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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:41:29 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/13157-0.txt b/13157-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c0a08de --- /dev/null +++ b/13157-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7047 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13157 *** + +IS ULSTER RIGHT? + + +A STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION AT ISSUE BETWEEN ULSTER AND THE +NATIONALIST PARTY, AND OF THE REASONS--HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND +FINANCIAL--WHY ULSTER IS JUSTIFIED IN OPPOSING HOME RULE + + +BY AN IRISHMAN + + +LONDON + +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. + +1913 + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +Preface + +Chapter + +I. The Ulster Covenant. The Questions Stated. Ireland under the Celts +and the Danes + +II. Ireland from the time of Henry II to the time of Henry VIII + +III. Ireland under the Tudors + +IV. The Seventeenth Century, until the end of the reign of James II + +V. The period of the Penal Laws + +VI. The earlier part of the reign of George III. The acquisition of +independence by the Irish Parliament + +VII. The independent Parliament. The Regency Question. The +commencement of the Rebellion + +VIII. The Rebellion + +IX. The Union + +X. The period from the Union until the rejection of the first Home +Rule Bill + +XI. The Unionist Government of 1886 + +XII. The Gladstonian Government of 1892. The Political Societies + +XIII. Ireland under the present Government + +XIV. Criticism of the Bill now before the Country + +XV. The danger to the Empire of any form of Home Rule. The Questions +answered + +Index + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In the following chapters I have endeavoured to lay before ordinary +readers a simple statement of the present position of the Irish +question. Following the maxim of Confucius that it is well "to study +the Past if you would divine the Future," I have first shown that the +tales which are told about the glories of the ancient Celtic +Kingdom are foolish dreams, not supported by the accounts given by +contemporary annalists or the investigations of modern writers, and +that Ireland never was a nation in the political sense, with the +possible exception of the few years between 1782 and 1800, during +which the Irish Parliament was independent; that the charges made +against the English government with reference to their action between +the "Conquest" by Henry II and the assumption of the title of King +by Henry VIII are baseless; and that though there is much which the +historian must look back upon with regret in the period between the +reign of Henry VIII and the passing of the Act of Union, it is mere +waste of time now to dwell on the wrongs of a former age which +have long since passed away and which in any other country would be +forgotten. Then I have traced the brief history of the independent +Parliament, and shown that whatever may have been its virtues or +its failings, it would be impossible to revive it now; all the +circumstances of the country have changed. I have striven also to make +it clear that the Nationalists of to-day are not the representatives +of the leaders of that Parliament but of the party which fought +against it and brought on the horrors of the Rebellion; that the +Union was a political necessity, if the connection between the British +Islands was to be maintained at all; and that if the people of Ireland +have not derived all the benefits from the Union which they might have +done, it is their own fault, as the history of Ulster during the last +century has shown. Next, I have explained the rise of the present +Home Rule movement, and its dependence on agrarian agitation. I have +analyzed some of the provisions of the present Bill, which independent +writers consider to be hopelessly unworkable; and lastly I have stated +why in my opinion Home Rule in any form must be fraught with disaster +not only to Ireland but also to the Empire at large. + +I have no desire unnecessarily to wound the feelings of those who take +a different view; if it can be shown that any of my statements are +incorrect or my inference illogical, I shall be glad to correct +them; but to mere abuse, such as the Nationalists are in the habit of +pouring on Unionist writers, I shall pay no heed. I admit that it may +be said that there are several matters which I ought to have gone into +more fully; to that I can only reply that I wished to be as brief as +possible, and that I have done my best to compress with fairness. +What I am really anxious to do is to draw the attention of thoughtful +readers, before it is too late, to the terrible dangers with which we +are faced. As an Irish historian has said:-- + + "No political madness could be greater than to put the + legislative machinery of an integral and essential portion + of the Empire into the hands of men who are largely or mainly + disaffected with that Empire, and who, in times of difficulty, + danger and disaster are likely to betray it." + + * * * * * + +The following are the principal works of which use has been made +in preparing this volume. They are cited here in order to avoid the +necessity of constant footnotes:-- + + "Short History of the Irish People." By Professor Richey. + + "Irish Nationalism." By the late Duke of Argyll. + + "History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century." By W.E.H. + Lecky. + + "History of the Legislative Union of Great Britain and + Ireland." By Dunbar Ingram. + + "Ireland and Her Fairy Godmother." By J. Warren. + + "The Continuity of the Irish Revolutionary Movement." By Prof. + Brougham Leech. + + "A Fool's Paradise." By Professor Dicey. + + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE ULSTER COVENANT. THE QUESTIONS STATED. IRELAND UNDER THE CELTS AND +THE DANES. + + "Being convinced in our consciences that Home Rule would be + disastrous to the material well-being of Ulster as well as of + the whole of Ireland, subversive of our civil and religious + freedom, destructive of our citizenship and perilous to the + unity of the Empire, We, whose names are underwritten, Men of + Ulster, loyal subjects of His Gracious Majesty King George V, + humbly relying on the God whom our fathers in days of stress + and trial confidently trusted, do hereby pledge ourselves + in Solemn Covenant throughout this our time of threatened + calamity to stand by one another in defending for ourselves + and our children our cherished position of equal citizenship + in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be + found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a + Home Rule Parliament in Ireland. And, in the event of such + a Parliament being forced upon us, we further solemnly + and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to recognise its + authority. In such confidence that God will defend the right, + we hereunto subscribe our names." + +Such is the Solemn Covenant which 220,000 resolute, determined +Ulstermen--of various creeds and of all sections of the community, +from wealthy merchants to farm labourers--fully realizing the +responsibility they were undertaking, signed on the 28th September, +1912. To represent that it was merely the idle bombast of ignorant +rustics, or a passing ebullition of political passion coming from +hot-headed youths excited by irresponsible demagogues, is folly. +It expresses the calm resolution of earnest men who, having thought +deeply over the matter had decided that it was better even to face +the horrors of civil war rather than to submit to the rule of a +Nationalist Government. + +The opinions of the Nationalists with regard to the Ulster Covenant +can be gathered from many speeches and sermons. The following extract +from one of their papers--the _Frontier Sentinel_--may be taken as a +specimen:-- + + "It may not be out of place here to translate into simple + English the terms of the Covenant. It denies the claim of + Ireland to self-government and the capacity of Irishmen to + govern Ireland. It asserts that the Catholics of Ireland are + the spawn of the devil; that they are ruthless savages and + dangerous criminals with only one object in life--the wiping + out of Protestants. It claims for the Protestant Unionist + majority of four Ulster counties a monopoly of Christianity, + public and private morality, and clean successful business + enterprise. In the name of God it seeks to stimulate the + basest passions in human nature, and calls on God to witness + a catalogue of falsehoods. Only a few of the local Protestant + clergymen, it should be stated, signed this notoriously wicked + document." + +It is well then to pause and consider calmly two questions: What +are the real objects of the Nationalists; and, Are the men of Ulster +justified in resisting them to the uttermost? + +It is a mere truism to remark that in every political question the +main controversy is complicated by a number of side issues. Thus in +the tangled skein of politics in South Eastern Europe there is not +merely the great struggle between the Crescent and the Cross, but +there are also jealousies between Greek and Bulgarian, between Servian +and Austrian, which have to be considered. So in Ireland, if we +take the religious question as the dominating one, we find ourselves +involved in a maze of racial animosities, class prejudices, and +trade disputes; by ignoring these we can arrive at a simple but +unfortunately a totally erroneous solution of the question. And to +weigh them all fairly involves more trouble than the average man cares +to take. + +Irish history is at best a dismal subject. And those who ought to +be historians are too often politicians; regarding themselves as +advocates and not as judges they deliberately omit incidents which +tell against their views, and enlarge on others, frequently without +even examining the evidence in support of them. Then in arriving +at the truth about any matter connected with Ireland there is the +additional difficulty arising from the custom, almost universal +amongst Irishmen, of talking in superlatives. The exaggerated +expressions, both of praise and blame, which are constantly employed, +at first puzzle a stranger coming to Ireland from another country; he +soon, however, gets to realize that they are mere forms of speech, and +are no more intended to be taken seriously than similar phrases are +when used by an Oriental. They are therefore harmless. But it becomes +a more serious matter when learned men employ inflated language in +addressing ignorant and excitable audiences. Thus Bishop Gaughran, +when recently preaching to a crowded congregation in Dublin a sermon +which was reported in full in the Roman Catholic papers, said:-- + + "The persecution of the Catholics in Ireland had no parallel + in the history of the Church save perhaps those of the early + Christians in the Catacombs of Rome. Edicts were sent + forth before which those of Nero might be said to pale into + insignificance--the Edicts of Elizabeth and Cromwell, for + example." + +Yet these words came from a man who was doubtless familiar with the +histories of Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands; and who is a +leader of a party which had not long before expressed the opinion that +Catholics have no reason to be ashamed of the Inquisition, which was +a coercive and corporally punitive force which had effected its ends +splendidly! + +One of the many popular delusions under which English people labour +with regard to Ireland is that all the population of the country at +the present day are Celts, and that this is the key to the whole Irish +question. Thus a review of Father Tyrrell's autobiography recently +appeared in an English journal in which the reviewer said: "Probably +no Englishmen could have written such a book; it needs a Latin like +Rousseau, or a Celt like Tyrrell to lay bare his soul in this way." +No doubt these words were written in perfectly good faith; but if +the writer had cared to make any enquiry he could have found out in a +moment that the Tyrrell family were thoroughly English and that none +of them had gone to Ireland before the nineteenth century. The fact +is that the inhabitants of Ireland, like the inhabitants of all other +countries in Western Europe, are of mixed origin. The Celts were +themselves immigrants, who conquered and enslaved a pre-existing race +called the Firbolgs; then came the Scandinavian invasion; and then +wave after wave of immigration from England and Scotland, so that +Sir J. Davies, writing three hundred years ago--that was, before the +Cromwellian settlement and the arrival of the French refugees who had +escaped from the persecution of Louis XIV--said that if the people of +Ireland were numbered those descended of English race would be found +more in number than the ancient natives. + +This, however, is only one of many errors into which English writers +have fallen. Mistakes of course will always be made; but unfortunately +it is a charge from which Mr. Gladstone's admirers cannot clear him +that when he wished to bring the English people round to the idea of +Home Rule he deliberately falsified Irish history in order to make +it serve his ends; and his misrepresentations have gained credence +amongst careless thinkers who are content to shelter themselves under +a great name without looking at what has been written in answer. The +general idea of an average Englishman about Irish history seems to be +that Ireland in Celtic times was a peaceful, orderly, united kingdom, +famous for its piety and learning, where land was held by "tribal +tenure"--that is, owned by the whole tribe who were closely related +in blood--rent being unknown, and the chief being elected by the whole +tribe in solemn assembly. Into this happy country came the Norman +invaders, who fought against and conquered the king; drove the native +owners out of their possessions, and introduced a feudal system and an +alien code of law unsuited to the people; and the modern landlords +are the representatives of the conquering Normans and the tenants +the descendants of the ancient tribesmen who naturally and rightfully +resist paying rent for the lands which by ancestral right should be +their own. There could not be a more complete travesty of history. + +The Celtic Church no doubt had its golden age. It produced saints and +men of learning. It sent out its missionaries to the heathen beyond +the seas. So famous were its schools that students came to them from +distant lands. But centuries before the Normans appeared in Ireland +the salt had lost its savour. The Celtic Church had sunk into being +a mere appendage of the wild tribes it had once tried to tame. The +chiefs of one tribe would sack the colleges and shrines of another +tribe as freely as they would sack any of their other possessions. +For instance, the annals tell us that in the year 1100 the men of the +south made a raid into Connaught and burned many churches; in 1113 +Munster tribe burned many churches in Meath, one of them being full of +people; in 1128 the septs of Leitrim and Cavan plundered and slew the +retinue of the Bishop of Armagh; in the same year the men of Tyrone +raided Down and a great number of people suffered martyrdom; four +years later Kildare was invaded by raiders from Wexford, the church +was burnt and many men slain; and so on with dreary monotony. Bishops +and abbots fought in the incessant tribal wars as keenly as laymen. +Worse still, it was not infrequent for one band of clergy to make +war on another. In the ninth century, Phelim, who claimed to be both +Bishop and King of Leinster, ravaged Ulster and murdered its monks and +clergy. In the eleventh century the annals give an account of a fierce +battle between the Bishop of Armagh and the Bishop of Clonard. Nor did +time work any improvement; we read of bloody conflicts between abbots +and bishops as late as the middle of the fifteenth century. What +influence for good could such a church have had upon the mass of the +people? + +And even in its noblest period the Celtic Church seems to have had but +little power beyond the walls of its own colleges. The whole history +of Celtic Ireland, as we learn from the annalists, was one miserable +succession of tribal wars, murders and plunderings. Of course it may +be said with perfect truth that the annals of other countries at the +time tell much the same story. But there is this difference between +them: wild and barbarous though the wars of other countries were, +they were at any rate the slow and painful working up towards a higher +civilization; the country became consolidated under the most powerful +chief; in time peace was enforced, agriculture improved, and towns +grew up. The tribal raids of Celtic Ireland, however, were merely +for plunder and destruction. From such conflicts no higher state of +society could possibly be evolved. The Irish Celts built no cities, +promoted no agriculture, and never coalesced so as to form even the +nucleus of a united kingdom. + +It was about the end of the eighth century that the first foreign +influence was brought to bear on Celtic Ireland. The Danish invasion +began. Heathen though the Danes were, they brought some ideas of +settled government and the germs of national progress. They founded +cities, such as Dublin, Waterford and Limerick. And when they, like +their fellow-countrymen in England, accepted Christianity, they +established bishoprics in the new towns, but took care that they +should be wholly independent of the Celtic tribal episcopate; they +looked to Canterbury and Rome. + +Much has been written and sung about the fame of Brian Boroo. No doubt +he was in some ways a great man; and it seemed for a time that he +might do for Ireland something like what Alfred the Great had done for +England and Kenneth MacAlpine had done for Scotland--might consolidate +the country into one kingdom. But the story of his life is a striking +commentary on the wretchedness of the period. Forming an alliance with +some of the Danes he succeeded in crushing the chiefs of several rival +Celtic tribes; then in turn he attacked his former allies, and beat +them at the battle of Clontarf in the year 1014, though they were +aided by other Celtic tribes who hated Brian and his schemes even more +than they hated the foreigners. Important though this battle was, its +effect has been much exaggerated and misunderstood. It certainly +did not bring the Danish power in Ireland to an end; Dublin was a +flourishing Danish colony long afterwards--in fact it was thirty years +after the battle that the Danish king of Dublin founded the Bishopric. + +But Brian was slain in the moment of victory. The soldiers of his +army murdered his only surviving son, and began fighting amongst +themselves. Brian's dream of a united Ireland came to an end, and the +country relapsed into chaos. If the immediate result of the battle +was a victory of Celt over Dane, the lasting effect was a triumph of +anarchy over order. It was on the Celtic people that the ruin fell; +and the state of things for the next two centuries was if possible +worse than it had ever been before. + +It will be readily understood that throughout this terrible period of +history anything like a peaceful cultivation of the soil or a regular +election to the office of chief was out of the question. It was quite +an ordinary thing for a chief to obtain his position by murdering his +predecessor. The annalists give us a long list of Kings of Ireland +dating from before the Christian era until the arrival of the Normans. +Of course the word "king" can mean little more than "prominent +chief," for no one man ever had real authority over the whole of the +distracted land. Even of these prominent chiefs, however, according +to the annalists, very few died natural deaths. Some fell in battle, +others were assassinated; but the most common fate for a monarch was +to be "slain by his successor." If this was true of the most powerful +men in the country, to speak of the office of chief as elective is +really absurd. But more than this: there is no evidence that the +"tribal system," in the sense of all the tribe being related by blood +and all owning their lands in common, ever existed in Ireland even +in theory. At the earliest date of which we possess any distinct +information on the subject, wealth, representing physical force, had +become the acknowledged basis of political power and private right; +and the richer members of the community were rapidly reducing the +poorer freemen--many of whom were the descendants of an earlier race +or of conquered tribes--to a state of serfdom. The system (if such +a word can be applied at all) was in fact a bad form of feudalism +without its advantages. There was no central overlord (like those +in other countries who gradually developed into the sovereigns of +mediæval kingdoms and thus became able to enforce peace and progress), +each petty chief being independent; and on the other hand the dues +payable by the retainers were not fixed by law or custom. We must +probably reject the suggested derivation of the word "feodal" from the +Celtic "Fiudir"; but if so, it is curious that two words accidentally +resembling each other conveyed ideas so closely alike; for a Celtic +"Fiudir" was practically a tenant at the will of the lord; and it must +be admitted that the word "vassal" is of Celtic origin. Charters which +date from before the Norman invasion show that the land was regarded +as the private property of the chiefs; frequently the wretched +occupiers, instead of paying fixed rents, were liable to unlimited +exactions, one of them being the right of the lord to "coigne and +livery"--that is, to quarter himself and his retainers as long as he +pleased on any occupier who possessed a few cows (which were the only +form of wealth in those days of universal poverty); in some cases, +however, land was let for a term of years, on a fixed payment of +cattle. + +On the death of a freeholder his land was divided amongst his sons +equally, according to what is called "the custom of gavelkind." +Whether primogeniture is a good or a bad thing in England or the +British Colonies at the present day is of course a totally different +question; the circumstances of the times are totally different. But +it can hardly be doubted by a thoughtful student of history that the +adoption of primogeniture in the early days of feudalism in other +European countries was a social necessity if civilization was to rise +to a higher state; and that its not being introduced in Ireland was if +not a cause at least an evidence that civilization in that country +did not progress. For in a condition not far removed from anarchy +the connection between the ownership of land and political power is +inevitable; hence if holdings are small their owners become an easy +prey to stronger neighbours; whereas the possessors of larger areas +can repel attacks and enable their dependents to live in some sort of +security. It was the enormous number of petty independent chiefs that +added to the miseries of Celtic Ireland. + +I shall probably be accused of having painted too dark a picture in +the brief sketch that I have given of Ireland before the coming of the +Normans. I admit that it is very different from the glowing accounts +of "Irish Ireland" that may be found in the pages of Nationalist +journals. But the question to me is not which account is more pleasant +but which is true. And I defy anyone who has cared to look through the +works of such writers as Richey, Stokes, and Sullivan, to prove that +what I have said is incorrect or unfair. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +IRELAND FROM THE TIME OF HENRY II TO THE TIME OF HENRY VIII. + + +In the last chapter I dealt with the long period during which the +Celtic tribes of Ireland were free from foreign influence except for +the comparatively brief time when a small part of the country was +under the rule of the Danes; and I endeavoured to show that according +to the evidence of their own annalists and in the opinion of modern +writers of various political sentiments, the whole island throughout +that period remained in a chronic state of anarchy, without any +advance towards a higher civilization. + +As Dr. Richey, when describing the condition of Ireland about the year +1170, says, "The state of the Celtic people was beyond all hope of +self-amendment. The want of law, order and justice, the absence of +self-knowledge and self-control, paralysed their national action and +reduced the power of their chief king to insignificance." + +I come now to what has been absurdly called the conquest of Ireland +under Henry II. + +That the English king was instigated in his efforts by the Pope is +perfectly clear. The Bull of Pope Adrian, issued in 1155, is still +extant:-- + + "... There is indeed no doubt but that Ireland, and all the + islands on which Christ, the Sun of Righteousness, hath shone, + and which have received the doctrine of the Christian faith, + do belong to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and the Holy Roman + Church ... therefore we are the more solicitous to propagate + the righteous plantation of faith in this land, and the + branch acceptable to God, as we have the secret conviction of + conscience that this is more especially our bounden duty. You + then, our dear son in Christ, have signified to us your desire + to enter into the island of Ireland, in order to reduce the + people to obedience under the laws, and to extirpate the + plants of vice, and that you are willing to pay from each + house a yearly pension of one penny to St. Peter, and that you + will preserve the rights of the churches whole and inviolate. + We, therefore, do hold it good and acceptable that ... you + enter this island and execute therein whatever shall pertain + to the honour of God and welfare of the land; and that the + people of the land receive you honourably and reverence you as + their lord." + +And in 1172 Pope Alexander III ratified the action of his predecessor. + + "Forasmuch as these things which have been on good reasons + granted by our predecessors, deserve to be confirmed ... + and considering the grant of the dominion of the land by the + venerable Pope Adrian, we ... do ratify and confirm the same + (reserving to St. Peter and to the Holy Roman Church, as well + in England as in Ireland the yearly pension of one penny from + every house) provided that, the abominations of the land being + removed, the barbarous people, Christians only in name, may + by your means, be reformed, and their lives and conversations + mended, so that their disordered Church being thus reduced + to regular discipline, that nation may, with the name of + Christians, be so in act and deed." + +Whether the description here given was literally correct, or whether +the Pope's views were coloured by the fact that the Celtic Church did +not acknowledge the supremacy of Rome and was heretical on certain +points of doctrine, is a question outside the present subject. The +Bulls are only quoted here as showing the part taken by Rome. And it +must be admitted that in the succeeding century the power of the Pope +became strong enough to enable him to levy taxes in Ireland for the +purpose of carrying on his wars against the Emperor and the King of +Aragon. + +But Henry did not conquer Ireland. He did not even pretend to do so. +Previous to his arrival there had been some little fighting done by a +few adventurous Norman knights who had been invited by a native chief +to assist him in a domestic war; but Henry II fought no battle in +Ireland; he displaced no ancient national government; the Irish had +no national flag, no capital city as the metropolis of the country, no +common administration of the law. The English, coming in the name of +the Pope, with the aid of the Irish bishops, with a superior national +organization which the Irish easily recognised, were accepted by the +Irish. The king landed at Waterford; his journey to Dublin was rather +a royal progress than a hostile invasion. He came as feudal sovereign +to receive the homage of the Irish tribes; the chiefs flocked to his +court, readily became his vassals, and undertook to hold the lands +they already occupied as fiefs of the Crown. But Henry did not take +the title, or assume the position of King of Ireland. He merely sought +to establish a suzerainty in which he would be the overlord. And in +fact a conquest of Ireland in the modern sense of the term would have +been impossible. England possessed no standing army; the feudal levies +of mediæval times were difficult and expensive. It might of course +have been possible to have organized a wholesale immigration and an +enslavement of the natives, something like that which the Normans had +accomplished in England, and the Saxons had done centuries before; but +nothing of the kind was attempted. Whether Henry's original intention +was simply to leave the Irish chiefs in possession or not, it is +useless now to enquire. But if it was, he appears to have changed his +views; for not long afterwards he granted large fiefs with palatinate +jurisdiction to various Normans who had made their way over to Ireland +independently. + +It may be that Henry--knowing that the Conqueror, whilst taking +care that no powerful seignories should grow up in the heart of his +kingdom, as rivals to the throne, yet made exceptions in cases +where the lands verged on hostile territory, such as Durham or +Chester--thought that he could best follow the spirit of that policy +by establishing what were practically semi-independent principalities +in an island already inhabited by another race. But the result was +disastrous. + +That the Normans were savage and brutal, dealing out no justice or +mercy to their victims, is proved by the account of their conquest of +England. Yet they possessed certain great qualities, which eminently +fitted them to become rulers in those wild, unsettled times; as their +successes, not merely in Britain, but also in Southern Italy and +Syria, show. They had the idea of a strong, centralized Government; +and more than that they had a marvellous capacity for receptivity. +Thus we see that in England, after a period of rough tyranny, they +blended the existing Anglo-Saxon Government--the strength of which lay +in its local organization--with their own; and from the union of +the two has come the British Constitution. So too in the Lowlands +of Scotland it was the Norman knight Robert Bruce who, accepting the +already existing Saxon and Roman civilization, raised Scotland into a +powerful kingdom. But in Ireland all was different. The only state +of society which the Normans found was Celtic barbarism. Political +institutions did not exist. As the Normans in England had become +Anglified, and in Scotland Scottified, so in Ireland they became +Ersefied. It is true that they built stone castles which at any rate +were better than the hovels of the Irish Chiefs, and (like the +Danes before them) founded a few towns, such as Kilkenny, Galway and +Athenry; but there their efforts ended. Scattered amongst the tribes, +they learnt their ways. They sank to the position of the Celtic +Chiefs around them; local wars went on the same as before; the only +difference being that they were waged sometimes by Normans against +Normans or against Celts, but more frequently by one body of Celts +against another, each side being aided by Norman allies. + +One class of Nationalist writers has inveighed against the English +kings for not having forcibly introduced English law and put an end to +the barbarous Celtic customs. The simple answer is, How could they do +so? Whilst England was being weakened by long continental wars or +by struggles between rival Houses, what strength had she left to +undertake the real conquest of Ireland? The English kings had turned +to the only people who could have helped them--the Normans settled in +Ireland; and they failed them. Other Nationalist writers have on +the other hand declaimed with equal vehemence against the tyranny of +England in forcing an alien system of law on an unwilling people. To +this the answer is that nothing of the kind occurred. It is true that +petitions were sent from Ireland to the King urging him to introduce +English law; but these petitions came mainly from the poorer classes +of English settlers who found that instead of attaining greater +liberty in their new home they were being ground down to the miserable +position of the native Irish. The King issued proclamations directing +the English barons to permit the Irish to be governed by the law of +England; but his orders were totally disregarded; many of the unhappy +English settlers fled from the country and returned to England; +the barons supplied their places with native retainers. Thus the +Ersefication of the degenerate Normans became complete; they +"donned the saffron"--that is, they adopted the yellow dress of the +Celts--abandoned their original language, and gave themselves up to a +life of constant plunder and rapine. + +Early in the fourteenth century the Irish septs united so far as to +form a joint effort to expel the English. The incident is specially +interesting, in the light of later history. Robert Bruce, a Norman +knight, had recently consolidated the Scottish tribes into a kingdom +and succeeded in shaking off the English yoke. The Irish Celts +resolved to imitate his example. King Robert was shrewd enough to see +that by aiding them he could attack his enemy at the most vulnerable +point; consequently, when the chiefs offered the Crown of Ireland to +his brother Edward if he would come and help them, he gladly accepted +the invitation. For three years a devastating war raged over a large +part of Ireland; the Scotch went from the North of Ulster almost to +Limerick, burning, slaying, plundering, sacking towns, castles and +churches; and a terrible famine ensued. But the Irish chiefs were no +more energetic in supporting Edward Bruce than their ancestors had +been in supporting Brian; he and his chief officers fell in a battle +against the English near Dundalk, and the rest of his followers +escaped to Scotland. The coalition fell to pieces; and the only result +of the Scotch invasion was to increase the misery of the people, +especially of the unhappy English settlers, who continued to flock +back to England in greater numbers than before. + +As soon as the rebellion was put down, the great legislator Edward +III made another effort at introducing order into the distracted land. +Acts were passed by the English Parliament providing that the same +law should be applicable to both English and Irish, and forbidding +landowners to keep larger bands of armed men than were necessary for +self-defence. But the Ersefied barons on whom he relied refused to +obey the new laws; they renounced their allegiance and joined the +rebellious Celtic tribes. Then the king, seeing the impossibility +of carrying out his scheme for pacifying the whole of Ireland, was +reduced to the expedient of dividing the country into two; leaving the +larger part of it for the natives and degenerate English to misgovern +as they pleased according to their own customs, and preserving only +a mere fraction (the "English Pale") in allegiance to the Crown of +England. This was the real meaning of the "Statutes of Kilkenny," +which have been so often misrepresented by modern writers. + +The next king, Richard II, attempted to imitate the policy of his +ancestor Henry II. He went to Ireland with great pomp. Again the +Celtic chiefs flocked to Dublin to swear allegiance to their lord; +and as soon as his back was turned commenced not only fighting amongst +themselves but even attacking the English Pale. The result of all his +efforts was that the limits of the Pale were still further contracted; +the English power was confined to a small area in the neighbourhood of +Dublin. + +But even within that narrow boundary the power of the king was far +from being secure. When England was torn by the Wars of the Roses, the +so-called Parliament (which was really an irregular assembly at best +representing a territory about the size of a modern county) seized +the opportunity of declaring itself independent. It is interesting, in +view of present-day questions, to observe that Dr. Richey, writing +in 1869, seems to consider their action as not only justifiable but +inevitable. He says:-- + + "The Irish Parliament declared the complete independence + of the Irish Legislature, and boldly affirmed those + constitutional rights which, though involved in the existence + of separate parliament, had not hitherto been categorically + expressed. They asserted their rights to a distinct coinage, + and their absolute freedom from all laws and statutes except + such as were by the Lords spiritual and temporal and Commons + of Ireland freely admitted and accepted in their Parliament. + They declared that no Irish subject was bound to answer + any writs except those under the great seal of Ireland, and + enacted heavy penalties against any officer who should attempt + to put English decrees in force in Ireland. They, in fact, + took the same position and laid down the same principles as + the celebrated Parliament of 1782." + +Whether they imagined that they could form a separate kingdom of +Dublin, or dreamt of making an alliance with the tribes outside the +Pale, it is useless now to conjecture; but we can see that though they +had no chance of benefiting themselves they might have caused serious +injury to England. Nor was it long before a difficulty arose. The +inhabitants of the Pale remained attached to the House of York even +after the Battle of Bosworth, and readily accepted Lambert Simnel as +King of Ireland. He was crowned in the Cathedral of Dublin, and held +a Parliament. After the defeat of this Pretender, the able and astute +Henry VII saw that it was necessary without further delay to make the +shadowy suzerainty of England over Ireland a reality. He accordingly +persuaded the Irish Parliament to pass an Act which from the name of +the Lord Deputy was known as "Poyning's Act." By this Act, all English +statutes then existing in England were made of force in Ireland; the +chief fortresses were secured to the Crown of England; and the Irish +Parliament was relegated to the position of a subordinate legislature; +for it was enacted that no Parliament should be held in Ireland unless +the King's Lieutenant and Council should first certify the King, under +the Great Seal of Ireland, the Acts which they considered should pass; +then the King and his Council should approve the proposed Acts, +and issue a licence under the Great Seal of England, summoning the +Parliament. + +Though some writers have spoken of this as the most disgraceful Act +ever passed by an independent legislature, the people in Ireland at +the time considered it a boon and a favour; for it shielded them from +the unauthorized power of a Lord Deputy supported by a Parliament of +his own creatures. + +And so, with the close of the mediæval period, ended the second +chapter of Irish history. It will be observed that there had been no +religious persecution, unless indeed the conduct of the Norman--that +is, the Roman--Church towards the ancient Celtic Church, or the +burning of some heretics in the fourteenth century, could be so +described; a view which the Nationalists of to-day will hardly care to +put forward. Nor can the English Government be fairly blamed for the +condition of affairs; for responsibility depends on power, and English +power in Ireland hardly existed. The suzerainty of England, feeble at +best, had gradually been limited to a mere fraction of the country. +The Celtic tribes had long since thrown off even a nominal submission +to the English Crown; the Anglo-Norman lords had become either +avowedly or practically independent. But the inhabitants of Ireland +did not constitute a nation or possess any common interest or bond of +union. There was no trace of an organization by which the Irish tribes +could be united into one people. The ceaseless civil wars had indeed +supplanted the original tribesmen by the mercenary followers of +another set of rival chiefs; but there had been no union; and the mass +of the people, still under the influence of their native customs, were +probably in a more wretched condition than they had ever been before. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +IRELAND UNDER THE TUDORS. + + +We have seen that at the close of the Middle Ages Ireland was in the +condition that some people in England now consider the panacea for +all the woes of the country; it possessed a subordinate Parliament and +England interfered as little as possible in its local affairs. Henry +VIII attempted "to govern Ireland according to Irish ideas"; having no +army of his own, he appointed the most powerful of the Norman barons +his deputy. But this deputy used his authority precisely as an +Ersefied Norman (who possessed no more patriotism or national feeling +than a Celtic chief) might have been expected to use it,--that was, to +aid him in a succession of family quarrels and tribal wars in which, +allied with some of the native septs he attacked others. Even the +towns outside the Pale fared little better than the remoter districts; +there was actually a civil war between Cork and Limerick. The state of +affairs in Celtic Ireland during the brief period from 1500 to 1534 +as stated in the annals (which, however, only deal with a part of the +country, hardly referring to what took place in Leinster or Munster) +has been summed up by Dr. Richey in the following words:-- + + "Battles, plunderings, etc., exclusive of those in which the + English Government was engaged, 116; Irish gentlemen of + family killed in battle, 102; murdered, 168--many of them with + circumstances of great atrocity; and during this period, on + the other hand, there is no allusion to the enactment of any + law, the judicial decision of any controversy, the founding of + any town, monastery or church; and all this is recorded by + the annalist without the slightest expression of regret or + astonishment, as if such were the ordinary course of life in a + Christian country." + +At length, in 1534, matters came to a head; the Lord Deputy broke out +into open rebellion. We can learn from the State papers of the period +what the condition of Ireland then was. The Pale--now but the remnant +of a fraction--was constantly invaded and ravished by wild tribes, +and was itself becoming Ersefied; for the poorer English settlers had +either fled back to England, joined the Celtic tribes in despair, as +their only way of escaping from the harshness of the English lords, or +been crushed out of existence; and, as had already happened elsewhere, +their place had been taken by Irish retainers. Then in the rest of the +country there were some ninety chiefs, of whom about sixty represented +ancient septs and the remainder degenerate Normans, all claiming +independence and preying sometimes on one another and sometimes on +their unfortunate followers. Not infrequently also a tribe was divided +against itself, and a civil war was raging between the two factions. +And one result of the Ersefication of the Norman barons was that, +in addition to the regular feudal dues, they demanded every kind +of Celtic tribute from the occupiers of the land. In fact, how the +wretched tenants managed to support life at all seems a mystery. +Whatever law there may at one time have been was now long extinct; +and as King Henry himself pointed out, if the natives were to have any +sort of law at all, the only possible law was the law of England. + +At this time also a new factor came into the already complicated +problem--the Reformation. Henry VIII never was a Protestant, in +the sense of adopting the doctrines which are now usually called +Protestant; but he had renounced the authority of the Pope. In 1535 +Pope Paul III passed sentence upon him, consigning his kingdoms to +whoever might invade them, and commanding his nobles to take up +arms against him. Both the Emperor and the King of France saw their +opportunity, as Robert Bruce had done centuries before. They commenced +a correspondence with the Irish chiefs with the object of bringing +about an invasion of Ireland. Thereupon King Henry resolved to take +the only course that seemed to him possible--to make the conquest +of Ireland a reality and to enforce law and order in that distracted +land. His letters, which are still extant, show the care with which he +thought out the matter, and his earnest desire for the welfare of +the people of both races; a perusal of them would astonish those who +regard him merely as a savage sensualist. Strange to say, in their +Irish policy, the character of Henry VIII shows itself at the best, +and that of Elizabeth at its worst. When Henry had with difficulty +succeeded in crushing the Geraldine rebellion and a series of others +which broke out soon after, he got the Irish Parliament to pass an +Act conferring on him the title of king; he was solemnly proclaimed as +such, and his title was confirmed by the almost unanimous consent of +the Irish princes. + +This was important in more ways than one: it was universally +recognized that the word "king" meant much more than "lord"; and it +gave him a title independent of the Pope's donation. + +It is one of the ironies of history that the renunciation of the Papal +authority and the submission to the king's supremacy was far more +rapid and general in Ireland than it was in England. For not only did +all the lay chiefs readily yield their adhesion, but only two of the +bishops refused to take the oath of supremacy. Rebellions such as that +of Fitzgerald had no connection with religion; it was not until years +afterwards when England had become identified with Protestantism and +Spain with Catholicism that the Irish became intensely Papal. On the +other hand, the Reformation, as a religious movement, made no headway +in Ireland. It was purely negative and destructive, and emanated from +the Government, not from the mass of the people. The monasteries were +destroyed; hence there were no vicars to supply the parish churches, +which fell into ruin; the king endeavoured rather to Anglify than to +Protestantise the people by sending to them bishops and clergy from +England--but they were mere state officials, not fathers in God; +unable even to speak the Irish language; what real preaching there +was was done by friars sent from Rome and Madrid. Henry's efforts at +establishing parish schools were also a total failure. Had there not +been later immigrations from England and Scotland, Irish Protestantism +would probably have died out. Yet it is but fair to state, and to bear +in mind, that there was no religious persecution as such in Ireland +during the Tudor period. Elizabeth's policy was, without making any +actual promise of freedom of conscience, to leave the question of +religious opinions alone as far as possible. The real difficulty came +from the political nature of the Church of Rome; when the Pope deposed +Elizabeth and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain every Irish Roman +Catholic had either to be false to his religion or to become a +traitor--_in esse_ or _in posse_--to the queen. + +When Henry had resolved to do his utmost to bring Ireland to a state +of civilization, there were not wanting advisers who urged upon him +that his only safe course was absolutely to destroy the whole native +population by sword and famine and re-people the vacant lands by +immigrants from England. Such a course would have been quite in +accordance with the ideas of the time. Not thirty years previously, +the combined forces of Church and State had pursued the heretic +population of the Loise into the mountain fastnesses to which they had +fled, and had piled logs of wood at the mouths of the caves in which +they had taken refuge, and set them on fire. Then, when all the +unhappy people--men, women and children, numbering some thousands +in all--had perished, their lands were distributed amongst strangers +brought in from a distance to occupy them. And at a later date--in the +middle of the sixteenth century--the native inhabitants of the Canary +Islands were exterminated by the Spanish Inquisition, and their lands +taken by the invading race. But to Henry it appeared that there was +one milder course that might still be possible. Might not the native +chiefs and the degenerate Normans who had shown that their only idea +of independency was anarchy yet be brought together as nobles under +a strong central government with a Parliament representing not merely +the Pale, but all Ireland? Might not the mass of the people, whose +native customs had been well nigh crushed out by civil wars, +be persuaded to _adopt_ the law of England? This was the policy +deliberately adopted by Henry and acted on by him during his life. +It is easy for writers living in modern times to sneer at some of the +details of his scheme; but it is not so easy for them to point out +what other course would have been better; or indeed, whether any other +course short of a policy of extermination, would have been possible. + +The remarkable thing, however, is that the change to a more severe +line took place not under Henry or his Protestant son, but under the +most Catholic Sovereigns Philip and Mary. It was by their orders that +the first of the confiscations (which were to play so important a part +in the later history of Ireland) was carried out. By an Act passed +in their reign the lands occupied by the O'Moores, O'Connors and +O'Dempseys were confiscated and formed into the King's and +Queen's counties, Leix and Offaly being renamed "Philipstown" and +"Maryborough"; and a "Plantation" of English settlers was established. + +And here it is well to pause for a moment and consider these +confiscations, about which so much has been written. That +confiscations have taken place in every country is a plain fact of +history. There is probably no part of Western Europe where land is +now held by the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants. Forcible +conquest and adverse occupation is nearly always the primary root +of title. But it is part of the policy of every civilized country to +recognize what lawyers call "Statutes of limitations." When centuries +have elapsed and new rights have grown up, it is impossible to rectify +the wrongs of times long gone by. Thus we cannot suppose that any +future Government of Spain would ever recognize the title of the Moors +in Africa to the properties from which their ancestors were driven +by Philip IV; or that the Huguenots, now scattered over various +countries, could ever succeed in recovering possession of the estates +in France which were confiscated at the time of the Revocation of the +Edict of Nantes. And the only people who have a cause to complain, +even on sentimental grounds, of the wrongs of past ages, are the +lineal descendants of those who suffered ill-treatment. No Englishman +to-day can feel aggrieved because Saxons drove out Britons, or Normans +Saxons. + +But more than that: the confiscation of the lands of rebels stands on +a different basis, and has been so regarded in every country in the +world, even New Zealand. The lands confiscated by Philip and Mary were +owned by the arch-rebel FitzGerald. Naturally fertile and capable if +properly cultivated of supporting a large population, they were at +this time a wild pathless tract of forest and bog. The ceaseless +tribal wars had prevented their being drained and cleared; the +miserable remnants of the Celtic tribes gained a precarious living by +periodical raids on the more peaceful inhabitants of the Pale. During +the whole of the reign of Edward VI fighting had gone on in Leix and +Offaly with great loss of life and at enormous expense to the English +Government. The object of the confiscation was not to drive out the +few existing tribesmen; for the land, when cleared and drained, might +well support them as well as the new settlers. Nor was it to confer +great estates on absentee proprietors, but to establish a fairly +thickly settled district which might be a source of strength rather +than a constant cause of trouble to the dwellers in the Pale. Nor +again was it to introduce feudalism; for as I have shown, the system +already in existence was feudalism without its advantages; the +substitution of fixed dues for the barbarous custom of "coigne and +livery" was an unmixed benefit to the occupiers of land. And it cannot +be denied that the first "Plantation" was a thorough success--thriving +settlements and prosperous farms took the place of forest and swamp. + +If the position of Henry VIII had been one of difficulty, that of +Elizabeth was far more critical. The separation of the Church of +England from Rome was now complete. The great powers of the Continent +were united in one supreme effort to stamp out the new heresy. The +massacre of St. Bartholomew had taken place in France; Philip II had +ordered a _Te Deum_ to be sung at Madrid, and the Pope had had a medal +struck to commemorate the glorious event. The lowest computation of +those put to death for heresy in the Netherlands by Charles V was +50,000; and his successor had, at the instigation of the Holy Office, +issued a proclamation sentencing to death the whole population--men, +women and children--with the exception of a few persons specially +named. Alva boasted that he had put 18,000 Dutchmen to death on the +scaffold, and the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and +sword, an honour which had previously been bestowed only on reigning +sovereigns. In Spain it was regarded not only as a sacred duty but a +pleasant amusement for the King and his Court to watch the +torturing of heretics. England alone--then a comparatively weak +and insignificant country--stood out against this overwhelming +combination. And in attempting to realize the position of affairs we +must remember that in the sixteenth century the Papacy was not merely +a religious system but also a tremendous political power. We may now +regard the claim of the Pope to depose princes as a harmless dream; +but at that time it was a stern reality. Thus matters came to a crisis +when the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth and all who remained loyal +to her, released her subjects from their allegiance, offered plenary +indulgence and remission of sins to all who would take up arms against +her, promised a liberal supply of graces and indulgences to Irish +chieftains who would rebel, and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain. + +It can hardly be denied therefore that England was engaged in a +life and death struggle. And unless Elizabeth would consent to the +annexation of Ireland by Spain and to the conquest of England by some +power that would treat the people there much as the heretics of the +Netherlands were being treated by Philip, it must be admitted that any +measures, however violent, became a political necessity--a mere act +of self-defence. But though Elizabeth had already on hand a war with +France, Spain and Scotland, her difficulties did not end there. The +North of Ireland was being invaded by Celts from Scotland, and the +principal chief, Shan O'Neill (who was described by the Spanish +Ambassador as "so good a Christian that he cuts off the head of any +man who enters his country if he be not a Catholic") was in open +rebellion with the avowed object of crushing out the English power, +exterminating the rival tribes, and making himself King of Ulster. To +so miserable a state had that part of Ireland been reduced by petty +local wars between rival chiefs that hundreds of people had died +of hunger. Can it be wondered that Elizabeth conceived the idea of +imitating her sister's policy and forming a "plantation" in the North? + +Then came another formidable rebellion in Munster, headed by an +Ersefied Norman, Desmond. These rebellions were fomented by the Pope, +and in the South the rebels were aided by Spanish troops. In the +amount of the aid sent from Spain, however, the Irish rebels were +sadly disappointed. That has been one of the characteristic features +of all Irish rebellions; the foreign powers on which they have relied +have been liberal enough with promises of aid, but when the time for +performance has come they have left the unfortunate Irish to their +fate. (Thus in 1641 not only did the rebels fully expect that a +powerful Spanish force would come to their assistance, but they even +believed that 18,000 Spanish troops had actually landed at Wexford.) +That these rebellions were crushed by the forces of Queen Elizabeth +with a savage violence that is more suggestive of the government of +the Netherlands by Spain than of what should have been the action of +a Christian nation cannot be denied; but when reading the accounts +of the terrible condition to which the country was reduced one cannot +help thinking that the stories of outrages committed by the English +troops must be exaggerated. In the first place, the writers, even when +eye-witnesses, seem to have assumed that the country was peaceful and +prosperous up to that time; whereas not only had the tribal wars which +had gone on incessantly until a few years before reduced the people +almost to a condition of famine, but the rebels themselves, such +as O'Neill and Desmond, had ravaged the country anew. And if it was +obvious that the object of Elizabeth was to exterminate the whole +Irish population and the Roman Catholic religion, it seems impossible +(even allowing for the eccentricity of human nature in general and of +the Irish character in particular) to believe that a large part of the +queen's forces should have been composed of Irish Roman Catholics; or +that the inhabitants of the towns, most of whom were also Irish Roman +Catholics, should have taken her side; but such was undoubtedly +the case. Again, if nearly the whole native population had been +exterminated by slaughter and famine it would have taken at least a +century to recover. Yet--a few years after the commencement of +the English settlement we find Spenser complaining that the new +proprietors were acting as the Norman barons had done centuries +before; instead of keeping out the Irish they were making them their +tenants and thrusting out the English; and some of the proprietors +were themselves becoming "mere Irish." Then, although no doubt +a certain proportion of the Elizabethan settlers renounced their +Protestantism and embraced the Roman Catholic religion, that can +hardly have been the case with the mass of them; and yet before the +middle of the seventeenth century we find that the great majority +of the freeholders of Ireland and even of the members of the Irish +Parliament were Roman Catholics; surely they must have represented +the earlier population. And lastly, considering the wild exaggerations +that occur in the accounts of every other event of Irish history, we +cannot suppose that this period alone has escaped. + +Towards the end of the queen's reign occurred the last of the +native rebellions. It too was crushed; and, by the "flight of the +earls"--Tyrone and Tyrconnell--was completed the work which had been +commenced by Henry II. And so the third chapter of Irish history was +ended. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, UNTIL THE END OF THE REIGN OF JAMES II. + + +The seventeenth century is a terrible period of European history. It +has been described as "the age of religious wars"; and those wars were +waged with a savage ferocity which it is impossible even now to read +of without a shudder. + +It is a plain matter of history that from the very commencement of the +Reformation the idea of toleration never entered into the heads of +any of the authorities of the Church of Rome. France, Spain, Portugal, +Savoy and Germany all tell the same story. Except in countries such as +England where the sovereigns adopted the new opinions, the only chance +which the reforming party had of being able to exercise their religion +was by means of rebellion and all the horrors of civil war. What that +meant, the history of the rise of the Dutch Republic tells us. As Lord +Acton has said: "In the seventeenth century the murder of a heretic +was not only permitted but rewarded. It was a virtuous deed to +slaughter Protestant men and women until they were all exterminated. +Pius V held that it was sound Catholic doctrine that any man may +stab a heretic; and every man was a heretic who attacked the papal +prerogatives." And it is equally true that in those cases where the +reforming party succeeded in gaining the upper hand, they did not show +much more mercy than had been shown to them previously or was being +shown to their co-religionists in other countries at the time. Yet +it is only fair to add that when the idea of toleration did arise, it +arose amongst the reformed churches. Probably the only Roman Catholic +State in the world where toleration existed during the seventeenth +century was the little English colony of Maryland, of which Lord +Baltimore was the proprietor. And when at length the religious wars +died out it was, as far as Catholic countries were concerned, because +the lay mind had become thoroughly disgusted with the whole thing, and +men's minds were turning in other directions--not because the clerical +rulers showed the slightest desire to relax their efforts or change +their policy. + +It would be well if the whole dreadful period could be buried in +oblivion. But it is necessary to mention the subject here, for the +Nationalist party are continually referring to the horrors of the +Cromwellian massacres and the penal laws; and if such matters are to +be gone into at all it is only fair, in order to make a just estimate +of them, to glance at the great European struggle of which they formed +an incident. In the century which saw Germany deluged with blood +for thirty years, and which witnessed the revocation of the Edict of +Nantes and the revival of vehement persecution in France, it was not +likely that Ireland should remain unaffected. + +Soon after James I came to the throne he commenced his famous Scotch +plantation in the desolated and half-emptied province of Ulster. That +it was even a greater success than the plantation formed by Philip +and Mary everyone is of course aware; it is the descendants of those +immigrants who, though they live in a district not so highly favoured +by nature as other parts of the country, form the only really +prosperous and progressive section of the community at the present +day. The native Irish do not seem to have looked on the Scotchmen with +much disfavour, perhaps partly because there being plenty of room for +all in the desolated tract, and lands being assigned to them, they +realised that they were safer in the immediate neighbourhood of a +peaceful settlement than they would have been had they remained a prey +to unscrupulous adventurers like Shan O'Neill. A member of the legal +profession must feel shame and sorrow in recording the fact that +the chicanery of the lawyers added much to the harshness of the +politicians. That, however, is only another way of saying that +the humane policy of the nineteenth century was unknown in the +seventeenth. Had courts been established in Ireland like the native +land courts of New Zealand in which claims under customary law might +be investigated, and equitable awards made, the later history of +Ireland might have been very different. Yet one must remember that +even in the reign of Queen Victoria there was a strong party in +England and there were not a few people in New Zealand who argued +that Maori customary claims should be disregarded and the treaty +of Waitangi ignored. And in the seventeenth century such ideas were +unheard of. Lawyers searched for every technicality of English law +by which the titles of holders of land could be upset, in favour of +English claimants. Then matters became strangely complicated, as they +seem to be periodically throughout Irish history. The struggle between +Charles I and the Parliament began, and it soon became evident that +the Parliamentary party was the stronger of the two. To the Irish the +Parliamentarians meant the Puritans; and they believed, not wholly +without reason, that a determined attempt would be made not only to +seize all their lands but also to stamp out their religion. (It +must be observed that the Elizabethan anti-Roman Acts had never been +strictly carried out in Ireland, and during the reign of James I their +severity had been relaxed still further--a line of conduct which had +no parallel in any Roman Catholic country in Europe at the time.) +Thereupon in 1641 the Roman Catholics of Ulster broke into open +rebellion, and soon afterwards they applied to the kings of France and +Spain for aid; and the Pope issued a bull granting a full and plenary +indulgence and absolute remission for all their sins to all who would +do their utmost to extirpate and totally root out those workers of +iniquity who in the kingdom of Ireland had infected and were always +striving to infect the mass of Catholic purity with the pestiferous +leaven of their heretical contagion. + +The stories told of the actual outbreak of the rebellion are +interesting as an illustration of the universal habit of exaggeration +about Irish affairs, to which I have already alluded. Clarendon +affirms that 40,000 English Protestants were murdered before they +suspected themselves to be in any danger; Temple states that in +the first two months of the rebellion 150,000 Protestants had been +massacred. The Jesuit, O'Mahony, writing in 1645, says "Persevere, +my countrymen, in the path you have entered on, and exterminate your +heretical opponents, their adherents and helpers. Already within four +or five years you have killed 150,000 of them, as you do not deny. I +myself believe that even a greater number of the heretics have been +cut off; would that I could say all." He had doubtless obtained +his information from the returns made by the priests engaged in the +rebellion to the military leaders, the figures of which were much the +same. Yet Lecky (who, though in certain passages of his history he +shows himself to be somewhat biassed in favour of the Irish Roman +Catholic party, is on the whole a remarkably fair and impartial +historian) argues with much force that there is no evidence of +anything like a general massacre, and brings down the number murdered +to about 8,000. Still, that there was a widespread rebellion and all +the consequent horrors of civil war, there can be no doubt. The rebels +of Ulster at one time tried to identify their cause with that of +Charles I by producing a forged commission from the king--which +annoyed the Royalists and made the Parliamentary party all the more +bitter. Charles certainly did his utmost to bring about a peace--no +doubt being anxious to obtain the assistance of his Irish subjects +in his Scotch and English wars. But his efforts were thwarted by the +Papal Nuncio, whose instructions from Rome were that the Holy See +could never by any positive Act approve of the civil allegiance of +Catholic subjects to an heretical prince; and thus the Royalist cause +became as completely lost in Ireland as it was in England. Before the +peace was finally concluded, Charles was a prisoner in the hands of +his enemies. + +Then came the terrible episode of the Cromwellian war, in which +Romanist and Royalist alike went down before the Puritan force. Still, +though he would be a bold man who could attempt to excuse--much less +to justify--the barbarities that took place, it may be doubted whether +all the Cromwellian outrages put together equalled a single one of +those which the Imperial troops had committed during the war which +had been raging for thirty years in Germany--such for instance as the +sacking of Magdeburg. It is estimated, however, that about 600,000 +people (of whom 500,000 were of the Irish race and 100,000 of the +English) perished by the sword, pestilence or famine in the fearful +years between 1641 and 1652--in other words, about a third part of +the population was wiped out. And the war was followed by a wholesale +confiscation--having fought for the king being considered as much an +act of treason as having rebelled against him. The confiscated lands +were allotted to soldiers, to persons who had supplied money to the +Parliamentary forces, and to other supporters of the new Government. +It is but just, however, to add that 700,000 acres of profitable land +in Connaught were allotted to dispossessed Romanists, and that they +were allowed to occupy 100,000 acres in other parts of the country; a +striking contrast to the lot of the unhappy Waldenses who were at that +time being driven from their homes and slaughtered without mercy for +no crime but heresy; or to the treatment a few years later by Louis +XIV of his Huguenot subjects whose lands were confiscated without +compensation and who were only given the choice of death or the +galleys. + +At the Restoration some effort was made to undo the injustice of the +Cromwellian confiscations. But the matter was one of great difficulty. +In many cases land had been allotted by Cromwell in payment for money +received; in others the grantees had sold their holdings to purchasers +who had paid in cash, regarding the original grant as indefeasible. +A reconfiscation of such lands would obviously have worked a great +injustice; and it is a common maxim of law that between two claimants +each with a good title the one in possession is to be preferred. Still +it cannot be said that the decisions of the Royal Commissioners were +always equitable according to our ideas; for instance, the award of +80,000 acres to the Duke of York (afterwards James II) of land which +had been forfeited under Cromwell because the owner had fought for his +father, would be hard to justify on any possible grounds. Still, an +Act of Settlement was passed, by which a certain amount of justice +was done; it is difficult to arrive at the figures accurately, but +it appears that after the passing of the Act nearly one-third of +the Island was vested in Roman Catholic proprietors. Archbishop King +estimated that at the time when he was writing--1689--two-thirds +of the Protestant landowners held their estates under the Act of +Settlement. And Lecky says, "Only an infinitesimal portion of the soil +belongs to the descendants of those who possessed it before Cromwell." +But Archbishop King was influenced by the fear he had felt as to what +the effect of a repeal of the Act would be; and there can hardly be +a doubt that his feelings led him to overestimate the number. With +regard to Lecky's remark, one can only take it as a strange instance +of a gross exaggeration having crept into a book which is usually +careful and accurate. It may be that the statement was not very +incorrect according to the evidence the author had before him; but if +so, that only proves that the evidence was wrong; for the proceedings +in the Land Courts which have been set up in Ireland during the last +half century have shown that the proportion of titles to estates which +date from an earlier period was far larger than people had supposed. + +During the peaceful and tolerant reign of Charles II the country made +steady progress. + +Under James II, however, everything was reversed. That unhappy +monarch, having ascended the throne tranquilly, with many +protestations of toleration and justice to all, succeeded in less than +two years in making it clear to the people of England that his object +was to confine liberty to those who professed his own creed and that +his idea of good government was something like that which was then +existing in France and Savoy. Driven from Great Britain, on his +arrival in Ireland he issued a proclamation declaring that his +Protestant subjects, their religion, privileges and properties were +his especial care; and he had previously directed the Lord Lieutenant +to declare in Council that he would preserve the Act of Settlement +inviolable. But the Protestants soon had reason to fear that his +promises were illusory and that the liberty which might be allowed to +them would be at best temporary. In a word, what the one party looked +forward to with hope and the other with dread was "a confederacy with +France which would make His Majesty's monarchy absolute." + +In order to understand what that meant, to Irish Protestants, it is +well to glance at the condition of France at the time. Louis XIV had +begun by directing that the Edict of Nantes was to be interpreted by +the strictest letter of the law; and soon after that the condition +of the Huguenots became more unhappy than that of the Irish Roman +Catholics ever was during the penal laws. The terrible "Dragonnades" +commenced in 1682; soldiers were billeted on heretics, and unfortunate +women were insulted past endurance; Huguenots were restricted even +as to holding family prayers; children at the age of seven were +encouraged to renounce their faith, and if they did so they were +taken from their parents who, however, were obliged to pay for their +maintenance in convent schools. Protestant churches were closed, and +their endowments handed over to Roman Catholic institutions. Huguenot +children were forbidden all education except the most elementary. No +heretic was allowed to sue a Catholic for debt. All this, however, did +not satisfy the monarch or his ecclesiastical advisers. On the 18th +of October 1685, he issued his famous Revocation of the Edict of +Nantes:-- + + "We by the present Edict which is perpetual and irrevocable, + revoke the Edict given at Nantes in 1583 together with every + concession to the Protestants of whatever nature they be. + We will that all temples of that religion be instantly + demolished. We prohibit our Protestant subjects to assemble + for worship in any private house. We prohibit all our lords + to exercise that religion within their fiefs under penalty of + confiscation of property and imprisonment of person. We enjoin + all ministers of the said faith to leave the kingdom within + fifteen days of the publication of this Edict, under penalty + of the galleys. We enjoin that all children who shall be + born henceforth be baptized by the Catholic curates. Persons + awaiting the enlightening grace of God may live in our kingdom + unhindered on account of their religion on condition that they + do not perform any of its exercises or assemble for prayer or + worship under penalty of body and wealth." + +This Edict met with cordial approval from the Catholic party in +France. The famous Madame de Sevigné wrote: "I admire the king for the +means he has devised for ruining the Huguenots. The wars and massacres +of former days only gave vigour to the sect; but the edict just +issued, aided by the dragoons, will give them the _coup de grace_." + +The Irish Protestants saw with alarm that amongst the soldiers who +came from France to aid King James were some who had taken an active +part in the dragonnades organized by Louis XIV in order to carry out +his edict. Then one Act was passed by the Dublin Parliament repealing +the Act of Settlement; and by another 2,461 persons were declared +guilty of high treason unless they appeared before the Dublin +authorities on a certain day and proved they were not guilty. What +steps King James was prepared to take in order to subdue the rebels of +Derry who held out against him can be gathered from the proclamation +which he directed Conrade de Rosen, his Mareschal General, to issue. +He warned the rebels that if they did not surrender immediately, all +the members of their faction, whether protected or not, in the whole +neighbourhood, would be brought close to the walls of the city and +there starved to death; that he would ravish the countryside, and see +that no man, woman or child escaped; and that if the city still held +out he would give no quarter and spare neither age nor sex, in case it +was taken by force. + +Even if there had been no Derry to relieve and no Protestants in +other parts of the country, the conquest of Ireland was a political +necessity to King William. England was at this time in much the same +position that it had been in the days of Elizabeth, substituting the +name France for Spain. The continental powers were again united in a +supreme effort to stamp out Protestantism, and England once more +stood almost alone. In Spain and Portugal, heresy was of course still +punishable with death; the Pope had celebrated the Revocation of the +Edict of Nantes with a triumphal _Te Deum_; a terrible persecution was +raging not only throughout the Protestant districts of France but also +on the Rhine, in Hungary, Savoy and the Alpine Valleys; if Ireland +had remained a separate kingdom ruled by the ally and admirer of Louis +XIV, the next step would certainly have been an invasion of England +by the joint forces of France and Ireland. All that we in modern +times include in the term "religious liberty" hung on the issue of the +battle that was fought and won on the banks of the Boyne. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE PERIOD OF THE PENAL LAWS. + + +The flight of James II brings us to the era of the "penal laws." To +one who lives in the twentieth century and is embued with the spirit +of modern thought, the whole subject is more than painful--it is +detestable. But to pass it over in silence is impossible; and in order +to get a clear view of the position it is necessary to examine +what the penal laws were, what they were not, and what were the +circumstances of the time during which they were in force. + +The penal laws were a series of enactments carefully planned so as to +harass the Roman Catholics at every moment of their lives, in the hope +of inducing them to abandon their religion. The unhappy people were +prohibited from becoming or voting for members of Parliament; they +were excluded from corporations, the army, the navy and the legal +profession. They were forbidden to bear arms, or even to possess a +horse worth more than £5. Education was denied to them, as they could +not send their sons to the university and were forbidden either to +have schools of their own in Ireland or to send their children abroad. +They were not allowed to possess freehold estates in land, and even as +to leaseholds they were seriously restricted. On the death of a Roman +Catholic his estate was divided amongst his children equally, unless +the eldest son became a Protestant, in which case he inherited the +whole. And as no Roman Catholic was allowed to act as a guardian, a +man never knew that if he should die his children might not be brought +up in a faith that he detested. The performance of Roman Catholic +worship was barely tolerated, as no bishops or other dignitaries were +allowed to remain in Ireland, and the only priests authorized to +say mass were those who were "registered" and had taken the oath of +abjuration--that is, an oath declaring that the Pretender had no right +to the throne. + +Such in brief were those terrible statutes. But without attempting +to excuse them, there are various matters which must be taken into +account if we are to judge them fairly. In the first place, the +political aspect of the question should not be forgotten. The +Protestant minority might justly fear that if the Roman Catholic party +were as powerful as their numbers would naturally cause them to be, +they would aid in bringing about a French invasion for the restoration +of the Stuarts and the re-establishment of the system which had been +in evidence under James II. An army was actually formed in France, and +on more than one occasion was in readiness to start. The Stuarts were +regarded by the Pope as the rightful sovereigns. The Roman Catholic +prelates whose entry into Ireland was forbidden were appointed by +the Pretender and were his political agents; it was that fact, and no +doctrinal reason, that caused their expulsion. It is necessary to make +this quite clear, as there has been as much exaggeration on this point +as on most other subjects connected with Irish history. The words of +the "oath of abjuration" were as follows: + + "I do solemnly and sincerely declare that I do believe in my + conscience that the person pretended to be Prince of Wales + during the life of the late King James and since his decease + taking upon himself the style and title of King of England by + the name of James III hath not any right or title whatever to + the crown of this realm." + +A modern Roman Catholic writer has thus described the oath:-- + + "By the Oath of Abjuration the priest was ordered to swear + that the sacrifice of the mass and the invocation of the + Blessed Virgin and the saints were damnable and idolatrous. In + other words, the priest was ordered to apostatize, or fly for + his life." + +And even if Roman Catholics took the oath of allegiance, the old +difficulty arose as to the papal right to depose princes and to order +their subjects to rebel. So late as 1768, when a declaration was drawn +up which it was hoped the leaders of the Roman Catholic party would +sign, so that the penal laws might be finally done away with, the +Papal Nuncio vetoed the proposal because the declaration contained a +reprobation of the doctrines that faith need not be kept with heretics +and that if the Pope banned a sovereign his subjects might depose and +slay him. It is but fair to add, however, that a large number of Roman +Catholics did sign the declaration; and the penal laws (which had been +relaxed from time to time when it was seen that the Irish took no +part in the Stuart rebellions of 1715 and 1745) were soon afterwards +practically abolished. + +Then it must be borne in mind that the Irish penal laws, although +to some extent modelled on the legislation of Louis XIV against the +Huguenots, were absolutely insignificant compared with those which +were in force at the time in every Roman Catholic country in Europe. +Galling though the Irish laws were, they never went so far as to +make the mere holding of heretical opinions criminal. Thus no one in +Ireland was ever put to death for believing in transubstantiation; +whereas in one diocese of Portugal 20,000 people were sent to the +stake for denying it. As every one who has visited the Madrid picture +gallery will recollect, it was still the custom in the eighteenth +century for the King of Spain to preside in state at the burning of +heretics; and it was not until that century was drawing to a close +that it was for the first time enacted in Portugal that sentence of +death for heresy when passed by the ecclesiastical court should not be +carried into effect unless the order was countersigned by the king. In +France, for two or three heretics to meet for worship anywhere (their +churches had of course all been pulled down) was a crime punishable +with death; and any Huguenot caught whilst attempting to escape from +the country was sent to the galleys--a fate worse than mere death, +for it meant death by slow torture. And every child was forcibly +taken from its heretic parents at the age of five, and educated in a +convent. + +But more than that: Roman Catholics who fled from the tyranny of the +penal laws at home had no scruple, when they reached the Continent, in +taking part in persecutions far more terrible than anything they had +seen in Ireland. During the dragonnades in Languedoc, Louis XIV's +Irish brigade joined eagerly in the butchery of old men, women +and children and the burning of whole villages. The same heroes +distinguished themselves by destroying everything they could find in +remote Alpine valleys so that the unfortunate Waldenses might die of +starvation. And the Irish troops under Lord Mountcashel aided in the +burning of 1,000 villages in the Palatinate of the Rhine, in which +all the inhabitants--men, women and children--were slain by the sword, +burnt to death, or left to perish from hunger. These persecutions were +practically brought to an end by the French Revolution and the rise +of modern ideas; but the ecclesiastical authorities, though they +have lost their power, have shown no sign of having changed their +principles. Even in the middle of the nineteenth century King Victor +Emmanuel was excommunicated by Pope Pius IX for allowing his Vaudois +subjects to build a church for themselves at Turin. + +Of course it may be said with perfect truth that two blacks do not +make one white. Still, the constant complaints about the tyranny of +the penal laws have less force when they come from the representatives +of a party who acted in the same way themselves whenever they had the +opportunity. + +It is indeed frequently urged as a matter of aggravation that whereas +other persecutions were those of a minority by a majority, this was of +a majority by a minority. To me, so far as this makes any difference +at all, it tells the other way. As a matter of morality, I fail to +see any difference; putting all the inhabitants of an Alpine valley +to death as heretics does not seem to me one whit the less horrible +because the sovereign also ruled a large Catholic population on +the plains. On the other hand, the fact that the Roman Catholics +in Ireland formed the majority of the population prevented the +persecution from being strictly carried out. It was comparatively +easy for Louis XIV to surround a heretic district with a cordon of +soldiers, and then draw them closer together searching every house as +they went, seizing the clergy and taking them off to the galleys; but +it was impossible to track unregistered priests through the mountains +and valleys of Munster. Hence the law as to the registration of +priests soon became a dead letter. + +There was indeed one great difference, between Irish and continental +persecution. On the continent it was the holiest and best men who were +the keenest persecutors. (This may seem strange to modern readers; +but anyone who has studied the lives of Bossuet and San Carlo Borromeo +will admit that it is true.) Hence the persecution was carried out +with that vigour which was necessary to make it a success. In Spain, +if a heretic under torture or the fear of it consented to recant, the +Holy Office was not satisfied with a mere formal recantation; for the +rest of his life the convert was watched day and night to see that +there was no sign of back-sliding; and even the possession of a +fragment of the New Testament was considered as sufficient evidence +of a relapse to send the wretched man to the stake. Consequently, in a +generation or two heresy became as extinct as Christianity did amongst +the Kabyles of North Africa after the Mohammedan persecution. In +Ireland, however, persecution was always against the grain with +religiously-minded Protestants. Seven bishops protested against the +first enactment of the Penal Laws; and during the period when they +were in force, the bishops repeatedly spoke and voted in favour of +each proposed mitigation of them. (With this one may contrast the +action of the French bishops who on the accession of Louis XVI in +1774 presented an address to the new king urging him to increase the +persecution of the Huguenots which had become somewhat slack during +the later years of his predecessor. By the irony of fate the same men +were a few years later pleading vainly for the mercy which they had +never shown in the days of their power.) Nor was this tolerant feeling +confined to the bishops. By the aid of the Protestant gentry, the laws +were continually being evaded. Protestants appointed by the Court as +guardians of Roman Catholic children, used to carry out the wishes of +the Roman Catholic relations; Roman Catholic proprietors frequently +handed over their estates to Protestant friends as Trustees, and, +though such Trusts were of course not enforceable at law, there were +very few instances in which they were not faithfully performed. Many +strange stories are told of the evasions of the Acts. On one occasion +whilst it was still illegal for a popish recusant to own a horse of +a greater value than £5, a man met a Roman Catholic gentleman who +was riding a handsome horse; he held out £5 in one hand, and with the +other caught hold of the bridle. The rider, naturally infuriated at +this, struck the man with his whip so heavily that he fell down dead. +When he was tried for murder, the judge decided that as the man had +laid a hand on the bridle, the rider had reason to suppose that he +intended to take it as well as the horse, which would have been +an illegal act; consequently he was justified in defending himself +against highway robbery; and therefore the charge must be dismissed. +Again, a Roman Catholic proprietor found out that an effort was likely +to be made to deprive him of his estate. He rode up to Dublin on a +Saturday; on Sunday he received the Holy Communion at a Protestant +Church; on Monday he executed a deed transferring his estate to a +Protestant friend as Trustee; on Tuesday he was received back into +the Church of Rome; and on Wednesday he rode home again, to enjoy his +estate free from further molestation. + +The schools which were founded in order to convert the rising +generation were a strange contrast to the admirably conducted +institutions established in France and Spain for a similar purpose. +They were so disgracefully mismanaged that the pupils who had passed +through them looked back on everything that had been taught them there +with a lifelong disgust. + +It is needless to say that laws thus carried out were a dead failure +as far as winning converts was concerned. On the other hand, they +became in one sense the more galling as the enforcement of them fell +into the hands of a low class of informers who had no object beyond +making money for themselves. Still, public feeling was so strong that +by the middle of the century the laws had almost fallen into abeyance. +Brook, writing in 1762, says: "Though these laws are still in force, +it is long since they have been in action. They hang like a sword by a +thread over the heads of these people, and Papists walk under them in +security and peace; for whoever should adventure to cut this thread +would become ignominious and detestable." And in 1778 and 1782 (that +is, when, as an Irish Roman Catholic writer has pointed out, there was +still neither toleration nor peace for Protestant populations in any +Catholic state in Europe) the Irish Protestant Parliament formally +repealed nearly all the penal laws. + +Probably their most lasting effect was that relating to the tenure +of land. If free purchase and sale regardless of religion had been +allowed throughout the eighteenth century, one may conjecture that +the effect of the Cromwellian confiscations would long since have died +away. But these laws perpetuated that peculiar state of things which +has been the cause of so much unhappiness in Ireland--the landlords +generally belonged to one religion, and their tenants and dependents +to another. + +It may be asked, As these odious laws all came to an end generations +ago, what is the good of recalling the sorrows of the past which had +much better be forgotten? I reply, None whatever; and very glad I +should be if the whole subject were quietly dropped. But unfortunately +that is just what the Roman Catholic party in Ireland will not do. One +of the ways in which religious animosity is being kept alive (and I +regret to say is being steadily increased) is by the teaching in +the Roman Catholic schools of exaggerated accounts of the penal laws +without referring to any of the mitigating circumstances. Even in the +present year--1913--the Lenten pastoral of one of the bishops goes +back to the same old subject. If other countries acted in a similar +manner, how could the grievances of bygone centuries ever be +forgotten? The Jews, cruelly treated though they were during the time +of the Norman kings, do not harp on the subject in England to-day. It +may be doubted whether all the religious persecutions of Europe +put together were as great a disgrace to Christendom as the slave +trade--in which, I am ashamed to say, England strove to obtain the +pre-eminence amongst European nations and which she forced upon her +colonies against their will. Yet I should regret it deeply if that +were the one passage of history selected for study in the schools and +colleges for coloured pupils in the West Indies at the present day. +When a man who has suffered wrong in former years broods over it +instead of thinking of his present blessings and his future prospects, +one may be sure that he is a man who will not succeed in life; and +what is true of individuals is true also of nations. + +The expression "Protestant ascendancy," although it never came into +use during the period with which we are dealing, has so frequently +since then been employed with reference to it, that it is necessary +to explain its meaning. Probably no word in the English language +has suffered more from being used in different senses than the word +"Protestant." In Ireland it frequently used to be, and still sometimes +is, taken as equivalent to "Anglican" or "Episcopalian"; to an +Irishman of the last century it would have appeared quite natural to +speak of "Protestants and Presbyterians," meaning thereby two distinct +bodies. This is a matter of historical importance; for so far from +the Presbyterian element being favoured during the period of the Penal +Laws, the English Toleration Act had not been extended to Ireland; +Presbyterians were by the sacramental test excluded from all municipal +offices; their worship, though never in practice interfered with, +remained technically illegal. Their share in "Protestant ascendancy" +was therefore very limited. + +But if the Established Church was the one favoured body, it had to pay +dearly for its privileges. In truth, the state of the Irish Church +at this period of its history, was deplorable. All the positions of +value--bishoprics, deaneries and important parishes--were conferred +on Englishmen, who never resided in their cures, but left the duties +either to be performed by half-starved deputies or not at all. Many +of the churches were in ruins, and the glebes had fallen into decay; +a union of half-a-dozen parishes would scarcely supply a meagre +salary for one incumbent. A large proportion of the tithes had been +appropriated by laymen; how small a sum actually reached the clergy +is shown by the fact that the first-fruits (that is, the year's income +paid by incumbents on their appointment) did not amount to more than +£500 a year in all. It may be that the standard of religious life +was not lower in Ireland than it was in England when the +spiritually-minded non-Jurors had been driven out and Hanoverian +deadness was supreme; but in England there was no other Church to form +a contrast. In Ireland the apathy and worldliness of the Protestant +clergy stood out in bold relief against the heroic devotion of the +priests and friars; and at the time when the unhappy peasants, forced +to pay tithes to a Church which they detested, were ready to starve +themselves to support their own clergy and to further the cause of +their religion, the well-to-do Protestant graziers and farmers were +straining the law so as to evade the payment of tithes, and never +thought of doing anything further to support the Church to which they +were supposed to belong. (It is but fair, however, to state that +this condition of things has long since passed away; the Evangelical +revival breathed new life into the dry bones of Irish Protestantism.) + +But it was not merely in religious matters that Ireland suffered +during this melancholy period. Students of modern history whose +researches usually commence with the early part of the nineteenth +century, are wont to gather from text-books the idea that the policy +of the manufacturing party in England has always been liberal, +progressive and patriotic; whereas that of the landed interest has +been retrograde and selfish. There cannot be a greater delusion. +English manufacturers have been just as self-seeking and narrow-minded +as other people--no more and no less; they have been quite as ready +to sacrifice the interests of others when they believed them to be +opposed to their own, as the much-abused landowners. At this time +every nation in Europe regarded the outlying portions of the Empire +as existing only for the benefit of the centre; in fact, the English +development of the "Colonial System" even then was more liberal than +those of Spain or Holland. The English system, if perfectly carried +out, was by no means unfair. The ground idea was that the mother +country voluntarily restricted herself in matters of trade for the +benefit of the Colonies, and the Colonies had to do the same for the +benefit of the mother country. Thus, when England refused to admit +timber from the Baltic in order to benefit the Canadian lumber trade; +and placed a prohibitive duty on sugar from Cuba so as to secure the +English market for Jamaica; it was but fair that the trade in other +articles from Canada and Jamaica should be directed to England. To +say that the whole thing was a mistake, as such restrictions really +injured both parties, is no answer, as no one at that time dreamed of +such a thing as free trade. The real answer is that it was impossible +to keep the balance true; some slight change of circumstances might +render that unfair which up to then had been perfectly equal. And +as the English merchants were on the spot and commanded votes in +Parliament, any injustice against them would be speedily rectified; +the colonists living at a distance and having no means of making their +voice heard, would be left to suffer. + +In applying the colonial system to Ireland, it is true that in theory +England undertook to protect her by means of the British army and +navy, from foreign foes; but beyond that, the system was to Ireland +all loss and no gain. Every branch of Irish industry was deliberately +ruined by the English Government. By the Navigation Act of 1663, trade +between Ireland and the British Colonies was forbidden; soon after, +the importation of Irish beef, mutton, pork and butter into +England was prohibited; then, at the request of the English woollen +manufacturers, the export of woollen goods from Ireland to any country +was stopped; and finally, with a refinement of cruelty, the export of +linen articles--the one industry that had hitherto been left to +the unfortunate country--was restricted to the coarsest and poorest +varieties, for fear of offending the Dutch. + +The result of all this wretched misgovernment was not merely +destitution bordering on famine, but a wholesale emigration. Whilst +the Roman Catholics were leaving the country to avoid the penal laws, +the most skilful and industrious of the artizan class,--the very +backbone of the nation--were being driven out by the prohibition of +their trades. It is said that no less than 30,000 men were thrown out +of employment by the destruction of the woollen industry alone. These +were nearly all Protestants; to encourage them would have done more to +Protestantize the country than all the penal laws and charter schools +put together; but they were ruthlessly sacrificed to the greed of the +English manufacturers. Some went to the Continent, many more to New +England and the other American colonies, where they prospered, and +they and their sons became some of Washington's best soldiers in the +War of Independence. + +It was only natural that thoughtful men in Ireland should cast envious +eyes on Scotland, which had recently secured the benefit of union +with England, and consequently was able to develop her commerce +and manufactures unhindered. But though the subject of a union was +discussed, and even referred to in addresses from the Irish Parliament +to Queen Anne, no active steps were taken. + +Still, in considering these commercial restrictions, as in the case of +the penal laws, we must not lose sight of the fact that the state +of circumstances we are dealing with has long passed away. It is +necessary for a historian to refer to it, even if he finds it hard to +do so in a perfectly dispassionate way; but it is waste of time and +energy for the present generation to go on brooding over woes which +had come to an end before their grandfathers were born. Yet that is +what the Nationalists of to-day are doing. Not long ago, the Old +Boys' Association of an Irish Roman Catholic College resolved, very +laudably, to found an annual prize at their alma mater. The subject +they selected was an essay on the treatment by England of Irish +industries before the year 1800! Had it been a Scotch or a German +College, the subject chosen would probably have been, The progress +in scientific knowledge during the last century, or, Improvements in +means of travel since 1820; and one must ask, which subject of study +is likely to be most profitable to young men who have to make their +way in the modern world? + +It may be asked, why did the Irish Parliament do nothing to stay this +national ruin? The answer is that the Irish Parliament possessed very +little power. The Bill of Rights of course did not apply to Ireland; +general elections were very rare, and a large number of members +were paid officers of the Government; the English Parliament had a +co-ordinate power of legislating for Ireland; and since Poyning's Act +(as explained by the declaratory Act of George I) was still in force, +no Bill could be introduced into the Irish Parliament until it had +been approved both by the Irish and the English Councils; and the +Irish Parliament might then pass it or reject it but had no power to +amend it. + +And the use which the English Government made of the Irish Parliament +was as disgraceful as their treatment of Irish industries. Miserably +poor though the country was, it was burdened by the payment of +pensions of a nature so scandalous that the English Parliament even of +that period would not have tolerated them. + +The conditions of land tenure also added to the miseries of the +country. It is often said that the land belonged to wealthy English +absentees, and the unfortunate occupiers, who had no security of +tenure, were ground down by the payment of exorbitant rents. This is +literally true; but, like most partial statements, misleading. Much +of the land was owned by wealthy Englishmen--which of itself was a +serious evil; but they let it in large farms at low rents on long +leases, in the hope that the occupiers would execute their own +improvements. Instead of that, however, their tenants sublet their +holdings in smaller lots to others; and these subtenants did the same +again; thus there were sometimes three or four middlemen, and the rent +paid by the actual occupier to his immediate landlord was ten times +the amount the nominal owner received. As the rate of wages +was miserably low, and the rent of a cabin and a plot of ground +scandalously high, how the wretched occupiers managed to keep body and +soul together is a mystery. Much has been written about the useless, +dissipated lives of these middlemen or "squireens"; and no doubt it is +to a great extent true, although, like everything else in Ireland, it +has been exaggerated. Travellers have told us of some landlords +who resided on their estates, did their utmost to improve them, and +forbade subletting (in spite of the unpopularity caused by their doing +so). And one of the remarkable features of later Irish history is that +whenever there was a period of acute difficulty and danger there were +always country gentlemen to be found ready to risk their lives and +fortunes or to undertake the thankless and dangerous duties of county +magistrates. + +It is curious how close a parallel might be drawn between the way +in which Norman Ireland was Ersefied and that in which Cromwellian +Ireland was Catholicized. Many of those who became large landowners +by the Cromwellian confiscations, having no religious prejudices (some +might say, no religious or humane feelings), when the leases of +their tenants fell in, put the farms up to auction regardless of the +feelings of the occupiers. As the Roman Catholics were content with +a simpler manner of life than the Protestants, they generally offered +higher rents; the dispossessed Protestants, driven from their homes, +joined their brethren in America. Then in the South, the poorer of +Cromwell's settlers, in some cases, neglected by their own pastors, +joined the religion of the majority; in others, intermarrying with the +natives, allowed their children to be brought up in the faith of their +mothers. Hence we arrive at the curious fact that at the present day +some of the most ardent Romanists and violent Nationalists, who are +striving to have the Irish language enforced all over the country, +and pose as the representatives of ancient Irish septs, are really the +descendants of Cromwell's soldiers. + +So passed the greater part of the eighteenth century; and the unhappy +country seemed as far off from progress and prosperity as ever. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE EARLIER PART OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. THE ACQUISITION OF +INDEPENDENCE BY THE IRISH PARLIAMENT. + + +When we come to the reign of George III we have arrived at a specially +interesting period of Irish history. For we are no longer dealing with +a state of society that has wholly passed away; the great events that +occurred towards the close of the eighteenth century are continually +referred to as bearing, at least by analogy, on the questions of the +present day. It is for the honest historian to examine how far that +analogy is real, and how far it is delusive. + +For some time after the accession of George III, the state of Ireland +was almost as miserable as before. Trade and manufactures being nearly +crushed out, want of employment brought the people in the towns to the +brink of starvation. In the country, although the middle classes were +on the whole becoming more prosperous, the condition of the labourers +and cottiers was wretched in the extreme. It is not to be wondered at +therefore that we now hear of the commencement of two movements which +were destined later on to play so important a part in the history of +Ireland--the agitation against the payment of tithes and the rise of +secret societies. Few men at the present day could be found who would +attempt to justify the tithe system as it prevailed in the eighteenth +century. It was not merely that the starving peasantry were forced to +contribute towards the maintenance of a religion in which they did not +believe, but the whole manner of levying and collecting the tithes +was bad; and what made them still more annoying was the fact that the +clergy never thought of performing the duties for which tithes were +supposed to exist; the large majority of the rectors did not even +reside in their parishes. The principal secret societies were the +Oakboys and the Steelboys of the north, and the Whiteboys of +the south. The northern societies soon came to an end; but the +organization of the Whiteboys continued to spread, and for a time +it assumed alarming proportions. Commencing as a war against tithe +proctors, the enclosure of commons, and the substitution of grazing +land for tillage, they went on to commit outrages of various sorts, +and something like a reign of terror spread over a large tract of +country. But it may safely be said that generally speaking their +conduct was not nearly so violent as that of other secret societies of +a later date; and the evidence of any foreign influence being at +work, or of religious animosity being connected with the movement, is +slight. + +It is interesting to observe that, whenever there was a violent and +abnormal outbreak of crime, the Irish Parliament did not hesitate to +pass special laws to meet the case. Such measures as the Whiteboy Act +of 1787, or the Insurrection Act and the Habeas Corpus Suppression +Act of 1796, which were readily passed whilst the Irish Parliament was +completely independent, are frequently referred to by modern agitators +as amongst the brutal Coercion Acts which the tyranny of England has +forced on an innocent people. + +The harshness of the Penal Laws was steadily being relaxed. All +restrictions on worship, or the number of clergy allowed, had long +since fallen into abeyance. Roman Catholic students were admitted +into Trinity College, Dublin; and the authorities of the University +expressed their readiness to appoint a Divinity Professor of their own +faith for them if they wished it. The restrictions on property were +becoming obsolete; and political restrictions were not felt so keenly +since most of the Roman Catholics would have been ineligible for the +franchise on the ground of their poverty even if the stumbling block +of religion had been removed. And the loyal sentiments expressed by +the Roman Catholics made the best of the Protestants all the more +anxious to repeal the laws which they had never regarded with favour. +Then amongst educated people not only in Ireland but elsewhere, +religion was ceasing to be the great line of cleavage; other +matters--political, social, and commercial--were occupying men's +thoughts and forming new combinations. + +The political state of the country was peculiar. The real government +was carried on by the Lord Lieutenant and his officials; but as the +hereditary revenue did not supply funds sufficient for that purpose, +it was necessary to have recourse to Parliament. And the constitution +of that Parliament was as extraordinary as most things in Ireland. +A session was usually held every second year, but a Parliament might +last for a whole reign. The House of Commons consisted of 300 members, +of whom only 64 represented counties, and most of the rest nominally +sat for small boroughs, but really were appointed by certain +individuals. It was at one time computed that 124 members were +nominated by 53 peers, whilst 91 others were chosen by 52 commoners. +A large number of the members--a third of the whole house, it is +said--were in receipt of pensions, or held offices of profit under the +Crown. Of course there was no such thing as party government--in fact, +parties did not exist, though individuals might sometimes vote against +the wish of the government. The Lord Lieutenant, however, managed to +retain a majority by what would now be called flagrant and wholesale +bribery. Peerages, sinecures and pensions were bestowed with a lavish +hand; and every appointment, ecclesiastical or civil, was treated as +a reward for political services. But history affords many instances of +how assemblies constituted in what seems to be the most unsatisfactory +way possible, have been remarkable for the ability and patriotism they +have shown; and certainly this was the case with that unrepresentative +collection of Protestant landlords, Dublin barristers, and paid +officials, who composed the Irish Parliament. A "National" party arose +(I shall presently explain what was the meaning attached to that word +at the time) who strove to win for Ireland the laws which in England +had been enacted long before and which were regarded as the very +foundations of British liberty. Statutes were passed limiting the +duration of Parliament to eight years; establishing the _Habeas +Corpus_; and making judges irremoveable. Afterwards, most of the +Penal Laws were repealed; and at the same time the disabilities of the +Protestant Dissenters were abolished. + +But meanwhile foreign affairs were tending to bring about changes yet +more sweeping. When England went to war with both France and Spain, +the condition of Ireland was well-nigh desperate. The country was +almost denuded of regular troops; steps had indeed been taken for the +establishment of a militia, and arms had actually been purchased; but +in the hopelessly insolvent condition of the Irish Exchequer, it was +impossible to do anything further. And a French invasion might arrive +at any moment. At this crisis the country gentlemen came forward. They +formed their tenants and dependants into regiments of volunteers, of +which they took command themselves, and strained their resources to +the utmost in order to bear the expense of the undertaking. And +the rank and file--farmers and labourers--seemed fired by the same +enthusiasm. The movement spread rapidly over the country, but it +possessed more vitality in Ulster than elsewhere. It soon became +evident that Ulster volunteers may form a body not to be disregarded. + +The troubles of England, however, were not limited to the Continent. +The American War broke out. We, who view the question impartially +through the long vista of years, can see that there was much to be +said for the English claim. The mother country had been brought to the +verge of bankruptcy by a long and exhausting war waged with France for +the protection of the American colonies; surely it was only fair that +those colonies, who had taken but a very small part in the war, should +at least bear a fraction of the cost. But the cry of "No taxation +without representation" was raised; the Americans rebelled; and +England was placed in the humiliating position of being defeated by +her own colonists. During that period Ireland remained thoroughly +loyal; the efforts of Franklin and his party to enlist Ireland +on their side were as complete a failure as those of the French +emissaries had been shortly before. But it was inevitable that the +success of the American revolution should have a strong effect on +Irish affairs. Amongst the northern Presbyterians there had always +been a feeling somewhat akin to Republicanism; and (as we have seen) +many of their relations were fighting in Washington's army. Then +in Ireland there was something much worse than taxation without +representation: the English Parliament, in which Ireland had no part, +claimed to legislate for Ireland and was actually at that moment +keeping the country in a state of semi-starvation by imposing severe +restrictions on commerce. Irish politicians read the offers of +conciliation made by the English Government to the revolted colonies, +in which not only was the power of taxation given up and freedom of +internal legislation established, but all power of the Parliament of +Great Britain over America was renounced; and began to ask whether +England could withhold from loyal Irishmen the boons which she offered +to rebellious Americans. The claims were urged in Parliament and +at meetings of the volunteers and other public bodies; the English +Government for some time refused to grant any concession; but at +length, fearing an Irish Revolution, gave way on every point. They +granted, in fact, as an Irish statesman expressed it, "everything +short of separation." First (in spite of the opposition of the English +manufacturing classes) all restrictions on trade were swept away; +then, in 1782, the Declaratory Act of George I, by virtue of which the +English Parliament had claimed the right to legislate for Ireland, was +repealed, and with it went the right of the English House of Lords to +act as a court of final appeal for Ireland; the restrictions imposed +by Poyning's Act on the legislative powers of the Irish Parliament +were abolished; and the Irish Executive was made practically dependent +on the Irish Parliament by the Mutiny Act, which had previously been +perpetual, being limited to two years. + +Thus Ireland became a nation in a sense she had never been before. The +only tie to any power beyond sea was that the King of England was also +King of Ireland; Ireland could legislate for itself, and enter into +commercial treaties with foreign powers; but, on the other hand, it +had to pay its own debts and provide its own army and navy. + +As Grattan was not merely the most prominent politician of the period, +but also the leader of the now triumphant "National" party, we may +fairly take the views expressed by him as representative of those of +the party that followed him. A study of his speeches and letters will +show how utterly different were the ideas and aims of the National +party of 1782 from those of the Nationalists of to-day. In the first +place, Grattan was intensely loyal; that is to say, it never occurred +to him that Ireland could ever wish to be independent in the sense of +not being subject to the King of England, or could seek to be united +to any other power. Secondly, he was intensely aristocratic. His idea +was that Government should and would always be in the hands of the +propertied and educated classes; that Parliament should consist of +country gentlemen and professional men from the towns, elected on a +narrow franchise. (It must be remembered that the country gentlemen +had recently given evidence of their patriotic zeal by the +inauguration of the Volunteer movement; and the ability and eloquence +of the Irish Bar at that period is proverbial). Thirdly, he regarded +Protestant ascendancy as a fundamental necessity. It is true that +other politicians at the time saw that they were faced with a serious +difficulty: the very principles to which they had appealed and by +virtue of which they had obtained their legislative independence +made it illogical that three-fourths of the community should be +unrepresented; whereas if votes were given to the Roman Catholic +majority it was inevitable that they would soon become eligible for +seats in the Legislature; and if so, the Protestant minority must be +swamped, and the country ruled by a very different class and according +to very different ideas from those which prevailed in the Parliament +of which Grattan was a member. And would a Roman Catholic Parliament +and nation care to remain subject to a King of England whose title +depended on his being a Protestant? Grattan, however, swept all such +considerations aside with an easy carelessness. He believed that under +the influences of perfect toleration large numbers of Roman Catholics +would conform; and the remainder, quite satisfied with their position, +would never dream of attacking the Church or any other existing +institution. We may smile at his strange delusions as to the future; +but he was probably not more incorrect than many people are to-day in +their conjectures as to what the world will be like a hundred years +hence; and if we try to place ourselves in Grattan's position, +there is something to be said for his conjectures. At that time the +influence of the Church of Rome was at its lowest; Spain had almost +ceased to exist as a European power; and in France the state of +religious thought was very different from what it had been in the days +of Louis XIV. Irish Roman Catholic gentlemen who sent their sons to +be educated in France found that they came back Voltaireans; even the +young men who went to study for the priesthood in French seminaries +became embued with liberalism to an extent that would make a modern +Ultramontane shudder. Then in Ireland all local power was in the hands +of the landlords; the Roman Catholic bishops possessed hardly any +political influence. It would have required more keenness than a mere +enthusiast like Grattan possessed to foresee that the time would come +when all this would be absolutely reversed. What was there in the +eighteenth century to lead him to surmise that in the twentieth the +landlords would be ruined and gone, and that local government would +have become vested in District Councils in which Protestants would +have no power, but over which the authority of the bishops would be +absolute? + +So Grattan and his party entered on the new conditions of political +life with airy optimism. But there were, both in England and France, +shrewder and more far-seeing men than he, who realised from the first +that the new state of affairs could not possibly be a lasting one, but +must lead either to union or complete separation. Of course so long +as all parties happened to be of the same mind, no difficulties +would arise; but it was merely a question of time when some cause +of friction would occur, and then the inherent weakness of the +arrangement would be apparent. A moment's thought will show that +for Ireland to be subject to the English King but independent of the +English Parliament was a physical impossibility. The king would act +on the advice of his ministers who were responsible to the English +Parliament; either the Irish Parliament must obey, or a deadlock would +ensue. Then, suppose that England were to become engaged in a war of +which the people of Ireland disapproved, Ireland might not only +refuse to make any voluntary grant in aid, but even declare her +ports neutral, withdraw her troops, and pass a vote of censure on the +English Government. Again, with regard to trade; Ireland might adopt a +policy of protection against England, and enter into a treaty for free +trade with some foreign country which might be at the moment England's +deadliest rival. The confusion that might result would be endless. + +Considerations such as these presented themselves at once to the +master-mind of Pitt. He pointed out that as England had relinquished +her right to limit Irish trade for the benefit of English, she was in +fairness relieved from the corresponding duty of protecting Ireland +against foreign foes; the two countries should therefore both +contribute to their joint defence in proportion to their means. He +proposed that regular treaties should be drawn up between the two +countries, by which Ireland should contribute a certain sum to the +navy, free trade between Ireland and England should be established, +and regulations made whereby the duties payable on foreign goods +should be assimilated. By such measures as these he hoped to make +things run smoothly for a time at least; but when his projects were +rejected by the Irish Parliament, he saw more clearly than ever that +sooner or later the Gordian knot would have to be cut, and that the +only way of cutting it would be the Union. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE INDEPENDENT PARLIAMENT. THE REGENCY QUESTION. THE COMMENCEMENT OF +THE REBELLION. + + +That Ireland increased in prosperity rapidly towards the end of the +eighteenth century, there is no doubt. Politicians will say that this +prosperity came from the increased powers gained by the Parliament in +1782; economists will reply that that had little if anything to say +to it; far more important causes being the abolition of trade +restrictions and the relaxation of the Penal Laws, which encouraged +people to employ their money in remunerative works at home instead of +having to send it abroad. It may sound somewhat Hibernian to mention +the rise in rents, as another cause of prosperity; yet anyone who +knows Ireland will admit that it is not impossible; and it was +certainly put forward gravely by writers of the period who were by no +means biassed towards the landlord interest. Thus McKenna, writing in +1793, says:-- + + "In several parts of Ireland the rents have been tripled + within 40 years. This was not so much the effect as the cause + of national prosperity; ... before the above-mentioned period, + when rent was very low and other taxes little known, half the + year was lavished in carousing. But as soon as labour became + compulsory, fortunes have been raised both by the tenantry and + landlords, and civilization has advanced materially." + +There was also another cause of prosperity, which modern economists +cannot look on with much favour. It was the policy of the Irish +Government to grant enormous bounties for the development of various +industries, especially the growth of corn. This no doubt gave much +employment, promoted the breaking up of grass lands, the subdivision +of farms and the erection of mills; and so long as the price of corn +was maintained, brought much prosperity to the country, and thus was +indirectly one cause of the enormous increase of population, which +rose from about 2,370,000 in 1750, to about 4,500,000 in 1797. But +when, during the nineteenth century, prices fell, the whole structure, +built on a fictitious foundation, came down with a crash. + +Not long after the Irish Parliament had acquired its independence, a +controversy arose which, although it had no immediate result, yet +was of vast importance on account of the principle involved. The king +became insane. It was necessary that there should be a Regent, and it +was obvious that the Prince of Wales was the man for the post. But +the British constitution contained no provision for making the +appointment. After much deliberation, the English Parliament decided +to pass an Act appointing the Prince Regent and defining his powers, +the Royal assent being given by Commission. The two houses of the +Irish Parliament, however, without waiting for the Prince to be +invested with the Regency in England, voted an address to him asking +him to undertake the duties of Regent, without naming any limitations. +As the king recovered almost immediately, the whole matter ended in +nothing; but thoughtful men realized what was involved in the position +which the Irish Parliament had taken up. Grattan's resolution was +to the effect that in addressing the Prince to take upon himself +the government of the country the Lords and Commons of Ireland were +exercising an undoubted right and discharging an indispensable duty to +which in the emergency they alone were competent. By the Act of Henry +VIII the King of England was _ipso facto_ King of Ireland. An Irish +Act of William and Mary declared that the Crown of Ireland and all the +powers and prerogatives belonging to it should be for ever annexed to +and dependent on the Crown of England. And the Act of 1782 made the +Great Seal of Great Britain necessary to the summoning of an Irish +Parliament and the passing of Irish Acts. Now did the words "King" +and "Crown" merely refer to the individual who had the right to wear +a certain diadem, or did they include the chief executive magistrate, +whoever that might be--King, Queen or Regent? It was ably contended by +Lord Clare that the latter was the only possible view; for the Regent +of Great Britain must hold the Great Seal; and so he alone could +summon an Irish Parliament; therefore the Irish Parliament in choosing +their Regent had endangered the only bond which existed between +England and Ireland--the necessary and perpetual identity of the +executive. If the Irish Parliament appointed one person Regent and the +English Parliament another, separation or war might be the result; and +even as it was, the appointment of the Prince with limited powers in +England and unlimited in Ireland, must lead to confusion. But more +than that; suppose that the House of Brunswick were to die out, and +another Act of Settlement were to become necessary, might not the +Irish Parliament choose a different sovereign from the one chosen by +England? Constitutional lawyers recollected that such a difficulty +nearly arose between Scotland and England, but was settled by the Act +of Union; and that it was the recognition of Lambert Simnel by the +Irish Parliament that was the immediate cause of the passing of +Poyning's Act; and saw what the revived powers of the Irish Parliament +might lead to. + +Although the Parliament had now become independent, there was still +nothing like a responsible ministry as we now understand it, and the +government managed to maintain its control, partly by the peculiar +composition of the Parliament (to which I have already referred), and +partly by the disposal of favours. And it cannot be denied that the +Parliament passed much useful legislation. Two questions, however, +were now coming forward on which the whole political condition of the +country depended, and which were closely entwined with one another. +The first was the reform of the legislature, so as to make the House +of Commons a really representative body; the second was the final +abolition of the Penal Laws. As to reform, the Parliament was +naturally slow (did any political assembly in the world ever divest +itself of its own privileges without pressure from without?); but as +to the abolition of the Penal Laws there was a cordiality which is +remarkable, and which is seldom referred to by the Nationalist writers +of the present day when they discourse about the Penal Laws. With +regard to social matters--such as admission to Corporations, taking +Degrees at the University, and holding medical professorships,--there +was hardly any hesitation; the political question, however, was more +difficult. In both England and Ireland at that time a forty-shilling +freehold gave a vote. That was a matter of slight importance in +England, as the number of small freeholders was limited, land being +usually let for a term of years. In Ireland, however, the ordinary +arrangement was for peasants to hold their scraps of land for life; +and land having recently increased in value enormously, a large +proportion of these were of the value of forty shillings. Hence, the +whole constituency would be altered; thousands of new electors, all of +them poor and illiterate, would be added in many constituencies; +and the representation of the country would at once pass into Roman +Catholic hands. To fix a higher qualification for Roman Catholics than +for Protestants would be not to abolish but to perpetuate the Penal +Laws; to deprive the existing voters of the franchise was out of the +question; hence the franchise was granted but not without considerable +hesitation on the part of the more thoughtful members. On the other +hand it was urged with great force that to give these privileges to +the uneducated mass but to continue the disabilities of the Roman +Catholic gentry by not allowing them to sit in Parliament was absurd. +The proposal to abolish the religious test in the case of Members of +Parliament was, however, defeated. + +Looking back, with the light of later history to aid us, it is +interesting to see how much more correct were Lord Clare's predictions +of the future than Grattan's. Grattan (as I have already explained), +taking his ideas from his lay friends among the cultured classes, and +seeing the decline of the Papal influence on the continent, considered +that anyone who regarded Popery as a political influence of the future +totally misunderstood the principles which then governed human action; +for controverted points of religion (such as belief in the Real +Presence) had ceased to be a principle of human action. He maintained +that the cause of the Pope, as a political force, was as dead as that +of the Stuarts; that priestcraft was a superannuated folly; and +that in Ireland a new political religion had arisen, superseding +all influence of priest and parson, and burying for ever theological +discord in the love of civil and religious liberty. Clare, who was +not only a shrewder observer but a much more deeply read man, realized +that in order to find out what would guide the Roman Catholic Church +in the future one must look not at the passing opinions of laymen but +at the constitution of the Church; he foresaw that if the artificial +supports which maintained the Protestant ascendancy were removed, the +mere force of numbers would bring about a Roman Catholic ascendancy; +and in enumerating the results of that he even said that the time +would come when the Church would decide on all questions as to +marriage. + +In order to show how far Lord Clare's expectations have been verified, +I will quote, not the words of an Orange speaker or writer, but of +an eminent Roman Catholic, the Rev. J.T. McNicholas, O.P., in his +recently published book on "The New Marriage Legislation" which, being +issued with an _Imprimatur_, will be received by all parties as a work +of authority. He says:-- + + "Many Protestants may think the Church presumptuous in + decreeing their marriages valid or invalid according as they + have or have not complied with certain conditions. As the + Church cannot err, neither can she be presumptuous. She alone + is judge of the extent of her power. Anyone validly baptised, + either in the Church or among heretics, becomes thereby a + subject of the Roman Catholic Church." + +But whilst politicians were amusing themselves with fervid but useless +oratory in Parliament, stirring events were taking place elsewhere. +To trace in these pages even a bare outline of the main incidents of +those terrible years is impossible; and yet without doing so it is not +easy to obtain a correct view of the tangled skein of Irish politics +at the time. In studying any history of the period, we cannot but be +struck by observing on the one hand how completely in some respects +circumstances and ideas have changed since then; it is hard to realize +that Ulster was for a time the scene of wild disorder--assassination, +arson, burglary and every form of outrage--brought about mainly by a +society which claimed to be, and to a certain extent was, formed by a +union of the Presbyterian and Roman Catholic parties--whilst the south +and west remained fairly orderly and loyal. And yet on the other hand +we find many of the phenomena which have been characteristic of later +periods of Irish political agitation, already flourishing. Boycotting +existed in fact, though the name was not yet invented; also nocturnal +raids for arms, the sacking of lonely farmhouses, the intimidation of +witnesses and the mutilation of cattle. Again, we see all through the +history of Irish secret societies that their organization has been so +splendid that the ordinary law has been powerless against them; for +witnesses will not give evidence and juries will not convict if they +know that to do so will mean certain ruin and probable death; and yet +those same societies have always possessed one element of weakness: +however terrible their oaths of secrecy have been, the Government +have never had the slightest difficulty in finding out, through +their confidential agents, everything that has taken place at their +meetings, and what their projects are. + +As early as 1785 there had been two societies carrying on something +like civil war on a small scale in the north. How they originated, +is a matter of dispute; but at any rate before they had long been in +existence, the religious element became supreme--as it does sooner +or later in every Irish movement; whatever temporary alliances may be +formed for other reasons, religion always ultimately becomes the line +of cleavage. In this case, the "Peep of Day Boys" were Protestants, +the "Defenders" Roman Catholic. Some of the outrages committed by +the Defenders were too horrible to put in print; many Roman Catholic +families fled the country on account of the treatment which they +received from the Peep of Day Boys, and took refuge among their +co-religionists in the south. + +But now a greater crisis was at hand. The terrible upheaval of the +French Revolution was shaking European society to its foundation. The +teaching of Paine and Voltaire had borne fruit; the wildest socialism +was being preached in every land. Ulster had shown sympathy with +Republican ideas at the time of the American War of Independence; and +now a large number of the Presbyterians of Belfast eagerly accepted +the doctrines of Jacobinism. Nothing can sound more charmingly +innocent than the objects of the United Irish Society as put forward +publicly in 1791; the members solemnly and religiously pledged +themselves to use all their influence to obtain an impartial and +adequate representation of the Irish nation in Parliament; and as a +means to this end to endeavour to secure the co-operation of Irishmen +of all religious persuasions. Some writers have tried to make out that +if the Relief Act of 1793 had been extended in 1795 by another Act +enabling Roman Catholics to become Members of Parliament; and if +a Reform Bill had been passed making the House of Commons really +representative, the society would never have been anything but a +perfectly legal and harmless association. Of course it is always +possible to suggest what might have been; but in this case it is far +more probable that if Parliament had been so reformed as to be a fair +reflex of the opinion of the country, it would immediately have passed +a resolution declaring Ireland a Republic and forming an alliance with +France; for whatever objects were stated in public, the real guiding +spirits of the United Irish Society from the beginning (as of other +societies of a later date with equally innocent names) were ardent +republicans, who joined the society in order to further those views; +it is absurd to suggest that men who were actually in correspondence +with the leaders of the Directory and were trying to bring about an +invasion from France in order to aid them in establishing a Republic +on Jacobin lines would have been deterred by the passing of a Bill +making it lawful for Roman Catholics to sit in Parliament. Nor again +is it reasonable to contend that earnest-minded Roman Catholics would, +in consequence of the failure of such a Bill to become law, have +rebelled against a Government under which they were able to exercise +their religion in peace and which was at that moment founding and +endowing a College for the training of candidates for the priesthood, +in favour of one which had confiscated the seminaries and was sending +the priests to the guillotine. The fact seems to have been that the +society was formed by Presbyterians, for political reasons; they tried +to get the Roman Catholics to join them, but the lower class Roman +Catholics cared very little about seats in Parliament; so the founders +of the society cleverly added abolition of tithes and taxes, and +reduction of rents, to their original programme; this drew in numbers +of Roman Catholics, whose principles were really the very antithesis +of Jacobinism. + +It is a fair instance of the confusion which has always reigned +throughout Irish politics, that after the Relief Act of 1793 had been +passed, the Catholic Committee expressed their jubilation by voting +£2,000 for a statue to the King, and presenting a gold medal to their +Secretary, Wolfe Tone, who was at that moment scheming to set up a +Jacobin Republic. + +This celebrated man, Wolfe Tone, was not unlike many others who have +posed as Irish patriots. Hating the very name of England, he schemed +to get one appointment after another from the English Government--at +one time seeking to be put in command of a filibustering expedition to +raid the towns of South America, at another time trying for a post in +India; hating the Pope and the priests, he acted as Secretary to the +Catholic Committee; then hating Grattan and the Irish Parliament and +everything to say to it, he showed his patriotism by devoting his +energies to trying to persuade the French Republican Government to +invade Ireland. + +On the 21st of September, 1795, an incident occurred which, though +apparently trivial at the time, was destined to be of great historical +importance. Ulster had now for some time been in a state bordering +on anarchy; not only were the secret societies constantly at war, +but marauding bands, pretending to belong to one or other of the +societies, were ravishing the country. Something like a pitched battle +was fought between the Protestants and the Defenders, in which the +Defenders, although they were the stronger party and made the attack, +were utterly routed. In the evening, the victors agreed to form +themselves into a society which should bear the name of William of +Orange. There had previously been some societies called by that name; +but this was the foundation of the Orange Society of the present day. +The oath which at first was taken by every member of the society was +to defend the king and his heirs so long as he or they support the +Protestant ascendancy. (This conditional form of oath of allegiance +has long since been abolished.) It was industriously circulated by +the United Irishmen that the actual words of the oath were: "I will be +true to the King and Government and I will exterminate as far as I am +able the Catholics of Ireland." There is no evidence, however, that +any words of the kind ever formed part of an oath prescribed by the +Orange Society; and those who make the statement now must be aware +that they are repeating a calumny. + +After this time, the quarrel gradually tended more and more to become +a religious one; the Peep of Day Boys becoming merged in the Orange +Society, and the Protestants slowly withdrawing from the United Irish +Society; on the other hand, the Defenders ultimately coalesced +with the United Irishmen and thus, by an illogical combination of +inconsistent forces, formed the party which brought about the terrible +rebellion. + +The close of the year 1796 was one of the most critical moments in the +history of England. On the continent the power of republican France +under the genius of Napoleon and his generals was sweeping all before +it. England was in a state of bankruptcy, and almost as completely +isolated as she had been in the time of Elizabeth. Wolfe Tone and his +Irish plotters saw their opportunity as clearly as their predecessors +had in the times of Edward Bruce and Philip II. They laid a statement +of the condition of Ireland before the French Government which, +though as full of exaggerations as most things in Irish history, was +sufficiently based on fact to lead the French Government to believe +that if a French force were landed in Ireland, the Irishmen in the +British Army and Navy would mutiny, the Yeomen would join the French, +and the whole of the North of Ireland would rise in rebellion. + +Accordingly a French fleet of forty-three sail, carrying about 15,000 +troops, sailed from Brest for Bantry Bay. No human power could have +prevented their landing; and had they done so, they could have +marched to Cork and seized the town without any difficulty; the United +Irishmen would have risen, and the whole country might have been +theirs. But the same power which saved England from the Armada of +Catholic Spain 200 years before now shielded her from the invasion of +republican France. Storms and fogs wrought havoc throughout the French +fleet. In less than a month from the time of their starting, Wolfe +Tone and the shattered remains of the invading force were back at +Brest, without having succeeded in landing a single man on the Irish +shore. + +Had this projected invasion taken place fifty years before, amongst +the French troops would have been the Irish brigade, who were always +yearning for the opportunity of making an attack on their native land. +But half a century had caused strange changes; the Irish brigade had +fallen with the collapse of the French monarchy; and some of the few +survivors were now actually serving under King George III. + +It was a remarkable fact that no one in the neighbourhood of Bantry +showed the slightest sympathy with the Frenchmen. The few resident +gentry, the moment the danger was evident, called together the +yeomanry and organized their tenantry to oppose the foe--though the +utmost they could have done would have been to delay the progress +of the invaders for a little at the cost of their own lives; and the +peasantry did all in their power to support their efforts. + +If it is possible to analyse the state of political feeling at +this time, we may say that first there was a very limited number of +thoughtful men who saw that after the Acts of 1782 and 1793 either +separation or union was inevitable, and who consequently opposed all +idea of parliamentary reform, because they thought it would tend to +separation and make union more difficult. A second party (a leading +member of which was Charlemont) approved of the existing state of +things, and believed that it could be continued; a third (of which +Grattan was one) fondly imagined that all would go smoothly if only a +Catholic Relief Bill and a Reform Bill were carried, and so directed +all their efforts towards those objects; and a fourth believed that +no reform would be granted without pressure, and so were ready even to +work up a rebellion in order to obtain it; but that was a very small +party at best, and was soon carried away by the whirlwind of those +revolutionists who cared nothing about the Parliament then sitting +in Dublin, or about any other possible Parliament which might own +allegiance to the King of England, for their real aim was to sever +Ireland from England altogether and establish a separate republic. As +Wolfe Tone wrote: "To break the connection with England and to assert +the independence of my country were my objects." + +It is this party that is represented by the Nationalists of to-day, +except that when they look for foreign aid, their hopes lie in the +direction of Germany rather than France. I know that this remark may +call forth a storm of denials from those who judge by the speeches +which Nationalist leaders have made in England when trying to win the +Radical vote, or in the Colonies when aiming at getting money from +people who had not studied the question. But I judge not by speeches +such as those, but by statements continually put forward by political +writers and orators when they have cast off the mask and are +addressing their sympathizers in Ireland and America:-- + + "The Nationalists of Ireland stand for the complete + independence of Ireland, and they stand for nothing else. In + the English Empire they have no part or lot, and they wish to + have no part or lot. We stand for the Irish nation, free + and independent and outside the English Empire."--(_Irish + Freedom_.) + + "Our aim is the establishment of an Irish Republic, for the + simple and sole reason that no other ending of our quarrel + with England could be either adequate or final. This is the + one central and vital point of agreement among all who are + worthy of the name of Irish Nationalists--that Ireland is + a separate nation--separate in thought, mind, in ideals and + outlooks. Come what may, we work for Ireland as separate from + England as Germany is separate."--(Ib.) + + "Year by year the pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe + Tone grows more significant of the rising tide of militant and + uncompromising Nationalism, more significant of the fact that + Young Ireland has turned away from the false thing that has + passed for patriotism, and has begun to reverence only the + men and the things and the memories that stand for Ireland an + independent nation. Paying tribute to the memory of men + like Tone, lifting up the language of Ireland from the mire, + linking up the present with the old days of true patriotic + endeavour--these are the doings that will eventually bring our + land from the mazes of humbug into the clear dawn that heralds + Nationhood."--(_The Leinster Leader_.) + + "The object aimed at by the advanced National party is the + recovery of Ireland's national independence and the severance + of all political connection with England."--(_J. Devoy_.) + + "In the better days that are approaching, the soil of Ireland + will be populated by a race of Irishmen free and happy and + thriving, owning no master under the Almighty, and owning no + flag but the green flag of an independent Irish nation."--(_W. + O'Brien, M.P._) + + "In supporting Home Rule for Ireland we abandon no principle + of Irish nationhood as laid down by the fathers in the Irish + movement for independence, from Wolfe Tone and Emmett to John + Mitchell, and from Mitchell to Kickham and Parnell."--(_J. + Redmond_.) + + "Our ultimate goal is the national independence of our + country."--(Ib.) + + "In its essence the National movement is the same to-day as it + was in the days of Hugh O'Niell, Owen Roe, Emmett, or of Wolfe + Tone."--(Ib.) + + "We are as much rebels to England's rule as our forefathers + were in '98."--(Ib.) + + "I remember when Parnell was asked if he would accept as a + final settlement the Home Rule compromise proposed by Mr. + Gladstone. I remember his answer. He said 'I believe in the + policy of taking from England anything we can wring from her + which will strengthen our hands to go for more.'"--(Ib.) + + "When we have undermined English misgovernment we have paved + the way for Ireland to take her place among the nations of the + earth. And let us not forget that that is the ultimate goal + at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be + in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be + satisfied until we have destroyed the last link which keeps + Ireland bound to England." + + (_C.S. Parnell_.) + + "I know there are many people in America who think that the + means which we are operating to-day for the good of Ireland + are not sufficiently sharp and decisive ... I would suggest + to those who have constituted themselves the censors of our + movement, would it not be well to give our movement a fair + chance--to allow us to have an Irish Parliament that will give + our people all authority over the police and the judiciary + and all government in the nation, and when equipped with + comparative freedom, then would be the time for those who + think we should destroy the last link that binds us to England + to operate by whatever means they think best to achieve that + great and desirable end? I am quite sure that I speak for the + United Irish League in the matter." + + (_J. Devlin, M.P._) + + "What was it, after all, that Wolfe Tone, and Fitzgerald, and + Mitchell, and Smith O'Brien, and O'Meagher Condon, and Allen, + Larkins and O'Brien, and all the other gallant Irishmen strove + for, who from generation to generation were inspired with + the spirit of revolution? ... In what respect does our policy + differ from the purpose of these men?"--(Ib.) + + "In my opinion, and in the opinion of the vast majority of the + advanced Nationalists of Ireland, the Repeal of the Union + is not the full Nationalist demand; separation is the full + Nationalist demand; that is the right on which we stand, the + Nationalist right of Ireland."--(_J. Dillon, M.P._) + + "I should never have dedicated my life to this great struggle + if I did not see at the end the crowning and the consummation + of our work--a free and independent nation."--(Ib.) + + "We aim at nothing else than establishing a new nation upon + the map of Europe."--(_Dr. Douglas Hyde_.) + + "If there is any man in this audience who says to us as + representing that Parliamentary movement--'I don't believe + in your Parliamentary ideas, I don't accept Home Rule, I go + beyond it; I believe in an independent Irish nation'--if any + man says this, I say that we don't disbelieve in it. These + are our tactics--if you are to take a fortress, first take the + outer works."--(_T.M. Kettle, M.P._) + + "We want to carry on the work that the Fenians tried to do to + a triumphal issue. The Fenians stood for an Irish Republic, + and so do we. No policy which left England in control of the + Irish Nation could be regarded as final. There is only one + way, and that is to get the absolute and complete independence + of Ireland, free from English rule and English domination. The + Fenians did not go to the Prime Minister for concessions. + No: they started into arms, and if people of the present + day believed in that they should arm themselves to get + the independence of Ireland."--(_B. Hobson_, speaking at a + demonstration at Cork, on the anniversary of the "martyrdom" + of Allen, Larkins, and O'Brien.) + + "Should the Germans land in Ireland, they will be received + with willing hearts and strong hands, and should England be + their destination, it is to be hoped that they will find time + to disembark 100,000 rifles and a few score of ammunition for + the same in this country, and twelve months later this Ireland + will be as free as the Lord God meant it should be."--(_Major + McBride_, who organized an Irish force to aid the Boers + against England, and has consequently been appointed to a + municipal inspectorship by the Corporation of Dublin.) + + "I appeal to you most earnestly to do all in your power to + prevent your countrymen from entering the degraded British + army. If you prevent 500 men from enlisting you do nearly as + good work, if not quite so exciting, as if you shot 500 men on + the field of battle, and also you are making the path smoother + for the approaching conquest of England by Germany."--(Ib.) + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE REBELLION. + + +Early in 1797 it became evident to all but the most shortsighted of +politicians that a rebellion, of which none could foretell the result, +was imminent. As one shrewd observer wrote: "I look upon it that +Ireland must soon stand in respect to England in one of three +situations--united with her, the Legislatures being joined; separated +from her, and forming a republic; or as a half-subdued Province." The +supporters of law and order were naturally divided in opinion as to +the course to pursue. Some were in favour of a policy of conciliation. +Grattan induced his friend Ponsonby to bring forward another Reform +Bill, abolishing the religious test and the separate representation +of boroughs, and dividing each county into districts; and when he saw +that the motion could not be carried, delivered an impassioned speech, +declaring that he would never again attend the House of Commons, and +solemnly walked out. It was a piece of acting, too transparent to +deceive anybody. Grattan was a disappointed man--disappointed not +so much because his proposals were not adopted, as because his own +followers were slipping away from him. They had begun to realize that +he was an orator but not a statesman; his ideas were wild, fanciful +dreams. Whilst vehemently upholding the English connection he was +playing into the hands of England's opponents by reminding them that +England's difficulty was Ireland's opportunity; whilst hating the +very idea of a Union, he was making the existing system impossible +by preventing the passing of a commercial treaty; whilst passionately +supporting Protestant ascendancy, he was advocating a measure which +at that moment would have brought about the establishment either of a +Roman Catholic ascendancy or more probably of a Jacobin Republic. +He saw his supporters dwindling slowly from seventy-seven in 1783 to +thirty in 1797. Men were now alive to the fact that the country was in +an alarming condition. They saw what had happened in France but a few +years before, and how little Louis XVI had gained by trying to pose +as a liberator and a semi-republican; and, knowing that the rebellion +with which they were faced was an avowed imitation of the French +Revolution, they were coming to the opinion that stern measures were +necessary. In almost every county of three Provinces conspirators were +at work, trying to bring down on their country a foreign invasion, and +stirring up the people to rebellion and crime by appealing to their +agrarian grievances and cupidity, their religious passion, and the +discontent produced by great poverty. For a second time it appeared +that Wolfe Tone would succeed in obtaining aid from abroad--this time +from Spain and Holland; and the rebel party in Ireland were now so +well organized, and Jacobin feeling was so widespread, that had he +done so, it was almost inevitable that Ireland would have been lost to +England. But once more the unexpected was destined to occur. Early in +February Jervis shattered the power of the Spanish Fleet off Cape St. +Vincent; and in the summer, just when the Dutch ships, with 14,000 +troops on board, were ready to start, and resistance on the part of +England seemed hopeless, a violent gale arose and for weeks the whole +fleet remained imprisoned in the river; and when at length they did +succeed in making a start, the English were ready to meet them within +a few miles of the coast of Holland; after a tremendous battle the +broken remnant of the Dutch fleet returned to the harbour defeated. +The rage and mortification of Wolfe Tone at his second failure knew no +bounds. + +In the North of Ireland, however, the rebellion had practically begun. +The magistrates were powerless; the classes who had supported the +gentry during the Volunteer Movement were amongst the disaffected. The +country was in a state of anarchy; murders and outrages of every +sort were incessant. That the measures which the Government and +their supporters took to crush the rising rebellion were illegal +and barbarous, cannot be denied; that they in fact by their violence +hurried on the rebellion is not improbable. But it is still more +probable that they were the means of preventing its success; just as, +had the Government of Louis XVI shown more vigour at the outset of the +Revolution, the Reign of Terror would probably never have taken place. +Through evidence obtained by torture, the Government got possession +of vast stores of arms which the rebels had prepared; by twice +seizing the directors of the movement they deprived it of its central +organization; and if they were the cause of the rebellion breaking out +sooner than had been intended, the result was that they were able +to quell it in one district before it had time to come to a head in +another. + +War at best is very terrible; and there were two circumstances which +made the war in Ireland more terrible than others. It was a religious +war, and it was a civil war. It often happens that when religion is +turned to hatred it stirs up the worst and most diabolical passions +of the human breast; and the evil feelings brought on by a civil war +necessarily last longer than animosity against a foreign foe. The +horrors of 1798 make one shudder to think what must happen in Ireland +if civil war ever breaks out there again. + +From Ulster the United Ireland movement spread during 1797 to +Leinster, as far south as Wexford, and began to assume a more +decidedly religious character. As a contemporary historian wrote:-- + + "So inveterately rooted are the prejudices of religious + antipathy in the minds of the lower classes of Irish + Romanists, that in any civil war, however originating from + causes unconnected with religion, not all the efforts of their + gentry, or even priests, to the contrary could (if I am not + exceedingly mistaken) restrain them from converting it into a + religious quarrel." + +(Had he lived a century later, he might have used the same words.) +But though this was generally the case, there were complications as +embarrassing as they usually are in Irish affairs. The yeomanry +were mainly Protestants, but the majority of the militia were Roman +Catholics, and those commanded by Lord Fingall entirely so. There +was much disaffection in both branches of the service; besides which, +officers and men alike lacked the discipline and experience of +regular troops; but as the supply of soldiers from England was wholly +inadequate for the situation, the Government were obliged to rely on +any forces they could obtain. As the rebellion drifted into being a +Roman Catholic movement, the Orangemen became intensely loyal, and +were eager to fight on the king's side, but the Government dreaded +lest by employing them they might offend the militia. By 1798, when +the rebellion in the south was at its height, the north had become +comparatively calm. The severities of the previous year had had some +salutary effect; the staunch Protestants had no desire to aid in what +had become a Roman Catholic rebellion; and the republican party had +seen that the universal fraternity of the Jacobin Government of France +had turned into a military despotism which was engaged in crushing the +neighbouring republics and was almost at war with the sister Republic +of America. + +But whilst Ulster was growing calmer, the condition of the south +was becoming daily more appalling. On the 23rd of May the rebellion +actually broke out in the counties of Dublin, Kildare and Meath; and +many skirmishes took place in which the losses on the king's side were +comparatively few but those of the rebels enormous, in consequence of +their ignorance of the use of firearms. The better-trained forces soon +got to know that an Irish peasant when armed with a pike was a deadly +foe; but when armed with a musket was almost harmless. This part of +the campaign will always be specially memorable for the attack made +on the little town of Prosperous, in the county of Kildare. It was +cleverly made in the early morning; the garrison, taken unawares, were +nearly all killed; the Commander, Captain Swayne, being amongst the +victims. It was soon afterwards found out that the leader of the +rebels was Dr. Esmonde, a gentleman of good family, and first +lieutenant in a regiment of yeomanry stationed a few miles off, who +had been dining with Captain Swayne the previous evening. He appeared +in his regiment the next day, but was identified by a yeoman who had +seen him at Prosperous; arrested, tried, and hanged as a traitor. + +A Nationalist has recently referred to him as a martyr to the cause of +Irish liberty. + +By the month of June Wexford had become the centre of the rebellion. +In that county it had assumed an essentially religious character +(there being, however, a few exceptions on each side), and in no +other part of Ireland was the war so terrible either on account of its +magnitude or barbarity. The passions of the ignorant peasantry were +inflamed by all Protestants being spoken of as Orangemen and a report +being diligently circulated that all Orangemen had sworn to destroy +the Catholic Faith--exactly the same course that was followed a +hundred years later. Roman Catholic priests, wearing their sacred +vestments and carrying crucifixes, led the rebel forces; and the +ignorant peasants, believing them to be endowed with miraculous +powers, followed them with the blind adherence that only fanaticism +can inspire. And yet--so strangely contradictory is everything in +Ireland--there is clear evidence that amongst those priestly agitators +many were at heart deists, who were making use of religion in the +hope of furthering Jacobinism. Many Protestants saved their lives by +apostatizing, or by allowing their children to be rebaptized; it is +but fair to add, however, that several of the older priests, shocked +at the conduct of the rebels, concealed heretics in their houses and +churches; and that all through the war many priests, in spite of the +difficulty of their position, remained loyal and did what they could +to aid the king's troops. + +The rebels for some weeks held command of the town and county of +Wexford, their chief camp being at a place called Vinegar Hill. The +country around was searched and plundered; the Protestants who were +captured were brought into the rebel camp, and there deliberately +butchered in cold blood. How many perished it is impossible to say; +the number must have been at the least 400. + +I would willingly pass over this dreadful episode. I have no more +desire to dwell on it than I have on Cromwell's conduct at Drogheda. +I regard it merely as one of those terrible incidents which alas have +taken place in almost every campaign. It was probably equalled in +character if not in magnitude by several outrages committed by the +other side; and certainly parallels could be found in the French +invasion of Algeria fifty years later and in many other wars of the +nineteenth century. When men have been fired with the diabolical +passions that war arouses, and have grown accustomed to the ghastly +sights on battlefields, they cease to be reasoning beings; they become +fiends. But unfortunately it is necessary to explain what really +occurred, as it is to Vinegar Hill and its terrible associations that +the Nationalists of to-day refer with triumph. Songs in praise of the +massacre are sung at Nationalist gatherings; and W. Redmond, speaking +at Enniscorthy (close to the scene of the massacre) on the 110th +anniversary of the outrages said: "The heroic action of the men who +fought and died around Vinegar Hill was the heritage of all Ireland. +Whatever measure of comparative freedom we now enjoy was entirely +attributable to the Insurrection of '98. It was the pikemen of '98 who +made the world and England understand that Irishmen knew how to fight +for their rights, and it is to the knowledge of that fact by England +that we may look for the real driving force of any effort we may make +for our liberty. The Irish people are in no position to resort to +arms, but the spirit is there, and by demonstrations like this we show +our rulers that it is essential for any real and lasting peace that +the aspirations of the patriots of '98 must be satisfied, and that a +full measure of National freedom must be granted to Ireland." + +(It will be observed that in the opinion of this orator--a prominent +Nationalist Member of Parliament, who was selected to go round the +Colonies collecting money for the Home Rule cause--the possession of +an Independent Parliament, of everything in fact short of separation, +goes for nothing; it is only those who rebelled against that +Parliament who are to be regarded as models for modern Nationalists to +follow. It is interesting also to note the different views which have +been put forward by Irish politicians with regard to the rebellion. +In 1843 the leaders of the Repeal Association stated in one of their +manifestoes, as an argument in favour of repeal, that England had +resorted to the diabolical expedient of fomenting a rebellion in order +to distract the country and give excuse for military violence and so +bring about a Union. But the Nationalists of to-day have so completely +identified themselves with the rebels of 1798 that within the last few +years splendid monuments have been erected in all the towns of Wexford +and the adjoining counties; some of these are bronze figures of +patriots brandishing pikes, others are representations of the priestly +leaders of the rebel forces. These monuments have been unveiled with +great ceremony, impassioned speeches being made on the occasion by +leading orators, both clerical and lay). + +In order to realize the terrible position in which the loyalists +were placed, we must recollect that whilst the Wexford rebels were +triumphant in that county, and the movement seemed to be spreading +into Kilkenny and Carlow, there was a fresh outbreak in the north; +it appeared probable that Dublin might rise at any moment; the French +fleet was hourly expected, and the long looked-for aid from England +was still delayed. But the Irish loyalist minority showed the same +dogged determination that they had done in the time of James II, and +that they will show again in the future. + +The numbers engaged in the different battles and skirmishes have +been variously estimated; it seems that at the battle of Arklow the +loyalists did not exceed 1,600, of whom nearly all were militia and +yeomanry, with a few artillery; whilst the rebels, commanded by Father +Michael Murphy, amounted to at least 20,000. Yet after a terrible +afternoon's fighting the rebels, disheartened by the fall of their +leader (whom they had believed to be invulnerable) retired, leaving +more than 1,000 dead on the field. + +Soon, however, the reinforcements from England began to arrive; and +the French invasion, on which the rebels were building their hopes, +was still delayed. By July, although fighting was still going on in +the Wicklow mountains and some other parts of the country, the worst +of the rebellion in Wexford was crushed, and an Act of Amnesty was +carried through Parliament. It is worthy of note that the trials of +the rebels which took place in Dublin were conducted with a fairness +and a respect for the forms of law which are probably unparalleled in +the history of other countries at moments of such terrible excitement; +we can contrast them for instance with the steps that were taken in +putting down the outbreak of the Commune in Paris in 1871. It is easy +now to argue that, as the force of the rebellion was being broken, it +would have been more humane to have allowed those who had plotted and +directed it to go unpunished. But as Lecky has pointed out, "it was +scarcely possible to exaggerate the evil they had produced, and they +were immeasurably more guilty than the majority of those who had +already perished. + +"They had thrown back, probably for generations, the civilization of +their country. They had been year by year engaged in sowing the seed +which had ripened into the harvest of blood. They had done all in +their power to bring down upon Ireland the two greatest curses that +can afflict a nation--the curse of civil war, and the curse of foreign +invasion; and although at the outset of their movement they had +hoped to unite Irishmen of all creeds, they had ended by lashing +the Catholics into frenzy by deliberate and skilful falsehood. The +assertion that the Orangemen had sworn to exterminate the Catholics +was nowhere more prominent than in the newspaper which was the +recognised organ of the United Irish leaders. The men who had spread +this calumny through an ignorant and excitable Catholic population, +were assuredly not less truly murderers than those who had fired the +barn at Scullabogue or piked the Protestants on Wexford Bridge." + +A strong party, however, led by Lord Clare were in favour of clemency +wherever possible; and there seemed good reason for hoping that the +rebellion would slowly die out. Cooke, the Under Secretary, wrote +on the 9th of August: "The country is by no means settled nor secure +should the French land, but I think secure if they do not." Suddenly, +however, the alarming news came that the French were actually in +Ireland. Wolfe Tone and his fellow-plotters, undaunted by their +previous failures, had continued ceaseless in their efforts to induce +Napoleon to make an indirect attack on England by invading Ireland; +and if they had succeeded in persuading the French Government to send +an expedition two months earlier when the rebellion was at its height +and the English reinforcements had not arrived, Ireland must have been +lost. Once again, however, fortune favoured the English cause. The +first instalment of the French fleet, carrying 1,000 soldiers, did +not start until the 6th of August, and only arrived on the 22nd. They +landed at Killala, in Mayo, and were not a little surprised at the +state of things existing there. They had expected to find a universal +feeling of republicanism; but instead of this, whilst the Protestants +refused to join them, the Roman Catholic peasantry received them with +delight, and declared their readiness to take arms for France and the +Blessed Virgin. "God help these simpletons," said one of the officers, +"if they knew how little we care about the Pope or his religion, they +would not be so hot in expecting help from us!" + +Arriving at the wrong time and the wrong place, the expedition was +foredoomed to failure. The French were brave men and trained soldiers; +but they found their Irish allies perfectly useless. They succeeded +in capturing Castlebar, and routing a force of militia; but +their campaign was brief; on the 8th of September the whole force +surrendered. The Connaught rebellion was speedily and severely put +down. + +The second instalment of the French invasion consisted of one ship. +They landed on the Island of Arran on the 16th of September; but after +spending eight hours on shore, re-embarked and sailed away to Norway. + +The third instalment was, however, more serious. It consisted of a +ship of the line, eight frigates and a schooner, having on board +an army of about 3,000 men. They arrived at Lough Swilly early in +October, where they were met by a more powerful English fleet, and +nearly all were destroyed or captured. Amongst the prisoners taken +was Wolfe Tone; who soon afterwards in order to avoid a felon's death, +ended his life by suicide.[See note at the end of the Volume] + +A fortnight later the fourth and last instalment arrived at Killala +Bay; but the Admiral, hearing that the rebellion was over, promptly +weighed anchor and returned to France. Thus ingloriously ended the +French attempts at the invasion of Ireland. The calling-in of the +foreigner had been of as little use to the cause of Irish rebellion as +it had been two centuries before. + + +By the end of the year the worst of the rebellion was over. But the +evil it had wrought was incalculable. How many had perished during +that terrible summer will never be known; the numbers have been +variously computed at from 15,000 to 70,000. At the outset of the +rebellion--in February 1798--Lord Clare had made a memorable speech in +the House of Lords, which has been so often misquoted that it is well +here to cite the passage in full:-- + + "If conciliation be a pledge of national tranquillity and + contentment; if it be a spell to allay popular ferment; there + is not a nation in Europe in which it has had so fair a trial + as in the Kingdom of Ireland. For a period of nearly twenty + years a liberal and unvaried system of concession and + conciliation has been pursued and acted on by the British + Government. Concession and conciliation have produced only a + fresh stock of grievances; other discontents of Ireland have + kept pace with her prosperity; for I am bold to say there + is not a nation on the habitable globe which has advanced in + cultivation and commerce, in agriculture and in manufactures + with the same rapidity in the same period. Her progress is now + retarded, and it is a heart-breaking spectacle to every man + who loves the country to see it arrested only by the perverse + and factious folly of the people, stimulated and encouraged by + disappointed statesmen." + +Within a few months after that speech was made, Ireland was well-nigh +ruined. All the progress in material prosperity which had taken place +in the years immediately following 1782 was swept away. The national +debt, which in 1791 had stood at £2,442,890, involving an annual +charge of £142,716, had risen to £26,662,640, with an annual charge of +£1,395,735; the exports of woollen goods had almost ceased, and those +of linen gone down by more than a third; other industries showed +a decay nearly as lamentable; public bankruptcy seemed inevitable. +Though the violent outbreak of rebellion had been put down, many parts +of the country were in a state of anarchy. In the west, armed bands +went about every night houghing the cattle and murdering all who dared +to oppose them. If any man prosecuted one of the offenders, he did +it at the moral certainty of being murdered. The same fate hung over +every magistrate who sent a hougher to gaol, every witness who gave +evidence against him, every juryman who convicted him. In Limerick one +man ventured on his own part and on that of eight others to prosecute +an offender who had destroyed their property. All nine were murdered +in one night. It was not safe to travel along the high road within +six miles of Dublin. The militia had, from their misbehaviour in +the field, and their extreme licentiousness, fallen into universal +contempt and abhorrence; officers of English regiments declared that +it would be impossible to maintain discipline amongst their troops +if they remained in such a country. It was discovered that the rebels +were forming another Directory, and, still expecting aid from France, +planning a fresh outbreak. Religious animosities were more violent +than ever. Government was becoming impossible; for the Roman Catholic +population, now thoroughly disaffected, would not continue to submit +to the rule of the Protestant oligarchy; but the only way to put an +end to it would be by another rebellion which if successful would +(as the Roman Catholic bishops and educated laymen fully realized) +probably result in the establishment of a Jacobin republic; +clear-headed men of all parties were beginning to think that there was +but one solution of the problem; and that was--the Union. