. _See_ Ichneumon.
+  species at Neuera-ellia, _Herpestes Vitticollis_, 38.
+  story of its antidote against the bite of serpents, 39.
+  its mode of killing snakes, 39.
+Monkeys, 5.
+  never found dead, 11.
+  a white monkey, 8.
+Moors of Galle, make ornaments of the elephant's teeth, 153.
+Moors, as caravan drivers, 53.
+Moose deer, 58. _See_ Meminna.
+Morris, Mr., account of fishes on land, 348.
+Mosquitoes, their cunning, 434.
+  Herodotus, account of, 436.
+  probably the plague of flies, 434 _n_.
+Moths, 427. _See_ Insects.
+Munster, Sebastian, 68.
+Musical fishes, 380.
+  account of, at Batticaloa, 380.
+  similar phenomena at other places, 383 _n_.
+  fishes known to utter sounds, 384.
+  _Tritonia arborescens_, 385.
+Musk, 32.
+Mygale, spider, 465.
+Myriapods, 472.
+
+Narric-comboo, 37. _See_ Jackal's Horn.
+Natural history neglected in Ceylon, 3.
+Neela-cobeya, pigeon, 258.
+Neuroptera, 411.
+Nietner, on Ceylon insects, _Introd_.
+_Nycteribia_, parasite of the bat, 20, 21.
+  its extraordinary structure, 22.
+
+Odoric of Portenau, his cure for leech bites, 481.
+  his account of birds with two heads, 243.
+  his account of fishes in Ceylon, 324 _n_.
+_Oiketicus_, 430.
+Oil-bird, 269.
+Ophidia, 321.
+Ortelius, 68.
+Orthoptera, 408.
+Ouanderoo. _See_ Wanderoo.
+Owen, Professor, on the structure of the elephant's tusk, 228.
+  on the Protopterus of the Gambia, 352.
+Owls. _See_ Birds.
+Oxen, their uses and diseases, 50.
+  anecdote of a cow and a leopard, 51.
+  white, eight feet high, seen by Wolf, 52 _n_.
+Oysters at Bentotte, 371.
+  immense, at Kottiar, 371 _n_.
+
+Pachydermata, 59, 74.
+Padivil, the great tank, 262.
+Pallegoix, on the elephants of Siam, 98 _n_.
+  on the fishes of Siam, 347.
+Palm-cat, 32.
+Panickeas, elephant catchers, 150, 158.
+  their skill, 159.
+Pariah dogs, 33.
+Paris, Matthew, on the elephant, 103.
+Paroquets, their habits; anecdote of, 256.
+Passeres, 248.
+Patterson, R., Esq., _Introd_.
+Pea-fowl, 244. _See_ Birds.
+  fable of the jackdaw, 244.
+Pearl fishery of Ceylon, its antiquity, 373.
+  dreary scenery of Aripo, 373.
+  disappearances of the pearl-oyster, 374.
+  capable of transplantation, 376.
+  operation of diving, 377.
+  endurance of the divers under water, 377.
+  growth of the pearl-oyster, 379.
+  pearls of Tamblegam, 380.
+Pelicans, 262.
+  strange scene at their breeding place, 263.
+Pengolin, 46.
+  its habits and food, 47.
+  skeleton of, 48.
+Phile, his account of the elephant, 103.
+  error as to its joints, 107.
+  describes its drinking, 121 _n_.
+  its dispositions, 216 _n_.
+  on the elephant's ear, 224.
+  on elephants burying their dead, 235.
+Phillipe, on the elephant of Ceylon, 209.
+Phyllium, 410. _See_ Leaf Insect.
+Physalus urticulus, 400. _See_ Portuguese Man-of-war.
+Pictet, Mon., his derivation of the word "elephant," 76 _n_.
+Pigeons, 257. _See_ Birds.
+Pigeons, Lady Torrington's pigeon, 258.
+_Placuna placenta_, pearls of, 380.
+_Planaria_, 398. _See Radiata_.
+Pliny's nereids, 72 _n_.
+  error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_.
+  error as to their antipathy to other animals, 85.
+  error as to elephant's joints, 100.
+  account of the _machlis_, 101 _n_.
+  his knowledge of the vulnerability of the elephant's head, 144 _n_.
+  of fishes on dry land, 346.