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE UNION. + + +We come now to the great turning point in the modern history of +Ireland--the Union. It has been so constantly and so vehemently +asserted that this momentous event was prompted by the wicked desire +of England to ruin Ireland, and was carried out by fraud, bribery, +intimidation, and every form of political crime, that not only +ordinary readers, but even writers who are content to receive +their information at second hand without investigating evidence for +themselves, generally assume that no other view is possible. Thus +O'Connell boldly asserted that the Irish Catholics never assented +to the Union. Others have blindly repeated his words; and from those +reiterated statements has been developed an argument that as the +Catholics did not assent to the Union, they cannot be bound by it. + +I believe that there has been as much exaggeration about this as about +most other episodes of Irish history; and that anyone who, fairly and +without prejudice, takes the trouble to go through the history of the +Union as it may be gathered from contemporary documents, will come to +the conclusion that it was devised by great and earnest statesmen who +had the good of both countries at heart. As to the means by which it +was carried, there is much to be said on both sides of the question; +Lecky has stated the case against the Union ably and temperately; +other writers, equally honourable, have taken the opposite side. There +is at any rate very much to be said for the opinion, that, considering +the circumstances and the peculiar constitution of the Irish +Parliament, there was nothing which the Government did that was not +perfectly justifiable. As to whether it was in accordance with the +wish of the people or not, there are several points which ought to be +borne in mind but to which sufficient attention is not usually given. +A very large part of the nation were ignorant peasants, who did not +and could not properly understand the question; and as a matter +of fact cared little about it. Then of those who were against the +measure, many opposed it not because they wished the existing state +of things to continue, but because they thought that the Union would +prevent the one object of their ambition--total separation and the +establishment of a republic; their opinion therefore has but little +weight. When we come to the more educated and propertied classes, it +seems that the majority were in favour of the measure; and as to the +opinion of the Roman Catholic section (which after all was far the +largest part of the nation) I think there can be no doubt whatever. +Fortunately it is no longer necessary to wade through the mass of +original papers; for the evidence has been so carefully investigated +during recent years by various impartial writers, and has been +presented to the general reader in so clear and concise a manner +that no one now has any excuse for being led away by the impassioned +statements of partisan orators. I refer specially to the "History of +the Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland," by Dr. Dunbar +Ingram, published in 1887. + +That careful writer commences his work by stating that, dissatisfied +with endless assertions unaccompanied by proof, he had determined to +investigate the subject for himself, examining closely the original +and contemporary authorities. He soon found that there was no evidence +to sustain the accusations made against the manner in which the Union +was carried; and that all the charges against the Government rested +finally on Harrington's worthless romances or the declamatory +statements of the Opposition during the sessions of 1799 and 1800, +which, when challenged, they declined to substantiate. Then, as he +proceeded in his work, he discovered that, after its terms were known +and the public had had time for reflection, the Union was thankfully +accepted by the two communities which made up Ireland; that the +Protestants, after the first burst of clamour, were as a body +converted and became well-wishers to the measure; and that the Roman +Catholics, after a short hesitation, gave the Union their hearty +assent and support. And finally, the whole inquiry left a strong +conviction on his mind that the Union was undertaken from the purest +motives, that it was carried by fair and constitutional means, and +that its final accomplishment was accompanied with the hearty assent +and concurrence of the vast majority of the two peoples that dwelt in +Ireland. + +I feel that I cannot do better than follow some of the lines of his +argument. + +It is true that in the time of the Plantagenets representatives from +Ireland were on several occasions summoned to attend the English +Parliament; and that during the Commonwealth Ireland was incorporated +with the rest of the Empire and sent members to the Parliaments of +1654 and 1657. These incidents, however, are unimportant; it is more +to the purpose to point out that from the time of the Restoration +onwards we find a long list of distinguished thinkers recommending +such a Union; and in the beginning of the eighteenth century both +Houses of the Irish Parliament twice petitioned Queen Anne to the +same effect. It may be asked why the English politicians, who were so +anxious to bring about the Union with Scotland, turned a deaf ear +to these petitions. The answer is simple. The Scotch Parliament +was independent, and the impossibility of having two independent +Parliaments under one sovereign had become manifest. Trade jealousies +had arisen; the action of the Scotch had nearly involved England in a +war with Spain; the Scotch Parliament had passed an Act declaring that +until provision was made for settling the rights and liberties of the +Scotch nation independently of England the successor to the Scotch +Crown should not be the same person that was possessed of the Crown +of England. The Parliament of England commenced arming the militia and +fortifying the towns near the Border. England being at war with France +the Scotch Parliament passed an Act allowing Scotchmen to trade with +that country; it therefore was a choice between Union and War; and +the two countries wisely chose Union. In the case of Ireland, however, +England saw no such danger; the Irish legislature was subordinate; +Ireland was bound by English statutes; and the Irish Parliament +represented not the whole people but only that one section of it which +was necessarily bound to the English connection; the Irish petitions +for Union therefore remained unheeded. The great Bishop Berkeley, +writing in 1735, strongly advocated a union; at a later time Adam +Smith wrote: "By a union with Great Britain Ireland would gain besides +the freedom of trade other advantages much more important ... Without +a union with Great Britain the inhabitants of Ireland are not likely +for many ages to consider themselves as one people." But, as we +have seen, by the Act of 1782, the Irish Parliament had become +independent--that is, it was placed in the same position as the +Scotch Parliament had been; and by the Act of 1893, the bulk of the +constituencies in the counties had become Roman Catholic. Except +in the opinion of thoughtless optimists like Grattan, matters were +approaching a deadlock; for sooner or later the Roman Catholic +electors would demand representation in Parliament; the borough +members would most probably refuse it, in which case war might break +out again; and if they granted it, the Irish Parliament, then almost +entirely Roman Catholic, would be anxious to break the tie that bound +Ireland to England. + +But apart from the religious question, it was evident that the +constitution, as fixed by the Act of 1782, was fraught with dangers. +And it is no answer to say that not many difficulties had arisen +in the few years between 1782 and 1799; for, even though that is +partially true, the question for a statesman to consider was whether +they were likely to arise in the future; and the rebellion, which +was still seething, had made this all the more probable. First, on a +declaration of war by England, Ireland might refuse to take part in +it; and her refusal would paralyse the Empire. As early as 1791, Wolfe +Tone had pointed out that Ireland need not embark on the side of +Great Britain in the contest which was then pending; and one of his +followers had advocated an alliance with France. (This is of all the +more importance at the present day, when the Nationalists state that +their principles are the same as those of Wolfe Tone.) Secondly, +during a war, Ireland might refuse supplies to England. This course +was actually hinted at by Grattan. Thirdly, she might provoke a +commercial war of rates with England. This course was proposed in the +Irish House of Commons in 1784. Fourthly, she might put pressure on +the Sovereign to declare war against a country with which England was +at peace. This also was proposed in the Irish House, in the case of +Portugal. Fifthly, she might differ from England in any international +question in reference to the connection between them, as she did in +the Regency question. Sixthly, she might refuse--as she did--to make +a commercial treaty with Great Britain; and thus keep open the most +fertile sources of mutual jealousies and discontent. Grattan's best +friends had urged upon him in vain that refusing to assent to a +commercial treaty made the permanent government by two independent +legislatures impossible, and would bring about separation; he refused +to be guided by their advice, and at that time he still had supreme +power in the House. It is remarkable that even at a later date, whilst +vehemently opposing the Union, he took a delight in pointing out +how many ways there were in which an Irish Parliament might injure +England; seeming not to realize that he was supplying a forcible +argument in favour of the measure he was opposing. + +The dangers of the situation were summed up by Pitt in a few +words:--"A party in England may give to the Throne one species of +advice by its Parliament. A party in Ireland may advise directly +opposite upon the most essential points that involve the safety of +both; upon alliance with a foreign power, for instance; upon the army; +upon the navy; upon any branch of the public service; upon trade; upon +commerce; or upon any point essential to the Empire at large." And +long afterwards Sir Robert Peel pointed out that within the short +period of six years from the establishment of what is called the +independence of the Irish Parliament--from 1782 to 1788--the foreign +relations of the two countries, the commercial intercourse of the two +countries, the sovereign exercise of authority in the two countries, +were the subjects of litigation and dispute; and it was more owing +to accident than to any other cause that they did not produce actual +alienation and rupture. + +The idea of a Union was first brought before Parliament by the Lord +Lieutenant (Lord Cornwallis) in his speech at the opening of the +Session in January 1799. It appeared at first that a majority of the +Peers were in favour of the proposal, but a small majority of the +House of Commons hostile--some to the scheme altogether, others to +its being brought forward at that time. This small majority, however, +rapidly diminished; and before many weeks had passed, the Government +possessed a majority in both Houses. The citizens of Dublin were +naturally strongly against the measure, thinking that it would injure +the prestige of the capital; as were also the proprietors of boroughs +and the legal members of the House; and soon after the scheme had +been proposed, several counties held meetings and passed resolutions +against it; but as the year went on, when the details of the measure +had been more carefully considered, there was a general change of +feeling throughout the country. Lord Cornwallis went on tours both +north and south, through both Protestant and Roman Catholic +districts, everywhere receiving addresses in favour of the Union from +corporations, grand juries, leading residents, and especially from +Roman Catholic bodies. And, if we may believe Lord Cornwallis's own +letters, these addresses were entirely spontaneous, and represented +the real feelings of the community. Before Parliament met in March +1800, twenty-two counties had passed resolutions in favour of the +Union; and Lord Castlereagh was able to say in the House that the +great body of the landed property of Ireland, and all the great +commercial towns except Dublin and Drogheda, were friendly to the +measure. The Opposition attempted to meet this by presenting a number +of petitions showing that the people of Ireland were against it. Of +the fifty-four petitions presented, five were not against the Union at +all, but merely requests for compensation in the event of its coming +about; three were from individuals or commercial firms; and eight were +from Dublin alone. The number therefore was much smaller than appears +at first sight. Besides obtaining these petitions, the Opposition +also collected a large sum of money for the purchase of seats; in the +circumstances and according to the ideas of the time, I do not say +that they were in the least morally wrong in doing so; but the fact +takes away from the value of the votes given; and it neutralizes +anything that was done by the Government in the same way--if it can be +proved that the Government so acted. + +But as the Roman Catholics constituted three-fourths of the population +of Ireland, it is more important to investigate what their feelings +were than to scrutinize the division lists of the House, if we wish to +ascertain what was really the wish of the nation. Fortunately we have +an opportunity of testing whether there is any truth in the statement +of O'Connell to which I have already referred--that the Irish +Catholics did not assent to the Union. The evidence shows conclusively +that the Roman Catholic peerage, episcopate, priesthood and laity all +gave the movement their hearty concurrence and co-operation. Lords +Kenmare and Fingall assured Lord Cornwallis that the Catholics were +in favour of a Union; the entire episcopate--that is, the four +archbishops and nineteen bishops, three sees being vacant--expressed +the same view by their letters which are still extant or by +resolutions signed by them; for instance, the Archbishop of Tuam +wrote: "I have had an opportunity of acquiring the strongest +conviction that this measure alone can restore harmony and happiness +to our unhappy country." The Bishop of Cork wrote: "Nothing in my +opinion will more effectively tend to lay these disgraceful and +scandalous party feuds and dissensions, and restore peace and +harmony amongst us, than the great measure in contemplation, of +the legislative Union, and incorporation of this Kingdom with Great +Britain. I am happy to tell you it is working its way, and daily +gaining ground in the public opinion. Several counties which appeared +most adverse to it have now declared for it, and I have no doubt but, +with the blessing of God, it will be effected, notwithstanding the +violent opposition of Mr. Foster and his party. The Roman Catholics in +general are avowedly for the measure. In the south, where they are the +most numerous, they have declared in its favour." The Bishop of Ferns +presided at a meeting of Catholics of Wexford at which an address +in favour of incorporation of both legislatures was signed by 3,000 +persons; and throughout the country meetings, presided over by parish +priests, were held to further the movement; and the laity were quite +as eager as the clergy in the matter. Plowden, the Roman Catholic +historian, says: "A very great preponderancy in favour of the Union +existed in the Catholic body, particularly in their nobility, gentry +and clergy." Thomas McKenna, the Secretary to the Catholic Committee, +wrote two pamphlets in the same interest; whilst on the other hand not +a single petition against it was presented by any Roman Catholic body. + +When the Session of 1800 commenced, a leading member of the Opposition +sadly confessed that the people had deserted them. But the struggle +in the House of Commons was tremendous. The Anti-Unionists had the +advantage of the oratory of Grattan, who, though he had not been in +Parliament since 1797, now purchased a seat for £2,400, and entered +the House in a theatrical manner in the midst of the discussion. But +his vehement and abusive style of declamation could not in debate +be compared with the calm reasoning of Castlereagh. The most able +speeches against the measure were not those of Grattan, but Foster. +Many divisions were taken, the Government majority steadily rising +from forty-two to sixty-five, and comprising an actual majority of +the members of the House. In the House of Lords it was relatively +much larger. But it is constantly affirmed that this majority was only +brought about by bribery and intimidation. The word "bribery" has an +ugly sound; and in such a case as this, it is only fair to examine +what is exactly meant by the term. There is no doubt that compensation +was given to the proprietors of boroughs which were not allowed +representation in the United Parliament; and it is said that as the +return of members to Parliament is a public trust and not a species of +property, this was not a fair matter for pecuniary compensation; hence +it amounted to bribery. But the ownership of boroughs had grown up +insensibly; and they had long been looked upon and treated as private +property, not only in Ireland but in England and Scotland also; and +there were many honest men in all three countries who contended that +the system worked well, as it was the means whereby a large number +of distinguished men obtained their first introduction into public +life--amongst them being Pitt, Canning, and Fox in England, Grattan, +Flood and Plunkett in Ireland. Then in other cases when powers which +had long been regarded as property have been abolished, compensation +has been given. This was the case when the heritable jurisdictions in +Scotland were abolished, and when by the disestablishment of the Irish +Church the right of patrons to nominate to livings was taken away. And +even granting for the sake of argument that this is wrong, is it fair +to call it bribery? Eighty-four places were disfranchised, and a sum +of £1,260,000 (which did not nearly amount to the price which the +boroughs at that time fetched in the market) was paid. Of this, +£67,500 was paid to Englishmen who owned seats in the Irish +Parliament; £60,000 to boroughs who had no owners; £30,000 to the +executors of a deceased owner; £18,750 to two ladies; and +£1,100,000 to Irishmen who owned boroughs--of which £400,000 went to +Anti-Unionists who opposed the Bill. In many cases, of course, the +actual occupant of the seat was a different person from the owner who +received the compensation; for instance, there is reason to believe +that all the fifty barristers in the house had purchased their seats, +but not one of them was the permanent owner. Now, if compensation +is bribery, who was bribed? Really it must be admitted that +on investigation the charge of bribery, so far as it refers to +compensation to borough-owners, falls to the ground. + +Then it is said that the Government made actual payments to members +for their votes. This charge was brought forward in a general way at +the time in both Houses; the Government indignantly denied it, and +called on the Opposition to prove their accusation; but they failed to +do so. To repeat it now is therefore unjust. It may be admitted that +amongst Lord Castlereagh's letters there is one which taken by itself +looks as if a certain sum of money was to be used in bribery; but, +as Dr. Ingram has pointed out, a careful investigation of the matter +shows that it refers to proposed changes in the tariff, and not to +bribery at all. + +Again, it is argued that the lavish distribution of titles amounted +to bribery. If so, it is hard to find any Government in England or +Ireland that has not been to some extent guilty of bribery--though it +is true that no British Premier has ever created peerages or salaried +offices on anything like the scale that Mr. Asquith has done. After +the Bill had passed, Pitt created twenty new Irish peerages and four +English ones; and promoted sixteen peers a step in their order; which +after all is not very much more than Lord North had done in 1779, on +no special occasion, when he had created eighteen Irish peerages and +promoted twelve existing peers. + +As to the charges of intimidation, they may be dismissed at once; the +very few that were brought forward were so completely answered at the +time, that even the Opposition dropped them. The presence of such a +large number of troops in Ireland was quite accounted for by the fact +that the rebellion was still to some extent going on, and that there +was again a danger of a French invasion. + +And I must contend further that even admitting that there were +some acts on the part of the Government which will not bear strict +investigation according to present ideas, it is only fair to remember +the tremendous difficulties of the occasion. The English House of +Commons was almost unanimously in favour of the Union--not more than +thirty members ever voted against it; and in the opinion of Lord +Cornwallis, who throughout his long and varied career showed himself +to be a shrewd observer and an upright, honourable man, "This country +could not be saved without the Union." + +But really the whole discussion is beside the mark. The Nationalists +continually repeat the charge that the Union was carried by fraud; and +so it must be answered; but it has no bearing on anything existing at +the present day. For the old Irish Parliament has disappeared--merged +in the greater and more honourable Assembly of the United Kingdom; and +to revive it now would be a physical impossibility. The whole state +of circumstances has changed; no assembly that could now be formed in +Ireland would bear the faintest resemblance to that which met in the +eighteenth century. As Lecky has well expressed it:-- + + "To an historian of the eighteenth century, however, few + things can be more grotesquely absurd than to suppose that the + merits or demerits, the failure or the successes of the + Irish Parliament has any real bearing on modern schemes for + reconstructing the Government of Ireland on a revolutionary + and Jacobin basis; entrusting the protection of property and + the maintenance of law to some democratic assembly consisting + mainly of Fenians and Land-leaguers, of paid agitators and + of penniless adventurers. The Parliamentary system of the + eighteenth century might be represented in very different + lights by its enemies and by its friends. Its enemies would + describe it as essentially a government carried on through the + instrumentality of a corrupt oligarchy, of a large, compact + body of members holding place and pensions at the pleasure of + the Government, removed by the system of rotten boroughs from + all effectual popular control. Its friends would describe it + as essentially the government of Ireland by the gentlemen of + Ireland and especially the landlord class. + + "Neither representation would be altogether true, but each + contains a large measure of truth. The nature of the Irish + constituencies and the presence in the House of Commons of a + body of pensioners and placemen forming considerably more than + a third of the whole assembly, and nearly half of its active + members, gave the Government a power, which, except under + very rare and extraordinary circumstances, must, if fully + exercised, have been overwhelming ... On the other hand, + the Irish Parliament was a body consisting very largely of + independent country gentlemen, who on nearly all questions + affecting the economical and industrial development of the + country, had a powerful if not a decisive influence ... and + it was in reality only in a small class of political questions + that the corrupt power of government seems to have been + strained. The Irish House of Commons ... comprised the flower + of the landlord class. It was essentially pre-eminently the + representative of the property of the country. It had all the + instincts and the prejudices, but also all the qualities + and the capacities, of an educated propertied class, and it + brought great local knowledge and experience to its task. Much + of its work was of that practical and unobtrusive character + which leaves no trace in history." + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +THE PERIOD FROM THE UNION UNTIL THE REJECTION OF THE FIRST HOME RULE +BILL. + + +As soon as the Union had become law, the opposition to it died down +rapidly. All the members who had voted for it who became candidates +for the Imperial Parliament were elected, and Irish orators soon began +to make their mark in the greater Assembly. In 1805, however, there +was another slight rebellion, led by Robert Emmett. It never had +a chance of success; the mass of the people, thoroughly tired of +anarchy, refused to take part in it; and though the rebels succeeded +in committing a few murders, the movement was speedily quelled, mainly +by the yeomen of Dublin. At the trial of Emmett, Plunket, who had been +a vehement opponent of the Union, was counsel for the prosecution, and +in his speech bitterly denounced the conduct of those men who, +having done their utmost to oppose the Irish Parliament, now made the +abolition of that Parliament the pretext for rebellion. "They call for +revenge," said he, "on account of the removal of the Parliament. These +men, who, in 1798, endeavoured to destroy the Parliament, now +call upon the loyal men who opposed its transfer, to join them in +rebellion; an appeal vain and fruitless." + +It will be observed from statements already quoted, that the +Nationalists of to-day claim that they are the successors of +Emmett; he is counted amongst the heroes who fell in the cause of +Ireland--thus making it all the more clear how wide is the gulf +between the Parliamentary opponents of the Union and the modern +Nationalists. + +During the early part of the century, Ireland had another period of +prosperity. Travellers through Ireland at the present day cannot fail +to notice how many of the country seats (now, in consequence of later +legislation, mostly deserted and already beginning to fall into ruin) +were built at that time. No doubt much of the prosperity was caused +by the rebound which often takes place after a period of anarchy and +desolation; and it would not be fair to attribute it wholly to the +effect of the Union; but at least it proves that the melancholy +prognostications of the opponents of the measure were happily +unfulfilled. The total value of the produce and manufactures exported +from Ireland between 1790 and 1801 amounted to £51,322,620; between +1802 and 1813 it amounted to £63,483,718. In 1800 the population +of Ireland was under 5,000,000; in 1841 it was over 8,000,000. The +tonnage in Irish ports in 1792 was 69,000; by 1797 it had fallen to +53,000; before 1852 it had risen to 5,000,000. The export of linen +in 1796 was 53,000,000 yards; in 1799 it had fallen to 38,000,000; +in 1853 it had risen to 106,000,000; and every other department of +industry and commerce showed figures almost as satisfactory. + +There were, however, three important measures which the leading +advocates of the Union had desired to see carried as soon as possible +after the great change had been effected, but which--as many writers +of various schools of thought to this day consider unfortunately--were +postponed. The first was a provision by the State for the payment of +the Roman Catholic clergy. The bishops had fully expected that this +would be carried. Some modern Nationalists, wishing to win the +favour of the English Nonconformists, have represented that the Roman +Catholic Church refused to accept the money; but that is not the case. +Whether the policy of "levelling up" would have been a wise one +or not, it is useless now to conjecture; for once the policy of +"levelling down" had been decided upon, and the Irish Church had been +disestablished and disendowed, it became impracticable. The second +measure was Roman Catholic emancipation. This had been intended by +Pitt and other statesmen who helped to bring about the Union; but +unforeseen difficulties arose; and unfortunately nothing was done +until the agitation led by O'Connell brought matters to a crisis; +and the emancipation which might have been carried gracefully years +before, and in that case would have strengthened the Union, was +grudgingly yielded in 1829. + +The third measure was a readjustment of tithes. All will now admit, +and very many politicians and thinkers at the time fully realized, +that the old law as to tithes was a cruel injustice; but no change +was made until the opposition to the payment of tithes amounted to +something like civil war, involving a series of murders and outrages. +Then the fatal precedent was set of a successful and violent revolt +against contracts and debts. In 1838 an Act was passed commuting +the tithes into a rent-charge payable not by the occupiers but the +landlords. Some modern writers have argued that the change was merely +a matter of form, as the landlords increased the rents in proportion; +and it seems such a natural thing to have happened that earlier +writers may well be excused for assuming that it actually occurred. +But there is no excuse for repeating the charge now; for in +consequence of recent legislation it has been necessary for the Land +Courts to investigate the history of rents from a period commencing +before 1838; and the result of their examination has elicited the +strange fact that in thousands of cases the rent remained exactly the +same that it had been before the Tithe Commutation Act was passed. + +But ere long economic causes were at work which tended to check the +prosperity of Ireland. It was soon found that the proportion which by +the Act of Union Ireland was to contribute to the Imperial Government +was too large for the country to bear. The funded debt of Ireland +which amounted to £28,000,000 in 1800 rose by 1817 to £130,000,000; +in that year the whole liability was taken over by the Imperial +Government. Then the fall in prices which naturally resulted from +the peace of 1815 pressed heavily on an agricultural community. +Improvements in machinery and the development of steam power squeezed +out the handlooms of Ulster and the watermills of other parts of the +country. Wages were low; and the people who depended mainly on the +potato were underfed and undernourished. In 1846 and 1847 came the +two terrible blows to Ireland--first, the potato disease; and then the +Repeal of the Corn Laws, which made the profitable growing of wheat +with its accompanying industries, impossible. During the fearful years +of the potato famine, it is only too probable that some of the efforts +for relief were unwisely conducted and that some persons sadly failed +in their duties; no measures or men in the world are ever perfect; and +the difficulties not only of obtaining food but of getting it to the +starving people in days when there were few railways and no motors +were enormous. But when modern writers shower wholesale abuse over +the landlords of the period, and even hint that they brought about the +famine, it is well to turn to the writings of an ardent Home Ruler, +who was himself an eye-witness, having lived as a boy through the +famine time in one of the districts that suffered most--Mr. A.M. +Sullivan. He says:-- + + "The conduct of the Irish landlords throughout the famine + period has been variously described, and has been, I believe, + generally condemned. I consider the censure visited on them + too sweeping. I hold it to be in some respects cruelly unjust. + On many of them no blame too heavy could possibly fall. + A large number were permanent absentees; their ranks were + swelled by several who early fled the post of duty at + home--cowardly and selfish deserters of a brave and faithful + people. Of those who remained, some may have grown callous; + it is impossible to contest authentic instances of brutal + heartlessness here and there. But granting all that has to be + entered on the dark debtor side, the overwhelming balance + is the other way. The bulk of the resident Irish landlords + manfully did their best in that dread hour ... No adequate + tribute has ever been paid to the memory of those Irish + landlords--they were men of every party and creed--perished + martyrs to duty in that awful time; who did not fly the + plague-reeking work-houses or fever-tainted court. Their names + would make a goodly roll of honour ... If they did too little + compared with what the landlord class in England would have + done in similar case, it was because little was in their + power. The famine found most of the resident gentry of Ireland + on the brink of ruin. They were heritors of estates heavily + overweighted with the debts of a bygone generation. Broad + lands and lordly mansions were held by them on settlements + and conditions that allowed small scope for the exercise + of individual liberality. To these landlords the failure of + year's rental receipts meant mortgage fore-one and hopeless + ruin. Yet cases might be named by the score in which such men + scorned to avert by pressure on their suffering tenantry the + fate they saw impending over them.... They 'went down with the + ship.'" + +Soon after the famine, the Incumbered Estates Act was passed, by which +the creditors of incumbered landlords could force a sale. This in +effect worked a silent revolution; for whatever might have been said +up to that time about the landed proprietors being the representatives +of those who acquired their estates through the Cromwellian +confiscations, after those proprietors had been forced to sell and the +purchasers had obtained a statutory title by buying in the Court, the +charge became obsolete. The motive of the Act was a good one; it +was hoped that land would thus pass out of the hands of impoverished +owners and be purchased by English capitalists who would be able to +execute improvements on their estates and thus benefit the country +as a whole. But the scheme brought with it disadvantages which the +framers of the Act had not foreseen. The new purchasers had none of +the local feelings of the dispossessed owners; they regarded their +purchases as an investment, which they wished to make as profitable as +possible, and treated the occupants of the land with a harshness which +the old proprietors would never have exercised. Like most things in +Ireland, however, this has been much exaggerated. It is constantly +assumed that the whole soil of Ireland after this belonged to absentee +proprietors who took no interest in the country. That absenteeism is a +great evil to any country, and to Ireland especially, no one can deny; +but a Parliamentary enquiry in 1869 elicited the fact that the number +of landed proprietors in the rural area of Ireland then (and there +is no reason to suppose that any great change had taken place in +the previous eighteen years) was 19,547, of whom only 1,443 could +be described as "rarely or never resident in Ireland"; and these +represented 15.7 per cent. of the rural area, and only 15.1 per cent. +of the total poor-law valuation of that area. + +Between 1841 and 1851 the population of the country fell from +8,200,000 to 6,574,000. The primary causes of this were of course the +famine and the fever which broke out amongst the half-starved people; +but it was also to a large extent caused by emigration. A number +of devoted and noble-hearted men, realizing that it was hopeless to +expect that the potato disease would disappear, and that consequently +the holdings had become "uneconomic" (to use the phrase now so +popular) as no other crop was known which could produce anything +like the same amount of food, saw that the only course to prevent a +continuation of the famine would be to remove a large section of the +people to a happier country. In this good work the Quakers, who had +been untiring in their efforts to relieve distress during the famine, +took a prominent part; and the Government gave assistance. At the +time no one regarded this as anything but a beneficent course; for the +emigrants found better openings in new and rising countries than +they ever could have had at home, and the reduced population, earning +larger wages, were able to live in greater comfort. One evidence of +this has been that mud cabins, which in 1841 had numbered 491,000 +had in 1901 been reduced to 9,000; whilst the best class of houses +increased from 304,000 to 596,000. In 1883 the Roman Catholic bishops +came to the conclusion that matters had gone far enough, and that in +future migration from the poorer to the more favoured districts was +better than emigration from the country; but they did not say anything +against the work that had been done up to that time. Yet a recent +Nationalist writer, wishing to bring every possible charge against the +landlords, has hinted that the total loss of population from 1841 to +1901 was caused by the brutality of the landlords after the famine, +who drove the people out of the country! To show the fallacy of this, +it is sufficient to point out that the powers of the landlords for +good or evil were considerably reduced by the Land Act of 1870, and +after that they were further diminished by each successive Act until +the last shred was taken away by the Act of 1887; yet the population +went down from 5,412,377 in 1871 to 4,453,775 in 1901--the emigration +being larger in proportion from those counties where the National +League was omnipotent than from other parts of Ireland. + +In the early thirties O'Connell commenced his famous agitation for the +Repeal of the Union. After he had disappeared from the scene, his work +was taken up by those of his followers who advocated physical force; +and in 1848 an actual rebellion broke out, headed by Smith O'Brien. It +ended in a ridiculous fiasco. The immediate cause of its failure, as +A.M. Sullivan has pointed out, was that the leaders, in imitation of +the movement of half a century before, endeavoured to eliminate the +religious difficulty and to bring about a rising in which Orange +and Green should be united; but their fight for religious tolerance +exposed them to the charge of infidelity; the Roman Catholic priests +(who now possessed immense political influence) denounced them; and +their antagonism was fatal to the movement. + +But one of the most far-seeing of the party--J.F. Lalor--perceived +that mere repeal would never be strong enough to be a popular cry--it +must be hitched on to some more powerful motive, which could drag it +along. As he clearly explained in his manifesto, his objects were the +abolition of British government and the formation of a National one. +He considered that neither agitation nor the attempt at military +insurrection were likely to attain those objects, but that the wisest +means for that end were the refusal of obedience to usurped authority; +taking quiet possession of all the rights and powers of government and +proceeding to exercise them; and defending the exercise of such powers +if attacked. He saw that the motive power which would carry itself +forward and drag repeal with it, was in the land. He held that the +soil of the country belonged as of right to the entire people of that +country, not to any one class but to the nation--one condition being +essential, that the tenant should bear true and undivided allegiance +to the nation whose land he held, and owe no allegiance whatever to +any other prince, power or people, or any obligation of obedience or +respect to their will, their orders, or their laws. The reconquest +of the liberties of Ireland, he argued, would, even if possible by +itself, be incomplete and worthless, without the reconquest of the +land; whereas the latter, if effected, would involve the former. He +therefore recommended (1) That occupying tenants should at once refuse +to pay all rent except the value of the overplus of harvest produce +remaining in their hands after deducting a full provision for their +own subsistence during the ensuing year; (2) that they should forcibly +resist being made homeless under the English law of ejectment; (3) +that they ought further on principle to refuse _all_ rent to the +present usurping proprietors, until they should in National Convention +decide what rents they were to pay and to whom they should pay them; +and (4) that the people, on grounds of policy and economy, should +decide that those rents should be paid to themselves--the people--for +public purposes for the benefit of the entire general people. In +that way a mighty social revolution would be accomplished, and the +foundation of a national revolution surely laid. + +But these views, though shared by J. Mitchel and other leaders, were +not at the time generally adopted; and the next agitations were more +distinctly political than agrarian. The Fenian movement of 1865--1867, +the avowed object of which was the establishment of an independent +republic, arose in America, where it was cleverly devised and ably +financed. In Ireland it met with little sympathy except in the towns; +and the attempted outbreaks, both there and in Canada, were dismal +failures. Two of their efforts in England, however, led to important +results. Gladstone made the remarkable statement that it was their +attempt to blow up Clerkenwell prison that enabled him to carry +the Act for the Disestablishment of the Irish Church. Many years +afterwards, when this encouragement to incendiarism had done its work, +he denied that he had ever said so; but there is no doubt that he did. + +Here I must digress for a moment to refer to the position of the Irish +Church. By the Act of Union it had been provided that the Churches of +England and Ireland as then by law established should be united, and +that the continuation and preservation of the United Church should be +deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental part of the Union; +and at the time of the agitation for Catholic emancipation the Roman +Catholic Bishops of Ireland solemnly declared that their Church +would never attempt to destroy the Protestant Establishment. This is +interesting as showing how futile are the attempts of one generation +to bind posterity by legislation; and how foolish it is to expect +that men will regard themselves as bound by promises made by their +ancestors. (The same remark may be made with reference to the promises +now being made by Nationalists as to the Home Rule Bill.) The general +provisions of the Disestablishment Act were simple. Existing clergy +were secured in their incomes for life; the disestablished Church +was allowed to claim all churches then in actual use, and to purchase +rectory houses and glebes at a valuation; and a sum of £500,000 was +given to the Church in lieu of all private endowments. Everything +else--even endowments given by private persons a few years before the +Act was passed--was swept away. The members of the Church showed a +liberality which their opponents never anticipated. They bought the +glebes, continued to pay their clergy by voluntary assessments, and +collected a large sum of money towards a future endowment. Nationalist +writers now state that the Act left the Irish Church with an income +adequate to its needs and merely applied the surplus revenues to other +purposes; and hint that the capital sum now possessed by the Church +really came from the State, and that therefore the future Home Rule +Government can deal with it as they please. The alarm felt by Irish +Churchmen at the prospect can be understood. + +The other Fenian attempt in England which has historical importance +was of a different kind. Two Fenian prisoners were being conveyed in a +prison van at Manchester. Their friends tried to rescue them by force; +and in the attempt killed the officer in charge. For this crime, three +of them--Allen, Larkin and O'Brien--were tried, convicted and hanged +in November 1867. These were the "Manchester Martyrs," in honour of +whose unflinching fidelity to faith and country (to quote the words +of Archbishop Croke) so many memorial crosses have been erected, +and solemn demonstrations are held every year to this day. At the +unveiling of the memorial cross at Limerick the orator said: "Allen, +Larkin and O'Brien died as truly for the cause of Irish Nationality as +did any of the heroes of Irish history. The same cause nerved the arms +of the brave men of '98, of '48, of '65 and '67. For the cause that +had lived so long they would not take half measures--nothing else +would satisfy them than the full measure of Nationality for which they +and their forefathers had fought." + +Meanwhile another movement was going on, which seems to have been at +first wholly distinct from the Fenian conspiracy--the constitutional +agitation for Home Rule or Repeal, led by Isaac Butt. It commenced its +Parliamentary action in 1874; but was ere long broken up by the more +violent spirits within its own ranks. As had so frequently happened in +similar movements in Ireland, France and elsewhere, the moderate +men were thrust aside, and the extremists carried all before them. +Fenianism, though apparently crushed in Ireland, continued to flourish +in America. Michael Davitt, who had been a prominent member both of +the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood and of the Fenian Society, had +been convicted of treason felony, and sentenced to penal servitude. On +his release in 1877, he was received as a hero, and amongst those who +took part in the welcome to him were C.S. Parnell, J.G. Biggar, J. +Carey, D. Curley and J. Brady. He went to America and there matured +the plan of his operations on the lines laid down by Lalor, which he +proceeded to carry out in Ireland in 1879 by means of a Society which +was at first called the "Land League" but which has since been known +by various other names. Amongst his allies were J. Devoy, O'Donovan +Rossa, and Patrick Ford. Devoy and Rossa took an active part in +establishing the Skirmishing Fund, which was subscribed for the +purpose of levying war on England with dynamite. Rossa afterwards +publicly boasted that he had placed an infernal machine onboard H.M.S. +"Dottrell," and had sent it and all its crew to the bottom of the +ocean. As a reward for his patriotic conduct he was some years later +granted a pension by the County Council of Cork, payable out of the +rates. Ford was the ablest and most powerful of the number, for by +means of his paper--the _Irish World_--he collected vast sums for the +Parliamentary party. In this paper he strongly advocated the use of +dynamite as a blessed agent which should be availed of by the Irish +people in their holy war; and elaborated a scheme for setting fire to +London in fifty places on a windy night. After D. Curley and J. Brady +had been hanged for the murder of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. +Burke, he collected money for a testimonial to them as heroes, and +prayed that God would send Ireland more men with hearts like that of +J. Brady. Mr. Redmond has recently described him as "the grand old +veteran, who through his newspaper has done more for the last thirty +or forty years for Ireland than almost any man alive"; Mr. T.P. +O'Connor has congratulated him on the great work he is doing for +Ireland; and Mr. Devlin has eulogized him for "the brilliancy in the +exposition of the principles inculcated in our programme." + +By 1880 the union between the Dynamite party in America (which bore +many names, such as the Fenian Society, the Irish Revolutionary +Brotherhood, the Invincibles, the Clan-na-gael, and the Physical +Force party, but was essentially the same movement throughout), the +constitutional agitators for Home Rule in Parliament, and the Land +Leaguers in Ireland, was complete. It was but natural that it should +be so, for their objects were the same, though their methods differed +according to circumstances. The American party (according to their own +statements) desired the achievement of a National Parliament so as +to give them a footing on Irish soil--to give them the agencies and +instrumentalities for a Government _de facto_ at the very commencement +of the Irish struggle--to give them the plant of an armed revolution. +Hence they gladly contributed large sums for the Parliamentary Fund. +Parnell, the leader of the Parliamentary party, stated that a true +revolutionary movement should partake of a constitutional and +an illegal character; it should be both an open and a secret +organization, using the constitution for its own purpose and also +taking advantage of the secret combination; and (as the judges at the +Parnell Commission reported) the Land League was established with the +intention of bringing about the independence of Ireland as a separate +nation. + +In the preceding autumn the agitation against the payment of rent had +begun; and persons of ordinary intelligence could see that a fresh +outbreak of anarchy was imminent. But Gladstone, when coming into +power in March 1880, assumed that air of easy optimism which his +successors in more recent times have imitated; and publicly stated +that there was in Ireland an absence of crime and outrage and a +general sense of comfort and satisfaction such as had been unknown +in the previous history of the country. His Chief Secretary, Forster, +however, had not been long in Ireland before he realized that this +was the dream of a madman; and that the Government must either act or +abdicate in favour of anarchy; but the Cabinet refused to support him. +Before the end of the year the Government had practically abdicated, +and the rule of the Land League was the only form of Government in +force in a large part of the country. The name of the unfortunate +Captain Boycott will be for ever associated with the means the League +employed to enforce their orders. What those means were, was explained +by Gladstone himself:-- + + "What is meant by boycotting? In the first place it is + combined intimidation. In the second place, it is combined + intimidation made use of for the purpose of destroying the + private liberties of choice by fear of ruin and starvation. In + the third place, that which stands in the rear of boycotting + and by which alone boycotting can in the long run be made + thoroughly effective is the murder which is not to be + denounced." + +And a few years later--1886--the Official Report of the Cowper +Commission stated it more fully:-- + + "The people are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for + its success on the probability of outrage, than they are of + the judgments of the Courts of Justice. The unwritten law in + some districts is supreme. We deem it right to call attention + to the terrible ordeal that a boycotted person has to undergo, + which was by several witnesses graphically described during + the progress of our enquiry. The existence of a boycotted + person becomes a burden to him, as none in town or village are + allowed, under a similar penalty to themselves, to supply him + or his family with the necessaries of life. He is not allowed + to dispose of the produce of his farm. Instances have been + brought before us in which his attendance at divine service + was prohibited, in which his cattle have been, some killed, + some barbarously mutilated; in which all his servants and + labourers were ordered and obliged to leave him; in which the + most ordinary necessaries of life and even medical comforts, + had to be procured from long distances; in which no one + would attend the funeral, or dig a grave for, a member of a + boycotted person's family; and in which his children have been + forced to discontinue attendance at the National School of the + district." + +This was the ordinary form of Government as conducted by the +Nationalists; and any attempt to interfere with it and to enforce the +milder laws of England, is now denounced as "coercion." + +In 1881 Gladstone carried another and a more far-reaching Land Act. To +put it shortly, it may be said that all agricultural land (except that +held by leaseholders, who were brought in under the Act of 1887) +was handed over to the occupiers for ever (with free power of sale), +subject only to the payment of rent--the rent not being that which the +tenants had agreed to pay, but that which a Land Court decided to Be +a "fair rent." This was to last for fifteen years, at the end of which +time the tenant might again claim to have a fair rent fixed, and so +_ad infinitum_. The Land Court in most cases cut down the rent by +about 20 or 25 per cent.; and at the end of fifteen years did the +same again. As tithes (which had been secularized but not abolished), +mortgages and family charges remained unchanged, the result was that +a large proportion of landlords were absolutely ruined; in very many +cases those who appear as owners now have no beneficial interest in +their estates. + +In examining the Act calmly, one must observe in the first place that +it was a wholesale confiscation of property. Not of course one +that involved the cruelty of confiscations of previous ages, but a +confiscation all the same. For if A. bought a farm in the Incumbered +Estates Court, with a Parliamentary title, and let it to B. for twenty +years at a rent of £100; and the Act gave B. the right of occupying it +for ever subject to the payment of £50 a year, and selling it for any +price he liked, that can only mean the transfer of property from A. to +B. Secondly, the Act encouraged bad farming; for a tenant knew that +if his land got into a slovenly state--with drains stopped up, fences +broken down, and weeds growing everywhere--the result would be that +the rent would be reduced by the Commissioners at the end of the +fifteen years; as the Commissioners did not go into the question of +whose the fault was, but merely took estimates as to what should be +the rent of the land in its actual condition. That farms were in many +instances intentionally allowed to go to decay with this object, has +been proved; and this pressed hard on the labouring class, as less +employment was given. Thirdly, although the remission of debt may +bring prosperity for a time, it may be doubted whether it will +permanently benefit the country; for it will be noticed that the +attempt to fix prices arbitrarily applied only to the letting and +hiring and not to other transactions. To give a typical instance of +what has occurred in many cases: a tenant held land at a rent of £1. +15s. 0d. per acre; he took the landlord into Court, swore that the +land could not bear such a rent, and had it reduced to £1. 5s. 0d.; +thereupon he sold it for £20 an acre; and so the present occupier had +to pay £1. 5s. 0d. to the nominal landlord, and the interest on the +purchase-money (about £1 per acre) to a mortgagee; in fact, he has +to pay a larger sum annually than any previous tenant did; and this +payment is "rent" in the economic sense though it is paid not to a +resident landlord but to a distant mortgagee. In other words, rent +was increased, and absenteeism became general. Fourthly, it sowed +the seeds for future trouble; for it was the temporary union of two +antagonistic principles. On the one hand it was said that "the man who +tills the land should own it," and therefore rent was an unjust +tax (in fact it was seriously argued that men of English and Scotch +descent who had hired farms in the nineteenth century had a moral +right to keep them for ever rent free because tribal tenure had +prevailed amongst the Celts who occupied the country many hundreds of +years before); on the other it was said that the land belonged to the +people of Ireland as a whole and not to any individuals. If that is +so, what right has one man to a large farm when there are hundreds of +others in a neighbouring town who have no land at all? The passing of +the Land Acts of 1881 and 1887 made it inevitable that sooner or later +a fresh agitation would be commenced by "landless men." And fifthly, +when an excitable, uneducated people realize that lawlessness and +outrages will be rewarded by an Act remitting debts and breaking +contracts, they are not likely in future to limit their operations +to land, but will apply the same maxims to other contracts. The +demoralizing of character is a fact to be taken into consideration. + +However, the Act was passed; and if Gladstone really imagined that +it would satisfy the Nationalist party he must have been grievously +disappointed. During 1881, 4,439 agrarian outrages were recorded. The +Government declared the Land League to be illegal, and lodged some of +the leaders in gaol. Thereupon Ford, carrying out the plan laid down +by Lalor in 1848, issued his famous "No Rent" proclamation. It was not +generally acted upon; but his party continued active, and in May 1882 +Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke (the Chief and Under Secretary) +were murdered in the Phoenix Park. This led to the passing of the +Crimes Prevention Act, by which the detectives were enabled to secure +evidence against the conspirators, many of whom (as is usual in Irish +history) turned Queen's evidence. The Act was worked with firmness; +and outrages, which had numbered 2,507 during the first half of 1882, +fell to 836 in the latter half, to 834 in 1883, and to 774 in 1884. + +In the autumn of 1885, Gladstone, expecting to return to power at +the ensuing election, besought the electors to give him a majority +independent of the Irish vote. In this he failed; and thereupon took +place the "Great Surrender." He suddenly discovered that everything +he had said and done up to that time had been wrong; that boycotting, +under the name of "exclusive dealing," was perfectly justifiable; +that the refusal to pay rent was just the same as a strike of workmen +(ignoring the obvious facts that when workmen strike they cease both +to give their labour and to receive pay, whereas the gist of the "No +Rent" movement was that tenants, whilst ceasing to pay, should retain +possession of the farms they have hired; and that a strike arises from +a dispute between employers and employed--usually about rates of pay +or length of hours; whereas Ford's edict that no rent was to be paid +was issued not in consequence of anything that individual landlords +had done, but because Gladstone had put the leaders of the Land League +in gaol); that the men whom he had previously denounced as "marching +through rapine to the dismemberment of the Empire" were heroes who +deserved to be placed in charge of the government of the country; and +introduced his first Home Rule Bill. Some of his followers went with +him; others refused. His life-long ally, John Bright, said: "I cannot +trust the peace and interests of Ireland, north and south, to the +Irish Parliamentary party, to whom the Government now propose to +make a general surrender. My six years' experience of them, of their +language in the House of Commons and their deeds in Ireland, makes it +impossible for me to consent to hand over to them the property and +the rights of five millions of the Queen's subjects, our +fellow-countrymen, in Ireland. At least two millions of them are as +loyal as the population of your town, and I will be no party to a +measure which will thrust them from the generosity and justice of the +United and Imperial Parliament." + +The Bill was rejected; at the general election which ensued the people +of England declared against the measure; Gladstone resigned, and Lord +Salisbury became Prime Minister. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE UNIONIST GOVERNMENT OF 1886. + + +The Unionists, on returning to power in 1886, fully realized the +difficulty of the problem with which they were faced. The Nationalists +held a great Convention at Chicago, at which they resolved to make +use of the Land League not merely for the purpose of exterminating +landlords but as a means for promoting universal disorder and so +bringing about a paralysis of the law. As J. Redmond stated at the +Convention: "I assert that the government of Ireland by England is an +impossibility, and I believe it to be our duty to make it so." And, as +he afterwards explained in Ireland, he considered that if the Tories +were able to carry on the government with the ordinary law, the +cause of Home Rule might be set back for a generation; but if the +Nationalists could succeed in making such government impossible, and +the Tories were obliged to have recourse to coercion, the people +of Great Britain would turn them out of office, and Gladstone would +return to power and carry Home Rule. (This avowed determination on the +part of the Nationalists to reduce the country to anarchy should be +borne in mind when people now express their horror at the Ulstermen +being guilty of such conduct as breaking the law.) With this object, +the Nationalists in 1887 organized the "Plan of Campaign," which +was in fact an elaboration of the "No Rent" manifesto of 1881, and +a scheme for carrying out, step by step, the programme laid down by +Lalor in 1848. One of Lalor's adherents had been a young priest named +Croke. By 1887 he had become Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cashel. He +had considered the "No Rent" manifesto inopportune; but now formally +sanctioned the "Plan of Campaign," and in a violent letter urged that +it should be extended to a general refusal to pay taxes. The Plan +was also approved by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and the +leaders of the Nationalist movement in Ireland and America, such as +J. Dillon and Ford; but Parnell seemed doubtful, and in England the +_Daily News_ denounced it. + +However, the Unionist Government had decided on their policy, which +they were determined to carry through. The main items of their +programme were (1) To enforce the law; (2) To facilitate land +purchase; (3) To develop the industries of the country; and (4) To +extend local government. It is well to examine these in detail, so as +to arrive at a just estimate of the two rival policies. + +(i) The Crimes Prevention Act passed by Gladstone in 1882 had lapsed, +having been limited to a period of three years. Mr. Balfour (who had +become Chief Secretary) was of opinion that the continual passing of +temporary measures was a mistake (as some one has said, it was like +a man burning his umbrella every fine day and then complaining of the +expense of buying so many new ones), as was shown by the fact that the +Irish Parliament had passed fifty-four of such Acts in the seventeen +years of its independent existence. He therefore, in spite of vehement +opposition from the combined forces of the English Radicals and +the Irish Nationalists, carried the Crimes Act of 1887, which was +a permanent measure, to be put in force in disturbed districts by +proclamation when necessary. This was the famous "Coercion Act" +which has been the subject of so much violent denunciation. But in +considering the matter, one must ask, What Government has there ever +been in the world that did not employ force in the carrying out of the +law? It is true that in the early days of New Zealand Mr. Busby was +sent out as a Commissioner with no means of enforcing his orders; +but the only result was that he was laughed at by the natives as "a +man-of-war without guns"; and no one can say that the scheme was a +success. In fact, how can a law be a law unless it is enforced? The +Act does not make anything a crime that was not a crime before; it +merely provides a shorter form of procedure when a district is so +completely terrorized by an illegal association that injured persons +dare not make complaints, witnesses dare not give evidence, and juries +dare not convict. This, as we have seen, had been the case in parts +of Ireland at the beginning of the rebellion of 1798; and the +Nationalists, who claimed to be the modern representatives of the +rebels of that time, had succeeded in bringing about the same state of +things. In some of its most stringent provisions the Act is a copy of +the Police Act permanently in force in London; yet ordinary residents +in the Metropolis do not seem to groan much under its tyranny, nor do +the Radicals propose to repeal it. + +And certainly the Act has worked satisfactorily from the point of +view of those who desire to see the country in a state of peace and +prosperity, though disastrously in the opinion of those who aim at +making government impossible. Between July, 1887, when the Act came +into force, and the end of the year, 628 persons were prosecuted, of +whom 378 were convicted and 37 held to bail. In 1888 there were 1,475 +prosecutions, 907 convictions, and 175 persons required to find bail. +By 1891 (the last full year of Unionist Government) crime had sunk so +rapidly that in that year there were only 243 persons prosecuted, +of whom 105 were convicted, and 81 held to bail. In 1901 (when the +Unionists were again in power) there were 29 prosecutions and 22 +convictions. In 1902 there was a revival of crime; the Act was again +brought into operation, with much the same result as before--there +were 157 prosecutions, 104 convictions, and 17 persons were held to +bail. In 1903 there were 3 prosecutions and 3 convictions. + +(2) _Land Purchase_. The Unionist Government considered that the dual +ownership set up by the Act of 1881 would be a constant source of +trouble, and that its working could not be for the benefit of the +country. They believed that the best solution of the land question +would be a system of purchase whereby the occupiers would become +owners. This of course was entirely opposed to the wishes of the +Nationalists; for if the land question was settled, the motive power +which was to carry separation with it, would be gone. + +Some efforts in the direction of Land Purchase had been made in 1870 +(at the instance of Mr. Bright) and in 1881; but nothing was done on +a large scale until 1885, when the "Ashbourne Act" was passed; +and various further steps were taken by the Unionist Government, +culminating in the great "Wyndham Act" of 1903. By the earlier Acts, +73,858 tenants became owners; by the Wyndham Act, 253,625. As the +total number of agricultural tenants of Ireland amounted to slightly +under 600,000, it will be seen that more than half of them have now +purchased their holdings. To explain the general principles of the +Act, it is sufficient to say that when the landlord and tenants of +an estate agree to a sale, the Government advance the money, and +the tenant purchasers undertake to repay it by annual instalments +extending over a period of 68 years. As these annual payments must be +less than the existing rent as fixed by the Land Court under the Act +of 1881, the purchasing tenant has no ground for complaint; and though +the income of the landlord is reduced by the sale, he is freed from +further anxiety; and besides, the Government give a bonus to the +vendor from Imperial funds. It will be seen at once that the scheme +would have been impossible under Home Rule; for the English Government +had by the end of March 1911, agreed to advance the enormous sum of +nearly £118,000,000; an amount which no Irish Government could have +raised except at such an exorbitant rate of interest that it would +have been out of the question. On the other hand, England has become +the creditor of the new Irish landowners for this vast amount; and +in the event of Separation a serious difficulty may arise as to its +repayment. + +It may interest readers in the Colonies to learn that the Government +thoughtfully passed a Registration of Titles Act in 1891; so that the +Irish purchasers under the various Land Acts have the benefits which +were first introduced in Australia by Sir Robert Torrens. + +The Act of 1903 had the cordial support of a small minority of +Nationalists; but to the majority it was gall and wormwood. Hence Mr. +Birrell, when he became Chief Secretary, threw every obstacle he could +into the way of its working; and in 1909 he passed a new measure, +under which land purchase has practically ceased. + +(3)_The development of the Industries of the Country_. That has of +course taken various forms, of which only a few can be mentioned here. +By the Light Railways (for which the country has to thank Mr. Balfour +himself) remote and hitherto inaccessible districts have been brought +into touch with the rest of the world; and by an expenditure of +£2,106,000 the railway mileage of Ireland has been increased from +2,643 miles in 1890 to 3,391 in 1906. Then it is hardly too much to +say that the Labourers' Cottages Act, and the grants made under it, +have transformed the face of the country. + +By this Act, District Councils are enabled, in localities where +accommodation for labourers is insufficient, to take land compulsorily +and erect cottages, the money advanced by the Government for the +purpose being gradually repaid by the ratepayers. The wretched hovels +which were the disgrace of Ireland from the dawn of history until a +period within living memory, have almost disappeared; and comfortable, +sanitary and pleasing dwellings have taken their place. + +Even this excellent Act, however, is now used by the Nationalists to +further their own objects. One instance may suffice. In 1907 a farmer +fell under the ban of the League and was ordered to be boycotted. The +District Council found that one occupant of a "Labourer's Cottage" +disregarded the order and continued to work for the boycotted farmer. +They promptly evicted him. What would be said in England if a Tory +landlord evicted a cottager for working for a Radical farmer? + +But even more important than these measures has been the establishment +of the Department of Agriculture. The success of this has been due to +the ability, energy and unselfishness of Sir Horace Plunkett. The main +object of the Department was to instruct the farming classes in the +most effective methods of agriculture and the industries connected +with it. This by itself would have been a great work; but Sir Horace +has also founded the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, to +encourage co-operative organization amongst farmers, based on +the principle of mutual help; and the success of this, worked in +conjunction with the Department, has been marvellous. More than nine +hundred local societies have been established, for the promotion of +industries such as dairying and poultry farming; co-operative credit +banks have been formed, based on what is known in Germany as the +Raffeisen system. The turnover of these societies in 1908 amounted +to more than £2,250,000. Agricultural Organization Societies, in +imitation of the Irish one, have been formed in England and Scotland; +and so far did its fame reach that the Americans sent over an agent to +enquire into its working. + +Of course it is unfair to attribute the prosperity or the decline of +a country to any one measure; and more than that, it is only by taking +into consideration a number of circumstances and a long term of years +that we can decide whether prosperity is real or merely transitory. +But that Ireland increased in prosperity under the influence of +the Unionist Government, cannot be denied; indeed Mr. Redmond, when +shepherding the Eighty Club (an English Radical Society) through +Ireland in 1911, did not deny the prosperity of the country, and could +only suggest that the same reforms would have been introduced and +better carried out under an Irish Parliament--regardless of the facts +that no Nationalist Government could have found the money for +them; and that Nationalists are orators and politicians, not men +of business. The combined value of exports and imports rose from +104,000,000 in 1904 to 125,000,000 in 1909; and the gross receipts on +railways from £4,140,000 to £11,335,000. The deposits in savings banks +rose from £3,128,000 in 1888 to £10,627,000 in 1908. The tonnage +of shipping in Irish ports was 11,560,000 in 1900; in 1910 it was +13,475,000. + +Sir Horace had done his utmost to prevent the curse of political +strife from entering into his agricultural projects. He had been +careful to appoint Nationalists to some of the most important offices +in his Department, and to show no more favour to one part of the +country than another. But all in vain; the National League, when their +friends returned to power, at once resolved to undo his labours, some +of them openly saying that the increased attention devoted to +trade and agriculture was turning men's thoughts away from the more +important work of political agitation. Mr. T.W. Russell, a man totally +ignorant of agricultural affairs, whose only claim to the office was +that he was a convert to Nationalism, was appointed in place of +Sir Horace. He promptly declined to continue to the Agricultural +Organization Society the support which it had previously received +from the Department; and, with the aid of the United Irish League, +succeeded in preventing the Society from receiving a grant from the +Board of Agriculture similar to those given to the English and Scotch +societies; threw discredit on the Co-operative Credit Banks, and +denounced the Co-operative Farming Societies as injurious to local +shopkeepers. And thus he made it clear that it is impossible in +Ireland to conduct even such a business as the development of +agriculture without stirring up political bitterness. + +Another effort of Mr. Balfour's--the establishment of the Congested +Districts Board--has had a strange and instructive history. It was +established in 1891. Mr. Balfour decided to entrust to a small body of +Irishmen, selected irrespective of party considerations, the task of +making an experiment as to what could be done to relieve the poorest +parts of Ireland; and with this object, the Board, though endowed with +only small funds, were given the widest powers over the area within +which they were to operate. They were empowered to take such steps as +they thought proper for (1) Aiding migration or emigration from the +congested districts, and settling the migrant or emigrant in his +new home; and (2) Aiding and developing agriculture, forestry, +and breeding of live stock and poultry, weaving, spinning, fishing +(including the construction of piers and harbours, and supplying +fishing boats and gear and industries subservient to and connected +with fishing), and any other suitable industries. Both the powers and +the revenues of the Board were increased from time to time, until by +1909 its annual expenditure amounted to nearly £250,000. It became +clear almost at the beginning of its labours that amongst the many +difficulties which the Board would have to face there were two +pre-eminent ones; if it was desired to enlarge uneconomic holdings by +removing a part of the population to other districts, the people to be +removed might not wish to go; and the landless men in the district to +which they were to be removed might say that they had a better right +to the land than strangers from a distance, and the result might be a +free fight. As the only chance of success for the labours of the Board +was the elimination of party politics, Mr. J. Morley, on becoming +Chief Secretary in the Gladstonian Government of 1892, appointed as +Commissioners Bishop O'Donnell of Raphoe (the Patron of the Ancient +Order of Hibernians, and a Trustee of the Parliamentary Fund of the +United Irish League); and the Rev. D. O'Hara, a leading Clerical +Nationalist of a violent type. It is needless to say that under their +influence the action of the Board has been conducted on strictly +Nationalist lines. One instance may suffice. In 1900, the Board, +having come into the possession of the Dillon estate, wished to sell +it to the tenants; and when doing so, considering the sporting rights +to be a valuable asset, decided to reserve them. A considerable number +of the tenants expressed their readiness to purchase their holdings +subject to the reservation. The Board received an offer of £11,000 +for the mansion, demesne and sporting rights over the estate. The +reservation of sporting rights when, taking the whole estate, they +were of pecuniary value, had been the common practice of the Board in +other sales; but an agitation was at once got up (not by the tenants) +against the reservation in this case, on the ground that it was not +right for the Board to place any burden on the fee simple of the +holdings; the offer of £11,000 was refused, and soon afterwards the +Board sold the mansion and the best part of the demesne to a community +of Belgian nuns for £2,100. The sporting rights, which became the +property of the purchasing tenants, ceased to be of any appreciable +pecuniary value, though in a few cases the tenants succeeded in +selling their share of them for small sums to local agitators. When a +witness before the Royal Commission of 1906 ventured to point out that +the taxpayers thus lost £8,900 by the transaction, he was severely +rebuked by the Clerical members of the Commission for suggesting +that the presence of the Belgian nuns was not a great benefit to the +neighbourhood. + +This Royal Commission was appointed ostensibly for the purpose of +enquiring into and reporting upon the operations of the Board since +its foundation. After going through a mass of evidence, the Chairman +(Lord Dudley) said that the Board had tried for twenty years to +develop new industries and had failed; and another member (Lord +MacDonnell) said that it had only touched the fringe of the question; +and, considering that in spite of all its efforts at promoting local +industries, emigration continued to be greater from the district +subject to its control than from any other part of Ireland, it is hard +to see what other view was possible. But the large majority of the +Commission were ardent Nationalists--in fact, one of them a short time +before his appointment had publicly advocated an absolute, rigorous, +complete and exhaustive system of boycotting; and the witness who +spoke for the United Irish League told the Commission that it was the +strong view of the League that the Board should be preserved. It was +only natural therefore that the Commission should report that in their +opinion the powers and scope of its operations should be extended and +its income largely increased. This was accordingly done by the Birrell +Act of 1909. One of the most important functions of the Board was +the purchase of land, for which they possessed compulsory powers. The +witness who had appeared before the Commission as representing the +United Irish League was Mr. FitzGibbon, Chairman of the Roscommon +County Council, and now a Member of Parliament. He had previously been +sent to prison for inciting to the Plan of Campaign, and for criminal +conspiracy. He had also taken a leading part in the cattle-driving +agitation (to which I shall refer later) and had announced that his +policy was "to enable the Board to get land at fag-end prices." He +was therefore appointed by Mr. Birrell to be a member of the Board, as +being a suitable person to decide what compensation should be paid +for land taken compulsorily. He publicly stated that his object was to +carry out the great work of Michael Davitt. And he certainly has been +active in doing so; and now the agitators, when they want to have an +estate transferred to the Board, commence by preventing its being +let or used, and so compelling the owner to leave it derelict +and unprofitable; then, when by every description of villainy and +boycotting it has been rendered almost worthless, the Congested +Districts Board (who have carefully lain by until then) step in with +a preposterous offer which the unfortunate owner has no choice but +to accept. This may appear strong language to use with reference to +a Government Department presided over by Roman Catholic bishops and +priests; but the words are not mine; they are taken from the judgment +of Mr. Justice Ross, in the case of the Browne Estate. + +At any rate, whatever else the Congested Districts Board may have +achieved, they have done one good thing; they have shown to Unionists +in Ireland what the principles of justice are by which the Nationalist +Government will be conducted. + +(4) The fourth division of the Unionist policy was the extension of +local government. By the Act of 1898 County and District Councils were +formed, like those which had been existing in England for a few +years previously; and the powers of the old Grand Juries (who it +was admitted had done their work well, but were now objected to on +principle as not being elected bodies) were abolished. The importance +of the measure can hardly be overestimated; for not only did it +re-organize local government on what would elsewhere be a democratic +but is in Ireland a Clerical basis; but also it may be described as +Home Rule on a small scale. By examining into the practical working of +the scheme we may form an idea as to what Home Rule is likely to be; +and both parties refer to it as a ground for their opinion. It is +curious now to note that it was Gerald Balfour, the Unionist Chief +Secretary, who, when introducing the measure, appealed to the Irish +gentry not to stand aloof from the new order of things, but to seek +from the suffrages of their fellow-citizens that position which no +others were so well qualified to fill as themselves--in much the same +way that English Radical orators now accuse the Ulstermen of want +of patriotism when they declare that they will never take part in a +Nationalist Government. The Nationalists were of course loud in their +protestations that in the noble work of local government all narrow +political and sectarian bitterness would be put aside, and all +Irishmen irrespective of creed, class or party would be welcome to +take part--just as they are now when they promise the same about the +National Parliament. Thus J. Redmond said: + + "No man's politics or religion will be allowed to be a bar + to him if he desires to serve his country on one of the + new bodies. Men of different creeds, who have had an almost + impassable gulf between them all their lives, will be brought + together for the first time in the working of this scheme of + Local Government.... On every one of the juries in Ireland + there have been county gentlemen who have shown the greatest + aptitude for business, the greatest industry, and the greatest + ability; and I say it would be a monstrous thing if, by + working the election of these County Councils on narrow + sectarian or political lines, men of that class were excluded + from the service of their country." + +And another Nationalist Member added: "We are anxious for the +co-operation of those who have leisure, wealth and knowledge." Irish +Unionists who refused to believe these assurances were denounced by +Nationalists as bigots and humbugs. The value of the assurances of +1912 may be gauged by the manner in which those of 1898 have been +fulfilled. At the election of 1899 a few Protestants and Unionists +were returned. But the general feeling of the newly-formed Councils +may be gathered from the following resolution which was passed by the +Mayo County Council in that year: + + "That we, the members of the Mayo County Council, congratulate + the gallant Boers on their brilliant defeats of the troops + of the pirate Saxon. That we hope that a just Providence will + strengthen the arms of these farmer fighters in their brave + struggle for their independence. And we trust that as Babylon + fell, and as Rome fell, so also may fall the race and nation + whose creed is the creed of greed, and whose god is the god of + Mammon." + +And by 1902, when the next triennial elections were coming on, +the mask was thrown off. The _Freeman's Journal_ (the principal +Nationalist organ) said:-- + + "In every County or District Council where a landlord, however + amiable, or personally estimable, offers himself for election, + the answer of the majority must be the same: 'No admittance + here.'" +And J. Redmond stated the case still more plainly: + + "We have in our hands a weapon recently won, the full force + of which is not yet, I believe, thoroughly understood by + the English Government or by ourselves. I mean the weapon + of freely-elected County Councils and District Councils who + to-day form a network of National organizations all over + Ireland, and who to-morrow, I doubt not, if the other + organizations were struck, would be willing to come forward + and take their place, and, in their Council Chambers, carry on + the National work." + +Pledges in the following form were presented for signature to all +candidates by the United Irish League (except of course in north-east +Ulster):-- + + "I ---- hereby pledge myself, if elected to represent the ---- + Division on the County Council, to promote the interests of + the United Irish League, and to resign my position whenever + called upon to do so by the ---- Divisional Executive." + +So completely has the policy been carried out that by 1911, to +quote the words of Mr. FitzGibbon, M.P. (to whom I have previously +referred):-- + + "There was not a landlord in the country who could get his + agent returned as District Councillor or County Councillor, + or even his eldest son or himself. The Organization had + emancipated the people; it had given them the power which + their enemies had wielded; it had cleared the road for + Ireland's freedom." + +At present Unionists and Nationalists are pretty evenly divided in the +County Councils of Ulster; in the other three Provinces amongst 703 +County Councillors there are only fifteen Unionists. In other words, +the Act has enabled the Nationalist party to carry out the plan laid +down by Lalor of taking quiet and peaceable possession of all +the rights and powers of government, as a stepping-stone towards +Independence. + +Of course it may be said with much truth that if the large majority of +the people are Nationalists they are perfectly justified in choosing +Nationalists as their representatives. But that is not the point. The +real point is that in spite of the protestations of the Nationalists +at the time of the passing of the Act, politics in their bitterest +form have been brought in, and the Unionist minority have been +deprived of all share in the local government of the country. + +To illustrate this still further, I may add that a General Council +of County Councils was formed in 1900, for the purpose of promoting a +fair and equitable administration of the Act. In order that the Ulster +Councils might unite with the others, it was agreed that politics +should be excluded. But after the election of 1902, that agreement +was abandoned; and, rather than take part in what had become a mere +political gathering, the Ulster representatives withdrew. Left +to themselves, the Nationalist General Council in 1906 passed the +following resolution:-- + + "That the Irish people are a free people, with a natural right + to govern themselves; that no Parliament is competent to make + such laws for Ireland except an Irish Parliament, sitting in + Dublin; and that the claim by other bodies of men to make laws + for us to govern Ireland is illegal, unconstitutional, and at + variance with the rights of the people." + +If such a body as the General Council of County Councils pass a +resolution like this, is there much probability that the Nationalist +Parliament will refrain from doing the same, should the Imperial +Parliament attempt to exercise the power given to it by the present +Bill, and to legislate for Ireland? + +But again it may be said that though the Councils have thus become +political bodies, they have conducted their business so admirably +that their conduct is a powerful argument to show that a Nationalist +Parliament will be equally practical and liberal. This is the view put +forward by Nationalist orators and their humble follower Mr. Birrell, +who in November 1911, informed his friends at Bristol that the Irish +had shown a great capacity for local government and that from what +people who had seen a great deal of the south and west of Ireland told +him there was no fear of persecution or oppression by the Catholic +majority of their Protestant fellow-subjects. In support of this, +various facts are adduced, which it is well to examine in detail, +remembering the poet's words that + + "A lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest of lies." + +One of the greatest powers possessed by the County Councils is the +exercise of patronage. It would probably be generally admitted in any +country but Ireland that there, if anywhere, religion and politics +should be excluded, and men selected only for their qualifications. +The Nationalists, wishing to demonstrate the fairness of the Councils +which hold their views, contrast the bigotry shown by the Unionist +Corporation of Belfast with the liberality of similar bodies in other +parts of the country. And certainly the figures they adduce, when +addressing audiences in England or writing for English readers, are +very striking. Thus Mr. Birrell said at Skipton in November 1911 that +he had been told that in the great Unionist City of Belfast there was +only one Roman Catholic in the employment of the Corporation, and he +was a scavenger. (It will be observed that here, as in many of his +speeches, he carefully used the expression "he had been told"--so +that what he said may be literally true, even though when he heard the +statement he knew that it was false.) And Stephen Gwynn, M.P., in his +"Case for Home Rule," says: "In Belfast, Catholics are a third of the +population; but the Corporation pays £51,405 in a year in salaries, +of which only £640 goes to Catholics." And about the same time as +Mr. Birrell's oration, Mr. Redmond, speaking at Swindon, said that in +Galway, Cork, Westmeath and King's County (where Roman Catholics form +the large majority of the population) Protestants held 23 per cent. of +the salaried appointments in the gift of the Councils. + +But when we descend from the airy height of Nationalist rhetoric to +the prosaic region of fact, we find that the rates of the City +of Belfast amount to about £342,000; of this sum, Roman Catholic +ratepayers pay less than £18,000. There are nine hundred Roman +Catholics in the employment of the Corporation, and they receive in +salaries about £48,000 per annum. And as to the figures quoted by Mr. +Redmond, we find that he omitted to state that not one of the 23 per +cent. had been appointed by a County Council; they were all survivals +of the system in force before 1899, whose positions were secured by +statute; and in not one of the counties he mentioned has a Unionist +been appointed to any salaried office since that date. To take the +County of Cork as a specimen; there are ninety-four salaried +offices in the gift of the County Council; of these nine are held +by Protestants--but they were all appointed before 1899. Of the +thirty-three salaried offices in the gift of the City Corporation, two +are held by Protestants--but these also were appointed before 1898; +and yet the Protestants pay nearly half the rates. And in Ireland +there is not the slightest attempt at concealment in the matter; +thus in one case a District Council adopted by formal resolution the +request of the local priests not to support any candidate who did +not produce a testimonial from the parish priest; as a Councillor +remarked, it was the simplest way of stating that no Protestant need +apply. + +But it is in the appointment of medical officers ("dispensary doctors" +as they are technically called in Ireland) that the policy of the +Nationalists has been most marked. Many years ago, the late Cardinal +Cullen ruled that it was a mortal sin to vote for a heretic for such +an office; now, however, the bishops have gone further. There are +three medical schools in Dublin--Trinity College, the College of +Surgeons, and the Catholic University School; and three in the +provinces--at Belfast, Cork and Galway. The Medical School of Trinity +College has a world-wide reputation. The students are required to +complete their Arts course before specializing in medicine (thus +ensuring that they shall be men of general culture and not merely of +professional training); the professors and lecturers are amongst the +ablest men of the day; the students have the advantage of the large +city hospitals for their clinical studies; and the standard required +for a degree is high. And not only is Trinity College open to all +students without distinction of creed, but the College authorities +have frequently offered a site within their grounds for a Roman +Catholic Chapel and the salary of a Chaplain who would take spiritual +care of his flock. Nevertheless the Roman Catholic bishops have +ordered that no candidate who has been trained at any College except +the Catholic University school shall be eligible for the post of +Dispensary Doctor; and when an election takes place (as for instance +that at Kiltimagh in 1905) the question of professional qualification +is not taken into consideration--having been trained at a "godless +college" is a fatal bar to any candidate, however able. In the +Kiltimagh case, the resolution passed shortly after the election by +the local branch of the United Irish League is instructive reading:-- + + "That we, the members of the Kiltimagh Branch of the United + Irish League, take advantage of this our first meeting since + the important Election of Medical Officer for the Kiltimagh + Dispensary District, to express our appreciation of all the + Guardians for the several divisions in this parish for the + faithful honesty with which they represented us on that + occasion. We feel proud to know that not one of our + representatives voted for a Queen's College man against a + Catholic University man. They voted for a man who is the + stamp of man we want--a sound Catholic, a sound Nationalist, a + Gaelic Leaguer, and a highly qualified medical man. We believe + their action will meet with the approval of the Bishops and + Priests of Ireland." + +To one who lives in Ireland it is sad enough to see year by year the +most able and promising of the medical students being driven out +of the country on account of their religion, and forced to look for +openings elsewhere; but to a thoughtful observer it is even worse than +that; it is the beginning of the new Penal Laws. + +And when we turn to other matters, where the marvellous efficiency of +the County Councils exists, is hard for an unprejudiced enquirer +to find. The old Grand Juries handed over the roads and bridges in +excellent order; they are certainly not better now, and in many cases +worse. In fact, one English theoretical Radical who paid a brief visit +to Ireland, inhaled so much Hibernian logic during his hurried tour +that he solemnly argued that the badness of the roads proved that the +Councils had been governing too economically; and therefore what was +needed was a central body--that is, an Irish Parliament--to stir up +the local administration! Nationalist writers claim that the rates +are going down; but that merely means that they are not so high now as +they were soon after the Act came into force, not that they are lower +than before 1898. It was expected that the rates would be reduced by +the operation of the Old Age Pensions Act; but that has not proved to +be the case. And the increase in local indebtedness is alarming. + +To sum up, therefore, I trust that I have, even in this brief sketch, +made it clear that the policy of the Unionist Government, taken as +a whole, has been of immense benefit to the social and material +prosperity of Ireland; and that the points in which it has failed +have been those where their reforms have fallen under the power of the +Nationalists, who have either thwarted them, or made use of them +to further their own ideas. I shall next proceed to examine the +alternative policy, which is being carried out by the present +Government. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE GLADSTONIAN GOVERNMENT OF 1892. THE POLITICAL SOCIETIES. + + +During the Gladstone-Rosebery Government--from 1892 to 1895--matters +in Ireland were quiet. The Nationalists were at first on their best +behaviour, in consequence of the promised introduction of the Home +Rule Bill; and after its rejection by the Upper House, the time was +too short for anything serious to happen. But the period was marked by +the commencement of one great change in Irish administration. It must +be admitted by impartial observers that the old landlord party, +with all their faults, made as a rule excellent magistrates. A large +proportion of them were retired military officers, who had gained some +experience in duties of the sort in their regiments; others were men +of superior education, who studied with care the laws they were to +administer. Living in the locality, they knew the habits and feelings +of the people; and yet they were sufficiently separated from them to +be able to act as impartial judges; and no charges of bribery were +ever made against them. And, the work being congenial, they gladly +devoted their spare time to it. Gladstone's Chief Secretary (the +present Lord Morley) determined to alter all this; he accordingly +appointed to the Bench a large number of men drawn from a lower social +stratum, less educated and intelligent than those previously chosen, +but more likely to administer "Justice according to Irish ideas." +Then the operation of the Local Government Act, by which Chairmen of +Councils (all of course Nationalists) became _ex officio_ magistrates, +completed a social revolution by entirely altering the character of +the Bench. In some localities the magistrates previously appointed +realizing that, being now in a minority, they could be of no further +use on the Bench, withdrew; in others, though the old magistrates +continued to sit, they found themselves persistently outvoted on every +point; so what good they have done by remaining, it is hard to see. +Amongst the men appointed under the new system, there have been +several instances of justices who have continued to act without the +slightest shame or scruple although they have been convicted of such +offences as drunkenness, selling drink on unlicensed premises, or +corrupt practices at elections. But worse than that: the new order +of justices do not regard their duties as magisterial, but political; +they give but little attention to ordinary cases, but attend in +full strength to prevent the conviction of any person for an outrage +organized by the United Irish League; and do not hesitate to promise +beforehand that they will do so. If by any chance a sufficient number +are not present to carry their purpose, the names of the absentees are +published in the Black List of the League--and the result of that is +so well known that they are not likely to offend again. Hence comes +the contemptible exhibition--now not infrequent--of men being charged +before the Bench, and no evidence being offered for the defence; +yet the Stipendiary Magistrate being obliged to say that though he +considers the case proved, the majority of the Bench have decided to +refuse informations. Even a Roman Catholic Bishop has confessed that +now magistrates too often have no respect for their obligations to +dispense the law justly and without favour; and that the Bench is +sometimes so "packed" that the culprits, though guilty, are certain to +be acquitted. + + * * * * * + +Before discussing the policy of the present Government since it +came into power in 1906, it is well to explain what the principal +societies--secret or other--are which now conduct the Government of +Ireland. In one sense indeed the names are immaterial; for, as in +1798, in whatever various ways the societies have commenced, they are +all working towards the same end, and being controlled by the same +forces. + +The Land League, which was founded in 1879 as a league for ruining +landlords as a stepping-stone towards independence, having been +suppressed by Gladstone in 1881, was reformed under the name of the +Irish National League. This was in its turn suppressed in 1887, and in +1898 appeared once more under the name of the United Irish League +with J. Redmond as President and J. Devlin as Secretary. In 1901 Mr. +Redmond explained the objects of the League as follows:-- + + "The United Irish League is not merely an agrarian movement. + It is first, last, and all the time a National movement; + and those of us who are endeavouring to rouse the farmers of + Ireland, as we endeavoured twenty years ago in the days of the + Land League, to rouse them, are doing so, not merely to obtain + the removal of their particular grievances, but because we + believe by rousing them we will be strengthening the National + movement and helping us to obtain our end, which is, after + all, National independence of Ireland." + +And to make the exact meaning of the phrase "National Independence of +Ireland" quite clear, he soon afterwards stated that their object was +the same as that aimed at by Emmett and Wolfe Tone--in other words, to +place Ireland in the scale of nations with a constitution resembling +that of the United States. + +By March 1908 (that is, about two years after the present Government +came into power), to quote the words of Mr. Justice Wright, "the only +law feared and obeyed was the law not of the land but of the United +Irish League"; and before the end of that year Mr. Redmond was able to +report to his friends in America:-- + + "We have in Ireland an organization which is practically + a government of the country. There is in O'Connell Street, + Dublin, a great office managed by the real Chief Secretary for + Ireland, J. Devlin, the Member for Belfast." + +The organization of the League is admirable. The country is covered +with a network of branches, to which people in the district are +obliged to contribute under penalty of being boycotted; these branches +are united under provincial executives, whilst the Directory in +Dublin controls the whole. The union between the League and the Roman +Catholic Church is as complete as the union between that Church and +some societies started on a non-sectarian basis became during the +rebellion of 1798; as we have seen, a bishop is one of the trustees, +and other bishops are amongst the subscribers; the Sunday meetings of +the various branches, at which boycotting and other measures of the +kind are arranged, are usually presided over by the parish priests. On +the other hand, few laymen, whatever their religion may be, who have +any stake in the country, can be got to join the League; in the words +of A.J. Kettle, M.P.:-- + + "On its roll of membership there are no landlords or + ex-landlords, few merchants, fewer Irish manufacturers. There + are few of the men who are managing the business of Ireland + in city or town, connected with the League. The bankers who + regulate our finances, the railway or transit men who control + our trade, internal and external, even the leading cattle men + who handle most of our animal produce, are not to be found in + its ranks." + +In further evidence of this it may be noted that in spite of all the +efforts of the League at collecting money, the subscriptions to the +Irish Parliamentary Fund do not amount to a halfpenny per head of the +population; as J. Dillon has remarked: "The National cause in Ireland +could not live for six months if it were deprived of the support of +the Irish across the Atlantic." + +Closely allied with the League is the Ancient Order of Hibernians, a +secret political and exclusively Roman Catholic association, of which +J. Devlin, M.P. (the Secretary of the League), is President. It is +also called the Board of Erin, to distinguish it from the American +branch. The American branch, I may remark, is also known as the Molly +Maguires, as it was under that name that it conducted the series of +murders and outrages at the Pennsylvanian mines thirty years ago. +Hence the Irish branch is sometimes nicknamed the "Molly Maguires." +The Order is very religious, in the sense that part of its programme +is to deprive heretics of every means of earning their livelihood; as +a Nationalist who did not sympathize with the operations of the Order +expressed it: "If Protestants are to be robbed of their business, if +they are to be deprived of public contracts, and shut out of every +office and emolument,--what is that but extermination?" The political +principles of the Order can be gathered from the Address presented by +them to Captain Condon on the occasion of his visit to Dublin in 1909. +Captain Condon, I may explain, had been a prominent Fenian and member +of the Irish Republican brotherhood, and had taken part in the riot at +Manchester in 1867 which resulted in the murder of Sergeant Brett; he +now resides in America. In 1909 he visited Ireland on the invitation +of J. Redmond; and the address presented to him by the Ancient Order +of Hibernians contained the following words:-- + + "In you, O'Meagher Condon, we recognize one of those + connecting links with the past which all nations cherish, + and you are ready to-day with voice and pen to give your + unflagging support to Ireland's leaders with as much + enthusiasm as you grasped the sword to lead Ireland in the + dark but historic '67. We are sure it will interest you to + know that the ranks of the Hibernians to-day are composed + of the men and children of those who swore allegiance to the + Irish Republic with you." + +The Order has lately acquired additional strength by becoming an +"Approved Society" under the Insurance Act of 1911. In Ireland it is +no more possible for life insurance than for anything else to exist +without being dragged into the vortex of religious and political +quarrels. + +The "Clan-na-gael"--that is, the Dynamite Club--still flourishes +in America; but for obvious reasons it does not make any public +appearance in Ireland; and the exact part which it takes in the +movement at the present time, it is impossible to say. + +"Sinn Fein" (which means "Ourselves") is another Separatist +Association, aiming at the establishment of Ireland as a Sovereign +State, and teaching that the election of Irishmen to serve in the +British Parliament is treason to the Irish State. As its name implies, +it desires to make use of the revival of the Irish language as a means +towards the end for which it is working. It was founded in 1905. +Why this Society and the United Irish League, whose objects seem +identical, should be ready to fly at one another's throats, is one of +the things that those who are outside the Nationalist circle cannot +understand. But the Clerical leaders, who do their utmost to further +the operations of the League, look askance at Sinn Fein; its ultimate +success therefore is very doubtful. + +Then, working in conjunction with these societies is the "Gaelic +League," founded for the "de-Anglicizing" of Ireland, as helping +towards separation. As J. Sweetman (who, besides being a prominent +member of the Gaelic League, is also Vice-President of Sinn Fein and +Vice-Chairman of the Central Council of Irish County Councils and may +therefore be regarded as speaking with authority) has expressed it:-- + + "Out of the Gaelic League's de-Anglicizing propaganda + have already grown a series of movements not only strongly + political but each and all making for a separate independent + Irish nation, freed from every link of the British + connection." + +Were it not for its political object, the folly of this "revival of +the Irish language" would be past belief. The language of Shakespeare +and Milton, of Gibbon and Macaulay, ought surely to be good enough for +ordinary people; and it must be obvious to every reasoning being that +at the present moment of the world's history, English is one of the +most useful languages in existence. It is spoken by 40,000,000 of +people in Europe and twice that number in America, not to mention +Australasia and South Africa. It is the language of commerce, of +science, and of a vast amount of literature. Europeans of various +nationalities learn it, for the sake of its convenience; although, as +we all know, one of the difficulties of modern life is that boys and +girls have too much to study; educationalists everywhere complain +that the curriculum is overloaded. Its position in Ireland can be +seen exactly by the census returns; for the papers contain a "language +column," each person being required to state whether he speaks +English or Irish or both. According to the returns of 1891, the total +population was in round numbers 4,725,000; of whom 4,037,000 spoke +English only, 643,000 both languages, and 44,000 Irish only. And that +trifling minority existed only in certain localities, and was confined +to the less educated classes. The only counties in which a majority of +the population spoke Irish (including those who spoke both languages) +were Mayo and Galway. Yet now it is solemnly said that Ireland, +being an independent nation, must have a language of its own; even in +counties where no language but English has been spoken for centuries, +and where probably none of the ancestors of the present population +ever spoke any other language, Irish is being taught in the Roman +Catholic primary schools, and the unhappy children who might be +studying arithmetic or elementary geography, are wasting their time +over a totally useless language. I say "totally useless" deliberately; +for the arguments usually brought forward in favour of the study, +apart from the political one--that Irish is of use in the study of +philology, and that the MSS. of centuries ago contain fine specimens +of poetry--are too absurd to be worth discussing. The real object of +the Nationalists in "encouraging the revival of the Irish language" +is clearly set out in the following words of T. MacSeamus in a recent +number of the _Irish Review_:-- + + "Most important of all, the Irish language is one of the + things that distinguish us from England. It is a mark of that + separateness which it is the business of every Nationalist to + maintain and emphasise on every possible occasion. It is one + of the signs--perhaps the chief sign--of nationality.... The + Irish language is a weapon in our fight against England, and + we cannot afford to throw away even the smallest weapon that + may serve us in that struggle." + +And the policy of the League as regards the primary schools is made +quite clear by the resolution passed unanimously at their annual +meeting in 1912:-- + + "That we re-affirm the demand of the last Ard Fheis in regard + to the position of Irish in the primary schools, viz., that + Irish be the sole medium of instruction in the Irish-speaking + districts; that it be the medium as far as possible in all + other schools, and that it be a compulsory subject in every + school throughout the country where parents are not opposed + to it; furthermore, that a knowledge of Irish be required from + all teachers entering for training as teachers, and that no + certificate be issued to those who fail to qualify in Irish at + the final examination, and that none but inspectors having a + knowledge of Irish be employed to inspect schools where Irish + is taught." + +It will be seen therefore that if the League carry their point (as +no doubt they will under a Home Rule Government) no graduate of the +Belfast University who wishes to become a teacher in a Belfast school +will be allowed to do so unless he passes an examination in a language +which not one of his pupils will ever wish to learn; and this, not for +the purpose of ensuring general culture, but to further a political +object with which he has no sympathy. + +The League leave no stone unturned in their efforts to substitute the +Irish for the English language. For instance, it is usually considered +in other countries that the names of the streets of a town are put +up in order to help people who want to find their way, and not for +political reasons. But in Dublin, where not one per cent. of the +people can read Irish, the names have recently all been painted up in +that language, in the hope of de-Anglicizing the rising generation. An +incident occurred recently which will show how the movement is being +taken up. There is in Dublin an excellent regulation that children +may not become "street traders" without a licence. A bright little boy +came to apply for one. The magistrate, being a kindly man, enquired +of the lad what his circumstances were. The boy explained that part of +his earnings went towards the support of his widowed mother; and that +he was trying to keep up his education by attending a night school. +"And what are you learning there?" said the magistrate. "Irish," +replied the boy. Even the magistrate could not resist telling him that +he thought his time would be better spent at Arithmetic. Yet from the +boy's point of view, there is something to be said. Irish may be of +use to him in obtaining a Government appointment, however small; for +local bodies (such as the Dublin Boards of Guardians) now refuse +to appoint clerks who cannot send out notices of meetings in Irish, +though no member of the Board to whom they are sent can read them; and +the League fully expect that the Home Rule Government will do the same +with regard to every appointment in their gift. If the railways are +taken over by the Government (as they probably will be) it can be seen +what an immense impetus can be given to the movement. + +Then Secondary Schools have been established for the same object. The +_Irish Educational Review_ recently contained the following account of +one of them:-- + + "At Ring, in the County Waterford, there is already in + existence an Irish secondary school where classics, modern + languages and all the usual secondary school subjects are + taught and where Irish and English fill their rightful places, + the former being the ordinary language of the school, the + latter a foreign language on no higher level than French or + German." + +The Act of 1909, which founded the "National" University (to which I +shall refer again), gave power to County Councils to levy a rate for +scholarships. Immediately the Gaelic League saw their opportunity. +They endeavoured to persuade the Councils to refuse to do so unless +Irish were made compulsory at the University. The Councils generally +(except of course in Ulster) agreed to the plan; but some of them +(such as the Kildare Council) were faced by a difficulty. Not a single +child in the county spoke Irish; and so if that language were made +compulsory, no one could compete for the scholarships. So they +compromised matters, by deciding that they would levy a rate if Irish +were made compulsory after 1915, by which time some of the young +people in the county would have been able to learn it; and the +University agreed to do so. + +This rating power, I may remark, looks extremely liberal as it appears +in the Act; for the scholarships are to be tenable at any University. +The Irish Unionist members, knowing quite well how it would be +worked, opposed the clause; and as usual were denounced as bigots +and fanatics. It is needless to add that as soon as the Act came into +force, County Councils and Corporations at once passed resolutions +that scholarships derived from the rates should not be tenable at +Trinity College, Dublin, or at Belfast, but only at the National +University--thus practically saying that no Protestants need compete. + +Beyond forcing the children to acquire a smattering of Irish, it +cannot be said that so far the efforts of the League as to the +language have been very successful; for the census returns show that +the proportion of the population who could speak Irish in 1891 was +14'5; in 1901, 14'4; and in 1911, 13'3; and the numbers who spoke +Irish only fell from 20,953 in 1901 to 16,870 in 1911. + +But the efforts of the League are not confined to the language. +English games, such as cricket, are forbidden; if football is played, +it must be the Gaelic variety with rules totally different from +those observed by the hated Saxon. Even the patients in asylums +are forbidden to play cricket or lawn tennis. And some of the more +enthusiastic members of the League have actually "donned the saffron," +in imitation of the Ersefied Normans of 400 years ago. However, it +is so hideously ugly, and so suggestive of the obnoxious Orange, that +that phase of the movement is not likely to extend. + +Even the "Boy Scout" movement has been made use of for the same +object. As soon as some corps had been established in Ireland, the +Nationalists started a rival organization with an Irish name, in +which all the boys solemnly undertake to work for the independence +of Ireland, and never to join England's armed forces. The boys take a +prominent part in the annual ceremonies in honour of Wolfe Tone, the +Manchester martyrs, and other Nationalist heroes. + +The whole thing would be laughable if it were not so very sad. Even +such matters as sports and education, where all creeds and parties +might be expected to work together amicably, must be used as +instruments to bring about separation; and the result already is not +so much to widen the gulf between Ireland and England as the gulf +between the two parties in Ireland; for the Protestant minority in +the south, who know that most of their children will have to leave the +country, are not likely to let them fritter away their youth in the +study of a language which can be of no possible benefit to them in +any part of the world to which they may go; and the idea that the +Ulstermen will ever adopt a Celtic tongue is too ridiculous to be +considered. But perhaps the most painful thought of all is that the +Nationalists should be ready even to sacrifice the prospects in life +of the rising generation of the country in order to satisfy their +blind hatred of England. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +IRELAND UNDER THE PRESENT GOVERNMENT. + + +I come now to the policy which has been pursued by the present +Government since 1906. It must be remembered that the Radical party +returned to power pledged to Home Rule as a principle, but with a +sufficient majority to enable them to retain office without depending +on the Irish vote. Hence there was no necessity for them to introduce +a Home Rule Bill; but of course they set aside the policy of the +Unionist Government, and resolved to govern Ireland according to their +own ideas. What those ideas were, and what the result has been, I +shall now proceed to show; but in doing so I shall as far as possible +confine myself to quotations and statistics which can be verified, so +that I may not be accused of giving an unfair report. + +The Chief Secretary for the first year was Mr. Bryce, who was +afterwards appointed British Ambassador at Washington. The Government +at once repealed the Act which forbade the carrying of arms without a +licence; withdrew all proclamations under the Crimes Act of 1887; +and resolved not to stop any political meetings. Accordingly the +Nationalists commenced holding a series of demonstrations all over +the country. A few specimens taken from the speeches made at them will +suffice to show their general tenour. + + "Let them all be ready, and when England got into trouble with + European Powers, they would pounce upon her with the ferocity + of a tiger."--_T. Walsh, District Councillor._ + + "They must stand together as one man, and make it impossible + for England to govern Ireland."--_P. White, M.P._ + + "If there had been 100,000 Fenians in Ireland at the time of + the Boer War there might now have been a Republic in + Ireland, and British supremacy would have been tumbled in the + dust."--_J. Daly, formerly Mayor of Limerick._ + +And Mr. Bryce, when leaving Ireland at the end of the year, stated +that he had not found any harm in any of the speeches delivered at the +meetings. + +At this time the agitation began to assume a new form. One of the most +important of Irish industries is the cattle trade with England, +the annual value of which exceeds £14,000,000. In several parts of +Ireland, notably in Meath and the central counties, the soil and +climate are specially suited for cattle raising, and the land +is generally held in large grazing farms. It was decided by the +Nationalists in the autumn of 1906 that this industry must be +destroyed. Bodies of men assembled night after night to break down the +fences and gates of the farms and drive the cattle many miles away, +in order that the farmers might be ruined and forced to leave the +country; and then the derelict farms would be divided amongst the +"landless men." L. Ginnell, M.P., explained the programme fully in a +speech he made in October 1906:-- + + "The ranches must be broken up, not only in Westmeath but + throughout all Ireland ... He advised them to stamp out the + ranch demon themselves, and not leave an alien Parliament to + do the duty ... He advised them to leave the ranches unfenced, + unused and unusable ... so that no man or demon would dare to + stand another hour between the people and the land that should + be theirs." + +The agitation, commencing in Meath, was gradually extended, county +by county, over a large part of Ireland where the Nationalists are +supreme. Other measures were resorted to, in order to carry out their +object. Arson, the burning of hayricks, firing into dwelling-houses, +spiking meadows, the mutilation of horses and cows, the destruction +of turf, the damaging of machinery, and various other forms of lawless +violence began to increase and multiply. At the Spring Assizes in +1907, the Chief Justice, when addressing the Grand Jury at Ennis, in +commenting on the increasing need for placing law-abiding people under +special police protection, said:-- + + "In a shire in England, if it was found necessary, either by + special protection or protection by patrol, to protect from + risk of outrage thirty persons, what would be thought?" + +And Mr. Justice Kenny at Leitrim, after commenting upon the increased +number of specially reported cases, as shown by the official +statistics, and alluding to several cases of gross intimidation, +said:-- + + "In these latter cases I regret to say no one has been + made amenable; and when there is such a state of things, + it justifies the observation made by the learned judge who + presided at last Connaught Winter Assizes, that when the chain + of terrorism was complete, no witness would give evidence and + no jury would convict." + +Thereupon Mr. Birrell, who at the beginning of the year had succeeded +Mr. Bryce as Chief Secretary, having no doubt studied these and +similar reports, said in a speech at Halifax in the following month:-- + + "You may take my word for this, that Ireland is at this moment + in a more peaceful condition than for the last six hundred + years." + +Soon afterwards, Mr. Justice Ross, who, as Judge of the Land Judge's +Court, Chancery Division, was in charge of many estates in Ireland, +said: + + "He had known from other Receivers about this widespread and + audacious conspiracy at present rampant in the West of Ireland + ... This was actually a conspiracy which on ordinary moral + grounds amounted to highway robbery, to seize on these grass + lands, to drive away the stock of the people who had been + in the habit of taking it; and then, when the owner had been + starved out, the Estates Commissioners were expected to buy up + the property and to distribute it amongst the very people who + had been urging on the business, and who had been engaged in + these outrages." + +When an Ulster member drew attention to this in the House of Commons, +Mr. Birrell replied:-- + + "There is no evidence before the Government that a widespread + conspiracy is rampant in the West of Ireland." + +And in reply to another question he said that:-- + + "The reports he received from the police and other persons + revealed the condition of Ireland generally as to peace and + order as being very satisfactory." + +During the month of October 1907, twenty-nine claims for compensation +from the rates in respect of malicious injuries had been proved and +granted in twelve counties, the amount levied from the ratepayers +being about £900. The malicious injuries comprised destruction of and +firing into dwelling houses, mutilation of horses and cattle, burning +cattle to death, spiking meadows and damaging mowing machines, damages +to fences and walls, burning heather and pasturage, damage to gates in +connection with cattle driving, and injury to cattle by driving. And +in November an attempt was made to assassinate Mr. White Blake and his +mother when driving home from church in the County Galway. A few days +after this occurred Mr. Redmond said at a meeting in North Wales:-- + + "Whilst there is no crime or outrage there is widespread + unrest and impatience, and there are, over a certain section + of the country, taking place technical breaches of the strict + letter of the law in the shape of what is called cattle + driving. Now let me say first of all that in no instance has + any single beast been injured in the smallest degree in any of + these cattle-drives; in no instance has any malicious injury + been done to property, life or limb, or beast." + +All this time the Government adhered to their determination not to put +the Crimes Act in force, but merely to place accused persons on trial +before juries at the Assizes. The results were as follows: At the +Summer Assizes in 1907, 167 persons were returned for trial; of these, +57 were actually tried, of whom three were convicted, 31 acquitted, +and in 23 cases the juries disagreed. The trials of the remaining 110 +were postponed. At the Michaelmas sittings, 94 persons were put on +trial, of whom 5 were convicted and 2 acquitted; in 72 cases the +juries disagreed, and in the remaining 15 the Crown abandoned +proceedings. At the Winter Assizes 86 persons were tried for unlawful +assembly, riot and conspiracy in connection with cattle-driving. None +were convicted; 11 were acquitted; in 12 cases the prisoners were +discharged on legal points; and in 63 the juries disagreed. + +I fully admit that there is much to be said for the juries who refused +to convict. When a Government is doing its utmost to suppress anarchy +and to enforce law and order, it is no doubt the duty of every loyal +subject to render assistance even at the risk of his own life +and property. But when a Government is conniving at anarchy, and +deliberately refusing to put in force the Act which would put a stop +to it, I say it is too much to expect of any man that he should face +the prospect of being ruined and probably murdered, and his family +reduced to beggary, in order to enable the Government to keep up the +farce of pretending that they are trying to do their duty. + +During the first half of 1908, there were 418 reported cases of +cattle-driving; and arson, outrages with firearms, meadow-spiking, +and similar offences increased in proportion. The judges urged in vain +that the law should be put in force. But the policy of the Government +remained unchanged; the _Daily News_ (the Government organ) when +cattle-driving was at its height said that thanks to the excellent +government of Mr. Birrell cattle-driving now had practically become +extinct even in those few parts of the country in which it had +existed; and in July Mr. Birrell, addressing a political meeting at +Port Sunlight, said that:-- + + "They were led to believe that the state of Ireland was of + an appalling character, that crime predominated, and that + lawlessness almost universally prevailed. All he could say was + that a more cheerful land was nowhere to be found." + +In 1909 matters became somewhat quieter, chiefly because Mr. Birrell +promised to introduce a Land Bill by which the cattle-drivers hoped to +get all they wanted. Hence their leaders advised them to "give Birrell +a chance," but Mr. Redmond warned the Government that if they did not +carry out their pledge, they would speedily find Ireland ungovernable. +In February 1909, Lord Crewe, speaking for the Government in the House +of Lords, made the remarkable statement:-- + + "As regards intimidation, I have always shared the view that + well-organized intimidation cannot be checked by law. I know + no method of checking it." + +If this is not an admission that the Government had failed in their +duty, it is hard to say what is. The result of their line of action +will be seen by the following table, which has been taken from various +returns which the Ulster members, by repeated questions in Parliament +at last succeeded in forcing Mr. Birrell to make public:-- + + +Agrarian outrages 1906 234 + " " 1907 372 + " " 1908 576 +Cattle-drives 1905 Nil + " " 1907-8 513 + " " 1908-9 622 + " " 1908 219 +Cattle maiming, mutilating, etc. 1907 142 +Persons boycotted 1907 196 + " " 1908 270 + " " 1909 335 +Cost of extra police 1908 £47,000 + + +1911. + +Agrarian outrages 581 +Malicious injuries to property, Intimidating + by threatening letters, etc. 285 +Firing into dwelling houses 58 +Rioting, robbery of arms, etc. 31 +Killing and maiming cattle 83 + + +It may be asked, why did not the Ulster members call the attention of +Parliament to this state of things? The answer is, they did so again +and again; Mr. Birrell gave stereotyped replies, much after this form, +with hardly a variation:-- + + I have seen in the newspapers a report that a few shots were + fired into a farmhouse in Galway. No one appears to have been + seriously injured. The police are making enquiries. No arrests + have been made. + +(He might as well have added that he knew perfectly well that no +arrests ever would be made.) Then he would go to a political meeting +and say that the peaceful condition of Ireland was shown by the small +number of criminal cases returned for trial at the Assizes; and would +bitterly denounce the "Carrion Crows" (as he designated the Ulster +members) for trying to blacken the reputation of their country. + +One instance may be given more in detail, as typical of the condition +to which Ireland had been brought. Lord Ashtown (a Unionist Peer +residing in County Galway) began issuing month by month a series of +pamphlets entitled "Grievances from Ireland." They contained little +besides extracts from Nationalist papers giving reports of the +meetings of the United Irish League, the outrages that took place, and +the comments of Nationalist papers on them. His object was to let +the people in England see from the accounts given by the Nationalists +themselves, what was going on in Ireland. This, however, was very +objectionable to them; and one of their members asked Mr. Birrell in +the House of Commons whether the pamphlets could not be suppressed. +Mr. Birrell made the curious reply that he would be very glad if Lord +Ashtown were stopped, but that he did not see how to do it. What he +expected would be the results of that remark, I do not know; but no +one living in Ireland was much surprised when a few weeks afterwards +a bomb outrage occurred at the residence of Lord Ashtown in the County +Waterford. It was a clumsy failure. A jar containing gunpowder was +placed against the wall of the house where he was staying and set on +fire. The explosion wrecked part of the building, but Lord Ashtown +escaped unhurt. He gave notice of his intention to apply at the next +assizes for compensation for malicious injury. The usual custom in +such cases is for a copy of the police report showing the injury +complained of, to be sent to the person seeking compensation; but on +this occasion the police refused to show Lord Ashtown their report, +stating that they had received orders from the Government not to do +so. But shortly before the case came on, a report, not made by the +police authority in charge of the district, but by another brought in +specially for the purpose, appeared in the Nationalist papers. This +report contained the remarkable suggestion that Lord Ashtown had done +it himself! When under cross-examination at the trial, the Inspector +of the Royal Irish Constabulary who made the report was obliged to +confess that he did not believe that he had, but had only inserted the +suggestion in obedience to instruction received from the Government. +Lord Ashtown proved his case and was awarded compensation. But the +matter did not end there. He had employed a surveyor, Mr. Scully, to +draw plans and take photographs showing the amount of the damage. Mr. +Scully was surveyor to the Waterford Corporation. It was proposed at +the next meeting of the Corporation that he should be dismissed from +his office for having given evidence for Lord Ashtown. The motion +was carried unanimously, eight councillors being present; and at the +following meeting it was ratified by eight votes to two. A question +was asked about the matter in the House of Commons; and Mr. Birrell, +with the figures before him, replied that Mr. Scully had never been +dismissed. + +Two other instances of this period must be briefly referred to. It +has already been shown how the Irish Parliament endowed Maynooth as a +College for Roman Catholic students both lay and theological; and how +Trinity College, Dublin, opened its doors to all students, without +distinction of creed. But the Roman Catholic Church turned Maynooth +into a seminary for theological students only; and the bishops forbade +young laymen to go to Trinity. In 1845 Sir Robert Peel attempted to +supply the want by founding the Queen's University, with Colleges at +Belfast, Cork and Galway, where mixed education should be given in +secular subjects, and separate instruction in those appertaining to +religion; but that again was denounced as a "satanic scheme for the +ruin of faith in the rising generation"; and the crusade against +the university was so successful that in 1879 it was destroyed and +another--the Royal University--put in its place. This in its turn was +abolished in 1909; the College at Belfast was raised to the status +of a University, and a new University ominously called the "National +University" was founded into which the existing Colleges at Cork and +Galway were absorbed, with a new and richly endowed College in Dublin +at the head. It may seem strange that the Radical Government who are +pledged to destroy all religious education in England should found and +endow a Denominational University in Ireland. But the matter could be +arranged by a little judicious management and prevarication; it was +represented in Parliament that the new University was to be strictly +unsectarian; during the debate, Sir P. Magnus, the member for the +London University, said that he had no reason to believe that there +was any intention on the part of the Chief Secretary to set up +denominational Universities in Ireland; he accepted his word that they +were to be entirely undenominational. Then, when the Act was passed, +the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin was appointed Chancellor of +the National University, with a number of Jesuits as Professors, and +Cardinal Logue stated as follows:-- + + "No matter what obstacles the Nonconformists may have inserted + in the Constitution of the University to keep it from being + Catholic, we will make it Catholic in spite of them." + +Personally, I do not object to denominational Universities. I regret +that young men who are going to live in the same country should not be +able to study law and medicine together; but if that is their feeling +and the feeling of their parents, I admit that having separate +Universities may be the best solution of the difficulty. But if so, +let it be openly avowed that the University is denominational; to +"make it Catholic" and at the same time to say that it is no injustice +to Protestants that County Scholarships paid for by the ratepayers +should be tenable there and nowhere else, seems to me absurd. + +The other incident to which reference must be made was the great +Convention held in Dublin in 1909. The Nationalists, believing that +a Home Rule Bill would soon be introduced, devised the scheme of +assembling a monster Convention, which would be evidence to the world +of how admirably fitted the Irish people were to govern their own +country. It was attended by 2,000 delegates from all parts of the +country, who were to form a happy family, as of course no disturbing +Unionist element would be present to mar the harmony and the clerical +element would be strong. Mr. Redmond, who presided, said in his +opening address:-- + + "Ireland's capacity for self-government will be judged at home + and abroad by the conduct of this Assembly. Ireland's good + name is at stake, and therefore every man who takes part + in this Assembly should weigh his words and recognise his + responsibility." + +The meeting ended in a free fight. + + +At the end of 1909 Mr. Asquith did a very clever thing. A general +election was pending, and he wished to avoid the mistake which +Gladstone had made in 1885. He therefore, at a great meeting at +the Albert Hall unfolded an elaborate programme of the long list of +measures which the Government would introduce and carry, and in the +course of his remarks said that Home Rule was the only solution of +the Irish problem, and that in the new House of Commons the hands of +a Liberal Government and of a Liberal majority would in this matter be +entirely free. He and his followers carefully abstained from referring +to the subject in their election addresses; and Mr. Asquith was thus +free, if he should obtain a majority independent of the Irish vote, +to say that he had never promised to make Home Rule part of his +programme; but if he found he could not retain office without that +vote, he might buy it by promising to introduce the Bill and refer to +his words at the Albert Hall as justification for doing so. The latter +happened; hence the "Coalition Ministry." The Irish party consented to +please the Radicals by voting for the Budget, and the Nonconformists +by voting for Welsh Disestablishment, on condition that they should +in return vote for Home Rule. As Mr. Hobhouse (a Cabinet Minister) +expressed it in 1911:-- + + "Next year we must pay our debt to the Nationalist Members, + who were good enough to vote for a Budget which they detested + and knew would be an injury to their country." + +But the people of England still had to be hood-winked. It was hardly +likely that they would consent to their representatives voting for +the separation of Ireland from Great Britain; so the Nationalists and +their Radical allies went about England declaring that they had +no wish for such a thing; that all they desired was a subordinate +Parliament leaving the Imperial Parliament supreme. Thus Mr. Redmond +suggested at one meeting that Ireland should be conceded the right +of managing her own purely local affairs for herself in a subordinate +Parliament, subject to the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament; and +at another meeting said: + + "We are not asking for a Repeal of the Union. We are not + asking for the restoration of a co-ordinate Parliament such + as Ireland had before the Union. We are only asking that + there should be given to Ireland a subordinate Parliament. We + therefore admit the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament. That + means that after this subordinate Parliament is created in + Ireland, if the Parliament is foolish enough, rash enough, as + it never will be, but if it were foolish enough and criminal + enough to use the powers given to it for injustice or + oppression of any class or creed, the Imperial Parliament + would have the power to stretch forth the arm of its authority + and to say 'you shall not do that.'" + +Of course it may be argued that they had changed their minds; that +in former times they worked for separation, but now realised that +a subordinate Parliament was all that Ireland required. But +unfortunately for this theory, they have themselves repudiated it; +when Mr. Redmond was accused of speaking with two voices, one in +America and one in Great Britain, he passionately replied:-- + + "I indignantly deny that accusation. I have never in my life + said one word on a platform in America one whit stronger than + I had said in my place on the floor of the House of Commons. + I have never in America or anywhere else, advocated the + separation of Ireland from Great Britain." + +How far this is true, the quotations from his speeches which have +already been given, will have shown. But the Government have kept up +the farce; Mr. Winston Churchill said during the debate on the Bill of +1912:-- + + "The Home Rule movement has never been a separatist movement. + In the whole course of its career it has been a moderating, + modifying movement, designed to secure the recognition of + Irish claims within the circuit of the British Empire." + +But not even the immediate prospect of Home Rule can be said to have +made those parts of Ireland where the League is supreme a happy place +of residence to any but advanced Nationalists. The following report of +a case in the Magistrate's Court at Ennis in November 1912 will speak +for the condition of the County Clare:-- + + Patrick Arkins was charged with knocking down walls on the + farm of Mrs. Fitzpatrick in order to compel her to give up the + farm. Inspector Davis gave evidence that from January 1910 to + that date there were 104 serious outrages in his district. + In 42 firearms were used, 27 were malicious injuries, 32 were + threatening notices, 1 case of bomb explosion outside a house, + 1 robbery of arms, and 1 attempted robbery. A sum of £268 had + been awarded as compensation for malicious injury and there + were claims for £75 pending for malicious injuries committed + during the week ended 11th inst. There were two persons under + constant police protection, and 16 receiving protection by + patrol. Head Constable Mulligan said that Mrs. Fitzpatrick was + under police protection. Since February 11th, 1912, there had + been 12 outrages in the district, Mrs. Fitzpatrick was under + almost constant police protection. Acting Sergeant Beegan + deposed that there had been 12 outrages on the Fitzpatrick + family during the last four years; these included driving + cattle off the lands, threatening notices, firing shots at the + house, knocking down walls, spiking meadows; the new roof of + a hay barn was perforated with bullets, and at Kiltonaghty + Chapel there were notices threatening death to anyone who + would work for Mrs. Fitzpatrick. Timothy Fitzpatrick gave + similar evidence as to the outrages, and said that his father + had taken the farm twenty-one years ago, and had paid the son + of the former tenant £40 for his goodwill. + +(I may add that Arkins was committed for trial, convicted at the +Assizes and sentenced to seven years penal servitude; and was released +by Mr. Birrell a few weeks afterwards.) + +In another Clare case, in February of the present year, the resident +Magistrate said as follows:-- + + "It is a mistake to say that these outrages are arising out + of disputes between landlord and tenant; nine out of ten arise + out of petty disputes about land. What is the use of having + new land laws? A case occurred not long ago in this county of + a man who had bought some land twenty years ago, and paid down + hard cash to the outgoing tenant. The man died, and left a + widow and children on the land for fourteen years. But in 1908 + a man who had some ulterior object got the man who had sold + the farm to send in a claim under the Evicted Tenant's Act, + which was rejected. That was what the advisers of the man + wanted--they only wanted a pretext for moonlighting and other + disgraceful outrages, and the woman was kept in a hell for + four years. A man was caught at last and convicted, and one + would think that this was a subject for rejoicing for all + right-minded men in the county. But what was the result? A + perfect tornado of letters was printed, and resolutions + and speeches appeared in the public press, condemning this + conviction of a moonlighter in Clare as an outrage against + justice." + +The Roman Catholic Bishop of Killaloe, in a sermon preached in +December 1912, referring to County Clare said:-- + + "That county had had an evil record in the matter of crime, + and they were so accustomed to outrages of almost weekly + occurrence around them that it was not easy to shock them. + There was an inoffensive family sitting round the fireside + with a couple of neighbours. They had given no offence, they + had wronged no man, they had crossed no man's path. But that + inhuman beast went to the door and lifted the latch, and + there, at a few yards distance, fired into that innocent group + of men, women and children, as if they were a flock of crows, + killing the mother outright and almost blowing the forehead + off a young girl. There was no denying the fact that that + brutal murder was the natural outcome of the disgraceful + system of intimidation and outrage that had been rampant for + a long time in certain districts of that unhappy county and + of the immunity from punishment enjoyed by the wicked and + cowardly moonlighter. In addition to their other acts of + savagery, they had shot out the eyes of two men within the + last couple of years. A decent, honest man was shot on the + road to Ennis. The people passed the wounded man by and + refused to take him into their car through fear. Not one + of these well-known miscreants was brought to justice. The + murderers of poor Garvey, the cow-houghers, the hay-burners, + were said to be known. In any other country, for instance in + the United States, such ruffianism would be hunted down or + lynched; but there, in the places he referred to, they had + a curtain of security drawn round them by the cowardice or + perverted moral sense on the part of the community amongst + whom they lived.... It was only last Thursday night, before + the county had recovered from the shock of Mrs. O'Mara's + murder, that right over the mountain an unfortunate postman + was shot on the public road between Crusheen and Baliluran for + no other reason apparently than that another fellow wanted his + job of one and six-pence a day! It has come to this, that if + you differ with one of them for a shilling, or refuse to give + him his way in everything the first thing that comes into his + head is to moonlight you.... They have not elevation or social + instinct to settle their petty disputes by process of law + provided for the purpose by a civilized society, nor have they + Christianity enough to bear a little wrong or disappointment + for Christ's sake. No, nor the manliness even to meet an + opponent face to face and see it out with him like a man; but + with the cunning of a mean and vicious dog, he steals behind + him in the dark and shoots him in the back, or murders the + helpless woman of his family, or shoots out the eyes of the + poor man's horse, or cuts the throat of his bullock and spikes + his beast upon a gate." + +Nor has the present year brought much improvement. In May 1913, Mr. +R. Maunsell was fired at and wounded close to the town of Ennis. His +crime was that he managed a farm for a Mr. Bannatyne, whose family had +been in possession of it for about sixty years, but who had recently +been denounced by the United Irish League and ordered to surrender it. +As he has refused to do so, he is now compelled to live under police +protection. + +The abolition of landlordism and the acquisition of firearms can +hardly be said to have brought peace and tranquillity to the County of +Clare. + +And as to Galway, we may gather the state of affairs from the report +of a case tried at the Winter Assizes of 1912. Three men were charged +with having done grievous bodily harm to a man named Conolly. Conolly +swore that he knew a man named Broderick who had become unpopular but +he (Conolly) kept to him and this brought displeasure on him from the +accused and others. On the night of the 11th September he went to bed; +he was subsequently awakened and found 44 grains of shot in his left +knee and four in his right. He then lay flat on the floor. Other shots +were fired through the window but did not strike him. The judge said +the district was a disgrace to Ireland. Day after day, night after +night, heaps of outrages were committed there, and not one offender +was made amenable to justice. The jury disagreed, and the accused were +again put on their trial. The judge in charging the jury on the second +trial said that then, and for some time, the district was swarming +with police, and though outrages were frequent, it was impossible for +them to bring anyone to justice. No one was sure he might not be fired +at during the night; and people were afraid to give evidence. The jury +again disagreed. + +During the autumn of 1912 an effort was made to hold a series of +meetings throughout the south and west of Ireland to protest against +Home Rule. The conduct of the Nationalists with regard to them +supplies a striking commentary on Mr. Redmond's statement at Banbury +not long before, that all through his political life he had preached +conciliation towards those who differed from him on the question +of Home Rule. The meetings were in some cases stopped by force; at +Limerick the windows of the Protestant Church and of some houses +occupied by Protestants were smashed; at Tralee the principal speaker +was a large farmer named Crosbie; all his hay and sheds were burned +down, and he was awarded £600 compensation by the County Court Judge. + +But an incident had occurred in the north which, though in a sense +comparatively slight, has, in consequence of the circumstances +connected with it, done more to inflame the men of Ulster than persons +not living in Ireland can realise. In June of last year a party of +Sunday School children from a suburb of Belfast went for a picnic to +Castledawson (co. Derry) under the charge of a Presbyterian minister +and a few teachers and ladies. On their way back to the railway +station, they were met and assailed by a procession of men belonging +to the Order of Hibernians armed with pikes who attacked the children +with the pikes and with stones, seized a Union Jack which a small +boy was carrying, and knocked down and kicked some of the girls and +teachers. Worse might have happened had not some Protestant young men, +seeing what was going on, come to the rescue. The minister was struck +with stones whilst he was endeavouring to get some of the children +to a place of safety. No Nationalist has ever expressed the slightest +regret at the occurrence. Several of the aggressors were tried at the +Winter Assizes and sentenced to three months' imprisonment. Before +the end of the term they were released by order of the Government. Mr. +Birrell, in justifying his action, said that the judge had remarked +that there was no evidence before him of actual injury. This, like +many of his statements, was literally true; but he omitted to mention +that he had prevented the evidence from being given; the injured women +and children were quite ready to give their testimony, but were not +called by the counsel for the crown. + +It is unnecessary to say that this foretaste of Home Rule government +has made the Presbyterians of Ulster more determined than ever to +resist it to the bitter end. + +I shall next proceed to consider the Bill which the Government have +introduced as a panacea for the woes of Ireland. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +CRITICISM OF THE BILL NOW BEFORE THE COUNTRY. + + +That the maintenance of the Union is possible, and that complete +separation is possible, are two indisputable facts. But the question +is, was Wolfe Tone right when he said that these were the only two +possibilities; or is there a third one, and if so, what? + +Residents in the Dominions will naturally be inclined to reply "Yes; +place Ireland in the position of a colony possessing responsible +government, such as New Zealand." It is a taking idea; but a little +reflection will show the falseness of the analogy. The relations +between the Mother Country and the self-governing colonies (now +often called "Dominions") have grown up of themselves; and, like +most political conditions which have so come about, are theoretically +illogical but practically convenient. The practical convenience arises +partly from the friendly spirit which animates both parties, but still +more from the nature of the case. The distance which separates the +Mother Country from the Dominions causes the anomalies to be scarcely +perceptible. In theory the Sovereign, acting on the advice of +British Ministers, can disallow any colonial statute, and the British +Parliament is supreme--it can pass laws that will bind the colonies, +even laws imposing taxes. But we all know that if the Home Government +were persistently to veto laws passed by the large majority of the +people in New Zealand, or the British Parliament were to attempt to +legislate for the colonies, relations would at once become strained, +and separation would be inevitable. The only important matters on +which the Home Government attempts to bind the colonies are those +relating to foreign countries (which are necessarily of an Imperial +nature) and those as to which the colonies themselves wish to have +an Act passed, such as the Act establishing Australian Federation. In +other words, the "supremacy of Parliament," which is a stern reality +in England, has very little meaning as regards New Zealand. Even if +the people of New Zealand were to manage the affairs of their country +in a manner contrary to English ideas--for instance if they were to +establish State lotteries and public gambling tables--England would be +but slightly affected, and certainly would never think of taking steps +to prevent them. And those matters in which the Home Government is +obliged to act are just those in which New Zealand has no desire +to interfere; for instance, New Zealand would never want to appoint +consuls of her own (which was the immediate cause of the separation +between Norway and Sweden); in the very few cases in which New Zealand +desires to make use of political or commercial agents abroad, she is +content to employ the British representatives, for whom she is +not called upon to pay. If New Zealand attempted to take part in a +European war in which England was not concerned--the idea is almost +too absurd to suggest--the only thing that England could do would be +to break off the connection and repudiate New Zealand altogether. +And if New Zealand desired to separate from the Mother Country, many +people would think it a most grievous mistake, but England certainly +would not seek to prevent her doing so by force; and though England +would in some ways be the worse for it, the government of England +and of the rest of the Empire would go on much the same as before. In +certain points, it is true, thoughtful men have generally come to the +conclusion that the present state of affairs cannot go on unchanged; +the time is coming when the great Dominions must provide for their own +defence by sea as well as by land; and whether this is to be done by +separate navies working together or by joint contributions to a +common navy, it will probably result in the formation of some Imperial +Council in which all parts will have a voice. That however, is a +matter for future discussion and arrangement. + +But when we turn to Ireland, everything is different. The two islands +are separated by less than fifty miles. Ireland has for more than a +century been adequately represented in the Imperial Parliament; the +journey from Galway to London is shorter than that from Auckland +or Dunedin to Wellington. So long as Europe remains as it is, Great +Britain and Ireland must have a common system of defence--which means +one army, one navy, and one plan of fortifications. Again, Irishmen, +traders and others, will constantly have to make use of government +agents in other countries. Now unless Great Britain is to arrange and +pay for the whole of this, we are met at once by the insoluble problem +of Irish representation in the British Parliament. If Ireland is not +represented there, we are faced with the old difficulty of taxation +without representation; if Ireland is represented there for all +purposes, Ireland can interfere in the local affairs of England, but +England cannot in those of Ireland; if we have what has been called +the "in-and-out" scheme as proposed by Gladstone in 1893--that is, for +the Irish members to vote on all questions of an Imperial nature, +but to retire when matters affecting England only are under +discussion--then, even if the line could be drawn (which is doubtful) +we might have the absurdity of an English ministry which possessed +the confidence of the majority of Englishmen and whose management of +England met their approval, being turned out of office by the Irish +vote, and England being governed according to a policy which the +majority of Englishmen detested. Of course it may be said that there +ought to be a number of small Parliaments in the British Isles, like +those in the Provinces of Canada or the States of Australia, with one +great Parliament supreme over them--in other words, Federation. +That might be a good thing, although it would in its turn start many +difficulties which it is unnecessary now to discuss, for it is not +Home Rule nor does Home Rule lead to it. Federal systems arise by the +union of separate States, each State giving up a part of its power +to a joint body which can levy taxes and can overrule the local +authorities. In fact, when Federation comes about, the States cease to +be nations. + +(I must here remark in passing that constant confusion has been caused +by the various senses in which the word "nation" is used. Thus it is +often quite correctly employed in a sentimental sense--we speak of +Scottish National character, or of the National Bible Society of +Scotland, though Scotland has no separate Parliament or flag and would +on a map of Europe be painted the same colour as the rest of Great +Britain. Quite distinct from that is the political sense, in which the +Irish Nationalists use the word when speaking of being "A Nation once +again," or of "The National Independence of Ireland.") + +It might be possible for the United Kingdom to be broken up into a +Federation (though it is strange that there is no precedent in history +for such a course); but that would not be "satisfying the National +Aspirations of Ireland." In fact, as Mr. Childers, one of the ablest +of English advocates of Home Rule, has stated: "The term Federal, as +applied to Irish Home Rule at the present time, is meaningless." + +But when we come to examine the existing Bill, which will become law +in 1914 unless something unforeseen occurs, we find that it is neither +the Colonial plan nor Federation but an elaborate system which really +seems as if it had been devised with the object of satisfying nobody +and producing friction at every point. England (by which of course I +mean Great Britain; I merely use the shorter term for convenience) +is not only to pay the total cost of the army, navy and diplomatic +services, including the defences of Ireland, but is also to grant an +annual subsidy to Ireland commencing with £500,000 but subsequently +reduced to £200,000. Whether the English taxpayer will relish this +when he comes to realise it, may be doubted. Certainly no precedent +can be cited for a Federal system under which all the common +expenditure is borne by one of the parties. And further, the present +Government state freely that they hope to carry out their policy by +introducing a Bill for Home Rule for Scotland and possibly also for +Wales. Will the Scotch and Welsh consent to contribute towards the +government of Ireland; or will they demand that they shall be treated +like Ireland, and leave the people of England to pay all Imperial +services and to subsidize Ireland, Scotland and Wales? Then again, +Ireland is to send forty-two representatives to what is still +sarcastically to be called the "Parliament of the United Kingdom," but +will no doubt popularly be known as the English Parliament. They +are to vote about the taxation of people in Great Britain, and to +interfere in local affairs of that country, whilst the people of +Great Britain are not to tax Ireland or interfere in any way with its +affairs. This is indeed representation without taxation. Of course it +is inevitable that the Irish members will continue to do what they are +doing at present--that is, offer their votes to whatever party will +promise further concessions to Irish Nationalism; and they will +probably find no more difficulty in getting an English party to +consent to such an immoral bargain than they do now. + +The provisions as to legislation for Ireland are still more +extraordinary. The Irish Parliament is to have complete power of +legislating as to Irish affairs, with the exception of certain matters +enumerated in the Act; thus it may repeal any Acts of the Imperial +Parliament passed before 1914. On the other hand, the English +Parliament (in which Ireland will have only forty-two representatives) +will also be able to pass laws binding Ireland (and in this way to +re-enact the laws which the Irish Parliament has just repealed), and +these new laws the Irish Parliament may not repeal or overrule. Now +this power of the English Parliament will either be a reality or a +farce; if it is a reality, the Irish Nationalists will be no more +inclined to submit to laws made by "an alien Parliament" in which they +have only forty-two representatives than they are at present to submit +to those made by one in which they have 103; if it is a farce, the +"supremacy of the Imperial Parliament" is a misleading expression. +The Lord Lieutenant is to act as to some matters on the advice of the +Irish Ministry, as to others on the advice of the English. Anyone who +has studied the history of constitutional government in the colonies +in the early days, when the governor was still supposed to act as +to certain affairs independently of ministerial advice, will see the +confusion to which this must lead. Suppose the Lord Lieutenant acts +on the advice of the English ministers in a way of which the +Irish Parliament do not approve, and the Irish Ministry resign in +consequence, what can result but a deadlock? + +But most extraordinary of all are the provisions as to finance. The +Government appointed a Committee of Experts to consider this question. +The committee made their report; but the Government rejected their +advice and substituted another plan which is so elaborate that it is +only possible to touch on some of its more important features here. +I have already said that the English Parliament will have no power +to tax Ireland. That statement, however, must be taken subject to two +reservations. The Bill provides that if ever the happy day arrives +when for three consecutive years the revenue of Ireland has exceeded +the cost of government, the English Parliament (with the addition of +twenty-three extra members summoned from Ireland for the purpose) +may make new provisions securing from Ireland a contribution towards +Imperial expenditure. As this is the only reference to the subject +in the Bill, the general opinion was that until those improbable +circumstances should occur, the English Parliament would have no power +to tax Ireland; but when the debates were drawing to a close, the +Government astonished the House by stating that according to their +construction of the Bill, should any new emergency arise at any time +after the Bill becomes law (for instance, a great naval emergency +requiring an addition to the Income Tax) it would be not merely the +right but also the duty of the Imperial Chancellor of the Exchequer +to see that the charge should be borne by the whole United Kingdom--in +other words, the Parliament in which Ireland possesses only forty-two +representatives may and ought to tax Ireland for Imperial purposes. +The friction which will arise should any attempt of the sort be made, +especially as the power is not stated in the Bill, is evident. In +plain words, it will be impossible to levy the tax. + +But apart from these rights, which one may safely say will never be +exercised, the financial arrangements will from their very complexity +be a constant source of trouble. All taxes levied in Ireland are to be +paid into the English Exchequer (or as it is called in the Bill "The +Exchequer of the United Kingdom"). Some of the objects for which +these taxes have been levied are to be managed by the Irish +Government--these are called "Irish services"; others are to be +managed by the English Government--these are called "Reserved +services." The English Exchequer will then hand over to the Irish +Exchequer:-- + + (a) A sum representing the net cost to the Exchequer of the + United Kingdom of "Irish Services" at the time of the passing + of the Act; + + (b) The sum of £500,000 a year, reducible to £200,000, above + referred to; and + + (c) A sum equal to the proceeds of any new taxes levied by the + Irish Parliament. + +Then the balance which the English Exchequer will retain, after +handing over these three sums, will go to the "Reserved Services." But +as, in consequence of the establishment of the Old Age Pensions +and some other similar liabilities, the aggregate cost of governing +Ireland at this moment exceeds the revenue derived from Ireland by +about £1,500,000, the English taxpayer will have to make up this sum, +as well as to give to Ireland an annual present of £500,000; and +even if the Irish Government succeeds in managing its affairs more +economically than the Government at present does, that will give no +relief to the British taxpayer, for it will be observed that the first +of the three sums which the Exchequer of the United Kingdom is to hand +over is not a sum representing the cost of the "Irish Services" at any +future date but the cost at the time of the passing of the Act. + +It is possible of course that the Irish revenue derived from existing +taxes may increase, and so the burden on the English taxpayer may +be lightened; but as it is more probable that it will decrease, and +consequently the burden become heavier, the English taxpayer cannot +derive much consolation from that. + +It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that a number of extremely +intricate and difficult financial questions must arise; for instance, +what sum really represents the net cost of "Irish Services" at the +time of the passing of the Act; what sum equals the net proceeds of +new taxes imposed by the Irish Parliament; and at what moment it can +be said that the revenue of Ireland has for three consecutive years +exceeded the cost of government. All such matters are to be decided +by a Board of Five, of whom one is to be nominated by the King +(presumably on the advice of the English Ministers), two by the +English Government, and two by the Irish. From the decisions of this +Board on matters of fact there is to be no appeal. It is needless +to point out that every detail in which the three English members +overrule the two Irish will be fought out again in the English +Parliament by the forty Irish members. This again will show how vain +is the hope that future English Parliaments will be relieved from +endless discussions as to Irish affairs. Professor Dicey has well +named the able work in which he has analysed the Bill and shown its +impossibilities "A Fool's Paradise." + +The provisions concerning those matters as to which the Irish +Parliament is to have no power to legislate are as strange as the +other clauses of the Bill. For six years the Constabulary are to be a +"reserved service"; but as they will be under the orders of the Irish +Government, the object of this is hard to see--unless indeed it is to +create an impression that the Ulstermen if they refuse to obey them +are rebelling not against the Irish but the Imperial Government. The +Post Office Savings Banks are "reserved" for a longer period; as to +the postal services to places beyond Ireland, the Irish Parliament +will have no power to legislate; but the Post Office, so far as it +relates to Ireland alone, will be handed over at once to the Irish +Parliament--although even in the case of Federal Unions such as +Australia the Post Office is usually considered to be eminently a +matter for the Federal authority. And the question whether an Irish +Act is unconstitutional and therefore void will be decided by the +Privy Council, which will be regarded as an essentially English body; +hence if it attempts to veto an Irish Act, its action will be at once +denounced as a revival of Poyning's Act and the Declaratory Act of +George I. + +The Bill excludes the relations with Foreign States from the powers of +the Irish Parliament, but says nothing to prevent the Irish Government +from appointing a political agent to the Vatican. That is probably one +of the first things that it will do; and as the Lord Lieutenant could +never form a Government which would consent to any other course, he +will be obliged to consent. This agent, not being responsible to the +British Foreign Office, may cause constant friction between England +and Italy. + +But quite apart from the unworkable provisions of the Bill, everything +connected with its introduction and passing through Parliament has +tended to increase the hatred which the Opposition feel towards it, +and the determination of the Ulstermen to resist it if necessary even +by force. Those who lived in Australia whilst Federation was under +discussion will recollect how carefully the scheme was brought before +the people, discussed in various Colonial Parliaments, considered over +again line by line by the delegates in an Inter-Colonial Conference, +examined afresh in the Colonial Office in London and in the Imperial +Parliament and finally laid before each colony for its acceptance. Yet +here is a matter which vitally affects the government not of Ireland +only but of the whole United Kingdom, and thus indirectly of the +Empire at large; it was (as I have shown) not fairly brought before +the people at a general election; it has been introduced by what +is admittedly merely a coalition Government as a matter of bargain +between the various sections, at a time when the British Constitution +is in a state of dislocation, as the power of the House of Lords has +been destroyed and the new Upper Chamber not yet set up; and it has +been passed without adequate discussion. This I say deliberately; it +is no use to point out how many hours have been spent in Committee, +for the way in which the discussion has been conducted has deprived +it of any real value. The custom has been for the Government to state +beforehand the time at which each batch of clauses is to be passed, +and what amendments may be discussed (the rest being passed over in +silence); when the discussion is supposed to begin, their supporters +ostentatiously walk out, and the Opposition argue to empty benches; +then when the moment for closing the discussion arrives, the Minister +in charge gets up and says that the Government cannot accept any of +the amendments proposed; the bell rings, the Government supporters +troop back, and pass all the clauses unamended. As an instance of this +contemptible way of conducting the debate, it is sufficient to point +to the fact already mentioned, that so vital a matter as the power +of the English Parliament to tax Ireland was not even hinted at until +nearly the end of the debates. + +And now the Bill is to become law without any further appeal to the +people. + +Are English Unionists to be blamed if they declare that an Act so +passed will possess no moral obligation, and that they are determined, +should the terrible necessity arise, to aid the Ulstermen in resisting +it to the uttermost? + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +THE DANGER TO THE EMPIRE OF ANY FORM OF HOME RULE. THE QUESTIONS +ANSWERED. + + +In the last chapter I explained how hopelessly unworkable is the +particular scheme of Home Rule which is contained in the present +Bill. I now proceed to show why Home Rule in any form must lead to +disaster--primarily to Ireland, ultimately to the Empire. + +Politicians who, like ostriches, possess the happy faculty of shutting +their eyes to unpleasant facts, may say that there is only one nation +in Ireland; but everyone who knows the country is quite aware that +there are two, which may be held together as part of the United +Kingdom, but which can no more be forced into one nation than +Belgium and Holland could be forced to combine as the Kingdom of the +Netherlands. And whatever cross-currents there may be, the great line +of cleavage is religion. Of course I am aware of the violent efforts +that have been made ever since the commencement of the Nationalist +agitation to prove that this is not so. Thus Parnell, addressing an +English audience, explained that religion had nothing to do with the +movement, and as evidence stated that he was the leader of it though +not merely a Protestant but a member of the Protestant Synod and a +parochial nominator for his own parish. Of course everyone in Ireland +knew perfectly well that he was only a Protestant in the sense that +Garibaldi was a Roman Catholic--he had been baptised as such in +infancy; and that he was not a member of the synod or a parochial +nominator, and never had been one; but the statement was good enough +to deceive his Nonconformist hearers. That Protestant Home Rulers +exist is not denied. But the numbers are so small that it is evident +that they are the rare exceptions that prove the rule. The very +anxiety with which, when a Protestant Home Ruler can be discovered +he is put forward, and the fact of his being a Protestant Home Ruler +referred to again and again, shows what a rare bird he is. To mention +one instance amongst many; a Protestant Home Ruler has recently +been speaking on platforms in England explaining that he came in a +representative capacity in order to testify to the people of England +that the Irish Protestants were now in favour of Home Rule. He did +not mention the fact that in the district where he resided there +were about 1,000 Protestants and he was the only Home Ruler amongst +them--in fact, nearly all the rest had signed a Petition against the +Bill. And when we come to examine who these Protestant Home Rulers +are, about whom so much has been said, we find first that there is in +this as in every other movement, a very small number of faddists, who +like to go against their own party; secondly a few who though they +still call themselves Protestants have to all intents and purposes +abandoned their religion, and therefore cannot fairly be reckoned; +thirdly, a few who hold appointments from which they would be +dismissed if they did not conform; fourthly, some who say openly that +Home Rule is coming and that whatever their private opinions may be it +is the wisest policy to worship the rising sun (bearing in mind that +Mr. Dillon has promised that when the Nationalists attain their end +they will remember who were their friends and who their enemies, and +deal out rewards and punishments accordingly); and fifthly, those who +have accepted what future historians will describe as bribes. For the +present Government have showered down Peerages, Knighthoods of +various orders, Lieutenancies of Counties, Deputy-Lieutenancies and +Commissions of the Peace--not to speak of salaried offices both +in Ireland and elsewhere--on Protestants who would consent to turn +Nationalists, in a manner which makes it absurd to talk any more about +bribery at the time of the Union. And yet with all this the Protestant +Home Rulers are such an extremely small body that they may be +disregarded. And indeed it is hard to see how an earnest, consistent +and logically-minded Protestant can be a Nationalist; for loyalty to +the King is a part of his creed; and, in the words of a Nationalist +organ, the _Midland Tribune_, "If a man be a Nationalist he must _ipso +facto_ be a Disloyalist, for Irish Nationalism and loyalty to the +throne of England could not be synonymous." + +On the other hand, a large proportion of the educated Roman Catholics, +the men who have a real stake in the country, are Unionists. Some +of them, however earnest they may be in their religion, dread the +domination of a political priesthood; others dread still more the +union of the Church with anarchism. As has already been shown, +they refuse to join the United Irish League; some in the north have +actually subscribed the Ulster Covenant; many others have signed +petitions against Home Rule throughout the country; and a still larger +number have stated that they would gladly do so if they did not fear +the consequences. It is probably therefore correct to say that +the number of Unionists in Ireland decidedly exceeds the number of +Protestants; in other words, less than three-fourths of the population +are Nationalists, and more than one-fourth (perhaps about one-third) +are Unionists. And more than that; if we are to test the reality of +a movement, we must look not merely at numbers but at other matters. +Violent language may be used; but the fact remains as I have +previously stated that even if the Nationalists are taken as being +only two-thirds of the population, their annual subscriptions to the +cause do not amount to anything like a penny per head and that the +agitation could not last for six months if it were not kept alive +by contributions from America and the Colonies. But though the +Nationalist movement has not brought about a Union between the Orange +and the Green, it has caused two other Unions to be formed which will +have an important influence on the future history of the country. In +the first place it has revived, or cemented, the Union which, as we +have seen, existed at former periods of Irish history, but which has +existed in no other country in the world--the Union between the +Black and the Red. That a Union between two forces so essentially +antagonistic as Ultramontanism and Jacobinism will be permanent, one +can hardly suppose; whether the clericals, if they succeed in crushing +the heretics, will afterwards be able to turn and crush the anarchists +with whom they have been in alliance, and then reign supreme; or +whether, as happened in France at the end of the eighteenth century +and in Portugal recently, the anarchists who have grown up within +the bosom of the Church will prove to be a more deadly foe to the +clericals than the heretics ever were--it is impossible to say; but +neither prospect seems very cheerful. + +In the second place, the Nationalist movement has drawn all the +Protestant bodies together as nothing else could. Episcopalians, +Presbyterians and Methodists have all joined hands in the defence of +their common liberties. The Nationalists have left no stone unturned +in their efforts to prove that the northern Protestants are disloyal. +They have succeeded in finding one speech that was made by an excited +orator (not a leader) forty-four years ago, to the effect that the +Disestablishment of the Church might result in the Queen's Crown being +kicked into the Boyne. As this is the only instance they can rake up, +it has been quoted in the House of Commons and elsewhere again +and again; and Mr. Birrell (whose knowledge of Ireland seems to be +entirely derived from Nationalist speeches) has recently elaborated +it by saying that when the Church was going to be disestablished +"they used to declare" that the Queen's Crown would be kicked into the +Boyne, and yet their threats came to nothing and therefore the +result of Home Rule will be the same. The fact was that the Church +establishment was the last relic of Protestant Ascendancy; and as +I have already shown, that meant Anglican ascendancy in which +Presbyterianism did not participate; hence, when the agitation for +Disestablishment arose, though some few Presbyterians greatly disliked +it, their opposition as a whole was lukewarm. But when in 1886 Home +Rule became a question of practical politics, they rose up against it +as one man; in 1893, when the second Home Rule Bill was introduced and +actually passed the House of Commons, they commenced organising their +Volunteer army to resist it, if necessary, by force of arms; and +they are just as keen to-day as they were twenty years ago. They are +certainly not disloyal; the republican spirit which permeated +their ancestors in the eighteenth century has long since died out +completely. Sir Walter Scott said that if he had lived at the time of +the Union between Scotland and England, he would have fought against +it; but, living a century later and seeing the benefit that it had +been to his country, his feelings were all on the other side. That is +what the Presbyterians of Ulster say to-day. They point to the way in +which Ulster has, under the Union, been able to develop itself; with +no richer soil, no better climate, and no greater natural advantages +than other parts of Ireland, the energy, ability, and true patriotism +of the people have enabled them to establish and encourage commerce +and manufactures which have brought wealth and prosperity to Ulster +whilst the other Provinces have been stationary or retrograde. There +cannot be a better instance of the different spirit which animates the +two communities than the history of the linen industry. Michael Davitt +bitterly described it as "Not an Irish, but an Orange industry." And +from his point of view, he was quite right; for it is practically +confined to Ulster. In that Province it has during the nineteenth +century