+  Ponnekella. _See_ Mahout.
+Polybius' account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Pomponius, Mela, account of fishes on land, 346.
+Porcupine, 45.
+Portuguese belief in the mermaid, 69.
+  Man-of-war, 400.
+Pott, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 _n_.
+Presbytes _cephalopterus_, 7.
+  _ursinus_, 6, 9.
+  _Thersites_, 6, 10.
+  its fondness of attention, 10.
+  _Priamus_, 10.
+  its curiosity, 11.
+Protopterus of the Gambia, 352.
+Pseudophidia, 322.
+Pterois volitans, 333.
+_Pterophorus_, 430. _See_ Insects.
+Pteropus, 14. _See_ Flying Fox.
+Pyrard de Laval, on the Ceylon elephant, 209.
+Python, its great size, 303.
+
+Quadrumana, 5, 74.
+Quatrefage on the Rotifera, 487.
+
+_Radiata_, star-fish, 395.
+  sea-slugs, holothuria, 396.
+  parasitic worms, 396.
+  Guinea worm, 397.
+  _planaria_, 398.
+  _acalephae_, 398.
+  Portuguese Man-of-war, 400.
+  Red infusoria, 400.
+Raja-kariya, forced labour, in elephant hunts, 170.
+Raja-welle estate, story of an elephant at, 133 _n_.
+Ramayana, Ceylon elephants mentioned in, 210.
+Rats, 42.
+  eaten as food in Oovah and Bintenne, 43.
+  liable to hydrophobia, 43.
+  coffee rat, 43.
+  bandicoot, 44.
+Rat snake, anecdote of, 43.
+Rat-snake, domesticated, 299 _n_.
+Ray, 326, 327.
+Reinaud, on the ancient use of the elephant in Indian wars, 205 _n_.
+Reptiles of Ceylon described by Dr. Davy, _Introd_.
+  lizards, iguana, 271.
+  kabara-tel, poison, 272.
+  blood-suckers, 275.
+  calotes, the green, 276.
+  lyre-headed lizard, 277.
+  chameleon, 278.
+  _ceratophora_, 279.
+  gecko, anecdotes of, 281, 282.
+  crocodile, anecdotes of, 282, 283.
+  crocodile and alligator, skulls of, 283.
+  tortoises, 289.
+  parasites of the tortoise, 289.
+  Terrapins, 290.
+  cruel mode of cutting up turtle, 291.
+  turtle, said to be poisonous, 292.
+  hawk's-bill turtle, 293.
+  cruel mode of taking tortoise-shell, 293.
+  snakes, few poisonous, 294.
+  tic-polonga, 296.
+  cobra de capello, 297.
+  legends of the cobra, 297-298 _n_.
+  _uropeltis_, 301.
+  the python, 303.
+  haplocercus, 304.
+  tree-snakes, 305.
+  water snakes, 308.
+  sea snakes, 308.
+  the snake-stone and its composition, 312-317.
+  _caecilia_, 317.
+  frogs, 318.
+  tree frogs, 319.
+  list of Ceylon reptiles, 321.
+  snakes peculiar to Ceylon, 322.
+Rhinolophus, 19. _See_ Horse-shoe Bat.
+Ribeyro's account of pearl-diving, 378.
+Rilawa monkey, 5.
+Rodentia, 41, 74.
+Rogers, Major, story of his horse, 84.
+  his death by lightning, 84 _n_.
+  anecdote of an elephant killed by him, 107.
+  great numbers of elephants shot by him, 142.
+"A Rogue" elephant. _See_ Elephant, 114.
+  derivation of the term "Rogue," 114.
+_Ronkedor_, 114. _See_ "Rogue."
+_Ronquedue_, 114. _See_ "Rogue."
+  dangerous encounters with, 136.
+Rotifera, marvellous faculty in, 486.
+Rousette. _See_ Flying-fox _and_ Pteropus, 14.
+Ruminantia, 49, 74.
+
+_Salarias Alticus_, 332.
+  almasius, 68.
+Sardines, said to be poisonous, 324.
+Saw fish, 325. _See_ Fishes.
+Scaliger, Julius, 68.
+Scansores, 256.
+_Scarus harid_, 335.
+_Schenck_, 371. _See_ Chank.