developed so steadily that the annual export now exceeds +£15,000,000 in value and more than 70,000 hands are employed in the +mills. Not long ago, a Royal Commission was appointed to enquire +whether it was not possible to grow flax in the south and west, and +if so why it was not done. The Commission made careful enquiries, and +reported that in both Munster and Connaught efforts had been made to +establish the industry (notably by the late Lord Bandon, one of the +much-abused landlord class, who had let land for the purpose at a +nominal charge, obtained seed and brought experts from the north +to instruct the people); that it had been proved that both soil and +climate were quite as well adapted for it as in Ulster; but that after +a few years the buyers refused any longer to purchase the flax as it +was so carelessly and badly prepared that it was valueless; and so +the industry had died out. In both south and west the people expressed +their readiness to revive it if a large grant were made to them by the +Government, but not otherwise. + +Then again we may take the growth of the cities. It seems hard now to +realise that one reason why the people of Dublin opposed the Union was +because they feared lest, when their city ceased to be the capital, +Cork might grow into a great industrial centre and surpass it. Cork +has remained stationary ever since; Belfast, then an insignificant +country town, has become a city of 400,000 inhabitants, and the +customs from it alone are more than double those from all the rest of +Ireland put together. And what is true of Belfast is true also on a +smaller scale of all the other towns north of the Boyne. + +This remarkable contrast between the progress of the north-east and +the stagnation of the rest of the country is no new thing. It has been +observed ever since the Union. So long ago as 1832 the Report of the +Commission on the linen manufacture of Ireland contained the following +words:-- + + "Political and religious animosities and dissensions, and + increasing agitation first for one object and then for + another have so destroyed confidence and shaken the bonds of + society--undermined men's principles and estranged + neighbour from neighbour, friend from friend, and class + from class--that, in lieu of observing any common effort + to ameliorate the condition of the people, we find every + proposition for this object, emanate from which party it may, + received with distrust by the other; maligned, perverted and + destroyed, to gratify the political purposes of a faction.... + The comparative prosperity enjoyed by that portion of Ireland + where tranquillity ordinarily prevails, such as the Counties + Down, Antrim, and Derry, testify the capabilities of Ireland + to work out her own regeneration, when freed of the disturbing + causes which have so long impeded her progress in civilization + and improvement. We find there a population hardy, healthy and + employed; capital fast flowing into the district; new sources + of employment daily developing themselves; a people well + disposed alike to the government and institutions of their + country; and not distrustful and jealous of their superiors. + Contrast the social condition of these people with such + pictures as we have presented to us from other districts." + +This energetic, self-reliant and prosperous community now see before +their eyes what the practical working of government by the League is. +They see it generally in the condition of the country, and especially +in the Dublin Convention of 1909, the narrow-minded administration of +the Local Government Act wherever the power of the League prevails, +and the insecurity for life and property in the west; they know also +that a Home Rule Government must mean increased taxation (as the +Nationalists themselves confess) which will probably--in fact, one may +almost say must certainly, as no other source is available--be thrown +on the Ulster manufactures; is it not therefore a matter of life and +death to them to resist it to the uttermost? + +But as I have said, the great line of cleavage is religion. Here I +know that I shall be accused of "Orange bigotry." But I am not afraid +of the charge; first because I do not happen to be an Orangeman; and +secondly because I regard bigotry as the outcome of ignorance and +prejudice, and consider therefore that a calm examination of the +evidence is the very antithesis of bigotry. In order to make this +examination I desire in the first place to avoid the mistake that +Grattan made in judging the probabilities of the future from the +opinions of personal friends whom I like and respect, but who, as I +know (and regret to think), possess no influence whatever. I consider +that there are other data--such as works of authority, the action +of the public bodies, statements by men in prominent positions, +and articles in leading journals--from which it is safer to form +an estimate. The Ulstermen are content that the country should be +governed, as far as religion is concerned, on modern principles--that +is to say, in much the same way that England, Australia and New +Zealand are governed to-day. The Nationalists, whatever they may +say in England or the Colonies, have never in Ireland from the +commencement of the movement attempted to deny that their object is +to see Ireland governed on principles which are totally different +and which the Ulstermen detest. As long ago as 1886, the _Freeman's +Journal_, the leading Nationalist organ, said:-- + + "We contend that the good government of Ireland by England + is impossible ... the one people has not only accepted but + retained with inviolable constancy the Christian faith; + the other has not only rejected it, but has been for three + centuries the leader of the great apostasy, and is at this day + the principal obstacle to the conversion of the world." + +And as recently as December 1912, Professor Nolan of Maynooth, +addressing the Roman Catholic students at the Belfast University, +said:-- + + "Humanly speaking, we are on the eve of Home Rule. We shall + have a free hand in the future. Let us use it well. This is + a Catholic country, and if we do not govern it on Catholic + lines, according to Catholic ideals, and to safe-guard + Catholic interests, it will be all the worse for the country + and all the worse for us. We have now a momentous opportunity + of changing the whole course of Irish history." + +Then another of their papers, the _Rosary_, has said: "We have +played the game of tolerance until the game is played out"; and has +prophesied that under Home Rule the Church will become an irresistible +engine before whom all opposition must go down. And whatever the +educated laity may desire, no one who knows Ireland can doubt that +it is the clerical faction that will be all-powerful. The leading +ecclesiastics are trained at the Gregorian University at Rome; and +one of the Professors at that institution, in a work published in 1901 +with the special approval of Pope Leo XIII, enunciated the doctrine +that it is the duty of a Christian State to put to death heretics +who have been condemned by the Ecclesiastical Court. Of course no one +supposes that such a thing will ever take place in Ireland; but what +the Ulstermen object to is putting themselves under the rule of +men who have been trained in such principles and believe them to be +approved by an infallible authority. + +In 1904 some foreign merchants at Barcelona wished to build a church +for themselves. Republican feeling is so strong in the municipality +that permission was obtained without difficulty. But the bishop +at once protested and appealed to the King. The King wrote back a +sympathetic letter expressing his deep regret that he was unable to +prevent this fresh attack on the Catholic faith. + +We are constantly being told that the tolerance and liberality shown +by the majority in Quebec is sufficient of itself to prove how foolish +are the apprehensions felt by the minority in Ireland. Well, I will +quote from a journal which cannot be accused of Protestant bias, +the _Irish Independent_, one of the leading organs of the +Nationalist-clerical party in Ireland:-- + + "(From our own Correspondent.) + + "Montreal, Thursday. + + "In connection with the celebration of the anniversary of + Wolfe's victory and death, which takes place in September, + prominent members of the Anglican Church have inaugurated a + movement for the erection of a Wolfe Memorial Chapel on + the Plains of Abraham. The organisers of the movement hope + ultimately to secure the transfer of the General's remains to + the chapel for interment on the scene of his victory. + + "The population being largely French-Canadian Catholics, the + Catholic Church organ of Quebec strongly protests against + the erection of an Anglican chapel in the heart of a Catholic + district." + +Now if this conduct on the part of the Roman Catholic authorities is +quite right at Barcelona and Quebec, why is it "Orange bigotry" +to suggest that the same people may act in the same way at Cork or +Galway? + +Again, in 1910, a remarkable volume was published, written by Mrs. +Hugh Fraser, the sister of the novelist, Marion Crawford, entitled "A +Diplomat's Wife in Many Lands." The authoress was a very able woman, +who had travelled much and mixed in cultured society wherever she had +been; her book was highly reviewed by various English Magazines. She +tells the story of a child of Jewish parents living at Rome in the +days of Pope Pius IX, who was secretly baptized in infancy by a nurse, +and at the age of seven was forcibly taken from his parents and placed +in a Convent School. She explains that not only was this quite right, +but that such a course is inevitable in every country in which the +Church has power; and that the feelings of the heretic mother whose +child is taken from her are a fair subject of ridicule on the part of +good Catholics. Can Irish Protestants be accused of bigotry when they +contend that these writers mean what they say? English Nonconformists +argue that they ought to wait until the time comes and then either +fight or leave the country; but the Irish Protestants reply that it +is more sensible to take steps beforehand to ward off the danger. And +whether they are right or wrong, the fact remains that those are their +ideas, and that is their determination; and this is the situation +which must be faced if Home Rule is forced upon the people of Ulster. + +By a striking coincidence, two meetings have recently been held on the +same day--the 16th of May 1913--which form an apt illustration of +the position adopted by the two parties. The first was a great +demonstration of Unionists at Belfast, organised in order to make a +further protest against the Bill and to perfect the organisation for +opposing it by force, if the necessity arises; the second was a large +meeting of the United Irish League at Mullingar. The Chairman, Mr. +Ginnell, M.P. (who has gained prominence and popularity by his skill +in arranging cattle-drives), said that the chief cause of the pressure +last session was to get the Home Rule Bill through its first stage. It +was still called a Home Rule Bill, though differing widely from +what most of them always understood by Home Rule. Deeply though he +regretted the Bill's defects and limitations, still he thought almost +any Parliament in Ireland was worth accepting--first, because it was +in some sense a recognition of the right to govern themselves; and +secondly, because even a crippled Parliament would give them fresh +leverage for complete freedom. No one could be silly enough to suppose +that an intelligent Ireland, having any sort of a Parliament of its +own, would be prevented by any promise given now by place-hunters, +from using that Parliament for true national purposes. + +That no army which the Ulstermen can form will be able to stand +against British troops supported by cavalry and artillery is evident; +but it seems almost past belief that England should be ready to +plunge the country into civil war; or that British troops should march +out--with bands playing "Bloody England, we hate you still," or some +other inspiring Nationalist air--to shoot down Ulstermen who will come +to meet them waving the Union Jack and shouting "God save the King." +And if they do--what then? Lord Wolseley, when Commander-in-Chief in +Ireland in 1893, pointed out the probable effect on the British Army +in a letter to the Duke of Cambridge:-- + + "If ever our troops are brought into collision with the + loyalists of Ulster, and blood is shed, it will shake the + whole foundations upon which our army rests to such an extent + that I feel that our Army will never be the same again. Many + officers will resign to join Ulster, and there will be such + a host of retired officers in the Ulster ranks that men who + would stand by the Government no matter what it did, will be + worse than half-hearted in all they do. No army could stand + such a strain upon it." + +And then England, having crushed her natural allies in Ulster, will +hand over the Government of Ireland to a party whose avowed object +is to break up the Empire and form a separate Republic. Dangers and +difficulties arose even when the independent legislature of Ireland +was in the hands of men who were loyal and patriotic in the noblest +sense of the term, and when there were in every district a certain +number of educated gentlemen of position who (as we have seen) were +always ready to risk their lives and fortunes for the defence of the +realm; what will happen when the loyal minority have been shot down, +driven out of the country, or forced into bitter hostility to the +Government who have betrayed and deserted them? As Lecky wrote years +ago:-- + + "It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the danger + that would arise if the vast moral legislative, and even + administrative powers which every separate legislature must + necessarily possess, were exercised in any near and vital + part of the British Empire, by men who were disloyal to its + interests. To place the government of a country by a voluntary + and deliberate act in the hands of dishonest and disloyal men, + is perhaps the greatest crime that a public man can commit: + a crime which, in proportion to the strength and soundness of + national morality, must consign those who are guilty of it to + undying infamy." + +If English people are so blind that they cannot perceive this, +foreigners, whose vision is clearer, have warned them. Bismarck said +that England, by granting Home Rule to Ireland, would dig its own +grave; and Admiral Mahan has recently written:-- + + "It is impossible for a military man or a statesman to look + at the map and not perceive that the ambition of the Irish + separatists, if realised, would be even more threatening to + the national life of Great Britain than the secession of the + South was to the American Union. + + "The legislative supremacy of the British Parliament against + the assertion of which the American Colonists revolted + and which to-day would be found intolerable in Canada and + Australia cannot be yielded in the case of an island, where + independent action might very well be attended with fatal + consequences to its partner. The instrument for such action, + in the shape of an independent Parliament, could not be safely + trusted even to avowed friends." + +So then, having reviewed the evidence as calmly and dispassionately as +I can, I answer the two questions which I propounded at the outset of +the enquiry--That the real objects of the Nationalists are the +total separation of Ireland from England and the establishment of an +Independent Republic; and that the men of Ulster in resisting them +to the uttermost are not merely justified on the ground of +self-preservation, but are in reality fighting for the cause of the +Empire. + + + + +NOTE. + +The following Report of the Annual Pilgrimage in memory of Wolfe Tone, +which took place on the 22nd of June last, and the article in the +_Leinster Leader_ (a prominent Nationalist journal) will show how +closely the Nationalists of to-day follow in the footsteps of Wolfe +Tone. + + +THE MEMORY OF WOLFE TONE. + +ANNUAL PILGRIMAGE TO BODENSTOWN. + +(_From our Reporter_.) + +On Sunday last the annual pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe +Tone took place to Bodenstown churchyard. This year the numbers who +attended exceeded those of last year, about a thousand coming from +Dublin and another contingent from Tullamore, Clare, and Athlone. The +procession formed outside Sallins station was a most imposing one, +being made up of St. James' Brass Band and the Lorcan O'Toole Pipers' +Band and the Athlone Pipers' Band, the National Boy Scouts, the +Daughters of Erin, and members of the Wolfe Tone Memorial Clubs. + +At the graveside demonstration, Mr. Thos. J. Clarke presided and said +it was a gratifying thing that numbers of their fellow-countrymen were +to-day swinging back to the old fighting line and taking pride in the +old Fenian principles. He introduced Mr. P.H. Pearse, B.A. + +Mr. Pearse then came forward and delivered an eloquent and impressive +oration, first speaking in Irish. Speaking in English, he said they +had come to the holiest place in Ireland, holier to them than that +sacred spot where Patrick sleeps in Down. Patrick brought them life, +but Wolfe Tone died for them. Though many had testified in death +to the truth of Ireland's claim to Nationhood, Wolfe Tone was the +greatest of all that had made that testimony; he was the greatest of +Ireland's dead. They stood in the holiest place in Ireland, for what +spot of the Nation's soil could be holier than the spot in which the +greatest of her dead lay buried. He found it difficult to speak in +that place, and he knew they all partook of his emotion. There were +no strangers there for they were all in a sense own brothers to Tone +(hear, hear). They shared his faith, his hope still unrealised and +his great love. They had come there that day not merely to salute this +noble dust and to pay their homage to the noble spirit of Tone, but +to renew their adhesion to the faith of Tone and to express their +full acceptance of the gospel of which Tone had given such a clear +definition. That gospel had been taught before him by English-speaking +men, uttered half-articulately by Shan O'Neill, expressed in some +passionate metaphor by Geoffrey Keating, and hinted at by Swift in +some bitter jibe, but it was stated definitely and emphatically by +Wolfe Tone and it did not need to be ever again stated anew for any +new generation. Tone was great in mind, but he was still greater in +spirit. He had the clear vision of the prophet; he saw things as they +were and saw things as they would be. They owed more to this dead man +than they should be ever able to repay him by making pilgrimages to +his grave or building the stateliest monuments in the streets of +his city. They owed it to him that there was such a thing as Irish +Nationalism; to his memory and the memory of '98 they owed it that +there was any manhood left in Ireland (hear, hear). The soul of +Wolfe Tone was like a burning flame, a flame so pure, so ardent, so +generous, that to come into communion with it was as a new optimism +and regeneration. Let them try in some way to get into contact with +the spirit of Tone and possess themselves of its ardour. If they could +do that it would be a good thing for them and their country, because +they would carry away with them a new life from that place of death +and there would be a new resurrection of patriotic grace in their +souls (hear, hear). Let them think of Tone; think of his boyhood +and young manhood in Dublin and in Kildare; think of his adventurous +spirit and plans, think of his glorious failure at the bar, and his +healthy contempt for what he called a foolish wig and gown, think how +the call of Ireland came to him; think how he obeyed that call; think +how he put virility into the Catholic movement; think how this heretic +toiled to make freemen of Catholic helots (applause). Think how he +grew to love the real and historic Irish nation, and then there came +to him that clear conception that there must be in Ireland not three +nations but one; that Protestant and Dissenter must close in amity +with Catholic, and Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter must unite to +achieve freedom for all (applause). Let them consider the sacrifices +Tone had made; he had to leave so much. Never was there a man who was +so richly endowed as he was, he had so much love in his warm heart. He +(speaker) would rather have known Tone than any other man of whom he +ever read or heard. He never read of any one man who had more in him +of the heroic stuff than Tone had; how gaily and gallantly he had set +about the doing of a mighty thing. He (speaker) had always loved the +very name of Thomas Russell because Tone so loved him. To be Tone's +friend! What a privilege! for Tone had for his friends an immense +love, an immense charity. He had such love for his wife and children! +But such was the destiny of the heroes of their nation; they had +to stifle in their hearts all that love and that sweet music and to +follow only the faint voice that called them to the battlefield or to +the harder death at the foot of the gibbet. Tone heard that voice and +obeyed it and from his grave to-day he was calling on them and they +were there to answer his voice; and they pledged themselves to +carry out his programme to abolish the connection with England, +the never-failing source of political evils and to establish +the independence of their country, to abolish the memory of past +dissensions, and to replace for the denominations of Protestant, +Catholic and Dissenter, the common name of Irishman (applause). +In that programme was to be found the whole philosophy of Irish +Nationality; that programme included the philosophy of the Gaelic +League and of later prophets, and it was to that programme they +pledged their adhesion; they pledged it now at the graveside of Tone; +they pledged themselves to follow in the steps of Tone, never to rest +by day or night until this be accomplished, until Ireland be free +(applause); fighting on, not in despondency, but in great joy as Tone +fought; prizing it above all privileges, and hoping for the victory in +their own day. And if it should be granted to them in this generation +to complete the work that Tone's generation left unaccomplished! But +if that was not their destiny, they should fight on still, hoping +still, self-sacrificing still, knowing as they must know that causes +like this did not lose for ever, and that men like Tone did not die in +vain (applause). + +The address having concluded, wreaths were placed on the grave by the +National Boy Scouts and the Inghanite Na h-Eireann. + +During the afternoon an aeridheacht was held in an adjoining field at +which music, songs and recitations were contributed, and a thoroughly +enjoyable Irish-Ireland evening was spent. + + + + +AT THE GRAVE OF WOLFE TONE. + + +The lifework of Theobald Wolfe Tone, for the subversion of English +Government in Ireland, and the supreme sacrifice he made in the mighty +effort to erect in its stead an independent Ireland free from all +foreign denomination and control, was fittingly commemorated on Sunday +last, when the annual pilgrimage took place to Bodenstown Churchyard, +where all that is mortal of the great patriot lie buried. The +pilgrimage this year was worthy of the cause and the man, and afforded +some object lessons in what might be accomplished by a cultivation of +those principles of discipline and devotion to duty, in the pursuit +of a glorious ideal, which Tone taught and adhered to throughout his +adventurous and brilliant career. The well-ordered procession, +the ready obedience to the commands of the marshals, the intense +earnestness of the multitude, and the display made by the youths--the +national boy scouts--their military bearing, and the bands and banners +which interspersed the procession as it marched from Sallins to +Bodenstown was a spectacle which pleased the eye and stirred the +emotions. Everything in connection with the pilgrimage was carried out +with a close attention to detail, and military-like precision which +must have been very acceptable to the great patriot in whose honour +it was organised, were he but permitted to gaze from the great Unknown +upon this practical demonstration of the perpetuation of the spirit +which animated him and his time, in the struggle against English +misrule, and the love and veneration in which he is still held, after +the lapse of the century and more that has passed since he made the +final sacrifice of his life in the cause of freedom. Tone done to +death did not die in vain. The truth of this was evident in the +character of the pilgrimage on Sunday last, when all that is best and +purest in patriotism in the land assembled at his graveside, to renew +fealty to the aims and ideals for which he suffered and died, and to +hear the gospel of Irish nationality preached and expounded as he knew +and inculcated it in his day. A fusion of forces, and the cultivation +of a spirit and bond of brotherhood and friendship amongst Irishmen +in the common cause, were his methods to attain the great ideal of +a separate and distinct nationality, for then, as to-day, the chief +obstacle to freedom and nationhood was not so much English domination +in itself, as want of cohesion, faction, and the disruption caused +by alien traditions and teachings. This was the prevailing spirit of +Sunday's commemoration, and as the great mass of people filed past in +orderly array and knelt, prayed, and laid wreaths on the lonely grave, +the solemnity and impressiveness of the occasion was intensified. +In the suppressed murmurs, and silent gaze on the tomb of the mighty +dead, one could recognise the eagerness and the hope for another Tone +to arise to complete the work which he promoted, and vindicate the +purity of the motives which moved men like the leaders of '98 to do +and dare for all, and to "substitute the common name of Irishman +for Catholic, Protestant, and Dissenter." The promoters, too, were +fortunate in their choice of orator for the occasion. Mr. P.H. Pearse +did full justice to the occasion, and in language, beautiful and +impressive, pictured the man and his movements and the lessons to be +drawn by us to-day from the lifework of leaders in thought and action +like Tone. Close and consistent adhesion to principles of patriotism +and a readiness of self-sacrifice in the pursuit of those principles, +were his distinguishing characteristics all through life, and if we in +our time would emulate the example of Tone and his times, we must also +be ready when the call came to meet any demand made upon us for the +promotion of our national welfare. The orator of the day rightly, in +our opinion, described that hallowed spot in Bodenstown as one of the +holiest places in Ireland to-day, from the nationalist standpoint, +holding as it does the ashes of the man who, without friends, money or +influence to help him, and by sheer force of character, intensity of +purpose and earnestness, prevailed upon the greatest emperor-general +the world has ever seen Napoleon Bonaparte, to make a descent on +Ireland, in order to aid our starved, tortured, and persecuted people +to shake off the shackles that kept them in slavery, and elevate +Ireland once more to the dignity of full, free, and untrammelled +nationhood. We are all familiar with the events following this great +effort of Tone's, and the dark chapters that closed a glorious career. +All that is mortal of Tone is in the keeping of Kildare, and it is +a trust that we feel sure is not alone felt to be a high honour, +but which cannot fail to keep the cultivation of a high standard of +nationality before the people in whose midst repose the remains of one +of Ireland's greatest sons. Ireland, from the centre to the sea, +was represented in Sunday's great gathering to commemorate the +achievements of Wolfe Tone, and the occasion was honoured first by +the large and representative character of the throng, secondly by the +decorum observed all through the day's proceedings, and thirdly, by +the regularity and precision which attended the entire arrangements. +There was just one other feature which must have been very gratifying +to those identified with the organisation of the pilgrimage, +namely: the large proportion of ladies and young people, coming long +distances, who made up the gathering. And they were by no means the +least enthusiastic of the throng. This enthusiasm amongst our young +people is one of the most encouraging and promising signs of the +times, serving as it does to demonstrate the undying spirit of Irish +nationality, and the perpetuation of those principles to which Tone +devoted his time, talents, and eventually made the supreme sacrifice +of his life in having inculcated amongst his people. It is a glorious +legacy, and one that has ever been cherished with veneration for the +men who left it. He died a martyr to the cause he espoused, but his +memory and the cause live. The living blaze he and his co-workers, in +the cause of Irish freedom, kindled has never been completely stamped +out, and it still smoulders, and has occasionally burst into flame +only to be temporarily extinguished in the blood and tears of our +bravest and best who never forgot the teachings of Tone. And now, when +the sky is bright once more, and every circumstance portends the dawn +of a new era, full of hope and promise for the ultimate realisation +of those ideals for which thousands of our race have sacrificed their +lives, the spark of nationality which, even since Tone's death, has +repeatedly leaped into flame, still glows fitfully to remind us that +come what may it remains undying and unquenchable, a beacon to light +us on the path to freedom should disappointment and dashed hopes again +darken the outlook. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abjuration, oath of, 51. + Absentees, 65, 138, 139. + Acton, Lord, 37. + Adrian, Pope, 13. + Agrarian outrages, 152, 196-202, 210-215. + Agriculture, Department of, 161, 163. + Alexander, Pope, 14. + Alfred the Great, 9. + American War of Independence, 63, 72, 73, 83. + Anglican Church in Ireland, 27, 28, 60, 143, 144, 236. + Anne, Queen, 63. + Arkins, P., 210, 211. + Arklow, battle of, 109. + Armagh, Bishop of, 7. + Ashbourne Act, 159. + Ashtown, Lord, 203, 204. + Asquith, Rt. Hon. H.H., 129, 207. + Athenry founded by Normans, 17. + + Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur J., 156, 160, 164. + Balfour, Rt. Hon. Gerald, 168. + Baltimore, Lord, 38. + Bandon, Lord, 238. + Bannatyne, Mr., 214. + Barcelona, Church at, 243, 244. + Belfast, growth of, 239; + meeting at, 245; + persons employed by Corporation of, 174, 175; + University, 176, 193, 205. + Berkeley, Bishop, 120. + Biggar, J.G., 145. + Birrell, Rt. Hon. Augustine, Chief Secretary, 160, 167, 173, + 174, 197, 198, 200-205, 211, 216, 236. + Bismarck, Prince, 248. + Blake, W., 198. + "Board of Erin," 184. + Boers, Nationalist sympathy with, 170. + Borromeo, San Carlo, 54. + Bossuet, 54. + Bounties granted by Irish Parliament, 80. + Boy Scouts, 193. + Boycotting, 86, 148, 149, 153. + Boyne, battle of the, 48. + Brady, J., 145, 146. + Brian Boroo, 8, 9, 19. + Bright, John, 154, 159. + Brook, 57. + Browne estate, 168. + Bruce, Edward, invasion by, 19, 26, 91. + Bruce, King Robert, 17, 19, 26. + Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, Chief Secretary, 194, 195, 197. + Bulls, Papal, 13-15. + Burke, Mr., Under Secretary, murder of, 146, 153. + Busby, Mr., 157. + Butt, Isaac, advocates Home Rule, 145. + + Carey, James, 145. + Carlow, rebellion in, 109. + "Carrion Crows," 202. + Castlebar, capture of by the French, 112. + Castledawson outrage, 216, 217. + Castlereagh, Lord, 126, 128. + Catholic University Medical School, 176. + Cattle driving, 167, 195-202. + Cavan, raid by septs of, 7. + Cavendish, murder of Lord F., 146, 153. + Celts, 5-14, 20, 23, 24, 31. + Charlemont, Lord, 93. + Charles I, 40-42. + Charles II, 44. + Chicago Convention, 155. + Childers, Erskine, 222. + Church, Celtic. See Celts of Ireland. + See Anglican Church. + Churchill, Rt. Hon. Winston, 209. + Clan-na-gael, 147, 185. + Clare, state of, in 1912, 210-214. + Clare, Lord, 81, 84, 85, 111. + Clerkenwell explosion, 143. + Clontarf, battle of, 9. + "Coalition Ministry," 208. + "Coigne and livery," 11. + College of Surgeons, Dublin, 176. + Condon, O'Meagher, 96, 184, 185. + Confiscations, 30, 42, 43, 57, 150. + Congested Districts Board, 164-168. + Connaught, Celtic raids into, 7; + lands in, given to rebels, 42; + rebellion in, 112. + Conolly, Mr., 215. + Convention in Dublin in 1909, 206, 207, 240. + Cooke, Mr., Under Secretary, 111. + Co-operative Credit Banks, 162, 163. + Co-operative Farming Societies, 161-163. + Cork, Medical School at, 176; + persons employed by County Council of, 175. + Corn Laws, repeal of the, 136. + Cornwallis, Lord, 123, 129. + County Councils, 168-178, 191, 193. + Covenant, Ulster. See Ulster Covenant. + Cowper Commission, 149. + Crewe, Lord, 201. + Crimes Act of 1887, 157, 158, 194. + Crimes Prevention Act, 153, 157. + Croke, Archbishop, 144, 156. + Cromwell and Cromwellians, 38, 42, 44, 57, 66, 67, 106. + Crosbie, Mr., 216. + Curley, D., 145, 146. + + _Daily News_, 200. + Daly, J., 195. + Danes, 8, 9, 13. + Davies, Sir, J., 5. + Davitt, Michael, 145, 167, 238. + Declaratory Act of George I, 74, 229. + Defenders, 87. + Department of Agriculture, 161, 163. + Derry, siege of, 47. + Desmond rebellion, 34. + Devlin, J., 96, 146, 182. + Devoy, J., 94, 146. + Dicey, Professor A.V., 228. + Dillon, John, 97, 156, 184, 234. + Dillon estate, 165. + Disestablishment of the Irish Church, 143, 144, 236. + Dispensary doctors, appointment of, 176, 177. + District Councils, 161, 168, 178. + Down, Celtic raid into, 7. + Dublin, founded by Danes, 8, 9; + Bishopric of, 8, 9; + Henry II at, 16; + Simnel crowned at, 22; + rebellion in neighbourhood of, 104, 109; + Convention at, in 1909, 206, 207, 240. + Dudley, Lord, 166. + "Dynamite Party," 147. + + Edward III, 20. + Edward VI, 29, 31. + Eighty Club, 162. + Elizabeth, Queen, 4, 27, 28, 33, 48, 91. + Emancipation, Roman Catholic, 134. + Emigration, 139, 140. + Emmett, R., 95, 132, 182. + Endowment of R.C. Church proposed, 134. + Ersefied Normans, 18, 20. + Esmonde, Dr., 105. + Exchequers, amalgamation of, 135. + + "Fair rents," 150. + Famine. See Potato famine. + Fenianism, 142, 144, 145, 147. + Feudal system, 14, 26. + Firbolgs, 5. + FitzGerald rebellion, 25, 27, 31. + FitzGibbon, J., 167, 171. + Fitzpatrick, case of Mrs., 210, 211. + Fiudir, 11. + Flax. See Linen. + "Flight of the Earls," 36. + Ford, Patrick, 146, 152, 154, 155. + Forster, Rt. Hon. W.E., Chief Secretary, 148. + Foster, Speaker, 126. + France, persecution in, 30, 37, 38, 45-48; + war with, 72, 73; + religious thought in, 76; + revolution in, 87, 101, 236; + invasions by, 91, 92, 111, 112. + Franklin, Benjamin, 73. + Fraser, Mrs. Hugh, 244. + _Freeman's Journal_, 170, 241. + _Frontier Sentinel_, 2. + + Gaelic League, 186-193. + Galway, founded by Normans, 17; + Medical School at, 176; + persons employed by County Council of, 175; + state of, in 1912, 215. + Games, English, forbidden, 193. + Gaughran, Bishop, 4. + Gavelkind, 11, 12. + General Council of County Councils, 172, 173, 186. + George III, 68. + Germany, persecution in, 37, 38; + Nationalist hopes of aid from, 93, 98, 99. + Ginnell, L., 196, 245. + Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W.E., 6, 95, 143, 148, 150, 152-155, + 179. + Grand juries, 178. + Grattan, 74-77, 93, 100, 120, 126. + "Grievances from Ireland," 203. + Gwynn, Stephen, 174. + + Habeus Corpus, suppression of, 69. + Henry II, 14, 15, 20, 36. + Henry VII, 22. + Henry VIII, 24, 26, 28, 29. + Hibernians, Ancient Order of, 184, 216. + Hobhouse, Rt. Hon. C.E., 208. + Hobson, B., 98. + Holland, intended invasion from, 101, 102. + Home Rule, 145, 155. + Home Rule Bill, of 1886, 154; + of 1893, 179, 221; + of 1912, 208, 218-231, 245. + Huguenots, 30, 45, 47, 55. + Hyde, Dr. Douglas, 97. + + Incumbered Estates Act, 138, 150. + Independence of Ireland real object of Nationalists, 173,181, + 182, 185, 186, 241, 242, 246-248. + And see Republic. + Ingram, Dr. Dunbar on the Union, 118-129. + Insurance Act, 1911, 185. + "Invincibles," the, 147. + Irish Agricultural Organization Society, 161, 162. + Irish brigade in France, 92. + _Irish Freedom_, 94. + _Irish Independent_, 243. + Irish language, 186-193. + _Irish Review_, 188. + Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, 145, 147. + "Irish services," 227. + + Jacobinism, 87, 89, 101, 236. + James I, 38, 40. + James II, 43, 44, 47, 49-51. + Jews, persecution of the, 58. + + Kabyles, 55. + Kenny, Mr. Justice, 197. + Kettle, A.J., 183. + Kettle, T.M., 97. + Kickham, 95. + Kildare, church burnt at, 7; + rebellion in, 105. + Kilkenny, founded by Normans, 17; + statutes of, 20; + rebellion in, 109. + Killala, French landing at, 111. + Killaloe, R.C. Bishop of, 212-214. + Kiltimagh case, 177. + King, title of, taken by Henry VIII, 27. + Kings, Celtic, of Ireland, 10. + King's County, plantation of, 29, 30; + persons employed by County Council of, 175. + + Labourer's Cottages Act, 160, 161. + Lalor, J.F., 141, 142, 153, 172. + Land Acts from 1870 to 1887, 140, 150-152, 159. + Land Court, 150, 197. + Land League, 147, 148, 152, 181, 182. + Land Purchase Acts, 158, 159. + Land tenure, tribal, 6; + primogeniture, 11, 12; + gavelkind, 11, 12; + in the 18th century, 65, 66. + Laws of England, attempted introduction of, 18; + made binding in Ireland, 22. + Lecky, Dr. W.E.H., 41, 44, 110, 117, 130, 247. + _Leinster Leader_, 95, 249. + Leitrim, raid by septs of, 7. + Leo XIII, Pope, 242. + Light Railways Act, 160. + Limerick, founded by Danes, 8; + Scotch invasion of, 19; + church windows broken at, 216. + Linen industry, 62, 63, 238, 239. + Local Government Act, 1898, 168-178, 180, 240. + Loise, persecution in the, 28. + Louis XIV, 43, 45-48, 53. + Louis XVI, 101, 102. + + MacAlpine, Kennett, 9. + McBride, Major, 98, 99. + MacDonnell, Lord, 166. + McKenna, Thomas, 79, 126. + McNicholas, Rev. J.T., 85. + MacSeamus, T., 188. + Magdeburg, sacking of, 42. + Magistrates, appointment of, 179, 180. + Magnus, Sir P., 205. + Mahan, Admiral, 248. + "Manchester Martyrs," 96-98, 144, 145, 192. + Maori customary claims, 39. + Marriage, law of R.C. Church as to, 85. + Maryborough, 30. + Maryland, 38. + Mayo County Council, 170. + Maunsell, R., 214. + Maynooth, foundation of, 88, 204. + Metropolitan Police Act, 157. + "Middlemen," 65. + _Midland Tribune_, 234. + Mitchell, J., 95, 97, 142. + "Molly Maguires," 184. + Morley, Rt. Hon. John, Chief Secretary, 165, 179. + Mountcashel, Lord, 53. + Munster, raid by men of, 7. + Murphy, Father Michael, 109. + Mutiny Act, 74. + + Nantes, revocation of Edict of, 30, 38, 45-48. + Napoleon, 91. + "Nation," meaning of word, 222. + National University, 191, 192, 205, 206. + Nationalists, real objects of, 3, 93-99, 248. + And see Independence; Republic. + Netherlands, persecution in the, 4, 33, 34. + New Zealand, 39, 157, 218-220, 241. + Nolan, Professor, 242. + "No Rent" proclamation, 153, 156. + Normans, character of, 17; + adoption of Celtic customs by, 18; + rebellions by, 23-25, 33, 34, 36. + + Oakboys, 69. + O'Brien, Smith, 96, 140. + O'Brien, William, 95. + O'Connell, Daniel, misstatements by, as to the Union, 116; + leads agitation for emancipation, 134; + and for repeal, 140. + O'Connor, T.P., 146. + O'Donnell, Bishop, 165. + O'Hara, Rev. D., 165. + O'Mahony, Mr., 41. + O'Mara, Mrs., 213. + O'Neill, Shan, 33, 34, 39. + Orange Society, foundation of, 90, 91. + Outrages, Agrarian. See Agrarian outrages. + + Pale, the English, 20-22, 24, 25, 31. + Parliament, Irish, 21-24, 35, 63-65, 69-71; + becomes independent, 74, 77-79; + disqualification of votes for, abolished, 84; + religious test for, not abolished, 84, 87; + proposed reform of, 87, 88; + criticized, 130, 131. + See also Regency question. + Parnell, C.S., 95, 96, 145, 156, 232. + Parnell Commission, 147. + Paul III, Pope, 26. + Peel, Sir Robert, 122, 205. + "Peep of Day Boys," 87, 90. + Penal Laws, the, 49-58, 63, 70, 72, 79, 82, 83. + Persecution, 4, 23, 32, 37, 38, 40, 43, 45-48, + 52-54, 242. + Philip and Mary, 29, 39. + Philip II of Spain, 28, 32, 33, 91. + Philipstown, 30. + "Physical Force Party," the, 147. + Pitt, William, commercial treaty proposed by, 78; + views of, on the Union, 122. + Pius V, Pope, 37. + "Plan of Campaign," the, 155. + "Plantations," 30, 31, 33, 38. + Plowden, F., 126. + Plunket, Lord, 132. + Plunkett, Rt. Hon. Sir Horace, 161. + Portugal, persecution in, 37, 48, 53. + Potato famine, 136, 137, 139. + Poyning's Act, 22, 74, 229. + Pretender, the, 50, 51. + Primogeniture, 11, 12. + Prosperous, attack on the, 105. + "Protestant ascendancy," 59, 101. + Protestant Home Rulers, 233, 234. + Puritans, 40, 42. + + Queen's County, plantation of, 29, 30. + Queen's University, 205. + Quakers, emigration aided by, 139. + + Raffeisen system, 162. + Rebellion of 1641, 40-42. + Rebellions of 1715 and 1745, 52. + Rebellion of 1798, rise of, in Ulster, 86, 102; + becomes religious, 103, 105; + in Leinster, 104, 105; + in Wexford, 105-108, 110; + in Kilkenny, Carlow and Wicklow, 109; + in Connaught, 112; + amnesty after, 109; + effects of, 114. + Rebellion of 1805, 132. + Redmond, John, 95, 146, 162, 169, 171, 174, 175, 199, + 201, 207-209, 215. + Redmond, William, 107, 108. + Reformation, 26-28. + Regency question, 80-82. + Registration of Titles Act, 1891, 160. + Rent, agitation against, 148, 153, 154. + Repeal Association, statement by, as to Rebellion, 108. + "Reserved Services," 227. + Republic, rebels of 1798 sought to establish, 93; + object of Nationalists, 94-99, 147, 248. + And see Independence. + Richard II, 20. + Richey, Professor, 12, 13, 21, 24. + _Rosary, The_, 242. + Rosen, Conrade de, 47. + Ross, Mr. Justice, 168, 197. + Rossa, O'Donovan, 146. + Royal University, 205. + Russell, Rt. Hon. T.W., 163. + + Saffron dress, 19, 192. + St. Vincent, Cape, 102. + Savoy, persecution in, 37, 45, 48, 54. + Salisbury, Lord, 154. + Scholarships, 191, 192. + Scotland, Norman kingdom of, 17; + invasion of Ireland from, 19, 33; + Union of, with England, 63, 119, 120. + Scott, Sir Walter, 237. + Scullabogue barn, massacre at, 110. + Scully, Mr., 204. + Settlement, Act of, 43-45. + Separation. See Independence; + Republic. + Sevigné, Madame de, 46, 47. + Simnel, Lambert, 22, 82. + Sinn Fein, 185, 186. + Slave trade, 58. + Smith, Adam, 120. + Societies, secret, 68, 69, 181. + Spain, 27, 28, 30, 32, 34, 37, 40, 48, 53, 55, 72, + 76, 101. + Spenser, Edmund, 35. + "Steelboys," 69. + Sullivan, A.M., 136, 137, 140. + Swayne, Captain, 105. + Sweetman, J., 186. + + Tithes, 68, 69, 134, 135. + Tone, Wolfe, 89, 91-97, 101, 102, 111, 112, 121, 182, + 193, 218, 249-258. + Trade, restrictions on Irish, 63, 64; + abolition of, 74, + Tribal tenure of land, 6. + Trinity College, Dublin, 70, 176. + Tyrconnell, flight of Earl of, 36. + Tyrone, raid by men of, 7. + Tyrone, flight of Earl of, 36. + Tyrrell, Father, 5. + + Ulster Covenant, 1, 235. + Ulster, Scotch invasion of, 19, 33; + plantation of, 39; + rebellion of 1641 in, 41; + volunteer movement in, 72, 102, 237; + rebellion of 1798 in, 86, 102. + Union, suggested in time of Queen Anne, 63; + necessity of, seen by Pitt, 78; + became probable in 1797, 100; + rebellion made inevitable, 115; + mis-statements as to, 116; + feelings of people as to, 117, 118; + previous efforts towards, 119; + really caused by Parliament becoming independent, 120-123; + proposed, 123; + discussed, 124; + approved by R.C. Church, 125; + carried, 126; + charges of bribery concerning, 127-129; + cannot now be reversed, 130; + prosperity of Ireland after, 133. + United Irish League, 163, 166, 167, 171, 180-183, 203, 235, + 245. + United Irish Society, 87, 88, 91. + Universities. See Trinity College, Dublin; + Queen's University; + Royal University; + Belfast University; + National University. + University College, Cork, 205; + Galway, 205. + + Victoria, Queen, 39. + Vinegar Hill, massacre at, 105-107. + Volunteer movement, 72, 102, 237. + + Waitangi, Treaty of, 39. + Waldenses, persecution of, 43, 53. + Walsh, T., 195. + Waterford, founded by Danes, 8; + Henry II lands at, 16. + Waterford Corporation and Mr. Scully, 204. + Westmeath, persons employed by County Council of, 175. + Wexford, raid by men of, 7; + landing of Spaniards at, 34; + rebellion in, 105-107, 110; + monuments of rebels in, 108. + White, P., 195. + Whiteboys, 69. + William III, 47. + Wolfe, memorial to General, 243, 244. + Wolseley, letter from Lord, 246. + Wright, Mr. Justice, 182. + Wyndham Act, 159. + + + +_Sherratt and Hughes, Printers, London and Manchester._ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Is Ulster Right?, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13157 *** diff --git a/13157-h/13157-h.htm b/13157-h/13157-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ce4f3b --- /dev/null +++ b/13157-h/13157-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6194 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta name="generator" + content="HTML Tidy for Linux/x86 (vers 1st November 2002), see www.w3.org" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> + <title>Is Ulster Right?, August 2004</title> + <style type="text/css"> + /*<![CDATA[*/ + + <!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-align: justify;} + blockquote {text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center;} + pre {font-size: 0.7em;} + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + html>body hr.full {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + html>body hr.short {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;} + .note + {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + span.pagenum + {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt;} + .poem + {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .poem p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + .poem p.i6 {margin-left: 3em;} + .poem p.i8 {margin-left: 4em;} + .poem p.i10 {margin-left: 5em;} + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + .footnote {font-size: 0.9em; margin-right: 10%; margin-left: 10%;} + .side { float:right; + font-size: 75%; + width: 25%; + padding-left:10px; + border-left: dashed thin; + margin-left: 10px; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; + font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic;} + --> + /*]]>*/ + </style> + <style type="text/css"> + /*<![CDATA[*/ + p.c1 {font-style: italic} + /*]]>*/ + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13157 ***</div> + + <h1>IS ULSTER RIGHT?</h1> + <h3>A STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION AT ISSUE BETWEEN ULSTER AND THE NATIONALIST PARTY, + AND OF THE REASONS-HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL-WHY ULSTER IS JUSTIFIED IN + OPPOSING HOME RULE</h3> + <h2>BY AN IRISHMAN</h2> + <h4>LONDON</h4> + <h4>JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.</h4> + <h4>1913</h4> + <h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + <p>Preface <a href="#pagevii">vii</a><br /> + </p> + <p>Chapter</p> + <p>I. The Ulster Covenant. The Questions Stated. Ireland under the Celts and the + Danes <a href="#page1">1</a><br /> + </p> + <p>II. Ireland from the time of Henry II to the time of Henry VIII <a + href="#page13">13</a><br /> + </p> + <p>III. Ireland under the Tudors <a href="#page24">24</a><br /> + </p> + <p>IV. The Seventeenth Century, until the end of the reign of James II <a + href="#page37">37</a><br /> + </p> + <p>V. The period of the Penal Laws <a href="#page49">49</a><br /> + </p> + <p>VI. The earlier part of the reign of George III. The acquisition of independence + by the Irish Parliament <a href="#page68">68</a><br /> + </p> + <p>VII. The independent Parliament. The Regency Question. The commencement of the + Rebellion <a href="#page79">79</a><br /> + </p> + <p>VIII. The Rebellion <a href="#page100">100</a><br /> + </p> + <p>IX. The Union <a href="#page116">116</a><br /> + </p> + <p>X. The period from the Union until the rejection of the first Home Rule Bill <a + href="#page132">132</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XI. The Unionist Government of 1886 <a href="#page155">155</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XII. The Gladstonian Government of 1892. The Political Societies <a + href="#page179">179</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XIII. Ireland under the present Government <a href="#page194">194</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XIV. Criticism of the Bill now before the Country <a href="#page218">218</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XV. The danger to the Empire of any form of Home Rule. The Questions answered <a + href="#page232">232</a><br /> + </p> + <p>Index <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> + </p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii" id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span> + <h2>PREFACE.</h2> + <p>In the following chapters I have endeavoured to lay before ordinary readers a + simple statement of the present position of the Irish question. Following the maxim + of Confucius that it is well "to study the Past if you would divine the Future," I + have first shown that the tales which are told about the glories of the ancient + Celtic Kingdom are foolish dreams, not supported by the accounts given by + contemporary annalists or the investigations of modern writers, and that Ireland + never was a nation in the political sense, with the possible exception of the few + years between 1782 and 1800, during which the Irish Parliament was independent; that + the charges made against the English government with reference to their action + between the "Conquest" by Henry II and the assumption of the title of King by Henry + VIII are baseless; and that though there is much which the historian must look back + upon with regret in the period between the reign of Henry VIII and the passing of the + Act of Union, it is mere waste of time now to dwell on the wrongs of a former age + which have long since passed away and which in any other country would be forgotten. + Then I have traced the brief history of the independent Parliament, and shown that + whatever may have been its virtues or its failings, it would be impossible to revive + it now; all the circumstances of the country have changed. I have <span + class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii" id="pageviii"></a>[pg viii]</span> striven also to + make it clear that the Nationalists of to-day are not the representatives of the + leaders of that Parliament but of the party which fought against it and brought on + the horrors of the Rebellion; that the Union was a political necessity, if the + connection between the British Islands was to be maintained at all; and that if the + people of Ireland have not derived all the benefits from the Union which they might + have done, it is their own fault, as the history of Ulster during the last century + has shown. Next, I have explained the rise of the present Home Rule movement, and its + dependence on agrarian agitation. I have analyzed some of the provisions of the + present Bill, which independent writers consider to be hopelessly unworkable; and + lastly I have stated why in my opinion Home Rule in any form must be fraught with + disaster not only to Ireland but also to the Empire at large.</p> + <p>I have no desire unnecessarily to wound the feelings of those who take a different + view; if it can be shown that any of my statements are incorrect or my inference + illogical, I shall be glad to correct them; but to mere abuse, such as the + Nationalists are in the habit of pouring on Unionist writers, I shall pay no heed. I + admit that it may be said that there are several matters which I ought to have gone + into more fully; to that I can only reply that I wished to be as brief as possible, + and that I have done my best to compress with fairness. What I am really anxious to + do is to draw the attention of thoughtful readers, before it is too late, <span + class="pagenum"><a name="pageix" id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span> to the terrible + dangers with which we are faced. As an Irish historian has said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"No political madness could be greater than to put the legislative machinery of + an integral and essential portion of the Empire into the hands of men who are + largely or mainly disaffected with that Empire, and who, in times of difficulty, + danger and disaster are likely to betray it."</p> + </blockquote> + <hr /> + <p>The following are the principal works of which use has been made in preparing this + volume. They are cited here in order to avoid the necessity of constant + footnotes:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Short History of the Irish People." By Professor Richey.</p> + <p>"Irish Nationalism." By the late Duke of Argyll.</p> + <p>"History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century." By W.E.H. Lecky.</p> + <p>"History of the Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland." By Dunbar + Ingram.</p> + <p>"Ireland and Her Fairy Godmother." By J. Warren.</p> + <p>"The Continuity of the Irish Revolutionary Movement." By Prof. Brougham + Leech.</p> + <p>"A Fool's Paradise." By Professor Dicey.</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + <h3>THE ULSTER COVENANT. THE QUESTIONS STATED. IRELAND UNDER THE CELTS AND THE + DANES.</h3> + <blockquote> + <p>"Being convinced in our consciences that Home Rule would be disastrous to the + material well-being of Ulster as well as of the whole of Ireland, subversive of our + civil and religious freedom, destructive of our citizenship and perilous to the + unity of the Empire, We, whose names are underwritten, Men of Ulster, loyal + subjects of His Gracious Majesty King George V, humbly relying on the God whom our + fathers in days of stress and trial confidently trusted, do hereby pledge ourselves + in Solemn Covenant throughout this our time of threatened calamity to stand by one + another in defending for ourselves and our children our cherished position of equal + citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be found + necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in + Ireland. And, in the event of such a Parliament being forced upon us, we further + solemnly and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to recognise its authority. In + such confidence that God will defend the right, we hereunto subscribe our + names."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Such is the Solemn Covenant which 220,000 resolute, determined Ulstermen-of + various creeds and of all sections of the community, from wealthy <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> merchants to farm + labourers-fully realizing the responsibility they were undertaking, signed on the + 28th September, 1912. To represent that it was merely the idle bombast of ignorant + rustics, or a passing ebullition of political passion coming from hot-headed youths + excited by irresponsible demagogues, is folly. It expresses the calm resolution of + earnest men who, having thought deeply over the matter had decided that it was better + even to face the horrors of civil war rather than to submit to the rule of a + Nationalist Government.</p> + <p>The opinions of the Nationalists with regard to the Ulster Covenant can be + gathered from many speeches and sermons. The following extract from one of their + papers-the <i>Frontier Sentinel</i>-may be taken as a specimen:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It may not be out of place here to translate into simple English the terms of + the Covenant. It denies the claim of Ireland to self-government and the capacity of + Irishmen to govern Ireland. It asserts that the Catholics of Ireland are the spawn + of the devil; that they are ruthless savages and dangerous criminals with only one + object in life-the wiping out of Protestants. It claims for the Protestant Unionist + majority of four Ulster counties a monopoly of Christianity, public and private + morality, and clean successful business enterprise. In the name of God it seeks to + stimulate the basest passions in human nature, and calls on God to witness a + catalogue of falsehoods. Only a few of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" + id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span> local Protestant clergymen, it should be stated, + signed this notoriously wicked document."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>It is well then to pause and consider calmly two questions: What are the real + objects of the Nationalists; and, Are the men of Ulster justified in resisting them + to the uttermost?</p> + <p>It is a mere truism to remark that in every political question the main + controversy is complicated by a number of side issues. Thus in the tangled skein of + politics in South Eastern Europe there is not merely the great struggle between the + Crescent and the Cross, but there are also jealousies between Greek and Bulgarian, + between Servian and Austrian, which have to be considered. So in Ireland, if we take + the religious question as the dominating one, we find ourselves involved in a maze of + racial animosities, class prejudices, and trade disputes; by ignoring these we can + arrive at a simple but unfortunately a totally erroneous solution of the question. + And to weigh them all fairly involves more trouble than the average man cares to + take.</p> + <p>Irish history is at best a dismal subject. And those who ought to be historians + are too often politicians; regarding themselves as advocates and not as judges they + deliberately omit incidents which tell against their views, and enlarge on others, + frequently without even examining the evidence in support of them. Then in arriving + at the truth about any matter connected with Ireland there is the additional + difficulty arising from the custom, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" + id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span> almost universal amongst Irishmen, of talking in + superlatives. The exaggerated expressions, both of praise and blame, which are + constantly employed, at first puzzle a stranger coming to Ireland from another + country; he soon, however, gets to realize that they are mere forms of speech, and + are no more intended to be taken seriously than similar phrases are when used by an + Oriental. They are therefore harmless. But it becomes a more serious matter when + learned men employ inflated language in addressing ignorant and excitable audiences. + Thus Bishop Gaughran, when recently preaching to a crowded congregation in Dublin a + sermon which was reported in full in the Roman Catholic papers, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The persecution of the Catholics in Ireland had no parallel in the history of + the Church save perhaps those of the early Christians in the Catacombs of Rome. + Edicts were sent forth before which those of Nero might be said to pale into + insignificance-the Edicts of Elizabeth and Cromwell, for example."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Yet these words came from a man who was doubtless familiar with the histories of + Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands; and who is a leader of a party which had + not long before expressed the opinion that Catholics have no reason to be ashamed of + the Inquisition, which was a coercive and corporally punitive force which had + effected its ends splendidly!</p> + <p>One of the many popular delusions under which <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page5" id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> English people labour with regard to + Ireland is that all the population of the country at the present day are Celts, and + that this is the key to the whole Irish question. Thus a review of Father Tyrrell's + autobiography recently appeared in an English journal in which the reviewer said: + "Probably no Englishmen could have written such a book; it needs a Latin like + Rousseau, or a Celt like Tyrrell to lay bare his soul in this way." No doubt these + words were written in perfectly good faith; but if the writer had cared to make any + enquiry he could have found out in a moment that the Tyrrell family were thoroughly + English and that none of them had gone to Ireland before the nineteenth century. The + fact is that the inhabitants of Ireland, like the inhabitants of all other countries + in Western Europe, are of mixed origin. The Celts were themselves immigrants, who + conquered and enslaved a pre-existing race called the Firbolgs; then came the + Scandinavian invasion; and then wave after wave of immigration from England and + Scotland, so that Sir J. Davies, writing three hundred years ago-that was, before the + Cromwellian settlement and the arrival of the French refugees who had escaped from + the persecution of Louis XIV-said that if the people of Ireland were numbered those + descended of English race would be found more in number than the ancient natives.</p> + <p>This, however, is only one of many errors into which English writers have fallen. + Mistakes of course will always be made; but unfortunately it is a charge from which + Mr. Gladstone's admirers <span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>[pg + 6]</span> cannot clear him that when he wished to bring the English people round to + the idea of Home Rule he deliberately falsified Irish history in order to make it + serve his ends; and his misrepresentations have gained credence amongst careless + thinkers who are content to shelter themselves under a great name without looking at + what has been written in answer. The general idea of an average Englishman about + Irish history seems to be that Ireland in Celtic times was a peaceful, orderly, + united kingdom, famous for its piety and learning, where land was held by "tribal + tenure"-that is, owned by the whole tribe who were closely related in blood-rent + being unknown, and the chief being elected by the whole tribe in solemn assembly. + Into this happy country came the Norman invaders, who fought against and conquered + the king; drove the native owners out of their possessions, and introduced a feudal + system and an alien code of law unsuited to the people; and the modern landlords are + the representatives of the conquering Normans and the tenants the descendants of the + ancient tribesmen who naturally and rightfully resist paying rent for the lands which + by ancestral right should be their own. There could not be a more complete travesty + of history.</p> + <p>The Celtic Church no doubt had its golden age. It produced saints and men of + learning. It sent out its missionaries to the heathen beyond the seas. So famous were + its schools that students came to them from distant lands. But centuries before the + Normans appeared in Ireland the salt had lost its <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page7" id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span> savour. The Celtic Church had sunk into + being a mere appendage of the wild tribes it had once tried to tame. The chiefs of + one tribe would sack the colleges and shrines of another tribe as freely as they + would sack any of their other possessions. For instance, the annals tell us that in + the year 1100 the men of the south made a raid into Connaught and burned many + churches; in 1113 Munster tribe burned many churches in Meath, one of them being full + of people; in 1128 the septs of Leitrim and Cavan plundered and slew the retinue of + the Bishop of Armagh; in the same year the men of Tyrone raided Down and a great + number of people suffered martyrdom; four years later Kildare was invaded by raiders + from Wexford, the church was burnt and many men slain; and so on with dreary + monotony. Bishops and abbots fought in the incessant tribal wars as keenly as laymen. + Worse still, it was not infrequent for one band of clergy to make war on another. In + the ninth century, Phelim, who claimed to be both Bishop and King of Leinster, + ravaged Ulster and murdered its monks and clergy. In the eleventh century the annals + give an account of a fierce battle between the Bishop of Armagh and the Bishop of + Clonard. Nor did time work any improvement; we read of bloody conflicts between + abbots and bishops as late as the middle of the fifteenth century. What influence for + good could such a church have had upon the mass of the people?</p> + <p>And even in its noblest period the Celtic Church seems to have had but little + power beyond the walls <span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>[pg + 8]</span> of its own colleges. The whole history of Celtic Ireland, as we learn from + the annalists, was one miserable succession of tribal wars, murders and plunderings. + Of course it may be said with perfect truth that the annals of other countries at the + time tell much the same story. But there is this difference between them: wild and + barbarous though the wars of other countries were, they were at any rate the slow and + painful working up towards a higher civilization; the country became consolidated + under the most powerful chief; in time peace was enforced, agriculture improved, and + towns grew up. The tribal raids of Celtic Ireland, however, were merely for plunder + and destruction. From such conflicts no higher state of society could possibly be + evolved. The Irish Celts built no cities, promoted no agriculture, and never + coalesced so as to form even the nucleus of a united kingdom.</p> + <p>It was about the end of the eighth century that the first foreign influence was + brought to bear on Celtic Ireland. The Danish invasion began. Heathen though the + Danes were, they brought some ideas of settled government and the germs of national + progress. They founded cities, such as Dublin, Waterford and Limerick. And when they, + like their fellow-countrymen in England, accepted Christianity, they established + bishoprics in the new towns, but took care that they should be wholly independent of + the Celtic tribal episcopate; they looked to Canterbury and Rome.</p> + <p>Much has been written and sung about the fame of Brian Boroo. No doubt he was in + some ways a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> great + man; and it seemed for a time that he might do for Ireland something like what Alfred + the Great had done for England and Kenneth MacAlpine had done for Scotland-might + consolidate the country into one kingdom. But the story of his life is a striking + commentary on the wretchedness of the period. Forming an alliance with some of the + Danes he succeeded in crushing the chiefs of several rival Celtic tribes; then in + turn he attacked his former allies, and beat them at the battle of Clontarf in the + year 1014, though they were aided by other Celtic tribes who hated Brian and his + schemes even more than they hated the foreigners. Important though this battle was, + its effect has been much exaggerated and misunderstood. It certainly did not bring + the Danish power in Ireland to an end; Dublin was a flourishing Danish colony long + afterwards-in fact it was thirty years after the battle that the Danish king of + Dublin founded the Bishopric.</p> + <p>But Brian was slain in the moment of victory. The soldiers of his army murdered + his only surviving son, and began fighting amongst themselves. Brian's dream of a + united Ireland came to an end, and the country relapsed into chaos. If the immediate + result of the battle was a victory of Celt over Dane, the lasting effect was a + triumph of anarchy over order. It was on the Celtic people that the ruin fell; and + the state of things for the next two centuries was if possible worse than it had ever + been before.</p> + <p>It will be readily understood that throughout this <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page10" id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span> terrible period of history anything like + a peaceful cultivation of the soil or a regular election to the office of chief was + out of the question. It was quite an ordinary thing for a chief to obtain his + position by murdering his predecessor. The annalists give us a long list of Kings of + Ireland dating from before the Christian era until the arrival of the Normans. Of + course the word "king" can mean little more than "prominent chief," for no one man + ever had real authority over the whole of the distracted land. Even of these + prominent chiefs, however, according to the annalists, very few died natural deaths. + Some fell in battle, others were assassinated; but the most common fate for a monarch + was to be "slain by his successor." If this was true of the most powerful men in the + country, to speak of the office of chief as elective is really absurd. But more than + this: there is no evidence that the "tribal system," in the sense of all the tribe + being related by blood and all owning their lands in common, ever existed in Ireland + even in theory. At the earliest date of which we possess any distinct information on + the subject, wealth, representing physical force, had become the acknowledged basis + of political power and private right; and the richer members of the community were + rapidly reducing the poorer freemen-many of whom were the descendants of an earlier + race or of conquered tribes-to a state of serfdom. The system (if such a word can be + applied at all) was in fact a bad form of feudalism without its advantages. There was + no central overlord (like those in other countries who <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page11" id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> gradually developed into the sovereigns + of mediæval kingdoms and thus became able to enforce peace and progress), each + petty chief being independent; and on the other hand the dues payable by the + retainers were not fixed by law or custom. We must probably reject the suggested + derivation of the word "feodal" from the Celtic "Fiudir"; but if so, it is curious + that two words accidentally resembling each other conveyed ideas so closely alike; + for a Celtic "Fiudir" was practically a tenant at the will of the lord; and it must + be admitted that the word "vassal" is of Celtic origin. Charters which date from + before the Norman invasion show that the land was regarded as the private property of + the chiefs; frequently the wretched occupiers, instead of paying fixed rents, were + liable to unlimited exactions, one of them being the right of the lord to "coigne and + livery"-that is, to quarter himself and his retainers as long as he pleased on any + occupier who possessed a few cows (which were the only form of wealth in those days + of universal poverty); in some cases, however, land was let for a term of years, on a + fixed payment of cattle.</p> + <p>On the death of a freeholder his land was divided amongst his sons equally, + according to what is called "the custom of gavelkind." Whether primogeniture is a + good or a bad thing in England or the British Colonies at the present day is of + course a totally different question; the circumstances of the times are totally + different. But it can hardly be doubted by a thoughtful student of <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> history that the + adoption of primogeniture in the early days of feudalism in other European countries + was a social necessity if civilization was to rise to a higher state; and that its + not being introduced in Ireland was if not a cause at least an evidence that + civilization in that country did not progress. For in a condition not far removed + from anarchy the connection between the ownership of land and political power is + inevitable; hence if holdings are small their owners become an easy prey to stronger + neighbours; whereas the possessors of larger areas can repel attacks and enable their + dependents to live in some sort of security. It was the enormous number of petty + independent chiefs that added to the miseries of Celtic Ireland.</p> + <p>I shall probably be accused of having painted too dark a picture in the brief + sketch that I have given of Ireland before the coming of the Normans. I admit that it + is very different from the glowing accounts of "Irish Ireland" that may be found in + the pages of Nationalist journals. But the question to me is not which account is + more pleasant but which is true. And I defy anyone who has cared to look through the + works of such writers as Richey, Stokes, and Sullivan, to prove that what I have said + is incorrect or unfair.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + <h3>IRELAND FROM THE TIME OF HENRY II TO THE TIME OF HENRY VIII.</h3> + <p>In the last chapter I dealt with the long period during which the Celtic tribes of + Ireland were free from foreign influence except for the comparatively brief time when + a small part of the country was under the rule of the Danes; and I endeavoured to + show that according to the evidence of their own annalists and in the opinion of + modern writers of various political sentiments, the whole island throughout that + period remained in a chronic state of anarchy, without any advance towards a higher + civilization.</p> + <p>As Dr. Richey, when describing the condition of Ireland about the year 1170, says, + "The state of the Celtic people was beyond all hope of self-amendment. The want of + law, order and justice, the absence of self-knowledge and self-control, paralysed + their national action and reduced the power of their chief king to + insignificance."</p> + <p>I come now to what has been absurdly called the conquest of Ireland under Henry + II.</p> + <p>That the English king was instigated in his efforts by the Pope is perfectly + clear. The Bull of Pope Adrian, issued in 1155, is still extant:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"... There is indeed no doubt but that Ireland, and all the islands on which + Christ, the Sun of Righteousness, hath shone, and which have received the doctrine + of the Christian faith, do <span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" + id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span> belong to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and the Holy + Roman Church ... therefore we are the more solicitous to propagate the righteous + plantation of faith in this land, and the branch acceptable to God, as we have the + secret conviction of conscience that this is more especially our bounden duty. You + then, our dear son in Christ, have signified to us your desire to enter into the + island of Ireland, in order to reduce the people to obedience under the laws, and + to extirpate the plants of vice, and that you are willing to pay from each house a + yearly pension of one penny to St. Peter, and that you will preserve the rights of + the churches whole and inviolate. We, therefore, do hold it good and acceptable + that ... you enter this island and execute therein whatever shall pertain to the + honour of God and welfare of the land; and that the people of the land receive you + honourably and reverence you as their lord."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And in 1172 Pope Alexander III ratified the action of his predecessor.</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Forasmuch as these things which have been on good reasons granted by our + predecessors, deserve to be confirmed ... and considering the grant of the dominion + of the land by the venerable Pope Adrian, we ... do ratify and confirm the same + (reserving to St. Peter and to the Holy Roman Church, as well in England as in + Ireland the yearly pension of one penny from every house) provided that, the + abominations of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>[pg + 15]</span> the land being removed, the barbarous people, Christians only in name, + may by your means, be reformed, and their lives and conversations mended, so that + their disordered Church being thus reduced to regular discipline, that nation may, + with the name of Christians, be so in act and deed."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Whether the description here given was literally correct, or whether the Pope's + views were coloured by the fact that the Celtic Church did not acknowledge the + supremacy of Rome and was heretical on certain points of doctrine, is a question + outside the present subject. The Bulls are only quoted here as showing the part taken + by Rome. And it must be admitted that in the succeeding century the power of the Pope + became strong enough to enable him to levy taxes in Ireland for the purpose of + carrying on his wars against the Emperor and the King of Aragon.</p> + <p>But Henry did not conquer Ireland. He did not even pretend to do so. Previous to + his arrival there had been some little fighting done by a few adventurous Norman + knights who had been invited by a native chief to assist him in a domestic war; but + Henry II fought no battle in Ireland; he displaced no ancient national government; + the Irish had no national flag, no capital city as the metropolis of the country, no + common administration of the law. The English, coming in the name of the Pope, with + the aid of the Irish bishops, with a superior national organization which the Irish + easily recognised, were <span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>[pg + 16]</span> accepted by the Irish. The king landed at Waterford; his journey to Dublin + was rather a royal progress than a hostile invasion. He came as feudal sovereign to + receive the homage of the Irish tribes; the chiefs flocked to his court, readily + became his vassals, and undertook to hold the lands they already occupied as fiefs of + the Crown. But Henry did not take the title, or assume the position of King of + Ireland. He merely sought to establish a suzerainty in which he would be the + overlord. And in fact a conquest of Ireland in the modern sense of the term would + have been impossible. England possessed no standing army; the feudal levies of + mediæval times were difficult and expensive. It might of course have been + possible to have organized a wholesale immigration and an enslavement of the natives, + something like that which the Normans had accomplished in England, and the Saxons had + done centuries before; but nothing of the kind was attempted. Whether Henry's + original intention was simply to leave the Irish chiefs in possession or not, it is + useless now to enquire. But if it was, he appears to have changed his views; for not + long afterwards he granted large fiefs with palatinate jurisdiction to various + Normans who had made their way over to Ireland independently.</p> + <p>It may be that Henry-knowing that the Conqueror, whilst taking care that no + powerful seignories should grow up in the heart of his kingdom, as rivals to the + throne, yet made exceptions in cases where the lands verged on hostile territory, + such as Durham or Chester-thought that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" + id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> he could best follow the spirit of that policy by + establishing what were practically semi-independent principalities in an island + already inhabited by another race. But the result was disastrous.</p> + <p>That the Normans were savage and brutal, dealing out no justice or mercy to their + victims, is proved by the account of their conquest of England. Yet they possessed + certain great qualities, which eminently fitted them to become rulers in those wild, + unsettled times; as their successes, not merely in Britain, but also in Southern + Italy and Syria, show. They had the idea of a strong, centralized Government; and + more than that they had a marvellous capacity for receptivity. Thus we see that in + England, after a period of rough tyranny, they blended the existing Anglo-Saxon + Government-the strength of which lay in its local organization-with their own; and + from the union of the two has come the British Constitution. So too in the Lowlands + of Scotland it was the Norman knight Robert Bruce who, accepting the already existing + Saxon and Roman civilization, raised Scotland into a powerful kingdom. But in Ireland + all was different. The only state of society which the Normans found was Celtic + barbarism. Political institutions did not exist. As the Normans in England had become + Anglified, and in Scotland Scottified, so in Ireland they became Ersefied. It is true + that they built stone castles which at any rate were better than the hovels of the + Irish Chiefs, and (like the Danes before them) founded a few towns, such as Kilkenny, + Galway and Athenry; <span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>[pg + 18]</span> but there their efforts ended. Scattered amongst the tribes, they learnt + their ways. They sank to the position of the Celtic Chiefs around them; local wars + went on the same as before; the only difference being that they were waged sometimes + by Normans against Normans or against Celts, but more frequently by one body of Celts + against another, each side being aided by Norman allies.</p> + <p>One class of Nationalist writers has inveighed against the English kings for not + having forcibly introduced English law and put an end to the barbarous Celtic + customs. The simple answer is, How could they do so? Whilst England was being + weakened by long continental wars or by struggles between rival Houses, what strength + had she left to undertake the real conquest of Ireland? The English kings had turned + to the only people who could have helped them-the Normans settled in Ireland; and + they failed them. Other Nationalist writers have on the other hand declaimed with + equal vehemence against the tyranny of England in forcing an alien system of law on + an unwilling people. To this the answer is that nothing of the kind occurred. It is + true that petitions were sent from Ireland to the King urging him to introduce + English law; but these petitions came mainly from the poorer classes of English + settlers who found that instead of attaining greater liberty in their new home they + were being ground down to the miserable position of the native Irish. The King issued + proclamations directing the English barons to permit the Irish to be governed by the + law of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> England; + but his orders were totally disregarded; many of the unhappy English settlers fled + from the country and returned to England; the barons supplied their places with + native retainers. Thus the Ersefication of the degenerate Normans became complete; + they "donned the saffron"-that is, they adopted the yellow dress of the + Celts-abandoned their original language, and gave themselves up to a life of constant + plunder and rapine.</p> + <p>Early in the fourteenth century the Irish septs united so far as to form a joint + effort to expel the English. The incident is specially interesting, in the light of + later history. Robert Bruce, a Norman knight, had recently consolidated the Scottish + tribes into a kingdom and succeeded in shaking off the English yoke. The Irish Celts + resolved to imitate his example. King Robert was shrewd enough to see that by aiding + them he could attack his enemy at the most vulnerable point; consequently, when the + chiefs offered the Crown of Ireland to his brother Edward if he would come and help + them, he gladly accepted the invitation. For three years a devastating war raged over + a large part of Ireland; the Scotch went from the North of Ulster almost to Limerick, + burning, slaying, plundering, sacking towns, castles and churches; and a terrible + famine ensued. But the Irish chiefs were no more energetic in supporting Edward Bruce + than their ancestors had been in supporting Brian; he and his chief officers fell in + a battle against the English near Dundalk, and the rest of his followers escaped to + Scotland. The coalition fell to pieces; and the only <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page20" id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> result of the Scotch invasion was to + increase the misery of the people, especially of the unhappy English settlers, who + continued to flock back to England in greater numbers than before.</p> + <p>As soon as the rebellion was put down, the great legislator Edward III made + another effort at introducing order into the distracted land. Acts were passed by the + English Parliament providing that the same law should be applicable to both English + and Irish, and forbidding landowners to keep larger bands of armed men than were + necessary for self-defence. But the Ersefied barons on whom he relied refused to obey + the new laws; they renounced their allegiance and joined the rebellious Celtic + tribes. Then the king, seeing the impossibility of carrying out his scheme for + pacifying the whole of Ireland, was reduced to the expedient of dividing the country + into two; leaving the larger part of it for the natives and degenerate English to + misgovern as they pleased according to their own customs, and preserving only a mere + fraction (the "English Pale") in allegiance to the Crown of England. This was the + real meaning of the "Statutes of Kilkenny," which have been so often misrepresented + by modern writers.</p> + <p>The next king, Richard II, attempted to imitate the policy of his ancestor Henry + II. He went to Ireland with great pomp. Again the Celtic chiefs flocked to Dublin to + swear allegiance to their lord; and as soon as his back was turned commenced not only + fighting amongst themselves but even attacking the English Pale. The result of all + his efforts <span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> was + that the limits of the Pale were still further contracted; the English power was + confined to a small area in the neighbourhood of Dublin.</p> + <p>But even within that narrow boundary the power of the king was far from being + secure. When England was torn by the Wars of the Roses, the so-called Parliament + (which was really an irregular assembly at best representing a territory about the + size of a modern county) seized the opportunity of declaring itself independent. It + is interesting, in view of present-day questions, to observe that Dr. Richey, writing + in 1869, seems to consider their action as not only justifiable but inevitable. He + says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The Irish Parliament declared the complete independence of the Irish + Legislature, and boldly affirmed those constitutional rights which, though involved + in the existence of separate parliament, had not hitherto been categorically + expressed. They asserted their rights to a distinct coinage, and their absolute + freedom from all laws and statutes except such as were by the Lords spiritual and + temporal and Commons of Ireland freely admitted and accepted in their Parliament. + They declared that no Irish subject was bound to answer any writs except those + under the great seal of Ireland, and enacted heavy penalties against any officer + who should attempt to put English decrees in force in Ireland. They, in fact, took + the same position and laid down the same principles as the celebrated Parliament of + 1782."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> + <p>Whether they imagined that they could form a separate kingdom of Dublin, or dreamt + of making an alliance with the tribes outside the Pale, it is useless now to + conjecture; but we can see that though they had no chance of benefiting themselves + they might have caused serious injury to England. Nor was it long before a difficulty + arose. The inhabitants of the Pale remained attached to the House of York even after + the Battle of Bosworth, and readily accepted Lambert Simnel as King of Ireland. He + was crowned in the Cathedral of Dublin, and held a Parliament. After the defeat of + this Pretender, the able and astute Henry VII saw that it was necessary without + further delay to make the shadowy suzerainty of England over Ireland a reality. He + accordingly persuaded the Irish Parliament to pass an Act which from the name of the + Lord Deputy was known as "Poyning's Act." By this Act, all English statutes then + existing in England were made of force in Ireland; the chief fortresses were secured + to the Crown of England; and the Irish Parliament was relegated to the position of a + subordinate legislature; for it was enacted that no Parliament should be held in + Ireland unless the King's Lieutenant and Council should first certify the King, under + the Great Seal of Ireland, the Acts which they considered should pass; then the King + and his Council should approve the proposed Acts, and issue a licence under the Great + Seal of England, summoning the Parliament.</p> + <p>Though some writers have spoken of this as the most disgraceful Act ever passed by + an independent <span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> + legislature, the people in Ireland at the time considered it a boon and a favour; for + it shielded them from the unauthorized power of a Lord Deputy supported by a + Parliament of his own creatures.</p> + <p>And so, with the close of the mediæval period, ended the second chapter of + Irish history. It will be observed that there had been no religious persecution, + unless indeed the conduct of the Norman-that is, the Roman-Church towards the ancient + Celtic Church, or the burning of some heretics in the fourteenth century, could be so + described; a view which the Nationalists of to-day will hardly care to put forward. + Nor can the English Government be fairly blamed for the condition of affairs; for + responsibility depends on power, and English power in Ireland hardly existed. The + suzerainty of England, feeble at best, had gradually been limited to a mere fraction + of the country. The Celtic tribes had long since thrown off even a nominal submission + to the English Crown; the Anglo-Norman lords had become either avowedly or + practically independent. But the inhabitants of Ireland did not constitute a nation + or possess any common interest or bond of union. There was no trace of an + organization by which the Irish tribes could be united into one people. The ceaseless + civil wars had indeed supplanted the original tribesmen by the mercenary followers of + another set of rival chiefs; but there had been no union; and the mass of the people, + still under the influence of their native customs, were probably in a more wretched + condition than they had ever been before.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + <h3>IRELAND UNDER THE TUDORS.</h3> + <p>We have seen that at the close of the Middle Ages Ireland was in the condition + that some people in England now consider the panacea for all the woes of the country; + it possessed a subordinate Parliament and England interfered as little as possible in + its local affairs. Henry VIII attempted "to govern Ireland according to Irish ideas"; + having no army of his own, he appointed the most powerful of the Norman barons his + deputy. But this deputy used his authority precisely as an Ersefied Norman (who + possessed no more patriotism or national feeling than a Celtic chief) might have been + expected to use it,-that was, to aid him in a succession of family quarrels and + tribal wars in which, allied with some of the native septs he attacked others. Even + the towns outside the Pale fared little better than the remoter districts; there was + actually a civil war between Cork and Limerick. The state of affairs in Celtic + Ireland during the brief period from 1500 to 1534 as stated in the annals (which, + however, only deal with a part of the country, hardly referring to what took place in + Leinster or Munster) has been summed up by Dr. Richey in the following words:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Battles, plunderings, etc., exclusive of those in which the English Government + was engaged, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> + 116; Irish gentlemen of family killed in battle, 102; murdered, 168-many of them + with circumstances of great atrocity; and during this period, on the other hand, + there is no allusion to the enactment of any law, the judicial decision of any + controversy, the founding of any town, monastery or church; and all this is + recorded by the annalist without the slightest expression of regret or + astonishment, as if such were the ordinary course of life in a Christian + country."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>At length, in 1534, matters came to a head; the Lord Deputy broke out into open + rebellion. We can learn from the State papers of the period what the condition of + Ireland then was. The Pale-now but the remnant of a fraction-was constantly invaded + and ravished by wild tribes, and was itself becoming Ersefied; for the poorer English + settlers had either fled back to England, joined the Celtic tribes in despair, as + their only way of escaping from the harshness of the English lords, or been crushed + out of existence; and, as had already happened elsewhere, their place had been taken + by Irish retainers. Then in the rest of the country there were some ninety chiefs, of + whom about sixty represented ancient septs and the remainder degenerate Normans, all + claiming independence and preying sometimes on one another and sometimes on their + unfortunate followers. Not infrequently also a tribe was divided against itself, and + a civil war was raging between the two factions. And one result of the Ersefication + of the Norman barons was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>[pg + 26]</span> that, in addition to the regular feudal dues, they demanded every kind of + Celtic tribute from the occupiers of the land. In fact, how the wretched tenants + managed to support life at all seems a mystery. Whatever law there may at one time + have been was now long extinct; and as King Henry himself pointed out, if the natives + were to have any sort of law at all, the only possible law was the law of + England.</p> + <p>At this time also a new factor came into the already complicated problem-the + Reformation. Henry VIII never was a Protestant, in the sense of adopting the + doctrines which are now usually called Protestant; but he had renounced the authority + of the Pope. In 1535 Pope Paul III passed sentence upon him, consigning his kingdoms + to whoever might invade them, and commanding his nobles to take up arms against him. + Both the Emperor and the King of France saw their opportunity, as Robert Bruce had + done centuries before. They commenced a correspondence with the Irish chiefs with the + object of bringing about an invasion of Ireland. Thereupon King Henry resolved to + take the only course that seemed to him possible-to make the conquest of Ireland a + reality and to enforce law and order in that distracted land. His letters, which are + still extant, show the care with which he thought out the matter, and his earnest + desire for the welfare of the people of both races; a perusal of them would astonish + those who regard him merely as a savage sensualist. Strange to say, in their Irish + policy, the character of Henry VIII <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" + id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> shows itself at the best, and that of Elizabeth at its + worst. When Henry had with difficulty succeeded in crushing the Geraldine rebellion + and a series of others which broke out soon after, he got the Irish Parliament to + pass an Act conferring on him the title of king; he was solemnly proclaimed as such, + and his title was confirmed by the almost unanimous consent of the Irish princes.</p> + <p>This was important in more ways than one: it was universally recognized that the + word "king" meant much more than "lord"; and it gave him a title independent of the + Pope's donation.</p> + <p>It is one of the ironies of history that the renunciation of the Papal authority + and the submission to the king's supremacy was far more rapid and general in Ireland + than it was in England. For not only did all the lay chiefs readily yield their + adhesion, but only two of the bishops refused to take the oath of supremacy. + Rebellions such as that of Fitzgerald had no connection with religion; it was not + until years afterwards when England had become identified with Protestantism and + Spain with Catholicism that the Irish became intensely Papal. On the other hand, the + Reformation, as a religious movement, made no headway in Ireland. It was purely + negative and destructive, and emanated from the Government, not from the mass of the + people. The monasteries were destroyed; hence there were no vicars to supply the + parish churches, which fell into ruin; the king endeavoured rather to Anglify than to + Protestantise the people by sending to them bishops and clergy from <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span> England-but they were + mere state officials, not fathers in God; unable even to speak the Irish language; + what real preaching there was was done by friars sent from Rome and Madrid. Henry's + efforts at establishing parish schools were also a total failure. Had there not been + later immigrations from England and Scotland, Irish Protestantism would probably have + died out. Yet it is but fair to state, and to bear in mind, that there was no + religious persecution as such in Ireland during the Tudor period. Elizabeth's policy + was, without making any actual promise of freedom of conscience, to leave the + question of religious opinions alone as far as possible. The real difficulty came + from the political nature of the Church of Rome; when the Pope deposed Elizabeth and + gave Ireland to Philip of Spain every Irish Roman Catholic had either to be false to + his religion or to become a traitor-<i>in esse</i> or <i>in posse</i>-to the + queen.</p> + <p>When Henry had resolved to do his utmost to bring Ireland to a state of + civilization, there were not wanting advisers who urged upon him that his only safe + course was absolutely to destroy the whole native population by sword and famine and + re-people the vacant lands by immigrants from England. Such a course would have been + quite in accordance with the ideas of the time. Not thirty years previously, the + combined forces of Church and State had pursued the heretic population of the Loise + into the mountain fastnesses to which they had fled, and had piled logs of wood at + the mouths of the caves in which they had taken refuge, and set <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> them on fire. Then, + when all the unhappy people-men, women and children, numbering some thousands in + all-had perished, their lands were distributed amongst strangers brought in from a + distance to occupy them. And at a later date-in the middle of the sixteenth + century-the native inhabitants of the Canary Islands were exterminated by the Spanish + Inquisition, and their lands taken by the invading race. But to Henry it appeared + that there was one milder course that might still be possible. Might not the native + chiefs and the degenerate Normans who had shown that their only idea of independency + was anarchy yet be brought together as nobles under a strong central government with + a Parliament representing not merely the Pale, but all Ireland? Might not the mass of + the people, whose native customs had been well nigh crushed out by civil wars, be + persuaded to <i>adopt</i> the law of England? This was the policy deliberately + adopted by Henry and acted on by him during his life. It is easy for writers living + in modern times to sneer at some of the details of his scheme; but it is not so easy + for them to point out what other course would have been better; or indeed, whether + any other course short of a policy of extermination, would have been possible.</p> + <p>The remarkable thing, however, is that the change to a more severe line took place + not under Henry or his Protestant son, but under the most Catholic Sovereigns Philip + and Mary. It was by their orders that the first of the confiscations (which were to + play so important a part in the later history <span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" + id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> of Ireland) was carried out. By an Act passed in their + reign the lands occupied by the O'Moores, O'Connors and O'Dempseys were confiscated + and formed into the King's and Queen's counties, Leix and Offaly being renamed + "Philipstown" and "Maryborough"; and a "Plantation" of English settlers was + established.</p> + <p>And here it is well to pause for a moment and consider these confiscations, about + which so much has been written. That confiscations have taken place in every country + is a plain fact of history. There is probably no part of Western Europe where land is + now held by the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants. Forcible conquest and + adverse occupation is nearly always the primary root of title. But it is part of the + policy of every civilized country to recognize what lawyers call "Statutes of + limitations." When centuries have elapsed and new rights have grown up, it is + impossible to rectify the wrongs of times long gone by. Thus we cannot suppose that + any future Government of Spain would ever recognize the title of the Moors in Africa + to the properties from which their ancestors were driven by Philip IV; or that the + Huguenots, now scattered over various countries, could ever succeed in recovering + possession of the estates in France which were confiscated at the time of the + Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. And the only people who have a cause to complain, + even on sentimental grounds, of the wrongs of past ages, are the lineal descendants + of those who suffered ill-treatment. No Englishman to-day can feel <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> aggrieved because + Saxons drove out Britons, or Normans Saxons.</p> + <p>But more than that: the confiscation of the lands of rebels stands on a different + basis, and has been so regarded in every country in the world, even New Zealand. The + lands confiscated by Philip and Mary were owned by the arch-rebel FitzGerald. + Naturally fertile and capable if properly cultivated of supporting a large + population, they were at this time a wild pathless tract of forest and bog. The + ceaseless tribal wars had prevented their being drained and cleared; the miserable + remnants of the Celtic tribes gained a precarious living by periodical raids on the + more peaceful inhabitants of the Pale. During the whole of the reign of Edward VI + fighting had gone on in Leix and Offaly with great loss of life and at enormous + expense to the English Government. The object of the confiscation was not to drive + out the few existing tribesmen; for the land, when cleared and drained, might well + support them as well as the new settlers. Nor was it to confer great estates on + absentee proprietors, but to establish a fairly thickly settled district which might + be a source of strength rather than a constant cause of trouble to the dwellers in + the Pale. Nor again was it to introduce feudalism; for as I have shown, the system + already in existence was feudalism without its advantages; the substitution of fixed + dues for the barbarous custom of "coigne and livery" was an unmixed benefit to the + occupiers of land. And it cannot be denied that the first "Plantation" was a thorough + success-thriving <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>[pg + 32]</span> settlements and prosperous farms took the place of forest and swamp.</p> + <p>If the position of Henry VIII had been one of difficulty, that of Elizabeth was + far more critical. The separation of the Church of England from Rome was now + complete. The great powers of the Continent were united in one supreme effort to + stamp out the new heresy. The massacre of St. Bartholomew had taken place in France; + Philip II had ordered a <i>Te Deum</i> to be sung at Madrid, and the Pope had had a + medal struck to commemorate the glorious event. The lowest computation of those put + to death for heresy in the Netherlands by Charles V was 50,000; and his successor + had, at the instigation of the Holy Office, issued a proclamation sentencing to death + the whole population-men, women and children-with the exception of a few persons + specially named. Alva boasted that he had put 18,000 Dutchmen to death on the + scaffold, and the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and sword, an honour + which had previously been bestowed only on reigning sovereigns. In Spain it was + regarded not only as a sacred duty but a pleasant amusement for the King and his + Court to watch the torturing of heretics. England alone-then a comparatively weak and + insignificant country-stood out against this overwhelming combination. And in + attempting to realize the position of affairs we must remember that in the sixteenth + century the Papacy was not merely a religious system but also a tremendous political + power. We may now regard the claim of the Pope to depose <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page33" id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> princes as a harmless dream; but at that + time it was a stern reality. Thus matters came to a crisis when the Pope + excommunicated Elizabeth and all who remained loyal to her, released her subjects + from their allegiance, offered plenary indulgence and remission of sins to all who + would take up arms against her, promised a liberal supply of graces and indulgences + to Irish chieftains who would rebel, and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain.</p> + <p>It can hardly be denied therefore that England was engaged in a life and death + struggle. And unless Elizabeth would consent to the annexation of Ireland by Spain + and to the conquest of England by some power that would treat the people there much + as the heretics of the Netherlands were being treated by Philip, it must be admitted + that any measures, however violent, became a political necessity-a mere act of + self-defence. But though Elizabeth had already on hand a war with France, Spain and + Scotland, her difficulties did not end there. The North of Ireland was being invaded + by Celts from Scotland, and the principal chief, Shan O'Neill (who was described by + the Spanish Ambassador as "so good a Christian that he cuts off the head of any man + who enters his country if he be not a Catholic") was in open rebellion with the + avowed object of crushing out the English power, exterminating the rival tribes, and + making himself King of Ulster. To so miserable a state had that part of Ireland been + reduced by petty local wars between rival chiefs that hundreds of people had died of + hunger. Can it be wondered that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" + id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> Elizabeth conceived the idea of imitating her sister's + policy and forming a "plantation" in the North?</p> + <p>Then came another formidable rebellion in Munster, headed by an Ersefied Norman, + Desmond. These rebellions were fomented by the Pope, and in the South the rebels were + aided by Spanish troops. In the amount of the aid sent from Spain, however, the Irish + rebels were sadly disappointed. That has been one of the characteristic features of + all Irish rebellions; the foreign powers on which they have relied have been liberal + enough with promises of aid, but when the time for performance has come they have + left the unfortunate Irish to their fate. (Thus in 1641 not only did the rebels fully + expect that a powerful Spanish force would come to their assistance, but they even + believed that 18,000 Spanish troops had actually landed at Wexford.) That these + rebellions were crushed by the forces of Queen Elizabeth with a savage violence that + is more suggestive of the government of the Netherlands by Spain than of what should + have been the action of a Christian nation cannot be denied; but when reading the + accounts of the terrible condition to which the country was reduced one cannot help + thinking that the stories of outrages committed by the English troops must be + exaggerated. In the first place, the writers, even when eye-witnesses, seem to have + assumed that the country was peaceful and prosperous up to that time; whereas not + only had the tribal wars which had gone on incessantly until a few years before + reduced the people almost to a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" + id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span> condition of famine, but the rebels themselves, such + as O'Neill and Desmond, had ravaged the country anew. And if it was obvious that the + object of Elizabeth was to exterminate the whole Irish population and the Roman + Catholic religion, it seems impossible (even allowing for the eccentricity of human + nature in general and of the Irish character in particular) to believe that a large + part of the queen's forces should have been composed of Irish Roman Catholics; or + that the inhabitants of the towns, most of whom were also Irish Roman Catholics, + should have taken her side; but such was undoubtedly the case. Again, if nearly the + whole native population had been exterminated by slaughter and famine it would have + taken at least a century to recover. Yet-a few years after the commencement of the + English settlement we find Spenser complaining that the new proprietors were acting + as the Norman barons had done centuries before; instead of keeping out the Irish they + were making them their tenants and thrusting out the English; and some of the + proprietors were themselves becoming "mere Irish." Then, although no doubt a certain + proportion of the Elizabethan settlers renounced their Protestantism and embraced the + Roman Catholic religion, that can hardly have been the case with the mass of them; + and yet before the middle of the seventeenth century we find that the great majority + of the freeholders of Ireland and even of the members of the Irish Parliament were + Roman Catholics; surely they must have represented the earlier population. And + lastly, considering <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>[pg + 36]</span> the wild exaggerations that occur in the accounts of every other event of + Irish history, we cannot suppose that this period alone has escaped.</p> + <p>Towards the end of the queen's reign occurred the last of the native rebellions. + It too was crushed; and, by the "flight of the earls"-Tyrone and Tyrconnell-was + completed the work which had been commenced by Henry II. And so the third chapter of + Irish history was ended.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + <h3>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, UNTIL THE END OF THE REIGN OF JAMES II.</h3> + <p>The seventeenth century is a terrible period of European history. It has been + described as "the age of religious wars"; and those wars were waged with a savage + ferocity which it is impossible even now to read of without a shudder.</p> + <p>It is a plain matter of history that from the very commencement of the Reformation + the idea of toleration never entered into the heads of any of the authorities of the + Church of Rome. France, Spain, Portugal, Savoy and Germany all tell the same story. + Except in countries such as England where the sovereigns adopted the new opinions, + the only chance which the reforming party had of being able to exercise their + religion was by means of rebellion and all the horrors of civil war. What that meant, + the history of the rise of the Dutch Republic tells us. As Lord Acton has said: "In + the seventeenth century the murder of a heretic was not only permitted but rewarded. + It was a virtuous deed to slaughter Protestant men and women until they were all + exterminated. Pius V held that it was sound Catholic doctrine that any man may stab a + heretic; and every man was a heretic who attacked the papal prerogatives." And it is + equally true that in those cases where the reforming party succeeded in gaining the + upper hand, they did not show much more mercy than had been shown to <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> them previously or + was being shown to their co-religionists in other countries at the time. Yet it is + only fair to add that when the idea of toleration did arise, it arose amongst the + reformed churches. Probably the only Roman Catholic State in the world where + toleration existed during the seventeenth century was the little English colony of + Maryland, of which Lord Baltimore was the proprietor. And when at length the + religious wars died out it was, as far as Catholic countries were concerned, because + the lay mind had become thoroughly disgusted with the whole thing, and men's minds + were turning in other directions-not because the clerical rulers showed the slightest + desire to relax their efforts or change their policy.</p> + <p>It would be well if the whole dreadful period could be buried in oblivion. But it + is necessary to mention the subject here, for the Nationalist party are continually + referring to the horrors of the Cromwellian massacres and the penal laws; and if such + matters are to be gone into at all it is only fair, in order to make a just estimate + of them, to glance at the great European struggle of which they formed an incident. + In the century which saw Germany deluged with blood for thirty years, and which + witnessed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the revival of vehement + persecution in France, it was not likely that Ireland should remain unaffected.</p> + <p>Soon after James I came to the throne he commenced his famous Scotch plantation in + the desolated and half-emptied province of Ulster. <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page39" id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span> That it was even a greater success than + the plantation formed by Philip and Mary everyone is of course aware; it is the + descendants of those immigrants who, though they live in a district not so highly + favoured by nature as other parts of the country, form the only really prosperous and + progressive section of the community at the present day. The native Irish do not seem + to have looked on the Scotchmen with much disfavour, perhaps partly because there + being plenty of room for all in the desolated tract, and lands being assigned to + them, they realised that they were safer in the immediate neighbourhood of a peaceful + settlement than they would have been had they remained a prey to unscrupulous + adventurers like Shan O'Neill. A member of the legal profession must feel shame and + sorrow in recording the fact that the chicanery of the lawyers added much to the + harshness of the politicians. That, however, is only another way of saying that the + humane policy of the nineteenth century was unknown in the seventeenth. Had courts + been established in Ireland like the native land courts of New Zealand in which + claims under customary law might be investigated, and equitable awards made, the + later history of Ireland might have been very different. Yet one must remember that + even in the reign of Queen Victoria there was a strong party in England and there + were not a few people in New Zealand who argued that Maori customary claims should be + disregarded and the treaty of Waitangi ignored. And in the seventeenth century such + ideas were unheard of. Lawyers <span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" + id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span> searched for every technicality of English law by + which the titles of holders of land could be upset, in favour of English claimants. + Then matters became strangely complicated, as they seem to be periodically throughout + Irish history. The struggle between Charles I and the Parliament began, and it soon + became evident that the Parliamentary party was the stronger of the two. To the Irish + the Parliamentarians meant the Puritans; and they believed, not wholly without + reason, that a determined attempt would be made not only to seize all their lands but + also to stamp out their religion. (It must be observed that the Elizabethan + anti-Roman Acts had never been strictly carried out in Ireland, and during the reign + of James I their severity had been relaxed still further-a line of conduct which had + no parallel in any Roman Catholic country in Europe at the time.) Thereupon in 1641 + the Roman Catholics of Ulster broke into open rebellion, and soon afterwards they + applied to the kings of France and Spain for aid; and the Pope issued a bull granting + a full and plenary indulgence and absolute remission for all their sins to all who + would do their utmost to extirpate and totally root out those workers of iniquity who + in the kingdom of Ireland had infected and were always striving to infect the mass of + Catholic purity with the pestiferous leaven of their heretical contagion.</p> + <p>The stories told of the actual outbreak of the rebellion are interesting as an + illustration of the universal habit of exaggeration about Irish affairs, to which I + have already alluded. Clarendon affirms <span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" + id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> that 40,000 English Protestants were murdered before + they suspected themselves to be in any danger; Temple states that in the first two + months of the rebellion 150,000 Protestants had been massacred. The Jesuit, O'Mahony, + writing in 1645, says "Persevere, my countrymen, in the path you have entered on, and + exterminate your heretical opponents, their adherents and helpers. Already within + four or five years you have killed 150,000 of them, as you do not deny. I myself + believe that even a greater number of the heretics have been cut off; would that I + could say all." He had doubtless obtained his information from the returns made by + the priests engaged in the rebellion to the military leaders, the figures of which + were much the same. Yet Lecky (who, though in certain passages of his history he + shows himself to be somewhat biassed in favour of the Irish Roman Catholic party, is + on the whole a remarkably fair and impartial historian) argues with much force that + there is no evidence of anything like a general massacre, and brings down the number + murdered to about 8,000. Still, that there was a widespread rebellion and all the + consequent horrors of civil war, there can be no doubt. The rebels of Ulster at one + time tried to identify their cause with that of Charles I by producing a forged + commission from the king-which annoyed the Royalists and made the Parliamentary party + all the more bitter. Charles certainly did his utmost to bring about a peace-no doubt + being anxious to obtain the assistance of his Irish subjects in his Scotch and + English wars. But his efforts <span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" + id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span> were thwarted by the Papal Nuncio, whose instructions + from Rome were that the Holy See could never by any positive Act approve of the civil + allegiance of Catholic subjects to an heretical prince; and thus the Royalist cause + became as completely lost in Ireland as it was in England. Before the peace was + finally concluded, Charles was a prisoner in the hands of his enemies.</p> + <p>Then came the terrible episode of the Cromwellian war, in which Romanist and + Royalist alike went down before the Puritan force. Still, though he would be a bold + man who could attempt to excuse-much less to justify-the barbarities that took place, + it may be doubted whether all the Cromwellian outrages put together equalled a single + one of those which the Imperial troops had committed during the war which had been + raging for thirty years in Germany-such for instance as the sacking of Magdeburg. It + is estimated, however, that about 600,000 people (of whom 500,000 were of the Irish + race and 100,000 of the English) perished by the sword, pestilence or famine in the + fearful years between 1641 and 1652-in other words, about a third part of the + population was wiped out. And the war was followed by a wholesale confiscation-having + fought for the king being considered as much an act of treason as having rebelled + against him. The confiscated lands were allotted to soldiers, to persons who had + supplied money to the Parliamentary forces, and to other supporters of the new + Government. It is but just, however, to add that 700,000 acres of profitable land in + Connaught <span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span> were + allotted to dispossessed Romanists, and that they were allowed to occupy 100,000 + acres in other parts of the country; a striking contrast to the lot of the unhappy + Waldenses who were at that time being driven from their homes and slaughtered without + mercy for no crime but heresy; or to the treatment a few years later by Louis XIV of + his Huguenot subjects whose lands were confiscated without compensation and who were + only given the choice of death or the galleys.</p> + <p>At the Restoration some effort was made to undo the injustice of the Cromwellian + confiscations. But the matter was one of great difficulty. In many cases land had + been allotted by Cromwell in payment for money received; in others the grantees had + sold their holdings to purchasers who had paid in cash, regarding the original grant + as indefeasible. A reconfiscation of such lands would obviously have worked a great + injustice; and it is a common maxim of law that between two claimants each with a + good title the one in possession is to be preferred. Still it cannot be said that the + decisions of the Royal Commissioners were always equitable according to our ideas; + for instance, the award of 80,000 acres to the Duke of York (afterwards James II) of + land which had been forfeited under Cromwell because the owner had fought for his + father, would be hard to justify on any possible grounds. Still, an Act of Settlement + was passed, by which a certain amount of justice was done; it is difficult to arrive + at the figures accurately, but it appears that after the passing of the Act nearly + one-third of the Island <span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>[pg + 44]</span> was vested in Roman Catholic proprietors. Archbishop King estimated that + at the time when he was writing-1689-two-thirds of the Protestant landowners held + their estates under the Act of Settlement. And Lecky says, "Only an infinitesimal + portion of the soil belongs to the descendants of those who possessed it before + Cromwell." But Archbishop King was influenced by the fear he had felt as to what the + effect of a repeal of the Act would be; and there can hardly be a doubt that his + feelings led him to overestimate the number. With regard to Lecky's remark, one can + only take it as a strange instance of a gross exaggeration having crept into a book + which is usually careful and accurate. It may be that the statement was not very + incorrect according to the evidence the author had before him; but if so, that only + proves that the evidence was wrong; for the proceedings in the Land Courts which have + been set up in Ireland during the last half century have shown that the proportion of + titles to estates which date from an earlier period was far larger than people had + supposed.</p> + <p>During the peaceful and tolerant reign of Charles II the country made steady + progress.</p> + <p>Under James II, however, everything was reversed. That unhappy monarch, having + ascended the throne tranquilly, with many protestations of toleration and justice to + all, succeeded in less than two years in making it clear to the people of England + that his object was to confine liberty to those who professed his own creed and that + his idea of good government was something like that which <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page45" id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span> was then existing in France and Savoy. + Driven from Great Britain, on his arrival in Ireland he issued a proclamation + declaring that his Protestant subjects, their religion, privileges and properties + were his especial care; and he had previously directed the Lord Lieutenant to declare + in Council that he would preserve the Act of Settlement inviolable. But the + Protestants soon had reason to fear that his promises were illusory and that the + liberty which might be allowed to them would be at best temporary. In a word, what + the one party looked forward to with hope and the other with dread was "a confederacy + with France which would make His Majesty's monarchy absolute."</p> + <p>In order to understand what that meant, to Irish Protestants, it is well to glance + at the condition of France at the time. Louis XIV had begun by directing that the + Edict of Nantes was to be interpreted by the strictest letter of the law; and soon + after that the condition of the Huguenots became more unhappy than that of the Irish + Roman Catholics ever was during the penal laws. The terrible "Dragonnades" commenced + in 1682; soldiers were billeted on heretics, and unfortunate women were insulted past + endurance; Huguenots were restricted even as to holding family prayers; children at + the age of seven were encouraged to renounce their faith, and if they did so they + were taken from their parents who, however, were obliged to pay for their maintenance + in convent schools. Protestant churches were closed, and their endowments handed over + to Roman Catholic institutions. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" + id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> Huguenot children were forbidden all education except + the most elementary. No heretic was allowed to sue a Catholic for debt. All this, + however, did not satisfy the monarch or his ecclesiastical advisers. On the 18th of + October 1685, he issued his famous Revocation of the Edict of Nantes:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We by the present Edict which is perpetual and irrevocable, revoke the Edict + given at Nantes in 1583 together with every concession to the Protestants of + whatever nature they be. We will that all temples of that religion be instantly + demolished. We prohibit our Protestant subjects to assemble for worship in any + private house. We prohibit all our lords to exercise that religion within their + fiefs under penalty of confiscation of property and imprisonment of person. We + enjoin all ministers of the said faith to leave the kingdom within fifteen days of + the publication of this Edict, under penalty of the galleys. We enjoin that all + children who shall be born henceforth be baptized by the Catholic curates. Persons + awaiting the enlightening grace of God may live in our kingdom unhindered on + account of their religion on condition that they do not perform any of its + exercises or assemble for prayer or worship under penalty of body and wealth."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>This Edict met with cordial approval from the Catholic party in France. The famous + Madame de Sevigné wrote: "I admire the king for the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47" id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> means he has devised for ruining the + Huguenots. The wars and massacres of former days only gave vigour to the sect; but + the edict just issued, aided by the dragoons, will give them the <i>coup de + grace</i>."</p> + <p>The Irish Protestants saw with alarm that amongst the soldiers who came from + France to aid King James were some who had taken an active part in the dragonnades + organized by Louis XIV in order to carry out his edict. Then one Act was passed by + the Dublin Parliament repealing the Act of Settlement; and by another 2,461 persons + were declared guilty of high treason unless they appeared before the Dublin + authorities on a certain day and proved they were not guilty. What steps King James + was prepared to take in order to subdue the rebels of Derry who held out against him + can be gathered from the proclamation which he directed Conrade de Rosen, his + Mareschal General, to issue. He warned the rebels that if they did not surrender + immediately, all the members of their faction, whether protected or not, in the whole + neighbourhood, would be brought close to the walls of the city and there starved to + death; that he would ravish the countryside, and see that no man, woman or child + escaped; and that if the city still held out he would give no quarter and spare + neither age nor sex, in case it was taken by force.</p> + <p>Even if there had been no Derry to relieve and no Protestants in other parts of + the country, the conquest of Ireland was a political necessity to King William. + England was at this time in much the same position that it had been in the days of + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> Elizabeth, + substituting the name France for Spain. The continental powers were again united in a + supreme effort to stamp out Protestantism, and England once more stood almost alone. + In Spain and Portugal, heresy was of course still punishable with death; the Pope had + celebrated the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes with a triumphal <i>Te Deum</i>; a + terrible persecution was raging not only throughout the Protestant districts of + France but also on the Rhine, in Hungary, Savoy and the Alpine Valleys; if Ireland + had remained a separate kingdom ruled by the ally and admirer of Louis XIV, the next + step would certainly have been an invasion of England by the joint forces of France + and Ireland. All that we in modern times include in the term "religious liberty" hung + on the issue of the battle that was fought and won on the banks of the Boyne.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + <h3>THE PERIOD OF THE PENAL LAWS.</h3> + <p>The flight of James II brings us to the era of the "penal laws." To one who lives + in the twentieth century and is embued with the spirit of modern thought, the whole + subject is more than painful-it is detestable. But to pass it over in silence is + impossible; and in order to get a clear view of the position it is necessary to + examine what the penal laws were, what they were not, and what were the circumstances + of the time during which they were in force.</p> + <p>The penal laws were a series of enactments carefully planned so as to harass the + Roman Catholics at every moment of their lives, in the hope of inducing them to + abandon their religion. The unhappy people were prohibited from becoming or voting + for members of Parliament; they were excluded from corporations, the army, the navy + and the legal profession. They were forbidden to bear arms, or even to possess a + horse worth more than £5. Education was denied to them, as they could not send + their sons to the university and were forbidden either to have schools of their own + in Ireland or to send their children abroad. They were not allowed to possess + freehold estates in land, and even as to leaseholds they were seriously restricted. + On the death of a Roman Catholic his estate was divided amongst his children equally, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> unless the + eldest son became a Protestant, in which case he inherited the whole. And as no Roman + Catholic was allowed to act as a guardian, a man never knew that if he should die his + children might not be brought up in a faith that he detested. The performance of + Roman Catholic worship was barely tolerated, as no bishops or other dignitaries were + allowed to remain in Ireland, and the only priests authorized to say mass were those + who were "registered" and had taken the oath of abjuration-that is, an oath declaring + that the Pretender had no right to the throne.</p> + <p>Such in brief were those terrible statutes. But without attempting to excuse them, + there are various matters which must be taken into account if we are to judge them + fairly. In the first place, the political aspect of the question should not be + forgotten. The Protestant minority might justly fear that if the Roman Catholic party + were as powerful as their numbers would naturally cause them to be, they would aid in + bringing about a French invasion for the restoration of the Stuarts and the + re-establishment of the system which had been in evidence under James II. An army was + actually formed in France, and on more than one occasion was in readiness to start. + The Stuarts were regarded by the Pope as the rightful sovereigns. The Roman Catholic + prelates whose entry into Ireland was forbidden were appointed by the Pretender and + were his political agents; it was that fact, and no doctrinal reason, that caused + their expulsion. It is necessary to make this quite clear, as there has <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> been as much + exaggeration on this point as on most other subjects connected with Irish history. + The words of the "oath of abjuration" were as follows:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"I do solemnly and sincerely declare that I do believe in my conscience that the + person pretended to be Prince of Wales during the life of the late King James and + since his decease taking upon himself the style and title of King of England by the + name of James III hath not any right or title whatever to the crown of this + realm."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>A modern Roman Catholic writer has thus described the oath:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"By the Oath of Abjuration the priest was ordered to swear that the sacrifice of + the mass and the invocation of the Blessed Virgin and the saints were damnable and + idolatrous. In other words, the priest was ordered to apostatize, or fly for his + life."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And even if Roman Catholics took the oath of allegiance, the old difficulty arose + as to the papal right to depose princes and to order their subjects to rebel. So late + as 1768, when a declaration was drawn up which it was hoped the leaders of the Roman + Catholic party would sign, so that the penal laws might be finally done away with, + the Papal Nuncio vetoed the proposal because the declaration contained a reprobation + of the doctrines that faith need not be kept with heretics and that if the Pope + banned a sovereign his subjects might depose and <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page52" id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> slay him. It is but fair to add, + however, that a large number of Roman Catholics did sign the declaration; and the + penal laws (which had been relaxed from time to time when it was seen that the Irish + took no part in the Stuart rebellions of 1715 and 1745) were soon afterwards + practically abolished.</p> + <p>Then it must be borne in mind that the Irish penal laws, although to some extent + modelled on the legislation of Louis XIV against the Huguenots, were absolutely + insignificant compared with those which were in force at the time in every Roman + Catholic country in Europe. Galling though the Irish laws were, they never went so + far as to make the mere holding of heretical opinions criminal. Thus no one in + Ireland was ever put to death for believing in transubstantiation; whereas in one + diocese of Portugal 20,000 people were sent to the stake for denying it. As every one + who has visited the Madrid picture gallery will recollect, it was still the custom in + the eighteenth century for the King of Spain to preside in state at the burning of + heretics; and it was not until that century was drawing to a close that it was for + the first time enacted in Portugal that sentence of death for heresy when passed by + the ecclesiastical court should not be carried into effect unless the order was + countersigned by the king. In France, for two or three heretics to meet for worship + anywhere (their churches had of course all been pulled down) was a crime punishable + with death; and any Huguenot caught whilst attempting to escape from the country + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span> was sent to the + galleys-a fate worse than mere death, for it meant death by slow torture. And every + child was forcibly taken from its heretic parents at the age of five, and educated in + a convent.</p> + <p>But more than that: Roman Catholics who fled from the tyranny of the penal laws at + home had no scruple, when they reached the Continent, in taking part in persecutions + far more terrible than anything they had seen in Ireland. During the dragonnades in + Languedoc, Louis XIV's Irish brigade joined eagerly in the butchery of old men, women + and children and the burning of whole villages. The same heroes distinguished + themselves by destroying everything they could find in remote Alpine valleys so that + the unfortunate Waldenses might die of starvation. And the Irish troops under Lord + Mountcashel aided in the burning of 1,000 villages in the Palatinate of the Rhine, in + which all the inhabitants-men, women and children-were slain by the sword, burnt to + death, or left to perish from hunger. These persecutions were practically brought to + an end by the French Revolution and the rise of modern ideas; but the ecclesiastical + authorities, though they have lost their power, have shown no sign of having changed + their principles. Even in the middle of the nineteenth century King Victor Emmanuel + was excommunicated by Pope Pius IX for allowing his Vaudois subjects to build a + church for themselves at Turin.</p> + <p>Of course it may be said with perfect truth that two blacks do not make one white. + Still, the constant complaints about the tyranny of the penal <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> laws have less force + when they come from the representatives of a party who acted in the same way + themselves whenever they had the opportunity.</p> + <p>It is indeed frequently urged as a matter of aggravation that whereas other + persecutions were those of a minority by a majority, this was of a majority by a + minority. To me, so far as this makes any difference at all, it tells the other way. + As a matter of morality, I fail to see any difference; putting all the inhabitants of + an Alpine valley to death as heretics does not seem to me one whit the less horrible + because the sovereign also ruled a large Catholic population on the plains. On the + other hand, the fact that the Roman Catholics in Ireland formed the majority of the + population prevented the persecution from being strictly carried out. It was + comparatively easy for Louis XIV to surround a heretic district with a cordon of + soldiers, and then draw them closer together searching every house as they went, + seizing the clergy and taking them off to the galleys; but it was impossible to track + unregistered priests through the mountains and valleys of Munster. Hence the law as + to the registration of priests soon became a dead letter.</p> + <p>There was indeed one great difference, between Irish and continental persecution. + On the continent it was the holiest and best men who were the keenest persecutors. + (This may seem strange to modern readers; but anyone who has studied the lives of + Bossuet and San Carlo Borromeo will admit that it is true.) Hence the persecution was + carried out with that vigour which was necessary to make <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page55" id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span> it a success. In Spain, if a heretic + under torture or the fear of it consented to recant, the Holy Office was not + satisfied with a mere formal recantation; for the rest of his life the convert was + watched day and night to see that there was no sign of back-sliding; and even the + possession of a fragment of the New Testament was considered as sufficient evidence + of a relapse to send the wretched man to the stake. Consequently, in a generation or + two heresy became as extinct as Christianity did amongst the Kabyles of North Africa + after the Mohammedan persecution. In Ireland, however, persecution was always against + the grain with religiously-minded Protestants. Seven bishops protested against the + first enactment of the Penal Laws; and during the period when they were in force, the + bishops repeatedly spoke and voted in favour of each proposed mitigation of them. + (With this one may contrast the action of the French bishops who on the accession of + Louis XVI in 1774 presented an address to the new king urging him to increase the + persecution of the Huguenots which had become somewhat slack during the later years + of his predecessor. By the irony of fate the same men were a few years later pleading + vainly for the mercy which they had never shown in the days of their power.) Nor was + this tolerant feeling confined to the bishops. By the aid of the Protestant gentry, + the laws were continually being evaded. Protestants appointed by the Court as + guardians of Roman Catholic children, used to carry out the wishes of the Roman + Catholic relations; Roman <span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>[pg + 56]</span> Catholic proprietors frequently handed over their estates to Protestant + friends as Trustees, and, though such Trusts were of course not enforceable at law, + there were very few instances in which they were not faithfully performed. Many + strange stories are told of the evasions of the Acts. On one occasion whilst it was + still illegal for a popish recusant to own a horse of a greater value than £5, + a man met a Roman Catholic gentleman who was riding a handsome horse; he held out + £5 in one hand, and with the other caught hold of the bridle. The rider, + naturally infuriated at this, struck the man with his whip so heavily that he fell + down dead. When he was tried for murder, the judge decided that as the man had laid a + hand on the bridle, the rider had reason to suppose that he intended to take it as + well as the horse, which would have been an illegal act; consequently he was + justified in defending himself against highway robbery; and therefore the charge must + be dismissed. Again, a Roman Catholic proprietor found out that an effort was likely + to be made to deprive him of his estate. He rode up to Dublin on a Saturday; on + Sunday he received the Holy Communion at a Protestant Church; on Monday he executed a + deed transferring his estate to a Protestant friend as Trustee; on Tuesday he was + received back into the Church of Rome; and on Wednesday he rode home again, to enjoy + his estate free from further molestation.</p> + <p>The schools which were founded in order to convert the rising generation were a + strange contrast <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>[pg + 57]</span> to the admirably conducted institutions established in France and Spain + for a similar purpose. They were so disgracefully mismanaged that the pupils who had + passed through them looked back on everything that had been taught them there with a + lifelong disgust.</p> + <p>It is needless to say that laws thus carried out were a dead failure as far as + winning converts was concerned. On the other hand, they became in one sense the more + galling as the enforcement of them fell into the hands of a low class of informers + who had no object beyond making money for themselves. Still, public feeling was so + strong that by the middle of the century the laws had almost fallen into abeyance. + Brook, writing in 1762, says: "Though these laws are still in force, it is long since + they have been in action. They hang like a sword by a thread over the heads of these + people, and Papists walk under them in security and peace; for whoever should + adventure to cut this thread would become ignominious and detestable." And in 1778 + and 1782 (that is, when, as an Irish Roman Catholic writer has pointed out, there was + still neither toleration nor peace for Protestant populations in any Catholic state + in Europe) the Irish Protestant Parliament formally repealed nearly all the penal + laws.</p> + <p>Probably their most lasting effect was that relating to the tenure of land. If + free purchase and sale regardless of religion had been allowed throughout the + eighteenth century, one may conjecture that the effect of the Cromwellian + confiscations <span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> + would long since have died away. But these laws perpetuated that peculiar state of + things which has been the cause of so much unhappiness in Ireland-the landlords + generally belonged to one religion, and their tenants and dependents to another.</p> + <p>It may be asked, As these odious laws all came to an end generations ago, what is + the good of recalling the sorrows of the past which had much better be forgotten? I + reply, None whatever; and very glad I should be if the whole subject were quietly + dropped. But unfortunately that is just what the Roman Catholic party in Ireland will + not do. One of the ways in which religious animosity is being kept alive (and I + regret to say is being steadily increased) is by the teaching in the Roman Catholic + schools of exaggerated accounts of the penal laws without referring to any of the + mitigating circumstances. Even in the present year-1913-the Lenten pastoral of one of + the bishops goes back to the same old subject. If other countries acted in a similar + manner, how could the grievances of bygone centuries ever be forgotten? The Jews, + cruelly treated though they were during the time of the Norman kings, do not harp on + the subject in England to-day. It may be doubted whether all the religious + persecutions of Europe put together were as great a disgrace to Christendom as the + slave trade-in which, I am ashamed to say, England strove to obtain the pre-eminence + amongst European nations and which she forced upon her colonies against their will. + Yet I should regret it <span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>[pg + 59]</span> deeply if that were the one passage of history selected for study in the + schools and colleges for coloured pupils in the West Indies at the present day. When + a man who has suffered wrong in former years broods over it instead of thinking of + his present blessings and his future prospects, one may be sure that he is a man who + will not succeed in life; and what is true of individuals is true also of + nations.</p> + <p>The expression "Protestant ascendancy," although it never came into use during the + period with which we are dealing, has so frequently since then been employed with + reference to it, that it is necessary to explain its meaning. Probably no word in the + English language has suffered more from being used in different senses than the word + "Protestant." In Ireland it frequently used to be, and still sometimes is, taken as + equivalent to "Anglican" or "Episcopalian"; to an Irishman of the last century it + would have appeared quite natural to speak of "Protestants and Presbyterians," + meaning thereby two distinct bodies. This is a matter of historical importance; for + so far from the Presbyterian element being favoured during the period of the Penal + Laws, the English Toleration Act had not been extended to Ireland; Presbyterians were + by the sacramental test excluded from all municipal offices; their worship, though + never in practice interfered with, remained technically illegal. Their share in + "Protestant ascendancy" was therefore very limited.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> + <p>But if the Established Church was the one favoured body, it had to pay dearly for + its privileges. In truth, the state of the Irish Church at this period of its + history, was deplorable. All the positions of value-bishoprics, deaneries and + important parishes-were conferred on Englishmen, who never resided in their cures, + but left the duties either to be performed by half-starved deputies or not at all. + Many of the churches were in ruins, and the glebes had fallen into decay; a union of + half-a-dozen parishes would scarcely supply a meagre salary for one incumbent. A + large proportion of the tithes had been appropriated by laymen; how small a sum + actually reached the clergy is shown by the fact that the first-fruits (that is, the + year's income paid by incumbents on their appointment) did not amount to more than + £500 a year in all. It may be that the standard of religious life was not lower + in Ireland than it was in England when the spiritually-minded non-Jurors had been + driven out and Hanoverian deadness was supreme; but in England there was no other + Church to form a contrast. In Ireland the apathy and worldliness of the Protestant + clergy stood out in bold relief against the heroic devotion of the priests and + friars; and at the time when the unhappy peasants, forced to pay tithes to a Church + which they detested, were ready to starve themselves to support their own clergy and + to further the cause of their religion, the well-to-do Protestant graziers and + farmers were straining the law so as to evade the payment of tithes, and never + thought <span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> of + doing anything further to support the Church to which they were supposed to belong. + (It is but fair, however, to state that this condition of things has long since + passed away; the Evangelical revival breathed new life into the dry bones of Irish + Protestantism.)</p> + <p>But it was not merely in religious matters that Ireland suffered during this + melancholy period. Students of modern history whose researches usually commence with + the early part of the nineteenth century, are wont to gather from text-books the idea + that the policy of the manufacturing party in England has always been liberal, + progressive and patriotic; whereas that of the landed interest has been retrograde + and selfish. There cannot be a greater delusion. English manufacturers have been just + as self-seeking and narrow-minded as other people-no more and no less; they have been + quite as ready to sacrifice the interests of others when they believed them to be + opposed to their own, as the much-abused landowners. At this time every nation in + Europe regarded the outlying portions of the Empire as existing only for the benefit + of the centre; in fact, the English development of the "Colonial System" even then + was more liberal than those of Spain or Holland. The English system, if perfectly + carried out, was by no means unfair. The ground idea was that the mother country + voluntarily restricted herself in matters of trade for the benefit of the Colonies, + and the Colonies had to do the same for the benefit of the mother country. Thus, when + England refused <span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span> + to admit timber from the Baltic in order to benefit the Canadian lumber trade; and + placed a prohibitive duty on sugar from Cuba so as to secure the English market for + Jamaica; it was but fair that the trade in other articles from Canada and Jamaica + should be directed to England. To say that the whole thing was a mistake, as such + restrictions really injured both parties, is no answer, as no one at that time + dreamed of such a thing as free trade. The real answer is that it was impossible to + keep the balance true; some slight change of circumstances might render that unfair + which up to then had been perfectly equal. And as the English merchants were on the + spot and commanded votes in Parliament, any injustice against them would be speedily + rectified; the colonists living at a distance and having no means of making their + voice heard, would be left to suffer.</p> + <p>In applying the colonial system to Ireland, it is true that in theory England + undertook to protect her by means of the British army and navy, from foreign foes; + but beyond that, the system was to Ireland all loss and no gain. Every branch of + Irish industry was deliberately ruined by the English Government. By the Navigation + Act of 1663, trade between Ireland and the British Colonies was forbidden; soon + after, the importation of Irish beef, mutton, pork and butter into England was + prohibited; then, at the request of the English woollen manufacturers, the export of + woollen goods from Ireland to any country was stopped; and finally, with a refinement + of cruelty, the export of linen <span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" + id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span> articles-the one industry that had hitherto been left + to the unfortunate country-was restricted to the coarsest and poorest varieties, for + fear of offending the Dutch.</p> + <p>The result of all this wretched misgovernment was not merely destitution bordering + on famine, but a wholesale emigration. Whilst the Roman Catholics were leaving the + country to avoid the penal laws, the most skilful and industrious of the artizan + class,-the very backbone of the nation-were being driven out by the prohibition of + their trades. It is said that no less than 30,000 men were thrown out of employment + by the destruction of the woollen industry alone. These were nearly all Protestants; + to encourage them would have done more to Protestantize the country than all the + penal laws and charter schools put together; but they were ruthlessly sacrificed to + the greed of the English manufacturers. Some went to the Continent, many more to New + England and the other American colonies, where they prospered, and they and their + sons became some of Washington's best soldiers in the War of Independence.</p> + <p>It was only natural that thoughtful men in Ireland should cast envious eyes on + Scotland, which had recently secured the benefit of union with England, and + consequently was able to develop her commerce and manufactures unhindered. But though + the subject of a union was discussed, and even referred to in addresses from the + Irish Parliament to Queen Anne, no active steps were taken.</p> + <p>Still, in considering these commercial restrictions, <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page64" id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span> as in the case of the penal laws, we + must not lose sight of the fact that the state of circumstances we are dealing with + has long passed away. It is necessary for a historian to refer to it, even if he + finds it hard to do so in a perfectly dispassionate way; but it is waste of time and + energy for the present generation to go on brooding over woes which had come to an + end before their grandfathers were born. Yet that is what the Nationalists of to-day + are doing. Not long ago, the Old Boys' Association of an Irish Roman Catholic College + resolved, very laudably, to found an annual prize at their alma mater. The subject + they selected was an essay on the treatment by England of Irish industries before the + year 1800! Had it been a Scotch or a German College, the subject chosen would + probably have been, The progress in scientific knowledge during the last century, or, + Improvements in means of travel since 1820; and one must ask, which subject of study + is likely to be most profitable to young men who have to make their way in the modern + world?</p> + <p>It may be asked, why did the Irish Parliament do nothing to stay this national + ruin? The answer is that the Irish Parliament possessed very little power. The Bill + of Rights of course did not apply to Ireland; general elections were very rare, and a + large number of members were paid officers of the Government; the English Parliament + had a co-ordinate power of legislating for Ireland; and since Poyning's Act (as + explained by the declaratory Act of George I) was still in force, no Bill could be + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span> introduced into + the Irish Parliament until it had been approved both by the Irish and the English + Councils; and the Irish Parliament might then pass it or reject it but had no power + to amend it.</p> + <p>And the use which the English Government made of the Irish Parliament was as + disgraceful as their treatment of Irish industries. Miserably poor though the country + was, it was burdened by the payment of pensions of a nature so scandalous that the + English Parliament even of that period would not have tolerated them.</p> + <p>The conditions of land tenure also added to the miseries of the country. It is + often said that the land belonged to wealthy English absentees, and the unfortunate + occupiers, who had no security of tenure, were ground down by the payment of + exorbitant rents. This is literally true; but, like most partial statements, + misleading. Much of the land was owned by wealthy Englishmen-which of itself was a + serious evil; but they let it in large farms at low rents on long leases, in the hope + that the occupiers would execute their own improvements. Instead of that, however, + their tenants sublet their holdings in smaller lots to others; and these subtenants + did the same again; thus there were sometimes three or four middlemen, and the rent + paid by the actual occupier to his immediate landlord was ten times the amount the + nominal owner received. As the rate of wages was miserably low, and the rent of a + cabin and a plot of ground scandalously high, how the wretched occupiers managed to + keep body and soul together is a mystery. Much has <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page66" id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span> been written about the useless, + dissipated lives of these middlemen or "squireens"; and no doubt it is to a great + extent true, although, like everything else in Ireland, it has been exaggerated. + Travellers have told us of some landlords who resided on their estates, did their + utmost to improve them, and forbade subletting (in spite of the unpopularity caused + by their doing so). And one of the remarkable features of later Irish history is that + whenever there was a period of acute difficulty and danger there were always country + gentlemen to be found ready to risk their lives and fortunes or to undertake the + thankless and dangerous duties of county magistrates.</p> + <p>It is curious how close a parallel might be drawn between the way in which Norman + Ireland was Ersefied and that in which Cromwellian Ireland was Catholicized. Many of + those who became large landowners by the Cromwellian confiscations, having no + religious prejudices (some might say, no religious or humane feelings), when the + leases of their tenants fell in, put the farms up to auction regardless of the + feelings of the occupiers. As the Roman Catholics were content with a simpler manner + of life than the Protestants, they generally offered higher rents; the dispossessed + Protestants, driven from their homes, joined their brethren in America. Then in the + South, the poorer of Cromwell's settlers, in some cases, neglected by their own + pastors, joined the religion of the majority; in others, intermarrying with the + natives, allowed their children to be brought up in the faith <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span> of their mothers. + Hence we arrive at the curious fact that at the present day some of the most ardent + Romanists and violent Nationalists, who are striving to have the Irish language + enforced all over the country, and pose as the representatives of ancient Irish + septs, are really the descendants of Cromwell's soldiers.</p> + <p>So passed the greater part of the eighteenth century; and the unhappy country + seemed as far off from progress and prosperity as ever.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>[pg 68]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + <h3>THE EARLIER PART OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. THE ACQUISITION OF INDEPENDENCE BY + THE IRISH PARLIAMENT.</h3> + <p>When we come to the reign of George III we have arrived at a specially interesting + period of Irish history. For we are no longer dealing with a state of society that + has wholly passed away; the great events that occurred towards the close of the + eighteenth century are continually referred to as bearing, at least by analogy, on + the questions of the present day. It is for the honest historian to examine how far + that analogy is real, and how far it is delusive.</p> + <p>For some time after the accession of George III, the state of Ireland was almost + as miserable as before. Trade and manufactures being nearly crushed out, want of + employment brought the people in the towns to the brink of starvation. In the + country, although the middle classes were on the whole becoming more prosperous, the + condition of the labourers and cottiers was wretched in the extreme. It is not to be + wondered at therefore that we now hear of the commencement of two movements which + were destined later on to play so important a part in the history of Ireland-the + agitation against the payment of tithes and the rise of secret societies. Few men at + the present day could be found who would attempt to justify the tithe system as it + prevailed in the eighteenth century. It was not merely that the starving peasantry + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>[pg 69]</span> were forced to + contribute towards the maintenance of a religion in which they did not believe, but + the whole manner of levying and collecting the tithes was bad; and what made them + still more annoying was the fact that the clergy never thought of performing the + duties for which tithes were supposed to exist; the large majority of the rectors did + not even reside in their parishes. The principal secret societies were the Oakboys + and the Steelboys of the north, and the Whiteboys of the south. The northern + societies soon came to an end; but the organization of the Whiteboys continued to + spread, and for a time it assumed alarming proportions. Commencing as a war against + tithe proctors, the enclosure of commons, and the substitution of grazing land for + tillage, they went on to commit outrages of various sorts, and something like a reign + of terror spread over a large tract of country. But it may safely be said that + generally speaking their conduct was not nearly so violent as that of other secret + societies of a later date; and the evidence of any foreign influence being at work, + or of religious animosity being connected with the movement, is slight.</p> + <p>It is interesting to observe that, whenever there was a violent and abnormal + outbreak of crime, the Irish Parliament did not hesitate to pass special laws to meet + the case. Such measures as the Whiteboy Act of 1787, or the Insurrection Act and the + Habeas Corpus Suppression Act of 1796, which were readily passed whilst the Irish + Parliament was completely independent, are frequently referred to <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>[pg 70]</span> by modern agitators + as amongst the brutal Coercion Acts which the tyranny of England has forced on an + innocent people.</p> + <p>The harshness of the Penal Laws was steadily being relaxed. All restrictions on + worship, or the number of clergy allowed, had long since fallen into abeyance. Roman + Catholic students were admitted into Trinity College, Dublin; and the authorities of + the University expressed their readiness to appoint a Divinity Professor of their own + faith for them if they wished it. The restrictions on property were becoming + obsolete; and political restrictions were not felt so keenly since most of the Roman + Catholics would have been ineligible for the franchise on the ground of their poverty + even if the stumbling block of religion had been removed. And the loyal sentiments + expressed by the Roman Catholics made the best of the Protestants all the more + anxious to repeal the laws which they had never regarded with favour. Then amongst + educated people not only in Ireland but elsewhere, religion was ceasing to be the + great line of cleavage; other matters-political, social, and commercial-were + occupying men's thoughts and forming new combinations.</p> + <p>The political state of the country was peculiar. The real government was carried + on by the Lord Lieutenant and his officials; but as the hereditary revenue did not + supply funds sufficient for that purpose, it was necessary to have recourse to + Parliament. And the constitution of that Parliament was as extraordinary as most + things in Ireland. A <span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>[pg + 71]</span> session was usually held every second year, but a Parliament might last + for a whole reign. The House of Commons consisted of 300 members, of whom only 64 + represented counties, and most of the rest nominally sat for small boroughs, but + really were appointed by certain individuals. It was at one time computed that 124 + members were nominated by 53 peers, whilst 91 others were chosen by 52 commoners. A + large number of the members-a third of the whole house, it is said-were in receipt of + pensions, or held offices of profit under the Crown. Of course there was no such + thing as party government-in fact, parties did not exist, though individuals might + sometimes vote against the wish of the government. The Lord Lieutenant, however, + managed to retain a majority by what would now be called flagrant and wholesale + bribery. Peerages, sinecures and pensions were bestowed with a lavish hand; and every + appointment, ecclesiastical or civil, was treated as a reward for political services. + But history affords many instances of how assemblies constituted in what seems to be + the most unsatisfactory way possible, have been remarkable for the ability and + patriotism they have shown; and certainly this was the case with that + unrepresentative collection of Protestant landlords, Dublin barristers, and paid + officials, who composed the Irish Parliament. A "National" party arose (I shall + presently explain what was the meaning attached to that word at the time) who strove + to win for Ireland the laws which in England had been enacted long before and which + were <span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>[pg 72]</span> regarded + as the very foundations of British liberty. Statutes were passed limiting the + duration of Parliament to eight years; establishing the <i>Habeas Corpus</i>; and + making judges irremoveable. Afterwards, most of the Penal Laws were repealed; and at + the same time the disabilities of the Protestant Dissenters were abolished.</p> + <p>But meanwhile foreign affairs were tending to bring about changes yet more + sweeping. When England went to war with both France and Spain, the condition of + Ireland was well-nigh desperate. The country was almost denuded of regular troops; + steps had indeed been taken for the establishment of a militia, and arms had actually + been purchased; but in the hopelessly insolvent condition of the Irish Exchequer, it + was impossible to do anything further. And a French invasion might arrive at any + moment. At this crisis the country gentlemen came forward. They formed their tenants + and dependants into regiments of volunteers, of which they took command themselves, + and strained their resources to the utmost in order to bear the expense of the + undertaking. And the rank and file-farmers and labourers-seemed fired by the same + enthusiasm. The movement spread rapidly over the country, but it possessed more + vitality in Ulster than elsewhere. It soon became evident that Ulster volunteers may + form a body not to be disregarded.</p> + <p>The troubles of England, however, were not limited to the Continent. The American + War broke out. We, who view the question impartially through the long vista of years, + can see that there <span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>[pg + 73]</span> was much to be said for the English claim. The mother country had been + brought to the verge of bankruptcy by a long and exhausting war waged with France for + the protection of the American colonies; surely it was only fair that those colonies, + who had taken but a very small part in the war, should at least bear a fraction of + the cost. But the cry of "No taxation without representation" was raised; the + Americans rebelled; and England was placed in the humiliating position of being + defeated by her own colonists. During that period Ireland remained thoroughly loyal; + the efforts of Franklin and his party to enlist Ireland on their side were as + complete a failure as those of the French emissaries had been shortly before. But it + was inevitable that the success of the American revolution should have a strong + effect on Irish affairs. Amongst the northern Presbyterians there had always been a + feeling somewhat akin to Republicanism; and (as we have seen) many of their relations + were fighting in Washington's army. Then in Ireland there was something much worse + than taxation without representation: the English Parliament, in which Ireland had no + part, claimed to legislate for Ireland and was actually at that moment keeping the + country in a state of semi-starvation by imposing severe restrictions on commerce. + Irish politicians read the offers of conciliation made by the English Government to + the revolted colonies, in which not only was the power of taxation given up and + freedom of internal legislation established, but all power of the Parliament of Great + Britain over America was renounced; <span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" + id="page74"></a>[pg 74]</span> and began to ask whether England could withhold from + loyal Irishmen the boons which she offered to rebellious Americans. The claims were + urged in Parliament and at meetings of the volunteers and other public bodies; the + English Government for some time refused to grant any concession; but at length, + fearing an Irish Revolution, gave way on every point. They granted, in fact, as an + Irish statesman expressed it, "everything short of separation." First (in spite of + the opposition of the English manufacturing classes) all restrictions on trade were + swept away; then, in 1782, the Declaratory Act of George I, by virtue of which the + English Parliament had claimed the right to legislate for Ireland, was repealed, and + with it went the right of the English House of Lords to act as a court of final + appeal for Ireland; the restrictions imposed by Poyning's Act on the legislative + powers of the Irish Parliament were abolished; and the Irish Executive was made + practically dependent on the Irish Parliament by the Mutiny Act, which had previously + been perpetual, being limited to two years.</p> + <p>Thus Ireland became a nation in a sense she had never been before. The only tie to + any power beyond sea was that the King of England was also King of Ireland; Ireland + could legislate for itself, and enter into commercial treaties with foreign powers; + but, on the other hand, it had to pay its own debts and provide its own army and + navy.</p> + <p>As Grattan was not merely the most prominent politician of the period, but also + the leader of the now triumphant "National" party, we may fairly <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>[pg 75]</span> take the views + expressed by him as representative of those of the party that followed him. A study + of his speeches and letters will show how utterly different were the ideas and aims + of the National party of 1782 from those of the Nationalists of to-day. In the first + place, Grattan was intensely loyal; that is to say, it never occurred to him that + Ireland could ever wish to be independent in the sense of not being subject to the + King of England, or could seek to be united to any other power. Secondly, he was + intensely aristocratic. His idea was that Government should and would always be in + the hands of the propertied and educated classes; that Parliament should consist of + country gentlemen and professional men from the towns, elected on a narrow franchise. + (It must be remembered that the country gentlemen had recently given evidence of + their patriotic zeal by the inauguration of the Volunteer movement; and the ability + and eloquence of the Irish Bar at that period is proverbial). Thirdly, he regarded + Protestant ascendancy as a fundamental necessity. It is true that other politicians + at the time saw that they were faced with a serious difficulty: the very principles + to which they had appealed and by virtue of which they had obtained their legislative + independence made it illogical that three-fourths of the community should be + unrepresented; whereas if votes were given to the Roman Catholic majority it was + inevitable that they would soon become eligible for seats in the Legislature; and if + so, the Protestant minority must be swamped, and the country ruled by a very <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>[pg 76]</span> different class and + according to very different ideas from those which prevailed in the Parliament of + which Grattan was a member. And would a Roman Catholic Parliament and nation care to + remain subject to a King of England whose title depended on his being a Protestant? + Grattan, however, swept all such considerations aside with an easy carelessness. He + believed that under the influences of perfect toleration large numbers of Roman + Catholics would conform; and the remainder, quite satisfied with their position, + would never dream of attacking the Church or any other existing institution. We may + smile at his strange delusions as to the future; but he was probably not more + incorrect than many people are to-day in their conjectures as to what the world will + be like a hundred years hence; and if we try to place ourselves in Grattan's + position, there is something to be said for his conjectures. At that time the + influence of the Church of Rome was at its lowest; Spain had almost ceased to exist + as a European power; and in France the state of religious thought was very different + from what it had been in the days of Louis XIV. Irish Roman Catholic gentlemen who + sent their sons to be educated in France found that they came back Voltaireans; even + the young men who went to study for the priesthood in French seminaries became embued + with liberalism to an extent that would make a modern Ultramontane shudder. Then in + Ireland all local power was in the hands of the landlords; the Roman Catholic bishops + possessed hardly any political influence. It <span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" + id="page77"></a>[pg 77]</span> would have required more keenness than a mere + enthusiast like Grattan possessed to foresee that the time would come when all this + would be absolutely reversed. What was there in the eighteenth century to lead him to + surmise that in the twentieth the landlords would be ruined and gone, and that local + government would have become vested in District Councils in which Protestants would + have no power, but over which the authority of the bishops would be absolute?</p> + <p>So Grattan and his party entered on the new conditions of political life with airy + optimism. But there were, both in England and France, shrewder and more far-seeing + men than he, who realised from the first that the new state of affairs could not + possibly be a lasting one, but must lead either to union or complete separation. Of + course so long as all parties happened to be of the same mind, no difficulties would + arise; but it was merely a question of time when some cause of friction would occur, + and then the inherent weakness of the arrangement would be apparent. A moment's + thought will show that for Ireland to be subject to the English King but independent + of the English Parliament was a physical impossibility. The king would act on the + advice of his ministers who were responsible to the English Parliament; either the + Irish Parliament must obey, or a deadlock would ensue. Then, suppose that England + were to become engaged in a war of which the people of Ireland disapproved, Ireland + might not only refuse to make any voluntary grant in aid, but even declare her ports + neutral, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>[pg 78]</span> + withdraw her troops, and pass a vote of censure on the English Government. Again, + with regard to trade; Ireland might adopt a policy of protection against England, and + enter into a treaty for free trade with some foreign country which might be at the + moment England's deadliest rival. The confusion that might result would be + endless.</p> + <p>Considerations such as these presented themselves at once to the master-mind of + Pitt. He pointed out that as England had relinquished her right to limit Irish trade + for the benefit of English, she was in fairness relieved from the corresponding duty + of protecting Ireland against foreign foes; the two countries should therefore both + contribute to their joint defence in proportion to their means. He proposed that + regular treaties should be drawn up between the two countries, by which Ireland + should contribute a certain sum to the navy, free trade between Ireland and England + should be established, and regulations made whereby the duties payable on foreign + goods should be assimilated. By such measures as these he hoped to make things run + smoothly for a time at least; but when his projects were rejected by the Irish + Parliament, he saw more clearly than ever that sooner or later the Gordian knot would + have to be cut, and that the only way of cutting it would be the Union.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>[pg 79]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + <h3>THE INDEPENDENT PARLIAMENT. THE REGENCY QUESTION. THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE + REBELLION.