+Schlegel's essay on the elephant, 208 _n_.
+Schlegel, Prof., of Leyden, his account of the Sumatran elephant, 66.
+Schmarda, Prof., 5.
+Schomburgk, Sir R., on the fishes of Guiana, 347.
+Sciurus Tennentii, 41 _n_.
+_Scolopiendrae_, centipede, 474.
+Scorpions, 474.
+Sea slugs, _holothuria_, 397.
+Sea snakes, 308.
+Seir-fish, 324.
+Seneca, account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Septuagint, allusion to elephants in, 87, 210 _n_.
+Serpents, 294. _See_ Reptiles.
+Shakspeare, on the elephant, 105.
+  describes its capture in pit-falls, 157 _n_.
+Sharks, 325.
+Shark charmer, 378.
+Shaw, error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_.
+Shells of Ceylon, 369.
+  lanthina, 370.
+  Bullia vittata, 370.
+  chanks, 371.
+  oysters, immense, 371 _n_.
+  Helix haemastoma, 372.
+  Pearl fishery, 373.
+  Musical shells, 381.
+  Mr. Henley's memorandum, 386.
+  uncertainty as to species, 387.
+  list of Ceylon shells, 388.
+Siam, fishes on dry land, 347.
+Silk, cultivated by the Dutch, 429.
+Silkworm. _See_ Insects.
+Sindbad's story of the elephants burying-place, 236.
+Skinner, Major, knowledge of Ceylon. _Introd_. _n_.
+  adventure with a leopard, 30.
+  great number of elephants killed by him, 142.
+  description of the Panickeas or elephant catchers, 158, 159 _n_.
+  anecdotes of elephants, 118.
+  collection of Ceylon fish, 339.
+Small-pox attracts the leopard, 28.
+  native superstition, 29.
+Snakes, 294. _See_ Reptiles.
+  few venomous, 296.
+  tic-polonga, 296.
+  cobra de capello, 297.
+  legends of, 297 _n_.
+  stories of, 298.
+Snakes, tamed snakes, 299 _n_.
+  snakes crossing the sea, 300.
+  curious tradition of the cobra-de-capello, 300.
+  uropeltis, and explanation of the popular belief, 302.
+  reluctance of Buddhists to kill snakes, 303.
+  python or "boa," 303.
+  tree snakes, 305.
+  the _Passerita fusca_, 306.
+  water snakes, 308.
+  sea snakes, 308.
+  their geographical distribution, 309.
+  their habits, 310.
+  caecilia, 317.
+Snake-stone, its alleged virtue, 312.
+  anecdotes of its use, 312.
+  analysis of, by Professor Faraday, 315.
+Sofala, pearls at, 375 _n_.
+Solinus, on the elephant, 103.
+Soothsayer insect, 410.
+Spectre butterfly, 426.
+Spiders. _See Arachnida_, 464.
+  at Gampola, 465.
+  at Pusilawa, 471.
+Squirrel, 41.
+  the flying squirrel, 44.
+Star-fish, 396. _See Radiata_.
+Stick insect, 410. _See_ Insects.
+Stinging caterpillars, 429.
+Strabo, his account of fishes on dry land, 346.
+Strachan, Mr., account of the elephants shipped at Ceylon, 163 _n_,
+  210 _n_.
+Stuckley, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_.
+Sumatra confounded with Ceylon, 67.
+  elephant of, 64.
+  points in which it differs from that of India, 65.
+Sun bird, 249. _See_ Birds.
+Superstitions:--Singhalese folk-lore regarding bears, 24 _n_.
+  leopards, 27, 29.
+  mongoos, 38.
+  kabra-goya, 273.
+  cobra-de-capello, 300.
+  use of snake-stones, 315.
+  elephants' burial-place, 236.
+Suriya trees, caterpillars on, 429.
+Syrnum Indranee, 246. _See_ Devil-bird.
+Swallows, 248. _See_ Birds.
+Sword-fish, 328.
+
+Tailor-bird, 251. _See_ Birds;
+Tamblegam, lake of, 380.
+  pearls, 380.
+Tarentula, _Mygale fasciata_, 465.
+  fight with a cockroach, 467.
+  numerous at Gampola, 465.
+Tavalam, a caravan of bullocks, 53.