</h3> + <p>That Ireland increased in prosperity rapidly towards the end of the eighteenth + century, there is no doubt. Politicians will say that this prosperity came from the + increased powers gained by the Parliament in 1782; economists will reply that that + had little if anything to say to it; far more important causes being the abolition of + trade restrictions and the relaxation of the Penal Laws, which encouraged people to + employ their money in remunerative works at home instead of having to send it abroad. + It may sound somewhat Hibernian to mention the rise in rents, as another cause of + prosperity; yet anyone who knows Ireland will admit that it is not impossible; and it + was certainly put forward gravely by writers of the period who were by no means + biassed towards the landlord interest. Thus McKenna, writing in 1793, says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In several parts of Ireland the rents have been tripled within 40 years. This + was not so much the effect as the cause of national prosperity; ... before the + above-mentioned period, when rent was very low and other taxes little known, half + the year was lavished in carousing. But as soon as labour became compulsory, + fortunes have been raised both by the tenantry and landlords, and civilization has + advanced materially."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>[pg 80]</span> + <p>There was also another cause of prosperity, which modern economists cannot look on + with much favour. It was the policy of the Irish Government to grant enormous + bounties for the development of various industries, especially the growth of corn. + This no doubt gave much employment, promoted the breaking up of grass lands, the + subdivision of farms and the erection of mills; and so long as the price of corn was + maintained, brought much prosperity to the country, and thus was indirectly one cause + of the enormous increase of population, which rose from about 2,370,000 in 1750, to + about 4,500,000 in 1797. But when, during the nineteenth century, prices fell, the + whole structure, built on a fictitious foundation, came down with a crash.</p> + <p>Not long after the Irish Parliament had acquired its independence, a controversy + arose which, although it had no immediate result, yet was of vast importance on + account of the principle involved. The king became insane. It was necessary that + there should be a Regent, and it was obvious that the Prince of Wales was the man for + the post. But the British constitution contained no provision for making the + appointment. After much deliberation, the English Parliament decided to pass an Act + appointing the Prince Regent and defining his powers, the Royal assent being given by + Commission. The two houses of the Irish Parliament, however, without waiting for the + Prince to be invested with the Regency in England, voted an address to him asking him + to undertake the duties of Regent, without naming any limitations. <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>[pg 81]</span> As the king recovered + almost immediately, the whole matter ended in nothing; but thoughtful men realized + what was involved in the position which the Irish Parliament had taken up. Grattan's + resolution was to the effect that in addressing the Prince to take upon himself the + government of the country the Lords and Commons of Ireland were exercising an + undoubted right and discharging an indispensable duty to which in the emergency they + alone were competent. By the Act of Henry VIII the King of England was <i>ipso + facto</i> King of Ireland. An Irish Act of William and Mary declared that the Crown + of Ireland and all the powers and prerogatives belonging to it should be for ever + annexed to and dependent on the Crown of England. And the Act of 1782 made the Great + Seal of Great Britain necessary to the summoning of an Irish Parliament and the + passing of Irish Acts. Now did the words "King" and "Crown" merely refer to the + individual who had the right to wear a certain diadem, or did they include the chief + executive magistrate, whoever that might be-King, Queen or Regent? It was ably + contended by Lord Clare that the latter was the only possible view; for the Regent of + Great Britain must hold the Great Seal; and so he alone could summon an Irish + Parliament; therefore the Irish Parliament in choosing their Regent had endangered + the only bond which existed between England and Ireland-the necessary and perpetual + identity of the executive. If the Irish Parliament appointed one person Regent and + the English Parliament another, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" + id="page82"></a>[pg 82]</span> separation or war might be the result; and even as it + was, the appointment of the Prince with limited powers in England and unlimited in + Ireland, must lead to confusion. But more than that; suppose that the House of + Brunswick were to die out, and another Act of Settlement were to become necessary, + might not the Irish Parliament choose a different sovereign from the one chosen by + England? Constitutional lawyers recollected that such a difficulty nearly arose + between Scotland and England, but was settled by the Act of Union; and that it was + the recognition of Lambert Simnel by the Irish Parliament that was the immediate + cause of the passing of Poyning's Act; and saw what the revived powers of the Irish + Parliament might lead to.</p> + <p>Although the Parliament had now become independent, there was still nothing like a + responsible ministry as we now understand it, and the government managed to maintain + its control, partly by the peculiar composition of the Parliament (to which I have + already referred), and partly by the disposal of favours. And it cannot be denied + that the Parliament passed much useful legislation. Two questions, however, were now + coming forward on which the whole political condition of the country depended, and + which were closely entwined with one another. The first was the reform of the + legislature, so as to make the House of Commons a really representative body; the + second was the final abolition of the Penal Laws. As to reform, the Parliament was + naturally slow (did any political <span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" + id="page83"></a>[pg 83]</span> assembly in the world ever divest itself of its own + privileges without pressure from without?); but as to the abolition of the Penal Laws + there was a cordiality which is remarkable, and which is seldom referred to by the + Nationalist writers of the present day when they discourse about the Penal Laws. With + regard to social matters-such as admission to Corporations, taking Degrees at the + University, and holding medical professorships,-there was hardly any hesitation; the + political question, however, was more difficult. In both England and Ireland at that + time a forty-shilling freehold gave a vote. That was a matter of slight importance in + England, as the number of small freeholders was limited, land being usually let for a + term of years. In Ireland, however, the ordinary arrangement was for peasants to hold + their scraps of land for life; and land having recently increased in value + enormously, a large proportion of these were of the value of forty shillings. Hence, + the whole constituency would be altered; thousands of new electors, all of them poor + and illiterate, would be added in many constituencies; and the representation of the + country would at once pass into Roman Catholic hands. To fix a higher qualification + for Roman Catholics than for Protestants would be not to abolish but to perpetuate + the Penal Laws; to deprive the existing voters of the franchise was out of the + question; hence the franchise was granted but not without considerable hesitation on + the part of the more thoughtful members. On the other hand it was urged with great + force that to give these <span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>[pg + 84]</span> privileges to the uneducated mass but to continue the disabilities of the + Roman Catholic gentry by not allowing them to sit in Parliament was absurd. The + proposal to abolish the religious test in the case of Members of Parliament was, + however, defeated.</p> + <p>Looking back, with the light of later history to aid us, it is interesting to see + how much more correct were Lord Clare's predictions of the future than Grattan's. + Grattan (as I have already explained), taking his ideas from his lay friends among + the cultured classes, and seeing the decline of the Papal influence on the continent, + considered that anyone who regarded Popery as a political influence of the future + totally misunderstood the principles which then governed human action; for + controverted points of religion (such as belief in the Real Presence) had ceased to + be a principle of human action. He maintained that the cause of the Pope, as a + political force, was as dead as that of the Stuarts; that priestcraft was a + superannuated folly; and that in Ireland a new political religion had arisen, + superseding all influence of priest and parson, and burying for ever theological + discord in the love of civil and religious liberty. Clare, who was not only a + shrewder observer but a much more deeply read man, realized that in order to find out + what would guide the Roman Catholic Church in the future one must look not at the + passing opinions of laymen but at the constitution of the Church; he foresaw that if + the artificial supports which maintained the Protestant ascendancy were <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>[pg 85]</span> removed, the mere + force of numbers would bring about a Roman Catholic ascendancy; and in enumerating + the results of that he even said that the time would come when the Church would + decide on all questions as to marriage.</p> + <p>In order to show how far Lord Clare's expectations have been verified, I will + quote, not the words of an Orange speaker or writer, but of an eminent Roman + Catholic, the Rev. J.T. McNicholas, O.P., in his recently published book on "The New + Marriage Legislation" which, being issued with an <i>Imprimatur</i>, will be received + by all parties as a work of authority. He says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Many Protestants may think the Church presumptuous in decreeing their marriages + valid or invalid according as they have or have not complied with certain + conditions. As the Church cannot err, neither can she be presumptuous. She alone is + judge of the extent of her power. Anyone validly baptised, either in the Church or + among heretics, becomes thereby a subject of the Roman Catholic Church."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>But whilst politicians were amusing themselves with fervid but useless oratory in + Parliament, stirring events were taking place elsewhere. To trace in these pages even + a bare outline of the main incidents of those terrible years is impossible; and yet + without doing so it is not easy to obtain a correct view of the tangled skein of + Irish politics at the time. In studying any history of the period, we cannot but be + struck by observing on the one hand <span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" + id="page86"></a>[pg 86]</span> how completely in some respects circumstances and + ideas have changed since then; it is hard to realize that Ulster was for a time the + scene of wild disorder-assassination, arson, burglary and every form of + outrage-brought about mainly by a society which claimed to be, and to a certain + extent was, formed by a union of the Presbyterian and Roman Catholic parties-whilst + the south and west remained fairly orderly and loyal. And yet on the other hand we + find many of the phenomena which have been characteristic of later periods of Irish + political agitation, already flourishing. Boycotting existed in fact, though the name + was not yet invented; also nocturnal raids for arms, the sacking of lonely + farmhouses, the intimidation of witnesses and the mutilation of cattle. Again, we see + all through the history of Irish secret societies that their organization has been so + splendid that the ordinary law has been powerless against them; for witnesses will + not give evidence and juries will not convict if they know that to do so will mean + certain ruin and probable death; and yet those same societies have always possessed + one element of weakness: however terrible their oaths of secrecy have been, the + Government have never had the slightest difficulty in finding out, through their + confidential agents, everything that has taken place at their meetings, and what + their projects are.</p> + <p>As early as 1785 there had been two societies carrying on something like civil war + on a small scale in the north. How they originated, is a matter of dispute; but at + any rate before they had <span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>[pg + 87]</span> long been in existence, the religious element became supreme-as it does + sooner or later in every Irish movement; whatever temporary alliances may be formed + for other reasons, religion always ultimately becomes the line of cleavage. In this + case, the "Peep of Day Boys" were Protestants, the "Defenders" Roman Catholic. Some + of the outrages committed by the Defenders were too horrible to put in print; many + Roman Catholic families fled the country on account of the treatment which they + received from the Peep of Day Boys, and took refuge among their co-religionists in + the south.</p> + <p>But now a greater crisis was at hand. The terrible upheaval of the French + Revolution was shaking European society to its foundation. The teaching of Paine and + Voltaire had borne fruit; the wildest socialism was being preached in every land. + Ulster had shown sympathy with Republican ideas at the time of the American War of + Independence; and now a large number of the Presbyterians of Belfast eagerly accepted + the doctrines of Jacobinism. Nothing can sound more charmingly innocent than the + objects of the United Irish Society as put forward publicly in 1791; the members + solemnly and religiously pledged themselves to use all their influence to obtain an + impartial and adequate representation of the Irish nation in Parliament; and as a + means to this end to endeavour to secure the co-operation of Irishmen of all + religious persuasions. Some writers have tried to make out that if the Relief Act of + 1793 had <span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>[pg 88]</span> been + extended in 1795 by another Act enabling Roman Catholics to become Members of + Parliament; and if a Reform Bill had been passed making the House of Commons really + representative, the society would never have been anything but a perfectly legal and + harmless association. Of course it is always possible to suggest what might have + been; but in this case it is far more probable that if Parliament had been so + reformed as to be a fair reflex of the opinion of the country, it would immediately + have passed a resolution declaring Ireland a Republic and forming an alliance with + France; for whatever objects were stated in public, the real guiding spirits of the + United Irish Society from the beginning (as of other societies of a later date with + equally innocent names) were ardent republicans, who joined the society in order to + further those views; it is absurd to suggest that men who were actually in + correspondence with the leaders of the Directory and were trying to bring about an + invasion from France in order to aid them in establishing a Republic on Jacobin lines + would have been deterred by the passing of a Bill making it lawful for Roman + Catholics to sit in Parliament. Nor again is it reasonable to contend that + earnest-minded Roman Catholics would, in consequence of the failure of such a Bill to + become law, have rebelled against a Government under which they were able to exercise + their religion in peace and which was at that moment founding and endowing a College + for the training of candidates for the priesthood, in favour of one which had + confiscated <span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>[pg 89]</span> the + seminaries and was sending the priests to the guillotine. The fact seems to have been + that the society was formed by Presbyterians, for political reasons; they tried to + get the Roman Catholics to join them, but the lower class Roman Catholics cared very + little about seats in Parliament; so the founders of the society cleverly added + abolition of tithes and taxes, and reduction of rents, to their original programme; + this drew in numbers of Roman Catholics, whose principles were really the very + antithesis of Jacobinism.</p> + <p>It is a fair instance of the confusion which has always reigned throughout Irish + politics, that after the Relief Act of 1793 had been passed, the Catholic Committee + expressed their jubilation by voting £2,000 for a statue to the King, and + presenting a gold medal to their Secretary, Wolfe Tone, who was at that moment + scheming to set up a Jacobin Republic.</p> + <p>This celebrated man, Wolfe Tone, was not unlike many others who have posed as + Irish patriots. Hating the very name of England, he schemed to get one appointment + after another from the English Government-at one time seeking to be put in command of + a filibustering expedition to raid the towns of South America, at another time trying + for a post in India; hating the Pope and the priests, he acted as Secretary to the + Catholic Committee; then hating Grattan and the Irish Parliament and everything to + say to it, he showed his patriotism by devoting his energies to trying to persuade + the French Republican Government to invade Ireland.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>[pg 90]</span> + <p>On the 21st of September, 1795, an incident occurred which, though apparently + trivial at the time, was destined to be of great historical importance. Ulster had + now for some time been in a state bordering on anarchy; not only were the secret + societies constantly at war, but marauding bands, pretending to belong to one or + other of the societies, were ravishing the country. Something like a pitched battle + was fought between the Protestants and the Defenders, in which the Defenders, + although they were the stronger party and made the attack, were utterly routed. In + the evening, the victors agreed to form themselves into a society which should bear + the name of William of Orange. There had previously been some societies called by + that name; but this was the foundation of the Orange Society of the present day. The + oath which at first was taken by every member of the society was to defend the king + and his heirs so long as he or they support the Protestant ascendancy. (This + conditional form of oath of allegiance has long since been abolished.) It was + industriously circulated by the United Irishmen that the actual words of the oath + were: "I will be true to the King and Government and I will exterminate as far as I + am able the Catholics of Ireland." There is no evidence, however, that any words of + the kind ever formed part of an oath prescribed by the Orange Society; and those who + make the statement now must be aware that they are repeating a calumny.</p> + <p>After this time, the quarrel gradually tended more and more to become a religious + one; the Peep <span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>[pg 91]</span> + of Day Boys becoming merged in the Orange Society, and the Protestants slowly + withdrawing from the United Irish Society; on the other hand, the Defenders + ultimately coalesced with the United Irishmen and thus, by an illogical combination + of inconsistent forces, formed the party which brought about the terrible + rebellion.</p> + <p>The close of the year 1796 was one of the most critical moments in the history of + England. On the continent the power of republican France under the genius of Napoleon + and his generals was sweeping all before it. England was in a state of bankruptcy, + and almost as completely isolated as she had been in the time of Elizabeth. Wolfe + Tone and his Irish plotters saw their opportunity as clearly as their predecessors + had in the times of Edward Bruce and Philip II. They laid a statement of the + condition of Ireland before the French Government which, though as full of + exaggerations as most things in Irish history, was sufficiently based on fact to lead + the French Government to believe that if a French force were landed in Ireland, the + Irishmen in the British Army and Navy would mutiny, the Yeomen would join the French, + and the whole of the North of Ireland would rise in rebellion.</p> + <p>Accordingly a French fleet of forty-three sail, carrying about 15,000 troops, + sailed from Brest for Bantry Bay. No human power could have prevented their landing; + and had they done so, they could have marched to Cork and seized the town without any + difficulty; the United Irishmen would <span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" + id="page92"></a>[pg 92]</span> have risen, and the whole country might have been + theirs. But the same power which saved England from the Armada of Catholic Spain 200 + years before now shielded her from the invasion of republican France. Storms and fogs + wrought havoc throughout the French fleet. In less than a month from the time of + their starting, Wolfe Tone and the shattered remains of the invading force were back + at Brest, without having succeeded in landing a single man on the Irish shore.</p> + <p>Had this projected invasion taken place fifty years before, amongst the French + troops would have been the Irish brigade, who were always yearning for the + opportunity of making an attack on their native land. But half a century had caused + strange changes; the Irish brigade had fallen with the collapse of the French + monarchy; and some of the few survivors were now actually serving under King George + III.</p> + <p>It was a remarkable fact that no one in the neighbourhood of Bantry showed the + slightest sympathy with the Frenchmen. The few resident gentry, the moment the danger + was evident, called together the yeomanry and organized their tenantry to oppose the + foe-though the utmost they could have done would have been to delay the progress of + the invaders for a little at the cost of their own lives; and the peasantry did all + in their power to support their efforts.</p> + <p>If it is possible to analyse the state of political feeling at this time, we may + say that first there was a very limited number of thoughtful men who saw <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>[pg 93]</span> that after the Acts + of 1782 and 1793 either separation or union was inevitable, and who consequently + opposed all idea of parliamentary reform, because they thought it would tend to + separation and make union more difficult. A second party (a leading member of which + was Charlemont) approved of the existing state of things, and believed that it could + be continued; a third (of which Grattan was one) fondly imagined that all would go + smoothly if only a Catholic Relief Bill and a Reform Bill were carried, and so + directed all their efforts towards those objects; and a fourth believed that no + reform would be granted without pressure, and so were ready even to work up a + rebellion in order to obtain it; but that was a very small party at best, and was + soon carried away by the whirlwind of those revolutionists who cared nothing about + the Parliament then sitting in Dublin, or about any other possible Parliament which + might own allegiance to the King of England, for their real aim was to sever Ireland + from England altogether and establish a separate republic. As Wolfe Tone wrote: "To + break the connection with England and to assert the independence of my country were + my objects."</p> + <p>It is this party that is represented by the Nationalists of to-day, except that + when they look for foreign aid, their hopes lie in the direction of Germany rather + than France. I know that this remark may call forth a storm of denials from those who + judge by the speeches which Nationalist leaders have made in England when trying to + win the Radical vote, or in the Colonies when aiming <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page94" id="page94"></a>[pg 94]</span> at getting money from people who had not + studied the question. But I judge not by speeches such as those, but by statements + continually put forward by political writers and orators when they have cast off the + mask and are addressing their sympathizers in Ireland and America:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The Nationalists of Ireland stand for the complete independence of Ireland, and + they stand for nothing else. In the English Empire they have no part or lot, and + they wish to have no part or lot. We stand for the Irish nation, free and + independent and outside the English Empire."-(<i>Irish Freedom</i>.)</p> + <p>"Our aim is the establishment of an Irish Republic, for the simple and sole + reason that no other ending of our quarrel with England could be either adequate or + final. This is the one central and vital point of agreement among all who are + worthy of the name of Irish Nationalists-that Ireland is a separate nation-separate + in thought, mind, in ideals and outlooks. Come what may, we work for Ireland as + separate from England as Germany is separate."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"Year by year the pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe Tone grows more + significant of the rising tide of militant and uncompromising Nationalism, more + significant of the fact that Young Ireland has turned away from the false thing + that has passed for patriotism, and has begun to reverence only the men and the + things <span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>[pg 95]</span> and + the memories that stand for Ireland an independent nation. Paying tribute to the + memory of men like Tone, lifting up the language of Ireland from the mire, linking + up the present with the old days of true patriotic endeavour-these are the doings + that will eventually bring our land from the mazes of humbug into the clear dawn + that heralds Nationhood."-(<i>The Leinster Leader</i>.)</p> + <p>"The object aimed at by the advanced National party is the recovery of Ireland's + national independence and the severance of all political connection with + England."-(<i>J. Devoy</i>.)</p> + <p>"In the better days that are approaching, the soil of Ireland will be populated + by a race of Irishmen free and happy and thriving, owning no master under the + Almighty, and owning no flag but the green flag of an independent Irish + nation."-(<i>W. O'Brien, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"In supporting Home Rule for Ireland we abandon no principle of Irish nationhood + as laid down by the fathers in the Irish movement for independence, from Wolfe Tone + and Emmett to John Mitchell, and from Mitchell to Kickham and Parnell."-(<i>J. + Redmond</i>.)</p> + <p>"Our ultimate goal is the national independence of our + country."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>[pg 96]</span> + <p>"In its essence the National movement is the same to-day as it was in the days + of Hugh O'Niell, Owen Roe, Emmett, or of Wolfe Tone."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"We are as much rebels to England's rule as our forefathers were in + '98."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"I remember when Parnell was asked if he would accept as a final settlement the + Home Rule compromise proposed by Mr. Gladstone. I remember his answer. He said 'I + believe in the policy of taking from England anything we can wring from her which + will strengthen our hands to go for more.'"-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"When we have undermined English misgovernment we have paved the way for Ireland + to take her place among the nations of the earth. And let us not forget that that + is the ultimate goal at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be in + America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be satisfied until we have + destroyed the last link which keeps Ireland bound to England."</p> + <p>(<i>C.S. Parnell</i>.)</p> + <p>"I know there are many people in America who think that the means which we are + operating to-day for the good of Ireland are not sufficiently sharp and decisive + ... I would suggest to those who have constituted themselves <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>[pg 97]</span> the censors of our + movement, would it not be well to give our movement a fair chance-to allow us to + have an Irish Parliament that will give our people all authority over the police + and the judiciary and all government in the nation, and when equipped with + comparative freedom, then would be the time for those who think we should destroy + the last link that binds us to England to operate by whatever means they think best + to achieve that great and desirable end? I am quite sure that I speak for the + United Irish League in the matter."</p> + <p>(<i>J. Devlin, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"What was it, after all, that Wolfe Tone, and Fitzgerald, and Mitchell, and + Smith O'Brien, and O'Meagher Condon, and Allen, Larkins and O'Brien, and all the + other gallant Irishmen strove for, who from generation to generation were inspired + with the spirit of revolution? ... In what respect does our policy differ from the + purpose of these men?"-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"In my opinion, and in the opinion of the vast majority of the advanced + Nationalists of Ireland, the Repeal of the Union is not the full Nationalist + demand; separation is the full Nationalist demand; that is the right on which we + stand, the Nationalist right of Ireland."-(<i>J. Dillon, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"I should never have dedicated my life to this <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page98" id="page98"></a>[pg 98]</span> great struggle if I did not see at the + end the crowning and the consummation of our work-a free and independent + nation."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"We aim at nothing else than establishing a new nation upon the map of + Europe."-(<i>Dr. Douglas Hyde</i>.)</p> + <p>"If there is any man in this audience who says to us as representing that + Parliamentary movement-'I don't believe in your Parliamentary ideas, I don't accept + Home Rule, I go beyond it; I believe in an independent Irish nation'-if any man + says this, I say that we don't disbelieve in it. These are our tactics-if you are + to take a fortress, first take the outer works."-(<i>T.M. Kettle, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"We want to carry on the work that the Fenians tried to do to a triumphal issue. + The Fenians stood for an Irish Republic, and so do we. No policy which left England + in control of the Irish Nation could be regarded as final. There is only one way, + and that is to get the absolute and complete independence of Ireland, free from + English rule and English domination. The Fenians did not go to the Prime Minister + for concessions. No: they started into arms, and if people of the present day + believed in that they should arm themselves to get the independence of + Ireland."-(<i>B. Hobson</i>, speaking at a demonstration at Cork, on the + anniversary of the "martyrdom" of Allen, Larkins, and O'Brien.)</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>[pg 99]</span> + <p>"Should the Germans land in Ireland, they will be received with willing hearts + and strong hands, and should England be their destination, it is to be hoped that + they will find time to disembark 100,000 rifles and a few score of ammunition for + the same in this country, and twelve months later this Ireland will be as free as + the Lord God meant it should be."-(<i>Major McBride</i>, who organized an Irish + force to aid the Boers against England, and has consequently been appointed to a + municipal inspectorship by the Corporation of Dublin.)</p> + <p>"I appeal to you most earnestly to do all in your power to prevent your + countrymen from entering the degraded British army. If you prevent 500 men from + enlisting you do nearly as good work, if not quite so exciting, as if you shot 500 + men on the field of battle, and also you are making the path smoother for the + approaching conquest of England by Germany."-(Ib.)</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>[pg 100]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + <h3>THE REBELLION.</h3> + <p>Early in 1797 it became evident to all but the most shortsighted of politicians + that a rebellion, of which none could foretell the result, was imminent. As one + shrewd observer wrote: "I look upon it that Ireland must soon stand in respect to + England in one of three situations-united with her, the Legislatures being joined; + separated from her, and forming a republic; or as a half-subdued Province." The + supporters of law and order were naturally divided in opinion as to the course to + pursue. Some were in favour of a policy of conciliation. Grattan induced his friend + Ponsonby to bring forward another Reform Bill, abolishing the religious test and the + separate representation of boroughs, and dividing each county into districts; and + when he saw that the motion could not be carried, delivered an impassioned speech, + declaring that he would never again attend the House of Commons, and solemnly walked + out. It was a piece of acting, too transparent to deceive anybody. Grattan was a + disappointed man-disappointed not so much because his proposals were not adopted, as + because his own followers were slipping away from him. They had begun to realize that + he was an orator but not a statesman; his ideas were wild, fanciful dreams. Whilst + vehemently upholding the English connection he was playing into the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>[pg 101]</span> hands of England's + opponents by reminding them that England's difficulty was Ireland's opportunity; + whilst hating the very idea of a Union, he was making the existing system impossible + by preventing the passing of a commercial treaty; whilst passionately supporting + Protestant ascendancy, he was advocating a measure which at that moment would have + brought about the establishment either of a Roman Catholic ascendancy or more + probably of a Jacobin Republic. He saw his supporters dwindling slowly from + seventy-seven in 1783 to thirty in 1797. Men were now alive to the fact that the + country was in an alarming condition. They saw what had happened in France but a few + years before, and how little Louis XVI had gained by trying to pose as a liberator + and a semi-republican; and, knowing that the rebellion with which they were faced was + an avowed imitation of the French Revolution, they were coming to the opinion that + stern measures were necessary. In almost every county of three Provinces conspirators + were at work, trying to bring down on their country a foreign invasion, and stirring + up the people to rebellion and crime by appealing to their agrarian grievances and + cupidity, their religious passion, and the discontent produced by great poverty. For + a second time it appeared that Wolfe Tone would succeed in obtaining aid from + abroad-this time from Spain and Holland; and the rebel party in Ireland were now so + well organized, and Jacobin feeling was so widespread, that had he done so, it was + almost inevitable that Ireland would have been <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page102" id="page102"></a>[pg 102]</span> lost to England. But once more the + unexpected was destined to occur. Early in February Jervis shattered the power of the + Spanish Fleet off Cape St. Vincent; and in the summer, just when the Dutch ships, + with 14,000 troops on board, were ready to start, and resistance on the part of + England seemed hopeless, a violent gale arose and for weeks the whole fleet remained + imprisoned in the river; and when at length they did succeed in making a start, the + English were ready to meet them within a few miles of the coast of Holland; after a + tremendous battle the broken remnant of the Dutch fleet returned to the harbour + defeated. The rage and mortification of Wolfe Tone at his second failure knew no + bounds.</p> + <p>In the North of Ireland, however, the rebellion had practically begun. The + magistrates were powerless; the classes who had supported the gentry during the + Volunteer Movement were amongst the disaffected. The country was in a state of + anarchy; murders and outrages of every sort were incessant. That the measures which + the Government and their supporters took to crush the rising rebellion were illegal + and barbarous, cannot be denied; that they in fact by their violence hurried on the + rebellion is not improbable. But it is still more probable that they were the means + of preventing its success; just as, had the Government of Louis XVI shown more vigour + at the outset of the Revolution, the Reign of Terror would probably never have taken + place. Through evidence obtained by torture, the Government got possession <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>[pg 103]</span> of vast stores of + arms which the rebels had prepared; by twice seizing the directors of the movement + they deprived it of its central organization; and if they were the cause of the + rebellion breaking out sooner than had been intended, the result was that they were + able to quell it in one district before it had time to come to a head in another.</p> + <p>War at best is very terrible; and there were two circumstances which made the war + in Ireland more terrible than others. It was a religious war, and it was a civil war. + It often happens that when religion is turned to hatred it stirs up the worst and + most diabolical passions of the human breast; and the evil feelings brought on by a + civil war necessarily last longer than animosity against a foreign foe. The horrors + of 1798 make one shudder to think what must happen in Ireland if civil war ever + breaks out there again.</p> + <p>From Ulster the United Ireland movement spread during 1797 to Leinster, as far + south as Wexford, and began to assume a more decidedly religious character. As a + contemporary historian wrote:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"So inveterately rooted are the prejudices of religious antipathy in the minds + of the lower classes of Irish Romanists, that in any civil war, however originating + from causes unconnected with religion, not all the efforts of their gentry, or even + priests, to the contrary could (if I am not exceedingly mistaken) restrain them + from converting it into a religious quarrel."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>[pg 104]</span> (Had he + lived a century later, he might have used the same words.) But though this was + generally the case, there were complications as embarrassing as they usually are in + Irish affairs. The yeomanry were mainly Protestants, but the majority of the militia + were Roman Catholics, and those commanded by Lord Fingall entirely so. There was much + disaffection in both branches of the service; besides which, officers and men alike + lacked the discipline and experience of regular troops; but as the supply of soldiers + from England was wholly inadequate for the situation, the Government were obliged to + rely on any forces they could obtain. As the rebellion drifted into being a Roman + Catholic movement, the Orangemen became intensely loyal, and were eager to fight on + the king's side, but the Government dreaded lest by employing them they might offend + the militia. By 1798, when the rebellion in the south was at its height, the north + had become comparatively calm. The severities of the previous year had had some + salutary effect; the staunch Protestants had no desire to aid in what had become a + Roman Catholic rebellion; and the republican party had seen that the universal + fraternity of the Jacobin Government of France had turned into a military despotism + which was engaged in crushing the neighbouring republics and was almost at war with + the sister Republic of America.<br /> + <br /> + + <p>But whilst Ulster was growing calmer, the condition of the south was becoming + daily more appalling. On the 23rd of May the rebellion actually broke out in the + counties of Dublin, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>[pg + 105]</span> Kildare and Meath; and many skirmishes took place in which the losses on + the king's side were comparatively few but those of the rebels enormous, in + consequence of their ignorance of the use of firearms. The better-trained forces soon + got to know that an Irish peasant when armed with a pike was a deadly foe; but when + armed with a musket was almost harmless. This part of the campaign will always be + specially memorable for the attack made on the little town of Prosperous, in the + county of Kildare. It was cleverly made in the early morning; the garrison, taken + unawares, were nearly all killed; the Commander, Captain Swayne, being amongst the + victims. It was soon afterwards found out that the leader of the rebels was Dr. + Esmonde, a gentleman of good family, and first lieutenant in a regiment of yeomanry + stationed a few miles off, who had been dining with Captain Swayne the previous + evening. He appeared in his regiment the next day, but was identified by a yeoman who + had seen him at Prosperous; arrested, tried, and hanged as a traitor.</p> + <p>A Nationalist has recently referred to him as a martyr to the cause of Irish + liberty.</p> + <p>By the month of June Wexford had become the centre of the rebellion. In that + county it had assumed an essentially religious character (there being, however, a few + exceptions on each side), and in no other part of Ireland was the war so terrible + either on account of its magnitude or barbarity. The passions of the ignorant + peasantry were inflamed by all Protestants being spoken of as <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>[pg 106]</span> Orangemen and a + report being diligently circulated that all Orangemen had sworn to destroy the + Catholic Faith-exactly the same course that was followed a hundred years later. Roman + Catholic priests, wearing their sacred vestments and carrying crucifixes, led the + rebel forces; and the ignorant peasants, believing them to be endowed with miraculous + powers, followed them with the blind adherence that only fanaticism can inspire. And + yet-so strangely contradictory is everything in Ireland-there is clear evidence that + amongst those priestly agitators many were at heart deists, who were making use of + religion in the hope of furthering Jacobinism. Many Protestants saved their lives by + apostatizing, or by allowing their children to be rebaptized; it is but fair to add, + however, that several of the older priests, shocked at the conduct of the rebels, + concealed heretics in their houses and churches; and that all through the war many + priests, in spite of the difficulty of their position, remained loyal and did what + they could to aid the king's troops.</p> + <p>The rebels for some weeks held command of the town and county of Wexford, their + chief camp being at a place called Vinegar Hill. The country around was searched and + plundered; the Protestants who were captured were brought into the rebel camp, and + there deliberately butchered in cold blood. How many perished it is impossible to + say; the number must have been at the least 400.</p> + <p>I would willingly pass over this dreadful episode. I have no more desire to dwell + on it than I have on <span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>[pg + 107]</span> Cromwell's conduct at Drogheda. I regard it merely as one of those + terrible incidents which alas have taken place in almost every campaign. It was + probably equalled in character if not in magnitude by several outrages committed by + the other side; and certainly parallels could be found in the French invasion of + Algeria fifty years later and in many other wars of the nineteenth century. When men + have been fired with the diabolical passions that war arouses, and have grown + accustomed to the ghastly sights on battlefields, they cease to be reasoning beings; + they become fiends. But unfortunately it is necessary to explain what really + occurred, as it is to Vinegar Hill and its terrible associations that the + Nationalists of to-day refer with triumph. Songs in praise of the massacre are sung + at Nationalist gatherings; and W. Redmond, speaking at Enniscorthy (close to the + scene of the massacre) on the 110th anniversary of the outrages said: "The heroic + action of the men who fought and died around Vinegar Hill was the heritage of all + Ireland. Whatever measure of comparative freedom we now enjoy was entirely + attributable to the Insurrection of '98. It was the pikemen of '98 who made the world + and England understand that Irishmen knew how to fight for their rights, and it is to + the knowledge of that fact by England that we may look for the real driving force of + any effort we may make for our liberty. The Irish people are in no position to resort + to arms, but the spirit is there, and by demonstrations like this we show our rulers + that it is essential for <span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>[pg + 108]</span> any real and lasting peace that the aspirations of the patriots of '98 + must be satisfied, and that a full measure of National freedom must be granted to + Ireland."</p> + <p>(It will be observed that in the opinion of this orator-a prominent Nationalist + Member of Parliament, who was selected to go round the Colonies collecting money for + the Home Rule cause-the possession of an Independent Parliament, of everything in + fact short of separation, goes for nothing; it is only those who rebelled against + that Parliament who are to be regarded as models for modern Nationalists to follow. + It is interesting also to note the different views which have been put forward by + Irish politicians with regard to the rebellion. In 1843 the leaders of the Repeal + Association stated in one of their manifestoes, as an argument in favour of repeal, + that England had resorted to the diabolical expedient of fomenting a rebellion in + order to distract the country and give excuse for military violence and so bring + about a Union. But the Nationalists of to-day have so completely identified + themselves with the rebels of 1798 that within the last few years splendid monuments + have been erected in all the towns of Wexford and the adjoining counties; some of + these are bronze figures of patriots brandishing pikes, others are representations of + the priestly leaders of the rebel forces. These monuments have been unveiled with + great ceremony, impassioned speeches being made on the occasion by leading orators, + both clerical and lay).</p> + <p>In order to realize the terrible position in which <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page109" id="page109"></a>[pg 109]</span> the loyalists were placed, we must + recollect that whilst the Wexford rebels were triumphant in that county, and the + movement seemed to be spreading into Kilkenny and Carlow, there was a fresh outbreak + in the north; it appeared probable that Dublin might rise at any moment; the French + fleet was hourly expected, and the long looked-for aid from England was still + delayed. But the Irish loyalist minority showed the same dogged determination that + they had done in the time of James II, and that they will show again in the + future.</p> + <p>The numbers engaged in the different battles and skirmishes have been variously + estimated; it seems that at the battle of Arklow the loyalists did not exceed 1,600, + of whom nearly all were militia and yeomanry, with a few artillery; whilst the + rebels, commanded by Father Michael Murphy, amounted to at least 20,000. Yet after a + terrible afternoon's fighting the rebels, disheartened by the fall of their leader + (whom they had believed to be invulnerable) retired, leaving more than 1,000 dead on + the field.</p> + <p>Soon, however, the reinforcements from England began to arrive; and the French + invasion, on which the rebels were building their hopes, was still delayed. By July, + although fighting was still going on in the Wicklow mountains and some other parts of + the country, the worst of the rebellion in Wexford was crushed, and an Act of Amnesty + was carried through Parliament. It is worthy of note that the trials of the rebels + which took place in Dublin were conducted with a fairness and a respect for the forms + of law which are probably <span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" + id="page110"></a>[pg 110]</span> unparalleled in the history of other countries at + moments of such terrible excitement; we can contrast them for instance with the steps + that were taken in putting down the outbreak of the Commune in Paris in 1871. It is + easy now to argue that, as the force of the rebellion was being broken, it would have + been more humane to have allowed those who had plotted and directed it to go + unpunished. But as Lecky has pointed out, "it was scarcely possible to exaggerate the + evil they had produced, and they were immeasurably more guilty than the majority of + those who had already perished.</p> + <p>"They had thrown back, probably for generations, the civilization of their + country. They had been year by year engaged in sowing the seed which had ripened into + the harvest of blood. They had done all in their power to bring down upon Ireland the + two greatest curses that can afflict a nation-the curse of civil war, and the curse + of foreign invasion; and although at the outset of their movement they had hoped to + unite Irishmen of all creeds, they had ended by lashing the Catholics into frenzy by + deliberate and skilful falsehood. The assertion that the Orangemen had sworn to + exterminate the Catholics was nowhere more prominent than in the newspaper which was + the recognised organ of the United Irish leaders. The men who had spread this calumny + through an ignorant and excitable Catholic population, were assuredly not less truly + murderers than those who had fired the barn at Scullabogue or piked the Protestants + on Wexford Bridge."</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>[pg 111]</span> + <p>A strong party, however, led by Lord Clare were in favour of clemency wherever + possible; and there seemed good reason for hoping that the rebellion would slowly die + out. Cooke, the Under Secretary, wrote on the 9th of August: "The country is by no + means settled nor secure should the French land, but I think secure if they do not." + Suddenly, however, the alarming news came that the French were actually in Ireland. + Wolfe Tone and his fellow-plotters, undaunted by their previous failures, had + continued ceaseless in their efforts to induce Napoleon to make an indirect attack on + England by invading Ireland; and if they had succeeded in persuading the French + Government to send an expedition two months earlier when the rebellion was at its + height and the English reinforcements had not arrived, Ireland must have been lost. + Once again, however, fortune favoured the English cause. The first instalment of the + French fleet, carrying 1,000 soldiers, did not start until the 6th of August, and + only arrived on the 22nd. They landed at Killala, in Mayo, and were not a little + surprised at the state of things existing there. They had expected to find a + universal feeling of republicanism; but instead of this, whilst the Protestants + refused to join them, the Roman Catholic peasantry received them with delight, and + declared their readiness to take arms for France and the Blessed Virgin. "God help + these simpletons," said one of the officers, "if they knew how little we care about + the Pope or his religion, they would not be so hot in expecting help from us!"</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>[pg 112]</span> + <p>Arriving at the wrong time and the wrong place, the expedition was foredoomed to + failure. The French were brave men and trained soldiers; but they found their Irish + allies perfectly useless. They succeeded in capturing Castlebar, and routing a force + of militia; but their campaign was brief; on the 8th of September the whole force + surrendered. The Connaught rebellion was speedily and severely put down.</p> + <p>The second instalment of the French invasion consisted of one ship. They landed on + the Island of Arran on the 16th of September; but after spending eight hours on + shore, re-embarked and sailed away to Norway.</p> + <p>The third instalment was, however, more serious. It consisted of a ship of the + line, eight frigates and a schooner, having on board an army of about 3,000 men. They + arrived at Lough Swilly early in October, where they were met by a more powerful + English fleet, and nearly all were destroyed or captured. Amongst the prisoners taken + was Wolfe Tone; who soon afterwards in order to avoid a felon's death, ended his life + by suicide.[See <a href="#page249">Note</a> at the end of the Volume]</p> + <p>A fortnight later the fourth and last instalment arrived at Killala Bay; but the + Admiral, hearing that the rebellion was over, promptly weighed anchor and returned to + France. Thus ingloriously ended the French attempts at the invasion of Ireland. The + calling-in of the foreigner had been of as little use to the cause of Irish rebellion + as it had been two centuries before.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>[pg 113]</span> + <p>By the end of the year the worst of the rebellion was over. But the evil it had + wrought was incalculable. How many had perished during that terrible summer will + never be known; the numbers have been variously computed at from 15,000 to 70,000. At + the outset of the rebellion-in February 1798-Lord Clare had made a memorable speech + in the House of Lords, which has been so often misquoted that it is well here to cite + the passage in full:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"If conciliation be a pledge of national tranquillity and contentment; if it be + a spell to allay popular ferment; there is not a nation in Europe in which it has + had so fair a trial as in the Kingdom of Ireland. For a period of nearly twenty + years a liberal and unvaried system of concession and conciliation has been pursued + and acted on by the British Government. Concession and conciliation have produced + only a fresh stock of grievances; other discontents of Ireland have kept pace with + her prosperity; for I am bold to say there is not a nation on the habitable globe + which has advanced in cultivation and commerce, in agriculture and in manufactures + with the same rapidity in the same period. Her progress is now retarded, and it is + a heart-breaking spectacle to every man who loves the country to see it arrested + only by the perverse and factious folly of the people, stimulated and encouraged by + disappointed statesmen."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>[pg 114]</span> + <p>Within a few months after that speech was made, Ireland was well-nigh ruined. All + the progress in material prosperity which had taken place in the years immediately + following 1782 was swept away. The national debt, which in 1791 had stood at + £2,442,890, involving an annual charge of £142,716, had risen to + £26,662,640, with an annual charge of £1,395,735; the exports of woollen + goods had almost ceased, and those of linen gone down by more than a third; other + industries showed a decay nearly as lamentable; public bankruptcy seemed inevitable. + Though the violent outbreak of rebellion had been put down, many parts of the country + were in a state of anarchy. In the west, armed bands went about every night houghing + the cattle and murdering all who dared to oppose them. If any man prosecuted one of + the offenders, he did it at the moral certainty of being murdered. The same fate hung + over every magistrate who sent a hougher to gaol, every witness who gave evidence + against him, every juryman who convicted him. In Limerick one man ventured on his own + part and on that of eight others to prosecute an offender who had destroyed their + property. All nine were murdered in one night. It was not safe to travel along the + high road within six miles of Dublin. The militia had, from their misbehaviour in the + field, and their extreme licentiousness, fallen into universal contempt and + abhorrence; officers of English regiments declared that it would be impossible to + maintain discipline amongst their troops if they remained in such a country. It was + discovered that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>[pg + 115]</span> the rebels were forming another Directory, and, still expecting aid from + France, planning a fresh outbreak. Religious animosities were more violent than ever. + Government was becoming impossible; for the Roman Catholic population, now thoroughly + disaffected, would not continue to submit to the rule of the Protestant oligarchy; + but the only way to put an end to it would be by another rebellion which if + successful would (as the Roman Catholic bishops and educated laymen fully realized) + probably result in the establishment of a Jacobin republic; clear-headed men of all + parties were beginning to think that there was but one solution of the problem; and + that was-the Union.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>[pg 116]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + <h3>THE UNION.</h3> + <p>We come now to the great turning point in the modern history of Ireland-the Union. + It has been so constantly and so vehemently asserted that this momentous event was + prompted by the wicked desire of England to ruin Ireland, and was carried out by + fraud, bribery, intimidation, and every form of political crime, that not only + ordinary readers, but even writers who are content to receive their information at + second hand without investigating evidence for themselves, generally assume that no + other view is possible. Thus O'Connell boldly asserted that the Irish Catholics never + assented to the Union. Others have blindly repeated his words; and from those + reiterated statements has been developed an argument that as the Catholics did not + assent to the Union, they cannot be bound by it.</p> + <p>I believe that there has been as much exaggeration about this as about most other + episodes of Irish history; and that anyone who, fairly and without prejudice, takes + the trouble to go through the history of the Union as it may be gathered from + contemporary documents, will come to the conclusion that it was devised by great and + earnest statesmen who had the good of both countries at heart. As to the means by + which it was carried, there is much to be said on both sides of the question; <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>[pg 117]</span> Lecky has stated + the case against the Union ably and temperately; other writers, equally honourable, + have taken the opposite side. There is at any rate very much to be said for the + opinion, that, considering the circumstances and the peculiar constitution of the + Irish Parliament, there was nothing which the Government did that was not perfectly + justifiable. As to whether it was in accordance with the wish of the people or not, + there are several points which ought to be borne in mind but to which sufficient + attention is not usually given. A very large part of the nation were ignorant + peasants, who did not and could not properly understand the question; and as a matter + of fact cared little about it. Then of those who were against the measure, many + opposed it not because they wished the existing state of things to continue, but + because they thought that the Union would prevent the one object of their + ambition-total separation and the establishment of a republic; their opinion + therefore has but little weight. When we come to the more educated and propertied + classes, it seems that the majority were in favour of the measure; and as to the + opinion of the Roman Catholic section (which after all was far the largest part of + the nation) I think there can be no doubt whatever. Fortunately it is no longer + necessary to wade through the mass of original papers; for the evidence has been so + carefully investigated during recent years by various impartial writers, and has been + presented to the general reader in so clear and concise a manner that no one now has + any excuse <span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>[pg 118]</span> + for being led away by the impassioned statements of partisan orators. I refer + specially to the "History of the Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland," by + Dr. Dunbar Ingram, published in 1887.</p> + <p>That careful writer commences his work by stating that, dissatisfied with endless + assertions unaccompanied by proof, he had determined to investigate the subject for + himself, examining closely the original and contemporary authorities. He soon found + that there was no evidence to sustain the accusations made against the manner in + which the Union was carried; and that all the charges against the Government rested + finally on Harrington's worthless romances or the declamatory statements of the + Opposition during the sessions of 1799 and 1800, which, when challenged, they + declined to substantiate. Then, as he proceeded in his work, he discovered that, + after its terms were known and the public had had time for reflection, the Union was + thankfully accepted by the two communities which made up Ireland; that the + Protestants, after the first burst of clamour, were as a body converted and became + well-wishers to the measure; and that the Roman Catholics, after a short hesitation, + gave the Union their hearty assent and support. And finally, the whole inquiry left a + strong conviction on his mind that the Union was undertaken from the purest motives, + that it was carried by fair and constitutional means, and that its final + accomplishment was accompanied with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" + id="page119"></a>[pg 119]</span> hearty assent and concurrence of the vast majority + of the two peoples that dwelt in Ireland.</p> + <p>I feel that I cannot do better than follow some of the lines of his argument.</p> + <p>It is true that in the time of the Plantagenets representatives from Ireland were + on several occasions summoned to attend the English Parliament; and that during the + Commonwealth Ireland was incorporated with the rest of the Empire and sent members to + the Parliaments of 1654 and 1657. These incidents, however, are unimportant; it is + more to the purpose to point out that from the time of the Restoration onwards we + find a long list of distinguished thinkers recommending such a Union; and in the + beginning of the eighteenth century both Houses of the Irish Parliament twice + petitioned Queen Anne to the same effect. It may be asked why the English + politicians, who were so anxious to bring about the Union with Scotland, turned a + deaf ear to these petitions. The answer is simple. The Scotch Parliament was + independent, and the impossibility of having two independent Parliaments under one + sovereign had become manifest. Trade jealousies had arisen; the action of the Scotch + had nearly involved England in a war with Spain; the Scotch Parliament had passed an + Act declaring that until provision was made for settling the rights and liberties of + the Scotch nation independently of England the successor to the Scotch Crown should + not be the same person that was possessed of the Crown of England. The Parliament of + England commenced arming the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" + id="page120"></a>[pg 120]</span> militia and fortifying the towns near the Border. + England being at war with France the Scotch Parliament passed an Act allowing + Scotchmen to trade with that country; it therefore was a choice between Union and + War; and the two countries wisely chose Union. In the case of Ireland, however, + England saw no such danger; the Irish legislature was subordinate; Ireland was bound + by English statutes; and the Irish Parliament represented not the whole people but + only that one section of it which was necessarily bound to the English connection; + the Irish petitions for Union therefore remained unheeded. The great Bishop Berkeley, + writing in 1735, strongly advocated a union; at a later time Adam Smith wrote: "By a + union with Great Britain Ireland would gain besides the freedom of trade other + advantages much more important ... Without a union with Great Britain the inhabitants + of Ireland are not likely for many ages to consider themselves as one people." But, + as we have seen, by the Act of 1782, the Irish Parliament had become independent-that + is, it was placed in the same position as the Scotch Parliament had been; and by the + Act of 1893, the bulk of the constituencies in the counties had become Roman + Catholic. Except in the opinion of thoughtless optimists like Grattan, matters were + approaching a deadlock; for sooner or later the Roman Catholic electors would demand + representation in Parliament; the borough members would most probably refuse it, in + which case war might break out again; and if they granted it, the Irish <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>[pg 121]</span> Parliament, then + almost entirely Roman Catholic, would be anxious to break the tie that bound Ireland + to England.</p> + <p>But apart from the religious question, it was evident that the constitution, as + fixed by the Act of 1782, was fraught with dangers. And it is no answer to say that + not many difficulties had arisen in the few years between 1782 and 1799; for, even + though that is partially true, the question for a statesman to consider was whether + they were likely to arise in the future; and the rebellion, which was still seething, + had made this all the more probable. First, on a declaration of war by England, + Ireland might refuse to take part in it; and her refusal would paralyse the Empire. + As early as 1791, Wolfe Tone had pointed out that Ireland need not embark on the side + of Great Britain in the contest which was then pending; and one of his followers had + advocated an alliance with France. (This is of all the more importance at the present + day, when the Nationalists state that their principles are the same as those of Wolfe + Tone.) Secondly, during a war, Ireland might refuse supplies to England. This course + was actually hinted at by Grattan. Thirdly, she might provoke a commercial war of + rates with England. This course was proposed in the Irish House of Commons in 1784. + Fourthly, she might put pressure on the Sovereign to declare war against a country + with which England was at peace. This also was proposed in the Irish House, in the + case of Portugal. Fifthly, she might differ from England in any international + question in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>[pg 122]</span> + reference to the connection between them, as she did in the Regency question. + Sixthly, she might refuse-as she did-to make a commercial treaty with Great Britain; + and thus keep open the most fertile sources of mutual jealousies and discontent. + Grattan's best friends had urged upon him in vain that refusing to assent to a + commercial treaty made the permanent government by two independent legislatures + impossible, and would bring about separation; he refused to be guided by their + advice, and at that time he still had supreme power in the House. It is remarkable + that even at a later date, whilst vehemently opposing the Union, he took a delight in + pointing out how many ways there were in which an Irish Parliament might injure + England; seeming not to realize that he was supplying a forcible argument in favour + of the measure he was opposing.</p> + <p>The dangers of the situation were summed up by Pitt in a few words:-"A party in + England may give to the Throne one species of advice by its Parliament. A party in + Ireland may advise directly opposite upon the most essential points that involve the + safety of both; upon alliance with a foreign power, for instance; upon the army; upon + the navy; upon any branch of the public service; upon trade; upon commerce; or upon + any point essential to the Empire at large." And long afterwards Sir Robert Peel + pointed out that within the short period of six years from the establishment of what + is called the independence of the Irish Parliament-from 1782 to 1788-the foreign + relations <span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>[pg 123]</span> of + the two countries, the commercial intercourse of the two countries, the sovereign + exercise of authority in the two countries, were the subjects of litigation and + dispute; and it was more owing to accident than to any other cause that they did not + produce actual alienation and rupture.</p> + <p>The idea of a Union was first brought before Parliament by the Lord Lieutenant + (Lord Cornwallis) in his speech at the opening of the Session in January 1799. It + appeared at first that a majority of the Peers were in favour of the proposal, but a + small majority of the House of Commons hostile-some to the scheme altogether, others + to its being brought forward at that time. This small majority, however, rapidly + diminished; and before many weeks had passed, the Government possessed a majority in + both Houses. The citizens of Dublin were naturally strongly against the measure, + thinking that it would injure the prestige of the capital; as were also the + proprietors of boroughs and the legal members of the House; and soon after the scheme + had been proposed, several counties held meetings and passed resolutions against it; + but as the year went on, when the details of the measure had been more carefully + considered, there was a general change of feeling throughout the country. Lord + Cornwallis went on tours both north and south, through both Protestant and Roman + Catholic districts, everywhere receiving addresses in favour of the Union from + corporations, grand juries, leading residents, and especially from Roman Catholic + bodies. And, if we may believe Lord <span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" + id="page124"></a>[pg 124]</span> Cornwallis's own letters, these addresses were + entirely spontaneous, and represented the real feelings of the community. Before + Parliament met in March 1800, twenty-two counties had passed resolutions in favour of + the Union; and Lord Castlereagh was able to say in the House that the great body of + the landed property of Ireland, and all the great commercial towns except Dublin and + Drogheda, were friendly to the measure. The Opposition attempted to meet this by + presenting a number of petitions showing that the people of Ireland were against it. + Of the fifty-four petitions presented, five were not against the Union at all, but + merely requests for compensation in the event of its coming about; three were from + individuals or commercial firms; and eight were from Dublin alone. The number + therefore was much smaller than appears at first sight. Besides obtaining these + petitions, the Opposition also collected a large sum of money for the purchase of + seats; in the circumstances and according to the ideas of the time, I do not say that + they were in the least morally wrong in doing so; but the fact takes away from the + value of the votes given; and it neutralizes anything that was done by the Government + in the same way-if it can be proved that the Government so acted.</p> + <p>But as the Roman Catholics constituted three-fourths of the population of Ireland, + it is more important to investigate what their feelings were than to scrutinize the + division lists of the House, if we wish to ascertain what was really the wish of the + nation. Fortunately we have an opportunity <span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" + id="page125"></a>[pg 125]</span> of testing whether there is any truth in the + statement of O'Connell to which I have already referred-that the Irish Catholics did + not assent to the Union. The evidence shows conclusively that the Roman Catholic + peerage, episcopate, priesthood and laity all gave the movement their hearty + concurrence and co-operation. Lords Kenmare and Fingall assured Lord Cornwallis that + the Catholics were in favour of a Union; the entire episcopate-that is, the four + archbishops and nineteen bishops, three sees being vacant-expressed the same view by + their letters which are still extant or by resolutions signed by them; for instance, + the Archbishop of Tuam wrote: "I have had an opportunity of acquiring the strongest + conviction that this measure alone can restore harmony and happiness to our unhappy + country." The Bishop of Cork wrote: "Nothing in my opinion will more effectively tend + to lay these disgraceful and scandalous party feuds and dissensions, and restore + peace and harmony amongst us, than the great measure in contemplation, of the + legislative Union, and incorporation of this Kingdom with Great Britain. I am happy + to tell you it is working its way, and daily gaining ground in the public opinion. + Several counties which appeared most adverse to it have now declared for it, and I + have no doubt but, with the blessing of God, it will be effected, notwithstanding the + violent opposition of Mr. Foster and his party. The Roman Catholics in general are + avowedly for the measure. In the south, where they are the most numerous, they have + declared in its favour." The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" + id="page126"></a>[pg 126]</span> Bishop of Ferns presided at a meeting of Catholics + of Wexford at which an address in favour of incorporation of both legislatures was + signed by 3,000 persons; and throughout the country meetings, presided over by parish + priests, were held to further the movement; and the laity were quite as eager as the + clergy in the matter. Plowden, the Roman Catholic historian, says: "A very great + preponderancy in favour of the Union existed in the Catholic body, particularly in + their nobility, gentry and clergy." Thomas McKenna, the Secretary to the Catholic + Committee, wrote two pamphlets in the same interest; whilst on the other hand not a + single petition against it was presented by any Roman Catholic body.</p> + <p>When the Session of 1800 commenced, a leading member of the Opposition sadly + confessed that the people had deserted them. But the struggle in the House of Commons + was tremendous. The Anti-Unionists had the advantage of the oratory of Grattan, who, + though he had not been in Parliament since 1797, now purchased a seat for + £2,400, and entered the House in a theatrical manner in the midst of the + discussion. But his vehement and abusive style of declamation could not in debate be + compared with the calm reasoning of Castlereagh. The most able speeches against the + measure were not those of Grattan, but Foster. Many divisions were taken, the + Government majority steadily rising from forty-two to sixty-five, and comprising an + actual majority of the members of the House. In the House of Lords it was relatively + much <span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>[pg 127]</span> larger. + But it is constantly affirmed that this majority was only brought about by bribery + and intimidation. The word "bribery" has an ugly sound; and in such a case as this, + it is only fair to examine what is exactly meant by the term. There is no doubt that + compensation was given to the proprietors of boroughs which were not allowed + representation in the United Parliament; and it is said that as the return of members + to Parliament is a public trust and not a species of property, this was not a fair + matter for pecuniary compensation; hence it amounted to bribery. But the ownership of + boroughs had grown up insensibly; and they had long been looked upon and treated as + private property, not only in Ireland but in England and Scotland also; and there + were many honest men in all three countries who contended that the system worked + well, as it was the means whereby a large number of distinguished men obtained their + first introduction into public life-amongst them being Pitt, Canning, and Fox in + England, Grattan, Flood and Plunkett in Ireland. Then in other cases when powers + which had long been regarded as property have been abolished, compensation has been + given. This was the case when the heritable jurisdictions in Scotland were abolished, + and when by the disestablishment of the Irish Church the right of patrons to nominate + to livings was taken away. And even granting for the sake of argument that this is + wrong, is it fair to call it bribery? Eighty-four places were disfranchised, and a + sum of £1,260,000 (which did not nearly amount to the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page128" id="page128"></a>[pg 128]</span> price which the boroughs at that time + fetched in the market) was paid. Of this, £67,500 was paid to Englishmen who + owned seats in the Irish Parliament; £60,000 to boroughs who had no owners; + £30,000 to the executors of a deceased owner; £18,750 to two ladies; and + £1,100,000 to Irishmen who owned boroughs-of which £400,000 went to + Anti-Unionists who opposed the Bill. In many cases, of course, the actual occupant of + the seat was a different person from the owner who received the compensation; for + instance, there is reason to believe that all the fifty barristers in the house had + purchased their seats, but not one of them was the permanent owner. Now, if + compensation is bribery, who was bribed? Really it must be admitted that on + investigation the charge of bribery, so far as it refers to compensation to + borough-owners, falls to the ground.</p> + <p>Then it is said that the Government made actual payments to members for their + votes. This charge was brought forward in a general way at the time in both Houses; + the Government indignantly denied it, and called on the Opposition to prove their + accusation; but they failed to do so. To repeat it now is therefore unjust. It may be + admitted that amongst Lord Castlereagh's letters there is one which taken by itself + looks as if a certain sum of money was to be used in bribery; but, as Dr. Ingram has + pointed out, a careful investigation of the matter shows that it refers to proposed + changes in the tariff, and not to bribery at all.</p> + <p>Again, it is argued that the lavish distribution of <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page129" id="page129"></a>[pg 129]</span> titles amounted to bribery. If so, it + is hard to find any Government in England or Ireland that has not been to some extent + guilty of bribery-though it is true that no British Premier has ever created peerages + or salaried offices on anything like the scale that Mr. Asquith has done. After the + Bill had passed, Pitt created twenty new Irish peerages and four English ones; and + promoted sixteen peers a step in their order; which after all is not very much more + than Lord North had done in 1779, on no special occasion, when he had created + eighteen Irish peerages and promoted twelve existing peers.</p> + <p>As to the charges of intimidation, they may be dismissed at once; the very few + that were brought forward were so completely answered at the time, that even the + Opposition dropped them. The presence of such a large number of troops in Ireland was + quite accounted for by the fact that the rebellion was still to some extent going on, + and that there was again a danger of a French invasion.</p> + <p>And I must contend further that even admitting that there were some acts on the + part of the Government which will not bear strict investigation according to present + ideas, it is only fair to remember the tremendous difficulties of the occasion. The + English House of Commons was almost unanimously in favour of the Union-not more than + thirty members ever voted against it; and in the opinion of Lord Cornwallis, who + throughout his long and varied career showed himself to be a shrewd observer and an + upright, honourable man, "This country could not be saved without the Union."</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>[pg 130]</span> + <p>But really the whole discussion is beside the mark. The Nationalists continually + repeat the charge that the Union was carried by fraud; and so it must be answered; + but it has no bearing on anything existing at the present day. For the old Irish + Parliament has disappeared-merged in the greater and more honourable Assembly of the + United Kingdom; and to revive it now would be a physical impossibility. The whole + state of circumstances has changed; no assembly that could now be formed in Ireland + would bear the faintest resemblance to that which met in the eighteenth century. As + Lecky has well expressed it:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"To an historian of the eighteenth century, however, few things can be more + grotesquely absurd than to suppose that the merits or demerits, the failure or the + successes of the Irish Parliament has any real bearing on modern schemes for + reconstructing the Government of Ireland on a revolutionary and Jacobin basis; + entrusting the protection of property and the maintenance of law to some democratic + assembly consisting mainly of Fenians and Land-leaguers, of paid agitators and of + penniless adventurers. The Parliamentary system of the eighteenth century might be + represented in very different lights by its enemies and by its friends. Its enemies + would describe it as essentially a government carried on through the + instrumentality of a corrupt oligarchy, of a large, compact body of members holding + place and pensions at the pleasure of the Government, removed by the system of + rotten boroughs from <span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>[pg + 131]</span> all effectual popular control. Its friends would describe it as + essentially the government of Ireland by the gentlemen of Ireland and especially + the landlord class.</p> + <p>"Neither representation would be altogether true, but each contains a large + measure of truth. The nature of the Irish constituencies and the presence in the + House of Commons of a body of pensioners and placemen forming considerably more + than a third of the whole assembly, and nearly half of its active members, gave the + Government a power, which, except under very rare and extraordinary circumstances, + must, if fully exercised, have been overwhelming ... On the other hand, the Irish + Parliament was a body consisting very largely of independent country gentlemen, who + on nearly all questions affecting the economical and industrial development of the + country, had a powerful if not a decisive influence ... and it was in reality only + in a small class of political questions that the corrupt power of government seems + to have been strained. The Irish House of Commons ... comprised the flower of the + landlord class. It was essentially pre-eminently the representative of the property + of the country. It had all the instincts and the prejudices, but also all the + qualities and the capacities, of an educated propertied class, and it brought great + local knowledge and experience to its task. Much of its work was of that practical + and unobtrusive character which leaves no trace in history."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>[pg 132]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> + <h3>THE PERIOD FROM THE UNION UNTIL THE REJECTION OF THE FIRST HOME RULE BILL.</h3> + <p>As soon as the Union had become law, the opposition to it died down rapidly. All + the members who had voted for it who became candidates for the Imperial Parliament + were elected, and Irish orators soon began to make their mark in the greater + Assembly. In 1805, however, there was another slight rebellion, led by Robert Emmett. + It never had a chance of success; the mass of the people, thoroughly tired of + anarchy, refused to take part in it; and though the rebels succeeded in committing a + few murders, the movement was speedily quelled, mainly by the yeomen of Dublin. At + the trial of Emmett, Plunket, who had been a vehement opponent of the Union, was + counsel for the prosecution, and in his speech bitterly denounced the conduct of + those men who, having done their utmost to oppose the Irish Parliament, now made the + abolition of that Parliament the pretext for rebellion. "They call for revenge," said + he, "on account of the removal of the Parliament. These men, who, in 1798, + endeavoured to destroy the Parliament, now call upon the loyal men who opposed its + transfer, to join them in rebellion; an appeal vain and fruitless."</p> + <p>It will be observed from statements already quoted, that the Nationalists of + to-day claim that they are the successors of Emmett; he is counted <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>[pg 133]</span> amongst the heroes + who fell in the cause of Ireland-thus making it all the more clear how wide is the + gulf between the Parliamentary opponents of the Union and the modern + Nationalists.</p> + <p>During the early part of the century, Ireland had another period of prosperity. + Travellers through Ireland at the present day cannot fail to notice how many of the + country seats (now, in consequence of later legislation, mostly deserted and already + beginning to fall into ruin) were built at that time. No doubt much of the prosperity + was caused by the rebound which often takes place after a period of anarchy and + desolation; and it would not be fair to attribute it wholly to the effect of the + Union; but at least it proves that the melancholy prognostications of the opponents + of the measure were happily unfulfilled. The total value of the produce and + manufactures exported from Ireland between 1790 and 1801 amounted to + £51,322,620; between 1802 and 1813 it amounted to £63,483,718. In 1800 + the population of Ireland was under 5,000,000; in 1841 it was over 8,000,000. The + tonnage in Irish ports in 1792 was 69,000; by 1797 it had fallen to 53,000; before + 1852 it had risen to 5,000,000. The export of linen in 1796 was 53,000,000 yards; in + 1799 it had fallen to 38,000,000; in 1853 it had risen to 106,000,000; and every + other department of industry and commerce showed figures almost as satisfactory.</p> + <p>There were, however, three important measures which the leading advocates of the + Union had desired to see carried as soon as possible after the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>[pg 134]</span> great change had + been effected, but which-as many writers of various schools of thought to this day + consider unfortunately-were postponed. The first was a provision by the State for the + payment of the Roman Catholic clergy. The bishops had fully expected that this would + be carried. Some modern Nationalists, wishing to win the favour of the English + Nonconformists, have represented that the Roman Catholic Church refused to accept the + money; but that is not the case. Whether the policy of "levelling up" would have been + a wise one or not, it is useless now to conjecture; for once the policy of "levelling + down" had been decided upon, and the Irish Church had been disestablished and + disendowed, it became impracticable. The second measure was Roman Catholic + emancipation. This had been intended by Pitt and other statesmen who helped to bring + about the Union; but unforeseen difficulties arose; and unfortunately nothing was + done until the agitation led by O'Connell brought matters to a crisis; and the + emancipation which might have been carried gracefully years before, and in that case + would have strengthened the Union, was grudgingly yielded in 1829.</p> + <p>The third measure was a readjustment of tithes. All will now admit, and very many + politicians and thinkers at the time fully realized, that the old law as to tithes + was a cruel injustice; but no change was made until the opposition to the payment of + tithes amounted to something like civil war, involving a series of murders and + outrages. Then the fatal precedent was set of a successful and violent revolt <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>[pg 135]</span> against contracts + and debts. In 1838 an Act was passed commuting the tithes into a rent-charge payable + not by the occupiers but the landlords. Some modern writers have argued that the + change was merely a matter of form, as the landlords increased the rents in + proportion; and it seems such a natural thing to have happened that earlier writers + may well be excused for assuming that it actually occurred. But there is no excuse + for repeating the charge now; for in consequence of recent legislation it has been + necessary for the Land Courts to investigate the history of rents from a period + commencing before 1838; and the result of their examination has elicited the strange + fact that in thousands of cases the rent remained exactly the same that it had been + before the Tithe Commutation Act was passed.</p> + <p>But ere long economic causes were at work which tended to check the prosperity of + Ireland. It was soon found that the proportion which by the Act of Union Ireland was + to contribute to the Imperial Government was too large for the country to bear. The + funded debt of Ireland which amounted to £28,000,000 in 1800 rose by 1817 to + £130,000,000; in that year the whole liability was taken over by the Imperial + Government. Then the fall in prices which naturally resulted from the peace of 1815 + pressed heavily on an agricultural community. Improvements in machinery and the + development of steam power squeezed out the handlooms of Ulster and the watermills of + other parts of the country. Wages were low; and the people who <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>[pg 136]</span> depended mainly on + the potato were underfed and undernourished. In 1846 and 1847 came the two terrible + blows to Ireland-first, the potato disease; and then the Repeal of the Corn Laws, + which made the profitable growing of wheat with its accompanying industries, + impossible. During the fearful years of the potato famine, it is only too probable + that some of the efforts for relief were unwisely conducted and that some persons + sadly failed in their duties; no measures or men in the world are ever perfect; and + the difficulties not only of obtaining food but of getting it to the starving people + in days when there were few railways and no motors were enormous. But when modern + writers shower wholesale abuse over the landlords of the period, and even hint that + they brought about the famine, it is well to turn to the writings of an ardent Home + Ruler, who was himself an eye-witness, having lived as a boy through the famine time + in one of the districts that suffered most-Mr. A.M. Sullivan. He says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The conduct of the Irish landlords throughout the famine period has been + variously described, and has been, I believe, generally condemned. I consider the + censure visited on them too sweeping. I hold it to be in some respects cruelly + unjust. On many of them no blame too heavy could possibly fall. A large number were + permanent absentees; their ranks were swelled by several who early fled the post of + duty at home-cowardly and selfish deserters <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" + id="page137"></a>[pg 137]</span> of a brave and faithful people. Of those who + remained, some may have grown callous; it is impossible to contest authentic + instances of brutal heartlessness here and there. But granting all that has to be + entered on the dark debtor side, the overwhelming balance is the other way. The + bulk of the resident Irish landlords manfully did their best in that dread hour ... + No adequate tribute has ever been paid to the memory of those Irish landlords-they + were men of every party and creed-perished martyrs to duty in that awful time; who + did not fly the plague-reeking work-houses or fever-tainted court. Their names + would make a goodly roll of honour ... If they did too little compared with what + the landlord class in England would have done in similar case, it was because + little was in their power. The famine found most of the resident gentry of Ireland + on the brink of ruin. They were heritors of estates heavily overweighted with the + debts of a bygone generation. Broad lands and lordly mansions were held by them on + settlements and conditions that allowed small scope for the exercise of individual + liberality. To these landlords the failure of year's rental receipts meant mortgage + fore-one and hopeless ruin. Yet cases might be named by the score in which such men + scorned to avert by pressure on their suffering tenantry the fate they saw + impending over them.... They 'went down with the ship.'"</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>[pg 138]</span> + <p>Soon after the famine, the Incumbered Estates Act was passed, by which the + creditors of incumbered landlords could force a sale. This in effect worked a silent + revolution; for whatever might have been said up to that time about the landed + proprietors being the representatives of those who acquired their estates through the + Cromwellian confiscations, after those proprietors had been forced to sell and the + purchasers had obtained a statutory title by buying in the Court, the charge became + obsolete. The motive of the Act was a good one; it was hoped that land would thus + pass out of the hands of impoverished owners and be purchased by English capitalists + who would be able to execute improvements on their estates and thus benefit the + country as a whole. But the scheme brought with it disadvantages which the framers of + the Act had not foreseen. The new purchasers had none of the local feelings of the + dispossessed owners; they regarded their purchases as an investment, which they + wished to make as profitable as possible, and treated the occupants of the land with + a harshness which the old proprietors would never have exercised. Like most things in + Ireland, however, this has been much exaggerated. It is constantly assumed that the + whole soil of Ireland after this belonged to absentee proprietors who took no + interest in the country. That absenteeism is a great evil to any country, and to + Ireland especially, no one can deny; but a Parliamentary enquiry in 1869 elicited the + fact that the number of landed proprietors in the rural area of <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>[pg 139]</span> Ireland then (and + there is no reason to suppose that any great change had taken place in the previous + eighteen years) was 19,547, of whom only 1,443 could be described as "rarely or never + resident in Ireland"; and these represented 15.7 per cent. of the rural area, and + only 15.1 per cent. of the total poor-law valuation of that area.</p> + <p>Between 1841 and 1851 the population of the country fell from 8,200,000 to + 6,574,000. The primary causes of this were of course the famine and the fever which + broke out amongst the half-starved people; but it was also to a large extent caused + by emigration. A number of devoted and noble-hearted men, realizing that it was + hopeless to expect that the potato disease would disappear, and that consequently the + holdings had become "uneconomic" (to use the phrase now so popular) as no other crop + was known which could produce anything like the same amount of food, saw that the + only course to prevent a continuation of the famine would be to remove a large + section of the people to a happier country. In this good work the Quakers, who had + been untiring in their efforts to relieve distress during the famine, took a + prominent part; and the Government gave assistance. At the time no one regarded this + as anything but a beneficent course; for the emigrants found better openings in new + and rising countries than they ever could have had at home, and the reduced + population, earning larger wages, were able to live in greater comfort. One evidence + of this has been that mud cabins, which in 1841 had numbered 491,000 had in <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>[pg 140]</span> 1901 been reduced + to 9,000; whilst the best class of houses increased from 304,000 to 596,000. In 1883 + the Roman Catholic bishops came to the conclusion that matters had gone far enough, + and that in future migration from the poorer to the more favoured districts was + better than emigration from the country; but they did not say anything against the + work that had been done up to that time. Yet a recent Nationalist writer, wishing to + bring every possible charge against the landlords, has hinted that the total loss of + population from 1841 to 1901 was caused by the brutality of the landlords after the + famine, who drove the people out of the country! To show the fallacy of this, it is + sufficient to point out that the powers of the landlords for good or evil were + considerably reduced by the Land Act of 1870, and after that they were further + diminished by each successive Act until the last shred was taken away by the Act of + 1887; yet the population went down from 5,412,377 in 1871 to 4,453,775 in 1901-the + emigration being larger in proportion from those counties where the National League + was omnipotent than from other parts of Ireland.</p> + <p>In the early thirties O'Connell commenced his famous agitation for the Repeal of + the Union. After he had disappeared from the scene, his work was taken up by those of + his followers who advocated physical force; and in 1848 an actual rebellion broke + out, headed by Smith O'Brien. It ended in a ridiculous fiasco. The immediate cause of + its failure, as A.M. Sullivan has pointed out, <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page141" id="page141"></a>[pg 141]</span> was that the leaders, in imitation of + the movement of half a century before, endeavoured to eliminate the religious + difficulty and to bring about a rising in which Orange and Green should be united; + but their fight for religious tolerance exposed them to the charge of infidelity; the + Roman Catholic priests (who now possessed immense political influence) denounced + them; and their antagonism was fatal to the movement.</p> + <p>But one of the most far-seeing of the party-J.F. Lalor-perceived that mere repeal + would never be strong enough to be a popular cry-it must be hitched on to some more + powerful motive, which could drag it along. As he clearly explained in his manifesto, + his objects were the abolition of British government and the formation of a National + one. He considered that neither agitation nor the attempt at military insurrection + were likely to attain those objects, but that the wisest means for that end were the + refusal of obedience to usurped authority; taking quiet possession of all the rights + and powers of government and proceeding to exercise them; and defending the exercise + of such powers if attacked. He saw that the motive power which would carry itself + forward and drag repeal with it, was in the land. He held that the soil of the + country belonged as of right to the entire people of that country, not to any one + class but to the nation-one condition being essential, that the tenant should bear + true and undivided allegiance to the nation whose land he held, and owe no allegiance + whatever to any other prince, power or people, <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page142" id="page142"></a>[pg 142]</span> or any obligation of obedience or + respect to their will, their orders, or their laws. The reconquest of the liberties + of Ireland, he argued, would, even if possible by itself, be incomplete and + worthless, without the reconquest of the land; whereas the latter, if effected, would + involve the former. He therefore recommended (1) That occupying tenants should at + once refuse to pay all rent except the value of the overplus of harvest produce + remaining in their hands after deducting a full provision for their own subsistence + during the ensuing year; (2) that they should forcibly resist being made homeless + under the English law of ejectment; (3) that they ought further on principle to + refuse <i>all</i> rent to the present usurping proprietors, until they should in + National Convention decide what rents they were to pay and to whom they should pay + them; and (4) that the people, on grounds of policy and economy, should decide that + those rents should be paid to themselves-the people-for public purposes for the + benefit of the entire general people. In that way a mighty social revolution would be + accomplished, and the foundation of a national revolution surely laid.</p> + <p>But these views, though shared by J. Mitchel and other leaders, were not at the + time generally adopted; and the next agitations were more distinctly political than + agrarian. The Fenian movement of 1865-1867, the avowed object of which was the + establishment of an independent republic, arose in America, where it was cleverly + devised and ably financed. In Ireland it met with little sympathy <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>[pg 143]</span> except in the + towns; and the attempted outbreaks, both there and in Canada, were dismal failures. + Two of their efforts in England, however, led to important results. Gladstone made + the remarkable statement that it was their attempt to blow up Clerkenwell prison that + enabled him to carry the Act for the Disestablishment of the Irish Church. Many years + afterwards, when this encouragement to incendiarism had done its work, he denied that + he had ever said so; but there is no doubt that he did.</p> + <p>Here I must digress for a moment to refer to the position of the Irish Church. By + the Act of Union it had been provided that the Churches of England and Ireland as + then by law established should be united, and that the continuation and preservation + of the United Church should be deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental + part of the Union; and at the time of the agitation for Catholic emancipation the + Roman Catholic Bishops of Ireland solemnly declared that their Church would never + attempt to destroy the Protestant Establishment. This is interesting as showing how + futile are the attempts of one generation to bind posterity by legislation; and how + foolish it is to expect that men will regard themselves as bound by promises made by + their ancestors. (The same remark may be made with reference to the promises now + being made by Nationalists as to the Home Rule Bill.) The general provisions of the + Disestablishment Act were simple. Existing clergy were secured in their incomes for + life; the disestablished Church was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" + id="page144"></a>[pg 144]</span> allowed to claim all churches then in actual use, + and to purchase rectory houses and glebes at a valuation; and a sum of £500,000 + was given to the Church in lieu of all private endowments. Everything else-even + endowments given by private persons a few years before the Act was passed-was swept + away. The members of the Church showed a liberality which their opponents never + anticipated. They bought the glebes, continued to pay their clergy by voluntary + assessments, and collected a large sum of money towards a future endowment. + Nationalist writers now state that the Act left the Irish Church with an income + adequate to its needs and merely applied the surplus revenues to other purposes; and + hint that the capital sum now possessed by the Church really came from the State, and + that therefore the future Home Rule Government can deal with it as they please. The + alarm felt by Irish Churchmen at the prospect can be understood.</p> + <p>The other Fenian attempt in England which has historical importance was of a + different kind. Two Fenian prisoners were being conveyed in a prison van at + Manchester. Their friends tried to rescue them by force; and in the attempt killed + the officer in charge. For this crime, three of them-Allen, Larkin and O'Brien-were + tried, convicted and hanged in November 1867. These were the "Manchester Martyrs," in + honour of whose unflinching fidelity to faith and country (to quote the words of + Archbishop Croke) so many memorial crosses have been erected, and solemn + demonstrations are held <span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>[pg + 145]</span> every year to this day. At the unveiling of the memorial cross at + Limerick the orator said: "Allen, Larkin and O'Brien died as truly for the cause of + Irish Nationality as did any of the heroes of Irish history. The same cause nerved + the arms of the brave men of '98, of '48, of '65 and '67. For the cause that had + lived so long they would not take half measures-nothing else would satisfy them than + the full measure of Nationality for which they and their forefathers had fought."</p> + <p>Meanwhile another movement was going on, which seems to have been at first wholly + distinct from the Fenian conspiracy-the constitutional agitation for Home Rule or + Repeal, led by Isaac Butt. It commenced its Parliamentary action in 1874; but was ere + long broken up by the more violent spirits within its own ranks. As had so frequently + happened in similar movements in Ireland, France and elsewhere, the moderate men were + thrust aside, and the extremists carried all before them. Fenianism, though + apparently crushed in Ireland, continued to flourish in America. Michael Davitt, who + had been a prominent member both of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood and of the + Fenian Society, had been convicted of treason felony, and sentenced to penal + servitude. On his release in 1877, he was received as a hero, and amongst those who + took part in the welcome to him were C.S. Parnell, J.G. Biggar, J. Carey, D. Curley + and J. Brady. He went to America and there matured the plan of his operations on the + lines laid down by Lalor, which he <span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" + id="page146"></a>[pg 146]</span> proceeded to carry out in Ireland in 1879 by means + of a Society which was at first called the "Land League" but which has since been + known by various other names. Amongst his allies were J. Devoy, O'Donovan Rossa, and + Patrick Ford. Devoy and Rossa took an active part in establishing the Skirmishing + Fund, which was subscribed for the purpose of levying war on England with dynamite. + Rossa afterwards publicly boasted that he had placed an infernal machine onboard + H.M.S. "Dottrell," and had sent it and all its crew to the bottom of the ocean. As a + reward for his patriotic conduct he was some years later granted a pension by the + County Council of Cork, payable out of the rates. Ford was the ablest and most + powerful of the number, for by means of his paper-the <i>Irish World</i>-he collected + vast sums for the Parliamentary party. In this paper he strongly advocated the use of + dynamite as a blessed agent which should be availed of by the Irish people in their + holy war; and elaborated a scheme for setting fire to London in fifty places on a + windy night. After D. Curley and J. Brady had been hanged for the murder of Lord + Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke, he collected money for a testimonial to them as + heroes, and prayed that God would send Ireland more men with hearts like that of J. + Brady. Mr. Redmond has recently described him as "the grand old veteran, who through + his newspaper has done more for the last thirty or forty years for Ireland than + almost any man alive"; Mr. T.P. O'Connor has congratulated him on the great work he + is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>[pg 147]</span> doing for + Ireland; and Mr. Devlin has eulogized him for "the brilliancy in the exposition of + the principles inculcated in our programme."</p> + <p>By 1880 the union between the Dynamite party in America (which bore many names, + such as the Fenian Society, the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, the Invincibles, the + Clan-na-gael, and the Physical Force party, but was essentially the same movement + throughout), the constitutional agitators for Home Rule in Parliament, and the Land + Leaguers in Ireland, was complete. It was but natural that it should be so, for their + objects were the same, though their methods differed according to circumstances. The + American party (according to their own statements) desired the achievement of a + National Parliament so as to give them a footing on Irish soil-to give them the + agencies and instrumentalities for a Government <i>de facto</i> at the very + commencement of the Irish struggle-to give them the plant of an armed revolution. + Hence they gladly contributed large sums for the Parliamentary Fund. Parnell, the + leader of the Parliamentary party, stated that a true revolutionary movement should + partake of a constitutional and an illegal character; it should be both an open and a + secret organization, using the constitution for its own purpose and also taking + advantage of the secret combination; and (as the judges at the Parnell Commission + reported) the Land League was established with the intention of bringing about the + independence of Ireland as a separate nation.</p> + <p>In the preceding autumn the agitation against <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148" id="page148"></a>[pg 148]</span> the payment of rent had begun; and + persons of ordinary intelligence could see that a fresh outbreak of anarchy was + imminent. But Gladstone, when coming into power in March 1880, assumed that air of + easy optimism which his successors in more recent times have imitated; and publicly + stated that there was in Ireland an absence of crime and outrage and a general sense + of comfort and satisfaction such as had been unknown in the previous history of the + country. His Chief Secretary, Forster, however, had not been long in Ireland before + he realized that this was the dream of a madman; and that the Government must either + act or abdicate in favour of anarchy; but the Cabinet refused to support him. Before + the end of the year the Government had practically abdicated, and the rule of the + Land League was the only form of Government in force in a large part of the country. + The name of the unfortunate Captain Boycott will be for ever associated with the + means the League employed to enforce their orders. What those means were, was + explained by Gladstone himself:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"What is meant by boycotting? In the first place it is combined intimidation. In + the second place, it is combined intimidation made use of for the purpose of + destroying the private liberties of choice by fear of ruin and starvation. In the + third place, that which stands in the rear of boycotting and by which alone + boycotting can in the long run be made thoroughly effective is the murder which is + not to be denounced."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>[pg 149]</span> + <p>And a few years later-1886-the Official Report of the Cowper Commission stated it + more fully:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The people are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for its success on the + probability of outrage, than they are of the judgments of the Courts of Justice. + The unwritten law in some districts is supreme. We deem it right to call attention + to the terrible ordeal that a boycotted person has to undergo, which was by several + witnesses graphically described during the progress of our enquiry. The existence + of a boycotted person becomes a burden to him, as none in town or village are + allowed, under a similar penalty to themselves, to supply him or his family with + the necessaries of life. He is not allowed to dispose of the produce of his farm. + Instances have been brought before us in which his attendance at divine service was + prohibited, in which his cattle have been, some killed, some barbarously mutilated; + in which all his servants and labourers were ordered and obliged to leave him; in + which the most ordinary necessaries of life and even medical comforts, had to be + procured from long distances; in which no one would attend the funeral, or dig a + grave for, a member of a boycotted person's family; and in which his children have + been forced to discontinue attendance at the National School of the district."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>This was the ordinary form of Government as conducted by the Nationalists; and any + attempt to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>[pg 150]</span> + interfere with it and to enforce the milder laws of England, is now denounced as + "coercion."</p> + <p>In 1881 Gladstone carried another and a more far-reaching Land Act. To put it + shortly, it may be said that all agricultural land (except that held by leaseholders, + who were brought in under the Act of 1887) was handed over to the occupiers for ever + (with free power of sale), subject only to the payment of rent-the rent not being + that which the tenants had agreed to pay, but that which a Land Court decided to Be a + "fair rent." This was to last for fifteen years, at the end of which time the tenant + might again claim to have a fair rent fixed, and so <i>ad infinitum</i>. The Land + Court in most cases cut down the rent by about 20 or 25 per cent.; and at the end of + fifteen years did the same again. As tithes (which had been secularized but not + abolished), mortgages and family charges remained unchanged, the result was that a + large proportion of landlords were absolutely ruined; in very many cases those who + appear as owners now have no beneficial interest in their estates.</p> + <p>In examining the Act calmly, one must observe in the first place that it was a + wholesale confiscation of property. Not of course one that involved the cruelty of + confiscations of previous ages, but a confiscation all the same. For if A. bought a + farm in the Incumbered Estates Court, with a Parliamentary title, and let it to B. + for twenty years at a rent of £100; and the Act gave B. the right of occupying + it for ever subject to the payment of £50 a year, and selling it for any price + he liked, that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>[pg + 151]</span> can only mean the transfer of property from A. to B. Secondly, the Act + encouraged bad farming; for a tenant knew that if his land got into a slovenly + state-with drains stopped up, fences broken down, and weeds growing everywhere-the + result would be that the rent would be reduced by the Commissioners at the end of the + fifteen years; as the Commissioners did not go into the question of whose the fault + was, but merely took estimates as to what should be the rent of the land in its + actual condition. That farms were in many instances intentionally allowed to go to + decay with this object, has been proved; and this pressed hard on the labouring + class, as less employment was given. Thirdly, although the remission of debt may + bring prosperity for a time, it may be doubted whether it will permanently benefit + the country; for it will be noticed that the attempt to fix prices arbitrarily + applied only to the letting and hiring and not to other transactions. To give a + typical instance of what has occurred in many cases: a tenant held land at a rent of + £1. 15s. 0d. per acre; he took the landlord into Court, swore that the land + could not bear such a rent, and had it reduced to £1. 5s. 0d.; thereupon he + sold it for £20 an acre; and so the present occupier had to pay £1. 5s. + 0d. to the nominal landlord, and the interest on the purchase-money (about £1 + per acre) to a mortgagee; in fact, he has to pay a larger sum annually than any + previous tenant did; and this payment is "rent" in the economic sense though it is + paid not to a resident landlord but to a distant mortgagee. In <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>[pg 152]</span> other words, rent + was increased, and absenteeism became general. Fourthly, it sowed the seeds for + future trouble; for it was the temporary union of two antagonistic principles. On the + one hand it was said that "the man who tills the land should own it," and therefore + rent was an unjust tax (in fact it was seriously argued that men of English and + Scotch descent who had hired farms in the nineteenth century had a moral right to + keep them for ever rent free because tribal tenure had prevailed amongst the Celts + who occupied the country many hundreds of years before); on the other it was said + that the land belonged to the people of Ireland as a whole and not to any + individuals. If that is so, what right has one man to a large farm when there are + hundreds of others in a neighbouring town who have no land at all? The passing of the + Land Acts of 1881 and 1887 made it inevitable that sooner or later a fresh agitation + would be commenced by "landless men." And fifthly, when an excitable, uneducated + people realize that lawlessness and outrages will be rewarded by an Act remitting + debts and breaking contracts, they are not likely in future to limit their operations + to land, but will apply the same maxims to other contracts. The demoralizing of + character is a fact to be taken into consideration.</p> + <p>However, the Act was passed; and if Gladstone really imagined that it would + satisfy the Nationalist party he must have been grievously disappointed. During 1881, + 4,439 agrarian outrages were recorded. The Government declared the Land League to be + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>[pg 153]</span> illegal, and + lodged some of the leaders in gaol. Thereupon Ford, carrying out the plan laid down + by Lalor in 1848, issued his famous "No Rent" proclamation. It was not generally + acted upon; but his party continued active, and in May 1882 Lord Frederick Cavendish + and Mr. Burke (the Chief and Under Secretary) were murdered in the Phoenix Park. This + led to the passing of the Crimes Prevention Act, by which the detectives were enabled + to secure evidence against the conspirators, many of whom (as is usual in Irish + history) turned Queen's evidence. The Act was worked with firmness; and outrages, + which had numbered 2,507 during the first half of 1882, fell to 836 in the latter + half, to 834 in 1883, and to 774 in 1884.</p> + <p>In the autumn of 1885, Gladstone, expecting to return to power at the ensuing + election, besought the electors to give him a majority independent of the Irish vote. + In this he failed; and thereupon took place the "Great Surrender." He suddenly + discovered that everything he had said and done up to that time had been wrong; that + boycotting, under the name of "exclusive dealing," was perfectly justifiable; that + the refusal to pay rent was just the same as a strike of workmen (ignoring the + obvious facts that when workmen strike they cease both to give their labour and to + receive pay, whereas the gist of the "No Rent" movement was that tenants, whilst + ceasing to pay, should retain possession of the farms they have hired; and that a + strike arises from a dispute between employers and employed-usually <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>[pg 154]</span> about rates of pay + or length of hours; whereas Ford's edict that no rent was to be paid was issued not + in consequence of anything that individual landlords had done, but because Gladstone + had put the leaders of the Land League in gaol); that the men whom he had previously + denounced as "marching through rapine to the dismemberment of the Empire" were heroes + who deserved to be placed in charge of the government of the country; and introduced + his first Home Rule Bill. Some of his followers went with him; others refused. His + life-long ally, John Bright, said: "I cannot trust the peace and interests of + Ireland, north and south, to the Irish Parliamentary party, to whom the Government + now propose to make a general surrender. My six years' experience of them, of their + language in the House of Commons and their deeds in Ireland, makes it impossible for + me to consent to hand over to them the property and the rights of five millions of + the Queen's subjects, our fellow-countrymen, in Ireland. At least two millions of + them are as loyal as the population of your town, and I will be no party to a measure + which will thrust them from the generosity and justice of the United and Imperial + Parliament."</p> + <p>The Bill was rejected; at the general election which ensued the people of England + declared against the measure; Gladstone resigned, and Lord Salisbury became Prime + Minister.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>[pg 155]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + <h3>THE UNIONIST GOVERNMENT OF 1886.</h3> + <p>The Unionists, on returning to power in 1886, fully realized the difficulty of the + problem with which they were faced. The Nationalists held a great Convention at + Chicago, at which they resolved to make use of the Land League not merely for the + purpose of exterminating landlords but as a means for promoting universal disorder + and so bringing about a paralysis of the law. As J. Redmond stated at the Convention: + "I assert that the government of Ireland by England is an impossibility, and I + believe it to be our duty to make it so." And, as he afterwards explained in Ireland, + he considered that if the Tories were able to carry on the government with the + ordinary law, the cause of Home Rule might be set back for a generation; but if the + Nationalists could succeed in making such government impossible, and the Tories were + obliged to have recourse to coercion, the people of Great Britain would turn them out + of office, and Gladstone would return to power and carry Home Rule. (This avowed + determination on the part of the Nationalists to reduce the country to anarchy should + be borne in mind when people now express their horror at the Ulstermen being guilty + of such conduct as breaking the law.) With this object, the Nationalists in 1887 + organized the "Plan of Campaign," which was in fact an elaboration of the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>[pg 156]</span> "No Rent" + manifesto of 1881, and a scheme for carrying out, step by step, the programme laid + down by Lalor in 1848. One of Lalor's adherents had been a young priest named Croke. + By 1887 he had become Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cashel. He had considered the "No + Rent" manifesto inopportune; but now formally sanctioned the "Plan of Campaign," and + in a violent letter urged that it should be extended to a general refusal to pay + taxes. The Plan was also approved by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and the + leaders of the Nationalist movement in Ireland and America, such as J. Dillon and + Ford; but Parnell seemed doubtful, and in England the <i>Daily News</i> denounced + it.</p> + <p>However, the Unionist Government had decided on their policy, which they were + determined to carry through. The main items of their programme were (1) To enforce + the law; (2) To facilitate land purchase; (3) To develop the industries of the + country; and (4) To extend local government. It is well to examine these in detail, + so as to arrive at a just estimate of the two rival policies.</p> + <p>(i) The Crimes Prevention Act passed by Gladstone in 1882 had lapsed, having been + limited to a period of three years. Mr. Balfour (who had become Chief Secretary) was + of opinion that the continual passing of temporary measures was a mistake (as some + one has said, it was like a man burning his umbrella every fine day and then + complaining of the expense of buying so many new ones), as was shown by the fact that + the Irish <span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>[pg 157]</span> + Parliament had passed fifty-four of such Acts in the seventeen years of its + independent existence. He therefore, in spite of vehement opposition from the + combined forces of the English Radicals and the Irish Nationalists, carried the + Crimes Act of 1887, which was a permanent measure, to be put in force in disturbed + districts by proclamation when necessary. This was the famous "Coercion Act" which + has been the subject of so much violent denunciation. But in considering the matter, + one must ask, What Government has there ever been in the world that did not employ + force in the carrying out of the law? It is true that in the early days of New + Zealand Mr. Busby was sent out as a Commissioner with no means of enforcing his + orders; but the only result was that he was laughed at by the natives as "a + man-of-war without guns"; and no one can say that the scheme was a success. In fact, + how can a law be a law unless it is enforced? The Act does not make anything a crime + that was not a crime before; it merely provides a shorter form of procedure when a + district is so completely terrorized by an illegal association that injured persons + dare not make complaints, witnesses dare not give evidence, and juries dare not + convict. This, as we have seen, had been the case in parts of Ireland at the + beginning of the rebellion of 1798; and the Nationalists, who claimed to be the + modern representatives of the rebels of that time, had succeeded in bringing about + the same state of things. In some of its most stringent provisions the Act is a copy + of the Police Act permanently in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" + id="page158"></a>[pg 158]</span> force in London; yet ordinary residents in the + Metropolis do not seem to groan much under its tyranny, nor do the Radicals propose + to repeal it.</p> + <p>And certainly the Act has worked satisfactorily from the point of view of those + who desire to see the country in a state of peace and prosperity, though disastrously + in the opinion of those who aim at making government impossible. Between July, 1887, + when the Act came into force, and the end of the year, 628 persons were prosecuted, + of whom 378 were convicted and 37 held to bail. In 1888 there were 1,475 + prosecutions, 907 convictions, and 175 persons required to find bail. By 1891 (the + last full year of Unionist Government) crime had sunk so rapidly that in that year + there were only 243 persons prosecuted, of whom 105 were convicted, and 81 held to + bail. In 1901 (when the Unionists were again in power) there were 29 prosecutions and + 22 convictions. In 1902 there was a revival of crime; the Act was again brought into + operation, with much the same result as before-there were 157 prosecutions, 104 + convictions, and 17 persons were held to bail. In 1903 there were 3 prosecutions and + 3 convictions.</p> + <p>(2) <i>Land Purchase</i>. The Unionist Government considered that the dual + ownership set up by the Act of 1881 would be a constant source of trouble, and that + its working could not be for the benefit of the country. They believed that the best + solution of the land question would be a system of purchase whereby the occupiers + would become owners. This of course was entirely opposed to the wishes <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>[pg 159]</span> of the + Nationalists; for if the land question was settled, the motive power which was to + carry separation with it, would be gone.</p> + <p>Some efforts in the direction of Land Purchase had been made in 1870 (at the + instance of Mr. Bright) and in 1881; but nothing was done on a large scale until + 1885, when the "Ashbourne Act" was passed; and various further steps were taken by + the Unionist Government, culminating in the great "Wyndham Act" of 1903. By the + earlier Acts, 73,858 tenants became owners; by the Wyndham Act, 253,625. As the total + number of agricultural tenants of Ireland amounted to slightly under 600,000, it will + be seen that more than half of them have now purchased their holdings. To explain the + general principles of the Act, it is sufficient to say that when the landlord and + tenants of an estate agree to a sale, the Government advance the money, and the + tenant purchasers undertake to repay it by annual instalments extending over a period + of 68 years. As these annual payments must be less than the existing rent as fixed by + the Land Court under the Act of 1881, the purchasing tenant has no ground for + complaint; and though the income of the landlord is reduced by the sale, he is freed + from further anxiety; and besides, the Government give a bonus to the vendor from + Imperial funds. It will be seen at once that the scheme would have been impossible + under Home Rule; for the English Government had by the end of March 1911, agreed to + advance the enormous sum of nearly £118,000,000; an amount which no <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>[pg 160]</span> Irish Government + could have raised except at such an exorbitant rate of interest that it would have + been out of the question. On the other hand, England has become the creditor of the + new Irish landowners for this vast amount; and in the event of Separation a serious + difficulty may arise as to its repayment.</p> + <p>It may interest readers in the Colonies to learn that the Government thoughtfully + passed a Registration of Titles Act in 1891; so that the Irish purchasers under the + various Land Acts have the benefits which were first introduced in Australia by Sir + Robert Torrens.</p> + <p>The Act of 1903 had the cordial support of a small minority of Nationalists; but + to the majority it was gall and wormwood. Hence Mr. Birrell, when he became Chief + Secretary, threw every obstacle he could into the way of its working; and in 1909 he + passed a new measure, under which land purchase has practically ceased.</p> + <p>(3)<i>The development of the Industries of the Country</i>. That has of course + taken various forms, of which only a few can be mentioned here. By the Light Railways + (for which the country has to thank Mr. Balfour himself) remote and hitherto + inaccessible districts have been brought into touch with the rest of the world; and + by an expenditure of £2,106,000 the railway mileage of Ireland has been + increased from 2,643 miles in 1890 to 3,391 in 1906. Then it is hardly too much to + say that the Labourers' Cottages Act, and the grants made under it, have transformed + the face of the country.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>[pg 161]</span> + <p>By this Act, District Councils are enabled, in localities where accommodation for + labourers is insufficient, to take land compulsorily and erect cottages, the money + advanced by the Government for the purpose being gradually repaid by the ratepayers. + The wretched hovels which were the disgrace of Ireland from the dawn of history until + a period within living memory, have almost disappeared; and comfortable, sanitary and + pleasing dwellings have taken their place.</p> + <p>Even this excellent Act, however, is now used by the Nationalists to further their + own objects. One instance may suffice. In 1907 a farmer fell under the ban of the + League and was ordered to be boycotted. The District Council found that one occupant + of a "Labourer's Cottage" disregarded the order and continued to work for the + boycotted farmer. They promptly evicted him. What would be said in England if a Tory + landlord evicted a cottager for working for a Radical farmer?</p> + <p>But even more important than these measures has been the establishment of the + Department of Agriculture. The success of this has been due to the ability, energy + and unselfishness of Sir Horace Plunkett. The main object of the Department was to + instruct the farming classes in the most effective methods of agriculture and the + industries connected with it. This by itself would have been a great work; but Sir + Horace has also founded the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, to encourage + co-operative organization amongst farmers, based on the principle of mutual help; and + the success of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>[pg + 162]</span> this, worked in conjunction with the Department, has been marvellous. + More than nine hundred local societies have been established, for the promotion of + industries such as dairying and poultry farming; co-operative credit banks have been + formed, based on what is known in Germany as the Raffeisen system. The turnover of + these societies in 1908 amounted to more than £2,250,000. Agricultural + Organization Societies, in imitation of the Irish one, have been formed in England + and Scotland; and so far did its fame reach that the Americans sent over an agent to + enquire into its working.</p> + <p>Of course it is unfair to attribute the prosperity or the decline of a country to + any one measure; and more than that, it is only by taking into consideration a number + of circumstances and a long term of years that we can decide whether prosperity is + real or merely transitory. But that Ireland increased in prosperity under the + influence of the Unionist Government, cannot be denied; indeed Mr. Redmond, when + shepherding the Eighty Club (an English Radical Society) through Ireland in 1911, did + not deny the prosperity of the country, and could only suggest that the same reforms + would have been introduced and better carried out under an Irish + Parliament-regardless of the facts that no Nationalist Government could have found + the money for them; and that Nationalists are orators and politicians, not men of + business. The combined value of exports and imports rose from 104,000,000 in 1904 to + 125,000,000 in 1909; and the gross <span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" + id="page163"></a>[pg 163]</span> receipts on railways from £4,140,000 to + £11,335,000. The deposits in savings banks rose from £3,128,000 in 1888 + to £10,627,000 in 1908. The tonnage of shipping in Irish ports was 11,560,000 + in 1900; in 1910 it was 13,475,000.</p> + <p>Sir Horace had done his utmost to prevent the curse of political strife from + entering into his agricultural projects. He had been careful to appoint Nationalists + to some of the most important offices in his Department, and to show no more favour + to one part of the country than another. But all in vain; the National League, when + their friends returned to power, at once resolved to undo his labours, some of them + openly saying that the increased attention devoted to trade and agriculture was + turning men's thoughts away from the more important work of political agitation. Mr. + T.W. Russell, a man totally ignorant of agricultural affairs, whose only claim to the + office was that he was a convert to Nationalism, was appointed in place of Sir + Horace. He promptly declined to continue to the Agricultural Organization Society the + support which it had previously received from the Department; and, with the aid of + the United Irish League, succeeded in preventing the Society from receiving a grant + from the Board of Agriculture similar to those given to the English and Scotch + societies; threw discredit on the Co-operative Credit Banks, and denounced the + Co-operative Farming Societies as injurious to local shopkeepers. And thus he made it + clear that it is impossible in Ireland to conduct even such a business as the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>[pg 164]</span> development of + agriculture without stirring up political bitterness.</p> + <p>Another effort of Mr. Balfour's-the establishment of the Congested Districts + Board-has had a strange and instructive history. It was established in 1891. Mr. + Balfour decided to entrust to a small body of Irishmen, selected irrespective of + party considerations, the task of making an experiment as to what could be done to + relieve the poorest parts of Ireland; and with this object, the Board, though endowed + with only small funds, were given the widest powers over the area within which they + were to operate. They were empowered to take such steps as they thought proper for + (1) Aiding migration or emigration from the congested districts, and settling the + migrant or emigrant in his new home; and (2) Aiding and developing agriculture, + forestry, and breeding of live stock and poultry, weaving, spinning, fishing + (including the construction of piers and harbours, and supplying fishing boats and + gear and industries subservient to and connected with fishing), and any other + suitable industries. Both the powers and the revenues of the Board were increased + from time to time, until by 1909 its annual expenditure amounted to nearly + £250,000. It became clear almost at the beginning of its labours that amongst + the many difficulties which the Board would have to face there were two pre-eminent + ones; if it was desired to enlarge uneconomic holdings by removing a part of the + population to other districts, the people to be removed might not wish to go; and the + landless <span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>[pg 165]</span> men + in the district to which they were to be removed might say that they had a better + right to the land than strangers from a distance, and the result might be a free + fight. As the only chance of success for the labours of the Board was the elimination + of party politics, Mr. J. Morley, on becoming Chief Secretary in the Gladstonian + Government of 1892, appointed as Commissioners Bishop O'Donnell of Raphoe (the Patron + of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, and a Trustee of the Parliamentary Fund of the + United Irish League); and the Rev. D. O'Hara, a leading Clerical Nationalist of a + violent type. It is needless to say that under their influence the action of the + Board has been conducted on strictly Nationalist lines. One instance may suffice. In + 1900, the Board, having come into the possession of the Dillon estate, wished to sell + it to the tenants; and when doing so, considering the sporting rights to be a + valuable asset, decided to reserve them. A considerable number of the tenants + expressed their readiness to purchase their holdings subject to the reservation. The + Board received an offer of £11,000 for the mansion, demesne and sporting rights + over the estate. The reservation of sporting rights when, taking the whole estate, + they were of pecuniary value, had been the common practice of the Board in other + sales; but an agitation was at once got up (not by the tenants) against the + reservation in this case, on the ground that it was not right for the Board to place + any burden on the fee simple of the holdings; the offer of £11,000 was refused, + and soon afterwards the Board sold the mansion <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166" id="page166"></a>[pg 166]</span> and the best part of the demesne to a + community of Belgian nuns for £2,100. The sporting rights, which became the + property of the purchasing tenants, ceased to be of any appreciable pecuniary value, + though in a few cases the tenants succeeded in selling their share of them for small + sums to local agitators. When a witness before the Royal Commission of 1906 ventured + to point out that the taxpayers thus lost £8,900 by the transaction, he was + severely rebuked by the Clerical members of the Commission for suggesting that the + presence of the Belgian nuns was not a great benefit to the neighbourhood.</p> + <p>This Royal Commission was appointed ostensibly for the purpose of enquiring into + and reporting upon the operations of the Board since its foundation. After going + through a mass of evidence, the Chairman (Lord Dudley) said that the Board had tried + for twenty years to develop new industries and had failed; and another member (Lord + MacDonnell) said that it had only touched the fringe of the question; and, + considering that in spite of all its efforts at promoting local industries, + emigration continued to be greater from the district subject to its control than from + any other part of Ireland, it is hard to see what other view was possible. But the + large majority of the Commission were ardent Nationalists-in fact, one of them a + short time before his appointment had publicly advocated an absolute, rigorous, + complete and exhaustive system of boycotting; and the witness who spoke for the + United Irish League told the Commission that it <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page167" id="page167"></a>[pg 167]</span> was the strong view of the League + that the Board should be preserved. It was only natural therefore that the Commission + should report that in their opinion the powers and scope of its operations should be + extended and its income largely increased. This was accordingly done by the Birrell + Act of 1909. One of the most important functions of the Board was the purchase of + land, for which they possessed compulsory powers. The witness who had appeared before + the Commission as representing the United Irish League was Mr. FitzGibbon, Chairman + of the Roscommon County Council, and now a Member of Parliament. He had previously + been sent to prison for inciting to the Plan of Campaign, and for criminal + conspiracy. He had also taken a leading part in the cattle-driving agitation (to + which I shall refer later) and had announced that his policy was "to enable the Board + to get land at fag-end prices." He was therefore appointed by Mr. Birrell to be a + member of the Board, as being a suitable person to decide what compensation should be + paid for land taken compulsorily. He publicly stated that his object was to carry out + the great work of Michael Davitt. And he certainly has been active in doing so; and + now the agitators, when they want to have an estate transferred to the Board, + commence by preventing its being let or used, and so compelling the owner to leave it + derelict and unprofitable; then, when by every description of villainy and boycotting + it has been rendered almost worthless, the Congested Districts Board (who have + carefully lain by until <span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>[pg + 168]</span> then) step in with a preposterous offer which the unfortunate owner has + no choice but to accept. This may appear strong language to use with reference to a + Government Department presided over by Roman Catholic bishops and priests; but the + words are not mine; they are taken from the judgment of Mr. Justice Ross, in the case + of the Browne Estate.</p> + <p>At any rate, whatever else the Congested Districts Board may have achieved, they + have done one good thing; they have shown to Unionists in Ireland what the principles + of justice are by which the Nationalist Government will be conducted.</p> + <p>(4) The fourth division of the Unionist policy was the extension of local + government. By the Act of 1898 County and District Councils were formed, like those + which had been existing in England for a few years previously; and the powers of the + old Grand Juries (who it was admitted had done their work well, but were now objected + to on principle as not being elected bodies) were abolished. The importance of the + measure can hardly be overestimated; for not only did it re-organize local government + on what would elsewhere be a democratic but is in Ireland a Clerical basis; but also + it may be described as Home Rule on a small scale. By examining into the practical + working of the scheme we may form an idea as to what Home Rule is likely to be; and + both parties refer to it as a ground for their opinion. It is curious now to note + that it was Gerald Balfour, the Unionist Chief Secretary, who, when introducing the + measure, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>[pg 169]</span> + appealed to the Irish gentry not to stand aloof from the new order of things, but to + seek from the suffrages of their fellow-citizens that position which no others were + so well qualified to fill as themselves-in much the same way that English Radical + orators now accuse the Ulstermen of want of patriotism when they declare that they + will never take part in a Nationalist Government. The Nationalists were of course + loud in their protestations that in the noble work of local government all narrow + political and sectarian bitterness would be put aside, and all Irishmen irrespective + of creed, class or party would be welcome to take part-just as they are now when they + promise the same about the National Parliament. Thus J. Redmond said:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"No man's politics or religion will be allowed to be a bar to him if he desires + to serve his country on one of the new bodies. Men of different creeds, who have + had an almost impassable gulf between them all their lives, will be brought + together for the first time in the working of this scheme of Local Government.... + On every one of the juries in Ireland there have been county gentlemen who have + shown the greatest aptitude for business, the greatest industry, and the greatest + ability; and I say it would be a monstrous thing if, by working the election of + these County Councils on narrow sectarian or political lines, men of that class + were excluded from the service of their country."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>[pg 170]</span> + <p>And another Nationalist Member added: "We are anxious for the co-operation of + those who have leisure, wealth and knowledge." Irish Unionists who refused to believe + these assurances were denounced by Nationalists as bigots and humbugs. The value of + the assurances of 1912 may be gauged by the manner in which those of 1898 have been + fulfilled. At the election of 1899 a few Protestants and Unionists were returned. But + the general feeling of the newly-formed Councils may be gathered from the following + resolution which was passed by the Mayo County Council in that year:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That we, the members of the Mayo County Council, congratulate the gallant Boers + on their brilliant defeats of the troops of the pirate Saxon. That we hope that a + just Providence will strengthen the arms of these farmer fighters in their brave + struggle for their independence. And we trust that as Babylon fell, and as Rome + fell, so also may fall the race and nation whose creed is the creed of greed, and + whose god is the god of Mammon."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And by 1902, when the next triennial elections were coming on, the mask was thrown + off. The <i>Freeman's Journal</i> (the principal Nationalist organ) said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In every County or District Council where a landlord, however amiable, or + personally estimable, offers himself for election, the answer of the majority must + be the same: 'No admittance here.'"</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>[pg 171]</span> And J. + Redmond stated the case still more plainly:<br /> + <br /> + + <blockquote> + <p>"We have in our hands a weapon recently won, the full force of which is not yet, + I believe, thoroughly understood by the English Government or by ourselves. I mean + the weapon of freely-elected County Councils and District Councils who to-day form + a network of National organizations all over Ireland, and who to-morrow, I doubt + not, if the other organizations were struck, would be willing to come forward and + take their place, and, in their Council Chambers, carry on the National work."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Pledges in the following form were presented for signature to all candidates by + the United Irish League (except of course in north-east Ulster):-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"I -- hereby pledge myself, if elected to represent the -- Division on the + County Council, to promote the interests of the United Irish League, and to resign + my position whenever called upon to do so by the -- Divisional Executive."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>So completely has the policy been carried out that by 1911, to quote the words of + Mr. FitzGibbon, M.P. (to whom I have previously referred):-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"There was not a landlord in the country who could get his agent returned as + District Councillor or County Councillor, or even his eldest son or himself. The + Organization had emancipated the people; it had given them the power <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>[pg 172]</span> which their + enemies had wielded; it had cleared the road for Ireland's freedom."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>At present Unionists and Nationalists are pretty evenly divided in the County + Councils of Ulster; in the other three Provinces amongst 703 County Councillors there + are only fifteen Unionists. In other words, the Act has enabled the Nationalist party + to carry out the plan laid down by Lalor of taking quiet and peaceable possession of + all the rights and powers of government, as a stepping-stone towards + Independence.</p> + <p>Of course it may be said with much truth that if the large majority of the people + are Nationalists they are perfectly justified in choosing Nationalists as their + representatives. But that is not the point. The real point is that in spite of the + protestations of the Nationalists at the time of the passing of the Act, politics in + their bitterest form have been brought in, and the Unionist minority have been + deprived of all share in the local government of the country.</p> + <p>To illustrate this still further, I may add that a General Council of County + Councils was formed in 1900, for the purpose of promoting a fair and equitable + administration of the Act. In order that the Ulster Councils might unite with the + others, it was agreed that politics should be excluded. But after the election of + 1902, that agreement was abandoned; and, rather than take part in what had become a + mere political gathering, the Ulster representatives withdrew. Left to themselves, + the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>[pg 173]</span> + Nationalist General Council in 1906 passed the following resolution:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That the Irish people are a free people, with a natural right to govern + themselves; that no Parliament is competent to make such laws for Ireland except an + Irish Parliament, sitting in Dublin; and that the claim by other bodies of men to + make laws for us to govern Ireland is illegal, unconstitutional, and at variance + with the rights of the people."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>If such a body as the General Council of County Councils pass a resolution like + this, is there much probability that the Nationalist Parliament will refrain from + doing the same, should the Imperial Parliament attempt to exercise the power given to + it by the present Bill, and to legislate for Ireland?</p> + <p>But again it may be said that though the Councils have thus become political + bodies, they have conducted their business so admirably that their conduct is a + powerful argument to show that a Nationalist Parliament will be equally practical and + liberal. This is the view put forward by Nationalist orators and their humble + follower Mr. Birrell, who in November 1911, informed his friends at Bristol that the + Irish had shown a great capacity for local government and that from what people who + had seen a great deal of the south and west of Ireland told him there was no fear of + persecution or oppression by the Catholic majority of their Protestant + fellow-subjects. In support of this, various facts <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page174" id="page174"></a>[pg 174]</span> are adduced, which it is well to + examine in detail, remembering the poet's words that</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"A lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest of lies."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>One of the greatest powers possessed by the County Councils is the exercise of + patronage. It would probably be generally admitted in any country but Ireland that + there, if anywhere, religion and politics should be excluded, and men selected only + for their qualifications. The Nationalists, wishing to demonstrate the fairness of + the Councils which hold their views, contrast the bigotry shown by the Unionist + Corporation of Belfast with the liberality of similar bodies in other parts of the + country. And certainly the figures they adduce, when addressing audiences in England + or writing for English readers, are very striking. Thus Mr. Birrell said at Skipton + in November 1911 that he had been told that in the great Unionist City of Belfast + there was only one Roman Catholic in the employment of the Corporation, and he was a + scavenger. (It will be observed that here, as in many of his speeches, he carefully + used the expression "he had been told"-so that what he said may be literally true, + even though when he heard the statement he knew that it was false.) And Stephen + Gwynn, M.P., in his "Case for Home Rule," says: "In Belfast, Catholics are a third of + the population; but the Corporation pays £51,405 in a year in salaries, of + which only £640 goes to Catholics." And about the same time as Mr. Birrell's + oration, Mr. Redmond, speaking at <span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" + id="page175"></a>[pg 175]</span> Swindon, said that in Galway, Cork, Westmeath and + King's County (where Roman Catholics form the large majority of the population) + Protestants held 23 per cent. of the salaried appointments in the gift of the + Councils.</p> + <p>But when we descend from the airy height of Nationalist rhetoric to the prosaic + region of fact, we find that the rates of the City of Belfast amount to about + £342,000; of this sum, Roman Catholic ratepayers pay less than £18,000. + There are nine hundred Roman Catholics in the employment of the Corporation, and they + receive in salaries about £48,000 per annum. And as to the figures quoted by + Mr. Redmond, we find that he omitted to state that not one of the 23 per cent. had + been appointed by a County Council; they were all survivals of the system in force + before 1899, whose positions were secured by statute; and in not one of the counties + he mentioned has a Unionist been appointed to any salaried office since that date. To + take the County of Cork as a specimen; there are ninety-four salaried offices in the + gift of the County Council; of these nine are held by Protestants-but they were all + appointed before 1899. Of the thirty-three salaried offices in the gift of the City + Corporation, two are held by Protestants-but these also were appointed before 1898; + and yet the Protestants pay nearly half the rates. And in Ireland there is not the + slightest attempt at concealment in the matter; thus in one case a District Council + adopted by formal resolution the request of the local priests not to support any + candidate who did not produce a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" + id="page176"></a>[pg 176]</span> testimonial from the parish priest; as a Councillor + remarked, it was the simplest way of stating that no Protestant need apply.</p> + <p>But it is in the appointment of medical officers ("dispensary doctors" as they are + technically called in Ireland) that the policy of the Nationalists has been most + marked. Many years ago, the late Cardinal Cullen ruled that it was a mortal sin to + vote for a heretic for such an office; now, however, the bishops have gone further. + There are three medical schools in Dublin-Trinity College, the College of Surgeons, + and the Catholic University School; and three in the provinces-at Belfast, Cork and + Galway. The Medical School of Trinity College has a world-wide reputation. The + students are required to complete their Arts course before specializing in medicine + (thus ensuring that they shall be men of general culture and not merely of + professional training); the professors and lecturers are amongst the ablest men of + the day; the students have the advantage of the large city hospitals for their + clinical studies; and the standard required for a degree is high. And not only is + Trinity College open to all students without distinction of creed, but the College + authorities have frequently offered a site within their grounds for a Roman Catholic + Chapel and the salary of a Chaplain who would take spiritual care of his flock. + Nevertheless the Roman Catholic bishops have ordered that no candidate who has been + trained at any College except the Catholic University school shall be eligible for + the post of Dispensary Doctor; and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" + id="page177"></a>[pg 177]</span> when an election takes place (as for instance that + at Kiltimagh in 1905) the question of professional qualification is not taken into + consideration-having been trained at a "godless college" is a fatal bar to any + candidate, however able. In the Kiltimagh case, the resolution passed shortly after + the election by the local branch of the United Irish League is instructive + reading:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That we, the members of the Kiltimagh Branch of the United Irish League, take + advantage of this our first meeting since the important Election of Medical Officer + for the Kiltimagh Dispensary District, to express our appreciation of all the + Guardians for the several divisions in this parish for the faithful honesty with + which they represented us on that occasion. We feel proud to know that not one of + our representatives voted for a Queen's College man against a Catholic University + man. They voted for a man who is the stamp of man we want-a sound Catholic, a sound + Nationalist, a Gaelic Leaguer, and a highly qualified medical man. We believe their + action will meet with the approval of the Bishops and Priests of Ireland."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>To one who lives in Ireland it is sad enough to see year by year the most able and + promising of the medical students being driven out of the country on account of their + religion, and forced to look for openings elsewhere; but to a thoughtful observer it + is even worse than that; it is the beginning of the new Penal Laws.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>[pg 178]</span> + <p>And when we turn to other matters, where the marvellous efficiency of the County + Councils exists, is hard for an unprejudiced enquirer to find. The old Grand Juries + handed over the roads and bridges in excellent order; they are certainly not better + now, and in many cases worse. In fact, one English theoretical Radical who paid a + brief visit to Ireland, inhaled so much Hibernian logic during his hurried tour that + he solemnly argued that the badness of the roads proved that the Councils had been + governing too economically; and therefore what was needed was a central body-that is, + an Irish Parliament-to stir up the local administration! Nationalist writers claim + that the rates are going down; but that merely means that they are not so high now as + they were soon after the Act came into force, not that they are lower than before + 1898. It was expected that the rates would be reduced by the operation of the Old Age + Pensions Act; but that has not proved to be the case. And the increase in local + indebtedness is alarming.</p> + <p>To sum up, therefore, I trust that I have, even in this brief sketch, made it + clear that the policy of the Unionist Government, taken as a whole, has been of + immense benefit to the social and material prosperity of Ireland; and that the points + in which it has failed have been those where their reforms have fallen under the + power of the Nationalists, who have either thwarted them, or made use of them to + further their own ideas. I shall next proceed to examine the alternative policy, + which is being carried out by the present Government.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>[pg 179]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + <h3>THE GLADSTONIAN GOVERNMENT OF 1892. THE POLITICAL SOCIETIES.</h3> + <p>During the Gladstone-Rosebery Government-from 1892 to 1895-matters in Ireland were + quiet. The Nationalists were at first on their best behaviour, in consequence of the + promised introduction of the Home Rule Bill; and after its rejection by the Upper + House, the time was too short for anything serious to happen. But the period was + marked by the commencement of one great change in Irish administration. It must be + admitted by impartial observers that the old landlord party, with all their faults, + made as a rule excellent magistrates. A large proportion of them were retired + military officers, who had gained some experience in duties of the sort in their + regiments; others were men of superior education, who studied with care the laws they + were to administer. Living in the locality, they knew the habits and feelings of the + people; and yet they were sufficiently separated from them to be able to act as + impartial judges; and no charges of bribery were ever made against them. And, the + work being congenial, they gladly devoted their spare time to it. Gladstone's Chief + Secretary (the present Lord Morley) determined to alter all this; he accordingly + appointed to the Bench a large number of men drawn from a lower social stratum, less + educated and intelligent than those previously chosen, but more likely to administer + "Justice <span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>[pg 180]</span> + according to Irish ideas." Then the operation of the Local Government Act, by which + Chairmen of Councils (all of course Nationalists) became <i>ex officio</i> + magistrates, completed a social revolution by entirely altering the character of the + Bench. In some localities the magistrates previously appointed realizing that, being + now in a minority, they could be of no further use on the Bench, withdrew; in others, + though the old magistrates continued to sit, they found themselves persistently + outvoted on every point; so what good they have done by remaining, it is hard to see. + Amongst the men appointed under the new system, there have been several instances of + justices who have continued to act without the slightest shame or scruple although + they have been convicted of such offences as drunkenness, selling drink on unlicensed + premises, or corrupt practices at elections. But worse than that: the new order of + justices do not regard their duties as magisterial, but political; they give but + little attention to ordinary cases, but attend in full strength to prevent the + conviction of any person for an outrage organized by the United Irish League; and do + not hesitate to promise beforehand that they will do so. If by any chance a + sufficient number are not present to carry their purpose, the names of the absentees + are published in the Black List of the League-and the result of that is so well known + that they are not likely to offend again. Hence comes the contemptible exhibition-now + not infrequent-of men being charged before the Bench, and no evidence being offered + for the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>[pg 181]</span> + defence; yet the Stipendiary Magistrate being obliged to say that though he considers + the case proved, the majority of the Bench have decided to refuse informations. Even + a Roman Catholic Bishop has confessed that now magistrates too often have no respect + for their obligations to dispense the law justly and without favour; and that the + Bench is sometimes so "packed" that the culprits, though guilty, are certain to be + acquitted.</p> + <hr /> + <p>Before discussing the policy of the present Government since it came into power in + 1906, it is well to explain what the principal societies-secret or other-are which + now conduct the Government of Ireland. In one sense indeed the names are immaterial; + for, as in 1798, in whatever various ways the societies have commenced, they are all + working towards the same end, and being controlled by the same forces.</p> + <p>The Land League, which was founded in 1879 as a league for ruining landlords as a + stepping-stone towards independence, having been suppressed by Gladstone in 1881, was + reformed under the name of the Irish National League. This was in its turn suppressed + in 1887, and in 1898 appeared once more under the name of the United Irish League + with J. Redmond as President and J. Devlin as Secretary. In 1901 Mr. Redmond + explained the objects of the League as follows:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The United Irish League is not merely an agrarian movement. It is first, last, + and all the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>[pg + 182]</span> time a National movement; and those of us who are endeavouring to rouse + the farmers of Ireland, as we endeavoured twenty years ago in the days of the Land + League, to rouse them, are doing so, not merely to obtain the removal of their + particular grievances, but because we believe by rousing them we will be + strengthening the National movement and helping us to obtain our end, which is, + after all, National independence of Ireland."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And to make the exact meaning of the phrase "National Independence of Ireland" + quite clear, he soon afterwards stated that their object was the same as that aimed + at by Emmett and Wolfe Tone-in other words, to place Ireland in the scale of nations + with a constitution resembling that of the United States.</p> + <p>By March 1908 (that is, about two years after the present Government came into + power), to quote the words of Mr. Justice Wright, "the only law feared and obeyed was + the law not of the land but of the United Irish League"; and before the end of that + year Mr. Redmond was able to report to his friends in America:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We have in Ireland an organization which is practically a government of the + country. There is in O'Connell Street, Dublin, a great office managed by the real + Chief Secretary for Ireland, J. Devlin, the Member for Belfast."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The organization of the League is admirable. <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183" id="page183"></a>[pg 183]</span> The country is covered with a network + of branches, to which people in the district are obliged to contribute under penalty + of being boycotted; these branches are united under provincial executives, whilst the + Directory in Dublin controls the whole. The union between the League and the Roman + Catholic Church is as complete as the union between that Church and some societies + started on a non-sectarian basis became during the rebellion of 1798; as we have + seen, a bishop is one of the trustees, and other bishops are amongst the subscribers; + the Sunday meetings of the various branches, at which boycotting and other measures + of the kind are arranged, are usually presided over by the parish priests. On the + other hand, few laymen, whatever their religion may be, who have any stake in the + country, can be got to join the League; in the words of A.J. Kettle, M.P.:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"On its roll of membership there are no landlords or ex-landlords, few + merchants, fewer Irish manufacturers. There are few of the men who are managing the + business of Ireland in city or town, connected with the League. The bankers who + regulate our finances, the railway or transit men who control our trade, internal + and external, even the leading cattle men who handle most of our animal produce, + are not to be found in its ranks."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>In further evidence of this it may be noted that in spite of all the efforts of + the League at collecting money, the subscriptions to the Irish Parliamentary <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>[pg 184]</span> Fund do not amount + to a halfpenny per head of the population; as J. Dillon has remarked: "The National + cause in Ireland could not live for six months if it were deprived of the support of + the Irish across the Atlantic."</p> + <p>Closely allied with the League is the Ancient Order of Hibernians, a secret + political and exclusively Roman Catholic association, of which J. Devlin, M.P. (the + Secretary of the League), is President. It is also called the Board of Erin, to + distinguish it from the American branch. The American branch, I may remark, is also + known as the Molly Maguires, as it was under that name that it conducted the series + of murders and outrages at the Pennsylvanian mines thirty years ago. Hence the Irish + branch is sometimes nicknamed the "Molly Maguires." The Order is very religious, in + the sense that part of its programme is to deprive heretics of every means of earning + their livelihood; as a Nationalist who did not sympathize with the operations of the + Order expressed it: "If Protestants are to be robbed of their business, if they are + to be deprived of public contracts, and shut out of every office and emolument,-what + is that but extermination?" The political principles of the Order can be gathered + from the Address presented by them to Captain Condon on the occasion of his visit to + Dublin in 1909. Captain Condon, I may explain, had been a prominent Fenian and member + of the Irish Republican brotherhood, and had taken part in the riot at Manchester in + 1867 which resulted in the murder of Sergeant Brett; he now resides in <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>[pg 185]</span> America. In 1909 + he visited Ireland on the invitation of J. Redmond; and the address presented to him + by the Ancient Order of Hibernians contained the following words:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In you, O'Meagher Condon, we recognize one of those connecting links with the + past which all nations cherish, and you are ready to-day with voice and pen to give + your unflagging support to Ireland's leaders with as much enthusiasm as you grasped + the sword to lead Ireland in the dark but historic '67. We are sure it will + interest you to know that the ranks of the Hibernians to-day are composed of the + men and children of those who swore allegiance to the Irish Republic with you."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The Order has lately acquired additional strength by becoming an "Approved + Society" under the Insurance Act of 1911. In Ireland it is no more possible for life + insurance than for anything else to exist without being dragged into the vortex of + religious and political quarrels.</p> + <p>The "Clan-na-gael"-that is, the Dynamite Club-still flourishes in America; but for + obvious reasons it does not make any public appearance in Ireland; and the exact part + which it takes in the movement at the present time, it is impossible to say.</p> + <p>"Sinn Fein" (which means "Ourselves") is another Separatist Association, aiming at + the establishment of Ireland as a Sovereign State, and teaching that the election of + Irishmen to serve in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>[pg + 186]</span> British Parliament is treason to the Irish State. As its name implies, it + desires to make use of the revival of the Irish language as a means towards the end + for which it is working. It was founded in 1905. Why this Society and the United + Irish League, whose objects seem identical, should be ready to fly at one another's + throats, is one of the things that those who are outside the Nationalist circle + cannot understand. But the Clerical leaders, who do their utmost to further the + operations of the League, look askance at Sinn Fein; its ultimate success therefore + is very doubtful.</p> + <p>Then, working in conjunction with these societies is the "Gaelic League," founded + for the "de-Anglicizing" of Ireland, as helping towards separation. As J. Sweetman + (who, besides being a prominent member of the Gaelic League, is also Vice-President + of Sinn Fein and Vice-Chairman of the Central Council of Irish County Councils and + may therefore be regarded as speaking with authority) has expressed it:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Out of the Gaelic League's de-Anglicizing propaganda have already grown a + series of movements not only strongly political but each and all making for a + separate independent Irish nation, freed from every link of the British + connection."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Were it not for its political object, the folly of this "revival of the Irish + language" would be past belief. The language of Shakespeare and Milton, of Gibbon and + Macaulay, ought surely to be good <span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" + id="page187"></a>[pg 187]</span> enough for ordinary people; and it must be obvious + to every reasoning being that at the present moment of the world's history, English + is one of the most useful languages in existence. It is spoken by 40,000,000 of + people in Europe and twice that number in America, not to mention Australasia and + South Africa. It is the language of commerce, of science, and of a vast amount of + literature. Europeans of various nationalities learn it, for the sake of its + convenience; although, as we all know, one of the difficulties of modern life is that + boys and girls have too much to study; educationalists everywhere complain that the + curriculum is overloaded. Its position in Ireland can be seen exactly by the census + returns; for the papers contain a "language column," each person being required to + state whether he speaks English or Irish or both. According to the returns of 1891, + the total population was in round numbers 4,725,000; of whom 4,037,000 spoke English + only, 643,000 both languages, and 44,000 Irish only. And that trifling minority + existed only in certain localities, and was confined to the less educated classes. + The only counties in which a majority of the population spoke Irish (including those + who spoke both languages) were Mayo and Galway. Yet now it is solemnly said that + Ireland, being an independent nation, must have a language of its own; even in + counties where no language but English has been spoken for centuries, and where + probably none of the ancestors of the present population ever spoke any other + language, Irish is being taught in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" + id="page188"></a>[pg 188]</span> Roman Catholic primary schools, and the unhappy + children who might be studying arithmetic or elementary geography, are wasting their + time over a totally useless language. I say "totally useless" deliberately; for the + arguments usually brought forward in favour of the study, apart from the political + one-that Irish is of use in the study of philology, and that the MSS. of centuries + ago contain fine specimens of poetry-are too absurd to be worth discussing. The real + object of the Nationalists in "encouraging the revival of the Irish language" is + clearly set out in the following words of T. MacSeamus in a recent number of the + <i>Irish Review</i>:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Most important of all, the Irish language is one of the things that distinguish + us from England. It is a mark of that separateness which it is the business of + every Nationalist to maintain and emphasise on every possible occasion. It is one + of the signs-perhaps the chief sign-of nationality.... The Irish language is a + weapon in our fight against England, and we cannot afford to throw away even the + smallest weapon that may serve us in that struggle."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And the policy of the League as regards the primary schools is made quite clear by + the resolution passed unanimously at their annual meeting in 1912:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That we re-affirm the demand of the last Ard Fheis in regard to the position of + Irish in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>[pg + 189]</span> primary schools, viz., that Irish be the sole medium of instruction in + the Irish-speaking districts; that it be the medium as far as possible in all other + schools, and that it be a compulsory subject in every school throughout the country + where parents are not opposed to it; furthermore, that a knowledge of Irish be + required from all teachers entering for training as teachers, and that no + certificate be issued to those who fail to qualify in Irish at the final + examination, and that none but inspectors having a knowledge of Irish be employed + to inspect schools where Irish is taught."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>It will be seen therefore that if the League carry their point (as no doubt they + will under a Home Rule Government) no graduate of the Belfast University who wishes + to become a teacher in a Belfast school will be allowed to do so unless he passes an + examination in a language which not one of his pupils will ever wish to learn; and + this, not for the purpose of ensuring general culture, but to further a political + object with which he has no sympathy.</p> + <p>The League leave no stone unturned in their efforts to substitute the Irish for + the English language. For instance, it is usually considered in other countries that + the names of the streets of a town are put up in order to help people who want to + find their way, and not for political reasons. But in Dublin, where not one per cent. + of the people can read Irish, the names have recently all been painted up in that + language, in the hope of de-Anglicizing <span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" + id="page190"></a>[pg 190]</span> the rising generation. An incident occurred recently + which will show how the movement is being taken up. There is in Dublin an excellent + regulation that children may not become "street traders" without a licence. A bright + little boy came to apply for one. The magistrate, being a kindly man, enquired of the + lad what his circumstances were. The boy explained that part of his earnings went + towards the support of his widowed mother; and that he was trying to keep up his + education by attending a night school. "And what are you learning there?" said the + magistrate. "Irish," replied the boy. Even the magistrate could not resist telling + him that he thought his time would be better spent at Arithmetic. Yet from the boy's + point of view, there is something to be said. Irish may be of use to him in obtaining + a Government appointment, however small; for local bodies (such as the Dublin Boards + of Guardians) now refuse to appoint clerks who cannot send out notices of meetings in + Irish, though no member of the Board to whom they are sent can read them; and the + League fully expect that the Home Rule Government will do the same with regard to + every appointment in their gift. If the railways are taken over by the Government (as + they probably will be) it can be seen what an immense impetus can be given to the + movement.</p> + <p>Then Secondary Schools have been established for the same object. The <i>Irish + Educational Review</i> recently contained the following account of one of them:-</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>[pg 191]</span> + <blockquote> + <p>"At Ring, in the County Waterford, there is already in existence an Irish + secondary school where classics, modern languages and all the usual secondary + school subjects are taught and where Irish and English fill their rightful places, + the former being the ordinary language of the school, the latter a foreign language + on no higher level than French or German."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The Act of 1909, which founded the "National" University (to which I shall refer + again), gave power to County Councils to levy a rate for scholarships. Immediately + the Gaelic League saw their opportunity. They endeavoured to persuade the Councils to + refuse to do so unless Irish were made compulsory at the University. The Councils + generally (except of course in Ulster) agreed to the plan; but some of them (such as + the Kildare Council) were faced by a difficulty. Not a single child in the county + spoke Irish; and so if that language were made compulsory, no one could compete for + the scholarships. So they compromised matters, by deciding that they would levy a + rate if Irish were made compulsory after 1915, by which time some of the young people + in the county would have been able to learn it; and the University agreed to do + so.</p> + <p>This rating power, I may remark, looks extremely liberal as it appears in the Act; + for the scholarships are to be tenable at any University. The Irish Unionist members, + knowing quite well how it would be worked, opposed the clause; and as usual were + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>[pg 192]</span> denounced as + bigots and fanatics. It is needless to add that as soon as the Act came into force, + County Councils and Corporations at once passed resolutions that scholarships derived + from the rates should not be tenable at Trinity College, Dublin, or at Belfast, but + only at the National University-thus practically saying that no Protestants need + compete.</p> + <p>Beyond forcing the children to acquire a smattering of Irish, it cannot be said + that so far the efforts of the League as to the language have been very successful; + for the census returns show that the proportion of the population who could speak + Irish in 1891 was 14'5; in 1901, 14'4; and in 1911, 13'3; and the numbers who spoke + Irish only fell from 20,953 in 1901 to 16,870 in 1911.</p> + <p>But the efforts of the League are not confined to the language. English games, + such as cricket, are forbidden; if football is played, it must be the Gaelic variety + with rules totally different from those observed by the hated Saxon. Even the + patients in asylums are forbidden to play cricket or lawn tennis. And some of the + more enthusiastic members of the League have actually "donned the saffron," in + imitation of the Ersefied Normans of 400 years ago. However, it is so hideously ugly, + and so suggestive of the obnoxious Orange, that that phase of the movement is not + likely to extend.</p> + <p>Even the "Boy Scout" movement has been made use of for the same object. As soon as + some corps had been established in Ireland, the Nationalists started a rival + organization with an Irish name, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" + id="page193"></a>[pg 193]</span> in which all the boys solemnly undertake to work for + the independence of Ireland, and never to join England's armed forces. The boys take + a prominent part in the annual ceremonies in honour of Wolfe Tone, the Manchester + martyrs, and other Nationalist heroes.</p> + <p>The whole thing would be laughable if it were not so very sad. Even such matters + as sports and education, where all creeds and parties might be expected to work + together amicably, must be used as instruments to bring about separation; and the + result already is not so much to widen the gulf between Ireland and England as the + gulf between the two parties in Ireland; for the Protestant minority in the south, + who know that most of their children will have to leave the country, are not likely + to let them fritter away their youth in the study of a language which can be of no + possible benefit to them in any part of the world to which they may go; and the idea + that the Ulstermen will ever adopt a Celtic tongue is too ridiculous to be + considered. But perhaps the most painful thought of all is that the Nationalists + should be ready even to sacrifice the prospects in life of the rising generation of + the country in order to satisfy their blind hatred of England.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>[pg 194]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + <h3>IRELAND UNDER THE PRESENT GOVERNMENT.</h3> + <p>I come now to the policy which has been pursued by the present Government since + 1906. It must be remembered that the Radical party returned to power pledged to Home + Rule as a principle, but with a sufficient majority to enable them to retain office + without depending on the Irish vote. Hence there was no necessity for them to + introduce a Home Rule Bill; but of course they set aside the policy of the Unionist + Government, and resolved to govern Ireland according to their own ideas. What those + ideas were, and what the result has been, I shall now proceed to show; but in doing + so I shall as far as possible confine myself to quotations and statistics which can + be verified, so that I may not be accused of giving an unfair report.</p> + <p>The Chief Secretary for the first year was Mr. Bryce, who was afterwards appointed + British Ambassador at Washington. The Government at once repealed the Act which + forbade the carrying of arms without a licence; withdrew all proclamations under the + Crimes Act of 1887; and resolved not to stop any political meetings. Accordingly the + Nationalists commenced holding a series of demonstrations all over the country. A few + specimens taken from the speeches made at them will suffice to show their general + tenour.</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Let them all be ready, and when England <span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" + id="page195"></a>[pg 195]</span> got into trouble with European Powers, they would + pounce upon her with the ferocity of a tiger."-<i>T. Walsh, District + Councillor.</i></p> + </blockquote> + <blockquote> + <p>"They must stand together as one man, and make it impossible for England to + govern Ireland."-<i>P. White, M.P.</i></p> + </blockquote> + <blockquote> + <p>"If there had been 100,000 Fenians in Ireland at the time of the Boer War there + might now have been a Republic in Ireland, and British supremacy would have been + tumbled in the dust."-<i>J. Daly, formerly Mayor of Limerick.</i></p> + </blockquote> + <p>And Mr. Bryce, when leaving Ireland at the end of the year, stated that he had not + found any harm in any of the speeches delivered at the meetings.</p> + <p>At this time the agitation began to assume a new form. One of the most important + of Irish industries is the cattle trade with England, the annual value of which + exceeds £14,000,000. In several parts of Ireland, notably in Meath and the + central counties, the soil and climate are specially suited for cattle raising, and + the land is generally held in large grazing farms. It was decided by the Nationalists + in the autumn of 1906 that this industry must be destroyed. Bodies of men assembled + night after night to break down the fences and gates of the farms and drive the + cattle many miles away, in order that the farmers might be ruined and forced to leave + the country; and then the derelict farms would be divided amongst the "landless men." + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>[pg 196]</span> L. Ginnell, + M.P., explained the programme fully in a speech he made in October 1906:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The ranches must be broken up, not only in Westmeath but throughout all Ireland + ... He advised them to stamp out the ranch demon themselves, and not leave an alien + Parliament to do the duty ... He advised them to leave the ranches unfenced, unused + and unusable ... so that no man or demon would dare to stand another hour between + the people and the land that should be theirs."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The agitation, commencing in Meath, was gradually extended, county by county, over + a large part of Ireland where the Nationalists are supreme. Other measures were + resorted to, in order to carry out their object. Arson, the burning of hayricks, + firing into dwelling-houses, spiking meadows, the mutilation of horses and cows, the + destruction of turf, the damaging of machinery, and various other forms of lawless + violence began to increase and multiply. At the Spring Assizes in 1907, the Chief + Justice, when addressing the Grand Jury at Ennis, in commenting on the increasing + need for placing law-abiding people under special police protection, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In a shire in England, if it was found necessary, either by special protection + or protection by patrol, to protect from risk of outrage thirty persons, what would + be thought?"</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And Mr. Justice Kenny at Leitrim, after commenting <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page197" id="page197"></a>[pg 197]</span> upon the increased number of + specially reported cases, as shown by the official statistics, and alluding to + several cases of gross intimidation, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In these latter cases I regret to say no one has been made amenable; and when + there is such a state of things, it justifies the observation made by the learned + judge who presided at last Connaught Winter Assizes, that when the chain of + terrorism was complete, no witness would give evidence and no jury would + convict."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Thereupon Mr. Birrell, who at the beginning of the year had succeeded Mr. Bryce as + Chief Secretary, having no doubt studied these and similar reports, said in a speech + at Halifax in the following month:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"You may take my word for this, that Ireland is at this moment in a more + peaceful condition than for the last six hundred years."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Soon afterwards, Mr. Justice Ross, who, as Judge of the Land Judge's Court, + Chancery Division, was in charge of many estates in Ireland, said:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"He had known from other Receivers about this widespread and audacious + conspiracy at present rampant in the West of Ireland ... This was actually a + conspiracy which on ordinary moral grounds amounted to highway robbery, to seize on + these grass lands, to drive away the stock of the people who had been in the habit + of taking it; and then, when the owner <span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" + id="page198"></a>[pg 198]</span> had been starved out, the Estates Commissioners + were expected to buy up the property and to distribute it amongst the very people + who had been urging on the business, and who had been engaged in these + outrages."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>When an Ulster member drew attention to this in the House of Commons, Mr. Birrell + replied:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"There is no evidence before the Government that a widespread conspiracy is + rampant in the West of Ireland."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And in reply to another question he said that:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The reports he received from the police and other persons revealed the + condition of Ireland generally as to peace and order as being very + satisfactory."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>During the month of October 1907, twenty-nine claims for compensation from the + rates in respect of malicious injuries had been proved and granted in twelve + counties, the amount levied from the ratepayers being about £900. The malicious + injuries comprised destruction of and firing into dwelling houses, mutilation of + horses and cattle, burning cattle to death, spiking meadows and damaging mowing + machines, damages to fences and walls, burning heather and pasturage, damage to gates + in connection with cattle driving, and injury to cattle by driving. And in November + an attempt was made to assassinate Mr. White Blake and his mother when driving home + from church in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>[pg + 199]</span> County Galway. A few days after this occurred Mr. Redmond said at a + meeting in North Wales:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Whilst there is no crime or outrage there is widespread unrest and impatience, + and there are, over a certain section of the country, taking place technical + breaches of the strict letter of the law in the shape of what is called cattle + driving. Now let me say first of all that in no instance has any single beast been + injured in the smallest degree in any of these cattle-drives; in no instance has + any malicious injury been done to property, life or limb, or beast."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>All this time the Government adhered to their determination not to put the Crimes + Act in force, but merely to place accused persons on trial before juries at the + Assizes. The results were as follows: At the Summer Assizes in 1907, 167 persons were + returned for trial; of these, 57 were actually tried, of whom three were convicted, + 31 acquitted, and in 23 cases the juries disagreed. The trials of the remaining 110 + were postponed. At the Michaelmas sittings, 94 persons were put on trial, of whom 5 + were convicted and 2 acquitted; in 72 cases the juries disagreed, and in the + remaining 15 the Crown abandoned proceedings. At the Winter Assizes 86 persons were + tried for unlawful assembly, riot and conspiracy in connection with cattle-driving. + None were convicted; 11 were acquitted; in 12 cases the prisoners were discharged on + legal points; and in 63 the juries disagreed.</p> + <p>I fully admit that there is much to be said for the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page200" id="page200"></a>[pg 200]</span> juries who refused to convict. When a + Government is doing its utmost to suppress anarchy and to enforce law and order, it + is no doubt the duty of every loyal subject to render assistance even at the risk of + his own life and property. But when a Government is conniving at anarchy, and + deliberately refusing to put in force the Act which would put a stop to it, I say it + is too much to expect of any man that he should face the prospect of being ruined and + probably murdered, and his family reduced to beggary, in order to enable the + Government to keep up the farce of pretending that they are trying to do their + duty.</p> + <p>During the first half of 1908, there were 418 reported cases of cattle-driving; + and arson, outrages with firearms, meadow-spiking, and similar offences increased in + proportion. The judges urged in vain that the law should be put in force. But the + policy of the Government remained unchanged; the <i>Daily News</i> (the Government + organ) when cattle-driving was at its height said that thanks to the excellent + government of Mr. Birrell cattle-driving now had practically become extinct even in + those few parts of the country in which it had existed; and in July Mr. Birrell, + addressing a political meeting at Port Sunlight, said that:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"They were led to believe that the state of Ireland was of an appalling + character, that crime predominated, and that lawlessness almost universally + prevailed. All he could say was that a more cheerful land was nowhere to be + found."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>[pg 201]</span> + <p>In 1909 matters became somewhat quieter, chiefly because Mr. Birrell promised to + introduce a Land Bill by which the cattle-drivers hoped to get all they wanted. Hence + their leaders advised them to "give Birrell a chance," but Mr. Redmond warned the + Government that if they did not carry out their pledge, they would speedily find + Ireland ungovernable. In February 1909, Lord Crewe, speaking for the Government in + the House of Lords, made the remarkable statement:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"As regards intimidation, I have always shared the view that well-organized + intimidation cannot be checked by law. I know no method of checking it."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>If this is not an admission that the Government had failed in their duty, it is + hard to say what is. The result of their line of action will be seen by the following + table, which has been taken from various returns which the Ulster members, by + repeated questions in Parliament at last succeeded in forcing Mr. Birrell to make + public:-</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>[pg 202]</span> + <table summary="" align="center"> + <tr> + <td align="left">Agrarian outrages</td> + <td align="left">1906</td> + <td align="right">234</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1907</td> + <td align="right">372</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">576</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cattle-drives</td> + <td align="left">1905</td> + <td align="right">Nil</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1907-8</td> + <td align="right">513</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908-9</td> + <td align="right">622</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">219</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cattle maiming, mutilating, etc.</td> + <td align="left">1907</td> + <td align="right">142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Persons boycotted</td> + <td align="left">1907</td> + <td align="right">196</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">270</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1909</td> + <td align="right">335</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cost of extra police</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">£47,000</td> + </tr> + </table> + <br /> + <table summary="" align="center"> + <tr> + <td align="left">1911.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Agrarian outrages</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">581</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Malicious injuries to property, Intimidating</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">by threatening letters, etc.</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">285</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Firing into dwelling houses</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Rioting, robbery of arms, etc.</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Killing and maiming cattle</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">83</td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>It may be asked, why did not the Ulster members call the attention of Parliament + to this state of things? The answer is, they did so again and again; Mr. Birrell gave + stereotyped replies, much after this form, with hardly a variation:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>I have seen in the newspapers a report that a few shots were fired into a + farmhouse in Galway. No one appears to have been seriously injured. The police are + making enquiries. No arrests have been made.</p> + </blockquote> + <p>(He might as well have added that he knew perfectly well that no arrests ever + would be made.) Then he would go to a political meeting and say that the peaceful + condition of Ireland was shown by the small number of criminal cases returned for + trial at the Assizes; and would bitterly denounce the "Carrion Crows" (as he + designated the Ulster members) for trying to blacken the reputation of their + country.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>[pg 203]</span> + <p>One instance may be given more in detail, as typical of the condition to which + Ireland had been brought. Lord Ashtown (a Unionist Peer residing in County Galway) + began issuing month by month a series of pamphlets entitled "Grievances from + Ireland." They contained little besides extracts from Nationalist papers giving + reports of the meetings of the United Irish League, the outrages that took place, and + the comments of Nationalist papers on them. His object was to let the people in + England see from the accounts given by the Nationalists themselves, what was going on + in Ireland. This, however, was very objectionable to them; and one of their members + asked Mr. Birrell in the House of Commons whether the pamphlets could not be + suppressed. Mr. Birrell made the curious reply that he would be very glad if Lord + Ashtown were stopped, but that he did not see how to do it. What he expected would be + the results of that remark, I do not know; but no one living in Ireland was much + surprised when a few weeks afterwards a bomb outrage occurred at the residence of + Lord Ashtown in the County Waterford. It was a clumsy failure. A jar containing + gunpowder was placed against the wall of the house where he was staying and set on + fire. The explosion wrecked part of the building, but Lord Ashtown escaped unhurt. He + gave notice of his intention to apply at the next assizes for compensation for + malicious injury. The usual custom in such cases is for a copy of the police report + showing the injury complained of, to be sent to the person seeking compensation; + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>[pg 204]</span> but on this + occasion the police refused to show Lord Ashtown their report, stating that they had + received orders from the Government not to do so. But shortly before the case came + on, a report, not made by the police authority in charge of the district, but by + another brought in specially for the purpose, appeared in the Nationalist papers. + This report contained the remarkable suggestion that Lord Ashtown had done it + himself! When under cross-examination at the trial, the Inspector of the Royal Irish + Constabulary who made the report was obliged to confess that he did not believe that + he had, but had only inserted the suggestion in obedience to instruction received + from the Government. Lord Ashtown proved his case and was awarded compensation. But + the matter did not end there. He had employed a surveyor, Mr. Scully, to draw plans + and take photographs showing the amount of the damage. Mr. Scully was surveyor to the + Waterford Corporation. It was proposed at the next meeting of the Corporation that he + should be dismissed from his office for having given evidence for Lord Ashtown. The + motion was carried unanimously, eight councillors being present; and at the following + meeting it was ratified by eight votes to two. A question was asked about the matter + in the House of Commons; and Mr. Birrell, with the figures before him, replied that + Mr. Scully had never been dismissed.</p> + <p>Two other instances of this period must be briefly referred to. It has already + been shown how the Irish Parliament endowed Maynooth as a College <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>[pg 205]</span> for Roman Catholic + students both lay and theological; and how Trinity College, Dublin, opened its doors + to all students, without distinction of creed. But the Roman Catholic Church turned + Maynooth into a seminary for theological students only; and the bishops forbade young + laymen to go to Trinity. In 1845 Sir Robert Peel attempted to supply the want by + founding the Queen's University, with Colleges at Belfast, Cork and Galway, where + mixed education should be given in secular subjects, and separate instruction in + those appertaining to religion; but that again was denounced as a "satanic scheme for + the ruin of faith in the rising generation"; and the crusade against the university + was so successful that in 1879 it was destroyed and another-the Royal University-put + in its place. This in its turn was abolished in 1909; the College at Belfast was + raised to the status of a University, and a new University ominously called the + "National University" was founded into which the existing Colleges at Cork and Galway + were absorbed, with a new and richly endowed College in Dublin at the head. It may + seem strange that the Radical Government who are pledged to destroy all religious + education in England should found and endow a Denominational University in Ireland. + But the matter could be arranged by a little judicious management and prevarication; + it was represented in Parliament that the new University was to be strictly + unsectarian; during the debate, Sir P. Magnus, the member for the London University, + said that he had no reason to believe that there <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page206" id="page206"></a>[pg 206]</span> was any intention on the part of the + Chief Secretary to set up denominational Universities in Ireland; he accepted his + word that they were to be entirely undenominational. Then, when the Act was passed, + the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin was appointed Chancellor of the National + University, with a number of Jesuits as Professors, and Cardinal Logue stated as + follows:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"No matter what obstacles the Nonconformists may have inserted in the + Constitution of the University to keep it from being Catholic, we will make it + Catholic in spite of them."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Personally, I do not object to denominational Universities. I regret that young + men who are going to live in the same country should not be able to study law and + medicine together; but if that is their feeling and the feeling of their parents, I + admit that having separate Universities may be the best solution of the difficulty. + But if so, let it be openly avowed that the University is denominational; to "make it + Catholic" and at the same time to say that it is no injustice to Protestants that + County Scholarships paid for by the ratepayers should be tenable there and nowhere + else, seems to me absurd.</p> + <p>The other incident to which reference must be made was the great Convention held + in Dublin in 1909. The Nationalists, believing that a Home Rule Bill would soon be + introduced, devised the scheme of assembling a monster Convention, which would be + evidence to the world of how admirably <span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" + id="page207"></a>[pg 207]</span> fitted the Irish people were to govern their own + country. It was attended by 2,000 delegates from all parts of the country, who were + to form a happy family, as of course no disturbing Unionist element would be present + to mar the harmony and the clerical element would be strong. Mr. Redmond, who + presided, said in his opening address:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Ireland's capacity for self-government will be judged at home and abroad by the + conduct of this Assembly. Ireland's good name is at stake, and therefore every man + who takes part in this Assembly should weigh his words and recognise his + responsibility."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The meeting ended in a free fight.</p> + <p>At the end of 1909 Mr. Asquith did a very clever thing. A general election was + pending, and he wished to avoid the mistake which Gladstone had made in 1885. He + therefore, at a great meeting at the Albert Hall unfolded an elaborate programme of + the long list of measures which the Government would introduce and carry, and in the + course of his remarks said that Home Rule was the only solution of the Irish problem, + and that in the new House of Commons the hands of a Liberal Government and of a + Liberal majority would in this matter be entirely free. He and his followers + carefully abstained from referring to the subject in their election addresses; and + Mr. Asquith was thus free, if he should obtain a majority independent of the Irish + vote, to say that he had never promised to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" + id="page208"></a>[pg 208]</span> make Home Rule part of his programme; but if he + found he could not retain office without that vote, he might buy it by promising to + introduce the Bill and refer to his words at the Albert Hall as justification for + doing so. The latter happened; hence the "Coalition Ministry." The Irish party + consented to please the Radicals by voting for the Budget, and the Nonconformists by + voting for Welsh Disestablishment, on condition that they should in return vote for + Home Rule. As Mr. Hobhouse (a Cabinet Minister) expressed it in 1911:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Next year we must pay our debt to the Nationalist Members, who were good enough + to vote for a Budget which they detested and knew would be an injury to their + country."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>But the people of England still had to be hood-winked. It was hardly likely that + they would consent to their representatives voting for the separation of Ireland from + Great Britain; so the Nationalists and their Radical allies went about England + declaring that they had no wish for such a thing; that all they desired was a + subordinate Parliament leaving the Imperial Parliament supreme. Thus Mr. Redmond + suggested at one meeting that Ireland should be conceded the right of managing her + own purely local affairs for herself in a subordinate Parliament, subject to the + supremacy of the Imperial Parliament; and at another meeting said:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We are not asking for a Repeal of the Union. We are not asking for the + restoration <span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>[pg + 209]</span> of a co-ordinate Parliament such as Ireland had before the Union. We + are only asking that there should be given to Ireland a subordinate Parliament. We + therefore admit the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament. That means that after + this subordinate Parliament is created in Ireland, if the Parliament is foolish + enough, rash enough, as it never will be, but if it were foolish enough and + criminal enough to use the powers given to it for injustice or oppression of any + class or creed, the Imperial Parliament would have the power to stretch forth the + arm of its authority and to say 'you shall not do that.'"</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Of course it may be argued that they had changed their minds; that in former times + they worked for separation, but now realised that a subordinate Parliament was all + that Ireland required. But unfortunately for this theory, they have themselves + repudiated it; when Mr. Redmond was accused of speaking with two voices, one in + America and one in Great Britain, he passionately replied:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"I indignantly deny that accusation. I have never in my life said one word on a + platform in America one whit stronger than I had said in my place on the floor of + the House of Commons. I have never in America or anywhere else, advocated the + separation of Ireland from Great Britain."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>How far this is true, the quotations from his speeches which have already been + given, will have <span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>[pg + 210]</span> shown. But the Government have kept up the farce; Mr. Winston Churchill + said during the debate on the Bill of 1912:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The Home Rule movement has never been a separatist movement. In the whole + course of its career it has been a moderating, modifying movement, designed to + secure the recognition of Irish claims within the circuit of the British + Empire."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>But not even the immediate prospect of Home Rule can be said to have made those + parts of Ireland where the League is supreme a happy place of residence to any but + advanced Nationalists. The following report of a case in the Magistrate's Court at + Ennis in November 1912 will speak for the condition of the County Clare:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>Patrick Arkins was charged with knocking down walls on the farm of Mrs. + Fitzpatrick in order to compel her to give up the farm. Inspector Davis gave + evidence that from January 1910 to that date there were 104 serious outrages in his + district. In 42 firearms were used, 27 were malicious injuries, 32 were threatening + notices, 1 case of bomb explosion outside a house, 1 robbery of arms, and 1 + attempted robbery. A sum of £268 had been awarded as compensation for + malicious injury and there were claims for £75 pending for malicious injuries + committed during the week ended 11th inst. There were two persons under constant + police protection, and 16 receiving protection by patrol. Head Constable <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>[pg 211]</span> Mulligan said + that Mrs. Fitzpatrick was under police protection. Since February 11th, 1912, there + had been 12 outrages in the district, Mrs. Fitzpatrick was under almost constant + police protection. Acting Sergeant Beegan deposed that there had been 12 outrages + on the Fitzpatrick family during the last four years; these included driving cattle + off the lands, threatening notices, firing shots at the house, knocking down walls, + spiking meadows; the new roof of a hay barn was perforated with bullets, and at + Kiltonaghty Chapel there were notices threatening death to anyone who would work + for Mrs. Fitzpatrick. Timothy Fitzpatrick gave similar evidence as to the outrages, + and said that his father had taken the farm twenty-one years ago, and had paid the + son of the former tenant £40 for his goodwill.</p> + </blockquote> + <p>(I may add that Arkins was committed for trial, convicted at the Assizes and + sentenced to seven years penal servitude; and was released by Mr. Birrell a few weeks + afterwards.)</p> + <p>In another Clare case, in February of the present year, the resident Magistrate + said as follows:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It is a mistake to say that these outrages are arising out of disputes between + landlord and tenant; nine out of ten arise out of petty disputes about land. What + is the use of having new land laws? A case occurred not long ago in this county of + a man who had bought some land twenty years ago, and paid down hard <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>[pg 212]</span> cash to the + outgoing tenant. The man died, and left a widow and children on the land for + fourteen years. But in 1908 a man who had some ulterior object got the man who had + sold the farm to send in a claim under the Evicted Tenant's Act, which was + rejected. That was what the advisers of the man wanted-they only wanted a pretext + for moonlighting and other disgraceful outrages, and the woman was kept in a hell + for four years. A man was caught at last and convicted, and one would think that + this was a subject for rejoicing for all right-minded men in the county. But what + was the result? A perfect tornado of letters was printed, and resolutions and + speeches appeared in the public press, condemning this conviction of a moonlighter + in Clare as an outrage against justice."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The Roman Catholic Bishop of Killaloe, in a sermon preached in December 1912, + referring to County Clare said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That county had had an evil record in the matter of crime, and they were so + accustomed to outrages of almost weekly occurrence around them that it was not easy + to shock them. There was an inoffensive family sitting round the fireside with a + couple of neighbours. They had given no offence, they had wronged no man, they had + crossed no man's path. But that inhuman beast went to the door and lifted the + latch, and there, at a few yards distance, fired <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page213" id="page213"></a>[pg 213]</span> into that innocent group of men, + women and children, as if they were a flock of crows, killing the mother outright + and almost blowing the forehead off a young girl. There was no denying the fact + that that brutal murder was the natural outcome of the disgraceful system of + intimidation and outrage that had been rampant for a long time in certain districts + of that unhappy county and of the immunity from punishment enjoyed by the wicked + and cowardly moonlighter. In addition to their other acts of savagery, they had + shot out the eyes of two men within the last couple of years. A decent, honest man + was shot on the road to Ennis. The people passed the wounded man by and refused to + take him into their car through fear. Not one of these well-known miscreants was + brought to justice. The murderers of poor Garvey, the cow-houghers, the + hay-burners, were said to be known. In any other country, for instance in the + United States, such ruffianism would be hunted down or lynched; but there, in the + places he referred to, they had a curtain of security drawn round them by the + cowardice or perverted moral sense on the part of the community amongst whom they + lived.... It was only last Thursday night, before the county had recovered from the + shock of Mrs. O'Mara's murder, that right over the mountain an unfortunate postman + was shot on the public road between Crusheen and Baliluran for no other reason + apparently than that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>[pg + 214]</span> another fellow wanted his job of one and six-pence a day! It has come + to this, that if you differ with one of them for a shilling, or refuse to give him + his way in everything the first thing that comes into his head is to moonlight + you.... They have not elevation or social instinct to settle their petty disputes + by process of law provided for the purpose by a civilized society, nor have they + Christianity enough to bear a little wrong or disappointment for Christ's sake. No, + nor the manliness even to meet an opponent face to face and see it out with him + like a man; but with the cunning of a mean and vicious dog, he steals behind him in + the dark and shoots him in the back, or murders the helpless woman of his family, + or shoots out the eyes of the poor man's horse, or cuts the throat of his bullock + and spikes his beast upon a gate."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Nor has the present year brought much improvement. In May 1913, Mr. R. Maunsell + was fired at and wounded close to the town of Ennis. His crime was that he managed a + farm for a Mr. Bannatyne, whose family had been in possession of it for about sixty + years, but who had recently been denounced by the United Irish League and ordered to + surrender it. As he has refused to do so, he is now compelled to live under police + protection.</p> + <p>The abolition of landlordism and the acquisition of firearms can hardly be said to + have brought peace and tranquillity to the County of Clare.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>[pg 215]</span> + <p>And as to Galway, we may gather the state of affairs from the report of a case + tried at the Winter Assizes of 1912. Three men were charged with having done grievous + bodily harm to a man named Conolly. Conolly swore that he knew a man named Broderick + who had become unpopular but he (Conolly) kept to him and this brought displeasure on + him from the accused and others. On the night of the 11th September he went to bed; + he was subsequently awakened and found 44 grains of shot in his left knee and four in + his right. He then lay flat on the floor. Other shots were fired through the window + but did not strike him. The judge said the district was a disgrace to Ireland. Day + after day, night after night, heaps of outrages were committed there, and not one + offender was made amenable to justice. The jury disagreed, and the accused were again + put on their trial. The judge in charging the jury on the second trial said that + then, and for some time, the district was swarming with police, and though outrages + were frequent, it was impossible for them to bring anyone to justice. No one was sure + he might not be fired at during the night; and people were afraid to give evidence. + The jury again disagreed.</p> + <p>During the autumn of 1912 an effort was made to hold a series of meetings + throughout the south and west of Ireland to protest against Home Rule. The conduct of + the Nationalists with regard to them supplies a striking commentary on Mr. Redmond's + statement at Banbury not long before, that all through his political life he had + preached conciliation <span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>[pg + 216]</span> towards those who differed from him on the question of Home Rule. The + meetings were in some cases stopped by force; at Limerick the windows of the + Protestant Church and of some houses occupied by Protestants were smashed; at Tralee + the principal speaker was a large farmer named Crosbie; all his hay and sheds were + burned down, and he was awarded £600 compensation by the County Court + Judge.</p> + <p>But an incident had occurred in the north which, though in a sense comparatively + slight, has, in consequence of the circumstances connected with it, done more to + inflame the men of Ulster than persons not living in Ireland can realise. In June of + last year a party of Sunday School children from a suburb of Belfast went for a + picnic to Castledawson (co. Derry) under the charge of a Presbyterian minister and a + few teachers and ladies. On their way back to the railway station, they were met and + assailed by a procession of men belonging to the Order of Hibernians armed with pikes + who attacked the children with the pikes and with stones, seized a Union Jack which a + small boy was carrying, and knocked down and kicked some of the girls and teachers. + Worse might have happened had not some Protestant young men, seeing what was going + on, come to the rescue. The minister was struck with stones whilst he was + endeavouring to get some of the children to a place of safety. No Nationalist has + ever expressed the slightest regret at the occurrence. Several of the aggressors were + tried at the Winter Assizes and sentenced to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" + id="page217"></a>[pg 217]</span> three months' imprisonment. Before the end of the + term they were released by order of the Government. Mr. Birrell, in justifying his + action, said that the judge had remarked that there was no evidence before him of + actual injury. This, like many of his statements, was literally true; but he omitted + to mention that he had prevented the evidence from being given; the injured women and + children were quite ready to give their testimony, but were not called by the counsel + for the crown.</p> + <p>It is unnecessary to say that this foretaste of Home Rule government has made the + Presbyterians of Ulster more determined than ever to resist it to the bitter end.</p> + <p>I shall next proceed to consider the Bill which the Government have introduced as + a panacea for the woes of Ireland.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>[pg 218]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + <h3>CRITICISM OF THE BILL NOW BEFORE THE COUNTRY.</h3> + <p>That the maintenance of the Union is possible, and that complete separation is + possible, are two indisputable facts. But the question is, was Wolfe Tone right when + he said that these were the only two possibilities; or is there a third one, and if + so, what?</p> + <p>Residents in the Dominions will naturally be inclined to reply "Yes; place Ireland + in the position of a colony possessing responsible government, such as New Zealand." + It is a taking idea; but a little reflection will show the falseness of the analogy. + The relations between the Mother Country and the self-governing colonies (now often + called "Dominions") have grown up of themselves; and, like most political conditions + which have so come about, are theoretically illogical but practically convenient. The + practical convenience arises partly from the friendly spirit which animates both + parties, but still more from the nature of the case. The distance which separates the + Mother Country from the Dominions causes the anomalies to be scarcely perceptible. In + theory the Sovereign, acting on the advice of British Ministers, can disallow any + colonial statute, and the British Parliament is supreme-it can pass laws that will + bind the colonies, even laws imposing taxes. But we all know that if the Home + Government were persistently <span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" + id="page219"></a>[pg 219]</span> to veto laws passed by the large majority of the + people in New Zealand, or the British Parliament were to attempt to legislate for the + colonies, relations would at once become strained, and separation would be + inevitable. The only important matters on which the Home Government attempts to bind + the colonies are those relating to foreign countries (which are necessarily of an + Imperial nature) and those as to which the colonies themselves wish to have an Act + passed, such as the Act establishing Australian Federation. In other words, the + "supremacy of Parliament," which is a stern reality in England, has very little + meaning as regards New Zealand. Even if the people of New Zealand were to manage the + affairs of their country in a manner contrary to English ideas-for instance if they + were to establish State lotteries and public gambling tables-England would be but + slightly affected, and certainly would never think of taking steps to prevent them. + And those matters in which the Home Government is obliged to act are just those in + which New Zealand has no desire to interfere; for instance, New Zealand would never + want to appoint consuls of her own (which was the immediate cause of the separation + between Norway and Sweden); in the very few cases in which New Zealand desires to + make use of political or commercial agents abroad, she is content to employ the + British representatives, for whom she is not called upon to pay. If New Zealand + attempted to take part in a European war in which England was not concerned-the idea + is almost too absurd to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>[pg + 220]</span> suggest-the only thing that England could do would be to break off the + connection and repudiate New Zealand altogether. And if New Zealand desired to + separate from the Mother Country, many people would think it a most grievous mistake, + but England certainly would not seek to prevent her doing so by force; and though + England would in some ways be the worse for it, the government of England and of the + rest of the Empire would go on much the same as before. In certain points, it is + true, thoughtful men have generally come to the conclusion that the present state of + affairs cannot go on unchanged; the time is coming when the great Dominions must + provide for their own defence by sea as well as by land; and whether this is to be + done by separate navies working together or by joint contributions to a common navy, + it will probably result in the formation of some Imperial Council in which all parts + will have a voice. That however, is a matter for future discussion and + arrangement.</p> + <p>But when we turn to Ireland, everything is different. The two islands are + separated by less than fifty miles. Ireland has for more than a century been + adequately represented in the Imperial Parliament; the journey from Galway to London + is shorter than that from Auckland or Dunedin to Wellington. So long as Europe + remains as it is, Great Britain and Ireland must have a common system of + defence-which means one army, one navy, and one plan of fortifications. Again, + Irishmen, traders and others, will constantly have to <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page221" id="page221"></a>[pg 221]</span> make use of government agents in + other countries. Now unless Great Britain is to arrange and pay for the whole of + this, we are met at once by the insoluble problem of Irish representation in the + British Parliament. If Ireland is not represented there, we are faced with the old + difficulty of taxation without representation; if Ireland is represented there for + all purposes, Ireland can interfere in the local affairs of England, but England + cannot in those of Ireland; if we have what has been called the "in-and-out" scheme + as proposed by Gladstone in 1893-that is, for the Irish members to vote on all + questions of an Imperial nature, but to retire when matters affecting England only + are under discussion-then, even if the line could be drawn (which is doubtful) we + might have the absurdity of an English ministry which possessed the confidence of the + majority of Englishmen and whose management of England met their approval, being + turned out of office by the Irish vote, and England being governed according to a + policy which the majority of Englishmen detested. Of course it may be said that there + ought to be a number of small Parliaments in the British Isles, like those in the + Provinces of Canada or the States of Australia, with one great Parliament supreme + over them-in other words, Federation. That might be a good thing, although it would + in its turn start many difficulties which it is unnecessary now to discuss, for it is + not Home Rule nor does Home Rule lead to it. Federal systems arise by the union of + separate States, each State giving up a part of its power to <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page222" id="page222"></a>[pg 222]</span> a joint body which can levy taxes and + can overrule the local authorities. In fact, when Federation comes about, the States + cease to be nations.</p> + <p>(I must here remark in passing that constant confusion has been caused by the + various senses in which the word "nation" is used. Thus it is often quite correctly + employed in a sentimental sense-we speak of Scottish National character, or of the + National Bible Society of Scotland, though Scotland has no separate Parliament or + flag and would on a map of Europe be painted the same colour as the rest of Great + Britain. Quite distinct from that is the political sense, in which the Irish + Nationalists use the word when speaking of being "A Nation once again," or of "The + National Independence of Ireland.")</p> + <p>It might be possible for the United Kingdom to be broken up into a Federation + (though it is strange that there is no precedent in history for such a course); but + that would not be "satisfying the National Aspirations of Ireland." In fact, as Mr. + Childers, one of the ablest of English advocates of Home Rule, has stated: "The term + Federal, as applied to Irish Home Rule at the present time, is meaningless."</p> + <p>But when we come to examine the existing Bill, which will become law in 1914 + unless something unforeseen occurs, we find that it is neither the Colonial plan nor + Federation but an elaborate system which really seems as if it had been devised with + the object of satisfying nobody and producing friction at every point. England (by + which of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>[pg 223]</span> + course I mean Great Britain; I merely use the shorter term for convenience) is not + only to pay the total cost of the army, navy and diplomatic services, including the + defences of Ireland, but is also to grant an annual subsidy to Ireland commencing + with £500,000 but subsequently reduced to £200,000. Whether the English + taxpayer will relish this when he comes to realise it, may be doubted. Certainly no + precedent can be cited for a Federal system under which all the common expenditure is + borne by one of the parties. And further, the present Government state freely that + they hope to carry out their policy by introducing a Bill for Home Rule for Scotland + and possibly also for Wales. Will the Scotch and Welsh consent to contribute towards + the government of Ireland; or will they demand that they shall be treated like + Ireland, and leave the people of England to pay all Imperial services and to + subsidize Ireland, Scotland and Wales? Then again, Ireland is to send forty-two + representatives to what is still sarcastically to be called the "Parliament of the + United Kingdom," but will no doubt popularly be known as the English Parliament. They + are to vote about the taxation of people in Great Britain, and to interfere in local + affairs of that country, whilst the people of Great Britain are not to tax Ireland or + interfere in any way with its affairs. This is indeed representation without + taxation. Of course it is inevitable that the Irish members will continue to do what + they are doing at present-that is, offer their votes to whatever party will <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>[pg 224]</span> promise further + concessions to Irish Nationalism; and they will probably find no more difficulty in + getting an English party to consent to such an immoral bargain than they do now.</p> + <p>The provisions as to legislation for Ireland are still more extraordinary. The + Irish Parliament is to have complete power of legislating as to Irish affairs, with + the exception of certain matters enumerated in the Act; thus it may repeal any Acts + of the Imperial Parliament passed before 1914. On the other hand, the English + Parliament (in which Ireland will have only forty-two representatives) will also be + able to pass laws binding Ireland (and in this way to re-enact the laws which the + Irish Parliament has just repealed), and these new laws the Irish Parliament may not + repeal or overrule. Now this power of the English Parliament will either be a reality + or a farce; if it is a reality, the Irish Nationalists will be no more inclined to + submit to laws made by "an alien Parliament" in which they have only forty-two + representatives than they are at present to submit to those made by one in which they + have 103; if it is a farce, the "supremacy of the Imperial Parliament" is a + misleading expression. The Lord Lieutenant is to act as to some matters on the advice + of the Irish Ministry, as to others on the advice of the English. Anyone who has + studied the history of constitutional government in the colonies in the early days, + when the governor was still supposed to act as to certain affairs independently of + ministerial advice, will see the confusion to which this must lead. Suppose <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>[pg 225]</span> the Lord + Lieutenant acts on the advice of the English ministers in a way of which the Irish + Parliament do not approve, and the Irish Ministry resign in consequence, what can + result but a deadlock?</p> + <p>But most extraordinary of all are the provisions as to finance. The Government + appointed a Committee of Experts to consider this question. The committee made their + report; but the Government rejected their advice and substituted another plan which + is so elaborate that it is only possible to touch on some of its more important + features here. I have already said that the English Parliament will have no power to + tax Ireland. That statement, however, must be taken subject to two reservations. The + Bill provides that if ever the happy day arrives when for three consecutive years the + revenue of Ireland has exceeded the cost of government, the English Parliament (with + the addition of twenty-three extra members summoned from Ireland for the purpose) may + make new provisions securing from Ireland a contribution towards Imperial + expenditure. As this is the only reference to the subject in the Bill, the general + opinion was that until those improbable circumstances should occur, the English + Parliament would have no power to tax Ireland; but when the debates were drawing to a + close, the Government astonished the House by stating that according to their + construction of the Bill, should any new emergency arise at any time after the Bill + becomes law (for instance, a great naval emergency requiring an addition to the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>[pg 226]</span> Income Tax) it + would be not merely the right but also the duty of the Imperial Chancellor of the + Exchequer to see that the charge should be borne by the whole United Kingdom-in other + words, the Parliament in which Ireland possesses only forty-two representatives may + and ought to tax Ireland for Imperial purposes. The friction which will arise should + any attempt of the sort be made, especially as the power is not stated in the Bill, + is evident. In plain words, it will be impossible to levy the tax.</p> + <p>But apart from these rights, which one may safely say will never be exercised, the + financial arrangements will from their very complexity be a constant source of + trouble. All taxes levied in Ireland are to be paid into the English Exchequer (or as + it is called in the Bill "The Exchequer of the United Kingdom"). Some of the objects + for which these taxes have been levied are to be managed by the Irish + Government-these are called "Irish services"; others are to be managed by the English + Government-these are called "Reserved services." The English Exchequer will then hand + over to the Irish Exchequer:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>(a) A sum representing the net cost to the Exchequer of the United Kingdom of + "Irish Services" at the time of the passing of the Act;</p> + <p>(b) The sum of £500,000 a year, reducible to £200,000, above + referred to; and</p> + <p>(c) A sum equal to the proceeds of any new taxes levied by the Irish + Parliament.</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>[pg 227]</span> + <p>Then the balance which the English Exchequer will retain, after handing over these + three sums, will go to the "Reserved Services." But as, in consequence of the + establishment of the Old Age Pensions and some other similar liabilities, the + aggregate cost of governing Ireland at this moment exceeds the revenue derived from + Ireland by about £1,500,000, the English taxpayer will have to make up this + sum, as well as to give to Ireland an annual present of £500,000; and even if + the Irish Government succeeds in managing its affairs more economically than the + Government at present does, that will give no relief to the British taxpayer, for it + will be observed that the first of the three sums which the Exchequer of the United + Kingdom is to hand over is not a sum representing the cost of the "Irish Services" at + any future date but the cost at the time of the passing of the Act.</p> + <p>It is possible of course that the Irish revenue derived from existing taxes may + increase, and so the burden on the English taxpayer may be lightened; but as it is + more probable that it will decrease, and consequently the burden become heavier, the + English taxpayer cannot derive much consolation from that.</p> + <p>It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that a number of extremely intricate + and difficult financial questions must arise; for instance, what sum really + represents the net cost of "Irish Services" at the time of the passing of the Act; + what sum equals the net proceeds of new taxes imposed by the Irish Parliament; and at + what <span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>[pg 228]</span> moment + it can be said that the revenue of Ireland has for three consecutive years exceeded + the cost of government. All such matters are to be decided by a Board of Five, of + whom one is to be nominated by the King (presumably on the advice of the English + Ministers), two by the English Government, and two by the Irish. From the decisions + of this Board on matters of fact there is to be no appeal. It is needless to point + out that every detail in which the three English members overrule the two Irish will + be fought out again in the English Parliament by the forty Irish members. This again + will show how vain is the hope that future English Parliaments will be relieved from + endless discussions as to Irish affairs. Professor Dicey has well named the able work + in which he has analysed the Bill and shown its impossibilities "A Fool's + Paradise."</p> + <p>The provisions concerning those matters as to which the Irish Parliament is to + have no power to legislate are as strange as the other clauses of the Bill. For six + years the Constabulary are to be a "reserved service"; but as they will be under the + orders of the Irish Government, the object of this is hard to see-unless indeed it is + to create an impression that the Ulstermen if they refuse to obey them are rebelling + not against the Irish but the Imperial Government. The Post Office Savings Banks are + "reserved" for a longer period; as to the postal services to places beyond Ireland, + the Irish Parliament will have no power to legislate; but the Post Office, so far as + it relates to Ireland <span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>[pg + 229]</span> alone, will be handed over at once to the Irish Parliament-although even + in the case of Federal Unions such as Australia the Post Office is usually considered + to be eminently a matter for the Federal authority. And the question whether an Irish + Act is unconstitutional and therefore void will be decided by the Privy Council, + which will be regarded as an essentially English body; hence if it attempts to veto + an Irish Act, its action will be at once denounced as a revival of Poyning's Act and + the Declaratory Act of George I.</p> + <p>The Bill excludes the relations with Foreign States from the powers of the Irish + Parliament, but says nothing to prevent the Irish Government from appointing a + political agent to the Vatican. That is probably one of the first things that it will + do; and as the Lord Lieutenant could never form a Government which would consent to + any other course, he will be obliged to consent. This agent, not being responsible to + the British Foreign Office, may cause constant friction between England and + Italy.</p> + <p>But quite apart from the unworkable provisions of the Bill, everything connected + with its introduction and passing through Parliament has tended to increase the + hatred which the Opposition feel towards it, and the determination of the Ulstermen + to resist it if necessary even by force. Those who lived in Australia whilst + Federation was under discussion will recollect how carefully the scheme was brought + before the people, discussed in various Colonial Parliaments, considered over again + line by <span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>[pg 230]</span> line + by the delegates in an Inter-Colonial Conference, examined afresh in the Colonial + Office in London and in the Imperial Parliament and finally laid before each colony + for its acceptance. Yet here is a matter which vitally affects the government not of + Ireland only but of the whole United Kingdom, and thus indirectly of the Empire at + large; it was (as I have shown) not fairly brought before the people at a general + election; it has been introduced by what is admittedly merely a coalition Government + as a matter of bargain between the various sections, at a time when the British + Constitution is in a state of dislocation, as the power of the House of Lords has + been destroyed and the new Upper Chamber not yet set up; and it has been passed + without adequate discussion. This I say deliberately; it is no use to point out how + many hours have been spent in Committee, for the way in which the discussion has been + conducted has deprived it of any real value. The custom has been for the Government + to state beforehand the time at which each batch of clauses is to be passed, and what + amendments may be discussed (the rest being passed over in silence); when the + discussion is supposed to begin, their supporters ostentatiously walk out, and the + Opposition argue to empty benches; then when the moment for closing the discussion + arrives, the Minister in charge gets up and says that the Government cannot accept + any of the amendments proposed; the bell rings, the Government supporters troop back, + and pass all the clauses unamended. As an instance of this <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page231" id="page231"></a>[pg 231]</span> contemptible way of conducting the + debate, it is sufficient to point to the fact already mentioned, that so vital a + matter as the power of the English Parliament to tax Ireland was not even hinted at + until nearly the end of the debates.</p> + <p>And now the Bill is to become law without any further appeal to the people.</p> + <p>Are English Unionists to be blamed if they declare that an Act so passed will + possess no moral obligation, and that they are determined, should the terrible + necessity arise, to aid the Ulstermen in resisting it to the uttermost?</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>[pg 232]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2> + <h3>THE DANGER TO THE EMPIRE OF ANY FORM OF HOME RULE. THE QUESTIONS ANSWERED.</h3> + <p>In the last chapter I explained how hopelessly unworkable is the particular scheme + of Home Rule which is contained in the present Bill. I now proceed to show why Home + Rule in any form must lead to disaster-primarily to Ireland, ultimately to the + Empire.</p> + <p>Politicians who, like ostriches, possess the happy faculty of shutting their eyes + to unpleasant facts, may say that there is only one nation in Ireland; but everyone + who knows the country is quite aware that there are two, which may be held together + as part of the United Kingdom, but which can no more be forced into one nation than + Belgium and Holland could be forced to combine as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. And + whatever cross-currents there may be, the great line of cleavage is religion. Of + course I am aware of the violent efforts that have been made ever since the + commencement of the Nationalist agitation to prove that this is not so. Thus Parnell, + addressing an English audience, explained that religion had nothing to do with the + movement, and as evidence stated that he was the leader of it though not merely a + Protestant but a member of the Protestant Synod and a parochial nominator for his own + parish. Of course everyone in Ireland knew perfectly well that he was only a + Protestant in the sense that Garibaldi <span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" + id="page233"></a>[pg 233]</span> was a Roman Catholic-he had been baptised as such in + infancy; and that he was not a member of the synod or a parochial nominator, and + never had been one; but the statement was good enough to deceive his Nonconformist + hearers. That Protestant Home Rulers exist is not denied. But the numbers are so + small that it is evident that they are the rare exceptions that prove the rule. The + very anxiety with which, when a Protestant Home Ruler can be discovered he is put + forward, and the fact of his being a Protestant Home Ruler referred to again and + again, shows what a rare bird he is. To mention one instance amongst many; a + Protestant Home Ruler has recently been speaking on platforms in England explaining + that he came in a representative capacity in order to testify to the people of + England that the Irish Protestants were now in favour of Home Rule. He did not + mention the fact that in the district where he resided there were about 1,000 + Protestants and he was the only Home Ruler amongst them-in fact, nearly all the rest + had signed a Petition against the Bill. And when we come to examine who these + Protestant Home Rulers are, about whom so much has been said, we find first that + there is in this as in every other movement, a very small number of faddists, who + like to go against their own party; secondly a few who though they still call + themselves Protestants have to all intents and purposes abandoned their religion, and + therefore cannot fairly be reckoned; thirdly, a few who hold appointments from which + they would be dismissed if they did not <span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" + id="page234"></a>[pg 234]</span> conform; fourthly, some who say openly that Home + Rule is coming and that whatever their private opinions may be it is the wisest + policy to worship the rising sun (bearing in mind that Mr. Dillon has promised that + when the Nationalists attain their end they will remember who were their friends and + who their enemies, and deal out rewards and punishments accordingly); and fifthly, + those who have accepted what future historians will describe as bribes. For the + present Government have showered down Peerages, Knighthoods of various orders, + Lieutenancies of Counties, Deputy-Lieutenancies and Commissions of the Peace-not to + speak of salaried offices both in Ireland and elsewhere-on Protestants who would + consent to turn Nationalists, in a manner which makes it absurd to talk any more + about bribery at the time of the Union. And yet with all this the Protestant Home + Rulers are such an extremely small body that they may be disregarded. And indeed it + is hard to see how an earnest, consistent and logically-minded Protestant can be a + Nationalist; for loyalty to the King is a part of his creed; and, in the words of a + Nationalist organ, the <i>Midland Tribune</i>, "If a man be a Nationalist he must + <i>ipso facto</i> be a Disloyalist, for Irish Nationalism and loyalty to the throne + of England could not be synonymous."</p> + <p>On the other hand, a large proportion of the educated Roman Catholics, the men who + have a real stake in the country, are Unionists. Some of them, however earnest they + may be in their religion, dread the domination of a political priesthood; <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>[pg 235]</span> others dread still + more the union of the Church with anarchism. As has already been shown, they refuse + to join the United Irish League; some in the north have actually subscribed the + Ulster Covenant; many others have signed petitions against Home Rule throughout the + country; and a still larger number have stated that they would gladly do so if they + did not fear the consequences. It is probably therefore correct to say that the + number of Unionists in Ireland decidedly exceeds the number of Protestants; in other + words, less than three-fourths of the population are Nationalists, and more than + one-fourth (perhaps about one-third) are Unionists. And more than that; if we are to + test the reality of a movement, we must look not merely at numbers but at other + matters. Violent language may be used; but the fact remains as I have previously + stated that even if the Nationalists are taken as being only two-thirds of the + population, their annual subscriptions to the cause do not amount to anything like a + penny per head and that the agitation could not last for six months if it were not + kept alive by contributions from America and the Colonies. But though the Nationalist + movement has not brought about a Union between the Orange and the Green, it has + caused two other Unions to be formed which will have an important influence on the + future history of the country. In the first place it has revived, or cemented, the + Union which, as we have seen, existed at former periods of Irish history, but which + has existed in no other country in the world-the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page236" id="page236"></a>[pg 236]</span> Union between the Black and the Red. + That a Union between two forces so essentially antagonistic as Ultramontanism and + Jacobinism will be permanent, one can hardly suppose; whether the clericals, if they + succeed in crushing the heretics, will afterwards be able to turn and crush the + anarchists with whom they have been in alliance, and then reign supreme; or whether, + as happened in France at the end of the eighteenth century and in Portugal recently, + the anarchists who have grown up within the bosom of the Church will prove to be a + more deadly foe to the clericals than the heretics ever were-it is impossible to say; + but neither prospect seems very cheerful.</p> + <p>In the second place, the Nationalist movement has drawn all the Protestant bodies + together as nothing else could. Episcopalians, Presbyterians and Methodists have all + joined hands in the defence of their common liberties. The Nationalists have left no + stone unturned in their efforts to prove that the northern Protestants are disloyal. + They have succeeded in finding one speech that was made by an excited orator (not a + leader) forty-four years ago, to the effect that the Disestablishment of the Church + might result in the Queen's Crown being kicked into the Boyne. As this is the only + instance they can rake up, it has been quoted in the House of Commons and elsewhere + again and again; and Mr. Birrell (whose knowledge of Ireland seems to be entirely + derived from Nationalist speeches) has recently elaborated it by saying that when the + Church was going to be disestablished "they used <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page237" id="page237"></a>[pg 237]</span> to declare" that the Queen's Crown + would be kicked into the Boyne, and yet their threats came to nothing and therefore + the result of Home Rule will be the same. The fact was that the Church establishment + was the last relic of Protestant Ascendancy; and as I have already shown, that meant + Anglican ascendancy in which Presbyterianism did not participate; hence, when the + agitation for Disestablishment arose, though some few Presbyterians greatly disliked + it, their opposition as a whole was lukewarm. But when in 1886 Home Rule became a + question of practical politics, they rose up against it as one man; in 1893, when the + second Home Rule Bill was introduced and actually passed the House of Commons, they + commenced organising their Volunteer army to resist it, if necessary, by force of + arms; and they are just as keen to-day as they were twenty years ago. They are + certainly not disloyal; the republican spirit which permeated their ancestors in the + eighteenth century has long since died out completely. Sir Walter Scott said that if + he had lived at the time of the Union between Scotland and England, he would have + fought against it; but, living a century later and seeing the benefit that it had + been to his country, his feelings were all on the other side. That is what the + Presbyterians of Ulster say to-day. They point to the way in which Ulster has, under + the Union, been able to develop itself; with no richer soil, no better climate, and + no greater natural advantages than other parts of Ireland, the energy, ability, and + true patriotism of the people have <span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" + id="page238"></a>[pg 238]</span> enabled them to establish and encourage commerce and + manufactures which have brought wealth and prosperity to Ulster whilst the other + Provinces have been stationary or retrograde. There cannot be a better instance of + the different spirit which animates the two communities than the history of the linen + industry. Michael Davitt bitterly described it as "Not an Irish, but an Orange + industry." And from his point of view, he was quite right; for it is practically + confined to Ulster. In that Province it has during the nineteenth century developed + so steadily that the annual export now exceeds £15,000,000 in value and more + than 70,000 hands are employed in the mills. Not long ago, a Royal Commission was + appointed to enquire whether it was not possible to grow flax in the south and west, + and if so why it was not done. The Commission made careful enquiries, and reported + that in both Munster and Connaught efforts had been made to establish the industry + (notably by the late Lord Bandon, one of the much-abused landlord class, who had let + land for the purpose at a nominal charge, obtained seed and brought experts from the + north to instruct the people); that it had been proved that both soil and climate + were quite as well adapted for it as in Ulster; but that after a few years the buyers + refused any longer to purchase the flax as it was so carelessly and badly prepared + that it was valueless; and so the industry had died out. In both south and west the + people expressed their readiness to revive it if a large grant were made to them by + the Government, but not otherwise.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>[pg 239]</span> + <p>Then again we may take the growth of the cities. It seems hard now to realise that + one reason why the people of Dublin opposed the Union was because they feared lest, + when their city ceased to be the capital, Cork might grow into a great industrial + centre and surpass it. Cork has remained stationary ever since; Belfast, then an + insignificant country town, has become a city of 400,000 inhabitants, and the customs + from it alone are more than double those from all the rest of Ireland put together. + And what is true of Belfast is true also on a smaller scale of all the other towns + north of the Boyne.</p> + <p>This remarkable contrast between the progress of the north-east and the stagnation + of the rest of the country is no new thing. It has been observed ever since the + Union. So long ago as 1832 the Report of the Commission on the linen manufacture of + Ireland contained the following words:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Political and religious animosities and dissensions, and increasing agitation + first for one object and then for another have so destroyed confidence and shaken + the bonds of society-undermined men's principles and estranged neighbour from + neighbour, friend from friend, and class from class-that, in lieu of observing any + common effort to ameliorate the condition of the people, we find every proposition + for this object, emanate from which party it may, received with distrust by the + other; maligned, perverted and destroyed, to gratify the political <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>[pg 240]</span> purposes of a + faction.... The comparative prosperity enjoyed by that portion of Ireland where + tranquillity ordinarily prevails, such as the Counties Down, Antrim, and Derry, + testify the capabilities of Ireland to work out her own regeneration, when freed of + the disturbing causes which have so long impeded her progress in civilization and + improvement. We find there a population hardy, healthy and employed; capital fast + flowing into the district; new sources of employment daily developing themselves; a + people well disposed alike to the government and institutions of their country; and + not distrustful and jealous of their superiors. Contrast the social condition of + these people with such pictures as we have presented to us from other + districts."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>This energetic, self-reliant and prosperous community now see before their eyes + what the practical working of government by the League is. They see it generally in + the condition of the country, and especially in the Dublin Convention of 1909, the + narrow-minded administration of the Local Government Act wherever the power of the + League prevails, and the insecurity for life and property in the west; they know also + that a Home Rule Government must mean increased taxation (as the Nationalists + themselves confess) which will probably-in fact, one may almost say must certainly, + as no other source is available-be thrown on the Ulster manufactures; is it not + therefore a matter of life and death to them to resist it to the uttermost?</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>[pg 241]</span> + <p>But as I have said, the great line of cleavage is religion. Here I know that I + shall be accused of "Orange bigotry." But I am not afraid of the charge; first + because I do not happen to be an Orangeman; and secondly because I regard bigotry as + the outcome of ignorance and prejudice, and consider therefore that a calm + examination of the evidence is the very antithesis of bigotry. In order to make this + examination I desire in the first place to avoid the mistake that Grattan made in + judging the probabilities of the future from the opinions of personal friends whom I + like and respect, but who, as I know (and regret to think), possess no influence + whatever. I consider that there are other data-such as works of authority, the action + of the public bodies, statements by men in prominent positions, and articles in + leading journals-from which it is safer to form an estimate. The Ulstermen are + content that the country should be governed, as far as religion is concerned, on + modern principles-that is to say, in much the same way that England, Australia and + New Zealand are governed to-day. The Nationalists, whatever they may say in England + or the Colonies, have never in Ireland from the commencement of the movement + attempted to deny that their object is to see Ireland governed on principles which + are totally different and which the Ulstermen detest. As long ago as 1886, the + <i>Freeman's Journal</i>, the leading Nationalist organ, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We contend that the good government of Ireland by England is impossible ... the + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>[pg 242]</span> one people + has not only accepted but retained with inviolable constancy the Christian faith; + the other has not only rejected it, but has been for three centuries the leader of + the great apostasy, and is at this day the principal obstacle to the conversion of + the world."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And as recently as December 1912, Professor Nolan of Maynooth, addressing the + Roman Catholic students at the Belfast University, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Humanly speaking, we are on the eve of Home Rule. We shall have a free hand in + the future. Let us use it well. This is a Catholic country, and if we do not govern + it on Catholic lines, according to Catholic ideals, and to safe-guard Catholic + interests, it will be all the worse for the country and all the worse for us. We + have now a momentous opportunity of changing the whole course of Irish + history."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Then another of their papers, the <i>Rosary</i>, has said: "We have played the + game of tolerance until the game is played out"; and has prophesied that under Home + Rule the Church will become an irresistible engine before whom all opposition must go + down. And whatever the educated laity may desire, no one who knows Ireland can doubt + that it is the clerical faction that will be all-powerful. The leading ecclesiastics + are trained at the Gregorian University at Rome; and one of the Professors at that + institution, in a work published in 1901 with the special approval of Pope Leo XIII, + enunciated the doctrine that it is the duty of a Christian State <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>[pg 243]</span> to put to death + heretics who have been condemned by the Ecclesiastical Court. Of course no one + supposes that such a thing will ever take place in Ireland; but what the Ulstermen + object to is putting themselves under the rule of men who have been trained in such + principles and believe them to be approved by an infallible authority.</p> + <p>In 1904 some foreign merchants at Barcelona wished to build a church for + themselves. Republican feeling is so strong in the municipality that permission was + obtained without difficulty. But the bishop at once protested and appealed to the + King. The King wrote back a sympathetic letter expressing his deep regret that he was + unable to prevent this fresh attack on the Catholic faith.</p> + <p>We are constantly being told that the tolerance and liberality shown by the + majority in Quebec is sufficient of itself to prove how foolish are the apprehensions + felt by the minority in Ireland. Well, I will quote from a journal which cannot be + accused of Protestant bias, the <i>Irish Independent</i>, one of the leading organs + of the Nationalist-clerical party in Ireland:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"(From our own Correspondent.)</p> + <p>"Montreal, Thursday.</p> + <p>"In connection with the celebration of the anniversary of Wolfe's victory and + death, which takes place in September, prominent members of the Anglican Church + have inaugurated a movement for the erection of a Wolfe Memorial Chapel on the + Plains of Abraham. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>[pg + 244]</span> organisers of the movement hope ultimately to secure the transfer of + the General's remains to the chapel for interment on the scene of his victory.</p> + <p>"The population being largely French-Canadian Catholics, the Catholic Church + organ of Quebec strongly protests against the erection of an Anglican chapel in the + heart of a Catholic district."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Now if this conduct on the part of the Roman Catholic authorities is quite right + at Barcelona and Quebec, why is it "Orange bigotry" to suggest that the same people + may act in the same way at Cork or Galway?</p> + <p>Again, in 1910, a remarkable volume was published, written by Mrs. Hugh Fraser, + the sister of the novelist, Marion Crawford, entitled "A Diplomat's Wife in Many + Lands." The authoress was a very able woman, who had travelled much and mixed in + cultured society wherever she had been; her book was highly reviewed by various + English Magazines. She tells the story of a child of Jewish parents living at Rome in + the days of Pope Pius IX, who was secretly baptized in infancy by a nurse, and at the + age of seven was forcibly taken from his parents and placed in a Convent School. She + explains that not only was this quite right, but that such a course is inevitable in + every country in which the Church has power; and that the feelings of the heretic + mother whose child is taken from her are a fair subject of ridicule on the part of + good <span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>[pg 245]</span> + Catholics. Can Irish Protestants be accused of bigotry when they contend that these + writers mean what they say? English Nonconformists argue that they ought to wait + until the time comes and then either fight or leave the country; but the Irish + Protestants reply that it is more sensible to take steps beforehand to ward off the + danger. And whether they are right or wrong, the fact remains that those are their + ideas, and that is their determination; and this is the situation which must be faced + if Home Rule is forced upon the people of Ulster.</p> + <p>By a striking coincidence, two meetings have recently been held on the same + day-the 16th of May 1913-which form an apt illustration of the position adopted by + the two parties. The first was a great demonstration of Unionists at Belfast, + organised in order to make a further protest against the Bill and to perfect the + organisation for opposing it by force, if the necessity arises; the second was a + large meeting of the United Irish League at Mullingar. The Chairman, Mr. Ginnell, + M.P. (who has gained prominence and popularity by his skill in arranging + cattle-drives), said that the chief cause of the pressure last session was to get the + Home Rule Bill through its first stage. It was still called a Home Rule Bill, though + differing widely from what most of them always understood by Home Rule. Deeply though + he regretted the Bill's defects and limitations, still he thought almost any + Parliament in Ireland was worth accepting-first, because it was in some sense a + recognition <span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>[pg 246]</span> + of the right to govern themselves; and secondly, because even a crippled Parliament + would give them fresh leverage for complete freedom. No one could be silly enough to + suppose that an intelligent Ireland, having any sort of a Parliament of its own, + would be prevented by any promise given now by place-hunters, from using that + Parliament for true national purposes.</p> + <p>That no army which the Ulstermen can form will be able to stand against British + troops supported by cavalry and artillery is evident; but it seems almost past belief + that England should be ready to plunge the country into civil war; or that British + troops should march out-with bands playing "Bloody England, we hate you still," or + some other inspiring Nationalist air-to shoot down Ulstermen who will come to meet + them waving the Union Jack and shouting "God save the King." And if they do-what + then? Lord Wolseley, when Commander-in-Chief in Ireland in 1893, pointed out the + probable effect on the British Army in a letter to the Duke of Cambridge:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"If ever our troops are brought into collision with the loyalists of Ulster, and + blood is shed, it will shake the whole foundations upon which our army rests to + such an extent that I feel that our Army will never be the same again. Many + officers will resign to join Ulster, and there will be such a host of retired + officers in the Ulster ranks that men who would stand by the Government no matter + what it did, will be worse than <span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" + id="page247"></a>[pg 247]</span> half-hearted in all they do. No army could stand + such a strain upon it."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And then England, having crushed her natural allies in Ulster, will hand over the + Government of Ireland to a party whose avowed object is to break up the Empire and + form a separate Republic. Dangers and difficulties arose even when the independent + legislature of Ireland was in the hands of men who were loyal and patriotic in the + noblest sense of the term, and when there were in every district a certain number of + educated gentlemen of position who (as we have seen) were always ready to risk their + lives and fortunes for the defence of the realm; what will happen when the loyal + minority have been shot down, driven out of the country, or forced into bitter + hostility to the Government who have betrayed and deserted them? As Lecky wrote years + ago:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the danger that would arise if the + vast moral legislative, and even administrative powers which every separate + legislature must necessarily possess, were exercised in any near and vital part of + the British Empire, by men who were disloyal to its interests. To place the + government of a country by a voluntary and deliberate act in the hands of dishonest + and disloyal men, is perhaps the greatest crime that a public man can commit: a + crime which, in proportion to the strength and soundness of national morality, must + consign those who are guilty of it to undying infamy."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>[pg 248]</span> + <p>If English people are so blind that they cannot perceive this, foreigners, whose + vision is clearer, have warned them. Bismarck said that England, by granting Home + Rule to Ireland, would dig its own grave; and Admiral Mahan has recently + written:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It is impossible for a military man or a statesman to look at the map and not + perceive that the ambition of the Irish separatists, if realised, would be even + more threatening to the national life of Great Britain than the secession of the + South was to the American Union.</p> + <p>"The legislative supremacy of the British Parliament against the assertion of + which the American Colonists revolted and which to-day would be found intolerable + in Canada and Australia cannot be yielded in the case of an island, where + independent action might very well be attended with fatal consequences to its + partner. The instrument for such action, in the shape of an independent Parliament, + could not be safely trusted even to avowed friends."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>So then, having reviewed the evidence as calmly and dispassionately as I can, I + answer the two questions which I propounded at the outset of the enquiry-That the + real objects of the Nationalists are the total separation of Ireland from England and + the establishment of an Independent Republic; and that the men of Ulster in resisting + them to the uttermost are not merely justified on the ground of self-preservation, + but are in reality fighting for the cause of the Empire.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>[pg 249]</span> + <h3>NOTE.</h3> + <p>The following Report of the Annual Pilgrimage in memory of Wolfe Tone, which took + place on the 22nd of June last, and the article in the <i>Leinster Leader</i> (a + prominent Nationalist journal) will show how closely the Nationalists of to-day + follow in the footsteps of Wolfe Tone.</p> + <h3>THE MEMORY OF WOLFE TONE.</h3> + <h4>ANNUAL PILGRIMAGE TO BODENSTOWN.</h4> + <p>(<i>From our Reporter</i>.)</p> + <p>On Sunday last the annual pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe Tone took + place to Bodenstown churchyard. This year the numbers who attended exceeded those of + last year, about a thousand coming from Dublin and another contingent from Tullamore, + Clare, and Athlone. The procession formed outside Sallins station was a most imposing + one, being made up of St. James' Brass Band and the Lorcan O'Toole Pipers' Band and + the Athlone Pipers' Band, the National Boy Scouts, the Daughters of Erin, and members + of the Wolfe Tone Memorial Clubs.</p> + <p>At the graveside demonstration, Mr. Thos. J. Clarke presided and said it was a + gratifying thing that numbers of their fellow-countrymen were to-day swinging back to + the old fighting line and taking pride in the old Fenian principles. He introduced + Mr. P.H. Pearse, B.A.</p> + <p>Mr. Pearse then came forward and delivered an eloquent and impressive oration, + first speaking in Irish. Speaking in English, he said they had <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>[pg 250]</span> come to the + holiest place in Ireland, holier to them than that sacred spot where Patrick sleeps + in Down. Patrick brought them life, but Wolfe Tone died for them. Though many had + testified in death to the truth of Ireland's claim to Nationhood, Wolfe Tone was the + greatest of all that had made that testimony; he was the greatest of Ireland's dead. + They stood in the holiest place in Ireland, for what spot of the Nation's soil could + be holier than the spot in which the greatest of her dead lay buried. He found it + difficult to speak in that place, and he knew they all partook of his emotion. There + were no strangers there for they were all in a sense own brothers to Tone (hear, + hear). They shared his faith, his hope still unrealised and his great love. They had + come there that day not merely to salute this noble dust and to pay their homage to + the noble spirit of Tone, but to renew their adhesion to the faith of Tone and to + express their full acceptance of the gospel of which Tone had given such a clear + definition. That gospel had been taught before him by English-speaking men, uttered + half-articulately by Shan O'Neill, expressed in some passionate metaphor by Geoffrey + Keating, and hinted at by Swift in some bitter jibe, but it was stated definitely and + emphatically by Wolfe Tone and it did not need to be ever again stated anew for any + new generation. Tone was great in mind, but he was still greater in spirit. He had + the clear vision of the prophet; he saw things as they were and saw things as they + would be. They owed more to this dead man than they should be ever <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>[pg 251]</span> able to repay him + by making pilgrimages to his grave or building the stateliest monuments in the + streets of his city. They owed it to him that there was such a thing as Irish + Nationalism; to his memory and the memory of '98 they owed it that there was any + manhood left in Ireland (hear, hear). The soul of Wolfe Tone was like a burning + flame, a flame so pure, so ardent, so generous, that to come into communion with it + was as a new optimism and regeneration. Let them try in some way to get into contact + with the spirit of Tone and possess themselves of its ardour. If they could do that + it would be a good thing for them and their country, because they would carry away + with them a new life from that place of death and there would be a new resurrection + of patriotic grace in their souls (hear, hear). Let them think of Tone; think of his + boyhood and young manhood in Dublin and in Kildare; think of his adventurous spirit + and plans, think of his glorious failure at the bar, and his healthy contempt for + what he called a foolish wig and gown, think how the call of Ireland came to him; + think how he obeyed that call; think how he put virility into the Catholic movement; + think how this heretic toiled to make freemen of Catholic helots (applause). Think + how he grew to love the real and historic Irish nation, and then there came to him + that clear conception that there must be in Ireland not three nations but one; that + Protestant and Dissenter must close in amity with Catholic, and Catholic, Protestant + and Dissenter must unite to achieve freedom for all (applause). Let them <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>[pg 252]</span> consider the + sacrifices Tone had made; he had to leave so much. Never was there a man who was so + richly endowed as he was, he had so much love in his warm heart. He (speaker) would + rather have known Tone than any other man of whom he ever read or heard. He never + read of any one man who had more in him of the heroic stuff than Tone had; how gaily + and gallantly he had set about the doing of a mighty thing. He (speaker) had always + loved the very name of Thomas Russell because Tone so loved him. To be Tone's friend! + What a privilege! for Tone had for his friends an immense love, an immense charity. + He had such love for his wife and children! But such was the destiny of the heroes of + their nation; they had to stifle in their hearts all that love and that sweet music + and to follow only the faint voice that called them to the battlefield or to the + harder death at the foot of the gibbet. Tone heard that voice and obeyed it and from + his grave to-day he was calling on them and they were there to answer his voice; and + they pledged themselves to carry out his programme to abolish the connection with + England, the never-failing source of political evils and to establish the + independence of their country, to abolish the memory of past dissensions, and to + replace for the denominations of Protestant, Catholic and Dissenter, the common name + of Irishman (applause). In that programme was to be found the whole philosophy of + Irish Nationality; that programme included the philosophy of the Gaelic League and of + later prophets, and it was to that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" + id="page253"></a>[pg 253]</span> programme they pledged their adhesion; they pledged + it now at the graveside of Tone; they pledged themselves to follow in the steps of + Tone, never to rest by day or night until this be accomplished, until Ireland be free + (applause); fighting on, not in despondency, but in great joy as Tone fought; prizing + it above all privileges, and hoping for the victory in their own day. And if it + should be granted to them in this generation to complete the work that Tone's + generation left unaccomplished! But if that was not their destiny, they should fight + on still, hoping still, self-sacrificing still, knowing as they must know that causes + like this did not lose for ever, and that men like Tone did not die in vain + (applause).</p> + <p>The address having concluded, wreaths were placed on the grave by the National Boy + Scouts and the Inghanite Na h-Eireann.</p> + <p>During the afternoon an aeridheacht was held in an adjoining field at which music, + songs and recitations were contributed, and a thoroughly enjoyable Irish-Ireland + evening was spent.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>[pg 254]</span> + <h3>AT THE GRAVE OF WOLFE TONE.</h3> + <p>The lifework of Theobald Wolfe Tone, for the subversion of English Government in + Ireland, and the supreme sacrifice he made in the mighty effort to erect in its stead + an independent Ireland free from all foreign denomination and control, was fittingly + commemorated on Sunday last, when the annual pilgrimage took place to Bodenstown + Churchyard, where all that is mortal of the great patriot lie buried. The pilgrimage + this year was worthy of the cause and the man, and afforded some object lessons in + what might be accomplished by a cultivation of those principles of discipline and + devotion to duty, in the pursuit of a glorious ideal, which Tone taught and adhered + to throughout his adventurous and brilliant career. The well-ordered procession, the + ready obedience to the commands of the marshals, the intense earnestness of the + multitude, and the display made by the youths-the national boy scouts-their military + bearing, and the bands and banners which interspersed the procession as it marched + from Sallins to Bodenstown was a spectacle which pleased the eye and stirred the + emotions. Everything in connection with the pilgrimage was carried out with a close + attention to detail, and military-like precision which must have been very acceptable + to the great patriot in whose honour it was organised, were he but permitted to gaze + from the great Unknown upon this practical demonstration of the perpetuation of the + spirit <span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>[pg 255]</span> which + animated him and his time, in the struggle against English misrule, and the love and + veneration in which he is still held, after the lapse of the century and more that + has passed since he made the final sacrifice of his life in the cause of freedom. + Tone done to death did not die in vain. The truth of this was evident in the + character of the pilgrimage on Sunday last, when all that is best and purest in + patriotism in the land assembled at his graveside, to renew fealty to the aims and + ideals for which he suffered and died, and to hear the gospel of Irish nationality + preached and expounded as he knew and inculcated it in his day. A fusion of forces, + and the cultivation of a spirit and bond of brotherhood and friendship amongst + Irishmen in the common cause, were his methods to attain the great ideal of a + separate and distinct nationality, for then, as to-day, the chief obstacle to freedom + and nationhood was not so much English domination in itself, as want of cohesion, + faction, and the disruption caused by alien traditions and teachings. This was the + prevailing spirit of Sunday's commemoration, and as the great mass of people filed + past in orderly array and knelt, prayed, and laid wreaths on the lonely grave, the + solemnity and impressiveness of the occasion was intensified. In the suppressed + murmurs, and silent gaze on the tomb of the mighty dead, one could recognise the + eagerness and the hope for another Tone to arise to complete the work which he + promoted, and vindicate the purity of the motives which moved men like the leaders of + '98 to do and dare for all, and to "substitute the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page256" id="page256"></a>[pg 256]</span> common name of Irishman for Catholic, + Protestant, and Dissenter." The promoters, too, were fortunate in their choice of + orator for the occasion. Mr. P.H. Pearse did full justice to the occasion, and in + language, beautiful and impressive, pictured the man and his movements and the + lessons to be drawn by us to-day from the lifework of leaders in thought and action + like Tone. Close and consistent adhesion to principles of patriotism and a readiness + of self-sacrifice in the pursuit of those principles, were his distinguishing + characteristics all through life, and if we in our time would emulate the example of + Tone and his times, we must also be ready when the call came to meet any demand made + upon us for the promotion of our national welfare. The orator of the day rightly, in + our opinion, described that hallowed spot in Bodenstown as one of the holiest places + in Ireland to-day, from the nationalist standpoint, holding as it does the ashes of + the man who, without friends, money or influence to help him, and by sheer force of + character, intensity of purpose and earnestness, prevailed upon the greatest + emperor-general the world has ever seen Napoleon Bonaparte, to make a descent on + Ireland, in order to aid our starved, tortured, and persecuted people to shake off + the shackles that kept them in slavery, and elevate Ireland once more to the dignity + of full, free, and untrammelled nationhood. We are all familiar with the events + following this great effort of Tone's, and the dark chapters that closed a glorious + career. All that is mortal of Tone is in the keeping of Kildare, and it is a trust + that we feel <span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>[pg 257]</span> + sure is not alone felt to be a high honour, but which cannot fail to keep the + cultivation of a high standard of nationality before the people in whose midst repose + the remains of one of Ireland's greatest sons. Ireland, from the centre to the sea, + was represented in Sunday's great gathering to commemorate the achievements of Wolfe + Tone, and the occasion was honoured first by the large and representative character + of the throng, secondly by the decorum observed all through the day's proceedings, + and thirdly, by the regularity and precision which attended the entire arrangements. + There was just one other feature which must have been very gratifying to those + identified with the organisation of the pilgrimage, namely: the large proportion of + ladies and young people, coming long distances, who made up the gathering. And they + were by no means the least enthusiastic of the throng. This enthusiasm amongst our + young people is one of the most encouraging and promising signs of the times, serving + as it does to demonstrate the undying spirit of Irish nationality, and the + perpetuation of those principles to which Tone devoted his time, talents, and + eventually made the supreme sacrifice of his life in having inculcated amongst his + people. It is a glorious legacy, and one that has ever been cherished with veneration + for the men who left it. He died a martyr to the cause he espoused, but his memory + and the cause live. The living blaze he and his co-workers, in the cause of Irish + freedom, kindled has never been completely stamped out, and it still smoulders, and + has occasionally burst <span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>[pg + 258]</span> into flame only to be temporarily extinguished in the blood and tears of + our bravest and best who never forgot the teachings of Tone. And now, when the sky is + bright once more, and every circumstance portends the dawn of a new era, full of hope + and promise for the ultimate realisation of those ideals for which thousands of our + race have sacrificed their lives, the spark of nationality which, even since Tone's + death, has repeatedly leaped into flame, still glows fitfully to remind us that come + what may it remains undying and unquenchable, a beacon to light us on the path to + freedom should disappointment and dashed hopes again darken the outlook.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>[pg 259]</span> + <h2>INDEX</h2> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Abjuration, oath of, <a href="#page51">51</a>.</p> + <p>Absentees, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a + href="#page139">139</a>.<br /> + </p> + <p>Acton, Lord, <a href="#page37">37</a>.</p> + <p>Adrian, Pope, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</p> + <p>Agrarian outrages, <a name="agrarian" id="agrarian"></a> <a + href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page196">196</a>-202, <a + href="#page210">210</a>-215.</p> + <p>Agriculture, Department of, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a + href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + <p>Alexander, Pope, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</p> + <p>Alfred the Great, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p> + <p>American War of Independence, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</p> + <p>Anglican Church in Ireland, <a name="anglican" id="anglican"></a> <a + href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a + href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a + href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>Anne, Queen, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</p> + <p>Arkins, P., <a href="#page210">210</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</p> + <p>Arklow, battle of, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>Armagh, Bishop of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Ashbourne Act, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Ashtown, Lord, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Asquith, Rt. Hon. H.H., <a href="#page129">129</a>, <a + href="#page207">207</a>.</p> + <p>Athenry founded by Normans, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur J., <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a + href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>.</p> + <p>Balfour, Rt. Hon. Gerald, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</p> + <p>Baltimore, Lord, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</p> + <p>Bandon, Lord, <a href="#page238">238</a>.</p> + <p>Bannatyne, Mr., <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p> + <p>Barcelona, Church at, <a href="#page243">243</a>, <a + href="#page244">244</a>.</p> + <p>Belfast, growth of, <a href="#page239">239</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">meeting at, <a href="#page245">245</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by Corporation of, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a + href="#page175">175</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">University, <a name="belfast" id="belfast"></a> <a + href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a + href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Berkeley, Bishop, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</p> + <p>Biggar, J.G., <a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> + <p>Birrell, Rt. Hon. Augustine, Chief Secretary, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a + href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a + href="#page198">198</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>-205, <a + href="#page211">211</a>, <a href="#page216">216</a>, <a + href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>Bismarck, Prince, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <p>Blake, W., <a href="#page198">198</a>.</p> + <p>"Board of Erin," <a href="#page184">184</a>.</p> + <p>Boers, Nationalist sympathy with, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</p> + <p>Borromeo, San Carlo, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + <p>Bossuet, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + <p>Bounties granted by Irish Parliament, <a href="#page80">80</a>.</p> + <p>Boy Scouts, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</p> + <p>Boycotting, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a + href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>.</p> + <p>Boyne, battle of the, <a href="#page48">48</a>.</p> + <p>Brady, J., <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>Brian Boroo, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a + href="#page19">19</a>.</p> + <p>Bright, John, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Brook, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p> + <p>Browne estate, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</p> + <p>Bruce, Edward, invasion by, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Bruce, King Robert, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page26">26</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>[pg 260]</span> + <p>Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, Chief Secretary, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a + href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Bulls, Papal, <a href="#page13">13</a>-15.</p> + <p>Burke, Mr., Under Secretary, murder of, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a>.</p> + <p>Busby, Mr., <a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> + <p>Butt, Isaac, advocates Home Rule, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Carey, James, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> + <p>Carlow, rebellion in, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>"Carrion Crows," <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p> + <p>Castlebar, capture of by the French, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</p> + <p>Castledawson outrage, <a href="#page216">216</a>, <a + href="#page217">217</a>.</p> + <p>Castlereagh, Lord, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</p> + <p>Catholic University Medical School, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p> + <p>Cattle driving, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a + href="#page195">195</a>-202.</p> + <p>Cavan, raid by septs of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Cavendish, murder of Lord F., <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a><br /> + .</p> + <p>Celts, <a href="#page5">5</a>-14, <a href="#page20">20</a>, <a + href="#page23">23</a>, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>Charlemont, Lord, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</p> + <p>Charles I, <a href="#page40">40</a>-42.</p> + <p>Charles II, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</p> + <p>Chicago Convention, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>Childers, Erskine, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</p> + <p>Church, Celtic. See Celts of Ireland.</p> + <p class="i2">See <a href="#anglican">Anglican Church</a>.</p> + <p>Churchill, Rt. Hon. Winston, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p> + <p>Clan-na-gael, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>.</p> + <p>Clare, state of, in 1912, <a href="#page210">210</a>-214.</p> + <p>Clare, Lord, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a + href="#page85">85</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p> + <p>Clerkenwell explosion, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</p> + <p>Clontarf, battle of, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p> + <p>"Coalition Ministry," <a href="#page208">208</a>.</p> + <p>"Coigne and livery," <a href="#page11">11</a>.</p> + <p>College of Surgeons, Dublin, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p> + <p>Condon, O'Meagher, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a + href="#page185">185</a>.</p> + <p>Confiscations, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>, <a + href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>.</p> + <p>Congested Districts Board, <a href="#page164">164</a>-168.</p> + <p>Connaught, Celtic raids into, <a href="#page7">7</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">lands in, given to rebels, <a href="#page42">42</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</p> + <p>Conolly, Mr., <a href="#page215">215</a>.</p> + <p>Convention in Dublin in 1909, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a + href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>.</p> + <p>Cooke, Mr., Under Secretary, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p> + <p>Co-operative Credit Banks, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a + href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + <p>Co-operative Farming Societies, <a href="#page161">161</a>-163.</p> + <p>Cork, Medical School at, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>.</p> + <p>Corn Laws, repeal of the, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</p> + <p>Cornwallis, Lord, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</p> + <p>County Councils, <a href="#page168">168</a>-178, <a href="#page191">191</a>, + <a href="#page193">193</a>.</p> + <p>Covenant, Ulster. See <a href="#ulster">Ulster Covenant</a>.</p> + <p>Cowper Commission, <a href="#page149">149</a>.</p> + <p>Crewe, Lord, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>[pg 261]</span> + <p>Crimes Act of 1887, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a + href="#page194">194</a>.</p> + <p>Crimes Prevention Act, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a + href="#page157">157</a>.</p> + <p>Croke, Archbishop, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>.</p> + <p>Cromwell and Cromwellians, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>, + <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a + href="#page67">67</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>.</p> + <p>Crosbie, Mr., <a href="#page216">216</a>.</p> + <p>Curley, D., <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Daily News</i>, <a href="#page200">200</a>.</p> + <p>Daly, J., <a href="#page195">195</a>.</p> + <p>Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a + href="#page13">13</a><br /> + .</p> + <p>Davies, Sir, J., <a href="#page5">5</a>.</p> + <p>Davitt, Michael, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a + href="#page238">238</a>.</p> + <p>Declaratory Act of George I, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a + href="#page229">229</a>.</p> + <p>Defenders, <a href="#page87">87</a>.</p> + <p>Department of Agriculture, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a + href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + <p>Derry, siege of, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Desmond rebellion, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</p> + <p>Devlin, J., <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Devoy, J., <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>Dicey, Professor A.V., <a href="#page228">228</a>.</p> + <p>Dillon, John, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a + href="#page184">184</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>.</p> + <p>Dillon estate, <a href="#page165">165</a>.</p> + <p>Disestablishment of the Irish Church, <a href="#page143">143</a>, <a + href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>Dispensary doctors, appointment of, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a + href="#page177">177</a>.</p> + <p>District Councils, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a>, <a + href="#page178">178</a>.</p> + <p>Down, Celtic raid into, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Dublin, founded by Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Bishopric of, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Henry II at, <a href="#page16">16</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Simnel crowned at, <a href="#page22">22</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in neighbourhood of, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a + href="#page109">109</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Convention at, in 1909, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a + href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>.</p> + <p>Dudley, Lord, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</p> + <p>"Dynamite Party," <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Edward III, <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + <p>Edward VI, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>Eighty Club, <a href="#page162">162</a>.</p> + <p>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a + href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a + href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Emancipation, Roman Catholic, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> + <p>Emigration, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>Emmett, R., <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Endowment of R.C. Church proposed, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> + <p>Ersefied Normans, <a href="#page18">18</a>, <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + <p>Esmonde, Dr., <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>Exchequers, amalgamation of, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Fair rents," <a href="#page150">150</a>.</p> + <p>Famine. See <a href="#potato">Potato famine</a>.</p> + <p>Fenianism, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a + href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Feudal system, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</p> + <p>Firbolgs, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</p> + <p>FitzGerald rebellion, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a + href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>FitzGibbon, J., <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>.</p> + <p>Fitzpatrick, case of Mrs., <a href="#page210">210</a>, <a + href="#page211">211</a>.</p> + <p>Fiudir, <a href="#page11">11</a>.</p> + <p>Flax. See <a href="#linen">Linen</a>.</p> + <p>"Flight of the Earls," <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Ford, Patrick, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a + href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>Forster, Rt. Hon. W.E., Chief Secretary, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>[pg 262]</span> + <p>Foster, Speaker, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>France, persecution in, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a + href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48;</p> + <p class="i2">war with, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">religious thought in, <a href="#page76">76</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">revolution in, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a + href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">invasions by, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, + <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</p> + <p>Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#page73">73</a>.</p> + <p>Fraser, Mrs. Hugh, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</p> + <p><i>Freeman's Journal</i>, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a + href="#page241">241</a>.</p> + <p><i>Frontier Sentinel</i>, <a href="#page2">2</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Gaelic League, <a href="#page186">186</a>-193.</p> + <p>Galway, founded by Normans, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Medical School at, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">state of, in 1912, <a href="#page215">215</a>.</p> + <p>Games, English, forbidden, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</p> + <p>Gaughran, Bishop, <a href="#page4">4</a>.</p> + <p>Gavelkind, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p> + <p>General Council of County Councils, <a href="#page172">172</a>, <a + href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>.</p> + <p>George III, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</p> + <p>Germany, persecution in, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a + href="#page38">38</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Nationalist hopes of aid from, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a + href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</p> + <p>Ginnell, L., <a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> + <p>Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W.E., <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a + href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, + <a href="#page152">152</a>-155, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</p> + <p>Grand juries, <a href="#page178">178</a>.</p> + <p>Grattan, <a href="#page74">74</a>-77, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a + href="#page100">100</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a + href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>"Grievances from Ireland," <a href="#page203">203</a>.</p> + <p>Gwynn, Stephen, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Habeus Corpus, suppression of, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>Henry II, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a + href="#page20">20</a>, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Henry VII, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p> + <p>Henry VIII, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a + href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</p> + <p>Hibernians, Ancient Order of, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a + href="#page216">216</a>.</p> + <p>Hobhouse, Rt. Hon. C.E., <a href="#page208">208</a>.</p> + <p>Hobson, B., <a href="#page98">98</a>.</p> + <p>Holland, intended invasion from, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + <p>Home Rule, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>Home Rule Bill, of 1886, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">of 1893, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a + href="#page221">221</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">of 1912, <a href="#page208">208</a>, <a + href="#page218">218</a>-231, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> + <p>Huguenots, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a + href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</p> + <p>Hyde, Dr. Douglas, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Incumbered Estates Act, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a + href="#page150">150</a>.</p> + <p>Independence of Ireland real object of Nationalists, <a name="independence" + id="independence"></a> <a href="#page173">173</a>,<a href="#page181">181</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a + href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a>, + <a href="#page246">246</a>-248.</p> + <p class="i2">And see <a href="#republic">Republic</a>.</p> + <p>Ingram, Dr. Dunbar on the Union, <a href="#page118">118</a>-129.</p> + <p>Insurance Act, 1911, <a href="#page185">185</a>.</p> + <p>"Invincibles," the, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Irish Agricultural Organization Society, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a + href="#page162">162</a>.</p> + <p>Irish brigade in France, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p> + <p><i>Irish Freedom</i>, <a href="#page94">94</a>.</p> + <p><i>Irish Independent</i>, <a href="#page243">243</a>.</p> + <p>Irish language, <a href="#page186">186</a>-193.</p> + <p><i>Irish Review</i>, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</p> + <p>Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a + href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>[pg 263]</span> + <p>"Irish services," <a href="#page227">227</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Jacobinism, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a + href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>James I, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</p> + <p>James II, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a + href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a>-51.</p> + <p>Jews, persecution of the, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Kabyles, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</p> + <p>Kenny, Mr. Justice, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Kettle, A.J., <a href="#page183">183</a>.</p> + <p>Kettle, T.M., <a href="#page97">97</a>.</p> + <p>Kickham, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</p> + <p>Kildare, church burnt at, <a href="#page7">7</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>Kilkenny, founded by Normans, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">statutes of, <a href="#page20">20</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>Killala, French landing at, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p> + <p>Killaloe, R.C. Bishop of, <a href="#page212">212</a>-214.</p> + <p>Kiltimagh case, <a href="#page177">177</a>.</p> + <p>King, title of, taken by Henry VIII, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p> + <p>Kings, Celtic, of Ireland, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</p> + <p>King's County, plantation of, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a + href="#page30">30</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Labourer's Cottages Act, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a + href="#page161">161</a>.</p> + <p>Lalor, J.F., <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</p> + <p>Land Acts from 1870 to 1887, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a + href="#page150">150</a>-152, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Land Court, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Land League, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a + href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Land Purchase Acts, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a + href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Land tenure, tribal, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">primogeniture, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a + href="#page12">12</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">gavelkind, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in the 18th century, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a + href="#page66">66</a>.</p> + <p>Laws of England, attempted introduction of, <a href="#page18">18</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">made binding in Ireland, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p> + <p>Lecky, Dr. W.E.H., <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a + href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a>, + <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> + <p><i>Leinster Leader</i>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a + href="#page249">249</a>.</p> + <p>Leitrim, raid by septs of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Leo XIII, Pope, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>Light Railways Act, <a href="#page160">160</a>.</p> + <p>Limerick, founded by Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Scotch invasion of, <a href="#page19">19</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">church windows broken at, <a href="#page216">216</a>.</p> + <p>Linen industry, <a name="linen" id="linen"></a> <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a + href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a + href="#page239">239</a>.</p> + <p>Local Government Act, 1898, <a href="#page168">168</a>-178, <a + href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>.</p> + <p>Loise, persecution in the, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</p> + <p>Louis XIV, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48, <a + href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Louis XVI, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>MacAlpine, Kennett, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p> + <p>McBride, Major, <a href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</p> + <p>MacDonnell, Lord, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</p> + <p>McKenna, Thomas, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>McNicholas, Rev. J.T., <a href="#page85">85</a>.</p> + <p>MacSeamus, T., <a href="#page188">188</a>.</p> + <p>Magdeburg, sacking of, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</p> + <p>Magistrates, appointment of, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a + href="#page180">180</a>.</p> + <p>Magnus, Sir P., <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Mahan, Admiral, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <p>"Manchester Martyrs," <a href="#page96">96</a>-98, <a href="#page144">144</a>, + <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>[pg 264]</span> + <p>Maori customary claims, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Marriage, law of R.C. Church as to, <a href="#page85">85</a>.</p> + <p>Maryborough, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p> + <p>Maryland, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</p> + <p>Mayo County Council, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</p> + <p>Maunsell, R., <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p> + <p>Maynooth, foundation of, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a + href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Metropolitan Police Act, <a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> + <p>"Middlemen," <a href="#page65">65</a>.</p> + <p><i>Midland Tribune</i>, <a href="#page234">234</a>.</p> + <p>Mitchell, J., <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a + href="#page142">142</a>.</p> + <p>"Molly Maguires," <a href="#page184">184</a>.</p> + <p>Morley, Rt. Hon. John, Chief Secretary, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a + href="#page179">179</a>.</p> + <p>Mountcashel, Lord, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Munster, raid by men of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Murphy, Father Michael, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>Mutiny Act, <a href="#page74">74</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Nantes, revocation of Edict of, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a + href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48.</p> + <p>Napoleon, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>"Nation," meaning of word, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</p> + <p>National University, <a name="national" id="national"></a> <a + href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>, + <a href="#page206">206</a>.</p> + <p>Nationalists, real objects of, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a + href="#page93">93</a>-99, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <p class="i2">And see <a href="#independence">Independence</a>; <a + href="#republic">Republic</a>.</p> + <p>Netherlands, persecution in the, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</p> + <p>New Zealand, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a + href="#page218">218</a>-220, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</p> + <p>Nolan, Professor, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>"No Rent" proclamation, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a + href="#page156">156</a>.</p> + <p>Normans, character of, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">adoption of Celtic customs by, <a href="#page18">18</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellions by, <a href="#page23">23</a>-25, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Oakboys, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>O'Brien, Smith, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>O'Brien, William, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</p> + <p>O'Connell, Daniel, misstatements by, as to the Union, <a + href="#page116">116</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">leads agitation for emancipation, <a href="#page134">134</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">and for repeal, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>O'Connor, T.P., <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>O'Donnell, Bishop, <a href="#page165">165</a>.</p> + <p>O'Hara, Rev. D., <a href="#page165">165</a>.</p> + <p>O'Mahony, Mr., <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p> + <p>O'Mara, Mrs., <a href="#page213">213</a>.</p> + <p>O'Neill, Shan, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a + href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Orange Society, foundation of, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a + href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Outrages, Agrarian. See <a href="#agrarian">Agrarian outrages</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Pale, the English, <a href="#page20">20</a>-22, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a + href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>Parliament, Irish, <a href="#page21">21</a>-24, <a href="#page35">35</a>, <a + href="#page63">63</a>-65, <a href="#page69">69</a>-71;</p> + <p class="i2">becomes independent, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a + href="#page77">77</a>-79;</p> + <p class="i2">disqualification of votes for, abolished, <a + href="#page84">84</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">religious test for, not abolished, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a + href="#page87">87</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">proposed reform of, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a + href="#page88">88</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">criticized, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a + href="#page131">131</a>.</p> + <p class="i2">See also <a href="#regency">Regency question</a>.</p> + <p>Parnell, C.S., <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a + href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a + href="#page232">232</a>.</p> + <p>Parnell Commission, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Paul III, Pope, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>[pg 265]</span> + <p>Peel, Sir Robert, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>"Peep of Day Boys," <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page90">90</a>.</p> + <p>Penal Laws, the, <a href="#page49">49</a>-58, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a + href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</p> + <p>Persecution, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a + href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a + href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48, <a + href="#page52">52</a>-54, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>Philip and Mary, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Philip II of Spain, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Philipstown, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p> + <p>"Physical Force Party," the, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Pitt, William, commercial treaty proposed by, <a href="#page78">78</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">views of, on the Union, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</p> + <p>Pius V, Pope, <a href="#page37">37</a>.</p> + <p>"Plan of Campaign," the, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>"Plantations," <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</p> + <p>Plowden, F., <a href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>Plunket, Lord, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</p> + <p>Plunkett, Rt. Hon. Sir Horace, <a href="#page161">161</a>.</p> + <p>Portugal, persecution in, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, + <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Potato famine, <a name="potato" id="potato"></a> <a href="#page136">136</a>, + <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</p> + <p>Poyning's Act, <a href="#page22">22</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a + href="#page229">229</a>.</p> + <p>Pretender, the, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page51">51</a>.</p> + <p>Primogeniture, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p> + <p>Prosperous, attack on the, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>"Protestant ascendancy," <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a + href="#page101">101</a>.</p> + <p>Protestant Home Rulers, <a href="#page233">233</a>, <a + href="#page234">234</a>.</p> + <p>Puritans, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Queen's County, plantation of, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a + href="#page30">30</a>.</p> + <p>Queen's University, <a name="queen" id="queen"></a> <a + href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Quakers, emigration aided by, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Raffeisen system, <a href="#page162">162</a>.</p> + <p>Rebellion of 1641, <a href="#page40">40</a>-42.</p> + <p>Rebellions of 1715 and 1745, <a href="#page52">52</a>.</p> + <p>Rebellion of 1798, rise of, in Ulster, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">becomes religious, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a + href="#page105">105</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Leinster, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a + href="#page105">105</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Wexford, <a href="#page105">105</a>-108, <a + href="#page110">110</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Kilkenny, Carlow and Wicklow, <a href="#page109">109</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Connaught, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">amnesty after, <a href="#page109">109</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">effects of, <a href="#page114">114</a>.</p> + <p>Rebellion of 1805, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</p> + <p>Redmond, John, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>, + <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a + href="#page199">199</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page207">207</a>-209, <a + href="#page215">215</a>.</p> + <p>Redmond, William, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</p> + <p>Reformation, <a href="#page26">26</a>-28.</p> + <p>Regency question, <a name="regency" id="regency"></a> <a + href="#page80">80</a>-82.</p> + <p>Registration of Titles Act, 1891, <a href="#page160">160</a>.</p> + <p>Rent, agitation against, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</p> + <p>Repeal Association, statement by, as to Rebellion, <a + href="#page108">108</a>.</p> + <p>"Reserved Services," <a href="#page227">227</a>.</p> + <p>Republic, rebels of 1798 sought to establish, <a name="republic" + id="republic"></a><a href="#page93">93</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">object of Nationalists, <a href="#page94">94</a>-99, <a + href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>[pg 266]</span> + <p class="i2">And see <a href="#independence">Independence</a>.</p> + <p>Richard II, <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + <p>Richey, Professor, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page13">13</a>, <a + href="#page21">21</a>, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p> + <p><i>Rosary, The</i>, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>Rosen, Conrade de, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Ross, Mr. Justice, <a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Rossa, O'Donovan, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>Royal University, <a name="royal" id="royal"></a> <a + href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Russell, Rt. Hon. T.W., <a href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Saffron dress, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</p> + <p>St. Vincent, Cape, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + <p>Savoy, persecution in, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a + href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + <p>Salisbury, Lord, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</p> + <p>Scholarships, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</p> + <p>Scotland, Norman kingdom of, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">invasion of Ireland from, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Union of, with England, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</p> + <p>Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#page237">237</a>.</p> + <p>Scullabogue barn, massacre at, <a href="#page110">110</a>.</p> + <p>Scully, Mr., <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Settlement, Act of, <a href="#page43">43</a>-45.</p> + <p>Separation. See <a href="#independence">Independence</a>;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#republic">Republic</a>.</p> + <p>Sevigné, Madame de, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a + href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Simnel, Lambert, <a href="#page22">22</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>.</p> + <p>Sinn Fein, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>.</p> + <p>Slave trade, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p> + <p>Smith, Adam, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</p> + <p>Societies, secret, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a + href="#page181">181</a>.</p> + <p>Spain, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a + href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a + href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a + href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a>.</p> + <p>Spenser, Edmund, <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p> + <p>"Steelboys," <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>Sullivan, A.M., <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a + href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>Swayne, Captain, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>Sweetman, J., <a href="#page186">186</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Tithes, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a + href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</p> + <p>Tone, Wolfe, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>-97, <a + href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, + <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page218">218</a>, <a + href="#page249">249</a>-258.</p> + <p>Trade, restrictions on Irish, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page64">64</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">abolition of, <a href="#page74">74</a>,</p> + <p>Tribal tenure of land, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p> + <p>Trinity College, Dublin,<a name="trinity" id="trinity"></a> <a + href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrconnell, flight of Earl of, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrone, raid by men of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrone, flight of Earl of, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrrell, Father, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ulster Covenant, <a name="ulster" id="ulster"></a> <a href="#page1">1</a>, <a + href="#page235">235</a>.</p> + <p>Ulster, Scotch invasion of, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">plantation of, <a href="#page39">39</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion of 1641 in, <a href="#page41">41</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">volunteer movement in, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page237">237</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion of 1798 in, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + <p>Union, suggested in time of Queen Anne, <a href="#page63">63</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">necessity of, seen by Pitt, <a href="#page78">78</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">became probable in 1797, <a href="#page100">100</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion made inevitable, <a href="#page115">115</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">mis-statements as to, <a href="#page116">116</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">feelings of people as to, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a + href="#page118">118</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">previous efforts towards, <a href="#page119">119</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">really caused by Parliament becoming independent, <a + href="#page120">120</a>-123;</p> + <p class="i2">proposed, <a href="#page123">123</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">discussed, <a href="#page124">124</a>;</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>[pg 267]</span> + <p class="i2">approved by R.C. Church, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">carried, <a href="#page126">126</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">charges of bribery concerning, <a href="#page127">127</a>-129;</p> + <p class="i2">cannot now be reversed, <a href="#page130">130</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">prosperity of Ireland after, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</p> + <p>United Irish League, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>, + <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a + href="#page180">180</a>-183, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a + href="#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> + <p>United Irish Society, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a + href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Universities. See <a href="#trinity">Trinity</a> College, Dublin;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#queen">Queen's</a> University;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#royal">Royal</a> University;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#belfast">Belfast</a> Belfast University;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#national">National</a> University.</p> + <p>University College, Cork, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Galway, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Victoria, Queen, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Vinegar Hill, massacre at, <a href="#page105">105</a>-107.</p> + <p>Volunteer movement, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a + href="#page237">237</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Waitangi, Treaty of, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Waldenses, persecution of, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a + href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Walsh, T., <a href="#page195">195</a>.</p> + <p>Waterford, founded by Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Henry II lands at, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</p> + <p>Waterford Corporation and Mr. Scully, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Westmeath, persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>.</p> + <p>Wexford, raid by men of, <a href="#page7">7</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">landing of Spaniards at, <a href="#page34">34</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page105">105</a>-107, <a + href="#page110">110</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">monuments of rebels in, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</p> + <p>White, P., <a href="#page195">195</a>.</p> + <p>Whiteboys, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>William III, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Wolfe, memorial to General, <a href="#page243">243</a>, <a + href="#page244">244</a>.</p> + <p>Wolseley, letter from Lord, <a href="#page246">246</a>.</p> + <p>Wright, Mr. Justice, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Wyndham Act, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p class="c1">Sherratt and Hughes, Printers, London and Manchester.</p> + + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13157 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ac95cf --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #13157 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13157) diff --git a/old/13157-8.txt b/old/13157-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b4e0d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13157-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7435 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Is Ulster Right?, by Anonymous + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Is Ulster Right? + +Author: Anonymous + +Release Date: August 10, 2004 [EBook #13157] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS ULSTER RIGHT? *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Alison Hadwin and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + +IS ULSTER RIGHT? + + +A STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION AT ISSUE BETWEEN ULSTER AND THE +NATIONALIST PARTY, AND OF THE REASONS--HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND +FINANCIAL--WHY ULSTER IS JUSTIFIED IN OPPOSING HOME RULE + + +BY AN IRISHMAN + + +LONDON + +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. + +1913 + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +Preface + +Chapter + +I. The Ulster Covenant. The Questions Stated. Ireland under the Celts +and the Danes + +II. Ireland from the time of Henry II to the time of Henry VIII + +III. Ireland under the Tudors + +IV. The Seventeenth Century, until the end of the reign of James II + +V. The period of the Penal Laws + +VI. The earlier part of the reign of George III. The acquisition of +independence by the Irish Parliament + +VII. The independent Parliament. The Regency Question. The +commencement of the Rebellion + +VIII. The Rebellion + +IX. The Union + +X. The period from the Union until the rejection of the first Home +Rule Bill + +XI. The Unionist Government of 1886 + +XII. The Gladstonian Government of 1892. The Political Societies + +XIII. Ireland under the present Government + +XIV. Criticism of the Bill now before the Country + +XV. The danger to the Empire of any form of Home Rule. The Questions +answered + +Index + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In the following chapters I have endeavoured to lay before ordinary +readers a simple statement of the present position of the Irish +question. Following the maxim of Confucius that it is well "to study +the Past if you would divine the Future," I have first shown that the +tales which are told about the glories of the ancient Celtic +Kingdom are foolish dreams, not supported by the accounts given by +contemporary annalists or the investigations of modern writers, and +that Ireland never was a nation in the political sense, with the +possible exception of the few years between 1782 and 1800, during +which the Irish Parliament was independent; that the charges made +against the English government with reference to their action between +the "Conquest" by Henry II and the assumption of the title of King +by Henry VIII are baseless; and that though there is much which the +historian must look back upon with regret in the period between the +reign of Henry VIII and the passing of the Act of Union, it is mere +waste of time now to dwell on the wrongs of a former age which +have long since passed away and which in any other country would be +forgotten. Then I have traced the brief history of the independent +Parliament, and shown that whatever may have been its virtues or +its failings, it would be impossible to revive it now; all the +circumstances of the country have changed. I have striven also to make +it clear that the Nationalists of to-day are not the representatives +of the leaders of that Parliament but of the party which fought +against it and brought on the horrors of the Rebellion; that the +Union was a political necessity, if the connection between the British +Islands was to be maintained at all; and that if the people of Ireland +have not derived all the benefits from the Union which they might have +done, it is their own fault, as the history of Ulster during the last +century has shown. Next, I have explained the rise of the present +Home Rule movement, and its dependence on agrarian agitation. I have +analyzed some of the provisions of the present Bill, which independent +writers consider to be hopelessly unworkable; and lastly I have stated +why in my opinion Home Rule in any form must be fraught with disaster +not only to Ireland but also to the Empire at large. + +I have no desire unnecessarily to wound the feelings of those who take +a different view; if it can be shown that any of my statements are +incorrect or my inference illogical, I shall be glad to correct +them; but to mere abuse, such as the Nationalists are in the habit of +pouring on Unionist writers, I shall pay no heed. I admit that it may +be said that there are several matters which I ought to have gone into +more fully; to that I can only reply that I wished to be as brief as +possible, and that I have done my best to compress with fairness. +What I am really anxious to do is to draw the attention of thoughtful +readers, before it is too late, to the terrible dangers with which we +are faced. As an Irish historian has said:-- + + "No political madness could be greater than to put the + legislative machinery of an integral and essential portion + of the Empire into the hands of men who are largely or mainly + disaffected with that Empire, and who, in times of difficulty, + danger and disaster are likely to betray it." + + * * * * * + +The following are the principal works of which use has been made +in preparing this volume. They are cited here in order to avoid the +necessity of constant footnotes:-- + + "Short History of the Irish People." By Professor Richey. + + "Irish Nationalism." By the late Duke of Argyll. + + "History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century." By W.E.H. + Lecky. + + "History of the Legislative Union of Great Britain and + Ireland." By Dunbar Ingram. + + "Ireland and Her Fairy Godmother." By J. Warren. + + "The Continuity of the Irish Revolutionary Movement." By Prof. + Brougham Leech. + + "A Fool's Paradise." By Professor Dicey. + + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE ULSTER COVENANT. THE QUESTIONS STATED. IRELAND UNDER THE CELTS AND +THE DANES. + + "Being convinced in our consciences that Home Rule would be + disastrous to the material well-being of Ulster as well as of + the whole of Ireland, subversive of our civil and religious + freedom, destructive of our citizenship and perilous to the + unity of the Empire, We, whose names are underwritten, Men of + Ulster, loyal subjects of His Gracious Majesty King George V, + humbly relying on the God whom our fathers in days of stress + and trial confidently trusted, do hereby pledge ourselves + in Solemn Covenant throughout this our time of threatened + calamity to stand by one another in defending for ourselves + and our children our cherished position of equal citizenship + in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be + found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a + Home Rule Parliament in Ireland. And, in the event of such + a Parliament being forced upon us, we further solemnly + and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to recognise its + authority. In such confidence that God will defend the right, + we hereunto subscribe our names." + +Such is the Solemn Covenant which 220,000 resolute, determined +Ulstermen--of various creeds and of all sections of the community, +from wealthy merchants to farm labourers--fully realizing the +responsibility they were undertaking, signed on the 28th September, +1912. To represent that it was merely the idle bombast of ignorant +rustics, or a passing ebullition of political passion coming from +hot-headed youths excited by irresponsible demagogues, is folly. +It expresses the calm resolution of earnest men who, having thought +deeply over the matter had decided that it was better even to face +the horrors of civil war rather than to submit to the rule of a +Nationalist Government. + +The opinions of the Nationalists with regard to the Ulster Covenant +can be gathered from many speeches and sermons. The following extract +from one of their papers--the _Frontier Sentinel_--may be taken as a +specimen:-- + + "It may not be out of place here to translate into simple + English the terms of the Covenant. It denies the claim of + Ireland to self-government and the capacity of Irishmen to + govern Ireland. It asserts that the Catholics of Ireland are + the spawn of the devil; that they are ruthless savages and + dangerous criminals with only one object in life--the wiping + out of Protestants. It claims for the Protestant Unionist + majority of four Ulster counties a monopoly of Christianity, + public and private morality, and clean successful business + enterprise. In the name of God it seeks to stimulate the + basest passions in human nature, and calls on God to witness + a catalogue of falsehoods. Only a few of the local Protestant + clergymen, it should be stated, signed this notoriously wicked + document." + +It is well then to pause and consider calmly two questions: What +are the real objects of the Nationalists; and, Are the men of Ulster +justified in resisting them to the uttermost? + +It is a mere truism to remark that in every political question the +main controversy is complicated by a number of side issues. Thus in +the tangled skein of politics in South Eastern Europe there is not +merely the great struggle between the Crescent and the Cross, but +there are also jealousies between Greek and Bulgarian, between Servian +and Austrian, which have to be considered. So in Ireland, if we +take the religious question as the dominating one, we find ourselves +involved in a maze of racial animosities, class prejudices, and +trade disputes; by ignoring these we can arrive at a simple but +unfortunately a totally erroneous solution of the question. And to +weigh them all fairly involves more trouble than the average man cares +to take. + +Irish history is at best a dismal subject. And those who ought to +be historians are too often politicians; regarding themselves as +advocates and not as judges they deliberately omit incidents which +tell against their views, and enlarge on others, frequently without +even examining the evidence in support of them. Then in arriving +at the truth about any matter connected with Ireland there is the +additional difficulty arising from the custom, almost universal +amongst Irishmen, of talking in superlatives. The exaggerated +expressions, both of praise and blame, which are constantly employed, +at first puzzle a stranger coming to Ireland from another country; he +soon, however, gets to realize that they are mere forms of speech, and +are no more intended to be taken seriously than similar phrases are +when used by an Oriental. They are therefore harmless. But it becomes +a more serious matter when learned men employ inflated language in +addressing ignorant and excitable audiences. Thus Bishop Gaughran, +when recently preaching to a crowded congregation in Dublin a sermon +which was reported in full in the Roman Catholic papers, said:-- + + "The persecution of the Catholics in Ireland had no parallel + in the history of the Church save perhaps those of the early + Christians in the Catacombs of Rome. Edicts were sent + forth before which those of Nero might be said to pale into + insignificance--the Edicts of Elizabeth and Cromwell, for + example." + +Yet these words came from a man who was doubtless familiar with the +histories of Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands; and who is a +leader of a party which had not long before expressed the opinion that +Catholics have no reason to be ashamed of the Inquisition, which was +a coercive and corporally punitive force which had effected its ends +splendidly! + +One of the many popular delusions under which English people labour +with regard to Ireland is that all the population of the country at +the present day are Celts, and that this is the key to the whole Irish +question. Thus a review of Father Tyrrell's autobiography recently +appeared in an English journal in which the reviewer said: "Probably +no Englishmen could have written such a book; it needs a Latin like +Rousseau, or a Celt like Tyrrell to lay bare his soul in this way." +No doubt these words were written in perfectly good faith; but if +the writer had cared to make any enquiry he could have found out in a +moment that the Tyrrell family were thoroughly English and that none +of them had gone to Ireland before the nineteenth century. The fact +is that the inhabitants of Ireland, like the inhabitants of all other +countries in Western Europe, are of mixed origin. The Celts were +themselves immigrants, who conquered and enslaved a pre-existing race +called the Firbolgs; then came the Scandinavian invasion; and then +wave after wave of immigration from England and Scotland, so that +Sir J. Davies, writing three hundred years ago--that was, before the +Cromwellian settlement and the arrival of the French refugees who had +escaped from the persecution of Louis XIV--said that if the people of +Ireland were numbered those descended of English race would be found +more in number than the ancient natives. + +This, however, is only one of many errors into which English writers +have fallen. Mistakes of course will always be made; but unfortunately +it is a charge from which Mr. Gladstone's admirers cannot clear him +that when he wished to bring the English people round to the idea of +Home Rule he deliberately falsified Irish history in order to make +it serve his ends; and his misrepresentations have gained credence +amongst careless thinkers who are content to shelter themselves under +a great name without looking at what has been written in answer. The +general idea of an average Englishman about Irish history seems to be +that Ireland in Celtic times was a peaceful, orderly, united kingdom, +famous for its piety and learning, where land was held by "tribal +tenure"--that is, owned by the whole tribe who were closely related +in blood--rent being unknown, and the chief being elected by the whole +tribe in solemn assembly. Into this happy country came the Norman +invaders, who fought against and conquered the king; drove the native +owners out of their possessions, and introduced a feudal system and an +alien code of law unsuited to the people; and the modern landlords +are the representatives of the conquering Normans and the tenants +the descendants of the ancient tribesmen who naturally and rightfully +resist paying rent for the lands which by ancestral right should be +their own. There could not be a more complete travesty of history. + +The Celtic Church no doubt had its golden age. It produced saints and +men of learning. It sent out its missionaries to the heathen beyond +the seas. So famous were its schools that students came to them from +distant lands. But centuries before the Normans appeared in Ireland +the salt had lost its savour. The Celtic Church had sunk into being +a mere appendage of the wild tribes it had once tried to tame. The +chiefs of one tribe would sack the colleges and shrines of another +tribe as freely as they would sack any of their other possessions. +For instance, the annals tell us that in the year 1100 the men of the +south made a raid into Connaught and burned many churches; in 1113 +Munster tribe burned many churches in Meath, one of them being full of +people; in 1128 the septs of Leitrim and Cavan plundered and slew the +retinue of the Bishop of Armagh; in the same year the men of Tyrone +raided Down and a great number of people suffered martyrdom; four +years later Kildare was invaded by raiders from Wexford, the church +was burnt and many men slain; and so on with dreary monotony. Bishops +and abbots fought in the incessant tribal wars as keenly as laymen. +Worse still, it was not infrequent for one band of clergy to make +war on another. In the ninth century, Phelim, who claimed to be both +Bishop and King of Leinster, ravaged Ulster and murdered its monks and +clergy. In the eleventh century the annals give an account of a fierce +battle between the Bishop of Armagh and the Bishop of Clonard. Nor did +time work any improvement; we read of bloody conflicts between abbots +and bishops as late as the middle of the fifteenth century. What +influence for good could such a church have had upon the mass of the +people? + +And even in its noblest period the Celtic Church seems to have had but +little power beyond the walls of its own colleges. The whole history +of Celtic Ireland, as we learn from the annalists, was one miserable +succession of tribal wars, murders and plunderings. Of course it may +be said with perfect truth that the annals of other countries at the +time tell much the same story. But there is this difference between +them: wild and barbarous though the wars of other countries were, +they were at any rate the slow and painful working up towards a higher +civilization; the country became consolidated under the most powerful +chief; in time peace was enforced, agriculture improved, and towns +grew up. The tribal raids of Celtic Ireland, however, were merely +for plunder and destruction. From such conflicts no higher state of +society could possibly be evolved. The Irish Celts built no cities, +promoted no agriculture, and never coalesced so as to form even the +nucleus of a united kingdom. + +It was about the end of the eighth century that the first foreign +influence was brought to bear on Celtic Ireland. The Danish invasion +began. Heathen though the Danes were, they brought some ideas of +settled government and the germs of national progress. They founded +cities, such as Dublin, Waterford and Limerick. And when they, like +their fellow-countrymen in England, accepted Christianity, they +established bishoprics in the new towns, but took care that they +should be wholly independent of the Celtic tribal episcopate; they +looked to Canterbury and Rome. + +Much has been written and sung about the fame of Brian Boroo. No doubt +he was in some ways a great man; and it seemed for a time that he +might do for Ireland something like what Alfred the Great had done for +England and Kenneth MacAlpine had done for Scotland--might consolidate +the country into one kingdom. But the story of his life is a striking +commentary on the wretchedness of the period. Forming an alliance with +some of the Danes he succeeded in crushing the chiefs of several rival +Celtic tribes; then in turn he attacked his former allies, and beat +them at the battle of Clontarf in the year 1014, though they were +aided by other Celtic tribes who hated Brian and his schemes even more +than they hated the foreigners. Important though this battle was, its +effect has been much exaggerated and misunderstood. It certainly +did not bring the Danish power in Ireland to an end; Dublin was a +flourishing Danish colony long afterwards--in fact it was thirty years +after the battle that the Danish king of Dublin founded the Bishopric. + +But Brian was slain in the moment of victory. The soldiers of his +army murdered his only surviving son, and began fighting amongst +themselves. Brian's dream of a united Ireland came to an end, and the +country relapsed into chaos. If the immediate result of the battle +was a victory of Celt over Dane, the lasting effect was a triumph of +anarchy over order. It was on the Celtic people that the ruin fell; +and the state of things for the next two centuries was if possible +worse than it had ever been before. + +It will be readily understood that throughout this terrible period of +history anything like a peaceful cultivation of the soil or a regular +election to the office of chief was out of the question. It was quite +an ordinary thing for a chief to obtain his position by murdering his +predecessor. The annalists give us a long list of Kings of Ireland +dating from before the Christian era until the arrival of the Normans. +Of course the word "king" can mean little more than "prominent +chief," for no one man ever had real authority over the whole of the +distracted land. Even of these prominent chiefs, however, according +to the annalists, very few died natural deaths. Some fell in battle, +others were assassinated; but the most common fate for a monarch was +to be "slain by his successor." If this was true of the most powerful +men in the country, to speak of the office of chief as elective is +really absurd. But more than this: there is no evidence that the +"tribal system," in the sense of all the tribe being related by blood +and all owning their lands in common, ever existed in Ireland even +in theory. At the earliest date of which we possess any distinct +information on the subject, wealth, representing physical force, had +become the acknowledged basis of political power and private right; +and the richer members of the community were rapidly reducing the +poorer freemen--many of whom were the descendants of an earlier race +or of conquered tribes--to a state of serfdom. The system (if such +a word can be applied at all) was in fact a bad form of feudalism +without its advantages. There was no central overlord (like those +in other countries who gradually developed into the sovereigns of +mediæval kingdoms and thus became able to enforce peace and progress), +each petty chief being independent; and on the other hand the dues +payable by the retainers were not fixed by law or custom. We must +probably reject the suggested derivation of the word "feodal" from the +Celtic "Fiudir"; but if so, it is curious that two words accidentally +resembling each other conveyed ideas so closely alike; for a Celtic +"Fiudir" was practically a tenant at the will of the lord; and it must +be admitted that the word "vassal" is of Celtic origin. Charters which +date from before the Norman invasion show that the land was regarded +as the private property of the chiefs; frequently the wretched +occupiers, instead of paying fixed rents, were liable to unlimited +exactions, one of them being the right of the lord to "coigne and +livery"--that is, to quarter himself and his retainers as long as he +pleased on any occupier who possessed a few cows (which were the only +form of wealth in those days of universal poverty); in some cases, +however, land was let for a term of years, on a fixed payment of +cattle. + +On the death of a freeholder his land was divided amongst his sons +equally, according to what is called "the custom of gavelkind." +Whether primogeniture is a good or a bad thing in England or the +British Colonies at the present day is of course a totally different +question; the circumstances of the times are totally different. But +it can hardly be doubted by a thoughtful student of history that the +adoption of primogeniture in the early days of feudalism in other +European countries was a social necessity if civilization was to rise +to a higher state; and that its not being introduced in Ireland was if +not a cause at least an evidence that civilization in that country +did not progress. For in a condition not far removed from anarchy +the connection between the ownership of land and political power is +inevitable; hence if holdings are small their owners become an easy +prey to stronger neighbours; whereas the possessors of larger areas +can repel attacks and enable their dependents to live in some sort of +security. It was the enormous number of petty independent chiefs that +added to the miseries of Celtic Ireland. + +I shall probably be accused of having painted too dark a picture in +the brief sketch that I have given of Ireland before the coming of the +Normans. I admit that it is very different from the glowing accounts +of "Irish Ireland" that may be found in the pages of Nationalist +journals. But the question to me is not which account is more pleasant +but which is true. And I defy anyone who has cared to look through the +works of such writers as Richey, Stokes, and Sullivan, to prove that +what I have said is incorrect or unfair. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +IRELAND FROM THE TIME OF HENRY II TO THE TIME OF HENRY VIII. + + +In the last chapter I dealt with the long period during which the +Celtic tribes of Ireland were free from foreign influence except for +the comparatively brief time when a small part of the country was +under the rule of the Danes; and I endeavoured to show that according +to the evidence of their own annalists and in the opinion of modern +writers of various political sentiments, the whole island throughout +that period remained in a chronic state of anarchy, without any +advance towards a higher civilization. + +As Dr. Richey, when describing the condition of Ireland about the year +1170, says, "The state of the Celtic people was beyond all hope of +self-amendment. The want of law, order and justice, the absence of +self-knowledge and self-control, paralysed their national action and +reduced the power of their chief king to insignificance." + +I come now to what has been absurdly called the conquest of Ireland +under Henry II. + +That the English king was instigated in his efforts by the Pope is +perfectly clear. The Bull of Pope Adrian, issued in 1155, is still +extant:-- + + "... There is indeed no doubt but that Ireland, and all the + islands on which Christ, the Sun of Righteousness, hath shone, + and which have received the doctrine of the Christian faith, + do belong to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and the Holy Roman + Church ... therefore we are the more solicitous to propagate + the righteous plantation of faith in this land, and the + branch acceptable to God, as we have the secret conviction of + conscience that this is more especially our bounden duty. You + then, our dear son in Christ, have signified to us your desire + to enter into the island of Ireland, in order to reduce the + people to obedience under the laws, and to extirpate the + plants of vice, and that you are willing to pay from each + house a yearly pension of one penny to St. Peter, and that you + will preserve the rights of the churches whole and inviolate. + We, therefore, do hold it good and acceptable that ... you + enter this island and execute therein whatever shall pertain + to the honour of God and welfare of the land; and that the + people of the land receive you honourably and reverence you as + their lord." + +And in 1172 Pope Alexander III ratified the action of his predecessor. + + "Forasmuch as these things which have been on good reasons + granted by our predecessors, deserve to be confirmed ... + and considering the grant of the dominion of the land by the + venerable Pope Adrian, we ... do ratify and confirm the same + (reserving to St. Peter and to the Holy Roman Church, as well + in England as in Ireland the yearly pension of one penny from + every house) provided that, the abominations of the land being + removed, the barbarous people, Christians only in name, may + by your means, be reformed, and their lives and conversations + mended, so that their disordered Church being thus reduced + to regular discipline, that nation may, with the name of + Christians, be so in act and deed." + +Whether the description here given was literally correct, or whether +the Pope's views were coloured by the fact that the Celtic Church did +not acknowledge the supremacy of Rome and was heretical on certain +points of doctrine, is a question outside the present subject. The +Bulls are only quoted here as showing the part taken by Rome. And it +must be admitted that in the succeeding century the power of the Pope +became strong enough to enable him to levy taxes in Ireland for the +purpose of carrying on his wars against the Emperor and the King of +Aragon. + +But Henry did not conquer Ireland. He did not even pretend to do so. +Previous to his arrival there had been some little fighting done by a +few adventurous Norman knights who had been invited by a native chief +to assist him in a domestic war; but Henry II fought no battle in +Ireland; he displaced no ancient national government; the Irish had +no national flag, no capital city as the metropolis of the country, no +common administration of the law. The English, coming in the name of +the Pope, with the aid of the Irish bishops, with a superior national +organization which the Irish easily recognised, were accepted by the +Irish. The king landed at Waterford; his journey to Dublin was rather +a royal progress than a hostile invasion. He came as feudal sovereign +to receive the homage of the Irish tribes; the chiefs flocked to his +court, readily became his vassals, and undertook to hold the lands +they already occupied as fiefs of the Crown. But Henry did not take +the title, or assume the position of King of Ireland. He merely sought +to establish a suzerainty in which he would be the overlord. And in +fact a conquest of Ireland in the modern sense of the term would have +been impossible. England possessed no standing army; the feudal levies +of mediæval times were difficult and expensive. It might of course +have been possible to have organized a wholesale immigration and an +enslavement of the natives, something like that which the Normans had +accomplished in England, and the Saxons had done centuries before; but +nothing of the kind was attempted. Whether Henry's original intention +was simply to leave the Irish chiefs in possession or not, it is +useless now to enquire. But if it was, he appears to have changed his +views; for not long afterwards he granted large fiefs with palatinate +jurisdiction to various Normans who had made their way over to Ireland +independently. + +It may be that Henry--knowing that the Conqueror, whilst taking +care that no powerful seignories should grow up in the heart of his +kingdom, as rivals to the throne, yet made exceptions in cases +where the lands verged on hostile territory, such as Durham or +Chester--thought that he could best follow the spirit of that policy +by establishing what were practically semi-independent principalities +in an island already inhabited by another race. But the result was +disastrous. + +That the Normans were savage and brutal, dealing out no justice or +mercy to their victims, is proved by the account of their conquest of +England. Yet they possessed certain great qualities, which eminently +fitted them to become rulers in those wild, unsettled times; as their +successes, not merely in Britain, but also in Southern Italy and +Syria, show. They had the idea of a strong, centralized Government; +and more than that they had a marvellous capacity for receptivity. +Thus we see that in England, after a period of rough tyranny, they +blended the existing Anglo-Saxon Government--the strength of which lay +in its local organization--with their own; and from the union of +the two has come the British Constitution. So too in the Lowlands +of Scotland it was the Norman knight Robert Bruce who, accepting the +already existing Saxon and Roman civilization, raised Scotland into a +powerful kingdom. But in Ireland all was different. The only state +of society which the Normans found was Celtic barbarism. Political +institutions did not exist. As the Normans in England had become +Anglified, and in Scotland Scottified, so in Ireland they became +Ersefied. It is true that they built stone castles which at any rate +were better than the hovels of the Irish Chiefs, and (like the +Danes before them) founded a few towns, such as Kilkenny, Galway and +Athenry; but there their efforts ended. Scattered amongst the tribes, +they learnt their ways. They sank to the position of the Celtic +Chiefs around them; local wars went on the same as before; the only +difference being that they were waged sometimes by Normans against +Normans or against Celts, but more frequently by one body of Celts +against another, each side being aided by Norman allies. + +One class of Nationalist writers has inveighed against the English +kings for not having forcibly introduced English law and put an end to +the barbarous Celtic customs. The simple answer is, How could they do +so? Whilst England was being weakened by long continental wars or +by struggles between rival Houses, what strength had she left to +undertake the real conquest of Ireland? The English kings had turned +to the only people who could have helped them--the Normans settled in +Ireland; and they failed them. Other Nationalist writers have on +the other hand declaimed with equal vehemence against the tyranny of +England in forcing an alien system of law on an unwilling people. To +this the answer is that nothing of the kind occurred. It is true that +petitions were sent from Ireland to the King urging him to introduce +English law; but these petitions came mainly from the poorer classes +of English settlers who found that instead of attaining greater +liberty in their new home they were being ground down to the miserable +position of the native Irish. The King issued proclamations directing +the English barons to permit the Irish to be governed by the law of +England; but his orders were totally disregarded; many of the unhappy +English settlers fled from the country and returned to England; +the barons supplied their places with native retainers. Thus the +Ersefication of the degenerate Normans became complete; they +"donned the saffron"--that is, they adopted the yellow dress of the +Celts--abandoned their original language, and gave themselves up to a +life of constant plunder and rapine. + +Early in the fourteenth century the Irish septs united so far as to +form a joint effort to expel the English. The incident is specially +interesting, in the light of later history. Robert Bruce, a Norman +knight, had recently consolidated the Scottish tribes into a kingdom +and succeeded in shaking off the English yoke. The Irish Celts +resolved to imitate his example. King Robert was shrewd enough to see +that by aiding them he could attack his enemy at the most vulnerable +point; consequently, when the chiefs offered the Crown of Ireland to +his brother Edward if he would come and help them, he gladly accepted +the invitation. For three years a devastating war raged over a large +part of Ireland; the Scotch went from the North of Ulster almost to +Limerick, burning, slaying, plundering, sacking towns, castles and +churches; and a terrible famine ensued. But the Irish chiefs were no +more energetic in supporting Edward Bruce than their ancestors had +been in supporting Brian; he and his chief officers fell in a battle +against the English near Dundalk, and the rest of his followers +escaped to Scotland. The coalition fell to pieces; and the only result +of the Scotch invasion was to increase the misery of the people, +especially of the unhappy English settlers, who continued to flock +back to England in greater numbers than before. + +As soon as the rebellion was put down, the great legislator Edward +III made another effort at introducing order into the distracted land. +Acts were passed by the English Parliament providing that the same +law should be applicable to both English and Irish, and forbidding +landowners to keep larger bands of armed men than were necessary for +self-defence. But the Ersefied barons on whom he relied refused to +obey the new laws; they renounced their allegiance and joined the +rebellious Celtic tribes. Then the king, seeing the impossibility +of carrying out his scheme for pacifying the whole of Ireland, was +reduced to the expedient of dividing the country into two; leaving the +larger part of it for the natives and degenerate English to misgovern +as they pleased according to their own customs, and preserving only +a mere fraction (the "English Pale") in allegiance to the Crown of +England. This was the real meaning of the "Statutes of Kilkenny," +which have been so often misrepresented by modern writers. + +The next king, Richard II, attempted to imitate the policy of his +ancestor Henry II. He went to Ireland with great pomp. Again the +Celtic chiefs flocked to Dublin to swear allegiance to their lord; +and as soon as his back was turned commenced not only fighting amongst +themselves but even attacking the English Pale. The result of all his +efforts was that the limits of the Pale were still further contracted; +the English power was confined to a small area in the neighbourhood of +Dublin. + +But even within that narrow boundary the power of the king was far +from being secure. When England was torn by the Wars of the Roses, the +so-called Parliament (which was really an irregular assembly at best +representing a territory about the size of a modern county) seized +the opportunity of declaring itself independent. It is interesting, in +view of present-day questions, to observe that Dr. Richey, writing +in 1869, seems to consider their action as not only justifiable but +inevitable. He says:-- + + "The Irish Parliament declared the complete independence + of the Irish Legislature, and boldly affirmed those + constitutional rights which, though involved in the existence + of separate parliament, had not hitherto been categorically + expressed. They asserted their rights to a distinct coinage, + and their absolute freedom from all laws and statutes except + such as were by the Lords spiritual and temporal and Commons + of Ireland freely admitted and accepted in their Parliament. + They declared that no Irish subject was bound to answer + any writs except those under the great seal of Ireland, and + enacted heavy penalties against any officer who should attempt + to put English decrees in force in Ireland. They, in fact, + took the same position and laid down the same principles as + the celebrated Parliament of 1782." + +Whether they imagined that they could form a separate kingdom of +Dublin, or dreamt of making an alliance with the tribes outside the +Pale, it is useless now to conjecture; but we can see that though they +had no chance of benefiting themselves they might have caused serious +injury to England. Nor was it long before a difficulty arose. The +inhabitants of the Pale remained attached to the House of York even +after the Battle of Bosworth, and readily accepted Lambert Simnel as +King of Ireland. He was crowned in the Cathedral of Dublin, and held +a Parliament. After the defeat of this Pretender, the able and astute +Henry VII saw that it was necessary without further delay to make the +shadowy suzerainty of England over Ireland a reality. He accordingly +persuaded the Irish Parliament to pass an Act which from the name of +the Lord Deputy was known as "Poyning's Act." By this Act, all English +statutes then existing in England were made of force in Ireland; the +chief fortresses were secured to the Crown of England; and the Irish +Parliament was relegated to the position of a subordinate legislature; +for it was enacted that no Parliament should be held in Ireland unless +the King's Lieutenant and Council should first certify the King, under +the Great Seal of Ireland, the Acts which they considered should pass; +then the King and his Council should approve the proposed Acts, +and issue a licence under the Great Seal of England, summoning the +Parliament. + +Though some writers have spoken of this as the most disgraceful Act +ever passed by an independent legislature, the people in Ireland at +the time considered it a boon and a favour; for it shielded them from +the unauthorized power of a Lord Deputy supported by a Parliament of +his own creatures. + +And so, with the close of the mediæval period, ended the second +chapter of Irish history. It will be observed that there had been no +religious persecution, unless indeed the conduct of the Norman--that +is, the Roman--Church towards the ancient Celtic Church, or the +burning of some heretics in the fourteenth century, could be so +described; a view which the Nationalists of to-day will hardly care to +put forward. Nor can the English Government be fairly blamed for the +condition of affairs; for responsibility depends on power, and English +power in Ireland hardly existed. The suzerainty of England, feeble at +best, had gradually been limited to a mere fraction of the country. +The Celtic tribes had long since thrown off even a nominal submission +to the English Crown; the Anglo-Norman lords had become either +avowedly or practically independent. But the inhabitants of Ireland +did not constitute a nation or possess any common interest or bond of +union. There was no trace of an organization by which the Irish tribes +could be united into one people. The ceaseless civil wars had indeed +supplanted the original tribesmen by the mercenary followers of +another set of rival chiefs; but there had been no union; and the mass +of the people, still under the influence of their native customs, were +probably in a more wretched condition than they had ever been before. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +IRELAND UNDER THE TUDORS. + + +We have seen that at the close of the Middle Ages Ireland was in the +condition that some people in England now consider the panacea for +all the woes of the country; it possessed a subordinate Parliament and +England interfered as little as possible in its local affairs. Henry +VIII attempted "to govern Ireland according to Irish ideas"; having no +army of his own, he appointed the most powerful of the Norman barons +his deputy. But this deputy used his authority precisely as an +Ersefied Norman (who possessed no more patriotism or national feeling +than a Celtic chief) might have been expected to use it,--that was, to +aid him in a succession of family quarrels and tribal wars in which, +allied with some of the native septs he attacked others. Even the +towns outside the Pale fared little better than the remoter districts; +there was actually a civil war between Cork and Limerick. The state of +affairs in Celtic Ireland during the brief period from 1500 to 1534 +as stated in the annals (which, however, only deal with a part of the +country, hardly referring to what took place in Leinster or Munster) +has been summed up by Dr. Richey in the following words:-- + + "Battles, plunderings, etc., exclusive of those in which the + English Government was engaged, 116; Irish gentlemen of + family killed in battle, 102; murdered, 168--many of them with + circumstances of great atrocity; and during this period, on + the other hand, there is no allusion to the enactment of any + law, the judicial decision of any controversy, the founding of + any town, monastery or church; and all this is recorded by + the annalist without the slightest expression of regret or + astonishment, as if such were the ordinary course of life in a + Christian country." + +At length, in 1534, matters came to a head; the Lord Deputy broke out +into open rebellion. We can learn from the State papers of the period +what the condition of Ireland then was. The Pale--now but the remnant +of a fraction--was constantly invaded and ravished by wild tribes, +and was itself becoming Ersefied; for the poorer English settlers had +either fled back to England, joined the Celtic tribes in despair, as +their only way of escaping from the harshness of the English lords, or +been crushed out of existence; and, as had already happened elsewhere, +their place had been taken by Irish retainers. Then in the rest of the +country there were some ninety chiefs, of whom about sixty represented +ancient septs and the remainder degenerate Normans, all claiming +independence and preying sometimes on one another and sometimes on +their unfortunate followers. Not infrequently also a tribe was divided +against itself, and a civil war was raging between the two factions. +And one result of the Ersefication of the Norman barons was that, +in addition to the regular feudal dues, they demanded every kind +of Celtic tribute from the occupiers of the land. In fact, how the +wretched tenants managed to support life at all seems a mystery. +Whatever law there may at one time have been was now long extinct; +and as King Henry himself pointed out, if the natives were to have any +sort of law at all, the only possible law was the law of England. + +At this time also a new factor came into the already complicated +problem--the Reformation. Henry VIII never was a Protestant, in +the sense of adopting the doctrines which are now usually called +Protestant; but he had renounced the authority of the Pope. In 1535 +Pope Paul III passed sentence upon him, consigning his kingdoms to +whoever might invade them, and commanding his nobles to take up +arms against him. Both the Emperor and the King of France saw their +opportunity, as Robert Bruce had done centuries before. They commenced +a correspondence with the Irish chiefs with the object of bringing +about an invasion of Ireland. Thereupon King Henry resolved to take +the only course that seemed to him possible--to make the conquest +of Ireland a reality and to enforce law and order in that distracted +land. His letters, which are still extant, show the care with which he +thought out the matter, and his earnest desire for the welfare of +the people of both races; a perusal of them would astonish those who +regard him merely as a savage sensualist. Strange to say, in their +Irish policy, the character of Henry VIII shows itself at the best, +and that of Elizabeth at its worst. When Henry had with difficulty +succeeded in crushing the Geraldine rebellion and a series of others +which broke out soon after, he got the Irish Parliament to pass an +Act conferring on him the title of king; he was solemnly proclaimed as +such, and his title was confirmed by the almost unanimous consent of +the Irish princes. + +This was important in more ways than one: it was universally +recognized that the word "king" meant much more than "lord"; and it +gave him a title independent of the Pope's donation. + +It is one of the ironies of history that the renunciation of the Papal +authority and the submission to the king's supremacy was far more +rapid and general in Ireland than it was in England. For not only did +all the lay chiefs readily yield their adhesion, but only two of the +bishops refused to take the oath of supremacy. Rebellions such as that +of Fitzgerald had no connection with religion; it was not until years +afterwards when England had become identified with Protestantism and +Spain with Catholicism that the Irish became intensely Papal. On the +other hand, the Reformation, as a religious movement, made no headway +in Ireland. It was purely negative and destructive, and emanated from +the Government, not from the mass of the people. The monasteries were +destroyed; hence there were no vicars to supply the parish churches, +which fell into ruin; the king endeavoured rather to Anglify than to +Protestantise the people by sending to them bishops and clergy from +England--but they were mere state officials, not fathers in God; +unable even to speak the Irish language; what real preaching there +was was done by friars sent from Rome and Madrid. Henry's efforts at +establishing parish schools were also a total failure. Had there not +been later immigrations from England and Scotland, Irish Protestantism +would probably have died out. Yet it is but fair to state, and to bear +in mind, that there was no religious persecution as such in Ireland +during the Tudor period. Elizabeth's policy was, without making any +actual promise of freedom of conscience, to leave the question of +religious opinions alone as far as possible. The real difficulty came +from the political nature of the Church of Rome; when the Pope deposed +Elizabeth and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain every Irish Roman +Catholic had either to be false to his religion or to become a +traitor--_in esse_ or _in posse_--to the queen. + +When Henry had resolved to do his utmost to bring Ireland to a state +of civilization, there were not wanting advisers who urged upon him +that his only safe course was absolutely to destroy the whole native +population by sword and famine and re-people the vacant lands by +immigrants from England. Such a course would have been quite in +accordance with the ideas of the time. Not thirty years previously, +the combined forces of Church and State had pursued the heretic +population of the Loise into the mountain fastnesses to which they had +fled, and had piled logs of wood at the mouths of the caves in which +they had taken refuge, and set them on fire. Then, when all the +unhappy people--men, women and children, numbering some thousands +in all--had perished, their lands were distributed amongst strangers +brought in from a distance to occupy them. And at a later date--in the +middle of the sixteenth century--the native inhabitants of the Canary +Islands were exterminated by the Spanish Inquisition, and their lands +taken by the invading race. But to Henry it appeared that there was +one milder course that might still be possible. Might not the native +chiefs and the degenerate Normans who had shown that their only idea +of independency was anarchy yet be brought together as nobles under +a strong central government with a Parliament representing not merely +the Pale, but all Ireland? Might not the mass of the people, whose +native customs had been well nigh crushed out by civil wars, +be persuaded to _adopt_ the law of England? This was the policy +deliberately adopted by Henry and acted on by him during his life. +It is easy for writers living in modern times to sneer at some of the +details of his scheme; but it is not so easy for them to point out +what other course would have been better; or indeed, whether any other +course short of a policy of extermination, would have been possible. + +The remarkable thing, however, is that the change to a more severe +line took place not under Henry or his Protestant son, but under the +most Catholic Sovereigns Philip and Mary. It was by their orders that +the first of the confiscations (which were to play so important a part +in the later history of Ireland) was carried out. By an Act passed +in their reign the lands occupied by the O'Moores, O'Connors and +O'Dempseys were confiscated and formed into the King's and +Queen's counties, Leix and Offaly being renamed "Philipstown" and +"Maryborough"; and a "Plantation" of English settlers was established. + +And here it is well to pause for a moment and consider these +confiscations, about which so much has been written. That +confiscations have taken place in every country is a plain fact of +history. There is probably no part of Western Europe where land is +now held by the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants. Forcible +conquest and adverse occupation is nearly always the primary root +of title. But it is part of the policy of every civilized country to +recognize what lawyers call "Statutes of limitations." When centuries +have elapsed and new rights have grown up, it is impossible to rectify +the wrongs of times long gone by. Thus we cannot suppose that any +future Government of Spain would ever recognize the title of the Moors +in Africa to the properties from which their ancestors were driven +by Philip IV; or that the Huguenots, now scattered over various +countries, could ever succeed in recovering possession of the estates +in France which were confiscated at the time of the Revocation of the +Edict of Nantes. And the only people who have a cause to complain, +even on sentimental grounds, of the wrongs of past ages, are the +lineal descendants of those who suffered ill-treatment. No Englishman +to-day can feel aggrieved because Saxons drove out Britons, or Normans +Saxons. + +But more than that: the confiscation of the lands of rebels stands on +a different basis, and has been so regarded in every country in the +world, even New Zealand. The lands confiscated by Philip and Mary were +owned by the arch-rebel FitzGerald. Naturally fertile and capable if +properly cultivated of supporting a large population, they were at +this time a wild pathless tract of forest and bog. The ceaseless +tribal wars had prevented their being drained and cleared; the +miserable remnants of the Celtic tribes gained a precarious living by +periodical raids on the more peaceful inhabitants of the Pale. During +the whole of the reign of Edward VI fighting had gone on in Leix and +Offaly with great loss of life and at enormous expense to the English +Government. The object of the confiscation was not to drive out the +few existing tribesmen; for the land, when cleared and drained, might +well support them as well as the new settlers. Nor was it to confer +great estates on absentee proprietors, but to establish a fairly +thickly settled district which might be a source of strength rather +than a constant cause of trouble to the dwellers in the Pale. Nor +again was it to introduce feudalism; for as I have shown, the system +already in existence was feudalism without its advantages; the +substitution of fixed dues for the barbarous custom of "coigne and +livery" was an unmixed benefit to the occupiers of land. And it cannot +be denied that the first "Plantation" was a thorough success--thriving +settlements and prosperous farms took the place of forest and swamp. + +If the position of Henry VIII had been one of difficulty, that of +Elizabeth was far more critical. The separation of the Church of +England from Rome was now complete. The great powers of the Continent +were united in one supreme effort to stamp out the new heresy. The +massacre of St. Bartholomew had taken place in France; Philip II had +ordered a _Te Deum_ to be sung at Madrid, and the Pope had had a medal +struck to commemorate the glorious event. The lowest computation of +those put to death for heresy in the Netherlands by Charles V was +50,000; and his successor had, at the instigation of the Holy Office, +issued a proclamation sentencing to death the whole population--men, +women and children--with the exception of a few persons specially +named. Alva boasted that he had put 18,000 Dutchmen to death on the +scaffold, and the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and +sword, an honour which had previously been bestowed only on reigning +sovereigns. In Spain it was regarded not only as a sacred duty but a +pleasant amusement for the King and his Court to watch the +torturing of heretics. England alone--then a comparatively weak +and insignificant country--stood out against this overwhelming +combination. And in attempting to realize the position of affairs we +must remember that in the sixteenth century the Papacy was not merely +a religious system but also a tremendous political power. We may now +regard the claim of the Pope to depose princes as a harmless dream; +but at that time it was a stern reality. Thus matters came to a crisis +when the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth and all who remained loyal +to her, released her subjects from their allegiance, offered plenary +indulgence and remission of sins to all who would take up arms against +her, promised a liberal supply of graces and indulgences to Irish +chieftains who would rebel, and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain. + +It can hardly be denied therefore that England was engaged in a +life and death struggle. And unless Elizabeth would consent to the +annexation of Ireland by Spain and to the conquest of England by some +power that would treat the people there much as the heretics of the +Netherlands were being treated by Philip, it must be admitted that any +measures, however violent, became a political necessity--a mere act +of self-defence. But though Elizabeth had already on hand a war with +France, Spain and Scotland, her difficulties did not end there. The +North of Ireland was being invaded by Celts from Scotland, and the +principal chief, Shan O'Neill (who was described by the Spanish +Ambassador as "so good a Christian that he cuts off the head of any +man who enters his country if he be not a Catholic") was in open +rebellion with the avowed object of crushing out the English power, +exterminating the rival tribes, and making himself King of Ulster. To +so miserable a state had that part of Ireland been reduced by petty +local wars between rival chiefs that hundreds of people had died +of hunger. Can it be wondered that Elizabeth conceived the idea of +imitating her sister's policy and forming a "plantation" in the North? + +Then came another formidable rebellion in Munster, headed by an +Ersefied Norman, Desmond. These rebellions were fomented by the Pope, +and in the South the rebels were aided by Spanish troops. In the +amount of the aid sent from Spain, however, the Irish rebels were +sadly disappointed. That has been one of the characteristic features +of all Irish rebellions; the foreign powers on which they have relied +have been liberal enough with promises of aid, but when the time for +performance has come they have left the unfortunate Irish to their +fate. (Thus in 1641 not only did the rebels fully expect that a +powerful Spanish force would come to their assistance, but they even +believed that 18,000 Spanish troops had actually landed at Wexford.) +That these rebellions were crushed by the forces of Queen Elizabeth +with a savage violence that is more suggestive of the government of +the Netherlands by Spain than of what should have been the action of +a Christian nation cannot be denied; but when reading the accounts +of the terrible condition to which the country was reduced one cannot +help thinking that the stories of outrages committed by the English +troops must be exaggerated. In the first place, the writers, even when +eye-witnesses, seem to have assumed that the country was peaceful and +prosperous up to that time; whereas not only had the tribal wars which +had gone on incessantly until a few years before reduced the people +almost to a condition of famine, but the rebels themselves, such +as O'Neill and Desmond, had ravaged the country anew. And if it was +obvious that the object of Elizabeth was to exterminate the whole +Irish population and the Roman Catholic religion, it seems impossible +(even allowing for the eccentricity of human nature in general and of +the Irish character in particular) to believe that a large part of the +queen's forces should have been composed of Irish Roman Catholics; or +that the inhabitants of the towns, most of whom were also Irish Roman +Catholics, should have taken her side; but such was undoubtedly +the case. Again, if nearly the whole native population had been +exterminated by slaughter and famine it would have taken at least a +century to recover. Yet--a few years after the commencement of +the English settlement we find Spenser complaining that the new +proprietors were acting as the Norman barons had done centuries +before; instead of keeping out the Irish they were making them their +tenants and thrusting out the English; and some of the proprietors +were themselves becoming "mere Irish." Then, although no doubt +a certain proportion of the Elizabethan settlers renounced their +Protestantism and embraced the Roman Catholic religion, that can +hardly have been the case with the mass of them; and yet before the +middle of the seventeenth century we find that the great majority +of the freeholders of Ireland and even of the members of the Irish +Parliament were Roman Catholics; surely they must have represented +the earlier population. And lastly, considering the wild exaggerations +that occur in the accounts of every other event of Irish history, we +cannot suppose that this period alone has escaped. + +Towards the end of the queen's reign occurred the last of the +native rebellions. It too was crushed; and, by the "flight of the +earls"--Tyrone and Tyrconnell--was completed the work which had been +commenced by Henry II. And so the third chapter of Irish history was +ended. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, UNTIL THE END OF THE REIGN OF JAMES II. + + +The seventeenth century is a terrible period of European history. It +has been described as "the age of religious wars"; and those wars were +waged with a savage ferocity which it is impossible even now to read +of without a shudder. + +It is a plain matter of history that from the very commencement of the +Reformation the idea of toleration never entered into the heads of +any of the authorities of the Church of Rome. France, Spain, Portugal, +Savoy and Germany all tell the same story. Except in countries such as +England where the sovereigns adopted the new opinions, the only chance +which the reforming party had of being able to exercise their religion +was by means of rebellion and all the horrors of civil war. What that +meant, the history of the rise of the Dutch Republic tells us. As Lord +Acton has said: "In the seventeenth century the murder of a heretic +was not only permitted but rewarded. It was a virtuous deed to +slaughter Protestant men and women until they were all exterminated. +Pius V held that it was sound Catholic doctrine that any man may +stab a heretic; and every man was a heretic who attacked the papal +prerogatives." And it is equally true that in those cases where the +reforming party succeeded in gaining the upper hand, they did not show +much more mercy than had been shown to them previously or was being +shown to their co-religionists in other countries at the time. Yet +it is only fair to add that when the idea of toleration did arise, it +arose amongst the reformed churches. Probably the only Roman Catholic +State in the world where toleration existed during the seventeenth +century was the little English colony of Maryland, of which Lord +Baltimore was the proprietor. And when at length the religious wars +died out it was, as far as Catholic countries were concerned, because +the lay mind had become thoroughly disgusted with the whole thing, and +men's minds were turning in other directions--not because the clerical +rulers showed the slightest desire to relax their efforts or change +their policy. + +It would be well if the whole dreadful period could be buried in +oblivion. But it is necessary to mention the subject here, for the +Nationalist party are continually referring to the horrors of the +Cromwellian massacres and the penal laws; and if such matters are to +be gone into at all it is only fair, in order to make a just estimate +of them, to glance at the great European struggle of which they formed +an incident. In the century which saw Germany deluged with blood +for thirty years, and which witnessed the revocation of the Edict of +Nantes and the revival of vehement persecution in France, it was not +likely that Ireland should remain unaffected. + +Soon after James I came to the throne he commenced his famous Scotch +plantation in the desolated and half-emptied province of Ulster. That +it was even a greater success than the plantation formed by Philip +and Mary everyone is of course aware; it is the descendants of those +immigrants who, though they live in a district not so highly favoured +by nature as other parts of the country, form the only really +prosperous and progressive section of the community at the present +day. The native Irish do not seem to have looked on the Scotchmen with +much disfavour, perhaps partly because there being plenty of room for +all in the desolated tract, and lands being assigned to them, they +realised that they were safer in the immediate neighbourhood of a +peaceful settlement than they would have been had they remained a prey +to unscrupulous adventurers like Shan O'Neill. A member of the legal +profession must feel shame and sorrow in recording the fact that +the chicanery of the lawyers added much to the harshness of the +politicians. That, however, is only another way of saying that +the humane policy of the nineteenth century was unknown in the +seventeenth. Had courts been established in Ireland like the native +land courts of New Zealand in which claims under customary law might +be investigated, and equitable awards made, the later history of +Ireland might have been very different. Yet one must remember that +even in the reign of Queen Victoria there was a strong party in +England and there were not a few people in New Zealand who argued +that Maori customary claims should be disregarded and the treaty +of Waitangi ignored. And in the seventeenth century such ideas were +unheard of. Lawyers searched for every technicality of English law +by which the titles of holders of land could be upset, in favour of +English claimants. Then matters became strangely complicated, as they +seem to be periodically throughout Irish history. The struggle between +Charles I and the Parliament began, and it soon became evident that +the Parliamentary party was the stronger of the two. To the Irish the +Parliamentarians meant the Puritans; and they believed, not wholly +without reason, that a determined attempt would be made not only to +seize all their lands but also to stamp out their religion. (It +must be observed that the Elizabethan anti-Roman Acts had never been +strictly carried out in Ireland, and during the reign of James I their +severity had been relaxed still further--a line of conduct which had +no parallel in any Roman Catholic country in Europe at the time.) +Thereupon in 1641 the Roman Catholics of Ulster broke into open +rebellion, and soon afterwards they applied to the kings of France and +Spain for aid; and the Pope issued a bull granting a full and plenary +indulgence and absolute remission for all their sins to all who would +do their utmost to extirpate and totally root out those workers of +iniquity who in the kingdom of Ireland had infected and were always +striving to infect the mass of Catholic purity with the pestiferous +leaven of their heretical contagion. + +The stories told of the actual outbreak of the rebellion are +interesting as an illustration of the universal habit of exaggeration +about Irish affairs, to which I have already alluded. Clarendon +affirms that 40,000 English Protestants were murdered before they +suspected themselves to be in any danger; Temple states that in +the first two months of the rebellion 150,000 Protestants had been +massacred. The Jesuit, O'Mahony, writing in 1645, says "Persevere, +my countrymen, in the path you have entered on, and exterminate your +heretical opponents, their adherents and helpers. Already within four +or five years you have killed 150,000 of them, as you do not deny. I +myself believe that even a greater number of the heretics have been +cut off; would that I could say all." He had doubtless obtained +his information from the returns made by the priests engaged in the +rebellion to the military leaders, the figures of which were much the +same. Yet Lecky (who, though in certain passages of his history he +shows himself to be somewhat biassed in favour of the Irish Roman +Catholic party, is on the whole a remarkably fair and impartial +historian) argues with much force that there is no evidence of +anything like a general massacre, and brings down the number murdered +to about 8,000. Still, that there was a widespread rebellion and all +the consequent horrors of civil war, there can be no doubt. The rebels +of Ulster at one time tried to identify their cause with that of +Charles I by producing a forged commission from the king--which +annoyed the Royalists and made the Parliamentary party all the more +bitter. Charles certainly did his utmost to bring about a peace--no +doubt being anxious to obtain the assistance of his Irish subjects +in his Scotch and English wars. But his efforts were thwarted by the +Papal Nuncio, whose instructions from Rome were that the Holy See +could never by any positive Act approve of the civil allegiance of +Catholic subjects to an heretical prince; and thus the Royalist cause +became as completely lost in Ireland as it was in England. Before the +peace was finally concluded, Charles was a prisoner in the hands of +his enemies. + +Then came the terrible episode of the Cromwellian war, in which +Romanist and Royalist alike went down before the Puritan force. Still, +though he would be a bold man who could attempt to excuse--much less +to justify--the barbarities that took place, it may be doubted whether +all the Cromwellian outrages put together equalled a single one of +those which the Imperial troops had committed during the war which +had been raging for thirty years in Germany--such for instance as the +sacking of Magdeburg. It is estimated, however, that about 600,000 +people (of whom 500,000 were of the Irish race and 100,000 of the +English) perished by the sword, pestilence or famine in the fearful +years between 1641 and 1652--in other words, about a third part of +the population was wiped out. And the war was followed by a wholesale +confiscation--having fought for the king being considered as much an +act of treason as having rebelled against him. The confiscated lands +were allotted to soldiers, to persons who had supplied money to the +Parliamentary forces, and to other supporters of the new Government. +It is but just, however, to add that 700,000 acres of profitable land +in Connaught were allotted to dispossessed Romanists, and that they +were allowed to occupy 100,000 acres in other parts of the country; a +striking contrast to the lot of the unhappy Waldenses who were at that +time being driven from their homes and slaughtered without mercy for +no crime but heresy; or to the treatment a few years later by Louis +XIV of his Huguenot subjects whose lands were confiscated without +compensation and who were only given the choice of death or the +galleys. + +At the Restoration some effort was made to undo the injustice of the +Cromwellian confiscations. But the matter was one of great difficulty. +In many cases land had been allotted by Cromwell in payment for money +received; in others the grantees had sold their holdings to purchasers +who had paid in cash, regarding the original grant as indefeasible. +A reconfiscation of such lands would obviously have worked a great +injustice; and it is a common maxim of law that between two claimants +each with a good title the one in possession is to be preferred. Still +it cannot be said that the decisions of the Royal Commissioners were +always equitable according to our ideas; for instance, the award of +80,000 acres to the Duke of York (afterwards James II) of land which +had been forfeited under Cromwell because the owner had fought for his +father, would be hard to justify on any possible grounds. Still, an +Act of Settlement was passed, by which a certain amount of justice +was done; it is difficult to arrive at the figures accurately, but +it appears that after the passing of the Act nearly one-third of +the Island was vested in Roman Catholic proprietors. Archbishop King +estimated that at the time when he was writing--1689--two-thirds +of the Protestant landowners held their estates under the Act of +Settlement. And Lecky says, "Only an infinitesimal portion of the soil +belongs to the descendants of those who possessed it before Cromwell." +But Archbishop King was influenced by the fear he had felt as to what +the effect of a repeal of the Act would be; and there can hardly be +a doubt that his feelings led him to overestimate the number. With +regard to Lecky's remark, one can only take it as a strange instance +of a gross exaggeration having crept into a book which is usually +careful and accurate. It may be that the statement was not very +incorrect according to the evidence the author had before him; but if +so, that only proves that the evidence was wrong; for the proceedings +in the Land Courts which have been set up in Ireland during the last +half century have shown that the proportion of titles to estates which +date from an earlier period was far larger than people had supposed. + +During the peaceful and tolerant reign of Charles II the country made +steady progress. + +Under James II, however, everything was reversed. That unhappy +monarch, having ascended the throne tranquilly, with many +protestations of toleration and justice to all, succeeded in less than +two years in making it clear to the people of England that his object +was to confine liberty to those who professed his own creed and that +his idea of good government was something like that which was then +existing in France and Savoy. Driven from Great Britain, on his +arrival in Ireland he issued a proclamation declaring that his +Protestant subjects, their religion, privileges and properties were +his especial care; and he had previously directed the Lord Lieutenant +to declare in Council that he would preserve the Act of Settlement +inviolable. But the Protestants soon had reason to fear that his +promises were illusory and that the liberty which might be allowed to +them would be at best temporary. In a word, what the one party looked +forward to with hope and the other with dread was "a confederacy with +France which would make His Majesty's monarchy absolute." + +In order to understand what that meant, to Irish Protestants, it is +well to glance at the condition of France at the time. Louis XIV had +begun by directing that the Edict of Nantes was to be interpreted by +the strictest letter of the law; and soon after that the condition +of the Huguenots became more unhappy than that of the Irish Roman +Catholics ever was during the penal laws. The terrible "Dragonnades" +commenced in 1682; soldiers were billeted on heretics, and unfortunate +women were insulted past endurance; Huguenots were restricted even +as to holding family prayers; children at the age of seven were +encouraged to renounce their faith, and if they did so they were +taken from their parents who, however, were obliged to pay for their +maintenance in convent schools. Protestant churches were closed, and +their endowments handed over to Roman Catholic institutions. Huguenot +children were forbidden all education except the most elementary. No +heretic was allowed to sue a Catholic for debt. All this, however, did +not satisfy the monarch or his ecclesiastical advisers. On the 18th +of October 1685, he issued his famous Revocation of the Edict of +Nantes:-- + + "We by the present Edict which is perpetual and irrevocable, + revoke the Edict given at Nantes in 1583 together with every + concession to the Protestants of whatever nature they be. + We will that all temples of that religion be instantly + demolished. We prohibit our Protestant subjects to assemble + for worship in any private house. We prohibit all our lords + to exercise that religion within their fiefs under penalty of + confiscation of property and imprisonment of person. We enjoin + all ministers of the said faith to leave the kingdom within + fifteen days of the publication of this Edict, under penalty + of the galleys. We enjoin that all children who shall be + born henceforth be baptized by the Catholic curates. Persons + awaiting the enlightening grace of God may live in our kingdom + unhindered on account of their religion on condition that they + do not perform any of its exercises or assemble for prayer or + worship under penalty of body and wealth." + +This Edict met with cordial approval from the Catholic party in +France. The famous Madame de Sevigné wrote: "I admire the king for the +means he has devised for ruining the Huguenots. The wars and massacres +of former days only gave vigour to the sect; but the edict just +issued, aided by the dragoons, will give them the _coup de grace_." + +The Irish Protestants saw with alarm that amongst the soldiers who +came from France to aid King James were some who had taken an active +part in the dragonnades organized by Louis XIV in order to carry out +his edict. Then one Act was passed by the Dublin Parliament repealing +the Act of Settlement; and by another 2,461 persons were declared +guilty of high treason unless they appeared before the Dublin +authorities on a certain day and proved they were not guilty. What +steps King James was prepared to take in order to subdue the rebels of +Derry who held out against him can be gathered from the proclamation +which he directed Conrade de Rosen, his Mareschal General, to issue. +He warned the rebels that if they did not surrender immediately, all +the members of their faction, whether protected or not, in the whole +neighbourhood, would be brought close to the walls of the city and +there starved to death; that he would ravish the countryside, and see +that no man, woman or child escaped; and that if the city still held +out he would give no quarter and spare neither age nor sex, in case it +was taken by force. + +Even if there had been no Derry to relieve and no Protestants in +other parts of the country, the conquest of Ireland was a political +necessity to King William. England was at this time in much the same +position that it had been in the days of Elizabeth, substituting the +name France for Spain. The continental powers were again united in a +supreme effort to stamp out Protestantism, and England once more +stood almost alone. In Spain and Portugal, heresy was of course still +punishable with death; the Pope had celebrated the Revocation of the +Edict of Nantes with a triumphal _Te Deum_; a terrible persecution was +raging not only throughout the Protestant districts of France but also +on the Rhine, in Hungary, Savoy and the Alpine Valleys; if Ireland +had remained a separate kingdom ruled by the ally and admirer of Louis +XIV, the next step would certainly have been an invasion of England +by the joint forces of France and Ireland. All that we in modern +times include in the term "religious liberty" hung on the issue of the +battle that was fought and won on the banks of the Boyne. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE PERIOD OF THE PENAL LAWS. + + +The flight of James II brings us to the era of the "penal laws." To +one who lives in the twentieth century and is embued with the spirit +of modern thought, the whole subject is more than painful--it is +detestable. But to pass it over in silence is impossible; and in order +to get a clear view of the position it is necessary to examine +what the penal laws were, what they were not, and what were the +circumstances of the time during which they were in force. + +The penal laws were a series of enactments carefully planned so as to +harass the Roman Catholics at every moment of their lives, in the hope +of inducing them to abandon their religion. The unhappy people were +prohibited from becoming or voting for members of Parliament; they +were excluded from corporations, the army, the navy and the legal +profession. They were forbidden to bear arms, or even to possess a +horse worth more than £5. Education was denied to them, as they could +not send their sons to the university and were forbidden either to +have schools of their own in Ireland or to send their children abroad. +They were not allowed to possess freehold estates in land, and even as +to leaseholds they were seriously restricted. On the death of a Roman +Catholic his estate was divided amongst his children equally, unless +the eldest son became a Protestant, in which case he inherited the +whole. And as no Roman Catholic was allowed to act as a guardian, a +man never knew that if he should die his children might not be brought +up in a faith that he detested. The performance of Roman Catholic +worship was barely tolerated, as no bishops or other dignitaries were +allowed to remain in Ireland, and the only priests authorized to +say mass were those who were "registered" and had taken the oath of +abjuration--that is, an oath declaring that the Pretender had no right +to the throne. + +Such in brief were those terrible statutes. But without attempting +to excuse them, there are various matters which must be taken into +account if we are to judge them fairly. In the first place, the +political aspect of the question should not be forgotten. The +Protestant minority might justly fear that if the Roman Catholic party +were as powerful as their numbers would naturally cause them to be, +they would aid in bringing about a French invasion for the restoration +of the Stuarts and the re-establishment of the system which had been +in evidence under James II. An army was actually formed in France, and +on more than one occasion was in readiness to start. The Stuarts were +regarded by the Pope as the rightful sovereigns. The Roman Catholic +prelates whose entry into Ireland was forbidden were appointed by +the Pretender and were his political agents; it was that fact, and no +doctrinal reason, that caused their expulsion. It is necessary to make +this quite clear, as there has been as much exaggeration on this point +as on most other subjects connected with Irish history. The words of +the "oath of abjuration" were as follows: + + "I do solemnly and sincerely declare that I do believe in my + conscience that the person pretended to be Prince of Wales + during the life of the late King James and since his decease + taking upon himself the style and title of King of England by + the name of James III hath not any right or title whatever to + the crown of this realm." + +A modern Roman Catholic writer has thus described the oath:-- + + "By the Oath of Abjuration the priest was ordered to swear + that the sacrifice of the mass and the invocation of the + Blessed Virgin and the saints were damnable and idolatrous. In + other words, the priest was ordered to apostatize, or fly for + his life." + +And even if Roman Catholics took the oath of allegiance, the old +difficulty arose as to the papal right to depose princes and to order +their subjects to rebel. So late as 1768, when a declaration was drawn +up which it was hoped the leaders of the Roman Catholic party would +sign, so that the penal laws might be finally done away with, the +Papal Nuncio vetoed the proposal because the declaration contained a +reprobation of the doctrines that faith need not be kept with heretics +and that if the Pope banned a sovereign his subjects might depose and +slay him. It is but fair to add, however, that a large number of Roman +Catholics did sign the declaration; and the penal laws (which had been +relaxed from time to time when it was seen that the Irish took no +part in the Stuart rebellions of 1715 and 1745) were soon afterwards +practically abolished. + +Then it must be borne in mind that the Irish penal laws, although +to some extent modelled on the legislation of Louis XIV against the +Huguenots, were absolutely insignificant compared with those which +were in force at the time in every Roman Catholic country in Europe. +Galling though the Irish laws were, they never went so far as to +make the mere holding of heretical opinions criminal. Thus no one in +Ireland was ever put to death for believing in transubstantiation; +whereas in one diocese of Portugal 20,000 people were sent to the +stake for denying it. As every one who has visited the Madrid picture +gallery will recollect, it was still the custom in the eighteenth +century for the King of Spain to preside in state at the burning of +heretics; and it was not until that century was drawing to a close +that it was for the first time enacted in Portugal that sentence of +death for heresy when passed by the ecclesiastical court should not be +carried into effect unless the order was countersigned by the king. In +France, for two or three heretics to meet for worship anywhere (their +churches had of course all been pulled down) was a crime punishable +with death; and any Huguenot caught whilst attempting to escape from +the country was sent to the galleys--a fate worse than mere death, +for it meant death by slow torture. And every child was forcibly +taken from its heretic parents at the age of five, and educated in a +convent. + +But more than that: Roman Catholics who fled from the tyranny of the +penal laws at home had no scruple, when they reached the Continent, in +taking part in persecutions far more terrible than anything they had +seen in Ireland. During the dragonnades in Languedoc, Louis XIV's +Irish brigade joined eagerly in the butchery of old men, women +and children and the burning of whole villages. The same heroes +distinguished themselves by destroying everything they could find in +remote Alpine valleys so that the unfortunate Waldenses might die of +starvation. And the Irish troops under Lord Mountcashel aided in the +burning of 1,000 villages in the Palatinate of the Rhine, in which +all the inhabitants--men, women and children--were slain by the sword, +burnt to death, or left to perish from hunger. These persecutions were +practically brought to an end by the French Revolution and the rise +of modern ideas; but the ecclesiastical authorities, though they +have lost their power, have shown no sign of having changed their +principles. Even in the middle of the nineteenth century King Victor +Emmanuel was excommunicated by Pope Pius IX for allowing his Vaudois +subjects to build a church for themselves at Turin. + +Of course it may be said with perfect truth that two blacks do not +make one white. Still, the constant complaints about the tyranny of +the penal laws have less force when they come from the representatives +of a party who acted in the same way themselves whenever they had the +opportunity. + +It is indeed frequently urged as a matter of aggravation that whereas +other persecutions were those of a minority by a majority, this was of +a majority by a minority. To me, so far as this makes any difference +at all, it tells the other way. As a matter of morality, I fail to +see any difference; putting all the inhabitants of an Alpine valley +to death as heretics does not seem to me one whit the less horrible +because the sovereign also ruled a large Catholic population on +the plains. On the other hand, the fact that the Roman Catholics +in Ireland formed the majority of the population prevented the +persecution from being strictly carried out. It was comparatively +easy for Louis XIV to surround a heretic district with a cordon of +soldiers, and then draw them closer together searching every house as +they went, seizing the clergy and taking them off to the galleys; but +it was impossible to track unregistered priests through the mountains +and valleys of Munster. Hence the law as to the registration of +priests soon became a dead letter. + +There was indeed one great difference, between Irish and continental +persecution. On the continent it was the holiest and best men who were +the keenest persecutors. (This may seem strange to modern readers; +but anyone who has studied the lives of Bossuet and San Carlo Borromeo +will admit that it is true.) Hence the persecution was carried out +with that vigour which was necessary to make it a success. In Spain, +if a heretic under torture or the fear of it consented to recant, the +Holy Office was not satisfied with a mere formal recantation; for the +rest of his life the convert was watched day and night to see that +there was no sign of back-sliding; and even the possession of a +fragment of the New Testament was considered as sufficient evidence +of a relapse to send the wretched man to the stake. Consequently, in a +generation or two heresy became as extinct as Christianity did amongst +the Kabyles of North Africa after the Mohammedan persecution. In +Ireland, however, persecution was always against the grain with +religiously-minded Protestants. Seven bishops protested against the +first enactment of the Penal Laws; and during the period when they +were in force, the bishops repeatedly spoke and voted in favour of +each proposed mitigation of them. (With this one may contrast the +action of the French bishops who on the accession of Louis XVI in +1774 presented an address to the new king urging him to increase the +persecution of the Huguenots which had become somewhat slack during +the later years of his predecessor. By the irony of fate the same men +were a few years later pleading vainly for the mercy which they had +never shown in the days of their power.) Nor was this tolerant feeling +confined to the bishops. By the aid of the Protestant gentry, the laws +were continually being evaded. Protestants appointed by the Court as +guardians of Roman Catholic children, used to carry out the wishes of +the Roman Catholic relations; Roman Catholic proprietors frequently +handed over their estates to Protestant friends as Trustees, and, +though such Trusts were of course not enforceable at law, there were +very few instances in which they were not faithfully performed. Many +strange stories are told of the evasions of the Acts. On one occasion +whilst it was still illegal for a popish recusant to own a horse of +a greater value than £5, a man met a Roman Catholic gentleman who +was riding a handsome horse; he held out £5 in one hand, and with the +other caught hold of the bridle. The rider, naturally infuriated at +this, struck the man with his whip so heavily that he fell down dead. +When he was tried for murder, the judge decided that as the man had +laid a hand on the bridle, the rider had reason to suppose that he +intended to take it as well as the horse, which would have been +an illegal act; consequently he was justified in defending himself +against highway robbery; and therefore the charge must be dismissed. +Again, a Roman Catholic proprietor found out that an effort was likely +to be made to deprive him of his estate. He rode up to Dublin on a +Saturday; on Sunday he received the Holy Communion at a Protestant +Church; on Monday he executed a deed transferring his estate to a +Protestant friend as Trustee; on Tuesday he was received back into +the Church of Rome; and on Wednesday he rode home again, to enjoy his +estate free from further molestation. + +The schools which were founded in order to convert the rising +generation were a strange contrast to the admirably conducted +institutions established in France and Spain for a similar purpose. +They were so disgracefully mismanaged that the pupils who had passed +through them looked back on everything that had been taught them there +with a lifelong disgust. + +It is needless to say that laws thus carried out were a dead failure +as far as winning converts was concerned. On the other hand, they +became in one sense the more galling as the enforcement of them fell +into the hands of a low class of informers who had no object beyond +making money for themselves. Still, public feeling was so strong that +by the middle of the century the laws had almost fallen into abeyance. +Brook, writing in 1762, says: "Though these laws are still in force, +it is long since they have been in action. They hang like a sword by a +thread over the heads of these people, and Papists walk under them in +security and peace; for whoever should adventure to cut this thread +would become ignominious and detestable." And in 1778 and 1782 (that +is, when, as an Irish Roman Catholic writer has pointed out, there was +still neither toleration nor peace for Protestant populations in any +Catholic state in Europe) the Irish Protestant Parliament formally +repealed nearly all the penal laws. + +Probably their most lasting effect was that relating to the tenure +of land. If free purchase and sale regardless of religion had been +allowed throughout the eighteenth century, one may conjecture that +the effect of the Cromwellian confiscations would long since have died +away. But these laws perpetuated that peculiar state of things which +has been the cause of so much unhappiness in Ireland--the landlords +generally belonged to one religion, and their tenants and dependents +to another. + +It may be asked, As these odious laws all came to an end generations +ago, what is the good of recalling the sorrows of the past which had +much better be forgotten? I reply, None whatever; and very glad I +should be if the whole subject were quietly dropped. But unfortunately +that is just what the Roman Catholic party in Ireland will not do. One +of the ways in which religious animosity is being kept alive (and I +regret to say is being steadily increased) is by the teaching in +the Roman Catholic schools of exaggerated accounts of the penal laws +without referring to any of the mitigating circumstances. Even in the +present year--1913--the Lenten pastoral of one of the bishops goes +back to the same old subject. If other countries acted in a similar +manner, how could the grievances of bygone centuries ever be +forgotten? The Jews, cruelly treated though they were during the time +of the Norman kings, do not harp on the subject in England to-day. It +may be doubted whether all the religious persecutions of Europe +put together were as great a disgrace to Christendom as the slave +trade--in which, I am ashamed to say, England strove to obtain the +pre-eminence amongst European nations and which she forced upon her +colonies against their will. Yet I should regret it deeply if that +were the one passage of history selected for study in the schools and +colleges for coloured pupils in the West Indies at the present day. +When a man who has suffered wrong in former years broods over it +instead of thinking of his present blessings and his future prospects, +one may be sure that he is a man who will not succeed in life; and +what is true of individuals is true also of nations. + +The expression "Protestant ascendancy," although it never came into +use during the period with which we are dealing, has so frequently +since then been employed with reference to it, that it is necessary +to explain its meaning. Probably no word in the English language +has suffered more from being used in different senses than the word +"Protestant." In Ireland it frequently used to be, and still sometimes +is, taken as equivalent to "Anglican" or "Episcopalian"; to an +Irishman of the last century it would have appeared quite natural to +speak of "Protestants and Presbyterians," meaning thereby two distinct +bodies. This is a matter of historical importance; for so far from +the Presbyterian element being favoured during the period of the Penal +Laws, the English Toleration Act had not been extended to Ireland; +Presbyterians were by the sacramental test excluded from all municipal +offices; their worship, though never in practice interfered with, +remained technically illegal. Their share in "Protestant ascendancy" +was therefore very limited. + +But if the Established Church was the one favoured body, it had to pay +dearly for its privileges. In truth, the state of the Irish Church +at this period of its history, was deplorable. All the positions of +value--bishoprics, deaneries and important parishes--were conferred +on Englishmen, who never resided in their cures, but left the duties +either to be performed by half-starved deputies or not at all. Many +of the churches were in ruins, and the glebes had fallen into decay; +a union of half-a-dozen parishes would scarcely supply a meagre +salary for one incumbent. A large proportion of the tithes had been +appropriated by laymen; how small a sum actually reached the clergy +is shown by the fact that the first-fruits (that is, the year's income +paid by incumbents on their appointment) did not amount to more than +£500 a year in all. It may be that the standard of religious life +was not lower in Ireland than it was in England when the +spiritually-minded non-Jurors had been driven out and Hanoverian +deadness was supreme; but in England there was no other Church to form +a contrast. In Ireland the apathy and worldliness of the Protestant +clergy stood out in bold relief against the heroic devotion of the +priests and friars; and at the time when the unhappy peasants, forced +to pay tithes to a Church which they detested, were ready to starve +themselves to support their own clergy and to further the cause of +their religion, the well-to-do Protestant graziers and farmers were +straining the law so as to evade the payment of tithes, and never +thought of doing anything further to support the Church to which they +were supposed to belong. (It is but fair, however, to state that +this condition of things has long since passed away; the Evangelical +revival breathed new life into the dry bones of Irish Protestantism.) + +But it was not merely in religious matters that Ireland suffered +during this melancholy period. Students of modern history whose +researches usually commence with the early part of the nineteenth +century, are wont to gather from text-books the idea that the policy +of the manufacturing party in England has always been liberal, +progressive and patriotic; whereas that of the landed interest has +been retrograde and selfish. There cannot be a greater delusion. +English manufacturers have been just as self-seeking and narrow-minded +as other people--no more and no less; they have been quite as ready +to sacrifice the interests of others when they believed them to be +opposed to their own, as the much-abused landowners. At this time +every nation in Europe regarded the outlying portions of the Empire +as existing only for the benefit of the centre; in fact, the English +development of the "Colonial System" even then was more liberal than +those of Spain or Holland. The English system, if perfectly carried +out, was by no means unfair. The ground idea was that the mother +country voluntarily restricted herself in matters of trade for the +benefit of the Colonies, and the Colonies had to do the same for the +benefit of the mother country. Thus, when England refused to admit +timber from the Baltic in order to benefit the Canadian lumber trade; +and placed a prohibitive duty on sugar from Cuba so as to secure the +English market for Jamaica; it was but fair that the trade in other +articles from Canada and Jamaica should be directed to England. To +say that the whole thing was a mistake, as such restrictions really +injured both parties, is no answer, as no one at that time dreamed of +such a thing as free trade. The real answer is that it was impossible +to keep the balance true; some slight change of circumstances might +render that unfair which up to then had been perfectly equal. And +as the English merchants were on the spot and commanded votes in +Parliament, any injustice against them would be speedily rectified; +the colonists living at a distance and having no means of making their +voice heard, would be left to suffer. + +In applying the colonial system to Ireland, it is true that in theory +England undertook to protect her by means of the British army and +navy, from foreign foes; but beyond that, the system was to Ireland +all loss and no gain. Every branch of Irish industry was deliberately +ruined by the English Government. By the Navigation Act of 1663, trade +between Ireland and the British Colonies was forbidden; soon after, +the importation of Irish beef, mutton, pork and butter into +England was prohibited; then, at the request of the English woollen +manufacturers, the export of woollen goods from Ireland to any country +was stopped; and finally, with a refinement of cruelty, the export of +linen articles--the one industry that had hitherto been left to +the unfortunate country--was restricted to the coarsest and poorest +varieties, for fear of offending the Dutch. + +The result of all this wretched misgovernment was not merely +destitution bordering on famine, but a wholesale emigration. Whilst +the Roman Catholics were leaving the country to avoid the penal laws, +the most skilful and industrious of the artizan class,--the very +backbone of the nation--were being driven out by the prohibition of +their trades. It is said that no less than 30,000 men were thrown out +of employment by the destruction of the woollen industry alone. These +were nearly all Protestants; to encourage them would have done more to +Protestantize the country than all the penal laws and charter schools +put together; but they were ruthlessly sacrificed to the greed of the +English manufacturers. Some went to the Continent, many more to New +England and the other American colonies, where they prospered, and +they and their sons became some of Washington's best soldiers in the +War of Independence. + +It was only natural that thoughtful men in Ireland should cast envious +eyes on Scotland, which had recently secured the benefit of union +with England, and consequently was able to develop her commerce +and manufactures unhindered. But though the subject of a union was +discussed, and even referred to in addresses from the Irish Parliament +to Queen Anne, no active steps were taken. + +Still, in considering these commercial restrictions, as in the case of +the penal laws, we must not lose sight of the fact that the state +of circumstances we are dealing with has long passed away. It is +necessary for a historian to refer to it, even if he finds it hard to +do so in a perfectly dispassionate way; but it is waste of time and +energy for the present generation to go on brooding over woes which +had come to an end before their grandfathers were born. Yet that is +what the Nationalists of to-day are doing. Not long ago, the Old +Boys' Association of an Irish Roman Catholic College resolved, very +laudably, to found an annual prize at their alma mater. The subject +they selected was an essay on the treatment by England of Irish +industries before the year 1800! Had it been a Scotch or a German +College, the subject chosen would probably have been, The progress +in scientific knowledge during the last century, or, Improvements in +means of travel since 1820; and one must ask, which subject of study +is likely to be most profitable to young men who have to make their +way in the modern world? + +It may be asked, why did the Irish Parliament do nothing to stay this +national ruin? The answer is that the Irish Parliament possessed very +little power. The Bill of Rights of course did not apply to Ireland; +general elections were very rare, and a large number of members +were paid officers of the Government; the English Parliament had a +co-ordinate power of legislating for Ireland; and since Poyning's Act +(as explained by the declaratory Act of George I) was still in force, +no Bill could be introduced into the Irish Parliament until it had +been approved both by the Irish and the English Councils; and the +Irish Parliament might then pass it or reject it but had no power to +amend it. + +And the use which the English Government made of the Irish Parliament +was as disgraceful as their treatment of Irish industries. Miserably +poor though the country was, it was burdened by the payment of +pensions of a nature so scandalous that the English Parliament even of +that period would not have tolerated them. + +The conditions of land tenure also added to the miseries of the +country. It is often said that the land belonged to wealthy English +absentees, and the unfortunate occupiers, who had no security of +tenure, were ground down by the payment of exorbitant rents. This is +literally true; but, like most partial statements, misleading. Much +of the land was owned by wealthy Englishmen--which of itself was a +serious evil; but they let it in large farms at low rents on long +leases, in the hope that the occupiers would execute their own +improvements. Instead of that, however, their tenants sublet their +holdings in smaller lots to others; and these subtenants did the same +again; thus there were sometimes three or four middlemen, and the rent +paid by the actual occupier to his immediate landlord was ten times +the amount the nominal owner received. As the rate of wages +was miserably low, and the rent of a cabin and a plot of ground +scandalously high, how the wretched occupiers managed to keep body and +soul together is a mystery. Much has been written about the useless, +dissipated lives of these middlemen or "squireens"; and no doubt it is +to a great extent true, although, like everything else in Ireland, it +has been exaggerated. Travellers have told us of some landlords +who resided on their estates, did their utmost to improve them, and +forbade subletting (in spite of the unpopularity caused by their doing +so). And one of the remarkable features of later Irish history is that +whenever there was a period of acute difficulty and danger there were +always country gentlemen to be found ready to risk their lives and +fortunes or to undertake the thankless and dangerous duties of county +magistrates. + +It is curious how close a parallel might be drawn between the way +in which Norman Ireland was Ersefied and that in which Cromwellian +Ireland was Catholicized. Many of those who became large landowners +by the Cromwellian confiscations, having no religious prejudices (some +might say, no religious or humane feelings), when the leases of +their tenants fell in, put the farms up to auction regardless of the +feelings of the occupiers. As the Roman Catholics were content with +a simpler manner of life than the Protestants, they generally offered +higher rents; the dispossessed Protestants, driven from their homes, +joined their brethren in America. Then in the South, the poorer of +Cromwell's settlers, in some cases, neglected by their own pastors, +joined the religion of the majority; in others, intermarrying with the +natives, allowed their children to be brought up in the faith of their +mothers. Hence we arrive at the curious fact that at the present day +some of the most ardent Romanists and violent Nationalists, who are +striving to have the Irish language enforced all over the country, +and pose as the representatives of ancient Irish septs, are really the +descendants of Cromwell's soldiers. + +So passed the greater part of the eighteenth century; and the unhappy +country seemed as far off from progress and prosperity as ever. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE EARLIER PART OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. THE ACQUISITION OF +INDEPENDENCE BY THE IRISH PARLIAMENT. + + +When we come to the reign of George III we have arrived at a specially +interesting period of Irish history. For we are no longer dealing with +a state of society that has wholly passed away; the great events that +occurred towards the close of the eighteenth century are continually +referred to as bearing, at least by analogy, on the questions of the +present day. It is for the honest historian to examine how far that +analogy is real, and how far it is delusive. + +For some time after the accession of George III, the state of Ireland +was almost as miserable as before. Trade and manufactures being nearly +crushed out, want of employment brought the people in the towns to the +brink of starvation. In the country, although the middle classes were +on the whole becoming more prosperous, the condition of the labourers +and cottiers was wretched in the extreme. It is not to be wondered at +therefore that we now hear of the commencement of two movements which +were destined later on to play so important a part in the history of +Ireland--the agitation against the payment of tithes and the rise of +secret societies. Few men at the present day could be found who would +attempt to justify the tithe system as it prevailed in the eighteenth +century. It was not merely that the starving peasantry were forced to +contribute towards the maintenance of a religion in which they did not +believe, but the whole manner of levying and collecting the tithes +was bad; and what made them still more annoying was the fact that the +clergy never thought of performing the duties for which tithes were +supposed to exist; the large majority of the rectors did not even +reside in their parishes. The principal secret societies were the +Oakboys and the Steelboys of the north, and the Whiteboys of +the south. The northern societies soon came to an end; but the +organization of the Whiteboys continued to spread, and for a time +it assumed alarming proportions. Commencing as a war against tithe +proctors, the enclosure of commons, and the substitution of grazing +land for tillage, they went on to commit outrages of various sorts, +and something like a reign of terror spread over a large tract of +country. But it may safely be said that generally speaking their +conduct was not nearly so violent as that of other secret societies of +a later date; and the evidence of any foreign influence being at +work, or of religious animosity being connected with the movement, is +slight. + +It is interesting to observe that, whenever there was a violent and +abnormal outbreak of crime, the Irish Parliament did not hesitate to +pass special laws to meet the case. Such measures as the Whiteboy Act +of 1787, or the Insurrection Act and the Habeas Corpus Suppression +Act of 1796, which were readily passed whilst the Irish Parliament was +completely independent, are frequently referred to by modern agitators +as amongst the brutal Coercion Acts which the tyranny of England has +forced on an innocent people. + +The harshness of the Penal Laws was steadily being relaxed. All +restrictions on worship, or the number of clergy allowed, had long +since fallen into abeyance. Roman Catholic students were admitted +into Trinity College, Dublin; and the authorities of the University +expressed their readiness to appoint a Divinity Professor of their own +faith for them if they wished it. The restrictions on property were +becoming obsolete; and political restrictions were not felt so keenly +since most of the Roman Catholics would have been ineligible for the +franchise on the ground of their poverty even if the stumbling block +of religion had been removed. And the loyal sentiments expressed by +the Roman Catholics made the best of the Protestants all the more +anxious to repeal the laws which they had never regarded with favour. +Then amongst educated people not only in Ireland but elsewhere, +religion was ceasing to be the great line of cleavage; other +matters--political, social, and commercial--were occupying men's +thoughts and forming new combinations. + +The political state of the country was peculiar. The real government +was carried on by the Lord Lieutenant and his officials; but as the +hereditary revenue did not supply funds sufficient for that purpose, +it was necessary to have recourse to Parliament. And the constitution +of that Parliament was as extraordinary as most things in Ireland. +A session was usually held every second year, but a Parliament might +last for a whole reign. The House of Commons consisted of 300 members, +of whom only 64 represented counties, and most of the rest nominally +sat for small boroughs, but really were appointed by certain +individuals. It was at one time computed that 124 members were +nominated by 53 peers, whilst 91 others were chosen by 52 commoners. +A large number of the members--a third of the whole house, it is +said--were in receipt of pensions, or held offices of profit under the +Crown. Of course there was no such thing as party government--in fact, +parties did not exist, though individuals might sometimes vote against +the wish of the government. The Lord Lieutenant, however, managed to +retain a majority by what would now be called flagrant and wholesale +bribery. Peerages, sinecures and pensions were bestowed with a lavish +hand; and every appointment, ecclesiastical or civil, was treated as +a reward for political services. But history affords many instances of +how assemblies constituted in what seems to be the most unsatisfactory +way possible, have been remarkable for the ability and patriotism they +have shown; and certainly this was the case with that unrepresentative +collection of Protestant landlords, Dublin barristers, and paid +officials, who composed the Irish Parliament. A "National" party arose +(I shall presently explain what was the meaning attached to that word +at the time) who strove to win for Ireland the laws which in England +had been enacted long before and which were regarded as the very +foundations of British liberty. Statutes were passed limiting the +duration of Parliament to eight years; establishing the _Habeas +Corpus_; and making judges irremoveable. Afterwards, most of the +Penal Laws were repealed; and at the same time the disabilities of the +Protestant Dissenters were abolished. + +But meanwhile foreign affairs were tending to bring about changes yet +more sweeping. When England went to war with both France and Spain, +the condition of Ireland was well-nigh desperate. The country was +almost denuded of regular troops; steps had indeed been taken for the +establishment of a militia, and arms had actually been purchased; but +in the hopelessly insolvent condition of the Irish Exchequer, it was +impossible to do anything further. And a French invasion might arrive +at any moment. At this crisis the country gentlemen came forward. They +formed their tenants and dependants into regiments of volunteers, of +which they took command themselves, and strained their resources to +the utmost in order to bear the expense of the undertaking. And +the rank and file--farmers and labourers--seemed fired by the same +enthusiasm. The movement spread rapidly over the country, but it +possessed more vitality in Ulster than elsewhere. It soon became +evident that Ulster volunteers may form a body not to be disregarded. + +The troubles of England, however, were not limited to the Continent. +The American War broke out. We, who view the question impartially +through the long vista of years, can see that there was much to be +said for the English claim. The mother country had been brought to the +verge of bankruptcy by a long and exhausting war waged with France for +the protection of the American colonies; surely it was only fair that +those colonies, who had taken but a very small part in the war, should +at least bear a fraction of the cost. But the cry of "No taxation +without representation" was raised; the Americans rebelled; and +England was placed in the humiliating position of being defeated by +her own colonists. During that period Ireland remained thoroughly +loyal; the efforts of Franklin and his party to enlist Ireland +on their side were as complete a failure as those of the French +emissaries had been shortly before. But it was inevitable that the +success of the American revolution should have a strong effect on +Irish affairs. Amongst the northern Presbyterians there had always +been a feeling somewhat akin to Republicanism; and (as we have seen) +many of their relations were fighting in Washington's army. Then +in Ireland there was something much worse than taxation without +representation: the English Parliament, in which Ireland had no part, +claimed to legislate for Ireland and was actually at that moment +keeping the country in a state of semi-starvation by imposing severe +restrictions on commerce. Irish politicians read the offers of +conciliation made by the English Government to the revolted colonies, +in which not only was the power of taxation given up and freedom of +internal legislation established, but all power of the Parliament of +Great Britain over America was renounced; and began to ask whether +England could withhold from loyal Irishmen the boons which she offered +to rebellious Americans. The claims were urged in Parliament and +at meetings of the volunteers and other public bodies; the English +Government for some time refused to grant any concession; but at +length, fearing an Irish Revolution, gave way on every point. They +granted, in fact, as an Irish statesman expressed it, "everything +short of separation." First (in spite of the opposition of the English +manufacturing classes) all restrictions on trade were swept away; +then, in 1782, the Declaratory Act of George I, by virtue of which the +English Parliament had claimed the right to legislate for Ireland, was +repealed, and with it went the right of the English House of Lords to +act as a court of final appeal for Ireland; the restrictions imposed +by Poyning's Act on the legislative powers of the Irish Parliament +were abolished; and the Irish Executive was made practically dependent +on the Irish Parliament by the Mutiny Act, which had previously been +perpetual, being limited to two years. + +Thus Ireland became a nation in a sense she had never been before. The +only tie to any power beyond sea was that the King of England was also +King of Ireland; Ireland could legislate for itself, and enter into +commercial treaties with foreign powers; but, on the other hand, it +had to pay its own debts and provide its own army and navy. + +As Grattan was not merely the most prominent politician of the period, +but also the leader of the now triumphant "National" party, we may +fairly take the views expressed by him as representative of those of +the party that followed him. A study of his speeches and letters will +show how utterly different were the ideas and aims of the National +party of 1782 from those of the Nationalists of to-day. In the first +place, Grattan was intensely loyal; that is to say, it never occurred +to him that Ireland could ever wish to be independent in the sense of +not being subject to the King of England, or could seek to be united +to any other power. Secondly, he was intensely aristocratic. His idea +was that Government should and would always be in the hands of the +propertied and educated classes; that Parliament should consist of +country gentlemen and professional men from the towns, elected on a +narrow franchise. (It must be remembered that the country gentlemen +had recently given evidence of their patriotic zeal by the +inauguration of the Volunteer movement; and the ability and eloquence +of the Irish Bar at that period is proverbial). Thirdly, he regarded +Protestant ascendancy as a fundamental necessity. It is true that +other politicians at the time saw that they were faced with a serious +difficulty: the very principles to which they had appealed and by +virtue of which they had obtained their legislative independence +made it illogical that three-fourths of the community should be +unrepresented; whereas if votes were given to the Roman Catholic +majority it was inevitable that they would soon become eligible for +seats in the Legislature; and if so, the Protestant minority must be +swamped, and the country ruled by a very different class and according +to very different ideas from those which prevailed in the Parliament +of which Grattan was a member. And would a Roman Catholic Parliament +and nation care to remain subject to a King of England whose title +depended on his being a Protestant? Grattan, however, swept all such +considerations aside with an easy carelessness. He believed that under +the influences of perfect toleration large numbers of Roman Catholics +would conform; and the remainder, quite satisfied with their position, +would never dream of attacking the Church or any other existing +institution. We may smile at his strange delusions as to the future; +but he was probably not more incorrect than many people are to-day in +their conjectures as to what the world will be like a hundred years +hence; and if we try to place ourselves in Grattan's position, +there is something to be said for his conjectures. At that time the +influence of the Church of Rome was at its lowest; Spain had almost +ceased to exist as a European power; and in France the state of +religious thought was very different from what it had been in the days +of Louis XIV. Irish Roman Catholic gentlemen who sent their sons to +be educated in France found that they came back Voltaireans; even the +young men who went to study for the priesthood in French seminaries +became embued with liberalism to an extent that would make a modern +Ultramontane shudder. Then in Ireland all local power was in the hands +of the landlords; the Roman Catholic bishops possessed hardly any +political influence. It would have required more keenness than a mere +enthusiast like Grattan possessed to foresee that the time would come +when all this would be absolutely reversed. What was there in the +eighteenth century to lead him to surmise that in the twentieth the +landlords would be ruined and gone, and that local government would +have become vested in District Councils in which Protestants would +have no power, but over which the authority of the bishops would be +absolute? + +So Grattan and his party entered on the new conditions of political +life with airy optimism. But there were, both in England and France, +shrewder and more far-seeing men than he, who realised from the first +that the new state of affairs could not possibly be a lasting one, but +must lead either to union or complete separation. Of course so long +as all parties happened to be of the same mind, no difficulties +would arise; but it was merely a question of time when some cause +of friction would occur, and then the inherent weakness of the +arrangement would be apparent. A moment's thought will show that +for Ireland to be subject to the English King but independent of the +English Parliament was a physical impossibility. The king would act +on the advice of his ministers who were responsible to the English +Parliament; either the Irish Parliament must obey, or a deadlock would +ensue. Then, suppose that England were to become engaged in a war of +which the people of Ireland disapproved, Ireland might not only +refuse to make any voluntary grant in aid, but even declare her +ports neutral, withdraw her troops, and pass a vote of censure on the +English Government. Again, with regard to trade; Ireland might adopt a +policy of protection against England, and enter into a treaty for free +trade with some foreign country which might be at the moment England's +deadliest rival. The confusion that might result would be endless. + +Considerations such as these presented themselves at once to the +master-mind of Pitt. He pointed out that as England had relinquished +her right to limit Irish trade for the benefit of English, she was in +fairness relieved from the corresponding duty of protecting Ireland +against foreign foes; the two countries should therefore both +contribute to their joint defence in proportion to their means. He +proposed that regular treaties should be drawn up between the two +countries, by which Ireland should contribute a certain sum to the +navy, free trade between Ireland and England should be established, +and regulations made whereby the duties payable on foreign goods +should be assimilated. By such measures as these he hoped to make +things run smoothly for a time at least; but when his projects were +rejected by the Irish Parliament, he saw more clearly than ever that +sooner or later the Gordian knot would have to be cut, and that the +only way of cutting it would be the Union. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE INDEPENDENT PARLIAMENT. THE REGENCY QUESTION. THE COMMENCEMENT OF +THE REBELLION. + + +That Ireland increased in prosperity rapidly towards the end of the +eighteenth century, there is no doubt. Politicians will say that this +prosperity came from the increased powers gained by the Parliament in +1782; economists will reply that that had little if anything to say +to it; far more important causes being the abolition of trade +restrictions and the relaxation of the Penal Laws, which encouraged +people to employ their money in remunerative works at home instead of +having to send it abroad. It may sound somewhat Hibernian to mention +the rise in rents, as another cause of prosperity; yet anyone who +knows Ireland will admit that it is not impossible; and it was +certainly put forward gravely by writers of the period who were by no +means biassed towards the landlord interest. Thus McKenna, writing in +1793, says:-- + + "In several parts of Ireland the rents have been tripled + within 40 years. This was not so much the effect as the cause + of national prosperity; ... before the above-mentioned period, + when rent was very low and other taxes little known, half the + year was lavished in carousing. But as soon as labour became + compulsory, fortunes have been raised both by the tenantry and + landlords, and civilization has advanced materially." + +There was also another cause of prosperity, which modern economists +cannot look on with much favour. It was the policy of the Irish +Government to grant enormous bounties for the development of various +industries, especially the growth of corn. This no doubt gave much +employment, promoted the breaking up of grass lands, the subdivision +of farms and the erection of mills; and so long as the price of corn +was maintained, brought much prosperity to the country, and thus was +indirectly one cause of the enormous increase of population, which +rose from about 2,370,000 in 1750, to about 4,500,000 in 1797. But +when, during the nineteenth century, prices fell, the whole structure, +built on a fictitious foundation, came down with a crash. + +Not long after the Irish Parliament had acquired its independence, a +controversy arose which, although it had no immediate result, yet +was of vast importance on account of the principle involved. The king +became insane. It was necessary that there should be a Regent, and it +was obvious that the Prince of Wales was the man for the post. But +the British constitution contained no provision for making the +appointment. After much deliberation, the English Parliament decided +to pass an Act appointing the Prince Regent and defining his powers, +the Royal assent being given by Commission. The two houses of the +Irish Parliament, however, without waiting for the Prince to be +invested with the Regency in England, voted an address to him asking +him to undertake the duties of Regent, without naming any limitations. +As the king recovered almost immediately, the whole matter ended in +nothing; but thoughtful men realized what was involved in the position +which the Irish Parliament had taken up. Grattan's resolution was +to the effect that in addressing the Prince to take upon himself +the government of the country the Lords and Commons of Ireland were +exercising an undoubted right and discharging an indispensable duty to +which in the emergency they alone were competent. By the Act of Henry +VIII the King of England was _ipso facto_ King of Ireland. An Irish +Act of William and Mary declared that the Crown of Ireland and all the +powers and prerogatives belonging to it should be for ever annexed to +and dependent on the Crown of England. And the Act of 1782 made the +Great Seal of Great Britain necessary to the summoning of an Irish +Parliament and the passing of Irish Acts. Now did the words "King" +and "Crown" merely refer to the individual who had the right to wear +a certain diadem, or did they include the chief executive magistrate, +whoever that might be--King, Queen or Regent? It was ably contended by +Lord Clare that the latter was the only possible view; for the Regent +of Great Britain must hold the Great Seal; and so he alone could +summon an Irish Parliament; therefore the Irish Parliament in choosing +their Regent had endangered the only bond which existed between +England and Ireland--the necessary and perpetual identity of the +executive. If the Irish Parliament appointed one person Regent and the +English Parliament another, separation or war might be the result; and +even as it was, the appointment of the Prince with limited powers in +England and unlimited in Ireland, must lead to confusion. But more +than that; suppose that the House of Brunswick were to die out, and +another Act of Settlement were to become necessary, might not the +Irish Parliament choose a different sovereign from the one chosen by +England? Constitutional lawyers recollected that such a difficulty +nearly arose between Scotland and England, but was settled by the Act +of Union; and that it was the recognition of Lambert Simnel by the +Irish Parliament that was the immediate cause of the passing of +Poyning's Act; and saw what the revived powers of the Irish Parliament +might lead to. + +Although the Parliament had now become independent, there was still +nothing like a responsible ministry as we now understand it, and the +government managed to maintain its control, partly by the peculiar +composition of the Parliament (to which I have already referred), and +partly by the disposal of favours. And it cannot be denied that the +Parliament passed much useful legislation. Two questions, however, +were now coming forward on which the whole political condition of the +country depended, and which were closely entwined with one another. +The first was the reform of the legislature, so as to make the House +of Commons a really representative body; the second was the final +abolition of the Penal Laws. As to reform, the Parliament was +naturally slow (did any political assembly in the world ever divest +itself of its own privileges without pressure from without?); but as +to the abolition of the Penal Laws there was a cordiality which is +remarkable, and which is seldom referred to by the Nationalist writers +of the present day when they discourse about the Penal Laws. With +regard to social matters--such as admission to Corporations, taking +Degrees at the University, and holding medical professorships,--there +was hardly any hesitation; the political question, however, was more +difficult. In both England and Ireland at that time a forty-shilling +freehold gave a vote. That was a matter of slight importance in +England, as the number of small freeholders was limited, land being +usually let for a term of years. In Ireland, however, the ordinary +arrangement was for peasants to hold their scraps of land for life; +and land having recently increased in value enormously, a large +proportion of these were of the value of forty shillings. Hence, the +whole constituency would be altered; thousands of new electors, all of +them poor and illiterate, would be added in many constituencies; +and the representation of the country would at once pass into Roman +Catholic hands. To fix a higher qualification for Roman Catholics than +for Protestants would be not to abolish but to perpetuate the Penal +Laws; to deprive the existing voters of the franchise was out of the +question; hence the franchise was granted but not without considerable +hesitation on the part of the more thoughtful members. On the other +hand it was urged with great force that to give these privileges to +the uneducated mass but to continue the disabilities of the Roman +Catholic gentry by not allowing them to sit in Parliament was absurd. +The proposal to abolish the religious test in the case of Members of +Parliament was, however, defeated. + +Looking back, with the light of later history to aid us, it is +interesting to see how much more correct were Lord Clare's predictions +of the future than Grattan's. Grattan (as I have already explained), +taking his ideas from his lay friends among the cultured classes, and +seeing the decline of the Papal influence on the continent, considered +that anyone who regarded Popery as a political influence of the future +totally misunderstood the principles which then governed human action; +for controverted points of religion (such as belief in the Real +Presence) had ceased to be a principle of human action. He maintained +that the cause of the Pope, as a political force, was as dead as that +of the Stuarts; that priestcraft was a superannuated folly; and +that in Ireland a new political religion had arisen, superseding +all influence of priest and parson, and burying for ever theological +discord in the love of civil and religious liberty. Clare, who was +not only a shrewder observer but a much more deeply read man, realized +that in order to find out what would guide the Roman Catholic Church +in the future one must look not at the passing opinions of laymen but +at the constitution of the Church; he foresaw that if the artificial +supports which maintained the Protestant ascendancy were removed, the +mere force of numbers would bring about a Roman Catholic ascendancy; +and in enumerating the results of that he even said that the time +would come when the Church would decide on all questions as to +marriage. + +In order to show how far Lord Clare's expectations have been verified, +I will quote, not the words of an Orange speaker or writer, but of +an eminent Roman Catholic, the Rev. J.T. McNicholas, O.P., in his +recently published book on "The New Marriage Legislation" which, being +issued with an _Imprimatur_, will be received by all parties as a work +of authority. He says:-- + + "Many Protestants may think the Church presumptuous in + decreeing their marriages valid or invalid according as they + have or have not complied with certain conditions. As the + Church cannot err, neither can she be presumptuous. She alone + is judge of the extent of her power. Anyone validly baptised, + either in the Church or among heretics, becomes thereby a + subject of the Roman Catholic Church." + +But whilst politicians were amusing themselves with fervid but useless +oratory in Parliament, stirring events were taking place elsewhere. +To trace in these pages even a bare outline of the main incidents of +those terrible years is impossible; and yet without doing so it is not +easy to obtain a correct view of the tangled skein of Irish politics +at the time. In studying any history of the period, we cannot but be +struck by observing on the one hand how completely in some respects +circumstances and ideas have changed since then; it is hard to realize +that Ulster was for a time the scene of wild disorder--assassination, +arson, burglary and every form of outrage--brought about mainly by a +society which claimed to be, and to a certain extent was, formed by a +union of the Presbyterian and Roman Catholic parties--whilst the south +and west remained fairly orderly and loyal. And yet on the other hand +we find many of the phenomena which have been characteristic of later +periods of Irish political agitation, already flourishing. Boycotting +existed in fact, though the name was not yet invented; also nocturnal +raids for arms, the sacking of lonely farmhouses, the intimidation of +witnesses and the mutilation of cattle. Again, we see all through the +history of Irish secret societies that their organization has been so +splendid that the ordinary law has been powerless against them; for +witnesses will not give evidence and juries will not convict if they +know that to do so will mean certain ruin and probable death; and yet +those same societies have always possessed one element of weakness: +however terrible their oaths of secrecy have been, the Government +have never had the slightest difficulty in finding out, through +their confidential agents, everything that has taken place at their +meetings, and what their projects are. + +As early as 1785 there had been two societies carrying on something +like civil war on a small scale in the north. How they originated, +is a matter of dispute; but at any rate before they had long been in +existence, the religious element became supreme--as it does sooner +or later in every Irish movement; whatever temporary alliances may be +formed for other reasons, religion always ultimately becomes the line +of cleavage. In this case, the "Peep of Day Boys" were Protestants, +the "Defenders" Roman Catholic. Some of the outrages committed by +the Defenders were too horrible to put in print; many Roman Catholic +families fled the country on account of the treatment which they +received from the Peep of Day Boys, and took refuge among their +co-religionists in the south. + +But now a greater crisis was at hand. The terrible upheaval of the +French Revolution was shaking European society to its foundation. The +teaching of Paine and Voltaire had borne fruit; the wildest socialism +was being preached in every land. Ulster had shown sympathy with +Republican ideas at the time of the American War of Independence; and +now a large number of the Presbyterians of Belfast eagerly accepted +the doctrines of Jacobinism. Nothing can sound more charmingly +innocent than the objects of the United Irish Society as put forward +publicly in 1791; the members solemnly and religiously pledged +themselves to use all their influence to obtain an impartial and +adequate representation of the Irish nation in Parliament; and as a +means to this end to endeavour to secure the co-operation of Irishmen +of all religious persuasions. Some writers have tried to make out that +if the Relief Act of 1793 had been extended in 1795 by another Act +enabling Roman Catholics to become Members of Parliament; and if +a Reform Bill had been passed making the House of Commons really +representative, the society would never have been anything but a +perfectly legal and harmless association. Of course it is always +possible to suggest what might have been; but in this case it is far +more probable that if Parliament had been so reformed as to be a fair +reflex of the opinion of the country, it would immediately have passed +a resolution declaring Ireland a Republic and forming an alliance with +France; for whatever objects were stated in public, the real guiding +spirits of the United Irish Society from the beginning (as of other +societies of a later date with equally innocent names) were ardent +republicans, who joined the society in order to further those views; +it is absurd to suggest that men who were actually in correspondence +with the leaders of the Directory and were trying to bring about an +invasion from France in order to aid them in establishing a Republic +on Jacobin lines would have been deterred by the passing of a Bill +making it lawful for Roman Catholics to sit in Parliament. Nor again +is it reasonable to contend that earnest-minded Roman Catholics would, +in consequence of the failure of such a Bill to become law, have +rebelled against a Government under which they were able to exercise +their religion in peace and which was at that moment founding and +endowing a College for the training of candidates for the priesthood, +in favour of one which had confiscated the seminaries and was sending +the priests to the guillotine. The fact seems to have been that the +society was formed by Presbyterians, for political reasons; they tried +to get the Roman Catholics to join them, but the lower class Roman +Catholics cared very little about seats in Parliament; so the founders +of the society cleverly added abolition of tithes and taxes, and +reduction of rents, to their original programme; this drew in numbers +of Roman Catholics, whose principles were really the very antithesis +of Jacobinism. + +It is a fair instance of the confusion which has always reigned +throughout Irish politics, that after the Relief Act of 1793 had been +passed, the Catholic Committee expressed their jubilation by voting +£2,000 for a statue to the King, and presenting a gold medal to their +Secretary, Wolfe Tone, who was at that moment scheming to set up a +Jacobin Republic. + +This celebrated man, Wolfe Tone, was not unlike many others who have +posed as Irish patriots. Hating the very name of England, he schemed +to get one appointment after another from the English Government--at +one time seeking to be put in command of a filibustering expedition to +raid the towns of South America, at another time trying for a post in +India; hating the Pope and the priests, he acted as Secretary to the +Catholic Committee; then hating Grattan and the Irish Parliament and +everything to say to it, he showed his patriotism by devoting his +energies to trying to persuade the French Republican Government to +invade Ireland. + +On the 21st of September, 1795, an incident occurred which, though +apparently trivial at the time, was destined to be of great historical +importance. Ulster had now for some time been in a state bordering +on anarchy; not only were the secret societies constantly at war, +but marauding bands, pretending to belong to one or other of the +societies, were ravishing the country. Something like a pitched battle +was fought between the Protestants and the Defenders, in which the +Defenders, although they were the stronger party and made the attack, +were utterly routed. In the evening, the victors agreed to form +themselves into a society which should bear the name of William of +Orange. There had previously been some societies called by that name; +but this was the foundation of the Orange Society of the present day. +The oath which at first was taken by every member of the society was +to defend the king and his heirs so long as he or they support the +Protestant ascendancy. (This conditional form of oath of allegiance +has long since been abolished.) It was industriously circulated by +the United Irishmen that the actual words of the oath were: "I will be +true to the King and Government and I will exterminate as far as I am +able the Catholics of Ireland." There is no evidence, however, that +any words of the kind ever formed part of an oath prescribed by the +Orange Society; and those who make the statement now must be aware +that they are repeating a calumny. + +After this time, the quarrel gradually tended more and more to become +a religious one; the Peep of Day Boys becoming merged in the Orange +Society, and the Protestants slowly withdrawing from the United Irish +Society; on the other hand, the Defenders ultimately coalesced +with the United Irishmen and thus, by an illogical combination of +inconsistent forces, formed the party which brought about the terrible +rebellion. + +The close of the year 1796 was one of the most critical moments in the +history of England. On the continent the power of republican France +under the genius of Napoleon and his generals was sweeping all before +it. England was in a state of bankruptcy, and almost as completely +isolated as she had been in the time of Elizabeth. Wolfe Tone and his +Irish plotters saw their opportunity as clearly as their predecessors +had in the times of Edward Bruce and Philip II. They laid a statement +of the condition of Ireland before the French Government which, +though as full of exaggerations as most things in Irish history, was +sufficiently based on fact to lead the French Government to believe +that if a French force were landed in Ireland, the Irishmen in the +British Army and Navy would mutiny, the Yeomen would join the French, +and the whole of the North of Ireland would rise in rebellion. + +Accordingly a French fleet of forty-three sail, carrying about 15,000 +troops, sailed from Brest for Bantry Bay. No human power could have +prevented their landing; and had they done so, they could have +marched to Cork and seized the town without any difficulty; the United +Irishmen would have risen, and the whole country might have been +theirs. But the same power which saved England from the Armada of +Catholic Spain 200 years before now shielded her from the invasion of +republican France. Storms and fogs wrought havoc throughout the French +fleet. In less than a month from the time of their starting, Wolfe +Tone and the shattered remains of the invading force were back at +Brest, without having succeeded in landing a single man on the Irish +shore. + +Had this projected invasion taken place fifty years before, amongst +the French troops would have been the Irish brigade, who were always +yearning for the opportunity of making an attack on their native land. +But half a century had caused strange changes; the Irish brigade had +fallen with the collapse of the French monarchy; and some of the few +survivors were now actually serving under King George III. + +It was a remarkable fact that no one in the neighbourhood of Bantry +showed the slightest sympathy with the Frenchmen. The few resident +gentry, the moment the danger was evident, called together the +yeomanry and organized their tenantry to oppose the foe--though the +utmost they could have done would have been to delay the progress +of the invaders for a little at the cost of their own lives; and the +peasantry did all in their power to support their efforts. + +If it is possible to analyse the state of political feeling at +this time, we may say that first there was a very limited number of +thoughtful men who saw that after the Acts of 1782 and 1793 either +separation or union was inevitable, and who consequently opposed all +idea of parliamentary reform, because they thought it would tend to +separation and make union more difficult. A second party (a leading +member of which was Charlemont) approved of the existing state of +things, and believed that it could be continued; a third (of which +Grattan was one) fondly imagined that all would go smoothly if only a +Catholic Relief Bill and a Reform Bill were carried, and so directed +all their efforts towards those objects; and a fourth believed that +no reform would be granted without pressure, and so were ready even to +work up a rebellion in order to obtain it; but that was a very small +party at best, and was soon carried away by the whirlwind of those +revolutionists who cared nothing about the Parliament then sitting +in Dublin, or about any other possible Parliament which might own +allegiance to the King of England, for their real aim was to sever +Ireland from England altogether and establish a separate republic. As +Wolfe Tone wrote: "To break the connection with England and to assert +the independence of my country were my objects." + +It is this party that is represented by the Nationalists of to-day, +except that when they look for foreign aid, their hopes lie in the +direction of Germany rather than France. I know that this remark may +call forth a storm of denials from those who judge by the speeches +which Nationalist leaders have made in England when trying to win the +Radical vote, or in the Colonies when aiming at getting money from +people who had not studied the question. But I judge not by speeches +such as those, but by statements continually put forward by political +writers and orators when they have cast off the mask and are +addressing their sympathizers in Ireland and America:-- + + "The Nationalists of Ireland stand for the complete + independence of Ireland, and they stand for nothing else. In + the English Empire they have no part or lot, and they wish to + have no part or lot. We stand for the Irish nation, free + and independent and outside the English Empire."--(_Irish + Freedom_.) + + "Our aim is the establishment of an Irish Republic, for the + simple and sole reason that no other ending of our quarrel + with England could be either adequate or final. This is the + one central and vital point of agreement among all who are + worthy of the name of Irish Nationalists--that Ireland is + a separate nation--separate in thought, mind, in ideals and + outlooks. Come what may, we work for Ireland as separate from + England as Germany is separate."--(Ib.) + + "Year by year the pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe + Tone grows more significant of the rising tide of militant and + uncompromising Nationalism, more significant of the fact that + Young Ireland has turned away from the false thing that has + passed for patriotism, and has begun to reverence only the + men and the things and the memories that stand for Ireland an + independent nation. Paying tribute to the memory of men + like Tone, lifting up the language of Ireland from the mire, + linking up the present with the old days of true patriotic + endeavour--these are the doings that will eventually bring our + land from the mazes of humbug into the clear dawn that heralds + Nationhood."--(_The Leinster Leader_.) + + "The object aimed at by the advanced National party is the + recovery of Ireland's national independence and the severance + of all political connection with England."--(_J. Devoy_.) + + "In the better days that are approaching, the soil of Ireland + will be populated by a race of Irishmen free and happy and + thriving, owning no master under the Almighty, and owning no + flag but the green flag of an independent Irish nation."--(_W. + O'Brien, M.P._) + + "In supporting Home Rule for Ireland we abandon no principle + of Irish nationhood as laid down by the fathers in the Irish + movement for independence, from Wolfe Tone and Emmett to John + Mitchell, and from Mitchell to Kickham and Parnell."--(_J. + Redmond_.) + + "Our ultimate goal is the national independence of our + country."--(Ib.) + + "In its essence the National movement is the same to-day as it + was in the days of Hugh O'Niell, Owen Roe, Emmett, or of Wolfe + Tone."--(Ib.) + + "We are as much rebels to England's rule as our forefathers + were in '98."--(Ib.) + + "I remember when Parnell was asked if he would accept as a + final settlement the Home Rule compromise proposed by Mr. + Gladstone. I remember his answer. He said 'I believe in the + policy of taking from England anything we can wring from her + which will strengthen our hands to go for more.'"--(Ib.) + + "When we have undermined English misgovernment we have paved + the way for Ireland to take her place among the nations of the + earth. And let us not forget that that is the ultimate goal + at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be + in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be + satisfied until we have destroyed the last link which keeps + Ireland bound to England." + + (_C.S. Parnell_.) + + "I know there are many people in America who think that the + means which we are operating to-day for the good of Ireland + are not sufficiently sharp and decisive ... I would suggest + to those who have constituted themselves the censors of our + movement, would it not be well to give our movement a fair + chance--to allow us to have an Irish Parliament that will give + our people all authority over the police and the judiciary + and all government in the nation, and when equipped with + comparative freedom, then would be the time for those who + think we should destroy the last link that binds us to England + to operate by whatever means they think best to achieve that + great and desirable end? I am quite sure that I speak for the + United Irish League in the matter." + + (_J. Devlin, M.P._) + + "What was it, after all, that Wolfe Tone, and Fitzgerald, and + Mitchell, and Smith O'Brien, and O'Meagher Condon, and Allen, + Larkins and O'Brien, and all the other gallant Irishmen strove + for, who from generation to generation were inspired with + the spirit of revolution? ... In what respect does our policy + differ from the purpose of these men?"--(Ib.) + + "In my opinion, and in the opinion of the vast majority of the + advanced Nationalists of Ireland, the Repeal of the Union + is not the full Nationalist demand; separation is the full + Nationalist demand; that is the right on which we stand, the + Nationalist right of Ireland."--(_J. Dillon, M.P._) + + "I should never have dedicated my life to this great struggle + if I did not see at the end the crowning and the consummation + of our work--a free and independent nation."--(Ib.) + + "We aim at nothing else than establishing a new nation upon + the map of Europe."--(_Dr. Douglas Hyde_.) + + "If there is any man in this audience who says to us as + representing that Parliamentary movement--'I don't believe + in your Parliamentary ideas, I don't accept Home Rule, I go + beyond it; I believe in an independent Irish nation'--if any + man says this, I say that we don't disbelieve in it. These + are our tactics--if you are to take a fortress, first take the + outer works."--(_T.M. Kettle, M.P._) + + "We want to carry on the work that the Fenians tried to do to + a triumphal issue. The Fenians stood for an Irish Republic, + and so do we. No policy which left England in control of the + Irish Nation could be regarded as final. There is only one + way, and that is to get the absolute and complete independence + of Ireland, free from English rule and English domination. The + Fenians did not go to the Prime Minister for concessions. + No: they started into arms, and if people of the present + day believed in that they should arm themselves to get + the independence of Ireland."--(_B. Hobson_, speaking at a + demonstration at Cork, on the anniversary of the "martyrdom" + of Allen, Larkins, and O'Brien.) + + "Should the Germans land in Ireland, they will be received + with willing hearts and strong hands, and should England be + their destination, it is to be hoped that they will find time + to disembark 100,000 rifles and a few score of ammunition for + the same in this country, and twelve months later this Ireland + will be as free as the Lord God meant it should be."--(_Major + McBride_, who organized an Irish force to aid the Boers + against England, and has consequently been appointed to a + municipal inspectorship by the Corporation of Dublin.) + + "I appeal to you most earnestly to do all in your power to + prevent your countrymen from entering the degraded British + army. If you prevent 500 men from enlisting you do nearly as + good work, if not quite so exciting, as if you shot 500 men on + the field of battle, and also you are making the path smoother + for the approaching conquest of England by Germany."--(Ib.) + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE REBELLION. + + +Early in 1797 it became evident to all but the most shortsighted of +politicians that a rebellion, of which none could foretell the result, +was imminent. As one shrewd observer wrote: "I look upon it that +Ireland must soon stand in respect to England in one of three +situations--united with her, the Legislatures being joined; separated +from her, and forming a republic; or as a half-subdued Province." The +supporters of law and order were naturally divided in opinion as to +the course to pursue. Some were in favour of a policy of conciliation. +Grattan induced his friend Ponsonby to bring forward another Reform +Bill, abolishing the religious test and the separate representation +of boroughs, and dividing each county into districts; and when he saw +that the motion could not be carried, delivered an impassioned speech, +declaring that he would never again attend the House of Commons, and +solemnly walked out. It was a piece of acting, too transparent to +deceive anybody. Grattan was a disappointed man--disappointed not +so much because his proposals were not adopted, as because his own +followers were slipping away from him. They had begun to realize that +he was an orator but not a statesman; his ideas were wild, fanciful +dreams. Whilst vehemently upholding the English connection he was +playing into the hands of England's opponents by reminding them that +England's difficulty was Ireland's opportunity; whilst hating the +very idea of a Union, he was making the existing system impossible +by preventing the passing of a commercial treaty; whilst passionately +supporting Protestant ascendancy, he was advocating a measure which +at that moment would have brought about the establishment either of a +Roman Catholic ascendancy or more probably of a Jacobin Republic. +He saw his supporters dwindling slowly from seventy-seven in 1783 to +thirty in 1797. Men were now alive to the fact that the country was in +an alarming condition. They saw what had happened in France but a few +years before, and how little Louis XVI had gained by trying to pose +as a liberator and a semi-republican; and, knowing that the rebellion +with which they were faced was an avowed imitation of the French +Revolution, they were coming to the opinion that stern measures were +necessary. In almost every county of three Provinces conspirators were +at work, trying to bring down on their country a foreign invasion, and +stirring up the people to rebellion and crime by appealing to their +agrarian grievances and cupidity, their religious passion, and the +discontent produced by great poverty. For a second time it appeared +that Wolfe Tone would succeed in obtaining aid from abroad--this time +from Spain and Holland; and the rebel party in Ireland were now so +well organized, and Jacobin feeling was so widespread, that had he +done so, it was almost inevitable that Ireland would have been lost to +England. But once more the unexpected was destined to occur. Early in +February Jervis shattered the power of the Spanish Fleet off Cape St. +Vincent; and in the summer, just when the Dutch ships, with 14,000 +troops on board, were ready to start, and resistance on the part of +England seemed hopeless, a violent gale arose and for weeks the whole +fleet remained imprisoned in the river; and when at length they did +succeed in making a start, the English were ready to meet them within +a few miles of the coast of Holland; after a tremendous battle the +broken remnant of the Dutch fleet returned to the harbour defeated. +The rage and mortification of Wolfe Tone at his second failure knew no +bounds. + +In the North of Ireland, however, the rebellion had practically begun. +The magistrates were powerless; the classes who had supported the +gentry during the Volunteer Movement were amongst the disaffected. The +country was in a state of anarchy; murders and outrages of every +sort were incessant. That the measures which the Government and +their supporters took to crush the rising rebellion were illegal +and barbarous, cannot be denied; that they in fact by their violence +hurried on the rebellion is not improbable. But it is still more +probable that they were the means of preventing its success; just as, +had the Government of Louis XVI shown more vigour at the outset of the +Revolution, the Reign of Terror would probably never have taken place. +Through evidence obtained by torture, the Government got possession +of vast stores of arms which the rebels had prepared; by twice +seizing the directors of the movement they deprived it of its central +organization; and if they were the cause of the rebellion breaking out +sooner than had been intended, the result was that they were able +to quell it in one district before it had time to come to a head in +another. + +War at best is very terrible; and there were two circumstances which +made the war in Ireland more terrible than others. It was a religious +war, and it was a civil war. It often happens that when religion is +turned to hatred it stirs up the worst and most diabolical passions +of the human breast; and the evil feelings brought on by a civil war +necessarily last longer than animosity against a foreign foe. The +horrors of 1798 make one shudder to think what must happen in Ireland +if civil war ever breaks out there again. + +From Ulster the United Ireland movement spread during 1797 to +Leinster, as far south as Wexford, and began to assume a more +decidedly religious character. As a contemporary historian wrote:-- + + "So inveterately rooted are the prejudices of religious + antipathy in the minds of the lower classes of Irish + Romanists, that in any civil war, however originating from + causes unconnected with religion, not all the efforts of their + gentry, or even priests, to the contrary could (if I am not + exceedingly mistaken) restrain them from converting it into a + religious quarrel." + +(Had he lived a century later, he might have used the same words.) +But though this was generally the case, there were complications as +embarrassing as they usually are in Irish affairs. The yeomanry +were mainly Protestants, but the majority of the militia were Roman +Catholics, and those commanded by Lord Fingall entirely so. There +was much disaffection in both branches of the service; besides which, +officers and men alike lacked the discipline and experience of +regular troops; but as the supply of soldiers from England was wholly +inadequate for the situation, the Government were obliged to rely on +any forces they could obtain. As the rebellion drifted into being a +Roman Catholic movement, the Orangemen became intensely loyal, and +were eager to fight on the king's side, but the Government dreaded +lest by employing them they might offend the militia. By 1798, when +the rebellion in the south was at its height, the north had become +comparatively calm. The severities of the previous year had had some +salutary effect; the staunch Protestants had no desire to aid in what +had become a Roman Catholic rebellion; and the republican party had +seen that the universal fraternity of the Jacobin Government of France +had turned into a military despotism which was engaged in crushing the +neighbouring republics and was almost at war with the sister Republic +of America. + +But whilst Ulster was growing calmer, the condition of the south +was becoming daily more appalling. On the 23rd of May the rebellion +actually broke out in the counties of Dublin, Kildare and Meath; and +many skirmishes took place in which the losses on the king's side were +comparatively few but those of the rebels enormous, in consequence of +their ignorance of the use of firearms. The better-trained forces soon +got to know that an Irish peasant when armed with a pike was a deadly +foe; but when armed with a musket was almost harmless. This part of +the campaign will always be specially memorable for the attack made +on the little town of Prosperous, in the county of Kildare. It was +cleverly made in the early morning; the garrison, taken unawares, were +nearly all killed; the Commander, Captain Swayne, being amongst the +victims. It was soon afterwards found out that the leader of the +rebels was Dr. Esmonde, a gentleman of good family, and first +lieutenant in a regiment of yeomanry stationed a few miles off, who +had been dining with Captain Swayne the previous evening. He appeared +in his regiment the next day, but was identified by a yeoman who had +seen him at Prosperous; arrested, tried, and hanged as a traitor. + +A Nationalist has recently referred to him as a martyr to the cause of +Irish liberty. + +By the month of June Wexford had become the centre of the rebellion. +In that county it had assumed an essentially religious character +(there being, however, a few exceptions on each side), and in no +other part of Ireland was the war so terrible either on account of its +magnitude or barbarity. The passions of the ignorant peasantry were +inflamed by all Protestants being spoken of as Orangemen and a report +being diligently circulated that all Orangemen had sworn to destroy +the Catholic Faith--exactly the same course that was followed a +hundred years later. Roman Catholic priests, wearing their sacred +vestments and carrying crucifixes, led the rebel forces; and the +ignorant peasants, believing them to be endowed with miraculous +powers, followed them with the blind adherence that only fanaticism +can inspire. And yet--so strangely contradictory is everything in +Ireland--there is clear evidence that amongst those priestly agitators +many were at heart deists, who were making use of religion in the +hope of furthering Jacobinism. Many Protestants saved their lives by +apostatizing, or by allowing their children to be rebaptized; it is +but fair to add, however, that several of the older priests, shocked +at the conduct of the rebels, concealed heretics in their houses and +churches; and that all through the war many priests, in spite of the +difficulty of their position, remained loyal and did what they could +to aid the king's troops. + +The rebels for some weeks held command of the town and county of +Wexford, their chief camp being at a place called Vinegar Hill. The +country around was searched and plundered; the Protestants who were +captured were brought into the rebel camp, and there deliberately +butchered in cold blood. How many perished it is impossible to say; +the number must have been at the least 400. + +I would willingly pass over this dreadful episode. I have no more +desire to dwell on it than I have on Cromwell's conduct at Drogheda. +I regard it merely as one of those terrible incidents which alas have +taken place in almost every campaign. It was probably equalled in +character if not in magnitude by several outrages committed by the +other side; and certainly parallels could be found in the French +invasion of Algeria fifty years later and in many other wars of the +nineteenth century. When men have been fired with the diabolical +passions that war arouses, and have grown accustomed to the ghastly +sights on battlefields, they cease to be reasoning beings; they become +fiends. But unfortunately it is necessary to explain what really +occurred, as it is to Vinegar Hill and its terrible associations that +the Nationalists of to-day refer with triumph. Songs in praise of the +massacre are sung at Nationalist gatherings; and W. Redmond, speaking +at Enniscorthy (close to the scene of the massacre) on the 110th +anniversary of the outrages said: "The heroic action of the men who +fought and died around Vinegar Hill was the heritage of all Ireland. +Whatever measure of comparative freedom we now enjoy was entirely +attributable to the Insurrection of '98. It was the pikemen of '98 who +made the world and England understand that Irishmen knew how to fight +for their rights, and it is to the knowledge of that fact by England +that we may look for the real driving force of any effort we may make +for our liberty. The Irish people are in no position to resort to +arms, but the spirit is there, and by demonstrations like this we show +our rulers that it is essential for any real and lasting peace that +the aspirations of the patriots of '98 must be satisfied, and that a +full measure of National freedom must be granted to Ireland." + +(It will be observed that in the opinion of this orator--a prominent +Nationalist Member of Parliament, who was selected to go round the +Colonies collecting money for the Home Rule cause--the possession of +an Independent Parliament, of everything in fact short of separation, +goes for nothing; it is only those who rebelled against that +Parliament who are to be regarded as models for modern Nationalists to +follow. It is interesting also to note the different views which have +been put forward by Irish politicians with regard to the rebellion. +In 1843 the leaders of the Repeal Association stated in one of their +manifestoes, as an argument in favour of repeal, that England had +resorted to the diabolical expedient of fomenting a rebellion in order +to distract the country and give excuse for military violence and so +bring about a Union. But the Nationalists of to-day have so completely +identified themselves with the rebels of 1798 that within the last few +years splendid monuments have been erected in all the towns of Wexford +and the adjoining counties; some of these are bronze figures of +patriots brandishing pikes, others are representations of the priestly +leaders of the rebel forces. These monuments have been unveiled with +great ceremony, impassioned speeches being made on the occasion by +leading orators, both clerical and lay). + +In order to realize the terrible position in which the loyalists +were placed, we must recollect that whilst the Wexford rebels were +triumphant in that county, and the movement seemed to be spreading +into Kilkenny and Carlow, there was a fresh outbreak in the north; +it appeared probable that Dublin might rise at any moment; the French +fleet was hourly expected, and the long looked-for aid from England +was still delayed. But the Irish loyalist minority showed the same +dogged determination that they had done in the time of James II, and +that they will show again in the future. + +The numbers engaged in the different battles and skirmishes have +been variously estimated; it seems that at the battle of Arklow the +loyalists did not exceed 1,600, of whom nearly all were militia and +yeomanry, with a few artillery; whilst the rebels, commanded by Father +Michael Murphy, amounted to at least 20,000. Yet after a terrible +afternoon's fighting the rebels, disheartened by the fall of their +leader (whom they had believed to be invulnerable) retired, leaving +more than 1,000 dead on the field. + +Soon, however, the reinforcements from England began to arrive; and +the French invasion, on which the rebels were building their hopes, +was still delayed. By July, although fighting was still going on in +the Wicklow mountains and some other parts of the country, the worst +of the rebellion in Wexford was crushed, and an Act of Amnesty was +carried through Parliament. It is worthy of note that the trials of +the rebels which took place in Dublin were conducted with a fairness +and a respect for the forms of law which are probably unparalleled in +the history of other countries at moments of such terrible excitement; +we can contrast them for instance with the steps that were taken in +putting down the outbreak of the Commune in Paris in 1871. It is easy +now to argue that, as the force of the rebellion was being broken, it +would have been more humane to have allowed those who had plotted and +directed it to go unpunished. But as Lecky has pointed out, "it was +scarcely possible to exaggerate the evil they had produced, and they +were immeasurably more guilty than the majority of those who had +already perished. + +"They had thrown back, probably for generations, the civilization of +their country. They had been year by year engaged in sowing the seed +which had ripened into the harvest of blood. They had done all in +their power to bring down upon Ireland the two greatest curses that +can afflict a nation--the curse of civil war, and the curse of foreign +invasion; and although at the outset of their movement they had +hoped to unite Irishmen of all creeds, they had ended by lashing +the Catholics into frenzy by deliberate and skilful falsehood. The +assertion that the Orangemen had sworn to exterminate the Catholics +was nowhere more prominent than in the newspaper which was the +recognised organ of the United Irish leaders. The men who had spread +this calumny through an ignorant and excitable Catholic population, +were assuredly not less truly murderers than those who had fired the +barn at Scullabogue or piked the Protestants on Wexford Bridge." + +A strong party, however, led by Lord Clare were in favour of clemency +wherever possible; and there seemed good reason for hoping that the +rebellion would slowly die out. Cooke, the Under Secretary, wrote +on the 9th of August: "The country is by no means settled nor secure +should the French land, but I think secure if they do not." Suddenly, +however, the alarming news came that the French were actually in +Ireland. Wolfe Tone and his fellow-plotters, undaunted by their +previous failures, had continued ceaseless in their efforts to induce +Napoleon to make an indirect attack on England by invading Ireland; +and if they had succeeded in persuading the French Government to send +an expedition two months earlier when the rebellion was at its height +and the English reinforcements had not arrived, Ireland must have been +lost. Once again, however, fortune favoured the English cause. The +first instalment of the French fleet, carrying 1,000 soldiers, did +not start until the 6th of August, and only arrived on the 22nd. They +landed at Killala, in Mayo, and were not a little surprised at the +state of things existing there. They had expected to find a universal +feeling of republicanism; but instead of this, whilst the Protestants +refused to join them, the Roman Catholic peasantry received them with +delight, and declared their readiness to take arms for France and the +Blessed Virgin. "God help these simpletons," said one of the officers, +"if they knew how little we care about the Pope or his religion, they +would not be so hot in expecting help from us!" + +Arriving at the wrong time and the wrong place, the expedition was +foredoomed to failure. The French were brave men and trained soldiers; +but they found their Irish allies perfectly useless. They succeeded +in capturing Castlebar, and routing a force of militia; but +their campaign was brief; on the 8th of September the whole force +surrendered. The Connaught rebellion was speedily and severely put +down. + +The second instalment of the French invasion consisted of one ship. +They landed on the Island of Arran on the 16th of September; but after +spending eight hours on shore, re-embarked and sailed away to Norway. + +The third instalment was, however, more serious. It consisted of a +ship of the line, eight frigates and a schooner, having on board +an army of about 3,000 men. They arrived at Lough Swilly early in +October, where they were met by a more powerful English fleet, and +nearly all were destroyed or captured. Amongst the prisoners taken +was Wolfe Tone; who soon afterwards in order to avoid a felon's death, +ended his life by suicide.[See note at the end of the Volume] + +A fortnight later the fourth and last instalment arrived at Killala +Bay; but the Admiral, hearing that the rebellion was over, promptly +weighed anchor and returned to France. Thus ingloriously ended the +French attempts at the invasion of Ireland. The calling-in of the +foreigner had been of as little use to the cause of Irish rebellion as +it had been two centuries before. + + +By the end of the year the worst of the rebellion was over. But the +evil it had wrought was incalculable. How many had perished during +that terrible summer will never be known; the numbers have been +variously computed at from 15,000 to 70,000. At the outset of the +rebellion--in February 1798--Lord Clare had made a memorable speech in +the House of Lords, which has been so often misquoted that it is well +here to cite the passage in full:-- + + "If conciliation be a pledge of national tranquillity and + contentment; if it be a spell to allay popular ferment; there + is not a nation in Europe in which it has had so fair a trial + as in the Kingdom of Ireland. For a period of nearly twenty + years a liberal and unvaried system of concession and + conciliation has been pursued and acted on by the British + Government. Concession and conciliation have produced only a + fresh stock of grievances; other discontents of Ireland have + kept pace with her prosperity; for I am bold to say there + is not a nation on the habitable globe which has advanced in + cultivation and commerce, in agriculture and in manufactures + with the same rapidity in the same period. Her progress is now + retarded, and it is a heart-breaking spectacle to every man + who loves the country to see it arrested only by the perverse + and factious folly of the people, stimulated and encouraged by + disappointed statesmen." + +Within a few months after that speech was made, Ireland was well-nigh +ruined. All the progress in material prosperity which had taken place +in the years immediately following 1782 was swept away. The national +debt, which in 1791 had stood at £2,442,890, involving an annual +charge of £142,716, had risen to £26,662,640, with an annual charge of +£1,395,735; the exports of woollen goods had almost ceased, and those +of linen gone down by more than a third; other industries showed +a decay nearly as lamentable; public bankruptcy seemed inevitable. +Though the violent outbreak of rebellion had been put down, many parts +of the country were in a state of anarchy. In the west, armed bands +went about every night houghing the cattle and murdering all who dared +to oppose them. If any man prosecuted one of the offenders, he did +it at the moral certainty of being murdered. The same fate hung over +every magistrate who sent a hougher to gaol, every witness who gave +evidence against him, every juryman who convicted him. In Limerick one +man ventured on his own part and on that of eight others to prosecute +an offender who had destroyed their property. All nine were murdered +in one night. It was not safe to travel along the high road within +six miles of Dublin. The militia had, from their misbehaviour in +the field, and their extreme licentiousness, fallen into universal +contempt and abhorrence; officers of English regiments declared that +it would be impossible to maintain discipline amongst their troops +if they remained in such a country. It was discovered that the rebels +were forming another Directory, and, still expecting aid from France, +planning a fresh outbreak. Religious animosities were more violent +than ever. Government was becoming impossible; for the Roman Catholic +population, now thoroughly disaffected, would not continue to submit +to the rule of the Protestant oligarchy; but the only way to put an +end to it would be by another rebellion which if successful would +(as the Roman Catholic bishops and educated laymen fully realized) +probably result in the establishment of a Jacobin republic; +clear-headed men of all parties were beginning to think that there was +but one solution of the problem; and that was--the Union. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE UNION. + + +We come now to the great turning point in the modern history of +Ireland--the Union. It has been so constantly and so vehemently +asserted that this momentous event was prompted by the wicked desire +of England to ruin Ireland, and was carried out by fraud, bribery, +intimidation, and every form of political crime, that not only +ordinary readers, but even writers who are content to receive +their information at second hand without investigating evidence for +themselves, generally assume that no other view is possible. Thus +O'Connell boldly asserted that the Irish Catholics never assented +to the Union. Others have blindly repeated his words; and from those +reiterated statements has been developed an argument that as the +Catholics did not assent to the Union, they cannot be bound by it. + +I believe that there has been as much exaggeration about this as about +most other episodes of Irish history; and that anyone who, fairly and +without prejudice, takes the trouble to go through the history of the +Union as it may be gathered from contemporary documents, will come to +the conclusion that it was devised by great and earnest statesmen who +had the good of both countries at heart. As to the means by which it +was carried, there is much to be said on both sides of the question; +Lecky has stated the case against the Union ably and temperately; +other writers, equally honourable, have taken the opposite side. There +is at any rate very much to be said for the opinion, that, considering +the circumstances and the peculiar constitution of the Irish +Parliament, there was nothing which the Government did that was not +perfectly justifiable. As to whether it was in accordance with the +wish of the people or not, there are several points which ought to be +borne in mind but to which sufficient attention is not usually given. +A very large part of the nation were ignorant peasants, who did not +and could not properly understand the question; and as a matter +of fact cared little about it. Then of those who were against the +measure, many opposed it not because they wished the existing state +of things to continue, but because they thought that the Union would +prevent the one object of their ambition--total separation and the +establishment of a republic; their opinion therefore has but little +weight. When we come to the more educated and propertied classes, it +seems that the majority were in favour of the measure; and as to the +opinion of the Roman Catholic section (which after all was far the +largest part of the nation) I think there can be no doubt whatever. +Fortunately it is no longer necessary to wade through the mass of +original papers; for the evidence has been so carefully investigated +during recent years by various impartial writers, and has been +presented to the general reader in so clear and concise a manner +that no one now has any excuse for being led away by the impassioned +statements of partisan orators. I refer specially to the "History of +the Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland," by Dr. Dunbar +Ingram, published in 1887. + +That careful writer commences his work by stating that, dissatisfied +with endless assertions unaccompanied by proof, he had determined to +investigate the subject for himself, examining closely the original +and contemporary authorities. He soon found that there was no evidence +to sustain the accusations made against the manner in which the Union +was carried; and that all the charges against the Government rested +finally on Harrington's worthless romances or the declamatory +statements of the Opposition during the sessions of 1799 and 1800, +which, when challenged, they declined to substantiate. Then, as he +proceeded in his work, he discovered that, after its terms were known +and the public had had time for reflection, the Union was thankfully +accepted by the two communities which made up Ireland; that the +Protestants, after the first burst of clamour, were as a body +converted and became well-wishers to the measure; and that the Roman +Catholics, after a short hesitation, gave the Union their hearty +assent and support. And finally, the whole inquiry left a strong +conviction on his mind that the Union was undertaken from the purest +motives, that it was carried by fair and constitutional means, and +that its final accomplishment was accompanied with the hearty assent +and concurrence of the vast majority of the two peoples that dwelt in +Ireland. + +I feel that I cannot do better than follow some of the lines of his +argument. + +It is true that in the time of the Plantagenets representatives from +Ireland were on several occasions summoned to attend the English +Parliament; and that during the Commonwealth Ireland was incorporated +with the rest of the Empire and sent members to the Parliaments of +1654 and 1657. These incidents, however, are unimportant; it is more +to the purpose to point out that from the time of the Restoration +onwards we find a long list of distinguished thinkers recommending +such a Union; and in the beginning of the eighteenth century both +Houses of the Irish Parliament twice petitioned Queen Anne to the +same effect. It may be asked why the English politicians, who were so +anxious to bring about the Union with Scotland, turned a deaf ear +to these petitions. The answer is simple. The Scotch Parliament +was independent, and the impossibility of having two independent +Parliaments under one sovereign had become manifest. Trade jealousies +had arisen; the action of the Scotch had nearly involved England in a +war with Spain; the Scotch Parliament had passed an Act declaring that +until provision was made for settling the rights and liberties of the +Scotch nation independently of England the successor to the Scotch +Crown should not be the same person that was possessed of the Crown +of England. The Parliament of England commenced arming the militia and +fortifying the towns near the Border. England being at war with France +the Scotch Parliament passed an Act allowing Scotchmen to trade with +that country; it therefore was a choice between Union and War; and +the two countries wisely chose Union. In the case of Ireland, however, +England saw no such danger; the Irish legislature was subordinate; +Ireland was bound by English statutes; and the Irish Parliament +represented not the whole people but only that one section of it which +was necessarily bound to the English connection; the Irish petitions +for Union therefore remained unheeded. The great Bishop Berkeley, +writing in 1735, strongly advocated a union; at a later time Adam +Smith wrote: "By a union with Great Britain Ireland would gain besides +the freedom of trade other advantages much more important ... Without +a union with Great Britain the inhabitants of Ireland are not likely +for many ages to consider themselves as one people." But, as we +have seen, by the Act of 1782, the Irish Parliament had become +independent--that is, it was placed in the same position as the +Scotch Parliament had been; and by the Act of 1893, the bulk of the +constituencies in the counties had become Roman Catholic. Except +in the opinion of thoughtless optimists like Grattan, matters were +approaching a deadlock; for sooner or later the Roman Catholic +electors would demand representation in Parliament; the borough +members would most probably refuse it, in which case war might break +out again; and if they granted it, the Irish Parliament, then almost +entirely Roman Catholic, would be anxious to break the tie that bound +Ireland to England. + +But apart from the religious question, it was evident that the +constitution, as fixed by the Act of 1782, was fraught with dangers. +And it is no answer to say that not many difficulties had arisen +in the few years between 1782 and 1799; for, even though that is +partially true, the question for a statesman to consider was whether +they were likely to arise in the future; and the rebellion, which +was still seething, had made this all the more probable. First, on a +declaration of war by England, Ireland might refuse to take part in +it; and her refusal would paralyse the Empire. As early as 1791, Wolfe +Tone had pointed out that Ireland need not embark on the side of +Great Britain in the contest which was then pending; and one of his +followers had advocated an alliance with France. (This is of all the +more importance at the present day, when the Nationalists state that +their principles are the same as those of Wolfe Tone.) Secondly, +during a war, Ireland might refuse supplies to England. This course +was actually hinted at by Grattan. Thirdly, she might provoke a +commercial war of rates with England. This course was proposed in the +Irish House of Commons in 1784. Fourthly, she might put pressure on +the Sovereign to declare war against a country with which England was +at peace. This also was proposed in the Irish House, in the case of +Portugal. Fifthly, she might differ from England in any international +question in reference to the connection between them, as she did in +the Regency question. Sixthly, she might refuse--as she did--to make +a commercial treaty with Great Britain; and thus keep open the most +fertile sources of mutual jealousies and discontent. Grattan's best +friends had urged upon him in vain that refusing to assent to a +commercial treaty made the permanent government by two independent +legislatures impossible, and would bring about separation; he refused +to be guided by their advice, and at that time he still had supreme +power in the House. It is remarkable that even at a later date, whilst +vehemently opposing the Union, he took a delight in pointing out +how many ways there were in which an Irish Parliament might injure +England; seeming not to realize that he was supplying a forcible +argument in favour of the measure he was opposing. + +The dangers of the situation were summed up by Pitt in a few +words:--"A party in England may give to the Throne one species of +advice by its Parliament. A party in Ireland may advise directly +opposite upon the most essential points that involve the safety of +both; upon alliance with a foreign power, for instance; upon the army; +upon the navy; upon any branch of the public service; upon trade; upon +commerce; or upon any point essential to the Empire at large." And +long afterwards Sir Robert Peel pointed out that within the short +period of six years from the establishment of what is called the +independence of the Irish Parliament--from 1782 to 1788--the foreign +relations of the two countries, the commercial intercourse of the two +countries, the sovereign exercise of authority in the two countries, +were the subjects of litigation and dispute; and it was more owing +to accident than to any other cause that they did not produce actual +alienation and rupture. + +The idea of a Union was first brought before Parliament by the Lord +Lieutenant (Lord Cornwallis) in his speech at the opening of the +Session in January 1799. It appeared at first that a majority of the +Peers were in favour of the proposal, but a small majority of the +House of Commons hostile--some to the scheme altogether, others to +its being brought forward at that time. This small majority, however, +rapidly diminished; and before many weeks had passed, the Government +possessed a majority in both Houses. The citizens of Dublin were +naturally strongly against the measure, thinking that it would injure +the prestige of the capital; as were also the proprietors of boroughs +and the legal members of the House; and soon after the scheme had +been proposed, several counties held meetings and passed resolutions +against it; but as the year went on, when the details of the measure +had been more carefully considered, there was a general change of +feeling throughout the country. Lord Cornwallis went on tours both +north and south, through both Protestant and Roman Catholic +districts, everywhere receiving addresses in favour of the Union from +corporations, grand juries, leading residents, and especially from +Roman Catholic bodies. And, if we may believe Lord Cornwallis's own +letters, these addresses were entirely spontaneous, and represented +the real feelings of the community. Before Parliament met in March +1800, twenty-two counties had passed resolutions in favour of the +Union; and Lord Castlereagh was able to say in the House that the +great body of the landed property of Ireland, and all the great +commercial towns except Dublin and Drogheda, were friendly to the +measure. The Opposition attempted to meet this by presenting a number +of petitions showing that the people of Ireland were against it. Of +the fifty-four petitions presented, five were not against the Union at +all, but merely requests for compensation in the event of its coming +about; three were from individuals or commercial firms; and eight were +from Dublin alone. The number therefore was much smaller than appears +at first sight. Besides obtaining these petitions, the Opposition +also collected a large sum of money for the purchase of seats; in the +circumstances and according to the ideas of the time, I do not say +that they were in the least morally wrong in doing so; but the fact +takes away from the value of the votes given; and it neutralizes +anything that was done by the Government in the same way--if it can be +proved that the Government so acted. + +But as the Roman Catholics constituted three-fourths of the population +of Ireland, it is more important to investigate what their feelings +were than to scrutinize the division lists of the House, if we wish to +ascertain what was really the wish of the nation. Fortunately we have +an opportunity of testing whether there is any truth in the statement +of O'Connell to which I have already referred--that the Irish +Catholics did not assent to the Union. The evidence shows conclusively +that the Roman Catholic peerage, episcopate, priesthood and laity all +gave the movement their hearty concurrence and co-operation. Lords +Kenmare and Fingall assured Lord Cornwallis that the Catholics were +in favour of a Union; the entire episcopate--that is, the four +archbishops and nineteen bishops, three sees being vacant--expressed +the same view by their letters which are still extant or by +resolutions signed by them; for instance, the Archbishop of Tuam +wrote: "I have had an opportunity of acquiring the strongest +conviction that this measure alone can restore harmony and happiness +to our unhappy country." The Bishop of Cork wrote: "Nothing in my +opinion will more effectively tend to lay these disgraceful and +scandalous party feuds and dissensions, and restore peace and +harmony amongst us, than the great measure in contemplation, of +the legislative Union, and incorporation of this Kingdom with Great +Britain. I am happy to tell you it is working its way, and daily +gaining ground in the public opinion. Several counties which appeared +most adverse to it have now declared for it, and I have no doubt but, +with the blessing of God, it will be effected, notwithstanding the +violent opposition of Mr. Foster and his party. The Roman Catholics in +general are avowedly for the measure. In the south, where they are the +most numerous, they have declared in its favour." The Bishop of Ferns +presided at a meeting of Catholics of Wexford at which an address +in favour of incorporation of both legislatures was signed by 3,000 +persons; and throughout the country meetings, presided over by parish +priests, were held to further the movement; and the laity were quite +as eager as the clergy in the matter. Plowden, the Roman Catholic +historian, says: "A very great preponderancy in favour of the Union +existed in the Catholic body, particularly in their nobility, gentry +and clergy." Thomas McKenna, the Secretary to the Catholic Committee, +wrote two pamphlets in the same interest; whilst on the other hand not +a single petition against it was presented by any Roman Catholic body. + +When the Session of 1800 commenced, a leading member of the Opposition +sadly confessed that the people had deserted them. But the struggle +in the House of Commons was tremendous. The Anti-Unionists had the +advantage of the oratory of Grattan, who, though he had not been in +Parliament since 1797, now purchased a seat for £2,400, and entered +the House in a theatrical manner in the midst of the discussion. But +his vehement and abusive style of declamation could not in debate +be compared with the calm reasoning of Castlereagh. The most able +speeches against the measure were not those of Grattan, but Foster. +Many divisions were taken, the Government majority steadily rising +from forty-two to sixty-five, and comprising an actual majority of +the members of the House. In the House of Lords it was relatively +much larger. But it is constantly affirmed that this majority was only +brought about by bribery and intimidation. The word "bribery" has an +ugly sound; and in such a case as this, it is only fair to examine +what is exactly meant by the term. There is no doubt that compensation +was given to the proprietors of boroughs which were not allowed +representation in the United Parliament; and it is said that as the +return of members to Parliament is a public trust and not a species of +property, this was not a fair matter for pecuniary compensation; hence +it amounted to bribery. But the ownership of boroughs had grown up +insensibly; and they had long been looked upon and treated as private +property, not only in Ireland but in England and Scotland also; and +there were many honest men in all three countries who contended that +the system worked well, as it was the means whereby a large number +of distinguished men obtained their first introduction into public +life--amongst them being Pitt, Canning, and Fox in England, Grattan, +Flood and Plunkett in Ireland. Then in other cases when powers which +had long been regarded as property have been abolished, compensation +has been given. This was the case when the heritable jurisdictions in +Scotland were abolished, and when by the disestablishment of the Irish +Church the right of patrons to nominate to livings was taken away. And +even granting for the sake of argument that this is wrong, is it fair +to call it bribery? Eighty-four places were disfranchised, and a sum +of £1,260,000 (which did not nearly amount to the price which the +boroughs at that time fetched in the market) was paid. Of this, +£67,500 was paid to Englishmen who owned seats in the Irish +Parliament; £60,000 to boroughs who had no owners; £30,000 to the +executors of a deceased owner; £18,750 to two ladies; and +£1,100,000 to Irishmen who owned boroughs--of which £400,000 went to +Anti-Unionists who opposed the Bill. In many cases, of course, the +actual occupant of the seat was a different person from the owner who +received the compensation; for instance, there is reason to believe +that all the fifty barristers in the house had purchased their seats, +but not one of them was the permanent owner. Now, if compensation +is bribery, who was bribed? Really it must be admitted that +on investigation the charge of bribery, so far as it refers to +compensation to borough-owners, falls to the ground. + +Then it is said that the Government made actual payments to members +for their votes. This charge was brought forward in a general way at +the time in both Houses; the Government indignantly denied it, and +called on the Opposition to prove their accusation; but they failed to +do so. To repeat it now is therefore unjust. It may be admitted that +amongst Lord Castlereagh's letters there is one which taken by itself +looks as if a certain sum of money was to be used in bribery; but, +as Dr. Ingram has pointed out, a careful investigation of the matter +shows that it refers to proposed changes in the tariff, and not to +bribery at all. + +Again, it is argued that the lavish distribution of titles amounted +to bribery. If so, it is hard to find any Government in England or +Ireland that has not been to some extent guilty of bribery--though it +is true that no British Premier has ever created peerages or salaried +offices on anything like the scale that Mr. Asquith has done. After +the Bill had passed, Pitt created twenty new Irish peerages and four +English ones; and promoted sixteen peers a step in their order; which +after all is not very much more than Lord North had done in 1779, on +no special occasion, when he had created eighteen Irish peerages and +promoted twelve existing peers. + +As to the charges of intimidation, they may be dismissed at once; the +very few that were brought forward were so completely answered at the +time, that even the Opposition dropped them. The presence of such a +large number of troops in Ireland was quite accounted for by the fact +that the rebellion was still to some extent going on, and that there +was again a danger of a French invasion. + +And I must contend further that even admitting that there were +some acts on the part of the Government which will not bear strict +investigation according to present ideas, it is only fair to remember +the tremendous difficulties of the occasion. The English House of +Commons was almost unanimously in favour of the Union--not more than +thirty members ever voted against it; and in the opinion of Lord +Cornwallis, who throughout his long and varied career showed himself +to be a shrewd observer and an upright, honourable man, "This country +could not be saved without the Union." + +But really the whole discussion is beside the mark. The Nationalists +continually repeat the charge that the Union was carried by fraud; and +so it must be answered; but it has no bearing on anything existing at +the present day. For the old Irish Parliament has disappeared--merged +in the greater and more honourable Assembly of the United Kingdom; and +to revive it now would be a physical impossibility. The whole state +of circumstances has changed; no assembly that could now be formed in +Ireland would bear the faintest resemblance to that which met in the +eighteenth century. As Lecky has well expressed it:-- + + "To an historian of the eighteenth century, however, few + things can be more grotesquely absurd than to suppose that the + merits or demerits, the failure or the successes of the + Irish Parliament has any real bearing on modern schemes for + reconstructing the Government of Ireland on a revolutionary + and Jacobin basis; entrusting the protection of property and + the maintenance of law to some democratic assembly consisting + mainly of Fenians and Land-leaguers, of paid agitators and + of penniless adventurers. The Parliamentary system of the + eighteenth century might be represented in very different + lights by its enemies and by its friends. Its enemies would + describe it as essentially a government carried on through the + instrumentality of a corrupt oligarchy, of a large, compact + body of members holding place and pensions at the pleasure of + the Government, removed by the system of rotten boroughs from + all effectual popular control. Its friends would describe it + as essentially the government of Ireland by the gentlemen of + Ireland and especially the landlord class. + + "Neither representation would be altogether true, but each + contains a large measure of truth. The nature of the Irish + constituencies and the presence in the House of Commons of a + body of pensioners and placemen forming considerably more than + a third of the whole assembly, and nearly half of its active + members, gave the Government a power, which, except under + very rare and extraordinary circumstances, must, if fully + exercised, have been overwhelming ... On the other hand, + the Irish Parliament was a body consisting very largely of + independent country gentlemen, who on nearly all questions + affecting the economical and industrial development of the + country, had a powerful if not a decisive influence ... and + it was in reality only in a small class of political questions + that the corrupt power of government seems to have been + strained. The Irish House of Commons ... comprised the flower + of the landlord class. It was essentially pre-eminently the + representative of the property of the country. It had all the + instincts and the prejudices, but also all the qualities + and the capacities, of an educated propertied class, and it + brought great local knowledge and experience to its task. Much + of its work was of that practical and unobtrusive character + which leaves no trace in history." + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +THE PERIOD FROM THE UNION UNTIL THE REJECTION OF THE FIRST HOME RULE +BILL. + + +As soon as the Union had become law, the opposition to it died down +rapidly. All the members who had voted for it who became candidates +for the Imperial Parliament were elected, and Irish orators soon began +to make their mark in the greater Assembly. In 1805, however, there +was another slight rebellion, led by Robert Emmett. It never had +a chance of success; the mass of the people, thoroughly tired of +anarchy, refused to take part in it; and though the rebels succeeded +in committing a few murders, the movement was speedily quelled, mainly +by the yeomen of Dublin. At the trial of Emmett, Plunket, who had been +a vehement opponent of the Union, was counsel for the prosecution, and +in his speech bitterly denounced the conduct of those men who, +having done their utmost to oppose the Irish Parliament, now made the +abolition of that Parliament the pretext for rebellion. "They call for +revenge," said he, "on account of the removal of the Parliament. These +men, who, in 1798, endeavoured to destroy the Parliament, now +call upon the loyal men who opposed its transfer, to join them in +rebellion; an appeal vain and fruitless." + +It will be observed from statements already quoted, that the +Nationalists of to-day claim that they are the successors of +Emmett; he is counted amongst the heroes who fell in the cause of +Ireland--thus making it all the more clear how wide is the gulf +between the Parliamentary opponents of the Union and the modern +Nationalists. + +During the early part of the century, Ireland had another period of +prosperity. Travellers through Ireland at the present day cannot fail +to notice how many of the country seats (now, in consequence of later +legislation, mostly deserted and already beginning to fall into ruin) +were built at that time. No doubt much of the prosperity was caused +by the rebound which often takes place after a period of anarchy and +desolation; and it would not be fair to attribute it wholly to the +effect of the Union; but at least it proves that the melancholy +prognostications of the opponents of the measure were happily +unfulfilled. The total value of the produce and manufactures exported +from Ireland between 1790 and 1801 amounted to £51,322,620; between +1802 and 1813 it amounted to £63,483,718. In 1800 the population +of Ireland was under 5,000,000; in 1841 it was over 8,000,000. The +tonnage in Irish ports in 1792 was 69,000; by 1797 it had fallen to +53,000; before 1852 it had risen to 5,000,000. The export of linen +in 1796 was 53,000,000 yards; in 1799 it had fallen to 38,000,000; +in 1853 it had risen to 106,000,000; and every other department of +industry and commerce showed figures almost as satisfactory. + +There were, however, three important measures which the leading +advocates of the Union had desired to see carried as soon as possible +after the great change had been effected, but which--as many writers +of various schools of thought to this day consider unfortunately--were +postponed. The first was a provision by the State for the payment of +the Roman Catholic clergy. The bishops had fully expected that this +would be carried. Some modern Nationalists, wishing to win the +favour of the English Nonconformists, have