+Tavernier, error as to Ceylon elephants, 203, 214.
+Taylor, the translator of Aristotle, his error as to elephants' joints,
+  102.
+Tchitrea paradisi, 250.
+Temminck, his discovery of the Sumatran elephant, 64.
+  his account of it, 65.
+Templeton, Dr. R.A., his knowledge of Ceylon, _Introd_.
+  his valuable aid in the present work, _ib_.
+  his cultivation of zoology, 4.
+  notice of Ceylon monkeys, 6.
+_Termites_, white ants, their ravages, 412.
+  whence comes their moisture, 412 _n_.
+Terrapins, 290.
+Terrier, attacks an elephant, 85.
+Testudinata, 289.
+Thaun, Philip de, on the elephant, 104.
+Theobaldus' _Physiologus_, 104.
+Theophrastus' account of fishes on dry land, 344, 345.
+Thevenot, on the Ceylon elephant, 203.
+Thomson's "_Seasons_," error as to the elephant, 106.
+Thunberg, account of the snake-stone, 317.
+_Thysdnura_, 464.
+Ticks, 475.
+Tic-polonga, 296. See Reptiles.
+Tiger at Trincomalie, 25 _n_.
+Toad, 319.
+Torrington, Viscount, his tax on dogs, 33.
+Tortoises, 289, 291. _See_ Turtle.
+  parasite of, 289.
+  fresh-water tortoises, 290. _See_ Terrapins.
+Tortoise-shell, cruel mode of taking, 293.
+Tree frogs, 320.
+Tree snakes, 304.
+Trepang, 396. _See_ Sea-slug.
+_Tritonia arborescens_, 385. _See_ Musical Fish.
+  letter on, 401.
+_Trombidium tinctorum. See_ Mites.
+Trumpeting of elephants, 97, 201.
+Trunk, elephant's, origin of the name, 97 _n_.
+Tsetse fly of Africa, 40.
+Turbinella rapa, 371. _See_ Chank.
+Turtle, 291. _See_ Reptiles.
+  barbarous treatment of, 291.
+Tushes, 79.
+Tusks, 79. _See_ Elephant; Ivory.
+  fallacy that they are shed, 79.
+  weight of, 80.
+  their uses, 80.
+  singular shapes of, 88 _n_.
+Tusks, Dr. Holland's theory of their formation, 88 _n_.
+Tytler, Mr., story of an elephant, 133 _n_.
+
+_Uropeltis_, 301.
+Urre! cry of the elephant drivers, 222.
+
+Valentyn's account of the mermaid, 70.
+  Dutch mode of taking elephants, 164.
+Venloos Bay, its profusion of shells, 369.
+Vossius, Isaac, 68.
+
+Waloora. _See_ Wild-boar, 59.
+  dreaded by the Singhalese, 59.
+Wanderoo monkey, 5.
+Wasps, wasps' nest, 418.
+  mason-wasp, 416.
+Water-fowl, 260, 262.
+Water snakes, 308.
+Weaver-bird, 251.
+Whales, 68. _See_ Cetacea.
+White, Adam, Esq., Brit Mus., _Introd_.
+White, of Selbourne, his theory of animals suckled by strange mothers, 113
+  _n_.
+White ants, 411. _See_ Termites.
+Whiting, Mr., account of buried fishes, 342 _n_., 354.
+Wild-boar, 59.
+Wolf, Jo. Christian, travels in Ceylon, 99 _n_., 115 _n_.
+  his account of elephants there, 99.
+  describes pitfalls for elephants, 157 _n_.
+Wood-carrying moth, 430. See Insects.
+Worms, parasite, 396. _See Radiata_.
+Wound when elephant shooting, 154.
+Wright, Thomas, Esq., F.S.A., 104.
+
+
+Yarrell's theory of buried fish, 342.
+Yule's embassy to Ava, 216 _n_.
+
+Zimb fly, 434.
+Zoology neglected in Ceylon, 3. _See_ Natural History.
+  partial extent to which it has been cultivated, _Introd_.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+LONDON
+PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.
+NRW-STREET SQUARE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon
+by J. Emerson Tennent
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 13325.txt or 13325.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/3/2/13325/
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Leonard Johnson and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team from images generously made available by the
+Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/old/13325.zip b/old/13325.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54061e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/13325.zip