represented that the Roman +Catholic Church refused to accept the money; but that is not the case. +Whether the policy of "levelling up" would have been a wise one +or not, it is useless now to conjecture; for once the policy of +"levelling down" had been decided upon, and the Irish Church had been +disestablished and disendowed, it became impracticable. The second +measure was Roman Catholic emancipation. This had been intended by +Pitt and other statesmen who helped to bring about the Union; but +unforeseen difficulties arose; and unfortunately nothing was done +until the agitation led by O'Connell brought matters to a crisis; +and the emancipation which might have been carried gracefully years +before, and in that case would have strengthened the Union, was +grudgingly yielded in 1829. + +The third measure was a readjustment of tithes. All will now admit, +and very many politicians and thinkers at the time fully realized, +that the old law as to tithes was a cruel injustice; but no change +was made until the opposition to the payment of tithes amounted to +something like civil war, involving a series of murders and outrages. +Then the fatal precedent was set of a successful and violent revolt +against contracts and debts. In 1838 an Act was passed commuting +the tithes into a rent-charge payable not by the occupiers but the +landlords. Some modern writers have argued that the change was merely +a matter of form, as the landlords increased the rents in proportion; +and it seems such a natural thing to have happened that earlier +writers may well be excused for assuming that it actually occurred. +But there is no excuse for repeating the charge now; for in +consequence of recent legislation it has been necessary for the Land +Courts to investigate the history of rents from a period commencing +before 1838; and the result of their examination has elicited the +strange fact that in thousands of cases the rent remained exactly the +same that it had been before the Tithe Commutation Act was passed. + +But ere long economic causes were at work which tended to check the +prosperity of Ireland. It was soon found that the proportion which by +the Act of Union Ireland was to contribute to the Imperial Government +was too large for the country to bear. The funded debt of Ireland +which amounted to £28,000,000 in 1800 rose by 1817 to £130,000,000; +in that year the whole liability was taken over by the Imperial +Government. Then the fall in prices which naturally resulted from +the peace of 1815 pressed heavily on an agricultural community. +Improvements in machinery and the development of steam power squeezed +out the handlooms of Ulster and the watermills of other parts of the +country. Wages were low; and the people who depended mainly on the +potato were underfed and undernourished. In 1846 and 1847 came the +two terrible blows to Ireland--first, the potato disease; and then the +Repeal of the Corn Laws, which made the profitable growing of wheat +with its accompanying industries, impossible. During the fearful years +of the potato famine, it is only too probable that some of the efforts +for relief were unwisely conducted and that some persons sadly failed +in their duties; no measures or men in the world are ever perfect; and +the difficulties not only of obtaining food but of getting it to the +starving people in days when there were few railways and no motors +were enormous. But when modern writers shower wholesale abuse over +the landlords of the period, and even hint that they brought about the +famine, it is well to turn to the writings of an ardent Home Ruler, +who was himself an eye-witness, having lived as a boy through the +famine time in one of the districts that suffered most--Mr. A.M. +Sullivan. He says:-- + + "The conduct of the Irish landlords throughout the famine + period has been variously described, and has been, I believe, + generally condemned. I consider the censure visited on them + too sweeping. I hold it to be in some respects cruelly unjust. + On many of them no blame too heavy could possibly fall. + A large number were permanent absentees; their ranks were + swelled by several who early fled the post of duty at + home--cowardly and selfish deserters of a brave and faithful + people. Of those who remained, some may have grown callous; + it is impossible to contest authentic instances of brutal + heartlessness here and there. But granting all that has to be + entered on the dark debtor side, the overwhelming balance + is the other way. The bulk of the resident Irish landlords + manfully did their best in that dread hour ... No adequate + tribute has ever been paid to the memory of those Irish + landlords--they were men of every party and creed--perished + martyrs to duty in that awful time; who did not fly the + plague-reeking work-houses or fever-tainted court. Their names + would make a goodly roll of honour ... If they did too little + compared with what the landlord class in England would have + done in similar case, it was because little was in their + power. The famine found most of the resident gentry of Ireland + on the brink of ruin. They were heritors of estates heavily + overweighted with the debts of a bygone generation. Broad + lands and lordly mansions were held by them on settlements + and conditions that allowed small scope for the exercise + of individual liberality. To these landlords the failure of + year's rental receipts meant mortgage fore-one and hopeless + ruin. Yet cases might be named by the score in which such men + scorned to avert by pressure on their suffering tenantry the + fate they saw impending over them.... They 'went down with the + ship.'" + +Soon after the famine, the Incumbered Estates Act was passed, by which +the creditors of incumbered landlords could force a sale. This in +effect worked a silent revolution; for whatever might have been said +up to that time about the landed proprietors being the representatives +of those who acquired their estates through the Cromwellian +confiscations, after those proprietors had been forced to sell and the +purchasers had obtained a statutory title by buying in the Court, the +charge became obsolete. The motive of the Act was a good one; it +was hoped that land would thus pass out of the hands of impoverished +owners and be purchased by English capitalists who would be able to +execute improvements on their estates and thus benefit the country +as a whole. But the scheme brought with it disadvantages which the +framers of the Act had not foreseen. The new purchasers had none of +the local feelings of the dispossessed owners; they regarded their +purchases as an investment, which they wished to make as profitable as +possible, and treated the occupants of the land with a harshness which +the old proprietors would never have exercised. Like most things in +Ireland, however, this has been much exaggerated. It is constantly +assumed that the whole soil of Ireland after this belonged to absentee +proprietors who took no interest in the country. That absenteeism is a +great evil to any country, and to Ireland especially, no one can deny; +but a Parliamentary enquiry in 1869 elicited the fact that the number +of landed proprietors in the rural area of Ireland then (and there +is no reason to suppose that any great change had taken place in +the previous eighteen years) was 19,547, of whom only 1,443 could +be described as "rarely or never resident in Ireland"; and these +represented 15.7 per cent. of the rural area, and only 15.1 per cent. +of the total poor-law valuation of that area. + +Between 1841 and 1851 the population of the country fell from +8,200,000 to 6,574,000. The primary causes of this were of course the +famine and the fever which broke out amongst the half-starved people; +but it was also to a large extent caused by emigration. A number +of devoted and noble-hearted men, realizing that it was hopeless to +expect that the potato disease would disappear, and that consequently +the holdings had become "uneconomic" (to use the phrase now so +popular) as no other crop was known which could produce anything +like the same amount of food, saw that the only course to prevent a +continuation of the famine would be to remove a large section of the +people to a happier country. In this good work the Quakers, who had +been untiring in their efforts to relieve distress during the famine, +took a prominent part; and the Government gave assistance. At the +time no one regarded this as anything but a beneficent course; for the +emigrants found better openings in new and rising countries than +they ever could have had at home, and the reduced population, earning +larger wages, were able to live in greater comfort. One evidence of +this has been that mud cabins, which in 1841 had numbered 491,000 +had in 1901 been reduced to 9,000; whilst the best class of houses +increased from 304,000 to 596,000. In 1883 the Roman Catholic bishops +came to the conclusion that matters had gone far enough, and that in +future migration from the poorer to the more favoured districts was +better than emigration from the country; but they did not say anything +against the work that had been done up to that time. Yet a recent +Nationalist writer, wishing to bring every possible charge against the +landlords, has hinted that the total loss of population from 1841 to +1901 was caused by the brutality of the landlords after the famine, +who drove the people out of the country! To show the fallacy of this, +it is sufficient to point out that the powers of the landlords for +good or evil were considerably reduced by the Land Act of 1870, and +after that they were further diminished by each successive Act until +the last shred was taken away by the Act of 1887; yet the population +went down from 5,412,377 in 1871 to 4,453,775 in 1901--the emigration +being larger in proportion from those counties where the National +League was omnipotent than from other parts of Ireland. + +In the early thirties O'Connell commenced his famous agitation for the +Repeal of the Union. After he had disappeared from the scene, his work +was taken up by those of his followers who advocated physical force; +and in 1848 an actual rebellion broke out, headed by Smith O'Brien. It +ended in a ridiculous fiasco. The immediate cause of its failure, as +A.M. Sullivan has pointed out, was that the leaders, in imitation of +the movement of half a century before, endeavoured to eliminate the +religious difficulty and to bring about a rising in which Orange +and Green should be united; but their fight for religious tolerance +exposed them to the charge of infidelity; the Roman Catholic priests +(who now possessed immense political influence) denounced them; and +their antagonism was fatal to the movement. + +But one of the most far-seeing of the party--J.F. Lalor--perceived +that mere repeal would never be strong enough to be a popular cry--it +must be hitched on to some more powerful motive, which could drag it +along. As he clearly explained in his manifesto, his objects were the +abolition of British government and the formation of a National one. +He considered that neither agitation nor the attempt at military +insurrection were likely to attain those objects, but that the wisest +means for that end were the refusal of obedience to usurped authority; +taking quiet possession of all the rights and powers of government and +proceeding to exercise them; and defending the exercise of such powers +if attacked. He saw that the motive power which would carry itself +forward and drag repeal with it, was in the land. He held that the +soil of the country belonged as of right to the entire people of that +country, not to any one class but to the nation--one condition being +essential, that the tenant should bear true and undivided allegiance +to the nation whose land he held, and owe no allegiance whatever to +any other prince, power or people, or any obligation of obedience or +respect to their will, their orders, or their laws. The reconquest +of the liberties of Ireland, he argued, would, even if possible by +itself, be incomplete and worthless, without the reconquest of the +land; whereas the latter, if effected, would involve the former. He +therefore recommended (1) That occupying tenants should at once refuse +to pay all rent except the value of the overplus of harvest produce +remaining in their hands after deducting a full provision for their +own subsistence during the ensuing year; (2) that they should forcibly +resist being made homeless under the English law of ejectment; (3) +that they ought further on principle to refuse _all_ rent to the +present usurping proprietors, until they should in National Convention +decide what rents they were to pay and to whom they should pay them; +and (4) that the people, on grounds of policy and economy, should +decide that those rents should be paid to themselves--the people--for +public purposes for the benefit of the entire general people. In +that way a mighty social revolution would be accomplished, and the +foundation of a national revolution surely laid. + +But these views, though shared by J. Mitchel and other leaders, were +not at the time generally adopted; and the next agitations were more +distinctly political than agrarian. The Fenian movement of 1865--1867, +the avowed object of which was the establishment of an independent +republic, arose in America, where it was cleverly devised and ably +financed. In Ireland it met with little sympathy except in the towns; +and the attempted outbreaks, both there and in Canada, were dismal +failures. Two of their efforts in England, however, led to important +results. Gladstone made the remarkable statement that it was their +attempt to blow up Clerkenwell prison that enabled him to carry +the Act for the Disestablishment of the Irish Church. Many years +afterwards, when this encouragement to incendiarism had done its work, +he denied that he had ever said so; but there is no doubt that he did. + +Here I must digress for a moment to refer to the position of the Irish +Church. By the Act of Union it had been provided that the Churches of +England and Ireland as then by law established should be united, and +that the continuation and preservation of the United Church should be +deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental part of the Union; +and at the time of the agitation for Catholic emancipation the Roman +Catholic Bishops of Ireland solemnly declared that their Church +would never attempt to destroy the Protestant Establishment. This is +interesting as showing how futile are the attempts of one generation +to bind posterity by legislation; and how foolish it is to expect +that men will regard themselves as bound by promises made by their +ancestors. (The same remark may be made with reference to the promises +now being made by Nationalists as to the Home Rule Bill.) The general +provisions of the Disestablishment Act were simple. Existing clergy +were secured in their incomes for life; the disestablished Church +was allowed to claim all churches then in actual use, and to purchase +rectory houses and glebes at a valuation; and a sum of £500,000 was +given to the Church in lieu of all private endowments. Everything +else--even endowments given by private persons a few years before the +Act was passed--was swept away. The members of the Church showed a +liberality which their opponents never anticipated. They bought the +glebes, continued to pay their clergy by voluntary assessments, and +collected a large sum of money towards a future endowment. Nationalist +writers now state that the Act left the Irish Church with an income +adequate to its needs and merely applied the surplus revenues to other +purposes; and hint that the capital sum now possessed by the Church +really came from the State, and that therefore the future Home Rule +Government can deal with it as they please. The alarm felt by Irish +Churchmen at the prospect can be understood. + +The other Fenian attempt in England which has historical importance +was of a different kind. Two Fenian prisoners were being conveyed in a +prison van at Manchester. Their friends tried to rescue them by force; +and in the attempt killed the officer in charge. For this crime, three +of them--Allen, Larkin and O'Brien--were tried, convicted and hanged +in November 1867. These were the "Manchester Martyrs," in honour of +whose unflinching fidelity to faith and country (to quote the words +of Archbishop Croke) so many memorial crosses have been erected, +and solemn demonstrations are held every year to this day. At the +unveiling of the memorial cross at Limerick the orator said: "Allen, +Larkin and O'Brien died as truly for the cause of Irish Nationality as +did any of the heroes of Irish history. The same cause nerved the arms +of the brave men of '98, of '48, of '65 and '67. For the cause that +had lived so long they would not take half measures--nothing else +would satisfy them than the full measure of Nationality for which they +and their forefathers had fought." + +Meanwhile another movement was going on, which seems to have been at +first wholly distinct from the Fenian conspiracy--the constitutional +agitation for Home Rule or Repeal, led by Isaac Butt. It commenced its +Parliamentary action in 1874; but was ere long broken up by the more +violent spirits within its own ranks. As had so frequently happened in +similar movements in Ireland, France and elsewhere, the moderate +men were thrust aside, and the extremists carried all before them. +Fenianism, though apparently crushed in Ireland, continued to flourish +in America. Michael Davitt, who had been a prominent member both of +the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood and of the Fenian Society, had +been convicted of treason felony, and sentenced to penal servitude. On +his release in 1877, he was received as a hero, and amongst those who +took part in the welcome to him were C.S. Parnell, J.G. Biggar, J. +Carey, D. Curley and J. Brady. He went to America and there matured +the plan of his operations on the lines laid down by Lalor, which he +proceeded to carry out in Ireland in 1879 by means of a Society which +was at first called the "Land League" but which has since been known +by various other names. Amongst his allies were J. Devoy, O'Donovan +Rossa, and Patrick Ford. Devoy and Rossa took an active part in +establishing the Skirmishing Fund, which was subscribed for the +purpose of levying war on England with dynamite. Rossa afterwards +publicly boasted that he had placed an infernal machine onboard H.M.S. +"Dottrell," and had sent it and all its crew to the bottom of the +ocean. As a reward for his patriotic conduct he was some years later +granted a pension by the County Council of Cork, payable out of the +rates. Ford was the ablest and most powerful of the number, for by +means of his paper--the _Irish World_--he collected vast sums for the +Parliamentary party. In this paper he strongly advocated the use of +dynamite as a blessed agent which should be availed of by the Irish +people in their holy war; and elaborated a scheme for setting fire to +London in fifty places on a windy night. After D. Curley and J. Brady +had been hanged for the murder of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. +Burke, he collected money for a testimonial to them as heroes, and +prayed that God would send Ireland more men with hearts like that of +J. Brady. Mr. Redmond has recently described him as "the grand old +veteran, who through his newspaper has done more for the last thirty +or forty years for Ireland than almost any man alive"; Mr. T.P. +O'Connor has congratulated him on the great work he is doing for +Ireland; and Mr. Devlin has eulogized him for "the brilliancy in the +exposition of the principles inculcated in our programme." + +By 1880 the union between the Dynamite party in America (which bore +many names, such as the Fenian Society, the Irish Revolutionary +Brotherhood, the Invincibles, the Clan-na-gael, and the Physical +Force party, but was essentially the same movement throughout), the +constitutional agitators for Home Rule in Parliament, and the Land +Leaguers in Ireland, was complete. It was but natural that it should +be so, for their objects were the same, though their methods differed +according to circumstances. The American party (according to their own +statements) desired the achievement of a National Parliament so as +to give them a footing on Irish soil--to give them the agencies and +instrumentalities for a Government _de facto_ at the very commencement +of the Irish struggle--to give them the plant of an armed revolution. +Hence they gladly contributed large sums for the Parliamentary Fund. +Parnell, the leader of the Parliamentary party, stated that a true +revolutionary movement should partake of a constitutional and +an illegal character; it should be both an open and a secret +organization, using the constitution for its own purpose and also +taking advantage of the secret combination; and (as the judges at the +Parnell Commission reported) the Land League was established with the +intention of bringing about the independence of Ireland as a separate +nation. + +In the preceding autumn the agitation against the payment of rent had +begun; and persons of ordinary intelligence could see that a fresh +outbreak of anarchy was imminent. But Gladstone, when coming into +power in March 1880, assumed that air of easy optimism which his +successors in more recent times have imitated; and publicly stated +that there was in Ireland an absence of crime and outrage and a +general sense of comfort and satisfaction such as had been unknown +in the previous history of the country. His Chief Secretary, Forster, +however, had not been long in Ireland before he realized that this +was the dream of a madman; and that the Government must either act or +abdicate in favour of anarchy; but the Cabinet refused to support him. +Before the end of the year the Government had practically abdicated, +and the rule of the Land League was the only form of Government in +force in a large part of the country. The name of the unfortunate +Captain Boycott will be for ever associated with the means the League +employed to enforce their orders. What those means were, was explained +by Gladstone himself:-- + + "What is meant by boycotting? In the first place it is + combined intimidation. In the second place, it is combined + intimidation made use of for the purpose of destroying the + private liberties of choice by fear of ruin and starvation. In + the third place, that which stands in the rear of boycotting + and by which alone boycotting can in the long run be made + thoroughly effective is the murder which is not to be + denounced." + +And a few years later--1886--the Official Report of the Cowper +Commission stated it more fully:-- + + "The people are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for + its success on the probability of outrage, than they are of + the judgments of the Courts of Justice. The unwritten law in + some districts is supreme. We deem it right to call attention + to the terrible ordeal that a boycotted person has to undergo, + which was by several witnesses graphically described during + the progress of our enquiry. The existence of a boycotted + person becomes a burden to him, as none in town or village are + allowed, under a similar penalty to themselves, to supply him + or his family with the necessaries of life. He is not allowed + to dispose of the produce of his farm. Instances have been + brought before us in which his attendance at divine service + was prohibited, in which his cattle have been, some killed, + some barbarously mutilated; in which all his servants and + labourers were ordered and obliged to leave him; in which the + most ordinary necessaries of life and even medical comforts, + had to be procured from long distances; in which no one + would attend the funeral, or dig a grave for, a member of a + boycotted person's family; and in which his children have been + forced to discontinue attendance at the National School of the + district." + +This was the ordinary form of Government as conducted by the +Nationalists; and any attempt to interfere with it and to enforce the +milder laws of England, is now denounced as "coercion." + +In 1881 Gladstone carried another and a more far-reaching Land Act. To +put it shortly, it may be said that all agricultural land (except that +held by leaseholders, who were brought in under the Act of 1887) +was handed over to the occupiers for ever (with free power of sale), +subject only to the payment of rent--the rent not being that which the +tenants had agreed to pay, but that which a Land Court decided to Be +a "fair rent." This was to last for fifteen years, at the end of which +time the tenant might again claim to have a fair rent fixed, and so +_ad infinitum_. The Land Court in most cases cut down the rent by +about 20 or 25 per cent.; and at the end of fifteen years did the +same again. As tithes (which had been secularized but not abolished), +mortgages and family charges remained unchanged, the result was that +a large proportion of landlords were absolutely ruined; in very many +cases those who appear as owners now have no beneficial interest in +their estates. + +In examining the Act calmly, one must observe in the first place that +it was a wholesale confiscation of property. Not of course one +that involved the cruelty of confiscations of previous ages, but a +confiscation all the same. For if A. bought a farm in the Incumbered +Estates Court, with a Parliamentary title, and let it to B. for twenty +years at a rent of £100; and the Act gave B. the right of occupying it +for ever subject to the payment of £50 a year, and selling it for any +price he liked, that can only mean the transfer of property from A. to +B. Secondly, the Act encouraged bad farming; for a tenant knew that +if his land got into a slovenly state--with drains stopped up, fences +broken down, and weeds growing everywhere--the result would be that +the rent would be reduced by the Commissioners at the end of the +fifteen years; as the Commissioners did not go into the question of +whose the fault was, but merely took estimates as to what should be +the rent of the land in its actual condition. That farms were in many +instances intentionally allowed to go to decay with this object, has +been proved; and this pressed hard on the labouring class, as less +employment was given. Thirdly, although the remission of debt may +bring prosperity for a time, it may be doubted whether it will +permanently benefit the country; for it will be noticed that the +attempt to fix prices arbitrarily applied only to the letting and +hiring and not to other transactions. To give a typical instance of +what has occurred in many cases: a tenant held land at a rent of £1. +15s. 0d. per acre; he took the landlord into Court, swore that the +land could not bear such a rent, and had it reduced to £1. 5s. 0d.; +thereupon he sold it for £20 an acre; and so the present occupier had +to pay £1. 5s. 0d. to the nominal landlord, and the interest on the +purchase-money (about £1 per acre) to a mortgagee; in fact, he has +to pay a larger sum annually than any previous tenant did; and this +payment is "rent" in the economic sense though it is paid not to a +resident landlord but to a distant mortgagee. In other words, rent +was increased, and absenteeism became general. Fourthly, it sowed +the seeds for future trouble; for it was the temporary union of two +antagonistic principles. On the one hand it was said that "the man who +tills the land should own it," and therefore rent was an unjust +tax (in fact it was seriously argued that men of English and Scotch +descent who had hired farms in the nineteenth century had a moral +right to keep them for ever rent free because tribal tenure had +prevailed amongst the Celts who occupied the country many hundreds of +years before); on the other it was said that the land belonged to the +people of Ireland as a whole and not to any individuals. If that is +so, what right has one man to a large farm when there are hundreds of +others in a neighbouring town who have no land at all? The passing of +the Land Acts of 1881 and 1887 made it inevitable that sooner or later +a fresh agitation would be commenced by "landless men." And fifthly, +when an excitable, uneducated people realize that lawlessness and +outrages will be rewarded by an Act remitting debts and breaking +contracts, they are not likely in future to limit their operations +to land, but will apply the same maxims to other contracts. The +demoralizing of character is a fact to be taken into consideration. + +However, the Act was passed; and if Gladstone really imagined that +it would satisfy the Nationalist party he must have been grievously +disappointed. During 1881, 4,439 agrarian outrages were recorded. The +Government declared the Land League to be illegal, and lodged some of +the leaders in gaol. Thereupon Ford, carrying out the plan laid down +by Lalor in 1848, issued his famous "No Rent" proclamation. It was not +generally acted upon; but his party continued active, and in May 1882 +Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke (the Chief and Under Secretary) +were murdered in the Phoenix Park. This led to the passing of the +Crimes Prevention Act, by which the detectives were enabled to secure +evidence against the conspirators, many of whom (as is usual in Irish +history) turned Queen's evidence. The Act was worked with firmness; +and outrages, which had numbered 2,507 during the first half of 1882, +fell to 836 in the latter half, to 834 in 1883, and to 774 in 1884. + +In the autumn of 1885, Gladstone, expecting to return to power at +the ensuing election, besought the electors to give him a majority +independent of the Irish vote. In this he failed; and thereupon took +place the "Great Surrender." He suddenly discovered that everything +he had said and done up to that time had been wrong; that boycotting, +under the name of "exclusive dealing," was perfectly justifiable; +that the refusal to pay rent was just the same as a strike of workmen +(ignoring the obvious facts that when workmen strike they cease both +to give their labour and to receive pay, whereas the gist of the "No +Rent" movement was that tenants, whilst ceasing to pay, should retain +possession of the farms they have hired; and that a strike arises from +a dispute between employers and employed--usually about rates of pay +or length of hours; whereas Ford's edict that no rent was to be paid +was issued not in consequence of anything that individual landlords +had done, but because Gladstone had put the leaders of the Land League +in gaol); that the men whom he had previously denounced as "marching +through rapine to the dismemberment of the Empire" were heroes who +deserved to be placed in charge of the government of the country; and +introduced his first Home Rule Bill. Some of his followers went with +him; others refused. His life-long ally, John Bright, said: "I cannot +trust the peace and interests of Ireland, north and south, to the +Irish Parliamentary party, to whom the Government now propose to +make a general surrender. My six years' experience of them, of their +language in the House of Commons and their deeds in Ireland, makes it +impossible for me to consent to hand over to them the property and +the rights of five millions of the Queen's subjects, our +fellow-countrymen, in Ireland. At least two millions of them are as +loyal as the population of your town, and I will be no party to a +measure which will thrust them from the generosity and justice of the +United and Imperial Parliament." + +The Bill was rejected; at the general election which ensued the people +of England declared against the measure; Gladstone resigned, and Lord +Salisbury became Prime Minister. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE UNIONIST GOVERNMENT OF 1886. + + +The Unionists, on returning to power in 1886, fully realized the +difficulty of the problem with which they were faced. The Nationalists +held a great Convention at Chicago, at which they resolved to make +use of the Land League not merely for the purpose of exterminating +landlords but as a means for promoting universal disorder and so +bringing about a paralysis of the law. As J. Redmond stated at the +Convention: "I assert that the government of Ireland by England is an +impossibility, and I believe it to be our duty to make it so." And, as +he afterwards explained in Ireland, he considered that if the Tories +were able to carry on the government with the ordinary law, the +cause of Home Rule might be set back for a generation; but if the +Nationalists could succeed in making such government impossible, and +the Tories were obliged to have recourse to coercion, the people +of Great Britain would turn them out of office, and Gladstone would +return to power and carry Home Rule. (This avowed determination on the +part of the Nationalists to reduce the country to anarchy should be +borne in mind when people now express their horror at the Ulstermen +being guilty of such conduct as breaking the law.) With this object, +the Nationalists in 1887 organized the "Plan of Campaign," which +was in fact an elaboration of the "No Rent" manifesto of 1881, and +a scheme for carrying out, step by step, the programme laid down by +Lalor in 1848. One of Lalor's adherents had been a young priest named +Croke. By 1887 he had become Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cashel. He +had considered the "No Rent" manifesto inopportune; but now formally +sanctioned the "Plan of Campaign," and in a violent letter urged that +it should be extended to a general refusal to pay taxes. The Plan +was also approved by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and the +leaders of the Nationalist movement in Ireland and America, such as +J. Dillon and Ford; but Parnell seemed doubtful, and in England the +_Daily News_ denounced it. + +However, the Unionist Government had decided on their policy, which +they were determined to carry through. The main items of their +programme were (1) To enforce the law; (2) To facilitate land +purchase; (3) To develop the industries of the country; and (4) To +extend local government. It is well to examine these in detail, so as +to arrive at a just estimate of the two rival policies. + +(i) The Crimes Prevention Act passed by Gladstone in 1882 had lapsed, +having been limited to a period of three years. Mr. Balfour (who had +become Chief Secretary) was of opinion that the continual passing of +temporary measures was a mistake (as some one has said, it was like +a man burning his umbrella every fine day and then complaining of the +expense of buying so many new ones), as was shown by the fact that the +Irish Parliament had passed fifty-four of such Acts in the seventeen +years of its independent existence. He therefore, in spite of vehement +opposition from the combined forces of the English Radicals and +the Irish Nationalists, carried the Crimes Act of 1887, which was +a permanent measure, to be put in force in disturbed districts by +proclamation when necessary. This was the famous "Coercion Act" +which has been the subject of so much violent denunciation. But in +considering the matter, one must ask, What Government has there ever +been in the world that did not employ force in the carrying out of the +law? It is true that in the early days of New Zealand Mr. Busby was +sent out as a Commissioner with no means of enforcing his orders; +but the only result was that he was laughed at by the natives as "a +man-of-war without guns"; and no one can say that the scheme was a +success. In fact, how can a law be a law unless it is enforced? The +Act does not make anything a crime that was not a crime before; it +merely provides a shorter form of procedure when a district is so +completely terrorized by an illegal association that injured persons +dare not make complaints, witnesses dare not give evidence, and juries +dare not convict. This, as we have seen, had been the case in parts +of Ireland at the beginning of the rebellion of 1798; and the +Nationalists, who claimed to be the modern representatives of the +rebels of that time, had succeeded in bringing about the same state of +things. In some of its most stringent provisions the Act is a copy of +the Police Act permanently in force in London; yet ordinary residents +in the Metropolis do not seem to groan much under its tyranny, nor do +the Radicals propose to repeal it. + +And certainly the Act has worked satisfactorily from the point of +view of those who desire to see the country in a state of peace and +prosperity, though disastrously in the opinion of those who aim at +making government impossible. Between July, 1887, when the Act came +into force, and the end of the year, 628 persons were prosecuted, of +whom 378 were convicted and 37 held to bail. In 1888 there were 1,475 +prosecutions, 907 convictions, and 175 persons required to find bail. +By 1891 (the last full year of Unionist Government) crime had sunk so +rapidly that in that year there were only 243 persons prosecuted, +of whom 105 were convicted, and 81 held to bail. In 1901 (when the +Unionists were again in power) there were 29 prosecutions and 22 +convictions. In 1902 there was a revival of crime; the Act was again +brought into operation, with much the same result as before--there +were 157 prosecutions, 104 convictions, and 17 persons were held to +bail. In 1903 there were 3 prosecutions and 3 convictions. + +(2) _Land Purchase_. The Unionist Government considered that the dual +ownership set up by the Act of 1881 would be a constant source of +trouble, and that its working could not be for the benefit of the +country. They believed that the best solution of the land question +would be a system of purchase whereby the occupiers would become +owners. This of course was entirely opposed to the wishes of the +Nationalists; for if the land question was settled, the motive power +which was to carry separation with it, would be gone. + +Some efforts in the direction of Land Purchase had been made in 1870 +(at the instance of Mr. Bright) and in 1881; but nothing was done on +a large scale until 1885, when the "Ashbourne Act" was passed; +and various further steps were taken by the Unionist Government, +culminating in the great "Wyndham Act" of 1903. By the earlier Acts, +73,858 tenants became owners; by the Wyndham Act, 253,625. As the +total number of agricultural tenants of Ireland amounted to slightly +under 600,000, it will be seen that more than half of them have now +purchased their holdings. To explain the general principles of the +Act, it is sufficient to say that when the landlord and tenants of +an estate agree to a sale, the Government advance the money, and +the tenant purchasers undertake to repay it by annual instalments +extending over a period of 68 years. As these annual payments must be +less than the existing rent as fixed by the Land Court under the Act +of 1881, the purchasing tenant has no ground for complaint; and though +the income of the landlord is reduced by the sale, he is freed from +further anxiety; and besides, the Government give a bonus to the +vendor from Imperial funds. It will be seen at once that the scheme +would have been impossible under Home Rule; for the English Government +had by the end of March 1911, agreed to advance the enormous sum of +nearly £118,000,000; an amount which no Irish Government could have +raised except at such an exorbitant rate of interest that it would +have been out of the question. On the other hand, England has become +the creditor of the new Irish landowners for this vast amount; and +in the event of Separation a serious difficulty may arise as to its +repayment. + +It may interest readers in the Colonies to learn that the Government +thoughtfully passed a Registration of Titles Act in 1891; so that the +Irish purchasers under the various Land Acts have the benefits which +were first introduced in Australia by Sir Robert Torrens. + +The Act of 1903 had the cordial support of a small minority of +Nationalists; but to the majority it was gall and wormwood. Hence Mr. +Birrell, when he became Chief Secretary, threw every obstacle he could +into the way of its working; and in 1909 he passed a new measure, +under which land purchase has practically ceased. + +(3)_The development of the Industries of the Country_. That has of +course taken various forms, of which only a few can be mentioned here. +By the Light Railways (for which the country has to thank Mr. Balfour +himself) remote and hitherto inaccessible districts have been brought +into touch with the rest of the world; and by an expenditure of +£2,106,000 the railway mileage of Ireland has been increased from +2,643 miles in 1890 to 3,391 in 1906. Then it is hardly too much to +say that the Labourers' Cottages Act, and the grants made under it, +have transformed the face of the country. + +By this Act, District Councils are enabled, in localities where +accommodation for labourers is insufficient, to take land compulsorily +and erect cottages, the money advanced by the Government for the +purpose being gradually repaid by the ratepayers. The wretched hovels +which were the disgrace of Ireland from the dawn of history until a +period within living memory, have almost disappeared; and comfortable, +sanitary and pleasing dwellings have taken their place. + +Even this excellent Act, however, is now used by the Nationalists to +further their own objects. One instance may suffice. In 1907 a farmer +fell under the ban of the League and was ordered to be boycotted. The +District Council found that one occupant of a "Labourer's Cottage" +disregarded the order and continued to work for the boycotted farmer. +They promptly evicted him. What would be said in England if a Tory +landlord evicted a cottager for working for a Radical farmer? + +But even more important than these measures has been the establishment +of the Department of Agriculture. The success of this has been due to +the ability, energy and unselfishness of Sir Horace Plunkett. The main +object of the Department was to instruct the farming classes in the +most effective methods of agriculture and the industries connected +with it. This by itself would have been a great work; but Sir Horace +has also founded the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, to +encourage co-operative organization amongst farmers, based on +the principle of mutual help; and the success of this, worked in +conjunction with the Department, has been marvellous. More than nine +hundred local societies have been established, for the promotion of +industries such as dairying and poultry farming; co-operative credit +banks have been formed, based on what is known in Germany as the +Raffeisen system. The turnover of these societies in 1908 amounted +to more than £2,250,000. Agricultural Organization Societies, in +imitation of the Irish one, have been formed in England and Scotland; +and so far did its fame reach that the Americans sent over an agent to +enquire into its working. + +Of course it is unfair to attribute the prosperity or the decline of +a country to any one measure; and more than that, it is only by taking +into consideration a number of circumstances and a long term of years +that we can decide whether prosperity is real or merely transitory. +But that Ireland increased in prosperity under the influence of +the Unionist Government, cannot be denied; indeed Mr. Redmond, when +shepherding the Eighty Club (an English Radical Society) through +Ireland in 1911, did not deny the prosperity of the country, and could +only suggest that the same reforms would have been introduced and +better carried out under an Irish Parliament--regardless of the facts +that no Nationalist Government could have found the money for +them; and that Nationalists are orators and politicians, not men +of business. The combined value of exports and imports rose from +104,000,000 in 1904 to 125,000,000 in 1909; and the gross receipts on +railways from £4,140,000 to £11,335,000. The deposits in savings banks +rose from £3,128,000 in 1888 to £10,627,000 in 1908. The tonnage +of shipping in Irish ports was 11,560,000 in 1900; in 1910 it was +13,475,000. + +Sir Horace had done his utmost to prevent the curse of political +strife from entering into his agricultural projects. He had been +careful to appoint Nationalists to some of the most important offices +in his Department, and to show no more favour to one part of the +country than another. But all in vain; the National League, when their +friends returned to power, at once resolved to undo his labours, some +of them openly saying that the increased attention devoted to +trade and agriculture was turning men's thoughts away from the more +important work of political agitation. Mr. T.W. Russell, a man totally +ignorant of agricultural affairs, whose only claim to the office was +that he was a convert to Nationalism, was appointed in place of +Sir Horace. He promptly declined to continue to the Agricultural +Organization Society the support which it had previously received +from the Department; and, with the aid of the United Irish League, +succeeded in preventing the Society from receiving a grant from the +Board of Agriculture similar to those given to the English and Scotch +societies; threw discredit on the Co-operative Credit Banks, and +denounced the Co-operative Farming Societies as injurious to local +shopkeepers. And thus he made it clear that it is impossible in +Ireland to conduct even such a business as the development of +agriculture without stirring up political bitterness. + +Another effort of Mr. Balfour's--the establishment of the Congested +Districts Board--has had a strange and instructive history. It was +established in 1891. Mr. Balfour decided to entrust to a small body of +Irishmen, selected irrespective of party considerations, the task of +making an experiment as to what could be done to relieve the poorest +parts of Ireland; and with this object, the Board, though endowed with +only small funds, were given the widest powers over the area within +which they were to operate. They were empowered to take such steps as +they thought proper for (1) Aiding migration or emigration from the +congested districts, and settling the migrant or emigrant in his +new home; and (2) Aiding and developing agriculture, forestry, +and breeding of live stock and poultry, weaving, spinning, fishing +(including the construction of piers and harbours, and supplying +fishing boats and gear and industries subservient to and connected +with fishing), and any other suitable industries. Both the powers and +the revenues of the Board were increased from time to time, until by +1909 its annual expenditure amounted to nearly £250,000. It became +clear almost at the beginning of its labours that amongst the many +difficulties which the Board would have to face there were two +pre-eminent ones; if it was desired to enlarge uneconomic holdings by +removing a part of the population to other districts, the people to be +removed might not wish to go; and the landless men in the district to +which they were to be removed might say that they had a better right +to the land than strangers from a distance, and the result might be a +free fight. As the only chance of success for the labours of the Board +was the elimination of party politics, Mr. J. Morley, on becoming +Chief Secretary in the Gladstonian Government of 1892, appointed as +Commissioners Bishop O'Donnell of Raphoe (the Patron of the Ancient +Order of Hibernians, and a Trustee of the Parliamentary Fund of the +United Irish League); and the Rev. D. O'Hara, a leading Clerical +Nationalist of a violent type. It is needless to say that under their +influence the action of the Board has been conducted on strictly +Nationalist lines. One instance may suffice. In 1900, the Board, +having come into the possession of the Dillon estate, wished to sell +it to the tenants; and when doing so, considering the sporting rights +to be a valuable asset, decided to reserve them. A considerable number +of the tenants expressed their readiness to purchase their holdings +subject to the reservation. The Board received an offer of £11,000 +for the mansion, demesne and sporting rights over the estate. The +reservation of sporting rights when, taking the whole estate, they +were of pecuniary value, had been the common practice of the Board in +other sales; but an agitation was at once got up (not by the tenants) +against the reservation in this case, on the ground that it was not +right for the Board to place any burden on the fee simple of the +holdings; the offer of £11,000 was refused, and soon afterwards the +Board sold the mansion and the best part of the demesne to a community +of Belgian nuns for £2,100. The sporting rights, which became the +property of the purchasing tenants, ceased to be of any appreciable +pecuniary value, though in a few cases the tenants succeeded in +selling their share of them for small sums to local agitators. When a +witness before the Royal Commission of 1906 ventured to point out that +the taxpayers thus lost £8,900 by the transaction, he was severely +rebuked by the Clerical members of the Commission for suggesting +that the presence of the Belgian nuns was not a great benefit to the +neighbourhood. + +This Royal Commission was appointed ostensibly for the purpose of +enquiring into and reporting upon the operations of the Board since +its foundation. After going through a mass of evidence, the Chairman +(Lord Dudley) said that the Board had tried for twenty years to +develop new industries and had failed; and another member (Lord +MacDonnell) said that it had only touched the fringe of the question; +and, considering that in spite of all its efforts at promoting local +industries, emigration continued to be greater from the district +subject to its control than from any other part of Ireland, it is hard +to see what other view was possible. But the large majority of the +Commission were ardent Nationalists--in fact, one of them a short time +before his appointment had publicly advocated an absolute, rigorous, +complete and exhaustive system of boycotting; and the witness who +spoke for the United Irish League told the Commission that it was the +strong view of the League that the Board should be preserved. It was +only natural therefore that the Commission should report that in their +opinion the powers and scope of its operations should be extended and +its income largely increased. This was accordingly done by the Birrell +Act of 1909. One of the most important functions of the Board was +the purchase of land, for which they possessed compulsory powers. The +witness who had appeared before the Commission as representing the +United Irish League was Mr. FitzGibbon, Chairman of the Roscommon +County Council, and now a Member of Parliament. He had previously been +sent to prison for inciting to the Plan of Campaign, and for criminal +conspiracy. He had also taken a leading part in the cattle-driving +agitation (to which I shall refer later) and had announced that his +policy was "to enable the Board to get land at fag-end prices." He +was therefore appointed by Mr. Birrell to be a member of the Board, as +being a suitable person to decide what compensation should be paid +for land taken compulsorily. He publicly stated that his object was to +carry out the great work of Michael Davitt. And he certainly has been +active in doing so; and now the agitators, when they want to have an +estate transferred to the Board, commence by preventing its being +let or used, and so compelling the owner to leave it derelict +and unprofitable; then, when by every description of villainy and +boycotting it has been rendered almost worthless, the Congested +Districts Board (who have carefully lain by until then) step in with +a preposterous offer which the unfortunate owner has no choice but +to accept. This may appear strong language to use with reference to +a Government Department presided over by Roman Catholic bishops and +priests; but the words are not mine; they are taken from the judgment +of Mr. Justice Ross, in the case of the Browne Estate. + +At any rate, whatever else the Congested Districts Board may have +achieved, they have done one good thing; they have shown to Unionists +in Ireland what the principles of justice are by which the Nationalist +Government will be conducted. + +(4) The fourth division of the Unionist policy was the extension of +local government. By the Act of 1898 County and District Councils were +formed, like those which had been existing in England for a few +years previously; and the powers of the old Grand Juries (who it +was admitted had done their work well, but were now objected to on +principle as not being elected bodies) were abolished. The importance +of the measure can hardly be overestimated; for not only did it +re-organize local government on what would elsewhere be a democratic +but is in Ireland a Clerical basis; but also it may be described as +Home Rule on a small scale. By examining into the practical working of +the scheme we may form an idea as to what Home Rule is likely to be; +and both parties refer to it as a ground for their opinion. It is +curious now to note that it was Gerald Balfour, the Unionist Chief +Secretary, who, when introducing the measure, appealed to the Irish +gentry not to stand aloof from the new order of things, but to seek +from the suffrages of their fellow-citizens that position which no +others were so well qualified to fill as themselves--in much the same +way that English Radical orators now accuse the Ulstermen of want +of patriotism when they declare that they will never take part in a +Nationalist Government. The Nationalists were of course loud in their +protestations that in the noble work of local government all narrow +political and sectarian bitterness would be put aside, and all +Irishmen irrespective of creed, class or party would be welcome to +take part--just as they are now when they promise the same about the +National Parliament. Thus J. Redmond said: + + "No man's politics or religion will be allowed to be a bar + to him if he desires to serve his country on one of the + new bodies. Men of different creeds, who have had an almost + impassable gulf between them all their lives, will be brought + together for the first time in the working of this scheme of + Local Government.... On every one of the juries in Ireland + there have been county gentlemen who have shown the greatest + aptitude for business, the greatest industry, and the greatest + ability; and I say it would be a monstrous thing if, by + working the election of these County Councils on narrow + sectarian or political lines, men of that class were excluded + from the service of their country." + +And another Nationalist Member added: "We are anxious for the +co-operation of those who have leisure, wealth and knowledge." Irish +Unionists who refused to believe these assurances were denounced by +Nationalists as bigots and humbugs. The value of the assurances of +1912 may be gauged by the manner in which those of 1898 have been +fulfilled. At the election of 1899 a few Protestants and Unionists +were returned. But the general feeling of the newly-formed Councils +may be gathered from the following resolution which was passed by the +Mayo County Council in that year: + + "That we, the members of the Mayo County Council, congratulate + the gallant Boers on their brilliant defeats of the troops + of the pirate Saxon. That we hope that a just Providence will + strengthen the arms of these farmer fighters in their brave + struggle for their independence. And we trust that as Babylon + fell, and as Rome fell, so also may fall the race and nation + whose creed is the creed of greed, and whose god is the god of + Mammon." + +And by 1902, when the next triennial elections were coming on, +the mask was thrown off. The _Freeman's Journal_ (the principal +Nationalist organ) said:-- + + "In every County or District Council where a landlord, however + amiable, or personally estimable, offers himself for election, + the answer of the majority must be the same: 'No admittance + here.'" +And J. Redmond stated the case still more plainly: + + "We have in our hands a weapon recently won, the full force + of which is not yet, I believe, thoroughly understood by + the English Government or by ourselves. I mean the weapon + of freely-elected County Councils and District Councils who + to-day form a network of National organizations all over + Ireland, and who to-morrow, I doubt not, if the other + organizations were struck, would be willing to come forward + and take their place, and, in their Council Chambers, carry on + the National work." + +Pledges in the following form were presented for signature to all +candidates by the United Irish League (except of course in north-east +Ulster):-- + + "I ---- hereby pledge myself, if elected to represent the ---- + Division on the County Council, to promote the interests of + the United Irish League, and to resign my position whenever + called upon to do so by the ---- Divisional Executive." + +So completely has the policy been carried out that by 1911, to +quote the words of Mr. FitzGibbon, M.P. (to whom I have previously +referred):-- + + "There was not a landlord in the country who could get his + agent returned as District Councillor or County Councillor, + or even his eldest son or himself. The Organization had + emancipated the people; it had given them the power which + their enemies had wielded; it had cleared the road for + Ireland's freedom." + +At present Unionists and Nationalists are pretty evenly divided in the +County Councils of Ulster; in the other three Provinces amongst 703 +County Councillors there are only fifteen Unionists. In other words, +the Act has enabled the Nationalist party to carry out the plan laid +down by Lalor of taking quiet and peaceable possession of all +the rights and powers of government, as a stepping-stone towards +Independence. + +Of course it may be said with much truth that if the large majority of +the people are Nationalists they are perfectly justified in choosing +Nationalists as their representatives. But that is not the point. The +real point is that in spite of the protestations of the Nationalists +at the time of the passing of the Act, politics in their bitterest +form have been brought in, and the Unionist minority have been +deprived of all share in the local government of the country. + +To illustrate this still further, I may add that a General Council +of County Councils was formed in 1900, for the purpose of promoting a +fair and equitable administration of the Act. In order that the Ulster +Councils might unite with the others, it was agreed that politics +should be excluded. But after the election of 1902, that agreement +was abandoned; and, rather than take part in what had become a mere +political gathering, the Ulster representatives withdrew. Left +to themselves, the Nationalist General Council in 1906 passed the +following resolution:-- + + "That the Irish people are a free people, with a natural right + to govern themselves; that no Parliament is competent to make + such laws for Ireland except an Irish Parliament, sitting in + Dublin; and that the claim by other bodies of men to make laws + for us to govern Ireland is illegal, unconstitutional, and at + variance with the rights of the people." + +If such a body as the General Council of County Councils pass a +resolution like this, is there much probability that the Nationalist +Parliament will refrain from doing the same, should the Imperial +Parliament attempt to exercise the power given to it by the present +Bill, and to legislate for Ireland? + +But again it may be said that though the Councils have thus become +political bodies, they have conducted their business so admirably +that their conduct is a powerful argument to show that a Nationalist +Parliament will be equally practical and liberal. This is the view put +forward by Nationalist orators and their humble follower Mr. Birrell, +who in November 1911, informed his friends at Bristol that the Irish +had shown a great capacity for local government and that from what +people who had seen a great deal of the south and west of Ireland told +him there was no fear of persecution or oppression by the Catholic +majority of their Protestant fellow-subjects. In support of this, +various facts are adduced, which it is well to examine in detail, +remembering the poet's words that + + "A lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest of lies." + +One of the greatest powers possessed by the County Councils is the +exercise of patronage. It would probably be generally admitted in any +country but Ireland that there, if anywhere, religion and politics +should be excluded, and men selected only for their qualifications. +The Nationalists, wishing to demonstrate the fairness of the Councils +which hold their views, contrast the bigotry shown by the Unionist +Corporation of Belfast with the liberality of similar bodies in other +parts of the country. And certainly the figures they adduce, when +addressing audiences in England or writing for English readers, are +very striking. Thus Mr. Birrell said at Skipton in November 1911 that +he had been told that in the great Unionist City of Belfast there was +only one Roman Catholic in the employment of the Corporation, and he +was a scavenger. (It will be observed that here, as in many of his +speeches, he carefully used the expression "he had been told"--so +that what he said may be literally true, even though when he heard the +statement he knew that it was false.) And Stephen Gwynn, M.P., in his +"Case for Home Rule," says: "In Belfast, Catholics are a third of the +population; but the Corporation pays £51,405 in a year in salaries, +of which only £640 goes to Catholics." And about the same time as +Mr. Birrell's oration, Mr. Redmond, speaking at Swindon, said that in +Galway, Cork, Westmeath and King's County (where Roman Catholics form +the large majority of the population) Protestants held 23 per cent. of +the salaried appointments in the gift of the Councils. + +But when we descend from the airy height of Nationalist rhetoric to +the prosaic region of fact, we find that the rates of the City +of Belfast amount to about £342,000; of this sum, Roman Catholic +ratepayers pay less than £18,000. There are nine hundred Roman +Catholics in the employment of the Corporation, and they receive in +salaries about £48,000 per annum. And as to the figures quoted by Mr. +Redmond, we find that he omitted to state that not one of the 23 per +cent. had been appointed by a County Council; they were all survivals +of the system in force before 1899, whose positions were secured by +statute; and in not one of the counties he mentioned has a Unionist +been appointed to any salaried office since that date. To take the +County of Cork as a specimen; there are ninety-four salaried +offices in the gift of the County Council; of these nine are held +by Protestants--but they were all appointed before 1899. Of the +thirty-three salaried offices in the gift of the City Corporation, two +are held by Protestants--but these also were appointed before 1898; +and yet the Protestants pay nearly half the rates. And in Ireland +there is not the slightest attempt at concealment in the matter; +thus in one case a District Council adopted by formal resolution the +request of the local priests not to support any candidate who did +not produce a testimonial from the parish priest; as a Councillor +remarked, it was the simplest way of stating that no Protestant need +apply. + +But it is in the appointment of medical officers ("dispensary doctors" +as they are technically called in Ireland) that the policy of the +Nationalists has been most marked. Many years ago, the late Cardinal +Cullen ruled that it was a mortal sin to vote for a heretic for such +an office; now, however, the bishops have gone further. There are +three medical schools in Dublin--Trinity College, the College of +Surgeons, and the Catholic University School; and three in the +provinces--at Belfast, Cork and Galway. The Medical School of Trinity +College has a world-wide reputation. The students are required to +complete their Arts course before specializing in medicine (thus +ensuring that they shall be men of general culture and not merely of +professional training); the professors and lecturers are amongst the +ablest men of the day; the students have the advantage of the large +city hospitals for their clinical studies; and the standard required +for a degree is high. And not only is Trinity College open to all +students without distinction of creed, but the College authorities +have frequently offered a site within their grounds for a Roman +Catholic Chapel and the salary of a Chaplain who would take spiritual +care of his flock. Nevertheless the Roman Catholic bishops have +ordered that no candidate who has been trained at any College except +the Catholic University school shall be eligible for the post of +Dispensary Doctor; and when an election takes place (as for instance +that at Kiltimagh in 1905) the question of professional qualification +is not taken into consideration--having been trained at a "godless +college" is a fatal bar to any candidate, however able. In the +Kiltimagh case, the resolution passed shortly after the election by +the local branch of the United Irish League is instructive reading:-- + + "That we, the members of the Kiltimagh Branch of the United + Irish League, take advantage of this our first meeting since + the important Election of Medical Officer for the Kiltimagh + Dispensary District, to express our appreciation of all the + Guardians for the several divisions in this parish for the + faithful honesty with which they represented us on that + occasion. We feel proud to know that not one of our + representatives voted for a Queen's College man against a + Catholic University man. They voted for a man who is the + stamp of man we want--a sound Catholic, a sound Nationalist, a + Gaelic Leaguer, and a highly qualified medical man. We believe + their action will meet with the approval of the Bishops and + Priests of Ireland." + +To one who lives in Ireland it is sad enough to see year by year the +most able and promising of the medical students being driven out +of the country on account of their religion, and forced to look for +openings elsewhere; but to a thoughtful observer it is even worse than +that; it is the beginning of the new Penal Laws. + +And when we turn to other matters, where the marvellous efficiency of +the County Councils exists, is hard for an unprejudiced enquirer +to find. The old Grand Juries handed over the roads and bridges in +excellent order; they are certainly not better now, and in many cases +worse. In fact, one English theoretical Radical who paid a brief visit +to Ireland, inhaled so much Hibernian logic during his hurried tour +that he solemnly argued that the badness of the roads proved that the +Councils had been governing too economically; and therefore what was +needed was a central body--that is, an Irish Parliament--to stir up +the local administration! Nationalist writers claim that the rates +are going down; but that merely means that they are not so high now as +they were soon after the Act came into force, not that they are lower +than before 1898. It was expected that the rates would be reduced by +the operation of the Old Age Pensions Act; but that has not proved to +be the case. And the increase in local indebtedness is alarming. + +To sum up, therefore, I trust that I have, even in this brief sketch, +made it clear that the policy of the Unionist Government, taken as +a whole, has been of immense benefit to the social and material +prosperity of Ireland; and that the points in which it has failed +have been those where their reforms have fallen under the power of the +Nationalists, who have either thwarted them, or made use of them +to further their own ideas. I shall next proceed to examine the +alternative policy, which is being carried out by the present +Government. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE GLADSTONIAN GOVERNMENT OF 1892. THE POLITICAL SOCIETIES. + + +During the Gladstone-Rosebery Government--from 1892 to 1895--matters +in Ireland were quiet. The Nationalists were at first on their best +behaviour, in consequence of the promised introduction of the Home +Rule Bill; and after its rejection by the Upper House, the time was +too short for anything serious to happen. But the period was marked by +the commencement of one great change in Irish administration. It must +be admitted by impartial observers that the old landlord party, +with all their faults, made as a rule excellent magistrates. A large +proportion of them were retired military officers, who had gained some +experience in duties of the sort in their regiments; others were men +of superior education, who studied with care the laws they were to +administer. Living in the locality, they knew the habits and feelings +of the people; and yet they were sufficiently separated from them to +be able to act as impartial judges; and no charges of bribery were +ever made against them. And, the work being congenial, they gladly +devoted their spare time to it. Gladstone's Chief Secretary (the +present Lord Morley) determined to alter all this; he accordingly +appointed to the Bench a large number of men drawn from a lower social +stratum, less educated and intelligent than those previously chosen, +but more likely to administer "Justice according to Irish ideas." +Then the operation of the Local Government Act, by which Chairmen of +Councils (all of course Nationalists) became _ex officio_ magistrates, +completed a social revolution by entirely altering the character of +the Bench. In some localities the magistrates previously appointed +realizing that, being now in a minority, they could be of no further +use on the Bench, withdrew; in others, though the old magistrates +continued to sit, they found themselves persistently outvoted on every +point; so what good they have done by remaining, it is hard to see. +Amongst the men appointed under the new system, there have been +several instances of justices who have continued to act without the +slightest shame or scruple although they have been convicted of such +offences as drunkenness, selling drink on unlicensed premises, or +corrupt practices at elections. But worse than that: the new order +of justices do not regard their duties as magisterial, but political; +they give but little attention to ordinary cases, but attend in +full strength to prevent the conviction of any person for an outrage +organized by the United Irish League; and do not hesitate to promise +beforehand that they will do so. If by any chance a sufficient number +are not present to carry their purpose, the names of the absentees are +published in the Black List of the League--and the result of that is +so well known that they are not likely to offend again. Hence comes +the contemptible exhibition--now not infrequent--of men being charged +before the Bench, and no evidence being offered for the defence; +yet the Stipendiary Magistrate being obliged to say that though he +considers the case proved, the majority of the Bench have decided to +refuse informations. Even a Roman Catholic Bishop has confessed that +now magistrates too often have no respect for their obligations to +dispense the law justly and without favour; and that the Bench is +sometimes so "packed" that the culprits, though guilty, are certain to +be acquitted. + + * * * * * + +Before discussing the policy of the present Government since it +came into power in 1906, it is well to explain what the principal +societies--secret or other--are which now conduct the Government of +Ireland. In one sense indeed the names are immaterial; for, as in +1798, in whatever various ways the societies have commenced, they are +all working towards the same end, and being controlled by the same +forces. + +The Land League, which was founded in 1879 as a league for ruining +landlords as a stepping-stone towards independence, having been +suppressed by Gladstone in 1881, was reformed under the name of the +Irish National League. This was in its turn suppressed in 1887, and in +1898 appeared once more under the name of the United Irish League +with J. Redmond as President and J. Devlin as Secretary. In 1901 Mr. +Redmond explained the objects of the League as follows:-- + + "The United Irish League is not merely an agrarian movement. + It is first, last, and all the time a National movement; + and those of us who are endeavouring to rouse the farmers of + Ireland, as we endeavoured twenty years ago in the days of the + Land League, to rouse them, are doing so, not merely to obtain + the removal of their particular grievances, but because we + believe by rousing them we will be strengthening the National + movement and helping us to obtain our end, which is, after + all, National independence of Ireland." + +And to make the exact meaning of the phrase "National Independence of +Ireland" quite clear, he soon afterwards stated that their object was +the same as that aimed at by Emmett and Wolfe Tone--in other words, to +place Ireland in the scale of nations with a constitution resembling +that of the United States. + +By March 1908 (that is, about two years after the present Government +came into power), to quote the words of Mr. Justice Wright, "the only +law feared and obeyed was the law not of the land but of the United +Irish League"; and before the end of that year Mr. Redmond was able to +report to his friends in America:-- + + "We have in Ireland an organization which is practically + a government of the country. There is in O'Connell Street, + Dublin, a great office managed by the real Chief Secretary for + Ireland, J. Devlin, the Member for Belfast." + +The organization of the League is admirable. The country is covered +with a network of branches, to which people in the district are +obliged to contribute under penalty of being boycotted; these branches +are united under provincial executives, whilst the Directory in +Dublin controls the whole. The union between the League and the Roman +Catholic Church is as complete as the union between that Church and +some societies started on a non-sectarian basis became during the +rebellion of 1798; as we have seen, a bishop is one of the trustees, +and other bishops are amongst the subscribers; the Sunday meetings of +the various branches, at which boycotting and other measures of the +kind are arranged, are usually presided over by the parish priests. On +the other hand, few laymen, whatever their religion may be, who have +any stake in the country, can be got to join the League; in the words +of A.J. Kettle, M.P.:-- + + "On its roll of membership there are no landlords or + ex-landlords, few merchants, fewer Irish manufacturers. There + are few of the men who are managing the business of Ireland + in city or town, connected with the League. The bankers who + regulate our finances, the railway or transit men who control + our trade, internal and external, even the leading cattle men + who handle most of our animal produce, are not to be found in + its ranks." + +In further evidence of this it may be noted that in spite of all the +efforts of the League at collecting money, the subscriptions to the +Irish Parliamentary Fund do not amount to a halfpenny per head of the +population; as J. Dillon has remarked: "The National cause in Ireland +could not live for six months if it were deprived of the support of +the Irish across the Atlantic." + +Closely allied with the League is the Ancient Order of Hibernians, a +secret political and exclusively Roman Catholic association, of which +J. Devlin, M.P. (the Secretary of the League), is President. It is +also called the Board of Erin, to distinguish it from the American +branch. The American branch, I may remark, is also known as the Molly +Maguires, as it was under that name that it conducted the series of +murders and outrages at the Pennsylvanian mines thirty years ago. +Hence the Irish branch is sometimes nicknamed the "Molly Maguires." +The Order is very religious, in the sense that part of its programme +is to deprive heretics of every means of earning their livelihood; as +a Nationalist who did not sympathize with the operations of the Order +expressed it: "If Protestants are to be robbed of their business, if +they are to be deprived of public contracts, and shut out of every +office and emolument,--what is that but extermination?" The political +principles of the Order can be gathered from the Address presented by +them to Captain Condon on the occasion of his visit to Dublin in 1909. +Captain Condon, I may explain, had been a prominent Fenian and member +of the Irish Republican brotherhood, and had taken part in the riot at +Manchester in 1867 which resulted in the murder of Sergeant Brett; he +now resides in America. In 1909 he visited Ireland on the invitation +of J. Redmond; and the address presented to him by the Ancient Order +of Hibernians contained the following words:-- + + "In you, O'Meagher Condon, we recognize one of those + connecting links with the past which all nations cherish, + and you are ready to-day with voice and pen to give your + unflagging support to Ireland's leaders with as much + enthusiasm as you grasped the sword to lead Ireland in the + dark but historic '67. We are sure it will interest you to + know that the ranks of the Hibernians to-day are composed + of the men and children of those who swore allegiance to the + Irish Republic with you." + +The Order has lately acquired additional strength by becoming an +"Approved Society" under the Insurance Act of 1911. In Ireland it is +no more possible for life insurance than for anything else to exist +without being dragged into the vortex of religious and political +quarrels. + +The "Clan-na-gael"--that is, the Dynamite Club--still flourishes +in America; but for obvious reasons it does not make any public +appearance in Ireland; and the exact part which it takes in the +movement at the present time, it is impossible to say. + +"Sinn Fein" (which means "Ourselves") is another Separatist +Association, aiming at the establishment of Ireland as a Sovereign +State, and teaching that the election of Irishmen to serve in the +British Parliament is treason to the Irish State. As its name implies, +it desires to make use of the revival of the Irish language as a means +towards the end for which it is working. It was founded in 1905. +Why this Society and the United Irish League, whose objects seem +identical, should be ready to fly at one another's throats, is one of +the things that those who are outside the Nationalist circle cannot +understand. But the Clerical leaders, who do their utmost to further +the operations of the League, look askance at Sinn Fein; its ultimate +success therefore is very doubtful. + +Then, working in conjunction with these societies is the "Gaelic +League," founded for the "de-Anglicizing" of Ireland, as helping +towards separation. As J. Sweetman (who, besides being a prominent +member of the Gaelic League, is also Vice-President of Sinn Fein and +Vice-Chairman of the Central Council of Irish County Councils and may +therefore be regarded as speaking with authority) has expressed it:-- + + "Out of the Gaelic League's de-Anglicizing propaganda + have already grown a series of movements not only strongly + political but each and all making for a separate independent + Irish nation, freed from every link of the British + connection." + +Were it not for its political object, the folly of this "revival of +the Irish language" would be past belief. The language of Shakespeare +and Milton, of Gibbon and Macaulay, ought surely to be good enough for +ordinary people; and it must be obvious to every reasoning being that +at the present moment of the world's history, English is one of the +most useful languages in existence. It is spoken by 40,000,000 of +people in Europe and twice that number in America, not to mention +Australasia and South Africa. It is the language of commerce, of +science, and of a vast amount of literature. Europeans of various +nationalities learn it, for the sake of its convenience; although, as +we all know, one of the difficulties of modern life is that boys and +girls have too much to study; educationalists everywhere complain +that the curriculum is overloaded. Its position in Ireland can be +seen exactly by the census returns; for the papers contain a "language +column," each person being required to state whether he speaks +English or Irish or both. According to the returns of 1891, the total +population was in round numbers 4,725,000; of whom 4,037,000 spoke +English only, 643,000 both languages, and 44,000 Irish only. And that +trifling minority existed only in certain localities, and was confined +to the less educated classes. The only counties in which a majority of +the population spoke Irish (including those who spoke both languages) +were Mayo and Galway. Yet now it is solemnly said that Ireland, +being an independent nation, must have a language of its own; even in +counties where no language but English has been spoken for centuries, +and where probably none of the ancestors of the present population +ever spoke any other language, Irish is being taught in the Roman +Catholic primary schools, and the unhappy children who might be +studying arithmetic or elementary geography, are wasting their time +over a totally useless language. I say "totally useless" deliberately; +for the arguments usually brought forward in favour of the study, +apart from the political one--that Irish is of use in the study of +philology, and that the MSS. of centuries ago contain fine specimens +of poetry--are too absurd to be worth discussing. The real object of +the Nationalists in "encouraging the revival of the Irish language" +is clearly set out in the following words of T. MacSeamus in a recent +number of the _Irish Review_:-- + + "Most important of all, the Irish language is one of the + things that distinguish us from England. It is a mark of that + separateness which it is the business of every Nationalist to + maintain and emphasise on every possible occasion. It is one + of the signs--perhaps the chief sign--of nationality.... The + Irish language is a weapon in our fight against England, and + we cannot afford to throw away even the smallest weapon that + may serve us in that struggle." + +And the policy of the League as regards the primary schools is made +quite clear by the resolution passed unanimously at their annual +meeting in 1912:-- + + "That we re-affirm the demand of the last Ard Fheis in regard + to the position of Irish in the primary schools, viz., that + Irish be the sole medium of instruction in the Irish-speaking + districts; that it be the medium as far as possible in all + other schools, and that it be a compulsory subject in every + school throughout the country where parents are not opposed + to it; furthermore, that a knowledge of Irish be required from + all teachers entering for training as teachers, and that no + certificate be issued to those who fail to qualify in Irish at + the final examination, and that none but inspectors having a + knowledge of Irish be employed to inspect schools where Irish + is taught." + +It will be seen therefore that if the League carry their point (as +no doubt they will under a Home Rule Government) no graduate of the +Belfast University who wishes to become a teacher in a Belfast school +will be allowed to do so unless he passes an examination in a language +which not one of his pupils will ever wish to learn; and this, not for +the purpose of ensuring general culture, but to further a political +object with which he has no sympathy. + +The League leave no stone unturned in their efforts to substitute the +Irish for the English language. For instance, it is usually considered +in other countries that the names of the streets of a town are put +up in order to help people who want to find their way, and not for +political reasons. But in Dublin, where not one per cent. of the +people can read Irish, the names have recently all been painted up in +that language, in the hope of de-Anglicizing the rising generation. An +incident occurred recently which will show how the movement is being +taken up. There is in Dublin an excellent regulation that children +may not become "street traders" without a licence. A bright little boy +came to apply for one. The magistrate, being a kindly man, enquired +of the lad what his circumstances were. The boy explained that part of +his earnings went towards the support of his widowed mother; and that +he was trying to keep up his education by attending a night school. +"And what are you learning there?" said the magistrate. "Irish," +replied the boy. Even the magistrate could not resist telling him that +he thought his time would be better spent at Arithmetic. Yet from the +boy's point of view, there is something to be said. Irish may be of +use to him in obtaining a Government appointment, however small; for +local bodies (such as the Dublin Boards of Guardians) now refuse +to appoint clerks who cannot send out notices of meetings in Irish, +though no member of the Board to whom they are sent can read them; and +the League fully expect that the Home Rule Government will do the same +with regard to every appointment in their gift. If the railways are +taken over by the Government (as they probably will be) it can be seen +what an immense impetus can be given to the movement. + +Then Secondary Schools have been established for the same object. The +_Irish Educational Review_ recently contained the following account of +one of them:-- + + "At Ring, in the County Waterford, there is already in + existence an Irish secondary school where classics, modern + languages and all the usual secondary school subjects are + taught and where Irish and English fill their rightful places, + the former being the ordinary language of the school, the + latter a foreign language on no higher level than French or + German." + +The Act of 1909, which founded the "National" University (to which I +shall refer again), gave power to County Councils to levy a rate for +scholarships. Immediately the Gaelic League saw their opportunity. +They endeavoured to persuade the Councils to refuse to do so unless +Irish were made compulsory at the University. The Councils generally +(except of course in Ulster) agreed to the plan; but some of them +(such as the Kildare Council) were faced by a difficulty. Not a single +child in the county spoke Irish; and so if that language were made +compulsory, no one could compete for the scholarships. So they +compromised matters, by deciding that they would levy a rate if Irish +were made compulsory after 1915, by which time some of the young +people in the county would have been able to learn it; and the +University agreed to do so. + +This rating power, I may remark, looks extremely liberal as it appears +in the Act; for the scholarships are to be tenable at any University. +The Irish Unionist members, knowing quite well how it would be +worked, opposed the clause; and as usual were denounced as bigots +and fanatics. It is needless to add that as soon as the Act came into +force, County Councils and Corporations at once passed resolutions +that scholarships derived from the rates should not be tenable at +Trinity College, Dublin, or at Belfast, but only at the National +University--thus practically saying that no Protestants need compete. + +Beyond forcing the children to acquire a smattering of Irish, it +cannot be said that so far the efforts of the League as to the +language have been very successful; for the census returns show that +the proportion of the population who could speak Irish in 1891 was +14'5; in 1901, 14'4; and in 1911, 13'3; and the numbers who spoke +Irish only fell from 20,953 in 1901 to 16,870 in 1911. + +But the efforts of the League are not confined to the language. +English games, such as cricket, are forbidden; if football is played, +it must be the Gaelic variety with rules totally different from +those observed by the hated Saxon. Even the patients in asylums +are forbidden to play cricket or lawn tennis. And some of the more +enthusiastic members of the League have actually "donned the saffron," +in imitation of the Ersefied Normans of 400 years ago. However, it +is so hideously ugly, and so suggestive of the obnoxious Orange, that +that phase of the movement is not likely to extend. + +Even the "Boy Scout" movement has been made use of for the same +object. As soon as some corps had been established in Ireland, the +Nationalists started a rival organization with an Irish name, in +which all the boys solemnly undertake to work for the independence +of Ireland, and never to join England's armed forces. The boys take a +prominent part in the annual ceremonies in honour of Wolfe Tone, the +Manchester martyrs, and other Nationalist heroes. + +The whole thing would be laughable if it were not so very sad. Even +such matters as sports and education, where all creeds and parties +might be expected to work together amicably, must be used as +instruments to bring about separation; and the result already is not +so much to widen the gulf between Ireland and England as the gulf +between the two parties in Ireland; for the Protestant minority in +the south, who know that most of their children will have to leave the +country, are not likely to let them fritter away their youth in the +study of a language which can be of no possible benefit to them in +any part of the world to which they may go; and the idea that the +Ulstermen will ever adopt a Celtic tongue is too ridiculous to be +considered. But perhaps the most painful thought of all is that the +Nationalists should be ready even to sacrifice the prospects in life +of the rising generation of the country in order to satisfy their +blind hatred of England. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +IRELAND UNDER THE PRESENT GOVERNMENT. + + +I come now to the policy which has been pursued by the present +Government since 1906. It must be remembered that the Radical party +returned to power pledged to Home Rule as a principle, but with a +sufficient majority to enable them to retain office without depending +on the Irish vote. Hence there was no necessity for them to introduce +a Home Rule Bill; but of course they set aside the policy of the +Unionist Government, and resolved to govern Ireland according to their +own ideas. What those ideas were, and what the result has been, I +shall now proceed to show; but in doing so I shall as far as possible +confine myself to quotations and statistics which can be verified, so +that I may not be accused of giving an unfair report. + +The Chief Secretary for the first year was Mr. Bryce, who was +afterwards appointed British Ambassador at Washington. The Government +at once repealed the Act which forbade the carrying of arms without a +licence; withdrew all proclamations under the Crimes Act of 1887; +and resolved not to stop any political meetings. Accordingly the +Nationalists commenced holding a series of demonstrations all over +the country. A few specimens taken from the speeches made at them will +suffice to show their general tenour. + + "Let them all be ready, and when England got into trouble with + European Powers, they would pounce upon her with the ferocity + of a tiger."--_T. Walsh, District Councillor._ + + "They must stand together as one man, and make it impossible + for England to govern Ireland."--_P. White, M.P._ + + "If there had been 100,000 Fenians in Ireland at the time of + the Boer War there might now have been a Republic in + Ireland, and British supremacy would have been tumbled in the + dust."--_J. Daly, formerly Mayor of Limerick._ + +And Mr. Bryce, when leaving Ireland at the end of the year, stated +that he had not found any harm in any of the speeches delivered at the +meetings. + +At this time the agitation began to assume a new form. One of the most +important of Irish industries is the cattle trade with England, +the annual value of which exceeds £14,000,000. In several parts of +Ireland, notably in Meath and the central counties, the soil and +climate are specially suited for cattle raising, and the land +is generally held in large grazing farms. It was decided by the +Nationalists in the autumn of 1906 that this industry must be +destroyed. Bodies of men assembled night after night to break down the +fences and gates of the farms and drive the cattle many miles away, +in order that the farmers might be ruined and forced to leave the +country; and then the derelict farms would be divided amongst the +"landless men." L. Ginnell, M.P., explained the programme fully in a +speech he made in October 1906:-- + + "The ranches must be broken up, not only in Westmeath but + throughout all Ireland ... He advised them to stamp out the + ranch demon themselves, and not leave an alien Parliament to + do the duty ... He advised them to leave the ranches unfenced, + unused and unusable ... so that no man or demon would dare to + stand another hour between the people and the land that should + be theirs." + +The agitation, commencing in Meath, was gradually extended, county +by county, over a large part of Ireland where the Nationalists are +supreme. Other measures were resorted to, in order to carry out their +object. Arson, the burning of hayricks, firing into dwelling-houses, +spiking meadows, the mutilation of horses and cows, the destruction +of turf, the damaging of machinery, and various other forms of lawless +violence began to increase and multiply. At the Spring Assizes in +1907, the Chief Justice, when addressing the Grand Jury at Ennis, in +commenting on the increasing need for placing law-abiding people under +special police protection, said:-- + + "In a shire in England, if it was found necessary, either by + special protection or protection by patrol, to protect from + risk of outrage thirty persons, what would be thought?" + +And Mr. Justice Kenny at Leitrim, after commenting upon the increased +number of specially reported cases, as shown by the official +statistics, and alluding to several cases of gross intimidation, +said:-- + + "In these latter cases I regret to say no one has been + made amenable; and when there is such a state of things, + it justifies the observation made by the learned judge who + presided at last Connaught Winter Assizes, that when the chain + of terrorism was complete, no witness would give evidence and + no jury would convict." + +Thereupon Mr. Birrell, who at the beginning of the year had succeeded +Mr. Bryce as Chief Secretary, having no doubt studied these and +similar reports, said in a speech at Halifax in the following month:-- + + "You may take my word for this, that Ireland is at this moment + in a more peaceful condition than for the last six hundred + years." + +Soon afterwards, Mr. Justice Ross, who, as Judge of the Land Judge's +Court, Chancery Division, was in charge of many estates in Ireland, +said: + + "He had known from other Receivers about this widespread and + audacious conspiracy at present rampant in the West of Ireland + ... This was actually a conspiracy which on ordinary moral + grounds amounted to highway robbery, to seize on these grass + lands, to drive away the stock of the people who had been + in the habit of taking it; and then, when the owner had been + starved out, the Estates Commissioners were expected to buy up + the property and to distribute it amongst the very people who + had been urging on the business, and who had been engaged in + these outrages." + +When an Ulster member drew attention to this in the House of Commons, +Mr. Birrell replied:-- + + "There is no evidence before the Government that a widespread + conspiracy is rampant in the West of Ireland." + +And in reply to another question he said that:-- + + "The reports he received from the police and other persons + revealed the condition of Ireland generally as to peace and + order as being very satisfactory." + +During the month of October 1907, twenty-nine claims for compensation +from the rates in respect of malicious injuries had been proved and +granted in twelve counties, the amount levied from the ratepayers +being about £900. The malicious injuries comprised destruction of and +firing into dwelling houses, mutilation of horses and cattle, burning +cattle to death, spiking meadows and damaging mowing machines, damages +to fences and walls, burning heather and pasturage, damage to gates in +connection with cattle driving, and injury to cattle by driving. And +in November an attempt was made to assassinate Mr. White Blake and his +mother when driving home from church in the County Galway. A few days +after this occurred Mr. Redmond said at a meeting in North Wales:-- + + "Whilst there is no crime or outrage there is widespread + unrest and impatience, and there are, over a certain section + of the country, taking place technical breaches of the strict + letter of the law in the shape of what is called cattle + driving. Now let me say first of all that in no instance has + any single beast been injured in the smallest degree in any of + these cattle-drives; in no instance has any malicious injury + been done to property, life or limb, or beast." + +All this time the Government adhered to their determination not to put +the Crimes Act in force, but merely to place accused persons on trial +before juries at the Assizes. The results were as follows: At the +Summer Assizes in 1907, 167 persons were returned for trial; of these, +57 were actually tried, of whom three were convicted, 31 acquitted, +and in 23 cases the juries disagreed. The trials of the remaining 110 +were postponed. At the Michaelmas sittings, 94 persons were put on +trial, of whom 5 were convicted and 2 acquitted; in 72 cases the +juries disagreed, and in the remaining 15 the Crown abandoned +proceedings. At the Winter Assizes 86 persons were tried for unlawful +assembly, riot and conspiracy in connection with cattle-driving. None +were convicted; 11 were acquitted; in 12 cases the prisoners were +discharged on legal points; and in 63 the juries disagreed. + +I fully admit that there is much to be said for the juries who refused +to convict. When a Government is doing its utmost to suppress anarchy +and to enforce law and order, it is no doubt the duty of every loyal +subject to render assistance even at the risk of his own life +and property. But when a Government is conniving at anarchy, and +deliberately refusing to put in force the Act which would put a stop +to it, I say it is too much to expect of any man that he should face +the prospect of being ruined and probably murdered, and his family +reduced to beggary, in order to enable the Government to keep up the +farce of pretending that they are trying to do their duty. + +During the first half of 1908, there were 418 reported cases of +cattle-driving; and arson, outrages with firearms, meadow-spiking, +and similar offences increased in proportion. The judges urged in vain +that the law should be put in force. But the policy of the Government +remained unchanged; the _Daily News_ (the Government organ) when +cattle-driving was at its height said that thanks to the excellent +government of Mr. Birrell cattle-driving now had practically become +extinct even in those few parts of the country in which it had +existed; and in July Mr. Birrell, addressing a political meeting at +Port Sunlight, said that:-- + + "They were led to believe that the state of Ireland was of + an appalling character, that crime predominated, and that + lawlessness almost universally prevailed. All he could say was + that a more cheerful land was nowhere to be found." + +In 1909 matters became somewhat quieter, chiefly because Mr. Birrell +promised to introduce a Land Bill by which the cattle-drivers hoped to +get all they wanted. Hence their leaders advised them to "give Birrell +a chance," but Mr. Redmond warned the Government that if they did not +carry out their pledge, they would speedily find Ireland ungovernable. +In February 1909, Lord Crewe, speaking for the Government in the House +of Lords, made the remarkable statement:-- + + "As regards intimidation, I have always shared the view that + well-organized intimidation cannot be checked by law. I know + no method of checking it." + +If this is not an admission that the Government had failed in their +duty, it is hard to say what is. The result of their line of action +will be seen by the following table, which has been taken from various +returns which the Ulster members, by repeated questions in Parliament +at last succeeded in forcing Mr. Birrell to make public:-- + + +Agrarian outrages 1906 234 + " " 1907 372 + " " 1908 576 +Cattle-drives 1905 Nil + " " 1907-8 513 + " " 1908-9 622 + " " 1908 219 +Cattle maiming, mutilating, etc. 1907 142 +Persons boycotted 1907 196 + " " 1908 270 + " " 1909 335 +Cost of extra police 1908 £47,000 + + +1911. + +Agrarian outrages 581 +Malicious injuries to property, Intimidating + by threatening letters, etc. 285 +Firing into dwelling houses 58 +Rioting, robbery of arms, etc. 31 +Killing and maiming cattle 83 + + +It may be asked, why did not the Ulster members call the attention of +Parliament to this state of things? The answer is, they did so again +and again; Mr. Birrell gave stereotyped replies, much after this form, +with hardly a variation:-- + + I have seen in the newspapers a report that a few shots were + fired into a farmhouse in Galway. No one appears to have been + seriously injured. The police are making enquiries. No arrests + have been made. + +(He might as well have added that he knew perfectly well that no +arrests ever would be made.) Then he would go to a political meeting +and say that the peaceful condition of Ireland was shown by the small +number of criminal cases returned for trial at the Assizes; and would +bitterly denounce the "Carrion Crows" (as he designated the Ulster +members) for trying to blacken the reputation of their country. + +One instance may be given more in detail, as typical of the condition +to which Ireland had been brought. Lord Ashtown (a Unionist Peer +residing in County Galway) began issuing month by month a series of +pamphlets entitled "Grievances from Ireland." They contained little +besides extracts from Nationalist papers giving reports of the +meetings of the United Irish League, the outrages that took place, and +the comments of Nationalist papers on them. His object was to let +the people in England see from the accounts given by the Nationalists +themselves, what was going on in Ireland. This, however, was very +objectionable to them; and one of their members asked Mr. Birrell in +the House of Commons whether the pamphlets could not be suppressed. +Mr. Birrell made the curious reply that he would be very glad if Lord +Ashtown were stopped, but that he did not see how to do it. What he +expected would be the results of that remark, I do not know; but no +one living in Ireland was much surprised when a few weeks afterwards +a bomb outrage occurred at the residence of Lord Ashtown in the County +Waterford. It was a clumsy failure. A jar containing gunpowder was +placed against the wall of the house where he was staying and set on +fire. The explosion wrecked part of the building, but Lord Ashtown +escaped unhurt. He gave notice of his intention to apply at the next +assizes for compensation for malicious injury. The usual custom in +such cases is for a copy of the police report showing the injury +complained of, to be sent to the person seeking compensation; but on +this occasion the police refused to show Lord Ashtown their report, +stating that they had received orders from the Government not to do +so. But shortly before the case came on, a report, not made by the +police authority in charge of the district, but by another brought in +specially for the purpose, appeared in the Nationalist papers. This +report contained the remarkable suggestion that Lord Ashtown had done +it himself! When under cross-examination at the trial, the Inspector +of the Royal Irish Constabulary who made the report was obliged to +confess that he did not believe that he had, but had only inserted the +suggestion in obedience to instruction received from the Government. +Lord Ashtown proved his case and was awarded compensation. But the +matter did not end there. He had employed a surveyor, Mr. Scully, to +draw plans and take photographs showing the amount of the damage. Mr. +Scully was surveyor to the Waterford Corporation. It was proposed at +the next meeting of the Corporation that he should be dismissed from +his office for having given evidence for Lord Ashtown. The motion +was carried unanimously, eight councillors being present; and at the +following meeting it was ratified by eight votes to two. A question +was asked about the matter in the House of Commons; and Mr. Birrell, +with the figures before him, replied that Mr. Scully had never been +dismissed. + +Two other instances of this period must be briefly referred to. It +has already been shown how the Irish Parliament endowed Maynooth as a +College for Roman Catholic students both lay and theological; and how +Trinity College, Dublin, opened its doors to all students, without +distinction of creed. But the Roman Catholic Church turned Maynooth +into a seminary for theological students only; and the bishops forbade +young laymen to go to Trinity. In 1845 Sir Robert Peel attempted to +supply the want by founding the Queen's University, with Colleges at +Belfast, Cork and Galway, where mixed education should be given in +secular subjects, and separate instruction in those appertaining to +religion; but that again was denounced as a "satanic scheme for the +ruin of faith in the rising generation"; and the crusade against +the university was so successful that in 1879 it was destroyed and +another--the Royal University--put in its place. This in its turn was +abolished in 1909; the College at Belfast was raised to the status +of a University, and a new University ominously called the "National +University" was founded into which the existing Colleges at Cork and +Galway were absorbed, with a new and richly endowed College in Dublin +at the head. It may seem strange that the Radical Government who are +pledged to destroy all religious education in England should found and +endow a Denominational University in Ireland. But the matter could be +arranged by a little judicious management and prevarication; it was +represented in Parliament that the new University was to be strictly +unsectarian; during the debate, Sir P. Magnus, the member for the +London University, said that he had no reason to believe that there +was any intention on the part of the Chief Secretary to set up +denominational Universities in Ireland; he accepted his word that they +were to be entirely undenominational. Then, when the Act was passed, +the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin was appointed Chancellor of +the National University, with a number of Jesuits as Professors, and +Cardinal Logue stated as follows:-- + + "No matter what obstacles the Nonconformists may have inserted + in the Constitution of the University to keep it from being + Catholic, we will make it Catholic in spite of them." + +Personally, I do not object to denominational Universities. I regret +that young men who are going to live in the same country should not be +able to study law and medicine together; but if that is their feeling +and the feeling of their parents, I admit that having separate +Universities may be the best solution of the difficulty. But if so, +let it be openly avowed that the University is denominational; to +"make it Catholic" and at the same time to say that it is no injustice +to Protestants that County Scholarships paid for by the ratepayers +should be tenable there and nowhere else, seems to me absurd. + +The other incident to which reference must be made was the great +Convention held in Dublin in 1909. The Nationalists, believing that +a Home Rule Bill would soon be introduced, devised the scheme of +assembling a monster Convention, which would be evidence to the world +of how admirably fitted the Irish people were to govern their own +country. It was attended by 2,000 delegates from all parts of the +country, who were to form a happy family, as of course no disturbing +Unionist element would be present to mar the harmony and the clerical +element would be strong. Mr. Redmond, who presided, said in his +opening address:-- + + "Ireland's capacity for self-government will be judged at home + and abroad by the conduct of this Assembly. Ireland's good + name is at stake, and therefore every man who takes part + in this Assembly should weigh his words and recognise his + responsibility." + +The meeting ended in a free fight. + + +At the end of 1909 Mr. Asquith did a very clever thing. A general +election was pending, and he wished to avoid the mistake which +Gladstone had made in 1885. He therefore, at a great meeting at +the Albert Hall unfolded an elaborate programme of the long list of +measures which the Government would introduce and carry, and in the +course of his remarks said that Home Rule was the only solution of +the Irish problem, and that in the new House of Commons the hands of +a Liberal Government and of a Liberal majority would in this matter be +entirely free. He and his followers carefully abstained from referring +to the subject in their election addresses; and Mr. Asquith was thus +free, if he should obtain a majority independent of the Irish vote, +to say that he had never promised to make Home Rule part of his +programme; but if he found he could not retain office without that +vote, he might buy it by promising to introduce the Bill and refer to +his words at the Albert Hall as justification for doing so. The latter +happened; hence the "Coalition Ministry." The Irish party consented to +please the Radicals by voting for the Budget, and the Nonconformists +by voting for Welsh Disestablishment, on condition that they should +in return vote for Home Rule. As Mr. Hobhouse (a Cabinet Minister) +expressed it in 1911:-- + + "Next year we must pay our debt to the Nationalist Members, + who were good enough to vote for a Budget which they detested + and knew would be an injury to their country." + +But the people of England still had to be hood-winked. It was hardly +likely that they would consent to their representatives voting for +the separation of Ireland from Great Britain; so the Nationalists and +their Radical allies went about England declaring that they had +no wish for such a thing; that all they desired was a subordinate +Parliament leaving the Imperial Parliament supreme. Thus Mr. Redmond +suggested at one meeting that Ireland should be conceded the right +of managing her own purely local affairs for herself in a subordinate +Parliament, subject to the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament; and +at another meeting said: + + "We are not asking for a Repeal of the Union. We are not + asking for the restoration of a co-ordinate Parliament such + as Ireland had before the Union. We are only asking that + there should be given to Ireland a subordinate Parliament. We + therefore admit the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament. That + means that after this subordinate Parliament is created in + Ireland, if the Parliament is foolish enough, rash enough, as + it never will be, but if it were foolish enough and criminal + enough to use the powers given to it for injustice or + oppression of any class or creed, the Imperial Parliament + would have the power to stretch forth the arm of its authority + and to say 'you shall not do that.'" + +Of course it may be argued that they had changed their minds; that +in former times they worked for separation, but now realised that +a subordinate Parliament was all that Ireland required. But +unfortunately for this theory, they have themselves repudiated it; +when Mr. Redmond was accused of speaking with two voices, one in +America and one in Great Britain, he passionately replied:-- + + "I indignantly deny that accusation. I have never in my life + said one word on a platform in America one whit stronger than + I had said in my place on the floor of the House of Commons. + I have never in America or anywhere else, advocated the + separation of Ireland from Great Britain." + +How far this is true, the quotations from his speeches which have +already been given, will have shown. But the Government have kept up +the farce; Mr. Winston Churchill said during the debate on the Bill of +1912:-- + + "The Home Rule movement has never been a separatist movement. + In the whole course of its career it has been a moderating, + modifying movement, designed to secure the recognition of + Irish claims within the circuit of the British Empire." + +But not even the immediate prospect of Home Rule can be said to have +made those parts of Ireland where the League is supreme a happy place +of residence to any but advanced Nationalists. The following report of +a case in the Magistrate's Court at Ennis in November 1912 will speak +for the condition of the County Clare:-- + + Patrick Arkins was charged with knocking down walls on the + farm of Mrs. Fitzpatrick in order to compel her to give up the + farm. Inspector Davis gave evidence that from January 1910 to + that date there were 104 serious outrages in his district. + In 42 firearms were used, 27 were malicious injuries, 32 were + threatening notices, 1 case of bomb explosion outside a house, + 1 robbery of arms, and 1 attempted robbery. A sum of £268 had + been awarded as compensation for malicious injury and there + were claims for £75 pending for malicious injuries committed + during the week ended 11th inst. There were two persons under + constant police protection, and 16 receiving protection by + patrol. Head Constable Mulligan said that Mrs. Fitzpatrick was + under police protection. Since February 11th, 1912, there had + been 12 outrages in the district, Mrs. Fitzpatrick was under + almost constant police protection. Acting Sergeant Beegan + deposed that there had been 12 outrages on the Fitzpatrick + family during the last four years; these included driving + cattle off the lands, threatening notices, firing shots at the + house, knocking down walls, spiking meadows; the new roof of + a hay barn was perforated with bullets, and at Kiltonaghty + Chapel there were notices threatening death to anyone who + would work for Mrs. Fitzpatrick. Timothy Fitzpatrick gave + similar evidence as to the outrages, and said that his father + had taken the farm twenty-one years ago, and had paid the son + of the former tenant £40 for his goodwill. + +(I may add that Arkins was committed for trial, convicted at the +Assizes and sentenced to seven years penal servitude; and was released +by Mr. Birrell a few weeks afterwards.) + +In another Clare case, in February of the present year, the resident +Magistrate said as follows:-- + + "It is a mistake to say that these outrages are arising out + of disputes between landlord and tenant; nine out of ten arise + out of petty disputes about land. What is the use of having + new land laws? A case occurred not long ago in this county of + a man who had bought some land twenty years ago, and paid down + hard cash to the outgoing tenant. The man died, and left a + widow and children on the land for fourteen years. But in 1908 + a man who had some ulterior object got the man who had sold + the farm to send in a claim under the Evicted Tenant's Act, + which was rejected. That was what the advisers of the man + wanted--they only wanted a pretext for moonlighting and other + disgraceful outrages, and the woman was kept in a hell for + four years. A man was caught at last and convicted, and one + would think that this was a subject for rejoicing for all + right-minded men in the county. But what was the result? A + perfect tornado of letters was printed, and resolutions + and speeches appeared in the public press, condemning this + conviction of a moonlighter in Clare as an outrage against + justice." + +The Roman Catholic Bishop of Killaloe, in a sermon preached in +December 1912, referring to County Clare said:-- + + "That county had had an evil record in the matter of crime, + and they were so accustomed to outrages of almost weekly + occurrence around them that it was not easy to shock them. + There was an inoffensive family sitting round the fireside + with a couple of neighbours. They had given no offence, they + had wronged no man, they had crossed no man's path. But that + inhuman beast went to the door and lifted the latch, and + there, at a few yards distance, fired into that innocent group + of men, women and children, as if they were a flock of crows, + killing the mother outright and almost blowing the forehead + off a young girl. There was no denying the fact that that + brutal murder was the natural outcome of the disgraceful + system of intimidation and outrage that had been rampant for + a long time in certain districts of that unhappy county and + of the immunity from punishment enjoyed by the wicked and + cowardly moonlighter. In addition to their other acts of + savagery, they had shot out the eyes of two men within the + last couple of years. A decent, honest man was shot on the + road to Ennis. The people passed the wounded man by and + refused to take him into their car through fear. Not one + of these well-known miscreants was brought to justice. The + murderers of poor Garvey, the cow-houghers, the hay-burners, + were said to be known. In any other country, for instance in + the United States, such ruffianism would be hunted down or + lynched; but there, in the places he referred to, they had + a curtain of security drawn round them by the cowardice or + perverted moral sense on the part of the community amongst + whom they lived.... It was only last Thursday night, before + the county had recovered from the shock of Mrs. O'Mara's + murder, that right over the mountain an unfortunate postman + was shot on the public road between Crusheen and Baliluran for + no other reason apparently than that another fellow wanted his + job of one and six-pence a day! It has come to this, that if + you differ with one of them for a shilling, or refuse to give + him his way in everything the first thing that comes into his + head is to moonlight you.... They have not elevation or social + instinct to settle their petty disputes by process of law + provided for the purpose by a civilized society, nor have they + Christianity enough to bear a little wrong or disappointment + for Christ's sake. No, nor the manliness even to meet an + opponent face to face and see it out with him like a man; but + with the cunning of a mean and vicious dog, he steals behind + him in the dark and shoots him in the back, or murders the + helpless woman of his family, or shoots out the eyes of the + poor man's horse, or cuts the throat of his bullock and spikes + his beast upon a gate." + +Nor has the present year brought much improvement. In May 1913, Mr. +R. Maunsell was fired at and wounded close to the town of Ennis. His +crime was that he managed a farm for a Mr. Bannatyne, whose family had +been in possession of it for about sixty years, but who had recently +been denounced by the United Irish League and ordered to surrender it. +As he has refused to do so, he is now compelled to live under police +protection. + +The abolition of landlordism and the acquisition of firearms can +hardly be said to have brought peace and tranquillity to the County of +Clare. + +And as to Galway, we may gather the state of affairs from the report +of a case tried at the Winter Assizes of 1912. Three men were charged +with having done grievous bodily harm to a man named Conolly. Conolly +swore that he knew a man named Broderick who had become unpopular but +he (Conolly) kept to him and this brought displeasure on him from the +accused and others. On the night of the 11th September he went to bed; +he was subsequently awakened and found 44 grains of shot in his left +knee and four in his right. He then lay flat on the floor. Other shots +were fired through the window but did not strike him. The judge said +the district was a disgrace to Ireland. Day after day, night after +night, heaps of outrages were committed there, and not one offender +was made amenable to justice. The jury disagreed, and the accused were +again put on their trial. The judge in charging the jury on the second +trial said that then, and for some time, the district was swarming +with police, and though outrages were frequent, it was impossible for +them to bring anyone to justice. No one was sure he might not be fired +at during the night; and people were afraid to give evidence. The jury +again disagreed. + +During the autumn of 1912 an effort was made to hold a series of +meetings throughout the south and west of Ireland to protest against +Home Rule. The conduct of the Nationalists with regard to them +supplies a striking commentary on Mr. Redmond's statement at Banbury +not long before, that all through his political life he had preached +conciliation towards those who differed from him on the question +of Home Rule. The meetings were in some cases stopped by force; at +Limerick the windows of the Protestant Church and of some houses +occupied by Protestants were smashed; at Tralee the principal speaker +was a large farmer named Crosbie; all his hay and sheds were burned +down, and he was awarded £600 compensation by the County Court Judge. + +But an incident had occurred in the north which, though in a sense +comparatively slight, has, in consequence of the circumstances +connected with it, done more to inflame the men of Ulster than persons +not living in Ireland can realise. In June of last year a party of +Sunday School children from a suburb of Belfast went for a picnic to +Castledawson (co. Derry) under the charge of a Presbyterian minister +and a few teachers and ladies. On their way back to the railway +station, they were met and assailed by a procession of men belonging +to the Order of Hibernians armed with pikes who attacked the children +with the pikes and with stones, seized a Union Jack which a small +boy was carrying, and knocked down and kicked some of the girls and +teachers. Worse might have happened had not some Protestant young men, +seeing what was going on, come to the rescue. The minister was struck +with stones whilst he was endeavouring to get some of the children +to a place of safety. No Nationalist has ever expressed the slightest +regret at the occurrence. Several of the aggressors were tried at the +Winter Assizes and sentenced to three months' imprisonment. Before +the end of the term they were released by order of the Government. Mr. +Birrell, in justifying his action, said that the judge had remarked +that there was no evidence before him of actual injury. This, like +many of his statements, was literally true; but he omitted to mention +that he had prevented the evidence from being given; the injured women +and children were quite ready to give their testimony, but were not +called by the counsel for the crown. + +It is unnecessary to say that this foretaste of Home Rule government +has made the Presbyterians of Ulster more determined than ever to +resist it to the bitter end. + +I shall next proceed to consider the Bill which the Government have +introduced as a panacea for the woes of Ireland. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +CRITICISM OF THE BILL NOW BEFORE THE COUNTRY. + + +That the maintenance of the Union is possible, and that complete +separation is possible, are two indisputable facts. But the question +is, was Wolfe Tone right when he said that these were the only two +possibilities; or is there a third one, and if so, what? + +Residents in the Dominions will naturally be inclined to reply "Yes; +place Ireland in the position of a colony possessing responsible +government, such as New Zealand." It is a taking idea; but a little +reflection will show the falseness of the analogy. The relations +between the Mother Country and the self-governing colonies (now +often called "Dominions") have grown up of themselves; and, like +most political conditions which have so come about, are theoretically +illogical but practically convenient. The practical convenience arises +partly from the friendly spirit which animates both parties, but still +more from the nature of the case. The distance which separates the +Mother Country from the Dominions causes the anomalies to be scarcely +perceptible. In theory the Sovereign, acting on the advice of +British Ministers, can disallow any colonial statute, and the British +Parliament is supreme--it can pass laws that will bind the colonies, +even laws imposing taxes. But we all know that if the Home Government +were persistently to veto laws passed by the large majority of the +people in New Zealand, or the British Parliament were to attempt to +legislate for the colonies, relations would at once become strained, +and separation would be inevitable. The only important matters on +which the Home Government attempts to bind the colonies are those +relating to foreign countries (which are necessarily of an Imperial +nature) and those as to which the colonies themselves wish to have +an Act passed, such as the Act establishing Australian Federation. In +other words, the "supremacy of Parliament," which is a stern reality +in England, has very little meaning as regards New Zealand. Even if +the people of New Zealand were to manage the affairs of their country +in a manner contrary to English ideas--for instance if they were to +establish State lotteries and public gambling tables--England would be +but slightly affected, and certainly would never think of taking steps +to prevent them. And those matters in which the Home Government is +obliged to act are just those in which New Zealand has no desire +to interfere; for instance, New Zealand would never want to appoint +consuls of her own (which was the immediate cause of the separation +between Norway and Sweden); in the very few cases in which New Zealand +desires to make use of political or commercial agents abroad, she is +content to employ the British representatives, for whom she is +not called upon to pay. If New Zealand attempted to take part in a +European war in which England was not concerned--the idea is almost +too absurd to suggest--the only thing that England could do would be +to break off the connection and repudiate New Zealand altogether. +And if New Zealand desired to separate from the Mother Country, many +people would think it a most grievous mistake, but England certainly +would not seek to prevent her doing so by force; and though England +would in some ways be the worse for it, the government of England +and of the rest of the Empire would go on much the same as before. In +certain points, it is true, thoughtful men have generally come to the +conclusion that the present state of affairs cannot go on unchanged; +the time is coming when the great Dominions must provide for their own +defence by sea as well as by land; and whether this is to be done by +separate navies working together or by joint contributions to a +common navy, it will probably result in the formation of some Imperial +Council in which all parts will have a voice. That however, is a +matter for future discussion and arrangement. + +But when we turn to Ireland, everything is different. The two islands +are separated by less than fifty miles. Ireland has for more than a +century been adequately represented in the Imperial Parliament; the +journey from Galway to London is shorter than that from Auckland +or Dunedin to Wellington. So long as Europe remains as it is, Great +Britain and Ireland must have a common system of defence--which means +one army, one navy, and one plan of fortifications. Again, Irishmen, +traders and others, will constantly have to make use of government +agents in other countries. Now unless Great Britain is to arrange and +pay for the whole of this, we are met at once by the insoluble problem +of Irish representation in the British Parliament. If Ireland is not +represented there, we are faced with the old difficulty of taxation +without representation; if Ireland is represented there for all +purposes, Ireland can interfere in the local affairs of England, but +England cannot in those of Ireland; if we have what has been called +the "in-and-out" scheme as proposed by Gladstone in 1893--that is, for +the Irish members to vote on all questions of an Imperial nature, +but to retire when matters affecting England only are under +discussion--then, even if the line could be drawn (which is doubtful) +we might have the absurdity of an English ministry which possessed +the confidence of the majority of Englishmen and whose management of +England met their approval, being turned out of office by the Irish +vote, and England being governed according to a policy which the +majority of Englishmen detested. Of course it may be said that there +ought to be a number of small Parliaments in the British Isles, like +those in the Provinces of Canada or the States of Australia, with one +great Parliament supreme over them--in other words, Federation. +That might be a good thing, although it would in its turn start many +difficulties which it is unnecessary now to discuss, for it is not +Home Rule nor does Home Rule lead to it. Federal systems arise by the +union of separate States, each State giving up a part of its power +to a joint body which can levy taxes and can overrule the local +authorities. In fact, when Federation comes about, the States cease to +be nations. + +(I must here remark in passing that constant confusion has been caused +by the various senses in which the word "nation" is used. Thus it is +often quite correctly employed in a sentimental sense--we speak of +Scottish National character, or of the National Bible Society of +Scotland, though Scotland has no separate Parliament or flag and would +on a map of Europe be painted the same colour as the rest of Great +Britain. Quite distinct from that is the political sense, in which the +Irish Nationalists use the word when speaking of being "A Nation once +again," or of "The National Independence of Ireland.") + +It might be possible for the United Kingdom to be broken up into a +Federation (though it is strange that there is no precedent in history +for such a course); but that would not be "satisfying the National +Aspirations of Ireland." In fact, as Mr. Childers, one of the ablest +of English advocates of Home Rule, has stated: "The term Federal, as +applied to Irish Home Rule at the present time, is meaningless." + +But when we come to examine the existing Bill, which will become law +in 1914 unless something unforeseen occurs, we find that it is neither +the Colonial plan nor Federation but an elaborate system which really +seems as if it had been devised with the object of satisfying nobody +and producing friction at every point. England (by which of course I +mean Great Britain; I merely use the shorter term for convenience) +is not only to pay the total cost of the army, navy and diplomatic +services, including the defences of Ireland, but is also to grant an +annual subsidy to Ireland commencing with £500,000 but subsequently +reduced to £200,000. Whether the English taxpayer will relish this +when he comes to realise it, may be doubted. Certainly no precedent +can be cited for a Federal system under which all the common +expenditure is borne by one of the parties. And further, the present +Government state freely that they hope to carry out their policy by +introducing a Bill for Home Rule for Scotland and possibly also for +Wales. Will the Scotch and Welsh consent to contribute towards the +government of Ireland; or will they demand that they shall be treated +like Ireland, and leave the people of England to pay all Imperial +services and to subsidize Ireland, Scotland and Wales? Then again, +Ireland is to send forty-two representatives to what is still +sarcastically to be called the "Parliament of the United Kingdom," but +will no doubt popularly be known as the English Parliament. They +are to vote about the taxation of people in Great Britain, and to +interfere in local affairs of that country, whilst the people of +Great Britain are not to tax Ireland or interfere in any way with its +affairs. This is indeed representation without taxation. Of course it +is inevitable that the Irish members will continue to do what they are +doing at present--that is, offer their votes to whatever party will +promise further concessions to Irish Nationalism; and they will +probably find no more difficulty in getting an English party to +consent to such an immoral bargain than they do now. + +The provisions as to legislation for Ireland are still more +extraordinary. The Irish Parliament is to have complete power of +legislating as to Irish affairs, with the exception of certain matters +enumerated in the Act; thus it may repeal any Acts of the Imperial +Parliament passed before 1914. On the other hand, the English +Parliament (in which Ireland will have only forty-two representatives) +will also be able to pass laws binding Ireland (and in this way to +re-enact the laws which the Irish Parliament has just repealed), and +these new laws the Irish Parliament may not repeal or overrule. Now +this power of the English Parliament will either be a reality or a +farce; if it is a reality, the Irish Nationalists will be no more +inclined to submit to laws made by "an alien Parliament" in which they +have only forty-two representatives than they are at present to submit +to those made by one in which they have 103; if it is a farce, the +"supremacy of the Imperial Parliament" is a misleading expression. +The Lord Lieutenant is to act as to some matters on the advice of the +Irish Ministry, as to others on the advice of the English. Anyone who +has studied the history of constitutional government in the colonies +in the early days, when the governor was still supposed to act as +to certain affairs independently of ministerial advice, will see the +confusion to which this must lead. Suppose the Lord Lieutenant acts +on the advice of the English ministers in a way of which the +Irish Parliament do not approve, and the Irish Ministry resign in +consequence, what can result but a deadlock? + +But most extraordinary of all are the provisions as to finance. The +Government appointed a Committee of Experts to consider this question. +The committee made their report; but the Government rejected their +advice and substituted another plan which is so elaborate that it is +only possible to touch on some of its more important features here. +I have already said that the English Parliament will have no power +to tax Ireland. That statement, however, must be taken subject to two +reservations. The Bill provides that if ever the happy day arrives +when for three consecutive years the revenue of Ireland has exceeded +the cost of government, the English Parliament (with the addition of +twenty-three extra members summoned from Ireland for the purpose) +may make new provisions securing from Ireland a contribution towards +Imperial expenditure. As this is the only reference to the subject +in the Bill, the general opinion was that until those improbable +circumstances should occur, the English Parliament would have no power +to tax Ireland; but when the debates were drawing to a close, the +Government astonished the House by stating that according to their +construction of the Bill, should any new emergency arise at any time +after the Bill becomes law (for instance, a great naval emergency +requiring an addition to the Income Tax) it would be not merely the +right but also the duty of the Imperial Chancellor of the Exchequer +to see that the charge should be borne by the whole United Kingdom--in +other words, the Parliament in which Ireland possesses only forty-two +representatives may and ought to tax Ireland for Imperial purposes. +The friction which will arise should any attempt of the sort be made, +especially as the power is not stated in the Bill, is evident. In +plain words, it will be impossible to levy the tax. + +But apart from these rights, which one may safely say will never be +exercised, the financial arrangements will from their very complexity +be a constant source of trouble. All taxes levied in Ireland are to be +paid into the English Exchequer (or as it is called in the Bill "The +Exchequer of the United Kingdom"). Some of the objects for which +these taxes have been levied are to be managed by the Irish +Government--these are called "Irish services"; others are to be +managed by the English Government--these are called "Reserved +services." The English Exchequer will then hand over to the Irish +Exchequer:-- + + (a) A sum representing the net cost to the Exchequer of the + United Kingdom of "Irish Services" at the time of the passing + of the Act; + + (b) The sum of £500,000 a year, reducible to £200,000, above + referred to; and + + (c) A sum equal to the proceeds of any new taxes levied by the + Irish Parliament. + +Then the balance which the English Exchequer will retain, after +handing over these three sums, will go to the "Reserved Services." But +as, in consequence of the establishment of the Old Age Pensions +and some other similar liabilities, the aggregate cost of governing +Ireland at this moment exceeds the revenue derived from Ireland by +about £1,500,000, the English taxpayer will have to make up this sum, +as well as to give to Ireland an annual present of £500,000; and +even if the Irish Government succeeds in managing its affairs more +economically than the Government at present does, that will give no +relief to the British taxpayer, for it will be observed that the first +of the three sums which the Exchequer of the United Kingdom is to hand +over is not a sum representing the cost of the "Irish Services" at any +future date but the cost at the time of the passing of the Act. + +It is possible of course that the Irish revenue derived from existing +taxes may increase, and so the burden on the English taxpayer may +be lightened; but as it is more probable that it will decrease, and +consequently the burden become heavier, the English taxpayer cannot +derive much consolation from that. + +It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that a number of extremely +intricate and difficult financial questions must arise; for instance, +what sum really represents the net cost of "Irish Services" at the +time of the passing of the Act; what sum equals the net proceeds of +new taxes imposed by the Irish Parliament; and at what moment it can +be said that the revenue of Ireland has for three consecutive years +exceeded the cost of government. All such matters are to be decided +by a Board of Five, of whom one is to be nominated by the King +(presumably on the advice of the English Ministers), two by the +English Government, and two by the Irish. From the decisions of this +Board on matters of fact there is to be no appeal. It is needless +to point out that every detail in which the three English members +overrule the two Irish will be fought out again in the English +Parliament by the forty Irish members. This again will show how vain +is the hope that future English Parliaments will be relieved from +endless discussions as to Irish affairs. Professor Dicey has well +named the able work in which he has analysed the Bill and shown its +impossibilities "A Fool's Paradise." + +The provisions concerning those matters as to which the Irish +Parliament is to have no power to legislate are as strange as the +other clauses of the Bill. For six years the Constabulary are to be a +"reserved service"; but as they will be under the orders of the Irish +Government, the object of this is hard to see--unless indeed it is to +create an impression that the Ulstermen if they refuse to obey them +are rebelling not against the Irish but the Imperial Government. The +Post Office Savings Banks are "reserved" for a longer period; as to +the postal services to places beyond Ireland, the Irish Parliament +will have no power to legislate; but the Post Office, so far as it +relates to Ireland alone, will be handed over at once to the Irish +Parliament--although even in the case of Federal Unions such as +Australia the Post Office is usually considered to be eminently a +matter for the Federal authority. And the question whether an Irish +Act is unconstitutional and therefore void will be decided by the +Privy Council, which will be regarded as an essentially English body; +hence if it attempts to veto an Irish Act, its action will be at once +denounced as a revival of Poyning's Act and the Declaratory Act of +George I. + +The Bill excludes the relations with Foreign States from the powers of +the Irish Parliament, but says nothing to prevent the Irish Government +from appointing a political agent to the Vatican. That is probably one +of the first things that it will do; and as the Lord Lieutenant could +never form a Government which would consent to any other course, he +will be obliged to consent. This agent, not being responsible to the +British Foreign Office, may cause constant friction between England +and Italy. + +But quite apart from the unworkable provisions of the Bill, everything +connected with its introduction and passing through Parliament has +tended to increase the hatred which the Opposition feel towards it, +and the determination of the Ulstermen to resist it if necessary even +by force. Those who lived in Australia whilst Federation was under +discussion will recollect how carefully the scheme was brought before +the people, discussed in various Colonial Parliaments, considered over +again line by line by the delegates in an Inter-Colonial Conference, +examined afresh in the Colonial Office in London and in the Imperial +Parliament and finally laid before each colony for its acceptance. Yet +here is a matter which vitally affects the government not of Ireland +only but of the whole United Kingdom, and thus indirectly of the +Empire at large; it was (as I have shown) not fairly brought before +the people at a general election; it has been introduced by what +is admittedly merely a coalition Government as a matter of bargain +between the various sections, at a time when the British Constitution +is in a state of dislocation, as the power of the House of Lords has +been destroyed and the new Upper Chamber not yet set up; and it has +been passed without adequate discussion. This I say deliberately; it +is no use to point out how many hours have been spent in Committee, +for the way in which the discussion has been conducted has deprived +it of any real value. The custom has been for the Government to state +beforehand the time at which each batch of clauses is to be passed, +and what amendments may be discussed (the rest being passed over in +silence); when the discussion is supposed to begin, their supporters +ostentatiously walk out, and the Opposition argue to empty benches; +then when the moment for closing the discussion arrives, the Minister +in charge gets up and says that the Government cannot accept any of +the amendments proposed; the bell rings, the Government supporters +troop back, and pass all the clauses unamended. As an instance of this +contemptible way of conducting the debate, it is sufficient to point +to the fact already mentioned, that so vital a matter as the power +of the English Parliament to tax Ireland was not even hinted at until +nearly the end of the debates. + +And now the Bill is to become law without any further appeal to the +people. + +Are English Unionists to be blamed if they declare that an Act so +passed will possess no moral obligation, and that they are determined, +should the terrible necessity arise, to aid the Ulstermen in resisting +it to the uttermost? + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +THE DANGER TO THE EMPIRE OF ANY FORM OF HOME RULE. THE QUESTIONS +ANSWERED. + + +In the last chapter I explained how hopelessly unworkable is the +particular scheme of Home Rule which is contained in the present +Bill. I now proceed to show why Home Rule in any form must lead to +disaster--primarily to Ireland, ultimately to the Empire. + +Politicians who, like ostriches, possess the happy faculty of shutting +their eyes to unpleasant facts, may say that there is only one nation +in Ireland; but everyone who knows the country is quite aware that +there are two, which may be held together as part of the United +Kingdom, but which can no more be forced into one nation than +Belgium and Holland could be forced to combine as the Kingdom of the +Netherlands. And whatever cross-currents there may be, the great line +of cleavage is religion. Of course I am aware of the violent efforts +that have been made ever since the commencement of the Nationalist +agitation to prove that this is not so. Thus Parnell, addressing an +English audience, explained that religion had nothing to do with the +movement, and as evidence stated that he was the leader of it though +not merely a Protestant but a member of the Protestant Synod and a +parochial nominator for his own parish. Of course everyone in Ireland +knew perfectly well that he was only a Protestant in the sense that +Garibaldi was a Roman Catholic--he had been baptised as such in +infancy; and that he was not a member of the synod or a parochial +nominator, and never had been one; but the statement was good enough +to deceive his Nonconformist hearers. That Protestant Home Rulers +exist is not denied. But the numbers are so small that it is evident +that they are the rare exceptions that prove the rule. The very +anxiety with which, when a Protestant Home Ruler can be discovered +he is put forward, and the fact of his being a Protestant Home Ruler +referred to again and again, shows what a rare bird he is. To mention +one instance amongst many; a Protestant Home Ruler has recently +been speaking on platforms in England explaining that he came in a +representative capacity in order to testify to the people of England +that the Irish Protestants were now in favour of Home Rule. He did +not mention the fact that in the district where he resided there +were about 1,000 Protestants and he was the only Home Ruler amongst +them--in fact, nearly all the rest had signed a Petition against the +Bill. And when we come to examine who these Protestant Home Rulers +are, about whom so much has been said, we find first that there is in +this as in every other movement, a very small number of faddists, who +like to go against their own party; secondly a few who though they +still call themselves Protestants have to all intents and purposes +abandoned their religion, and therefore cannot fairly be reckoned; +thirdly, a few who hold appointments from which they would be +dismissed if they did not conform; fourthly, some who say openly that +Home Rule is coming and that whatever their private opinions may be it +is the wisest policy to worship the rising sun (bearing in mind that +Mr. Dillon has promised that when the Nationalists attain their end +they will remember who were their friends and who their enemies, and +deal out rewards and punishments accordingly); and fifthly, those who +have accepted what future historians will describe as bribes. For the +present Government have showered down Peerages, Knighthoods of +various orders, Lieutenancies of Counties, Deputy-Lieutenancies and +Commissions of the Peace--not to speak of salaried offices both +in Ireland and elsewhere--on Protestants who would consent to turn +Nationalists, in a manner which makes it absurd to talk any more about +bribery at the time of the Union. And yet with all this the Protestant +Home Rulers are such an extremely small body that they may be +disregarded. And indeed it is hard to see how an earnest, consistent +and logically-minded Protestant can be a Nationalist; for loyalty to +the King is a part of his creed; and, in the words of a Nationalist +organ, the _Midland Tribune_, "If a man be a Nationalist he must _ipso +facto_ be a Disloyalist, for Irish Nationalism and loyalty to the +throne of England could not be synonymous." + +On the other hand, a large proportion of the educated Roman Catholics, +the men who have a real stake in the country, are Unionists. Some +of them, however earnest they may be in their religion, dread the +domination of a political priesthood; others dread still more the +union of the Church with anarchism. As has already been shown, +they refuse to join the United Irish League; some in the north have +actually subscribed the Ulster Covenant; many others have signed +petitions against Home Rule throughout the country; and a still larger +number have stated that they would gladly do so if they did not fear +the consequences. It is probably therefore correct to say that +the number of Unionists in Ireland decidedly exceeds the number of +Protestants; in other words, less than three-fourths of the population +are Nationalists, and more than one-fourth (perhaps about one-third) +are Unionists. And more than that; if we are to test the reality of +a movement, we must look not merely at numbers but at other matters. +Violent language may be used; but the fact remains as I have +previously stated that even if the Nationalists are taken as being +only two-thirds of the population, their annual subscriptions to the +cause do not amount to anything like a penny per head and that the +agitation could not last for six months if it were not kept alive +by contributions from America and the Colonies. But though the +Nationalist movement has not brought about a Union between the Orange +and the Green, it has caused two other Unions to be formed which will +have an important influence on the future history of the country. In +the first place it has revived, or cemented, the Union which, as we +have seen, existed at former periods of Irish history, but which has +existed in no other country in the world--the Union between the +Black and the Red. That a Union between two forces so essentially +antagonistic as Ultramontanism and Jacobinism will be permanent, one +can hardly suppose; whether the clericals, if they succeed in crushing +the heretics, will afterwards be able to turn and crush the anarchists +with whom they have been in alliance, and then reign supreme; or +whether, as happened in France at the end of the eighteenth century +and in Portugal recently, the anarchists who have grown up within +the bosom of the Church will prove to be a more deadly foe to the +clericals than the heretics ever were--it is impossible to say; but +neither prospect seems very cheerful. + +In the second place, the Nationalist movement has drawn all the +Protestant bodies together as nothing else could. Episcopalians, +Presbyterians and Methodists have all joined hands in the defence of +their common liberties. The Nationalists have left no stone unturned +in their efforts to prove that the northern Protestants are disloyal. +They have succeeded in finding one speech that was made by an excited +orator (not a leader) forty-four years ago, to the effect that the +Disestablishment of the Church might result in the Queen's Crown being +kicked into the Boyne. As this is the only instance they can rake up, +it has been quoted in the House of Commons and elsewhere again +and again; and Mr. Birrell (whose knowledge of Ireland seems to be +entirely derived from Nationalist speeches) has recently elaborated +it by saying that when the Church was going to be disestablished +"they used to declare" that the Queen's Crown would be kicked into the +Boyne, and yet their threats came to nothing and therefore the +result of Home Rule will be the same. The fact was that the Church +establishment was the last relic of Protestant Ascendancy; and as +I have already shown, that meant Anglican ascendancy in which +Presbyterianism did not participate; hence, when the agitation for +Disestablishment arose, though some few Presbyterians greatly disliked +it, their opposition as a whole was lukewarm. But when in 1886 Home +Rule became a question of practical politics, they rose up against it +as one man; in 1893, when the second Home Rule Bill was introduced and +actually passed the House of Commons, they commenced organising their +Volunteer army to resist it, if necessary, by force of arms; and +they are just as keen to-day as they were twenty years ago. They are +certainly not disloyal; the republican spirit which permeated +their ancestors in the eighteenth century has long since died out +completely. Sir Walter Scott said that if he had lived at the time of +the Union between Scotland and England, he would have fought against +it; but, living a century later and seeing the benefit that it had +been to his country, his feelings were all on the other side. That is +what the Presbyterians of Ulster say to-day. They point to the way in +which Ulster has, under the Union, been able to develop itself; with +no richer soil, no better climate, and no greater natural advantages +than other parts of Ireland, the energy, ability, and true patriotism +of the people have enabled them to establish and encourage commerce +and manufactures which have brought wealth and prosperity to Ulster +whilst the other Provinces have been stationary or retrograde. There +cannot be a better instance of the different spirit which animates the +two communities than the history of the linen industry. Michael Davitt +bitterly described it as "Not an Irish, but an Orange industry." And +from his point of view, he was quite right; for it is practically +confined to Ulster. In that Province it has during the nineteenth +century developed so steadily that the annual export now exceeds +£15,000,000 in value and more than 70,000 hands are employed in the +mills. Not long ago, a Royal Commission was appointed to enquire +whether it was not possible to grow flax in the south and west, and +if so why it was not done. The Commission made careful enquiries, and +reported that in both Munster and Connaught efforts had been made to +establish the industry (notably by the late Lord Bandon, one of the +much-abused landlord class, who had let land for the purpose at a +nominal charge, obtained seed and brought experts from the north +to instruct the people); that it had been proved that both soil and +climate were quite as well adapted for it as in Ulster; but that after +a few years the buyers refused any longer to purchase the flax as it +was so carelessly and badly prepared that it was valueless; and so +the industry had died out. In both south and west the people expressed +their readiness to revive it if a large grant were made to them by the +Government, but not otherwise. + +Then again we may take the growth of the cities. It seems hard now to +realise that one reason why the people of Dublin opposed the Union was +because they feared lest, when their city ceased to be the capital, +Cork might grow into a great industrial centre and surpass it. Cork +has remained stationary ever since; Belfast, then an insignificant +country town, has become a city of 400,000 inhabitants, and the +customs from it alone are more than double those from all the rest of +Ireland put together. And what is true of Belfast is true also on a +smaller scale of all the other towns north of the Boyne. + +This remarkable contrast between the progress of the north-east and +the stagnation of the rest of the country is no new thing. It has been +observed ever since the Union. So long ago as 1832 the Report of the +Commission on the linen manufacture of Ireland contained the following +words:-- + + "Political and religious animosities and dissensions, and + increasing agitation first for one object and then for + another have so destroyed confidence and shaken the bonds of + society--undermined men's principles and estranged + neighbour from neighbour, friend from friend, and class + from class--that, in lieu of observing any common effort + to ameliorate the condition of the people, we find every + proposition for this object, emanate from which party it may, + received with distrust by the other; maligned, perverted and + destroyed, to gratify the political purposes of a faction.... + The comparative prosperity enjoyed by that portion of Ireland + where tranquillity ordinarily prevails, such as the Counties + Down, Antrim, and Derry, testify the capabilities of Ireland + to work out her own regeneration, when freed of the disturbing + causes which have so long impeded her progress in civilization + and improvement. We find there a population hardy, healthy and + employed; capital fast flowing into the district; new sources + of employment daily developing themselves; a people well + disposed alike to the government and institutions of their + country; and not distrustful and jealous of their superiors. + Contrast the social condition of these people with such + pictures as we have presented to us from other districts." + +This energetic, self-reliant and prosperous community now see before +their eyes what the practical working of government by the League is. +They see it generally in the condition of the country, and especially +in the Dublin Convention of 1909, the narrow-minded administration of +the Local Government Act wherever the power of the League prevails, +and the insecurity for life and property in the west; they know also +that a Home Rule Government must mean increased taxation (as the +Nationalists themselves confess) which will probably--in fact, one may +almost say must certainly, as no other source is available--be thrown +on the Ulster manufactures; is it not therefore a matter of life and +death to them to resist it to the uttermost? + +But as I have said, the great line of cleavage is religion. Here I +know that I shall be accused of "Orange bigotry." But I am not afraid +of the charge; first because I do not happen to be an Orangeman; and +secondly because I regard bigotry as the outcome of ignorance and +prejudice, and consider therefore that a calm examination of the +evidence is the very antithesis of bigotry. In order to make this +examination I desire in the first place to avoid the mistake that +Grattan made in judging the probabilities of the future from the +opinions of personal friends whom I like and respect, but who, as I +know (and regret to think), possess no influence whatever. I consider +that there are other data--such as works of authority, the action +of the public bodies, statements by men in prominent positions, +and articles in leading journals--from which it is safer to form +an estimate. The Ulstermen are content that the country should be +governed, as far as religion is concerned, on modern principles--that +is to say, in much the same way that England, Australia and New +Zealand are governed to-day. The Nationalists, whatever they may +say in England or the Colonies, have never in Ireland from the +commencement of the movement attempted to deny that their object is +to see Ireland governed on principles which are totally different +and which the Ulstermen detest. As long ago as 1886, the _Freeman's +Journal_, the leading Nationalist organ, said:-- + + "We contend that the good government of Ireland by England + is impossible ... the one people has not only accepted but + retained with inviolable constancy the Christian faith; + the other has not only rejected it, but has been for three + centuries the leader of the great apostasy, and is at this day + the principal obstacle to the conversion of the world." + +And as recently as December 1912, Professor Nolan of Maynooth, +addressing the Roman Catholic students at the Belfast University, +said:-- + + "Humanly speaking, we are on the eve of Home Rule. We shall + have a free hand in the future. Let us use it well. This is + a Catholic country, and if we do not govern it on Catholic + lines, according to Catholic ideals, and to safe-guard + Catholic interests, it will be all the worse for the country + and all the worse for us. We have now a momentous opportunity + of changing the whole course of Irish history." + +Then another of their papers, the _Rosary_, has said: "We have +played the game of tolerance until the game is played out"; and has +prophesied that under Home Rule the Church will become an irresistible +engine before whom all opposition must go down. And whatever the +educated laity may desire, no one who knows Ireland can doubt that +it is the clerical faction that will be all-powerful. The leading +ecclesiastics are trained at the Gregorian University at Rome; and +one of the Professors at that institution, in a work published in 1901 +with the special approval of Pope Leo XIII, enunciated the doctrine +that it is the duty of a Christian State to put to death heretics +who have been condemned by the Ecclesiastical Court. Of course no one +supposes that such a thing will ever take place in Ireland; but what +the Ulstermen object to is putting themselves under the rule of +men who have been trained in such principles and believe them to be +approved by an infallible authority. + +In 1904 some foreign merchants at Barcelona wished to build a church +for themselves. Republican feeling is so strong in the municipality +that permission was obtained without difficulty. But the bishop +at once protested and appealed to the King. The King wrote back a +sympathetic letter expressing his deep regret that he was unable to +prevent this fresh attack on the Catholic faith. + +We are constantly being told that the tolerance and liberality shown +by the majority in Quebec is sufficient of itself to prove how foolish +are the apprehensions felt by the minority in Ireland. Well, I will +quote from a journal which cannot be accused of Protestant bias, +the _Irish Independent_, one of the leading organs of the +Nationalist-clerical party in Ireland:-- + + "(From our own Correspondent.) + + "Montreal, Thursday. + + "In connection with the celebration of the anniversary of + Wolfe's victory and death, which takes place in September, + prominent members of the Anglican Church have inaugurated a + movement for the erection of a Wolfe Memorial Chapel on + the Plains of Abraham. The organisers of the movement hope + ultimately to secure the transfer of the General's remains to + the chapel for interment on the scene of his victory. + + "The population being largely French-Canadian Catholics, the + Catholic Church organ of Quebec strongly protests against + the erection of an Anglican chapel in the heart of a Catholic + district." + +Now if this conduct on the part of the Roman Catholic authorities is +quite right at Barcelona and Quebec, why is it "Orange bigotry" +to suggest that the same people may act in the same way at Cork or +Galway? + +Again, in 1910, a remarkable volume was published, written by Mrs. +Hugh Fraser, the sister of the novelist, Marion Crawford, entitled "A +Diplomat's Wife in Many Lands." The authoress was a very able woman, +who had travelled much and mixed in cultured society wherever she had +been; her book was highly reviewed by various English Magazines. She +tells the story of a child of Jewish parents living at Rome in the +days of Pope Pius IX, who was secretly baptized in infancy by a nurse, +and at the age of seven was forcibly taken from his parents and placed +in a Convent School. She explains that not only was this quite right, +but that such a course is inevitable in every country in which the +Church has power; and that the feelings of the heretic mother whose +child is taken from her are a fair subject of ridicule on the part of +good Catholics. Can Irish Protestants be accused of bigotry when they +contend that these writers mean what they say? English Nonconformists +argue that they ought to wait until the time comes and then either +fight or leave the country; but the Irish Protestants reply that it +is more sensible to take steps beforehand to ward off the danger. And +whether they are right or wrong, the fact remains that those are their +ideas, and that is their determination; and this is the situation +which must be faced if Home Rule is forced upon the people of Ulster. + +By a striking coincidence, two meetings have recently been held on the +same day--the 16th of May 1913--which form an apt illustration of +the position adopted by the two parties. The first was a great +demonstration of Unionists at Belfast, organised in order to make a +further protest against the Bill and to perfect the organisation for +opposing it by force, if the necessity arises; the second was a large +meeting of the United Irish League at Mullingar. The Chairman, Mr. +Ginnell, M.P. (who has gained prominence and popularity by his skill +in arranging cattle-drives), said that the chief cause of the pressure +last session was to get the Home Rule Bill through its first stage. It +was still called a Home Rule Bill, though differing widely from +what most of them always understood by Home Rule. Deeply though he +regretted the Bill's defects and limitations, still he thought almost +any Parliament in Ireland was worth accepting--first, because it was +in some sense a recognition of the right to govern themselves; and +secondly, because even a crippled Parliament would give them fresh +leverage for complete freedom. No one could be silly enough to suppose +that an intelligent Ireland, having any sort of a Parliament of its +own, would be prevented by any promise given now by place-hunters, +from using that Parliament for true national purposes. + +That no army which the Ulstermen can form will be able to stand +against British troops supported by cavalry and artillery is evident; +but it seems almost past belief that England should be ready to +plunge the country into civil war; or that British troops should march +out--with bands playing "Bloody England, we hate you still," or some +other inspiring Nationalist air--to shoot down Ulstermen who will come +to meet them waving the Union Jack and shouting "God save the King." +And if they do--what then? Lord Wolseley, when Commander-in-Chief in +Ireland in 1893, pointed out the probable effect on the British Army +in a letter to the Duke of Cambridge:-- + + "If ever our troops are brought into collision with the + loyalists of Ulster, and blood is shed, it will shake the + whole foundations upon which our army rests to such an extent + that I feel that our Army will never be the same again. Many + officers will resign to join Ulster, and there will be such + a host of retired officers in the Ulster ranks that men who + would stand by the Government no matter what it did, will be + worse than half-hearted in all they do. No army could stand + such a strain upon it." + +And then England, having crushed her natural allies in Ulster, will +hand over the Government of Ireland to a party whose avowed object +is to break up the Empire and form a separate Republic. Dangers and +difficulties arose even when the independent legislature of Ireland +was in the hands of men who were loyal and patriotic in the noblest +sense of the term, and when there were in every district a certain +number of educated gentlemen of position who (as we have seen) were +always ready to risk their lives and fortunes for the defence of the +realm; what will happen when the loyal minority have been shot down, +driven out of the country, or forced into bitter hostility to the +Government who have betrayed and deserted them? As Lecky wrote years +ago:-- + + "It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the danger + that would arise if the vast moral legislative, and even + administrative powers which every separate legislature must + necessarily possess, were exercised in any near and vital + part of the British Empire, by men who were disloyal to its + interests. To place the government of a country by a voluntary + and deliberate act in the hands of dishonest and disloyal men, + is perhaps the greatest crime that a public man can commit: + a crime which, in proportion to the strength and soundness of + national morality, must consign those who are guilty of it to + undying infamy." + +If English people are so blind that they cannot perceive this, +foreigners, whose vision is clearer, have warned them. Bismarck said +that England, by granting Home Rule to Ireland, would dig its own +grave; and Admiral Mahan has recently written:-- + + "It is impossible for a military man or a statesman to look + at the map and not perceive that the ambition of the Irish + separatists, if realised, would be even more threatening to + the national life of Great Britain than the secession of the + South was to the American Union. + + "The legislative supremacy of the British Parliament against + the assertion of which the American Colonists revolted + and which to-day would be found intolerable in Canada and + Australia cannot be yielded in the case of an island, where + independent action might very well be attended with fatal + consequences to its partner. The instrument for such action, + in the shape of an independent Parliament, could not be safely + trusted even to avowed friends." + +So then, having reviewed the evidence as calmly and dispassionately as +I can, I answer the two questions which I propounded at the outset of +the enquiry--That the real objects of the Nationalists are the +total separation of Ireland from England and the establishment of an +Independent Republic; and that the men of Ulster in resisting them +to the uttermost are not merely justified on the ground of +self-preservation, but are in reality fighting for the cause of the +Empire. + + + + +NOTE. + +The following Report of the Annual Pilgrimage in memory of Wolfe Tone, +which took place on the 22nd of June last, and the article in the +_Leinster Leader_ (a prominent Nationalist journal) will show how +closely the Nationalists of to-day follow in the footsteps of Wolfe +Tone. + + +THE MEMORY OF WOLFE TONE. + +ANNUAL PILGRIMAGE TO BODENSTOWN. + +(_From our Reporter_.) + +On Sunday last the annual pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe +Tone took place to Bodenstown churchyard. This year the numbers who +attended exceeded those of last year, about a thousand coming from +Dublin and another contingent from Tullamore, Clare, and Athlone. The +procession formed outside Sallins station was a most imposing one, +being made up of St. James' Brass Band and the Lorcan O'Toole Pipers' +Band and the Athlone Pipers' Band, the National Boy Scouts, the +Daughters of Erin, and members of the Wolfe Tone Memorial Clubs. + +At the graveside demonstration, Mr. Thos. J. Clarke presided and said +it was a gratifying thing that numbers of their fellow-countrymen were +to-day swinging back to the old fighting line and taking pride in the +old Fenian principles. He introduced Mr. P.H. Pearse, B.A. + +Mr. Pearse then came forward and delivered an eloquent and impressive +oration, first speaking in Irish. Speaking in English, he said they +had come to the holiest place in Ireland, holier to them than that +sacred spot where Patrick sleeps in Down. Patrick brought them life, +but Wolfe Tone died for them. Though many had testified in death +to the truth of Ireland's claim to Nationhood, Wolfe Tone was the +greatest of all that had made that testimony; he was the greatest of +Ireland's dead. They stood in the holiest place in Ireland, for what +spot of the Nation's soil could be holier than the spot in which the +greatest of her dead lay buried. He found it difficult to speak in +that place, and he knew they all partook of his emotion. There were +no strangers there for they were all in a sense own brothers to Tone +(hear, hear). They shared his faith, his hope still unrealised and +his great love. They had come there that day not merely to salute this +noble dust and to pay their homage to the noble spirit of Tone, but +to renew their adhesion to the faith of Tone and to express their +full acceptance of the gospel of which Tone had given such a clear +definition. That gospel had been taught before him by English-speaking +men, uttered half-articulately by Shan O'Neill, expressed in some +passionate metaphor by Geoffrey Keating, and hinted at by Swift in +some bitter jibe, but it was stated definitely and emphatically by +Wolfe Tone and it did not need to be ever again stated anew for any +new generation. Tone was great in mind, but he was still greater in +spirit. He had the clear vision of the prophet; he saw things as they +were and saw things as they would be. They owed more to this dead man +than they should be ever able to repay him by making pilgrimages to +his grave or building the stateliest monuments in the streets of +his city. They owed it to him that there was such a thing as Irish +Nationalism; to his memory and the memory of '98 they owed it that +there was any manhood left in Ireland (hear, hear). The soul of +Wolfe Tone was like a burning flame, a flame so pure, so ardent, so +generous, that to come into communion with it was as a new optimism +and regeneration. Let them try in some way to get into contact with +the spirit of Tone and possess themselves of its ardour. If they could +do that it would be a good thing for them and their country, because +they would carry away with them a new life from that place of death +and there would be a new resurrection of patriotic grace in their +souls (hear, hear). Let them think of Tone; think of his boyhood +and young manhood in Dublin and in Kildare; think of his adventurous +spirit and plans, think of his glorious failure at the bar, and his +healthy contempt for what he called a foolish wig and gown, think how +the call of Ireland came to him; think how he obeyed that call; think +how he put virility into the Catholic movement; think how this heretic +toiled to make freemen of Catholic helots (applause). Think how he +grew to love the real and historic Irish nation, and then there came +to him that clear conception that there must be in Ireland not three +nations but one; that Protestant and Dissenter must close in amity +with Catholic, and Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter must unite to +achieve freedom for all (applause). Let them consider the sacrifices +Tone had made; he had to leave so much. Never was there a man who was +so richly endowed as he was, he had so much love in his warm heart. He +(speaker) would rather have known Tone than any other man of whom he +ever read or heard. He never read of any one man who had more in him +of the heroic stuff than Tone had; how gaily and gallantly he had set +about the doing of a mighty thing. He (speaker) had always loved the +very name of Thomas Russell because Tone so loved him. To be Tone's +friend! What a privilege! for Tone had for his friends an immense +love, an immense charity. He had such love for his wife and children! +But such was the destiny of the heroes of their nation; they had +to stifle in their hearts all that love and that sweet music and to +follow only the faint voice that called them to the battlefield or to +the harder death at the foot of the gibbet. Tone heard that voice and +obeyed it and from his grave to-day he was calling on them and they +were there to answer his voice; and they pledged themselves to +carry out his programme to abolish the connection with England, +the never-failing source of political evils and to establish +the independence of their country, to abolish the memory of past +dissensions, and to replace for the denominations of Protestant, +Catholic and Dissenter, the common name of Irishman (applause). +In that programme was to be found the whole philosophy of Irish +Nationality; that programme included the philosophy of the Gaelic +League and of later prophets, and it was to that programme they +pledged their adhesion; they pledged it now at the graveside of Tone; +they pledged themselves to follow in the steps of Tone, never to rest +by day or night until this be accomplished, until Ireland be free +(applause); fighting on, not in despondency, but in great joy as Tone +fought; prizing it above all privileges, and hoping for the victory in +their own day. And if it should be granted to them in this generation +to complete the work that Tone's generation left unaccomplished! But +if that was not their destiny, they should fight on still, hoping +still, self-sacrificing still, knowing as they must know that causes +like this did not lose for ever, and that men like Tone did not die in +vain (applause). + +The address having concluded, wreaths were placed on the grave by the +National Boy Scouts and the Inghanite Na h-Eireann. + +During the afternoon an aeridheacht was held in an adjoining field at +which music, songs and recitations were contributed, and a thoroughly +enjoyable Irish-Ireland evening was spent. + + + + +AT THE GRAVE OF WOLFE TONE. + + +The lifework of Theobald Wolfe Tone, for the subversion of English +Government in Ireland, and the supreme sacrifice he made in the mighty +effort to erect in its stead an independent Ireland free from all +foreign denomination and control, was fittingly commemorated on Sunday +last, when the annual pilgrimage took place to Bodenstown Churchyard, +where all that is mortal of the great patriot lie buried. The +pilgrimage this year was worthy of the cause and the man, and afforded +some object lessons in what might be accomplished by a cultivation of +those principles of discipline and devotion to duty, in the pursuit +of a glorious ideal, which Tone taught and adhered to throughout his +adventurous and brilliant career. The well-ordered procession, +the ready obedience to the commands of the marshals, the intense +earnestness of the multitude, and the display made by the youths--the +national boy scouts--their military bearing, and the bands and banners +which interspersed the procession as it marched from Sallins to +Bodenstown was a spectacle which pleased the eye and stirred the +emotions. Everything in connection with the pilgrimage was carried out +with a close attention to detail, and military-like precision which +must have been very acceptable to the great patriot in whose honour +it was organised, were he but permitted to gaze from the great Unknown +upon this practical demonstration of the perpetuation of the spirit +which animated him and his time, in the struggle against English +misrule, and the love and veneration in which he is still held, after +the lapse of the century and more that has passed since he made the +final sacrifice of his life in the cause of freedom. Tone done to +death did not die in vain. The truth of this was evident in the +character of the pilgrimage on Sunday last, when all that is best and +purest in patriotism in the land assembled at his graveside, to renew +fealty to the aims and ideals for which he suffered and died, and to +hear the gospel of Irish nationality preached and expounded as he knew +and inculcated it in his day. A fusion of forces, and the cultivation +of a spirit and bond of brotherhood and friendship amongst Irishmen +in the common cause, were his methods to attain the great ideal of +a separate and distinct nationality, for then, as to-day, the chief +obstacle to freedom and nationhood was not so much English domination +in itself, as want of cohesion, faction, and the disruption caused +by alien traditions and teachings. This was the prevailing spirit of +Sunday's commemoration, and as the great mass of people filed past in +orderly array and knelt, prayed, and laid wreaths on the lonely grave, +the solemnity and impressiveness of the occasion was intensified. +In the suppressed murmurs, and silent gaze on the tomb of the mighty +dead, one could recognise the eagerness and the hope for another Tone +to arise to complete the work which he promoted, and vindicate the +purity of the motives which moved men like the leaders of '98 to do +and dare for all, and to "substitute the common name of Irishman +for Catholic, Protestant, and Dissenter." The promoters, too, were +fortunate in their choice of orator for the occasion. Mr. P.H. Pearse +did full justice to the occasion, and in language, beautiful and +impressive, pictured the man and his movements and the lessons to be +drawn by us to-day from the lifework of leaders in thought and action +like Tone. Close and consistent adhesion to principles of patriotism +and a readiness of self-sacrifice in the pursuit of those principles, +were his distinguishing characteristics all through life, and if we in +our time would emulate the example of Tone and his times, we must also +be ready when the call came to meet any demand made upon us for the +promotion of our national welfare. The orator of the day rightly, in +our opinion, described that hallowed spot in Bodenstown as one of the +holiest places in Ireland to-day, from the nationalist standpoint, +holding as it does the ashes of the man who, without friends, money or +influence to help him, and by sheer force of character, intensity of +purpose and earnestness, prevailed upon the greatest emperor-general +the world has ever seen Napoleon Bonaparte, to make a descent on +Ireland, in order to aid our starved, tortured, and persecuted people +to shake off the shackles that kept them in slavery, and elevate +Ireland once more to the dignity of full, free, and untrammelled +nationhood. We are all familiar with the events following this great +effort of Tone's, and the dark chapters that closed a glorious career. +All that is mortal of Tone is in the keeping of Kildare, and it is +a trust that we feel sure is not alone felt to be a high honour, +but which cannot fail to keep the cultivation of a high standard of +nationality before the people in whose midst repose the remains of one +of Ireland's greatest sons. Ireland, from the centre to the sea, +was represented in Sunday's great gathering to commemorate the +achievements of Wolfe Tone, and the occasion was honoured first by +the large and representative character of the throng, secondly by the +decorum observed all through the day's proceedings, and thirdly, by +the regularity and precision which attended the entire arrangements. +There was just one other feature which must have been very gratifying +to those identified with the organisation of the pilgrimage, +namely: the large proportion of ladies and young people, coming long +distances, who made up the gathering. And they were by no means the +least enthusiastic of the throng. This enthusiasm amongst our young +people is one of the most encouraging and promising signs of the +times, serving as it does to demonstrate the undying spirit of Irish +nationality, and the perpetuation of those principles to which Tone +devoted his time, talents, and eventually made the supreme sacrifice +of his life in having inculcated amongst his people. It is a glorious +legacy, and one that has ever been cherished with veneration for the +men who left it. He died a martyr to the cause he espoused, but his +memory and the cause live. The living blaze he and his co-workers, in +the cause of Irish freedom, kindled has never been completely stamped +out, and it still smoulders, and has occasionally burst into flame +only to be temporarily extinguished in the blood and tears of our +bravest and best who never forgot the teachings of Tone. And now, when +the sky is bright once more, and every circumstance portends the dawn +of a new era, full of hope and promise for the ultimate realisation +of those ideals for which thousands of our race have sacrificed their +lives, the spark of nationality which, even since Tone's death, has +repeatedly leaped into flame, still glows fitfully to remind us that +come what may it remains undying and unquenchable, a beacon to light +us on the path to freedom should disappointment and dashed hopes again +darken the outlook. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abjuration, oath of, 51. + Absentees, 65, 138, 139. + Acton, Lord, 37. + Adrian, Pope, 13. + Agrarian outrages, 152, 196-202, 210-215. + Agriculture, Department of, 161, 163. + Alexander, Pope, 14. + Alfred the Great, 9. + American War of Independence, 63, 72, 73, 83. + Anglican Church in Ireland, 27, 28, 60, 143, 144, 236. + Anne, Queen, 63. + Arkins, P., 210, 211. + Arklow, battle of, 109. + Armagh, Bishop of, 7. + Ashbourne Act, 159. + Ashtown, Lord, 203, 204. + Asquith, Rt. Hon. H.H., 129, 207. + Athenry founded by Normans, 17. + + Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur J., 156, 160, 164. + Balfour, Rt. Hon. Gerald, 168. + Baltimore, Lord, 38. + Bandon, Lord, 238. + Bannatyne, Mr., 214. + Barcelona, Church at, 243, 244. + Belfast, growth of, 239; + meeting at, 245; + persons employed by Corporation of, 174, 175; + University, 176, 193, 205. + Berkeley, Bishop, 120. + Biggar, J.G., 145. + Birrell, Rt. Hon. Augustine, Chief Secretary, 160, 167, 173, + 174, 197, 198, 200-205, 211, 216, 236. + Bismarck, Prince, 248. + Blake, W., 198. + "Board of Erin," 184. + Boers, Nationalist sympathy with, 170. + Borromeo, San Carlo, 54. + Bossuet, 54. + Bounties granted by Irish Parliament, 80. + Boy Scouts, 193. + Boycotting, 86, 148, 149, 153. + Boyne, battle of the, 48. + Brady, J., 145, 146. + Brian Boroo, 8, 9, 19. + Bright, John, 154, 159. + Brook, 57. + Browne estate, 168. + Bruce, Edward, invasion by, 19, 26, 91. + Bruce, King Robert, 17, 19, 26. + Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, Chief Secretary, 194, 195, 197. + Bulls, Papal, 13-15. + Burke, Mr., Under Secretary, murder of, 146, 153. + Busby, Mr., 157. + Butt, Isaac, advocates Home Rule, 145. + + Carey, James, 145. + Carlow, rebellion in, 109. + "Carrion Crows," 202. + Castlebar, capture of by the French, 112. + Castledawson outrage, 216, 217. + Castlereagh, Lord, 126, 128. + Catholic University Medical School, 176. + Cattle driving, 167, 195-202. + Cavan, raid by septs of, 7. + Cavendish, murder of Lord F., 146, 153. + Celts, 5-14, 20, 23, 24, 31. + Charlemont, Lord, 93. + Charles I, 40-42. + Charles II, 44. + Chicago Convention, 155. + Childers, Erskine, 222. + Church, Celtic. See Celts of Ireland. + See Anglican Church. + Churchill, Rt. Hon. Winston, 209. + Clan-na-gael, 147, 185. + Clare, state of, in 1912, 210-214. + Clare, Lord, 81, 84, 85, 111. + Clerkenwell explosion, 143. + Clontarf, battle of, 9. + "Coalition Ministry," 208. + "Coigne and livery," 11. + College of Surgeons, Dublin, 176. + Condon, O'Meagher, 96, 184, 185. + Confiscations, 30, 42, 43, 57, 150. + Congested Districts Board, 164-168. + Connaught, Celtic raids into, 7; + lands in, given to rebels, 42; + rebellion in, 112. + Conolly, Mr., 215. + Convention in Dublin in 1909, 206, 207, 240. + Cooke, Mr., Under Secretary, 111. + Co-operative Credit Banks, 162, 163. + Co-operative Farming Societies, 161-163. + Cork, Medical School at, 176; + persons employed by County Council of, 175. + Corn Laws, repeal of the, 136. + Cornwallis, Lord, 123, 129. + County Councils, 168-178, 191, 193. + Covenant, Ulster. See Ulster Covenant. + Cowper Commission, 149. + Crewe, Lord, 201. + Crimes Act of 1887, 157, 158, 194. + Crimes Prevention Act, 153, 157. + Croke, Archbishop, 144, 156. + Cromwell and Cromwellians, 38, 42, 44, 57, 66, 67, 106. + Crosbie, Mr., 216. + Curley, D., 145, 146. + + _Daily News_, 200. + Daly, J., 195. + Danes, 8, 9, 13. + Davies, Sir, J., 5. + Davitt, Michael, 145, 167, 238. + Declaratory Act of George I, 74, 229. + Defenders, 87. + Department of Agriculture, 161, 163. + Derry, siege of, 47. + Desmond rebellion, 34. + Devlin, J., 96, 146, 182. + Devoy, J., 94, 146. + Dicey, Professor A.V., 228. + Dillon, John, 97, 156, 184, 234. + Dillon estate, 165. + Disestablishment of the Irish Church, 143, 144, 236. + Dispensary doctors, appointment of, 176, 177. + District Councils, 161, 168, 178. + Down, Celtic raid into, 7. + Dublin, founded by Danes, 8, 9; + Bishopric of, 8, 9; + Henry II at, 16; + Simnel crowned at, 22; + rebellion in neighbourhood of, 104, 109; + Convention at, in 1909, 206, 207, 240. + Dudley, Lord, 166. + "Dynamite Party," 147. + + Edward III, 20. + Edward VI, 29, 31. + Eighty Club, 162. + Elizabeth, Queen, 4, 27, 28, 33, 48, 91. + Emancipation, Roman Catholic, 134. + Emigration, 139, 140. + Emmett, R., 95, 132, 182. + Endowment of R.C. Church proposed, 134. + Ersefied Normans, 18, 20. + Esmonde, Dr., 105. + Exchequers, amalgamation of, 135. + + "Fair rents," 150. + Famine. See Potato famine. + Fenianism, 142, 144, 145, 147. + Feudal system, 14, 26. + Firbolgs, 5. + FitzGerald rebellion, 25, 27, 31. + FitzGibbon, J., 167, 171. + Fitzpatrick, case of Mrs., 210, 211. + Fiudir, 11. + Flax. See Linen. + "Flight of the Earls," 36. + Ford, Patrick, 146, 152, 154, 155. + Forster, Rt. Hon. W.E., Chief Secretary, 148. + Foster, Speaker, 126. + France, persecution in, 30, 37, 38, 45-48; + war with, 72, 73; + religious thought in, 76; + revolution in, 87, 101, 236; + invasions by, 91, 92, 111, 112. + Franklin, Benjamin, 73. + Fraser, Mrs. Hugh, 244. + _Freeman's Journal_, 170, 241. + _Frontier Sentinel_, 2. + + Gaelic League, 186-193. + Galway, founded by Normans, 17; + Medical School at, 176; + persons employed by County Council of, 175; + state of, in 1912, 215. + Games, English, forbidden, 193. + Gaughran, Bishop, 4. + Gavelkind, 11, 12. + General Council of County Councils, 172, 173, 186. + George III, 68. + Germany, persecution in, 37, 38; + Nationalist hopes of aid from, 93, 98, 99. + Ginnell, L., 196, 245. + Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W.E., 6, 95, 143, 148, 150, 152-155, + 179. + Grand juries, 178. + Grattan, 74-77, 93, 100, 120, 126. + "Grievances from Ireland," 203. + Gwynn, Stephen, 174. + + Habeus Corpus, suppression of, 69. + Henry II, 14, 15, 20, 36. + Henry VII, 22. + Henry VIII, 24, 26, 28, 29. + Hibernians, Ancient Order of, 184, 216. + Hobhouse, Rt. Hon. C.E., 208. + Hobson, B., 98. + Holland, intended invasion from, 101, 102. + Home Rule, 145, 155. + Home Rule Bill, of 1886, 154; + of 1893, 179, 221; + of 1912, 208, 218-231, 245. + Huguenots, 30, 45, 47, 55. + Hyde, Dr. Douglas, 97. + + Incumbered Estates Act, 138, 150. + Independence of Ireland real object of Nationalists, 173,181, + 182, 185, 186, 241, 242, 246-248. + And see Republic. + Ingram, Dr. Dunbar on the Union, 118-129. + Insurance Act, 1911, 185. + "Invincibles," the, 147. + Irish Agricultural Organization Society, 161, 162. + Irish brigade in France, 92. + _Irish Freedom_, 94. + _Irish Independent_, 243. + Irish language, 186-193. + _Irish Review_, 188. + Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, 145, 147. + "Irish services," 227. + + Jacobinism, 87, 89, 101, 236. + James I, 38, 40. + James II, 43, 44, 47, 49-51. + Jews, persecution of the, 58. + + Kabyles, 55. + Kenny, Mr. Justice, 197. + Kettle, A.J., 183. + Kettle, T.M., 97. + Kickham, 95. + Kildare, church burnt at, 7; + rebellion in, 105. + Kilkenny, founded by Normans, 17; + statutes of, 20; + rebellion in, 109. + Killala, French landing at, 111. + Killaloe, R.C. Bishop of, 212-214. + Kiltimagh case, 177. + King, title of, taken by Henry VIII, 27. + Kings, Celtic, of Ireland, 10. + King's County, plantation of, 29, 30; + persons employed by County Council of, 175. + + Labourer's Cottages Act, 160, 161. + Lalor, J.F., 141, 142, 153, 172. + Land Acts from 1870 to 1887, 140, 150-152, 159. + Land Court, 150, 197. + Land League, 147, 148, 152, 181, 182. + Land Purchase Acts, 158, 159. + Land tenure, tribal, 6; + primogeniture, 11, 12; + gavelkind, 11, 12; + in the 18th century, 65, 66. + Laws of England, attempted introduction of, 18; + made binding in Ireland, 22. + Lecky, Dr. W.E.H., 41, 44, 110, 117, 130, 247. + _Leinster Leader_, 95, 249. + Leitrim, raid by septs of, 7. + Leo XIII, Pope, 242. + Light Railways Act, 160. + Limerick, founded by Danes, 8; + Scotch invasion of, 19; + church windows broken at, 216. + Linen industry, 62, 63, 238, 239. + Local Government Act, 1898, 168-178, 180, 240. + Loise, persecution in the, 28. + Louis XIV, 43, 45-48, 53. + Louis XVI, 101, 102. + + MacAlpine, Kennett, 9. + McBride, Major, 98, 99. + MacDonnell, Lord, 166. + McKenna, Thomas, 79, 126. + McNicholas, Rev. J.T., 85. + MacSeamus, T., 188. + Magdeburg, sacking of, 42. + Magistrates, appointment of, 179, 180. + Magnus, Sir P., 205. + Mahan, Admiral, 248. + "Manchester Martyrs," 96-98, 144, 145, 192. + Maori customary claims, 39. + Marriage, law of R.C. Church as to, 85. + Maryborough, 30. + Maryland, 38. + Mayo County Council, 170. + Maunsell, R., 214. + Maynooth, foundation of, 88, 204. + Metropolitan Police Act, 157. + "Middlemen," 65. + _Midland Tribune_, 234. + Mitchell, J., 95, 97, 142. + "Molly Maguires," 184. + Morley, Rt. Hon. John, Chief Secretary, 165, 179. + Mountcashel, Lord, 53. + Munster, raid by men of, 7. + Murphy, Father Michael, 109. + Mutiny Act, 74. + + Nantes, revocation of Edict of, 30, 38, 45-48. + Napoleon, 91. + "Nation," meaning of word, 222. + National University, 191, 192, 205, 206. + Nationalists, real objects of, 3, 93-99, 248. + And see Independence; Republic. + Netherlands, persecution in the, 4, 33, 34. + New Zealand, 39, 157, 218-220, 241. + Nolan, Professor, 242. + "No Rent" proclamation, 153, 156. + Normans, character of, 17; + adoption of Celtic customs by, 18; + rebellions by, 23-25, 33, 34, 36. + + Oakboys, 69. + O'Brien, Smith, 96, 140. + O'Brien, William, 95. + O'Connell, Daniel, misstatements by, as to the Union, 116; + leads agitation for emancipation, 134; + and for repeal, 140. + O'Connor, T.P., 146. + O'Donnell, Bishop, 165. + O'Hara, Rev. D., 165. + O'Mahony, Mr., 41. + O'Mara, Mrs., 213. + O'Neill, Shan, 33, 34, 39. + Orange Society, foundation of, 90, 91. + Outrages, Agrarian. See Agrarian outrages. + + Pale, the English, 20-22, 24, 25, 31. + Parliament, Irish, 21-24, 35, 63-65, 69-71; + becomes independent, 74, 77-79; + disqualification of votes for, abolished, 84; + religious test for, not abolished, 84, 87; + proposed reform of, 87, 88; + criticized, 130, 131. + See also Regency question. + Parnell, C.S., 95, 96, 145, 156, 232. + Parnell Commission, 147. + Paul III, Pope, 26. + Peel, Sir Robert, 122, 205. + "Peep of Day Boys," 87, 90. + Penal Laws, the, 49-58, 63, 70, 72, 79, 82, 83. + Persecution, 4, 23, 32, 37, 38, 40, 43, 45-48, + 52-54, 242. + Philip and Mary, 29, 39. + Philip II of Spain, 28, 32, 33, 91. + Philipstown, 30. + "Physical Force Party," the, 147. + Pitt, William, commercial treaty proposed by, 78; + views of, on the Union, 122. + Pius V, Pope, 37. + "Plan of Campaign," the, 155. + "Plantations," 30, 31, 33, 38. + Plowden, F., 126. + Plunket, Lord, 132. + Plunkett, Rt. Hon. Sir Horace, 161. + Portugal, persecution in, 37, 48, 53. + Potato famine, 136, 137, 139. + Poyning's Act, 22, 74, 229. + Pretender, the, 50, 51. + Primogeniture, 11, 12. + Prosperous, attack on the, 105. + "Protestant ascendancy," 59, 101. + Protestant Home Rulers, 233, 234. + Puritans, 40, 42. + + Queen's County, plantation of, 29, 30. + Queen's University, 205. + Quakers, emigration aided by, 139. + + Raffeisen system, 162. + Rebellion of 1641, 40-42. + Rebellions of 1715 and 1745, 52. + Rebellion of 1798, rise of, in Ulster, 86, 102; + becomes religious, 103, 105; + in Leinster, 104, 105; + in Wexford, 105-108, 110; + in Kilkenny, Carlow and Wicklow, 109; + in Connaught, 112; + amnesty after, 109; + effects of, 114. + Rebellion of 1805, 132. + Redmond, John, 95, 146, 162, 169, 171, 174, 175, 199, + 201, 207-209, 215. + Redmond, William, 107, 108. + Reformation, 26-28. + Regency question, 80-82. + Registration of Titles Act, 1891, 160. + Rent, agitation against, 148, 153, 154. + Repeal Association, statement by, as to Rebellion, 108. + "Reserved Services," 227. + Republic, rebels of 1798 sought to establish, 93; + object of Nationalists, 94-99, 147, 248. + And see Independence. + Richard II, 20. + Richey, Professor, 12, 13, 21, 24. + _Rosary, The_, 242. + Rosen, Conrade de, 47. + Ross, Mr. Justice, 168, 197. + Rossa, O'Donovan, 146. + Royal University, 205. + Russell, Rt. Hon. T.W., 163. + + Saffron dress, 19, 192. + St. Vincent, Cape, 102. + Savoy, persecution in, 37, 45, 48, 54. + Salisbury, Lord, 154. + Scholarships, 191, 192. + Scotland, Norman kingdom of, 17; + invasion of Ireland from, 19, 33; + Union of, with England, 63, 119, 120. + Scott, Sir Walter, 237. + Scullabogue barn, massacre at, 110. + Scully, Mr., 204. + Settlement, Act of, 43-45. + Separation. See Independence; + Republic. + Sevigné, Madame de, 46, 47. + Simnel, Lambert, 22, 82. + Sinn Fein, 185, 186. + Slave trade, 58. + Smith, Adam, 120. + Societies, secret, 68, 69, 181. + Spain, 27, 28, 30, 32, 34, 37, 40, 48, 53, 55, 72, + 76, 101. + Spenser, Edmund, 35. + "Steelboys," 69. + Sullivan, A.M., 136, 137, 140. + Swayne, Captain, 105. + Sweetman, J., 186. + + Tithes, 68, 69, 134, 135. + Tone, Wolfe, 89, 91-97, 101, 102, 111, 112, 121, 182, + 193, 218, 249-258. + Trade, restrictions on Irish, 63, 64; + abolition of, 74, + Tribal tenure of land, 6. + Trinity College, Dublin, 70, 176. + Tyrconnell, flight of Earl of, 36. + Tyrone, raid by men of, 7. + Tyrone, flight of Earl of, 36. + Tyrrell, Father, 5. + + Ulster Covenant, 1, 235. + Ulster, Scotch invasion of, 19, 33; + plantation of, 39; + rebellion of 1641 in, 41; + volunteer movement in, 72, 102, 237; + rebellion of 1798 in, 86, 102. + Union, suggested in time of Queen Anne, 63; + necessity of, seen by Pitt, 78; + became probable in 1797, 100; + rebellion made inevitable, 115; + mis-statements as to, 116; + feelings of people as to, 117, 118; + previous efforts towards, 119; + really caused by Parliament becoming independent, 120-123; + proposed, 123; + discussed, 124; + approved by R.C. Church, 125; + carried, 126; + charges of bribery concerning, 127-129; + cannot now be reversed, 130; + prosperity of Ireland after, 133. + United Irish League, 163, 166, 167, 171, 180-183, 203, 235, + 245. + United Irish Society, 87, 88, 91. + Universities. See Trinity College, Dublin; + Queen's University; + Royal University; + Belfast University; + National University. + University College, Cork, 205; + Galway, 205. + + Victoria, Queen, 39. + Vinegar Hill, massacre at, 105-107. + Volunteer movement, 72, 102, 237. + + Waitangi, Treaty of, 39. + Waldenses, persecution of, 43, 53. + Walsh, T., 195. + Waterford, founded by Danes, 8; + Henry II lands at, 16. + Waterford Corporation and Mr. Scully, 204. + Westmeath, persons employed by County Council of, 175. + Wexford, raid by men of, 7; + landing of Spaniards at, 34; + rebellion in, 105-107, 110; + monuments of rebels in, 108. + White, P., 195. + Whiteboys, 69. + William III, 47. + Wolfe, memorial to General, 243, 244. + Wolseley, letter from Lord, 246. + Wright, Mr. Justice, 182. + Wyndham Act, 159. + + + +_Sherratt and Hughes, Printers, London and Manchester._ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Is Ulster Right?, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS ULSTER RIGHT? *** + +***** This file should be named 13157-8.txt or 13157-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/1/5/13157/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Alison Hadwin and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Is Ulster Right? + +Author: Anonymous + +Release Date: August 10, 2004 [EBook #13157] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS ULSTER RIGHT? *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Alison Hadwin and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + + +</pre> + + <h1>IS ULSTER RIGHT?</h1> + <h3>A STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION AT ISSUE BETWEEN ULSTER AND THE NATIONALIST PARTY, + AND OF THE REASONS-HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL-WHY ULSTER IS JUSTIFIED IN + OPPOSING HOME RULE</h3> + <h2>BY AN IRISHMAN</h2> + <h4>LONDON</h4> + <h4>JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.</h4> + <h4>1913</h4> + <h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + <p>Preface <a href="#pagevii">vii</a><br /> + </p> + <p>Chapter</p> + <p>I. The Ulster Covenant. The Questions Stated. Ireland under the Celts and the + Danes <a href="#page1">1</a><br /> + </p> + <p>II. Ireland from the time of Henry II to the time of Henry VIII <a + href="#page13">13</a><br /> + </p> + <p>III. Ireland under the Tudors <a href="#page24">24</a><br /> + </p> + <p>IV. The Seventeenth Century, until the end of the reign of James II <a + href="#page37">37</a><br /> + </p> + <p>V. The period of the Penal Laws <a href="#page49">49</a><br /> + </p> + <p>VI. The earlier part of the reign of George III. The acquisition of independence + by the Irish Parliament <a href="#page68">68</a><br /> + </p> + <p>VII. The independent Parliament. The Regency Question. The commencement of the + Rebellion <a href="#page79">79</a><br /> + </p> + <p>VIII. The Rebellion <a href="#page100">100</a><br /> + </p> + <p>IX. The Union <a href="#page116">116</a><br /> + </p> + <p>X. The period from the Union until the rejection of the first Home Rule Bill <a + href="#page132">132</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XI. The Unionist Government of 1886 <a href="#page155">155</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XII. The Gladstonian Government of 1892. The Political Societies <a + href="#page179">179</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XIII. Ireland under the present Government <a href="#page194">194</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XIV. Criticism of the Bill now before the Country <a href="#page218">218</a><br /> + </p> + <p>XV. The danger to the Empire of any form of Home Rule. The Questions answered <a + href="#page232">232</a><br /> + </p> + <p>Index <a href="#page259">259</a><br /> + </p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii" id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span> + <h2>PREFACE.</h2> + <p>In the following chapters I have endeavoured to lay before ordinary readers a + simple statement of the present position of the Irish question. Following the maxim + of Confucius that it is well "to study the Past if you would divine the Future," I + have first shown that the tales which are told about the glories of the ancient + Celtic Kingdom are foolish dreams, not supported by the accounts given by + contemporary annalists or the investigations of modern writers, and that Ireland + never was a nation in the political sense, with the possible exception of the few + years between 1782 and 1800, during which the Irish Parliament was independent; that + the charges made against the English government with reference to their action + between the "Conquest" by Henry II and the assumption of the title of King by Henry + VIII are baseless; and that though there is much which the historian must look back + upon with regret in the period between the reign of Henry VIII and the passing of the + Act of Union, it is mere waste of time now to dwell on the wrongs of a former age + which have long since passed away and which in any other country would be forgotten. + Then I have traced the brief history of the independent Parliament, and shown that + whatever may have been its virtues or its failings, it would be impossible to revive + it now; all the circumstances of the country have changed. I have <span + class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii" id="pageviii"></a>[pg viii]</span> striven also to + make it clear that the Nationalists of to-day are not the representatives of the + leaders of that Parliament but of the party which fought against it and brought on + the horrors of the Rebellion; that the Union was a political necessity, if the + connection between the British Islands was to be maintained at all; and that if the + people of Ireland have not derived all the benefits from the Union which they might + have done, it is their own fault, as the history of Ulster during the last century + has shown. Next, I have explained the rise of the present Home Rule movement, and its + dependence on agrarian agitation. I have analyzed some of the provisions of the + present Bill, which independent writers consider to be hopelessly unworkable; and + lastly I have stated why in my opinion Home Rule in any form must be fraught with + disaster not only to Ireland but also to the Empire at large.</p> + <p>I have no desire unnecessarily to wound the feelings of those who take a different + view; if it can be shown that any of my statements are incorrect or my inference + illogical, I shall be glad to correct them; but to mere abuse, such as the + Nationalists are in the habit of pouring on Unionist writers, I shall pay no heed. I + admit that it may be said that there are several matters which I ought to have gone + into more fully; to that I can only reply that I wished to be as brief as possible, + and that I have done my best to compress with fairness. What I am really anxious to + do is to draw the attention of thoughtful readers, before it is too late, <span + class="pagenum"><a name="pageix" id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span> to the terrible + dangers with which we are faced. As an Irish historian has said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"No political madness could be greater than to put the legislative machinery of + an integral and essential portion of the Empire into the hands of men who are + largely or mainly disaffected with that Empire, and who, in times of difficulty, + danger and disaster are likely to betray it."</p> + </blockquote> + <hr /> + <p>The following are the principal works of which use has been made in preparing this + volume. They are cited here in order to avoid the necessity of constant + footnotes:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Short History of the Irish People." By Professor Richey.</p> + <p>"Irish Nationalism." By the late Duke of Argyll.</p> + <p>"History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century." By W.E.H. Lecky.</p> + <p>"History of the Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland." By Dunbar + Ingram.</p> + <p>"Ireland and Her Fairy Godmother." By J. Warren.</p> + <p>"The Continuity of the Irish Revolutionary Movement." By Prof. Brougham + Leech.</p> + <p>"A Fool's Paradise." By Professor Dicey.</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> + <h3>THE ULSTER COVENANT. THE QUESTIONS STATED. IRELAND UNDER THE CELTS AND THE + DANES.</h3> + <blockquote> + <p>"Being convinced in our consciences that Home Rule would be disastrous to the + material well-being of Ulster as well as of the whole of Ireland, subversive of our + civil and religious freedom, destructive of our citizenship and perilous to the + unity of the Empire, We, whose names are underwritten, Men of Ulster, loyal + subjects of His Gracious Majesty King George V, humbly relying on the God whom our + fathers in days of stress and trial confidently trusted, do hereby pledge ourselves + in Solemn Covenant throughout this our time of threatened calamity to stand by one + another in defending for ourselves and our children our cherished position of equal + citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be found + necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in + Ireland. And, in the event of such a Parliament being forced upon us, we further + solemnly and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to recognise its authority. In + such confidence that God will defend the right, we hereunto subscribe our + names."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Such is the Solemn Covenant which 220,000 resolute, determined Ulstermen-of + various creeds and of all sections of the community, from wealthy <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> merchants to farm + labourers-fully realizing the responsibility they were undertaking, signed on the + 28th September, 1912. To represent that it was merely the idle bombast of ignorant + rustics, or a passing ebullition of political passion coming from hot-headed youths + excited by irresponsible demagogues, is folly. It expresses the calm resolution of + earnest men who, having thought deeply over the matter had decided that it was better + even to face the horrors of civil war rather than to submit to the rule of a + Nationalist Government.</p> + <p>The opinions of the Nationalists with regard to the Ulster Covenant can be + gathered from many speeches and sermons. The following extract from one of their + papers-the <i>Frontier Sentinel</i>-may be taken as a specimen:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It may not be out of place here to translate into simple English the terms of + the Covenant. It denies the claim of Ireland to self-government and the capacity of + Irishmen to govern Ireland. It asserts that the Catholics of Ireland are the spawn + of the devil; that they are ruthless savages and dangerous criminals with only one + object in life-the wiping out of Protestants. It claims for the Protestant Unionist + majority of four Ulster counties a monopoly of Christianity, public and private + morality, and clean successful business enterprise. In the name of God it seeks to + stimulate the basest passions in human nature, and calls on God to witness a + catalogue of falsehoods. Only a few of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" + id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span> local Protestant clergymen, it should be stated, + signed this notoriously wicked document."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>It is well then to pause and consider calmly two questions: What are the real + objects of the Nationalists; and, Are the men of Ulster justified in resisting them + to the uttermost?</p> + <p>It is a mere truism to remark that in every political question the main + controversy is complicated by a number of side issues. Thus in the tangled skein of + politics in South Eastern Europe there is not merely the great struggle between the + Crescent and the Cross, but there are also jealousies between Greek and Bulgarian, + between Servian and Austrian, which have to be considered. So in Ireland, if we take + the religious question as the dominating one, we find ourselves involved in a maze of + racial animosities, class prejudices, and trade disputes; by ignoring these we can + arrive at a simple but unfortunately a totally erroneous solution of the question. + And to weigh them all fairly involves more trouble than the average man cares to + take.</p> + <p>Irish history is at best a dismal subject. And those who ought to be historians + are too often politicians; regarding themselves as advocates and not as judges they + deliberately omit incidents which tell against their views, and enlarge on others, + frequently without even examining the evidence in support of them. Then in arriving + at the truth about any matter connected with Ireland there is the additional + difficulty arising from the custom, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" + id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span> almost universal amongst Irishmen, of talking in + superlatives. The exaggerated expressions, both of praise and blame, which are + constantly employed, at first puzzle a stranger coming to Ireland from another + country; he soon, however, gets to realize that they are mere forms of speech, and + are no more intended to be taken seriously than similar phrases are when used by an + Oriental. They are therefore harmless. But it becomes a more serious matter when + learned men employ inflated language in addressing ignorant and excitable audiences. + Thus Bishop Gaughran, when recently preaching to a crowded congregation in Dublin a + sermon which was reported in full in the Roman Catholic papers, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The persecution of the Catholics in Ireland had no parallel in the history of + the Church save perhaps those of the early Christians in the Catacombs of Rome. + Edicts were sent forth before which those of Nero might be said to pale into + insignificance-the Edicts of Elizabeth and Cromwell, for example."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Yet these words came from a man who was doubtless familiar with the histories of + Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands; and who is a leader of a party which had + not long before expressed the opinion that Catholics have no reason to be ashamed of + the Inquisition, which was a coercive and corporally punitive force which had + effected its ends splendidly!</p> + <p>One of the many popular delusions under which <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page5" id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> English people labour with regard to + Ireland is that all the population of the country at the present day are Celts, and + that this is the key to the whole Irish question. Thus a review of Father Tyrrell's + autobiography recently appeared in an English journal in which the reviewer said: + "Probably no Englishmen could have written such a book; it needs a Latin like + Rousseau, or a Celt like Tyrrell to lay bare his soul in this way." No doubt these + words were written in perfectly good faith; but if the writer had cared to make any + enquiry he could have found out in a moment that the Tyrrell family were thoroughly + English and that none of them had gone to Ireland before the nineteenth century. The + fact is that the inhabitants of Ireland, like the inhabitants of all other countries + in Western Europe, are of mixed origin. The Celts were themselves immigrants, who + conquered and enslaved a pre-existing race called the Firbolgs; then came the + Scandinavian invasion; and then wave after wave of immigration from England and + Scotland, so that Sir J. Davies, writing three hundred years ago-that was, before the + Cromwellian settlement and the arrival of the French refugees who had escaped from + the persecution of Louis XIV-said that if the people of Ireland were numbered those + descended of English race would be found more in number than the ancient natives.</p> + <p>This, however, is only one of many errors into which English writers have fallen. + Mistakes of course will always be made; but unfortunately it is a charge from which + Mr. Gladstone's admirers <span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>[pg + 6]</span> cannot clear him that when he wished to bring the English people round to + the idea of Home Rule he deliberately falsified Irish history in order to make it + serve his ends; and his misrepresentations have gained credence amongst careless + thinkers who are content to shelter themselves under a great name without looking at + what has been written in answer. The general idea of an average Englishman about + Irish history seems to be that Ireland in Celtic times was a peaceful, orderly, + united kingdom, famous for its piety and learning, where land was held by "tribal + tenure"-that is, owned by the whole tribe who were closely related in blood-rent + being unknown, and the chief being elected by the whole tribe in solemn assembly. + Into this happy country came the Norman invaders, who fought against and conquered + the king; drove the native owners out of their possessions, and introduced a feudal + system and an alien code of law unsuited to the people; and the modern landlords are + the representatives of the conquering Normans and the tenants the descendants of the + ancient tribesmen who naturally and rightfully resist paying rent for the lands which + by ancestral right should be their own. There could not be a more complete travesty + of history.</p> + <p>The Celtic Church no doubt had its golden age. It produced saints and men of + learning. It sent out its missionaries to the heathen beyond the seas. So famous were + its schools that students came to them from distant lands. But centuries before the + Normans appeared in Ireland the salt had lost its <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page7" id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span> savour. The Celtic Church had sunk into + being a mere appendage of the wild tribes it had once tried to tame. The chiefs of + one tribe would sack the colleges and shrines of another tribe as freely as they + would sack any of their other possessions. For instance, the annals tell us that in + the year 1100 the men of the south made a raid into Connaught and burned many + churches; in 1113 Munster tribe burned many churches in Meath, one of them being full + of people; in 1128 the septs of Leitrim and Cavan plundered and slew the retinue of + the Bishop of Armagh; in the same year the men of Tyrone raided Down and a great + number of people suffered martyrdom; four years later Kildare was invaded by raiders + from Wexford, the church was burnt and many men slain; and so on with dreary + monotony. Bishops and abbots fought in the incessant tribal wars as keenly as laymen. + Worse still, it was not infrequent for one band of clergy to make war on another. In + the ninth century, Phelim, who claimed to be both Bishop and King of Leinster, + ravaged Ulster and murdered its monks and clergy. In the eleventh century the annals + give an account of a fierce battle between the Bishop of Armagh and the Bishop of + Clonard. Nor did time work any improvement; we read of bloody conflicts between + abbots and bishops as late as the middle of the fifteenth century. What influence for + good could such a church have had upon the mass of the people?</p> + <p>And even in its noblest period the Celtic Church seems to have had but little + power beyond the walls <span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>[pg + 8]</span> of its own colleges. The whole history of Celtic Ireland, as we learn from + the annalists, was one miserable succession of tribal wars, murders and plunderings. + Of course it may be said with perfect truth that the annals of other countries at the + time tell much the same story. But there is this difference between them: wild and + barbarous though the wars of other countries were, they were at any rate the slow and + painful working up towards a higher civilization; the country became consolidated + under the most powerful chief; in time peace was enforced, agriculture improved, and + towns grew up. The tribal raids of Celtic Ireland, however, were merely for plunder + and destruction. From such conflicts no higher state of society could possibly be + evolved. The Irish Celts built no cities, promoted no agriculture, and never + coalesced so as to form even the nucleus of a united kingdom.</p> + <p>It was about the end of the eighth century that the first foreign influence was + brought to bear on Celtic Ireland. The Danish invasion began. Heathen though the + Danes were, they brought some ideas of settled government and the germs of national + progress. They founded cities, such as Dublin, Waterford and Limerick. And when they, + like their fellow-countrymen in England, accepted Christianity, they established + bishoprics in the new towns, but took care that they should be wholly independent of + the Celtic tribal episcopate; they looked to Canterbury and Rome.</p> + <p>Much has been written and sung about the fame of Brian Boroo. No doubt he was in + some ways a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> great + man; and it seemed for a time that he might do for Ireland something like what Alfred + the Great had done for England and Kenneth MacAlpine had done for Scotland-might + consolidate the country into one kingdom. But the story of his life is a striking + commentary on the wretchedness of the period. Forming an alliance with some of the + Danes he succeeded in crushing the chiefs of several rival Celtic tribes; then in + turn he attacked his former allies, and beat them at the battle of Clontarf in the + year 1014, though they were aided by other Celtic tribes who hated Brian and his + schemes even more than they hated the foreigners. Important though this battle was, + its effect has been much exaggerated and misunderstood. It certainly did not bring + the Danish power in Ireland to an end; Dublin was a flourishing Danish colony long + afterwards-in fact it was thirty years after the battle that the Danish king of + Dublin founded the Bishopric.</p> + <p>But Brian was slain in the moment of victory. The soldiers of his army murdered + his only surviving son, and began fighting amongst themselves. Brian's dream of a + united Ireland came to an end, and the country relapsed into chaos. If the immediate + result of the battle was a victory of Celt over Dane, the lasting effect was a + triumph of anarchy over order. It was on the Celtic people that the ruin fell; and + the state of things for the next two centuries was if possible worse than it had ever + been before.</p> + <p>It will be readily understood that throughout this <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page10" id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span> terrible period of history anything like + a peaceful cultivation of the soil or a regular election to the office of chief was + out of the question. It was quite an ordinary thing for a chief to obtain his + position by murdering his predecessor. The annalists give us a long list of Kings of + Ireland dating from before the Christian era until the arrival of the Normans. Of + course the word "king" can mean little more than "prominent chief," for no one man + ever had real authority over the whole of the distracted land. Even of these + prominent chiefs, however, according to the annalists, very few died natural deaths. + Some fell in battle, others were assassinated; but the most common fate for a monarch + was to be "slain by his successor." If this was true of the most powerful men in the + country, to speak of the office of chief as elective is really absurd. But more than + this: there is no evidence that the "tribal system," in the sense of all the tribe + being related by blood and all owning their lands in common, ever existed in Ireland + even in theory. At the earliest date of which we possess any distinct information on + the subject, wealth, representing physical force, had become the acknowledged basis + of political power and private right; and the richer members of the community were + rapidly reducing the poorer freemen-many of whom were the descendants of an earlier + race or of conquered tribes-to a state of serfdom. The system (if such a word can be + applied at all) was in fact a bad form of feudalism without its advantages. There was + no central overlord (like those in other countries who <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page11" id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> gradually developed into the sovereigns + of mediæval kingdoms and thus became able to enforce peace and progress), each + petty chief being independent; and on the other hand the dues payable by the + retainers were not fixed by law or custom. We must probably reject the suggested + derivation of the word "feodal" from the Celtic "Fiudir"; but if so, it is curious + that two words accidentally resembling each other conveyed ideas so closely alike; + for a Celtic "Fiudir" was practically a tenant at the will of the lord; and it must + be admitted that the word "vassal" is of Celtic origin. Charters which date from + before the Norman invasion show that the land was regarded as the private property of + the chiefs; frequently the wretched occupiers, instead of paying fixed rents, were + liable to unlimited exactions, one of them being the right of the lord to "coigne and + livery"-that is, to quarter himself and his retainers as long as he pleased on any + occupier who possessed a few cows (which were the only form of wealth in those days + of universal poverty); in some cases, however, land was let for a term of years, on a + fixed payment of cattle.</p> + <p>On the death of a freeholder his land was divided amongst his sons equally, + according to what is called "the custom of gavelkind." Whether primogeniture is a + good or a bad thing in England or the British Colonies at the present day is of + course a totally different question; the circumstances of the times are totally + different. But it can hardly be doubted by a thoughtful student of <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> history that the + adoption of primogeniture in the early days of feudalism in other European countries + was a social necessity if civilization was to rise to a higher state; and that its + not being introduced in Ireland was if not a cause at least an evidence that + civilization in that country did not progress. For in a condition not far removed + from anarchy the connection between the ownership of land and political power is + inevitable; hence if holdings are small their owners become an easy prey to stronger + neighbours; whereas the possessors of larger areas can repel attacks and enable their + dependents to live in some sort of security. It was the enormous number of petty + independent chiefs that added to the miseries of Celtic Ireland.</p> + <p>I shall probably be accused of having painted too dark a picture in the brief + sketch that I have given of Ireland before the coming of the Normans. I admit that it + is very different from the glowing accounts of "Irish Ireland" that may be found in + the pages of Nationalist journals. But the question to me is not which account is + more pleasant but which is true. And I defy anyone who has cared to look through the + works of such writers as Richey, Stokes, and Sullivan, to prove that what I have said + is incorrect or unfair.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + <h3>IRELAND FROM THE TIME OF HENRY II TO THE TIME OF HENRY VIII.</h3> + <p>In the last chapter I dealt with the long period during which the Celtic tribes of + Ireland were free from foreign influence except for the comparatively brief time when + a small part of the country was under the rule of the Danes; and I endeavoured to + show that according to the evidence of their own annalists and in the opinion of + modern writers of various political sentiments, the whole island throughout that + period remained in a chronic state of anarchy, without any advance towards a higher + civilization.</p> + <p>As Dr. Richey, when describing the condition of Ireland about the year 1170, says, + "The state of the Celtic people was beyond all hope of self-amendment. The want of + law, order and justice, the absence of self-knowledge and self-control, paralysed + their national action and reduced the power of their chief king to + insignificance."</p> + <p>I come now to what has been absurdly called the conquest of Ireland under Henry + II.</p> + <p>That the English king was instigated in his efforts by the Pope is perfectly + clear. The Bull of Pope Adrian, issued in 1155, is still extant:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"... There is indeed no doubt but that Ireland, and all the islands on which + Christ, the Sun of Righteousness, hath shone, and which have received the doctrine + of the Christian faith, do <span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" + id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span> belong to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and the Holy + Roman Church ... therefore we are the more solicitous to propagate the righteous + plantation of faith in this land, and the branch acceptable to God, as we have the + secret conviction of conscience that this is more especially our bounden duty. You + then, our dear son in Christ, have signified to us your desire to enter into the + island of Ireland, in order to reduce the people to obedience under the laws, and + to extirpate the plants of vice, and that you are willing to pay from each house a + yearly pension of one penny to St. Peter, and that you will preserve the rights of + the churches whole and inviolate. We, therefore, do hold it good and acceptable + that ... you enter this island and execute therein whatever shall pertain to the + honour of God and welfare of the land; and that the people of the land receive you + honourably and reverence you as their lord."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And in 1172 Pope Alexander III ratified the action of his predecessor.</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Forasmuch as these things which have been on good reasons granted by our + predecessors, deserve to be confirmed ... and considering the grant of the dominion + of the land by the venerable Pope Adrian, we ... do ratify and confirm the same + (reserving to St. Peter and to the Holy Roman Church, as well in England as in + Ireland the yearly pension of one penny from every house) provided that, the + abominations of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>[pg + 15]</span> the land being removed, the barbarous people, Christians only in name, + may by your means, be reformed, and their lives and conversations mended, so that + their disordered Church being thus reduced to regular discipline, that nation may, + with the name of Christians, be so in act and deed."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Whether the description here given was literally correct, or whether the Pope's + views were coloured by the fact that the Celtic Church did not acknowledge the + supremacy of Rome and was heretical on certain points of doctrine, is a question + outside the present subject. The Bulls are only quoted here as showing the part taken + by Rome. And it must be admitted that in the succeeding century the power of the Pope + became strong enough to enable him to levy taxes in Ireland for the purpose of + carrying on his wars against the Emperor and the King of Aragon.</p> + <p>But Henry did not conquer Ireland. He did not even pretend to do so. Previous to + his arrival there had been some little fighting done by a few adventurous Norman + knights who had been invited by a native chief to assist him in a domestic war; but + Henry II fought no battle in Ireland; he displaced no ancient national government; + the Irish had no national flag, no capital city as the metropolis of the country, no + common administration of the law. The English, coming in the name of the Pope, with + the aid of the Irish bishops, with a superior national organization which the Irish + easily recognised, were <span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>[pg + 16]</span> accepted by the Irish. The king landed at Waterford; his journey to Dublin + was rather a royal progress than a hostile invasion. He came as feudal sovereign to + receive the homage of the Irish tribes; the chiefs flocked to his court, readily + became his vassals, and undertook to hold the lands they already occupied as fiefs of + the Crown. But Henry did not take the title, or assume the position of King of + Ireland. He merely sought to establish a suzerainty in which he would be the + overlord. And in fact a conquest of Ireland in the modern sense of the term would + have been impossible. England possessed no standing army; the feudal levies of + mediæval times were difficult and expensive. It might of course have been + possible to have organized a wholesale immigration and an enslavement of the natives, + something like that which the Normans had accomplished in England, and the Saxons had + done centuries before; but nothing of the kind was attempted. Whether Henry's + original intention was simply to leave the Irish chiefs in possession or not, it is + useless now to enquire. But if it was, he appears to have changed his views; for not + long afterwards he granted large fiefs with palatinate jurisdiction to various + Normans who had made their way over to Ireland independently.</p> + <p>It may be that Henry-knowing that the Conqueror, whilst taking care that no + powerful seignories should grow up in the heart of his kingdom, as rivals to the + throne, yet made exceptions in cases where the lands verged on hostile territory, + such as Durham or Chester-thought that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" + id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> he could best follow the spirit of that policy by + establishing what were practically semi-independent principalities in an island + already inhabited by another race. But the result was disastrous.</p> + <p>That the Normans were savage and brutal, dealing out no justice or mercy to their + victims, is proved by the account of their conquest of England. Yet they possessed + certain great qualities, which eminently fitted them to become rulers in those wild, + unsettled times; as their successes, not merely in Britain, but also in Southern + Italy and Syria, show. They had the idea of a strong, centralized Government; and + more than that they had a marvellous capacity for receptivity. Thus we see that in + England, after a period of rough tyranny, they blended the existing Anglo-Saxon + Government-the strength of which lay in its local organization-with their own; and + from the union of the two has come the British Constitution. So too in the Lowlands + of Scotland it was the Norman knight Robert Bruce who, accepting the already existing + Saxon and Roman civilization, raised Scotland into a powerful kingdom. But in Ireland + all was different. The only state of society which the Normans found was Celtic + barbarism. Political institutions did not exist. As the Normans in England had become + Anglified, and in Scotland Scottified, so in Ireland they became Ersefied. It is true + that they built stone castles which at any rate were better than the hovels of the + Irish Chiefs, and (like the Danes before them) founded a few towns, such as Kilkenny, + Galway and Athenry; <span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>[pg + 18]</span> but there their efforts ended. Scattered amongst the tribes, they learnt + their ways. They sank to the position of the Celtic Chiefs around them; local wars + went on the same as before; the only difference being that they were waged sometimes + by Normans against Normans or against Celts, but more frequently by one body of Celts + against another, each side being aided by Norman allies.</p> + <p>One class of Nationalist writers has inveighed against the English kings for not + having forcibly introduced English law and put an end to the barbarous Celtic + customs. The simple answer is, How could they do so? Whilst England was being + weakened by long continental wars or by struggles between rival Houses, what strength + had she left to undertake the real conquest of Ireland? The English kings had turned + to the only people who could have helped them-the Normans settled in Ireland; and + they failed them. Other Nationalist writers have on the other hand declaimed with + equal vehemence against the tyranny of England in forcing an alien system of law on + an unwilling people. To this the answer is that nothing of the kind occurred. It is + true that petitions were sent from Ireland to the King urging him to introduce + English law; but these petitions came mainly from the poorer classes of English + settlers who found that instead of attaining greater liberty in their new home they + were being ground down to the miserable position of the native Irish. The King issued + proclamations directing the English barons to permit the Irish to be governed by the + law of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> England; + but his orders were totally disregarded; many of the unhappy English settlers fled + from the country and returned to England; the barons supplied their places with + native retainers. Thus the Ersefication of the degenerate Normans became complete; + they "donned the saffron"-that is, they adopted the yellow dress of the + Celts-abandoned their original language, and gave themselves up to a life of constant + plunder and rapine.</p> + <p>Early in the fourteenth century the Irish septs united so far as to form a joint + effort to expel the English. The incident is specially interesting, in the light of + later history. Robert Bruce, a Norman knight, had recently consolidated the Scottish + tribes into a kingdom and succeeded in shaking off the English yoke. The Irish Celts + resolved to imitate his example. King Robert was shrewd enough to see that by aiding + them he could attack his enemy at the most vulnerable point; consequently, when the + chiefs offered the Crown of Ireland to his brother Edward if he would come and help + them, he gladly accepted the invitation. For three years a devastating war raged over + a large part of Ireland; the Scotch went from the North of Ulster almost to Limerick, + burning, slaying, plundering, sacking towns, castles and churches; and a terrible + famine ensued. But the Irish chiefs were no more energetic in supporting Edward Bruce + than their ancestors had been in supporting Brian; he and his chief officers fell in + a battle against the English near Dundalk, and the rest of his followers escaped to + Scotland. The coalition fell to pieces; and the only <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page20" id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> result of the Scotch invasion was to + increase the misery of the people, especially of the unhappy English settlers, who + continued to flock back to England in greater numbers than before.</p> + <p>As soon as the rebellion was put down, the great legislator Edward III made + another effort at introducing order into the distracted land. Acts were passed by the + English Parliament providing that the same law should be applicable to both English + and Irish, and forbidding landowners to keep larger bands of armed men than were + necessary for self-defence. But the Ersefied barons on whom he relied refused to obey + the new laws; they renounced their allegiance and joined the rebellious Celtic + tribes. Then the king, seeing the impossibility of carrying out his scheme for + pacifying the whole of Ireland, was reduced to the expedient of dividing the country + into two; leaving the larger part of it for the natives and degenerate English to + misgovern as they pleased according to their own customs, and preserving only a mere + fraction (the "English Pale") in allegiance to the Crown of England. This was the + real meaning of the "Statutes of Kilkenny," which have been so often misrepresented + by modern writers.</p> + <p>The next king, Richard II, attempted to imitate the policy of his ancestor Henry + II. He went to Ireland with great pomp. Again the Celtic chiefs flocked to Dublin to + swear allegiance to their lord; and as soon as his back was turned commenced not only + fighting amongst themselves but even attacking the English Pale. The result of all + his efforts <span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> was + that the limits of the Pale were still further contracted; the English power was + confined to a small area in the neighbourhood of Dublin.</p> + <p>But even within that narrow boundary the power of the king was far from being + secure. When England was torn by the Wars of the Roses, the so-called Parliament + (which was really an irregular assembly at best representing a territory about the + size of a modern county) seized the opportunity of declaring itself independent. It + is interesting, in view of present-day questions, to observe that Dr. Richey, writing + in 1869, seems to consider their action as not only justifiable but inevitable. He + says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The Irish Parliament declared the complete independence of the Irish + Legislature, and boldly affirmed those constitutional rights which, though involved + in the existence of separate parliament, had not hitherto been categorically + expressed. They asserted their rights to a distinct coinage, and their absolute + freedom from all laws and statutes except such as were by the Lords spiritual and + temporal and Commons of Ireland freely admitted and accepted in their Parliament. + They declared that no Irish subject was bound to answer any writs except those + under the great seal of Ireland, and enacted heavy penalties against any officer + who should attempt to put English decrees in force in Ireland. They, in fact, took + the same position and laid down the same principles as the celebrated Parliament of + 1782."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> + <p>Whether they imagined that they could form a separate kingdom of Dublin, or dreamt + of making an alliance with the tribes outside the Pale, it is useless now to + conjecture; but we can see that though they had no chance of benefiting themselves + they might have caused serious injury to England. Nor was it long before a difficulty + arose. The inhabitants of the Pale remained attached to the House of York even after + the Battle of Bosworth, and readily accepted Lambert Simnel as King of Ireland. He + was crowned in the Cathedral of Dublin, and held a Parliament. After the defeat of + this Pretender, the able and astute Henry VII saw that it was necessary without + further delay to make the shadowy suzerainty of England over Ireland a reality. He + accordingly persuaded the Irish Parliament to pass an Act which from the name of the + Lord Deputy was known as "Poyning's Act." By this Act, all English statutes then + existing in England were made of force in Ireland; the chief fortresses were secured + to the Crown of England; and the Irish Parliament was relegated to the position of a + subordinate legislature; for it was enacted that no Parliament should be held in + Ireland unless the King's Lieutenant and Council should first certify the King, under + the Great Seal of Ireland, the Acts which they considered should pass; then the King + and his Council should approve the proposed Acts, and issue a licence under the Great + Seal of England, summoning the Parliament.</p> + <p>Though some writers have spoken of this as the most disgraceful Act ever passed by + an independent <span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> + legislature, the people in Ireland at the time considered it a boon and a favour; for + it shielded them from the unauthorized power of a Lord Deputy supported by a + Parliament of his own creatures.</p> + <p>And so, with the close of the mediæval period, ended the second chapter of + Irish history. It will be observed that there had been no religious persecution, + unless indeed the conduct of the Norman-that is, the Roman-Church towards the ancient + Celtic Church, or the burning of some heretics in the fourteenth century, could be so + described; a view which the Nationalists of to-day will hardly care to put forward. + Nor can the English Government be fairly blamed for the condition of affairs; for + responsibility depends on power, and English power in Ireland hardly existed. The + suzerainty of England, feeble at best, had gradually been limited to a mere fraction + of the country. The Celtic tribes had long since thrown off even a nominal submission + to the English Crown; the Anglo-Norman lords had become either avowedly or + practically independent. But the inhabitants of Ireland did not constitute a nation + or possess any common interest or bond of union. There was no trace of an + organization by which the Irish tribes could be united into one people. The ceaseless + civil wars had indeed supplanted the original tribesmen by the mercenary followers of + another set of rival chiefs; but there had been no union; and the mass of the people, + still under the influence of their native customs, were probably in a more wretched + condition than they had ever been before.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + <h3>IRELAND UNDER THE TUDORS.</h3> + <p>We have seen that at the close of the Middle Ages Ireland was in the condition + that some people in England now consider the panacea for all the woes of the country; + it possessed a subordinate Parliament and England interfered as little as possible in + its local affairs. Henry VIII attempted "to govern Ireland according to Irish ideas"; + having no army of his own, he appointed the most powerful of the Norman barons his + deputy. But this deputy used his authority precisely as an Ersefied Norman (who + possessed no more patriotism or national feeling than a Celtic chief) might have been + expected to use it,-that was, to aid him in a succession of family quarrels and + tribal wars in which, allied with some of the native septs he attacked others. Even + the towns outside the Pale fared little better than the remoter districts; there was + actually a civil war between Cork and Limerick. The state of affairs in Celtic + Ireland during the brief period from 1500 to 1534 as stated in the annals (which, + however, only deal with a part of the country, hardly referring to what took place in + Leinster or Munster) has been summed up by Dr. Richey in the following words:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Battles, plunderings, etc., exclusive of those in which the English Government + was engaged, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> + 116; Irish gentlemen of family killed in battle, 102; murdered, 168-many of them + with circumstances of great atrocity; and during this period, on the other hand, + there is no allusion to the enactment of any law, the judicial decision of any + controversy, the founding of any town, monastery or church; and all this is + recorded by the annalist without the slightest expression of regret or + astonishment, as if such were the ordinary course of life in a Christian + country."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>At length, in 1534, matters came to a head; the Lord Deputy broke out into open + rebellion. We can learn from the State papers of the period what the condition of + Ireland then was. The Pale-now but the remnant of a fraction-was constantly invaded + and ravished by wild tribes, and was itself becoming Ersefied; for the poorer English + settlers had either fled back to England, joined the Celtic tribes in despair, as + their only way of escaping from the harshness of the English lords, or been crushed + out of existence; and, as had already happened elsewhere, their place had been taken + by Irish retainers. Then in the rest of the country there were some ninety chiefs, of + whom about sixty represented ancient septs and the remainder degenerate Normans, all + claiming independence and preying sometimes on one another and sometimes on their + unfortunate followers. Not infrequently also a tribe was divided against itself, and + a civil war was raging between the two factions. And one result of the Ersefication + of the Norman barons was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>[pg + 26]</span> that, in addition to the regular feudal dues, they demanded every kind of + Celtic tribute from the occupiers of the land. In fact, how the wretched tenants + managed to support life at all seems a mystery. Whatever law there may at one time + have been was now long extinct; and as King Henry himself pointed out, if the natives + were to have any sort of law at all, the only possible law was the law of + England.</p> + <p>At this time also a new factor came into the already complicated problem-the + Reformation. Henry VIII never was a Protestant, in the sense of adopting the + doctrines which are now usually called Protestant; but he had renounced the authority + of the Pope. In 1535 Pope Paul III passed sentence upon him, consigning his kingdoms + to whoever might invade them, and commanding his nobles to take up arms against him. + Both the Emperor and the King of France saw their opportunity, as Robert Bruce had + done centuries before. They commenced a correspondence with the Irish chiefs with the + object of bringing about an invasion of Ireland. Thereupon King Henry resolved to + take the only course that seemed to him possible-to make the conquest of Ireland a + reality and to enforce law and order in that distracted land. His letters, which are + still extant, show the care with which he thought out the matter, and his earnest + desire for the welfare of the people of both races; a perusal of them would astonish + those who regard him merely as a savage sensualist. Strange to say, in their Irish + policy, the character of Henry VIII <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" + id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> shows itself at the best, and that of Elizabeth at its + worst. When Henry had with difficulty succeeded in crushing the Geraldine rebellion + and a series of others which broke out soon after, he got the Irish Parliament to + pass an Act conferring on him the title of king; he was solemnly proclaimed as such, + and his title was confirmed by the almost unanimous consent of the Irish princes.</p> + <p>This was important in more ways than one: it was universally recognized that the + word "king" meant much more than "lord"; and it gave him a title independent of the + Pope's donation.</p> + <p>It is one of the ironies of history that the renunciation of the Papal authority + and the submission to the king's supremacy was far more rapid and general in Ireland + than it was in England. For not only did all the lay chiefs readily yield their + adhesion, but only two of the bishops refused to take the oath of supremacy. + Rebellions such as that of Fitzgerald had no connection with religion; it was not + until years afterwards when England had become identified with Protestantism and + Spain with Catholicism that the Irish became intensely Papal. On the other hand, the + Reformation, as a religious movement, made no headway in Ireland. It was purely + negative and destructive, and emanated from the Government, not from the mass of the + people. The monasteries were destroyed; hence there were no vicars to supply the + parish churches, which fell into ruin; the king endeavoured rather to Anglify than to + Protestantise the people by sending to them bishops and clergy from <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span> England-but they were + mere state officials, not fathers in God; unable even to speak the Irish language; + what real preaching there was was done by friars sent from Rome and Madrid. Henry's + efforts at establishing parish schools were also a total failure. Had there not been + later immigrations from England and Scotland, Irish Protestantism would probably have + died out. Yet it is but fair to state, and to bear in mind, that there was no + religious persecution as such in Ireland during the Tudor period. Elizabeth's policy + was, without making any actual promise of freedom of conscience, to leave the + question of religious opinions alone as far as possible. The real difficulty came + from the political nature of the Church of Rome; when the Pope deposed Elizabeth and + gave Ireland to Philip of Spain every Irish Roman Catholic had either to be false to + his religion or to become a traitor-<i>in esse</i> or <i>in posse</i>-to the + queen.</p> + <p>When Henry had resolved to do his utmost to bring Ireland to a state of + civilization, there were not wanting advisers who urged upon him that his only safe + course was absolutely to destroy the whole native population by sword and famine and + re-people the vacant lands by immigrants from England. Such a course would have been + quite in accordance with the ideas of the time. Not thirty years previously, the + combined forces of Church and State had pursued the heretic population of the Loise + into the mountain fastnesses to which they had fled, and had piled logs of wood at + the mouths of the caves in which they had taken refuge, and set <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> them on fire. Then, + when all the unhappy people-men, women and children, numbering some thousands in + all-had perished, their lands were distributed amongst strangers brought in from a + distance to occupy them. And at a later date-in the middle of the sixteenth + century-the native inhabitants of the Canary Islands were exterminated by the Spanish + Inquisition, and their lands taken by the invading race. But to Henry it appeared + that there was one milder course that might still be possible. Might not the native + chiefs and the degenerate Normans who had shown that their only idea of independency + was anarchy yet be brought together as nobles under a strong central government with + a Parliament representing not merely the Pale, but all Ireland? Might not the mass of + the people, whose native customs had been well nigh crushed out by civil wars, be + persuaded to <i>adopt</i> the law of England? This was the policy deliberately + adopted by Henry and acted on by him during his life. It is easy for writers living + in modern times to sneer at some of the details of his scheme; but it is not so easy + for them to point out what other course would have been better; or indeed, whether + any other course short of a policy of extermination, would have been possible.</p> + <p>The remarkable thing, however, is that the change to a more severe line took place + not under Henry or his Protestant son, but under the most Catholic Sovereigns Philip + and Mary. It was by their orders that the first of the confiscations (which were to + play so important a part in the later history <span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" + id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> of Ireland) was carried out. By an Act passed in their + reign the lands occupied by the O'Moores, O'Connors and O'Dempseys were confiscated + and formed into the King's and Queen's counties, Leix and Offaly being renamed + "Philipstown" and "Maryborough"; and a "Plantation" of English settlers was + established.</p> + <p>And here it is well to pause for a moment and consider these confiscations, about + which so much has been written. That confiscations have taken place in every country + is a plain fact of history. There is probably no part of Western Europe where land is + now held by the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants. Forcible conquest and + adverse occupation is nearly always the primary root of title. But it is part of the + policy of every civilized country to recognize what lawyers call "Statutes of + limitations." When centuries have elapsed and new rights have grown up, it is + impossible to rectify the wrongs of times long gone by. Thus we cannot suppose that + any future Government of Spain would ever recognize the title of the Moors in Africa + to the properties from which their ancestors were driven by Philip IV; or that the + Huguenots, now scattered over various countries, could ever succeed in recovering + possession of the estates in France which were confiscated at the time of the + Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. And the only people who have a cause to complain, + even on sentimental grounds, of the wrongs of past ages, are the lineal descendants + of those who suffered ill-treatment. No Englishman to-day can feel <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> aggrieved because + Saxons drove out Britons, or Normans Saxons.</p> + <p>But more than that: the confiscation of the lands of rebels stands on a different + basis, and has been so regarded in every country in the world, even New Zealand. The + lands confiscated by Philip and Mary were owned by the arch-rebel FitzGerald. + Naturally fertile and capable if properly cultivated of supporting a large + population, they were at this time a wild pathless tract of forest and bog. The + ceaseless tribal wars had prevented their being drained and cleared; the miserable + remnants of the Celtic tribes gained a precarious living by periodical raids on the + more peaceful inhabitants of the Pale. During the whole of the reign of Edward VI + fighting had gone on in Leix and Offaly with great loss of life and at enormous + expense to the English Government. The object of the confiscation was not to drive + out the few existing tribesmen; for the land, when cleared and drained, might well + support them as well as the new settlers. Nor was it to confer great estates on + absentee proprietors, but to establish a fairly thickly settled district which might + be a source of strength rather than a constant cause of trouble to the dwellers in + the Pale. Nor again was it to introduce feudalism; for as I have shown, the system + already in existence was feudalism without its advantages; the substitution of fixed + dues for the barbarous custom of "coigne and livery" was an unmixed benefit to the + occupiers of land. And it cannot be denied that the first "Plantation" was a thorough + success-thriving <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>[pg + 32]</span> settlements and prosperous farms took the place of forest and swamp.</p> + <p>If the position of Henry VIII had been one of difficulty, that of Elizabeth was + far more critical. The separation of the Church of England from Rome was now + complete. The great powers of the Continent were united in one supreme effort to + stamp out the new heresy. The massacre of St. Bartholomew had taken place in France; + Philip II had ordered a <i>Te Deum</i> to be sung at Madrid, and the Pope had had a + medal struck to commemorate the glorious event. The lowest computation of those put + to death for heresy in the Netherlands by Charles V was 50,000; and his successor + had, at the instigation of the Holy Office, issued a proclamation sentencing to death + the whole population-men, women and children-with the exception of a few persons + specially named. Alva boasted that he had put 18,000 Dutchmen to death on the + scaffold, and the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and sword, an honour + which had previously been bestowed only on reigning sovereigns. In Spain it was + regarded not only as a sacred duty but a pleasant amusement for the King and his + Court to watch the torturing of heretics. England alone-then a comparatively weak and + insignificant country-stood out against this overwhelming combination. And in + attempting to realize the position of affairs we must remember that in the sixteenth + century the Papacy was not merely a religious system but also a tremendous political + power. We may now regard the claim of the Pope to depose <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page33" id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> princes as a harmless dream; but at that + time it was a stern reality. Thus matters came to a crisis when the Pope + excommunicated Elizabeth and all who remained loyal to her, released her subjects + from their allegiance, offered plenary indulgence and remission of sins to all who + would take up arms against her, promised a liberal supply of graces and indulgences + to Irish chieftains who would rebel, and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain.</p> + <p>It can hardly be denied therefore that England was engaged in a life and death + struggle. And unless Elizabeth would consent to the annexation of Ireland by Spain + and to the conquest of England by some power that would treat the people there much + as the heretics of the Netherlands were being treated by Philip, it must be admitted + that any measures, however violent, became a political necessity-a mere act of + self-defence. But though Elizabeth had already on hand a war with France, Spain and + Scotland, her difficulties did not end there. The North of Ireland was being invaded + by Celts from Scotland, and the principal chief, Shan O'Neill (who was described by + the Spanish Ambassador as "so good a Christian that he cuts off the head of any man + who enters his country if he be not a Catholic") was in open rebellion with the + avowed object of crushing out the English power, exterminating the rival tribes, and + making himself King of Ulster. To so miserable a state had that part of Ireland been + reduced by petty local wars between rival chiefs that hundreds of people had died of + hunger. Can it be wondered that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" + id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> Elizabeth conceived the idea of imitating her sister's + policy and forming a "plantation" in the North?</p> + <p>Then came another formidable rebellion in Munster, headed by an Ersefied Norman, + Desmond. These rebellions were fomented by the Pope, and in the South the rebels were + aided by Spanish troops. In the amount of the aid sent from Spain, however, the Irish + rebels were sadly disappointed. That has been one of the characteristic features of + all Irish rebellions; the foreign powers on which they have relied have been liberal + enough with promises of aid, but when the time for performance has come they have + left the unfortunate Irish to their fate. (Thus in 1641 not only did the rebels fully + expect that a powerful Spanish force would come to their assistance, but they even + believed that 18,000 Spanish troops had actually landed at Wexford.) That these + rebellions were crushed by the forces of Queen Elizabeth with a savage violence that + is more suggestive of the government of the Netherlands by Spain than of what should + have been the action of a Christian nation cannot be denied; but when reading the + accounts of the terrible condition to which the country was reduced one cannot help + thinking that the stories of outrages committed by the English troops must be + exaggerated. In the first place, the writers, even when eye-witnesses, seem to have + assumed that the country was peaceful and prosperous up to that time; whereas not + only had the tribal wars which had gone on incessantly until a few years before + reduced the people almost to a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" + id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span> condition of famine, but the rebels themselves, such + as O'Neill and Desmond, had ravaged the country anew. And if it was obvious that the + object of Elizabeth was to exterminate the whole Irish population and the Roman + Catholic religion, it seems impossible (even allowing for the eccentricity of human + nature in general and of the Irish character in particular) to believe that a large + part of the queen's forces should have been composed of Irish Roman Catholics; or + that the inhabitants of the towns, most of whom were also Irish Roman Catholics, + should have taken her side; but such was undoubtedly the case. Again, if nearly the + whole native population had been exterminated by slaughter and famine it would have + taken at least a century to recover. Yet-a few years after the commencement of the + English settlement we find Spenser complaining that the new proprietors were acting + as the Norman barons had done centuries before; instead of keeping out the Irish they + were making them their tenants and thrusting out the English; and some of the + proprietors were themselves becoming "mere Irish." Then, although no doubt a certain + proportion of the Elizabethan settlers renounced their Protestantism and embraced the + Roman Catholic religion, that can hardly have been the case with the mass of them; + and yet before the middle of the seventeenth century we find that the great majority + of the freeholders of Ireland and even of the members of the Irish Parliament were + Roman Catholics; surely they must have represented the earlier population. And + lastly, considering <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>[pg + 36]</span> the wild exaggerations that occur in the accounts of every other event of + Irish history, we cannot suppose that this period alone has escaped.</p> + <p>Towards the end of the queen's reign occurred the last of the native rebellions. + It too was crushed; and, by the "flight of the earls"-Tyrone and Tyrconnell-was + completed the work which had been commenced by Henry II. And so the third chapter of + Irish history was ended.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + <h3>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, UNTIL THE END OF THE REIGN OF JAMES II.</h3> + <p>The seventeenth century is a terrible period of European history. It has been + described as "the age of religious wars"; and those wars were waged with a savage + ferocity which it is impossible even now to read of without a shudder.</p> + <p>It is a plain matter of history that from the very commencement of the Reformation + the idea of toleration never entered into the heads of any of the authorities of the + Church of Rome. France, Spain, Portugal, Savoy and Germany all tell the same story. + Except in countries such as England where the sovereigns adopted the new opinions, + the only chance which the reforming party had of being able to exercise their + religion was by means of rebellion and all the horrors of civil war. What that meant, + the history of the rise of the Dutch Republic tells us. As Lord Acton has said: "In + the seventeenth century the murder of a heretic was not only permitted but rewarded. + It was a virtuous deed to slaughter Protestant men and women until they were all + exterminated. Pius V held that it was sound Catholic doctrine that any man may stab a + heretic; and every man was a heretic who attacked the papal prerogatives." And it is + equally true that in those cases where the reforming party succeeded in gaining the + upper hand, they did not show much more mercy than had been shown to <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> them previously or + was being shown to their co-religionists in other countries at the time. Yet it is + only fair to add that when the idea of toleration did arise, it arose amongst the + reformed churches. Probably the only Roman Catholic State in the world where + toleration existed during the seventeenth century was the little English colony of + Maryland, of which Lord Baltimore was the proprietor. And when at length the + religious wars died out it was, as far as Catholic countries were concerned, because + the lay mind had become thoroughly disgusted with the whole thing, and men's minds + were turning in other directions-not because the clerical rulers showed the slightest + desire to relax their efforts or change their policy.</p> + <p>It would be well if the whole dreadful period could be buried in oblivion. But it + is necessary to mention the subject here, for the Nationalist party are continually + referring to the horrors of the Cromwellian massacres and the penal laws; and if such + matters are to be gone into at all it is only fair, in order to make a just estimate + of them, to glance at the great European struggle of which they formed an incident. + In the century which saw Germany deluged with blood for thirty years, and which + witnessed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the revival of vehement + persecution in France, it was not likely that Ireland should remain unaffected.</p> + <p>Soon after James I came to the throne he commenced his famous Scotch plantation in + the desolated and half-emptied province of Ulster. <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page39" id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span> That it was even a greater success than + the plantation formed by Philip and Mary everyone is of course aware; it is the + descendants of those immigrants who, though they live in a district not so highly + favoured by nature as other parts of the country, form the only really prosperous and + progressive section of the community at the present day. The native Irish do not seem + to have looked on the Scotchmen with much disfavour, perhaps partly because there + being plenty of room for all in the desolated tract, and lands being assigned to + them, they realised that they were safer in the immediate neighbourhood of a peaceful + settlement than they would have been had they remained a prey to unscrupulous + adventurers like Shan O'Neill. A member of the legal profession must feel shame and + sorrow in recording the fact that the chicanery of the lawyers added much to the + harshness of the politicians. That, however, is only another way of saying that the + humane policy of the nineteenth century was unknown in the seventeenth. Had courts + been established in Ireland like the native land courts of New Zealand in which + claims under customary law might be investigated, and equitable awards made, the + later history of Ireland might have been very different. Yet one must remember that + even in the reign of Queen Victoria there was a strong party in England and there + were not a few people in New Zealand who argued that Maori customary claims should be + disregarded and the treaty of Waitangi ignored. And in the seventeenth century such + ideas were unheard of. Lawyers <span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" + id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span> searched for every technicality of English law by + which the titles of holders of land could be upset, in favour of English claimants. + Then matters became strangely complicated, as they seem to be periodically throughout + Irish history. The struggle between Charles I and the Parliament began, and it soon + became evident that the Parliamentary party was the stronger of the two. To the Irish + the Parliamentarians meant the Puritans; and they believed, not wholly without + reason, that a determined attempt would be made not only to seize all their lands but + also to stamp out their religion. (It must be observed that the Elizabethan + anti-Roman Acts had never been strictly carried out in Ireland, and during the reign + of James I their severity had been relaxed still further-a line of conduct which had + no parallel in any Roman Catholic country in Europe at the time.) Thereupon in 1641 + the Roman Catholics of Ulster broke into open rebellion, and soon afterwards they + applied to the kings of France and Spain for aid; and the Pope issued a bull granting + a full and plenary indulgence and absolute remission for all their sins to all who + would do their utmost to extirpate and totally root out those workers of iniquity who + in the kingdom of Ireland had infected and were always striving to infect the mass of + Catholic purity with the pestiferous leaven of their heretical contagion.</p> + <p>The stories told of the actual outbreak of the rebellion are interesting as an + illustration of the universal habit of exaggeration about Irish affairs, to which I + have already alluded. Clarendon affirms <span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" + id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> that 40,000 English Protestants were murdered before + they suspected themselves to be in any danger; Temple states that in the first two + months of the rebellion 150,000 Protestants had been massacred. The Jesuit, O'Mahony, + writing in 1645, says "Persevere, my countrymen, in the path you have entered on, and + exterminate your heretical opponents, their adherents and helpers. Already within + four or five years you have killed 150,000 of them, as you do not deny. I myself + believe that even a greater number of the heretics have been cut off; would that I + could say all." He had doubtless obtained his information from the returns made by + the priests engaged in the rebellion to the military leaders, the figures of which + were much the same. Yet Lecky (who, though in certain passages of his history he + shows himself to be somewhat biassed in favour of the Irish Roman Catholic party, is + on the whole a remarkably fair and impartial historian) argues with much force that + there is no evidence of anything like a general massacre, and brings down the number + murdered to about 8,000. Still, that there was a widespread rebellion and all the + consequent horrors of civil war, there can be no doubt. The rebels of Ulster at one + time tried to identify their cause with that of Charles I by producing a forged + commission from the king-which annoyed the Royalists and made the Parliamentary party + all the more bitter. Charles certainly did his utmost to bring about a peace-no doubt + being anxious to obtain the assistance of his Irish subjects in his Scotch and + English wars. But his efforts <span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" + id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span> were thwarted by the Papal Nuncio, whose instructions + from Rome were that the Holy See could never by any positive Act approve of the civil + allegiance of Catholic subjects to an heretical prince; and thus the Royalist cause + became as completely lost in Ireland as it was in England. Before the peace was + finally concluded, Charles was a prisoner in the hands of his enemies.</p> + <p>Then came the terrible episode of the Cromwellian war, in which Romanist and + Royalist alike went down before the Puritan force. Still, though he would be a bold + man who could attempt to excuse-much less to justify-the barbarities that took place, + it may be doubted whether all the Cromwellian outrages put together equalled a single + one of those which the Imperial troops had committed during the war which had been + raging for thirty years in Germany-such for instance as the sacking of Magdeburg. It + is estimated, however, that about 600,000 people (of whom 500,000 were of the Irish + race and 100,000 of the English) perished by the sword, pestilence or famine in the + fearful years between 1641 and 1652-in other words, about a third part of the + population was wiped out. And the war was followed by a wholesale confiscation-having + fought for the king being considered as much an act of treason as having rebelled + against him. The confiscated lands were allotted to soldiers, to persons who had + supplied money to the Parliamentary forces, and to other supporters of the new + Government. It is but just, however, to add that 700,000 acres of profitable land in + Connaught <span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span> were + allotted to dispossessed Romanists, and that they were allowed to occupy 100,000 + acres in other parts of the country; a striking contrast to the lot of the unhappy + Waldenses who were at that time being driven from their homes and slaughtered without + mercy for no crime but heresy; or to the treatment a few years later by Louis XIV of + his Huguenot subjects whose lands were confiscated without compensation and who were + only given the choice of death or the galleys.</p> + <p>At the Restoration some effort was made to undo the injustice of the Cromwellian + confiscations. But the matter was one of great difficulty. In many cases land had + been allotted by Cromwell in payment for money received; in others the grantees had + sold their holdings to purchasers who had paid in cash, regarding the original grant + as indefeasible. A reconfiscation of such lands would obviously have worked a great + injustice; and it is a common maxim of law that between two claimants each with a + good title the one in possession is to be preferred. Still it cannot be said that the + decisions of the Royal Commissioners were always equitable according to our ideas; + for instance, the award of 80,000 acres to the Duke of York (afterwards James II) of + land which had been forfeited under Cromwell because the owner had fought for his + father, would be hard to justify on any possible grounds. Still, an Act of Settlement + was passed, by which a certain amount of justice was done; it is difficult to arrive + at the figures accurately, but it appears that after the passing of the Act nearly + one-third of the Island <span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>[pg + 44]</span> was vested in Roman Catholic proprietors. Archbishop King estimated that + at the time when he was writing-1689-two-thirds of the Protestant landowners held + their estates under the Act of Settlement. And Lecky says, "Only an infinitesimal + portion of the soil belongs to the descendants of those who possessed it before + Cromwell." But Archbishop King was influenced by the fear he had felt as to what the + effect of a repeal of the Act would be; and there can hardly be a doubt that his + feelings led him to overestimate the number. With regard to Lecky's remark, one can + only take it as a strange instance of a gross exaggeration having crept into a book + which is usually careful and accurate. It may be that the statement was not very + incorrect according to the evidence the author had before him; but if so, that only + proves that the evidence was wrong; for the proceedings in the Land Courts which have + been set up in Ireland during the last half century have shown that the proportion of + titles to estates which date from an earlier period was far larger than people had + supposed.</p> + <p>During the peaceful and tolerant reign of Charles II the country made steady + progress.</p> + <p>Under James II, however, everything was reversed. That unhappy monarch, having + ascended the throne tranquilly, with many protestations of toleration and justice to + all, succeeded in less than two years in making it clear to the people of England + that his object was to confine liberty to those who professed his own creed and that + his idea of good government was something like that which <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page45" id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span> was then existing in France and Savoy. + Driven from Great Britain, on his arrival in Ireland he issued a proclamation + declaring that his Protestant subjects, their religion, privileges and properties + were his especial care; and he had previously directed the Lord Lieutenant to declare + in Council that he would preserve the Act of Settlement inviolable. But the + Protestants soon had reason to fear that his promises were illusory and that the + liberty which might be allowed to them would be at best temporary. In a word, what + the one party looked forward to with hope and the other with dread was "a confederacy + with France which would make His Majesty's monarchy absolute."</p> + <p>In order to understand what that meant, to Irish Protestants, it is well to glance + at the condition of France at the time. Louis XIV had begun by directing that the + Edict of Nantes was to be interpreted by the strictest letter of the law; and soon + after that the condition of the Huguenots became more unhappy than that of the Irish + Roman Catholics ever was during the penal laws. The terrible "Dragonnades" commenced + in 1682; soldiers were billeted on heretics, and unfortunate women were insulted past + endurance; Huguenots were restricted even as to holding family prayers; children at + the age of seven were encouraged to renounce their faith, and if they did so they + were taken from their parents who, however, were obliged to pay for their maintenance + in convent schools. Protestant churches were closed, and their endowments handed over + to Roman Catholic institutions. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" + id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> Huguenot children were forbidden all education except + the most elementary. No heretic was allowed to sue a Catholic for debt. All this, + however, did not satisfy the monarch or his ecclesiastical advisers. On the 18th of + October 1685, he issued his famous Revocation of the Edict of Nantes:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We by the present Edict which is perpetual and irrevocable, revoke the Edict + given at Nantes in 1583 together with every concession to the Protestants of + whatever nature they be. We will that all temples of that religion be instantly + demolished. We prohibit our Protestant subjects to assemble for worship in any + private house. We prohibit all our lords to exercise that religion within their + fiefs under penalty of confiscation of property and imprisonment of person. We + enjoin all ministers of the said faith to leave the kingdom within fifteen days of + the publication of this Edict, under penalty of the galleys. We enjoin that all + children who shall be born henceforth be baptized by the Catholic curates. Persons + awaiting the enlightening grace of God may live in our kingdom unhindered on + account of their religion on condition that they do not perform any of its + exercises or assemble for prayer or worship under penalty of body and wealth."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>This Edict met with cordial approval from the Catholic party in France. The famous + Madame de Sevigné wrote: "I admire the king for the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47" id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> means he has devised for ruining the + Huguenots. The wars and massacres of former days only gave vigour to the sect; but + the edict just issued, aided by the dragoons, will give them the <i>coup de + grace</i>."</p> + <p>The Irish Protestants saw with alarm that amongst the soldiers who came from + France to aid King James were some who had taken an active part in the dragonnades + organized by Louis XIV in order to carry out his edict. Then one Act was passed by + the Dublin Parliament repealing the Act of Settlement; and by another 2,461 persons + were declared guilty of high treason unless they appeared before the Dublin + authorities on a certain day and proved they were not guilty. What steps King James + was prepared to take in order to subdue the rebels of Derry who held out against him + can be gathered from the proclamation which he directed Conrade de Rosen, his + Mareschal General, to issue. He warned the rebels that if they did not surrender + immediately, all the members of their faction, whether protected or not, in the whole + neighbourhood, would be brought close to the walls of the city and there starved to + death; that he would ravish the countryside, and see that no man, woman or child + escaped; and that if the city still held out he would give no quarter and spare + neither age nor sex, in case it was taken by force.</p> + <p>Even if there had been no Derry to relieve and no Protestants in other parts of + the country, the conquest of Ireland was a political necessity to King William. + England was at this time in much the same position that it had been in the days of + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> Elizabeth, + substituting the name France for Spain. The continental powers were again united in a + supreme effort to stamp out Protestantism, and England once more stood almost alone. + In Spain and Portugal, heresy was of course still punishable with death; the Pope had + celebrated the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes with a triumphal <i>Te Deum</i>; a + terrible persecution was raging not only throughout the Protestant districts of + France but also on the Rhine, in Hungary, Savoy and the Alpine Valleys; if Ireland + had remained a separate kingdom ruled by the ally and admirer of Louis XIV, the next + step would certainly have been an invasion of England by the joint forces of France + and Ireland. All that we in modern times include in the term "religious liberty" hung + on the issue of the battle that was fought and won on the banks of the Boyne.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + <h3>THE PERIOD OF THE PENAL LAWS.</h3> + <p>The flight of James II brings us to the era of the "penal laws." To one who lives + in the twentieth century and is embued with the spirit of modern thought, the whole + subject is more than painful-it is detestable. But to pass it over in silence is + impossible; and in order to get a clear view of the position it is necessary to + examine what the penal laws were, what they were not, and what were the circumstances + of the time during which they were in force.</p> + <p>The penal laws were a series of enactments carefully planned so as to harass the + Roman Catholics at every moment of their lives, in the hope of inducing them to + abandon their religion. The unhappy people were prohibited from becoming or voting + for members of Parliament; they were excluded from corporations, the army, the navy + and the legal profession. They were forbidden to bear arms, or even to possess a + horse worth more than £5. Education was denied to them, as they could not send + their sons to the university and were forbidden either to have schools of their own + in Ireland or to send their children abroad. They were not allowed to possess + freehold estates in land, and even as to leaseholds they were seriously restricted. + On the death of a Roman Catholic his estate was divided amongst his children equally, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> unless the + eldest son became a Protestant, in which case he inherited the whole. And as no Roman + Catholic was allowed to act as a guardian, a man never knew that if he should die his + children might not be brought up in a faith that he detested. The performance of + Roman Catholic worship was barely tolerated, as no bishops or other dignitaries were + allowed to remain in Ireland, and the only priests authorized to say mass were those + who were "registered" and had taken the oath of abjuration-that is, an oath declaring + that the Pretender had no right to the throne.</p> + <p>Such in brief were those terrible statutes. But without attempting to excuse them, + there are various matters which must be taken into account if we are to judge them + fairly. In the first place, the political aspect of the question should not be + forgotten. The Protestant minority might justly fear that if the Roman Catholic party + were as powerful as their numbers would naturally cause them to be, they would aid in + bringing about a French invasion for the restoration of the Stuarts and the + re-establishment of the system which had been in evidence under James II. An army was + actually formed in France, and on more than one occasion was in readiness to start. + The Stuarts were regarded by the Pope as the rightful sovereigns. The Roman Catholic + prelates whose entry into Ireland was forbidden were appointed by the Pretender and + were his political agents; it was that fact, and no doctrinal reason, that caused + their expulsion. It is necessary to make this quite clear, as there has <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> been as much + exaggeration on this point as on most other subjects connected with Irish history. + The words of the "oath of abjuration" were as follows:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"I do solemnly and sincerely declare that I do believe in my conscience that the + person pretended to be Prince of Wales during the life of the late King James and + since his decease taking upon himself the style and title of King of England by the + name of James III hath not any right or title whatever to the crown of this + realm."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>A modern Roman Catholic writer has thus described the oath:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"By the Oath of Abjuration the priest was ordered to swear that the sacrifice of + the mass and the invocation of the Blessed Virgin and the saints were damnable and + idolatrous. In other words, the priest was ordered to apostatize, or fly for his + life."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And even if Roman Catholics took the oath of allegiance, the old difficulty arose + as to the papal right to depose princes and to order their subjects to rebel. So late + as 1768, when a declaration was drawn up which it was hoped the leaders of the Roman + Catholic party would sign, so that the penal laws might be finally done away with, + the Papal Nuncio vetoed the proposal because the declaration contained a reprobation + of the doctrines that faith need not be kept with heretics and that if the Pope + banned a sovereign his subjects might depose and <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page52" id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> slay him. It is but fair to add, + however, that a large number of Roman Catholics did sign the declaration; and the + penal laws (which had been relaxed from time to time when it was seen that the Irish + took no part in the Stuart rebellions of 1715 and 1745) were soon afterwards + practically abolished.</p> + <p>Then it must be borne in mind that the Irish penal laws, although to some extent + modelled on the legislation of Louis XIV against the Huguenots, were absolutely + insignificant compared with those which were in force at the time in every Roman + Catholic country in Europe. Galling though the Irish laws were, they never went so + far as to make the mere holding of heretical opinions criminal. Thus no one in + Ireland was ever put to death for believing in transubstantiation; whereas in one + diocese of Portugal 20,000 people were sent to the stake for denying it. As every one + who has visited the Madrid picture gallery will recollect, it was still the custom in + the eighteenth century for the King of Spain to preside in state at the burning of + heretics; and it was not until that century was drawing to a close that it was for + the first time enacted in Portugal that sentence of death for heresy when passed by + the ecclesiastical court should not be carried into effect unless the order was + countersigned by the king. In France, for two or three heretics to meet for worship + anywhere (their churches had of course all been pulled down) was a crime punishable + with death; and any Huguenot caught whilst attempting to escape from the country + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span> was sent to the + galleys-a fate worse than mere death, for it meant death by slow torture. And every + child was forcibly taken from its heretic parents at the age of five, and educated in + a convent.</p> + <p>But more than that: Roman Catholics who fled from the tyranny of the penal laws at + home had no scruple, when they reached the Continent, in taking part in persecutions + far more terrible than anything they had seen in Ireland. During the dragonnades in + Languedoc, Louis XIV's Irish brigade joined eagerly in the butchery of old men, women + and children and the burning of whole villages. The same heroes distinguished + themselves by destroying everything they could find in remote Alpine valleys so that + the unfortunate Waldenses might die of starvation. And the Irish troops under Lord + Mountcashel aided in the burning of 1,000 villages in the Palatinate of the Rhine, in + which all the inhabitants-men, women and children-were slain by the sword, burnt to + death, or left to perish from hunger. These persecutions were practically brought to + an end by the French Revolution and the rise of modern ideas; but the ecclesiastical + authorities, though they have lost their power, have shown no sign of having changed + their principles. Even in the middle of the nineteenth century King Victor Emmanuel + was excommunicated by Pope Pius IX for allowing his Vaudois subjects to build a + church for themselves at Turin.</p> + <p>Of course it may be said with perfect truth that two blacks do not make one white. + Still, the constant complaints about the tyranny of the penal <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> laws have less force + when they come from the representatives of a party who acted in the same way + themselves whenever they had the opportunity.</p> + <p>It is indeed frequently urged as a matter of aggravation that whereas other + persecutions were those of a minority by a majority, this was of a majority by a + minority. To me, so far as this makes any difference at all, it tells the other way. + As a matter of morality, I fail to see any difference; putting all the inhabitants of + an Alpine valley to death as heretics does not seem to me one whit the less horrible + because the sovereign also ruled a large Catholic population on the plains. On the + other hand, the fact that the Roman Catholics in Ireland formed the majority of the + population prevented the persecution from being strictly carried out. It was + comparatively easy for Louis XIV to surround a heretic district with a cordon of + soldiers, and then draw them closer together searching every house as they went, + seizing the clergy and taking them off to the galleys; but it was impossible to track + unregistered priests through the mountains and valleys of Munster. Hence the law as + to the registration of priests soon became a dead letter.</p> + <p>There was indeed one great difference, between Irish and continental persecution. + On the continent it was the holiest and best men who were the keenest persecutors. + (This may seem strange to modern readers; but anyone who has studied the lives of + Bossuet and San Carlo Borromeo will admit that it is true.) Hence the persecution was + carried out with that vigour which was necessary to make <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page55" id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span> it a success. In Spain, if a heretic + under torture or the fear of it consented to recant, the Holy Office was not + satisfied with a mere formal recantation; for the rest of his life the convert was + watched day and night to see that there was no sign of back-sliding; and even the + possession of a fragment of the New Testament was considered as sufficient evidence + of a relapse to send the wretched man to the stake. Consequently, in a generation or + two heresy became as extinct as Christianity did amongst the Kabyles of North Africa + after the Mohammedan persecution. In Ireland, however, persecution was always against + the grain with religiously-minded Protestants. Seven bishops protested against the + first enactment of the Penal Laws; and during the period when they were in force, the + bishops repeatedly spoke and voted in favour of each proposed mitigation of them. + (With this one may contrast the action of the French bishops who on the accession of + Louis XVI in 1774 presented an address to the new king urging him to increase the + persecution of the Huguenots which had become somewhat slack during the later years + of his predecessor. By the irony of fate the same men were a few years later pleading + vainly for the mercy which they had never shown in the days of their power.) Nor was + this tolerant feeling confined to the bishops. By the aid of the Protestant gentry, + the laws were continually being evaded. Protestants appointed by the Court as + guardians of Roman Catholic children, used to carry out the wishes of the Roman + Catholic relations; Roman <span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>[pg + 56]</span> Catholic proprietors frequently handed over their estates to Protestant + friends as Trustees, and, though such Trusts were of course not enforceable at law, + there were very few instances in which they were not faithfully performed. Many + strange stories are told of the evasions of the Acts. On one occasion whilst it was + still illegal for a popish recusant to own a horse of a greater value than £5, + a man met a Roman Catholic gentleman who was riding a handsome horse; he held out + £5 in one hand, and with the other caught hold of the bridle. The rider, + naturally infuriated at this, struck the man with his whip so heavily that he fell + down dead. When he was tried for murder, the judge decided that as the man had laid a + hand on the bridle, the rider had reason to suppose that he intended to take it as + well as the horse, which would have been an illegal act; consequently he was + justified in defending himself against highway robbery; and therefore the charge must + be dismissed. Again, a Roman Catholic proprietor found out that an effort was likely + to be made to deprive him of his estate. He rode up to Dublin on a Saturday; on + Sunday he received the Holy Communion at a Protestant Church; on Monday he executed a + deed transferring his estate to a Protestant friend as Trustee; on Tuesday he was + received back into the Church of Rome; and on Wednesday he rode home again, to enjoy + his estate free from further molestation.</p> + <p>The schools which were founded in order to convert the rising generation were a + strange contrast <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>[pg + 57]</span> to the admirably conducted institutions established in France and Spain + for a similar purpose. They were so disgracefully mismanaged that the pupils who had + passed through them looked back on everything that had been taught them there with a + lifelong disgust.</p> + <p>It is needless to say that laws thus carried out were a dead failure as far as + winning converts was concerned. On the other hand, they became in one sense the more + galling as the enforcement of them fell into the hands of a low class of informers + who had no object beyond making money for themselves. Still, public feeling was so + strong that by the middle of the century the laws had almost fallen into abeyance. + Brook, writing in 1762, says: "Though these laws are still in force, it is long since + they have been in action. They hang like a sword by a thread over the heads of these + people, and Papists walk under them in security and peace; for whoever should + adventure to cut this thread would become ignominious and detestable." And in 1778 + and 1782 (that is, when, as an Irish Roman Catholic writer has pointed out, there was + still neither toleration nor peace for Protestant populations in any Catholic state + in Europe) the Irish Protestant Parliament formally repealed nearly all the penal + laws.</p> + <p>Probably their most lasting effect was that relating to the tenure of land. If + free purchase and sale regardless of religion had been allowed throughout the + eighteenth century, one may conjecture that the effect of the Cromwellian + confiscations <span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> + would long since have died away. But these laws perpetuated that peculiar state of + things which has been the cause of so much unhappiness in Ireland-the landlords + generally belonged to one religion, and their tenants and dependents to another.</p> + <p>It may be asked, As these odious laws all came to an end generations ago, what is + the good of recalling the sorrows of the past which had much better be forgotten? I + reply, None whatever; and very glad I should be if the whole subject were quietly + dropped. But unfortunately that is just what the Roman Catholic party in Ireland will + not do. One of the ways in which religious animosity is being kept alive (and I + regret to say is being steadily increased) is by the teaching in the Roman Catholic + schools of exaggerated accounts of the penal laws without referring to any of the + mitigating circumstances. Even in the present year-1913-the Lenten pastoral of one of + the bishops goes back to the same old subject. If other countries acted in a similar + manner, how could the grievances of bygone centuries ever be forgotten? The Jews, + cruelly treated though they were during the time of the Norman kings, do not harp on + the subject in England to-day. It may be doubted whether all the religious + persecutions of Europe put together were as great a disgrace to Christendom as the + slave trade-in which, I am ashamed to say, England strove to obtain the pre-eminence + amongst European nations and which she forced upon her colonies against their will. + Yet I should regret it <span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>[pg + 59]</span> deeply if that were the one passage of history selected for study in the + schools and colleges for coloured pupils in the West Indies at the present day. When + a man who has suffered wrong in former years broods over it instead of thinking of + his present blessings and his future prospects, one may be sure that he is a man who + will not succeed in life; and what is true of individuals is true also of + nations.</p> + <p>The expression "Protestant ascendancy," although it never came into use during the + period with which we are dealing, has so frequently since then been employed with + reference to it, that it is necessary to explain its meaning. Probably no word in the + English language has suffered more from being used in different senses than the word + "Protestant." In Ireland it frequently used to be, and still sometimes is, taken as + equivalent to "Anglican" or "Episcopalian"; to an Irishman of the last century it + would have appeared quite natural to speak of "Protestants and Presbyterians," + meaning thereby two distinct bodies. This is a matter of historical importance; for + so far from the Presbyterian element being favoured during the period of the Penal + Laws, the English Toleration Act had not been extended to Ireland; Presbyterians were + by the sacramental test excluded from all municipal offices; their worship, though + never in practice interfered with, remained technically illegal. Their share in + "Protestant ascendancy" was therefore very limited.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> + <p>But if the Established Church was the one favoured body, it had to pay dearly for + its privileges. In truth, the state of the Irish Church at this period of its + history, was deplorable. All the positions of value-bishoprics, deaneries and + important parishes-were conferred on Englishmen, who never resided in their cures, + but left the duties either to be performed by half-starved deputies or not at all. + Many of the churches were in ruins, and the glebes had fallen into decay; a union of + half-a-dozen parishes would scarcely supply a meagre salary for one incumbent. A + large proportion of the tithes had been appropriated by laymen; how small a sum + actually reached the clergy is shown by the fact that the first-fruits (that is, the + year's income paid by incumbents on their appointment) did not amount to more than + £500 a year in all. It may be that the standard of religious life was not lower + in Ireland than it was in England when the spiritually-minded non-Jurors had been + driven out and Hanoverian deadness was supreme; but in England there was no other + Church to form a contrast. In Ireland the apathy and worldliness of the Protestant + clergy stood out in bold relief against the heroic devotion of the priests and + friars; and at the time when the unhappy peasants, forced to pay tithes to a Church + which they detested, were ready to starve themselves to support their own clergy and + to further the cause of their religion, the well-to-do Protestant graziers and + farmers were straining the law so as to evade the payment of tithes, and never + thought <span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> of + doing anything further to support the Church to which they were supposed to belong. + (It is but fair, however, to state that this condition of things has long since + passed away; the Evangelical revival breathed new life into the dry bones of Irish + Protestantism.)</p> + <p>But it was not merely in religious matters that Ireland suffered during this + melancholy period. Students of modern history whose researches usually commence with + the early part of the nineteenth century, are wont to gather from text-books the idea + that the policy of the manufacturing party in England has always been liberal, + progressive and patriotic; whereas that of the landed interest has been retrograde + and selfish. There cannot be a greater delusion. English manufacturers have been just + as self-seeking and narrow-minded as other people-no more and no less; they have been + quite as ready to sacrifice the interests of others when they believed them to be + opposed to their own, as the much-abused landowners. At this time every nation in + Europe regarded the outlying portions of the Empire as existing only for the benefit + of the centre; in fact, the English development of the "Colonial System" even then + was more liberal than those of Spain or Holland. The English system, if perfectly + carried out, was by no means unfair. The ground idea was that the mother country + voluntarily restricted herself in matters of trade for the benefit of the Colonies, + and the Colonies had to do the same for the benefit of the mother country. Thus, when + England refused <span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span> + to admit timber from the Baltic in order to benefit the Canadian lumber trade; and + placed a prohibitive duty on sugar from Cuba so as to secure the English market for + Jamaica; it was but fair that the trade in other articles from Canada and Jamaica + should be directed to England. To say that the whole thing was a mistake, as such + restrictions really injured both parties, is no answer, as no one at that time + dreamed of such a thing as free trade. The real answer is that it was impossible to + keep the balance true; some slight change of circumstances might render that unfair + which up to then had been perfectly equal. And as the English merchants were on the + spot and commanded votes in Parliament, any injustice against them would be speedily + rectified; the colonists living at a distance and having no means of making their + voice heard, would be left to suffer.</p> + <p>In applying the colonial system to Ireland, it is true that in theory England + undertook to protect her by means of the British army and navy, from foreign foes; + but beyond that, the system was to Ireland all loss and no gain. Every branch of + Irish industry was deliberately ruined by the English Government. By the Navigation + Act of 1663, trade between Ireland and the British Colonies was forbidden; soon + after, the importation of Irish beef, mutton, pork and butter into England was + prohibited; then, at the request of the English woollen manufacturers, the export of + woollen goods from Ireland to any country was stopped; and finally, with a refinement + of cruelty, the export of linen <span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" + id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span> articles-the one industry that had hitherto been left + to the unfortunate country-was restricted to the coarsest and poorest varieties, for + fear of offending the Dutch.</p> + <p>The result of all this wretched misgovernment was not merely destitution bordering + on famine, but a wholesale emigration. Whilst the Roman Catholics were leaving the + country to avoid the penal laws, the most skilful and industrious of the artizan + class,-the very backbone of the nation-were being driven out by the prohibition of + their trades. It is said that no less than 30,000 men were thrown out of employment + by the destruction of the woollen industry alone. These were nearly all Protestants; + to encourage them would have done more to Protestantize the country than all the + penal laws and charter schools put together; but they were ruthlessly sacrificed to + the greed of the English manufacturers. Some went to the Continent, many more to New + England and the other American colonies, where they prospered, and they and their + sons became some of Washington's best soldiers in the War of Independence.</p> + <p>It was only natural that thoughtful men in Ireland should cast envious eyes on + Scotland, which had recently secured the benefit of union with England, and + consequently was able to develop her commerce and manufactures unhindered. But though + the subject of a union was discussed, and even referred to in addresses from the + Irish Parliament to Queen Anne, no active steps were taken.</p> + <p>Still, in considering these commercial restrictions, <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page64" id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span> as in the case of the penal laws, we + must not lose sight of the fact that the state of circumstances we are dealing with + has long passed away. It is necessary for a historian to refer to it, even if he + finds it hard to do so in a perfectly dispassionate way; but it is waste of time and + energy for the present generation to go on brooding over woes which had come to an + end before their grandfathers were born. Yet that is what the Nationalists of to-day + are doing. Not long ago, the Old Boys' Association of an Irish Roman Catholic College + resolved, very laudably, to found an annual prize at their alma mater. The subject + they selected was an essay on the treatment by England of Irish industries before the + year 1800! Had it been a Scotch or a German College, the subject chosen would + probably have been, The progress in scientific knowledge during the last century, or, + Improvements in means of travel since 1820; and one must ask, which subject of study + is likely to be most profitable to young men who have to make their way in the modern + world?</p> + <p>It may be asked, why did the Irish Parliament do nothing to stay this national + ruin? The answer is that the Irish Parliament possessed very little power. The Bill + of Rights of course did not apply to Ireland; general elections were very rare, and a + large number of members were paid officers of the Government; the English Parliament + had a co-ordinate power of legislating for Ireland; and since Poyning's Act (as + explained by the declaratory Act of George I) was still in force, no Bill could be + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span> introduced into + the Irish Parliament until it had been approved both by the Irish and the English + Councils; and the Irish Parliament might then pass it or reject it but had no power + to amend it.</p> + <p>And the use which the English Government made of the Irish Parliament was as + disgraceful as their treatment of Irish industries. Miserably poor though the country + was, it was burdened by the payment of pensions of a nature so scandalous that the + English Parliament even of that period would not have tolerated them.</p> + <p>The conditions of land tenure also added to the miseries of the country. It is + often said that the land belonged to wealthy English absentees, and the unfortunate + occupiers, who had no security of tenure, were ground down by the payment of + exorbitant rents. This is literally true; but, like most partial statements, + misleading. Much of the land was owned by wealthy Englishmen-which of itself was a + serious evil; but they let it in large farms at low rents on long leases, in the hope + that the occupiers would execute their own improvements. Instead of that, however, + their tenants sublet their holdings in smaller lots to others; and these subtenants + did the same again; thus there were sometimes three or four middlemen, and the rent + paid by the actual occupier to his immediate landlord was ten times the amount the + nominal owner received. As the rate of wages was miserably low, and the rent of a + cabin and a plot of ground scandalously high, how the wretched occupiers managed to + keep body and soul together is a mystery. Much has <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page66" id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span> been written about the useless, + dissipated lives of these middlemen or "squireens"; and no doubt it is to a great + extent true, although, like everything else in Ireland, it has been exaggerated. + Travellers have told us of some landlords who resided on their estates, did their + utmost to improve them, and forbade subletting (in spite of the unpopularity caused + by their doing so). And one of the remarkable features of later Irish history is that + whenever there was a period of acute difficulty and danger there were always country + gentlemen to be found ready to risk their lives and fortunes or to undertake the + thankless and dangerous duties of county magistrates.</p> + <p>It is curious how close a parallel might be drawn between the way in which Norman + Ireland was Ersefied and that in which Cromwellian Ireland was Catholicized. Many of + those who became large landowners by the Cromwellian confiscations, having no + religious prejudices (some might say, no religious or humane feelings), when the + leases of their tenants fell in, put the farms up to auction regardless of the + feelings of the occupiers. As the Roman Catholics were content with a simpler manner + of life than the Protestants, they generally offered higher rents; the dispossessed + Protestants, driven from their homes, joined their brethren in America. Then in the + South, the poorer of Cromwell's settlers, in some cases, neglected by their own + pastors, joined the religion of the majority; in others, intermarrying with the + natives, allowed their children to be brought up in the faith <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span> of their mothers. + Hence we arrive at the curious fact that at the present day some of the most ardent + Romanists and violent Nationalists, who are striving to have the Irish language + enforced all over the country, and pose as the representatives of ancient Irish + septs, are really the descendants of Cromwell's soldiers.</p> + <p>So passed the greater part of the eighteenth century; and the unhappy country + seemed as far off from progress and prosperity as ever.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>[pg 68]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + <h3>THE EARLIER PART OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. THE ACQUISITION OF INDEPENDENCE BY + THE IRISH PARLIAMENT.</h3> + <p>When we come to the reign of George III we have arrived at a specially interesting + period of Irish history. For we are no longer dealing with a state of society that + has wholly passed away; the great events that occurred towards the close of the + eighteenth century are continually referred to as bearing, at least by analogy, on + the questions of the present day. It is for the honest historian to examine how far + that analogy is real, and how far it is delusive.</p> + <p>For some time after the accession of George III, the state of Ireland was almost + as miserable as before. Trade and manufactures being nearly crushed out, want of + employment brought the people in the towns to the brink of starvation. In the + country, although the middle classes were on the whole becoming more prosperous, the + condition of the labourers and cottiers was wretched in the extreme. It is not to be + wondered at therefore that we now hear of the commencement of two movements which + were destined later on to play so important a part in the history of Ireland-the + agitation against the payment of tithes and the rise of secret societies. Few men at + the present day could be found who would attempt to justify the tithe system as it + prevailed in the eighteenth century. It was not merely that the starving peasantry + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>[pg 69]</span> were forced to + contribute towards the maintenance of a religion in which they did not believe, but + the whole manner of levying and collecting the tithes was bad; and what made them + still more annoying was the fact that the clergy never thought of performing the + duties for which tithes were supposed to exist; the large majority of the rectors did + not even reside in their parishes. The principal secret societies were the Oakboys + and the Steelboys of the north, and the Whiteboys of the south. The northern + societies soon came to an end; but the organization of the Whiteboys continued to + spread, and for a time it assumed alarming proportions. Commencing as a war against + tithe proctors, the enclosure of commons, and the substitution of grazing land for + tillage, they went on to commit outrages of various sorts, and something like a reign + of terror spread over a large tract of country. But it may safely be said that + generally speaking their conduct was not nearly so violent as that of other secret + societies of a later date; and the evidence of any foreign influence being at work, + or of religious animosity being connected with the movement, is slight.</p> + <p>It is interesting to observe that, whenever there was a violent and abnormal + outbreak of crime, the Irish Parliament did not hesitate to pass special laws to meet + the case. Such measures as the Whiteboy Act of 1787, or the Insurrection Act and the + Habeas Corpus Suppression Act of 1796, which were readily passed whilst the Irish + Parliament was completely independent, are frequently referred to <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>[pg 70]</span> by modern agitators + as amongst the brutal Coercion Acts which the tyranny of England has forced on an + innocent people.</p> + <p>The harshness of the Penal Laws was steadily being relaxed. All restrictions on + worship, or the number of clergy allowed, had long since fallen into abeyance. Roman + Catholic students were admitted into Trinity College, Dublin; and the authorities of + the University expressed their readiness to appoint a Divinity Professor of their own + faith for them if they wished it. The restrictions on property were becoming + obsolete; and political restrictions were not felt so keenly since most of the Roman + Catholics would have been ineligible for the franchise on the ground of their poverty + even if the stumbling block of religion had been removed. And the loyal sentiments + expressed by the Roman Catholics made the best of the Protestants all the more + anxious to repeal the laws which they had never regarded with favour. Then amongst + educated people not only in Ireland but elsewhere, religion was ceasing to be the + great line of cleavage; other matters-political, social, and commercial-were + occupying men's thoughts and forming new combinations.</p> + <p>The political state of the country was peculiar. The real government was carried + on by the Lord Lieutenant and his officials; but as the hereditary revenue did not + supply funds sufficient for that purpose, it was necessary to have recourse to + Parliament. And the constitution of that Parliament was as extraordinary as most + things in Ireland. A <span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>[pg + 71]</span> session was usually held every second year, but a Parliament might last + for a whole reign. The House of Commons consisted of 300 members, of whom only 64 + represented counties, and most of the rest nominally sat for small boroughs, but + really were appointed by certain individuals. It was at one time computed that 124 + members were nominated by 53 peers, whilst 91 others were chosen by 52 commoners. A + large number of the members-a third of the whole house, it is said-were in receipt of + pensions, or held offices of profit under the Crown. Of course there was no such + thing as party government-in fact, parties did not exist, though individuals might + sometimes vote against the wish of the government. The Lord Lieutenant, however, + managed to retain a majority by what would now be called flagrant and wholesale + bribery. Peerages, sinecures and pensions were bestowed with a lavish hand; and every + appointment, ecclesiastical or civil, was treated as a reward for political services. + But history affords many instances of how assemblies constituted in what seems to be + the most unsatisfactory way possible, have been remarkable for the ability and + patriotism they have shown; and certainly this was the case with that + unrepresentative collection of Protestant landlords, Dublin barristers, and paid + officials, who composed the Irish Parliament. A "National" party arose (I shall + presently explain what was the meaning attached to that word at the time) who strove + to win for Ireland the laws which in England had been enacted long before and which + were <span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>[pg 72]</span> regarded + as the very foundations of British liberty. Statutes were passed limiting the + duration of Parliament to eight years; establishing the <i>Habeas Corpus</i>; and + making judges irremoveable. Afterwards, most of the Penal Laws were repealed; and at + the same time the disabilities of the Protestant Dissenters were abolished.</p> + <p>But meanwhile foreign affairs were tending to bring about changes yet more + sweeping. When England went to war with both France and Spain, the condition of + Ireland was well-nigh desperate. The country was almost denuded of regular troops; + steps had indeed been taken for the establishment of a militia, and arms had actually + been purchased; but in the hopelessly insolvent condition of the Irish Exchequer, it + was impossible to do anything further. And a French invasion might arrive at any + moment. At this crisis the country gentlemen came forward. They formed their tenants + and dependants into regiments of volunteers, of which they took command themselves, + and strained their resources to the utmost in order to bear the expense of the + undertaking. And the rank and file-farmers and labourers-seemed fired by the same + enthusiasm. The movement spread rapidly over the country, but it possessed more + vitality in Ulster than elsewhere. It soon became evident that Ulster volunteers may + form a body not to be disregarded.</p> + <p>The troubles of England, however, were not limited to the Continent. The American + War broke out. We, who view the question impartially through the long vista of years, + can see that there <span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>[pg + 73]</span> was much to be said for the English claim. The mother country had been + brought to the verge of bankruptcy by a long and exhausting war waged with France for + the protection of the American colonies; surely it was only fair that those colonies, + who had taken but a very small part in the war, should at least bear a fraction of + the cost. But the cry of "No taxation without representation" was raised; the + Americans rebelled; and England was placed in the humiliating position of being + defeated by her own colonists. During that period Ireland remained thoroughly loyal; + the efforts of Franklin and his party to enlist Ireland on their side were as + complete a failure as those of the French emissaries had been shortly before. But it + was inevitable that the success of the American revolution should have a strong + effect on Irish affairs. Amongst the northern Presbyterians there had always been a + feeling somewhat akin to Republicanism; and (as we have seen) many of their relations + were fighting in Washington's army. Then in Ireland there was something much worse + than taxation without representation: the English Parliament, in which Ireland had no + part, claimed to legislate for Ireland and was actually at that moment keeping the + country in a state of semi-starvation by imposing severe restrictions on commerce. + Irish politicians read the offers of conciliation made by the English Government to + the revolted colonies, in which not only was the power of taxation given up and + freedom of internal legislation established, but all power of the Parliament of Great + Britain over America was renounced; <span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" + id="page74"></a>[pg 74]</span> and began to ask whether England could withhold from + loyal Irishmen the boons which she offered to rebellious Americans. The claims were + urged in Parliament and at meetings of the volunteers and other public bodies; the + English Government for some time refused to grant any concession; but at length, + fearing an Irish Revolution, gave way on every point. They granted, in fact, as an + Irish statesman expressed it, "everything short of separation." First (in spite of + the opposition of the English manufacturing classes) all restrictions on trade were + swept away; then, in 1782, the Declaratory Act of George I, by virtue of which the + English Parliament had claimed the right to legislate for Ireland, was repealed, and + with it went the right of the English House of Lords to act as a court of final + appeal for Ireland; the restrictions imposed by Poyning's Act on the legislative + powers of the Irish Parliament were abolished; and the Irish Executive was made + practically dependent on the Irish Parliament by the Mutiny Act, which had previously + been perpetual, being limited to two years.</p> + <p>Thus Ireland became a nation in a sense she had never been before. The only tie to + any power beyond sea was that the King of England was also King of Ireland; Ireland + could legislate for itself, and enter into commercial treaties with foreign powers; + but, on the other hand, it had to pay its own debts and provide its own army and + navy.</p> + <p>As Grattan was not merely the most prominent politician of the period, but also + the leader of the now triumphant "National" party, we may fairly <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>[pg 75]</span> take the views + expressed by him as representative of those of the party that followed him. A study + of his speeches and letters will show how utterly different were the ideas and aims + of the National party of 1782 from those of the Nationalists of to-day. In the first + place, Grattan was intensely loyal; that is to say, it never occurred to him that + Ireland could ever wish to be independent in the sense of not being subject to the + King of England, or could seek to be united to any other power. Secondly, he was + intensely aristocratic. His idea was that Government should and would always be in + the hands of the propertied and educated classes; that Parliament should consist of + country gentlemen and professional men from the towns, elected on a narrow franchise. + (It must be remembered that the country gentlemen had recently given evidence of + their patriotic zeal by the inauguration of the Volunteer movement; and the ability + and eloquence of the Irish Bar at that period is proverbial). Thirdly, he regarded + Protestant ascendancy as a fundamental necessity. It is true that other politicians + at the time saw that they were faced with a serious difficulty: the very principles + to which they had appealed and by virtue of which they had obtained their legislative + independence made it illogical that three-fourths of the community should be + unrepresented; whereas if votes were given to the Roman Catholic majority it was + inevitable that they would soon become eligible for seats in the Legislature; and if + so, the Protestant minority must be swamped, and the country ruled by a very <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>[pg 76]</span> different class and + according to very different ideas from those which prevailed in the Parliament of + which Grattan was a member. And would a Roman Catholic Parliament and nation care to + remain subject to a King of England whose title depended on his being a Protestant? + Grattan, however, swept all such considerations aside with an easy carelessness. He + believed that under the influences of perfect toleration large numbers of Roman + Catholics would conform; and the remainder, quite satisfied with their position, + would never dream of attacking the Church or any other existing institution. We may + smile at his strange delusions as to the future; but he was probably not more + incorrect than many people are to-day in their conjectures as to what the world will + be like a hundred years hence; and if we try to place ourselves in Grattan's + position, there is something to be said for his conjectures. At that time the + influence of the Church of Rome was at its lowest; Spain had almost ceased to exist + as a European power; and in France the state of religious thought was very different + from what it had been in the days of Louis XIV. Irish Roman Catholic gentlemen who + sent their sons to be educated in France found that they came back Voltaireans; even + the young men who went to study for the priesthood in French seminaries became embued + with liberalism to an extent that would make a modern Ultramontane shudder. Then in + Ireland all local power was in the hands of the landlords; the Roman Catholic bishops + possessed hardly any political influence. It <span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" + id="page77"></a>[pg 77]</span> would have required more keenness than a mere + enthusiast like Grattan possessed to foresee that the time would come when all this + would be absolutely reversed. What was there in the eighteenth century to lead him to + surmise that in the twentieth the landlords would be ruined and gone, and that local + government would have become vested in District Councils in which Protestants would + have no power, but over which the authority of the bishops would be absolute?</p> + <p>So Grattan and his party entered on the new conditions of political life with airy + optimism. But there were, both in England and France, shrewder and more far-seeing + men than he, who realised from the first that the new state of affairs could not + possibly be a lasting one, but must lead either to union or complete separation. Of + course so long as all parties happened to be of the same mind, no difficulties would + arise; but it was merely a question of time when some cause of friction would occur, + and then the inherent weakness of the arrangement would be apparent. A moment's + thought will show that for Ireland to be subject to the English King but independent + of the English Parliament was a physical impossibility. The king would act on the + advice of his ministers who were responsible to the English Parliament; either the + Irish Parliament must obey, or a deadlock would ensue. Then, suppose that England + were to become engaged in a war of which the people of Ireland disapproved, Ireland + might not only refuse to make any voluntary grant in aid, but even declare her ports + neutral, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>[pg 78]</span> + withdraw her troops, and pass a vote of censure on the English Government. Again, + with regard to trade; Ireland might adopt a policy of protection against England, and + enter into a treaty for free trade with some foreign country which might be at the + moment England's deadliest rival. The confusion that might result would be + endless.</p> + <p>Considerations such as these presented themselves at once to the master-mind of + Pitt. He pointed out that as England had relinquished her right to limit Irish trade + for the benefit of English, she was in fairness relieved from the corresponding duty + of protecting Ireland against foreign foes; the two countries should therefore both + contribute to their joint defence in proportion to their means. He proposed that + regular treaties should be drawn up between the two countries, by which Ireland + should contribute a certain sum to the navy, free trade between Ireland and England + should be established, and regulations made whereby the duties payable on foreign + goods should be assimilated. By such measures as these he hoped to make things run + smoothly for a time at least; but when his projects were rejected by the Irish + Parliament, he saw more clearly than ever that sooner or later the Gordian knot would + have to be cut, and that the only way of cutting it would be the Union.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>[pg 79]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + <h3>THE INDEPENDENT PARLIAMENT. THE REGENCY QUESTION. THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE + REBELLION.</h3> + <p>That Ireland increased in prosperity rapidly towards the end of the eighteenth + century, there is no doubt. Politicians will say that this prosperity came from the + increased powers gained by the Parliament in 1782; economists will reply that that + had little if anything to say to it; far more important causes being the abolition of + trade restrictions and the relaxation of the Penal Laws, which encouraged people to + employ their money in remunerative works at home instead of having to send it abroad. + It may sound somewhat Hibernian to mention the rise in rents, as another cause of + prosperity; yet anyone who knows Ireland will admit that it is not impossible; and it + was certainly put forward gravely by writers of the period who were by no means + biassed towards the landlord interest. Thus McKenna, writing in 1793, says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In several parts of Ireland the rents have been tripled within 40 years. This + was not so much the effect as the cause of national prosperity; ... before the + above-mentioned period, when rent was very low and other taxes little known, half + the year was lavished in carousing. But as soon as labour became compulsory, + fortunes have been raised both by the tenantry and landlords, and civilization has + advanced materially."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>[pg 80]</span> + <p>There was also another cause of prosperity, which modern economists cannot look on + with much favour. It was the policy of the Irish Government to grant enormous + bounties for the development of various industries, especially the growth of corn. + This no doubt gave much employment, promoted the breaking up of grass lands, the + subdivision of farms and the erection of mills; and so long as the price of corn was + maintained, brought much prosperity to the country, and thus was indirectly one cause + of the enormous increase of population, which rose from about 2,370,000 in 1750, to + about 4,500,000 in 1797. But when, during the nineteenth century, prices fell, the + whole structure, built on a fictitious foundation, came down with a crash.</p> + <p>Not long after the Irish Parliament had acquired its independence, a controversy + arose which, although it had no immediate result, yet was of vast importance on + account of the principle involved. The king became insane. It was necessary that + there should be a Regent, and it was obvious that the Prince of Wales was the man for + the post. But the British constitution contained no provision for making the + appointment. After much deliberation, the English Parliament decided to pass an Act + appointing the Prince Regent and defining his powers, the Royal assent being given by + Commission. The two houses of the Irish Parliament, however, without waiting for the + Prince to be invested with the Regency in England, voted an address to him asking him + to undertake the duties of Regent, without naming any limitations. <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>[pg 81]</span> As the king recovered + almost immediately, the whole matter ended in nothing; but thoughtful men realized + what was involved in the position which the Irish Parliament had taken up. Grattan's + resolution was to the effect that in addressing the Prince to take upon himself the + government of the country the Lords and Commons of Ireland were exercising an + undoubted right and discharging an indispensable duty to which in the emergency they + alone were competent. By the Act of Henry VIII the King of England was <i>ipso + facto</i> King of Ireland. An Irish Act of William and Mary declared that the Crown + of Ireland and all the powers and prerogatives belonging to it should be for ever + annexed to and dependent on the Crown of England. And the Act of 1782 made the Great + Seal of Great Britain necessary to the summoning of an Irish Parliament and the + passing of Irish Acts. Now did the words "King" and "Crown" merely refer to the + individual who had the right to wear a certain diadem, or did they include the chief + executive magistrate, whoever that might be-King, Queen or Regent? It was ably + contended by Lord Clare that the latter was the only possible view; for the Regent of + Great Britain must hold the Great Seal; and so he alone could summon an Irish + Parliament; therefore the Irish Parliament in choosing their Regent had endangered + the only bond which existed between England and Ireland-the necessary and perpetual + identity of the executive. If the Irish Parliament appointed one person Regent and + the English Parliament another, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" + id="page82"></a>[pg 82]</span> separation or war might be the result; and even as it + was, the appointment of the Prince with limited powers in England and unlimited in + Ireland, must lead to confusion. But more than that; suppose that the House of + Brunswick were to die out, and another Act of Settlement were to become necessary, + might not the Irish Parliament choose a different sovereign from the one chosen by + England? Constitutional lawyers recollected that such a difficulty nearly arose + between Scotland and England, but was settled by the Act of Union; and that it was + the recognition of Lambert Simnel by the Irish Parliament that was the immediate + cause of the passing of Poyning's Act; and saw what the revived powers of the Irish + Parliament might lead to.</p> + <p>Although the Parliament had now become independent, there was still nothing like a + responsible ministry as we now understand it, and the government managed to maintain + its control, partly by the peculiar composition of the Parliament (to which I have + already referred), and partly by the disposal of favours. And it cannot be denied + that the Parliament passed much useful legislation. Two questions, however, were now + coming forward on which the whole political condition of the country depended, and + which were closely entwined with one another. The first was the reform of the + legislature, so as to make the House of Commons a really representative body; the + second was the final abolition of the Penal Laws. As to reform, the Parliament was + naturally slow (did any political <span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" + id="page83"></a>[pg 83]</span> assembly in the world ever divest itself of its own + privileges without pressure from without?); but as to the abolition of the Penal Laws + there was a cordiality which is remarkable, and which is seldom referred to by the + Nationalist writers of the present day when they discourse about the Penal Laws. With + regard to social matters-such as admission to Corporations, taking Degrees at the + University, and holding medical professorships,-there was hardly any hesitation; the + political question, however, was more difficult. In both England and Ireland at that + time a forty-shilling freehold gave a vote. That was a matter of slight importance in + England, as the number of small freeholders was limited, land being usually let for a + term of years. In Ireland, however, the ordinary arrangement was for peasants to hold + their scraps of land for life; and land having recently increased in value + enormously, a large proportion of these were of the value of forty shillings. Hence, + the whole constituency would be altered; thousands of new electors, all of them poor + and illiterate, would be added in many constituencies; and the representation of the + country would at once pass into Roman Catholic hands. To fix a higher qualification + for Roman Catholics than for Protestants would be not to abolish but to perpetuate + the Penal Laws; to deprive the existing voters of the franchise was out of the + question; hence the franchise was granted but not without considerable hesitation on + the part of the more thoughtful members. On the other hand it was urged with great + force that to give these <span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>[pg + 84]</span> privileges to the uneducated mass but to continue the disabilities of the + Roman Catholic gentry by not allowing them to sit in Parliament was absurd. The + proposal to abolish the religious test in the case of Members of Parliament was, + however, defeated.</p> + <p>Looking back, with the light of later history to aid us, it is interesting to see + how much more correct were Lord Clare's predictions of the future than Grattan's. + Grattan (as I have already explained), taking his ideas from his lay friends among + the cultured classes, and seeing the decline of the Papal influence on the continent, + considered that anyone who regarded Popery as a political influence of the future + totally misunderstood the principles which then governed human action; for + controverted points of religion (such as belief in the Real Presence) had ceased to + be a principle of human action. He maintained that the cause of the Pope, as a + political force, was as dead as that of the Stuarts; that priestcraft was a + superannuated folly; and that in Ireland a new political religion had arisen, + superseding all influence of priest and parson, and burying for ever theological + discord in the love of civil and religious liberty. Clare, who was not only a + shrewder observer but a much more deeply read man, realized that in order to find out + what would guide the Roman Catholic Church in the future one must look not at the + passing opinions of laymen but at the constitution of the Church; he foresaw that if + the artificial supports which maintained the Protestant ascendancy were <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>[pg 85]</span> removed, the mere + force of numbers would bring about a Roman Catholic ascendancy; and in enumerating + the results of that he even said that the time would come when the Church would + decide on all questions as to marriage.</p> + <p>In order to show how far Lord Clare's expectations have been verified, I will + quote, not the words of an Orange speaker or writer, but of an eminent Roman + Catholic, the Rev. J.T. McNicholas, O.P., in his recently published book on "The New + Marriage Legislation" which, being issued with an <i>Imprimatur</i>, will be received + by all parties as a work of authority. He says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Many Protestants may think the Church presumptuous in decreeing their marriages + valid or invalid according as they have or have not complied with certain + conditions. As the Church cannot err, neither can she be presumptuous. She alone is + judge of the extent of her power. Anyone validly baptised, either in the Church or + among heretics, becomes thereby a subject of the Roman Catholic Church."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>But whilst politicians were amusing themselves with fervid but useless oratory in + Parliament, stirring events were taking place elsewhere. To trace in these pages even + a bare outline of the main incidents of those terrible years is impossible; and yet + without doing so it is not easy to obtain a correct view of the tangled skein of + Irish politics at the time. In studying any history of the period, we cannot but be + struck by observing on the one hand <span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" + id="page86"></a>[pg 86]</span> how completely in some respects circumstances and + ideas have changed since then; it is hard to realize that Ulster was for a time the + scene of wild disorder-assassination, arson, burglary and every form of + outrage-brought about mainly by a society which claimed to be, and to a certain + extent was, formed by a union of the Presbyterian and Roman Catholic parties-whilst + the south and west remained fairly orderly and loyal. And yet on the other hand we + find many of the phenomena which have been characteristic of later periods of Irish + political agitation, already flourishing. Boycotting existed in fact, though the name + was not yet invented; also nocturnal raids for arms, the sacking of lonely + farmhouses, the intimidation of witnesses and the mutilation of cattle. Again, we see + all through the history of Irish secret societies that their organization has been so + splendid that the ordinary law has been powerless against them; for witnesses will + not give evidence and juries will not convict if they know that to do so will mean + certain ruin and probable death; and yet those same societies have always possessed + one element of weakness: however terrible their oaths of secrecy have been, the + Government have never had the slightest difficulty in finding out, through their + confidential agents, everything that has taken place at their meetings, and what + their projects are.</p> + <p>As early as 1785 there had been two societies carrying on something like civil war + on a small scale in the north. How they originated, is a matter of dispute; but at + any rate before they had <span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>[pg + 87]</span> long been in existence, the religious element became supreme-as it does + sooner or later in every Irish movement; whatever temporary alliances may be formed + for other reasons, religion always ultimately becomes the line of cleavage. In this + case, the "Peep of Day Boys" were Protestants, the "Defenders" Roman Catholic. Some + of the outrages committed by the Defenders were too horrible to put in print; many + Roman Catholic families fled the country on account of the treatment which they + received from the Peep of Day Boys, and took refuge among their co-religionists in + the south.</p> + <p>But now a greater crisis was at hand. The terrible upheaval of the French + Revolution was shaking European society to its foundation. The teaching of Paine and + Voltaire had borne fruit; the wildest socialism was being preached in every land. + Ulster had shown sympathy with Republican ideas at the time of the American War of + Independence; and now a large number of the Presbyterians of Belfast eagerly accepted + the doctrines of Jacobinism. Nothing can sound more charmingly innocent than the + objects of the United Irish Society as put forward publicly in 1791; the members + solemnly and religiously pledged themselves to use all their influence to obtain an + impartial and adequate representation of the Irish nation in Parliament; and as a + means to this end to endeavour to secure the co-operation of Irishmen of all + religious persuasions. Some writers have tried to make out that if the Relief Act of + 1793 had <span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>[pg 88]</span> been + extended in 1795 by another Act enabling Roman Catholics to become Members of + Parliament; and if a Reform Bill had been passed making the House of Commons really + representative, the society would never have been anything but a perfectly legal and + harmless association. Of course it is always possible to suggest what might have + been; but in this case it is far more probable that if Parliament had been so + reformed as to be a fair reflex of the opinion of the country, it would immediately + have passed a resolution declaring Ireland a Republic and forming an alliance with + France; for whatever objects were stated in public, the real guiding spirits of the + United Irish Society from the beginning (as of other societies of a later date with + equally innocent names) were ardent republicans, who joined the society in order to + further those views; it is absurd to suggest that men who were actually in + correspondence with the leaders of the Directory and were trying to bring about an + invasion from France in order to aid them in establishing a Republic on Jacobin lines + would have been deterred by the passing of a Bill making it lawful for Roman + Catholics to sit in Parliament. Nor again is it reasonable to contend that + earnest-minded Roman Catholics would, in consequence of the failure of such a Bill to + become law, have rebelled against a Government under which they were able to exercise + their religion in peace and which was at that moment founding and endowing a College + for the training of candidates for the priesthood, in favour of one which had + confiscated <span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>[pg 89]</span> the + seminaries and was sending the priests to the guillotine. The fact seems to have been + that the society was formed by Presbyterians, for political reasons; they tried to + get the Roman Catholics to join them, but the lower class Roman Catholics cared very + little about seats in Parliament; so the founders of the society cleverly added + abolition of tithes and taxes, and reduction of rents, to their original programme; + this drew in numbers of Roman Catholics, whose principles were really the very + antithesis of Jacobinism.</p> + <p>It is a fair instance of the confusion which has always reigned throughout Irish + politics, that after the Relief Act of 1793 had been passed, the Catholic Committee + expressed their jubilation by voting £2,000 for a statue to the King, and + presenting a gold medal to their Secretary, Wolfe Tone, who was at that moment + scheming to set up a Jacobin Republic.</p> + <p>This celebrated man, Wolfe Tone, was not unlike many others who have posed as + Irish patriots. Hating the very name of England, he schemed to get one appointment + after another from the English Government-at one time seeking to be put in command of + a filibustering expedition to raid the towns of South America, at another time trying + for a post in India; hating the Pope and the priests, he acted as Secretary to the + Catholic Committee; then hating Grattan and the Irish Parliament and everything to + say to it, he showed his patriotism by devoting his energies to trying to persuade + the French Republican Government to invade Ireland.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>[pg 90]</span> + <p>On the 21st of September, 1795, an incident occurred which, though apparently + trivial at the time, was destined to be of great historical importance. Ulster had + now for some time been in a state bordering on anarchy; not only were the secret + societies constantly at war, but marauding bands, pretending to belong to one or + other of the societies, were ravishing the country. Something like a pitched battle + was fought between the Protestants and the Defenders, in which the Defenders, + although they were the stronger party and made the attack, were utterly routed. In + the evening, the victors agreed to form themselves into a society which should bear + the name of William of Orange. There had previously been some societies called by + that name; but this was the foundation of the Orange Society of the present day. The + oath which at first was taken by every member of the society was to defend the king + and his heirs so long as he or they support the Protestant ascendancy. (This + conditional form of oath of allegiance has long since been abolished.) It was + industriously circulated by the United Irishmen that the actual words of the oath + were: "I will be true to the King and Government and I will exterminate as far as I + am able the Catholics of Ireland." There is no evidence, however, that any words of + the kind ever formed part of an oath prescribed by the Orange Society; and those who + make the statement now must be aware that they are repeating a calumny.</p> + <p>After this time, the quarrel gradually tended more and more to become a religious + one; the Peep <span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>[pg 91]</span> + of Day Boys becoming merged in the Orange Society, and the Protestants slowly + withdrawing from the United Irish Society; on the other hand, the Defenders + ultimately coalesced with the United Irishmen and thus, by an illogical combination + of inconsistent forces, formed the party which brought about the terrible + rebellion.</p> + <p>The close of the year 1796 was one of the most critical moments in the history of + England. On the continent the power of republican France under the genius of Napoleon + and his generals was sweeping all before it. England was in a state of bankruptcy, + and almost as completely isolated as she had been in the time of Elizabeth. Wolfe + Tone and his Irish plotters saw their opportunity as clearly as their predecessors + had in the times of Edward Bruce and Philip II. They laid a statement of the + condition of Ireland before the French Government which, though as full of + exaggerations as most things in Irish history, was sufficiently based on fact to lead + the French Government to believe that if a French force were landed in Ireland, the + Irishmen in the British Army and Navy would mutiny, the Yeomen would join the French, + and the whole of the North of Ireland would rise in rebellion.</p> + <p>Accordingly a French fleet of forty-three sail, carrying about 15,000 troops, + sailed from Brest for Bantry Bay. No human power could have prevented their landing; + and had they done so, they could have marched to Cork and seized the town without any + difficulty; the United Irishmen would <span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" + id="page92"></a>[pg 92]</span> have risen, and the whole country might have been + theirs. But the same power which saved England from the Armada of Catholic Spain 200 + years before now shielded her from the invasion of republican France. Storms and fogs + wrought havoc throughout the French fleet. In less than a month from the time of + their starting, Wolfe Tone and the shattered remains of the invading force were back + at Brest, without having succeeded in landing a single man on the Irish shore.</p> + <p>Had this projected invasion taken place fifty years before, amongst the French + troops would have been the Irish brigade, who were always yearning for the + opportunity of making an attack on their native land. But half a century had caused + strange changes; the Irish brigade had fallen with the collapse of the French + monarchy; and some of the few survivors were now actually serving under King George + III.</p> + <p>It was a remarkable fact that no one in the neighbourhood of Bantry showed the + slightest sympathy with the Frenchmen. The few resident gentry, the moment the danger + was evident, called together the yeomanry and organized their tenantry to oppose the + foe-though the utmost they could have done would have been to delay the progress of + the invaders for a little at the cost of their own lives; and the peasantry did all + in their power to support their efforts.</p> + <p>If it is possible to analyse the state of political feeling at this time, we may + say that first there was a very limited number of thoughtful men who saw <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>[pg 93]</span> that after the Acts + of 1782 and 1793 either separation or union was inevitable, and who consequently + opposed all idea of parliamentary reform, because they thought it would tend to + separation and make union more difficult. A second party (a leading member of which + was Charlemont) approved of the existing state of things, and believed that it could + be continued; a third (of which Grattan was one) fondly imagined that all would go + smoothly if only a Catholic Relief Bill and a Reform Bill were carried, and so + directed all their efforts towards those objects; and a fourth believed that no + reform would be granted without pressure, and so were ready even to work up a + rebellion in order to obtain it; but that was a very small party at best, and was + soon carried away by the whirlwind of those revolutionists who cared nothing about + the Parliament then sitting in Dublin, or about any other possible Parliament which + might own allegiance to the King of England, for their real aim was to sever Ireland + from England altogether and establish a separate republic. As Wolfe Tone wrote: "To + break the connection with England and to assert the independence of my country were + my objects."</p> + <p>It is this party that is represented by the Nationalists of to-day, except that + when they look for foreign aid, their hopes lie in the direction of Germany rather + than France. I know that this remark may call forth a storm of denials from those who + judge by the speeches which Nationalist leaders have made in England when trying to + win the Radical vote, or in the Colonies when aiming <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page94" id="page94"></a>[pg 94]</span> at getting money from people who had not + studied the question. But I judge not by speeches such as those, but by statements + continually put forward by political writers and orators when they have cast off the + mask and are addressing their sympathizers in Ireland and America:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The Nationalists of Ireland stand for the complete independence of Ireland, and + they stand for nothing else. In the English Empire they have no part or lot, and + they wish to have no part or lot. We stand for the Irish nation, free and + independent and outside the English Empire."-(<i>Irish Freedom</i>.)</p> + <p>"Our aim is the establishment of an Irish Republic, for the simple and sole + reason that no other ending of our quarrel with England could be either adequate or + final. This is the one central and vital point of agreement among all who are + worthy of the name of Irish Nationalists-that Ireland is a separate nation-separate + in thought, mind, in ideals and outlooks. Come what may, we work for Ireland as + separate from England as Germany is separate."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"Year by year the pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe Tone grows more + significant of the rising tide of militant and uncompromising Nationalism, more + significant of the fact that Young Ireland has turned away from the false thing + that has passed for patriotism, and has begun to reverence only the men and the + things <span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>[pg 95]</span> and + the memories that stand for Ireland an independent nation. Paying tribute to the + memory of men like Tone, lifting up the language of Ireland from the mire, linking + up the present with the old days of true patriotic endeavour-these are the doings + that will eventually bring our land from the mazes of humbug into the clear dawn + that heralds Nationhood."-(<i>The Leinster Leader</i>.)</p> + <p>"The object aimed at by the advanced National party is the recovery of Ireland's + national independence and the severance of all political connection with + England."-(<i>J. Devoy</i>.)</p> + <p>"In the better days that are approaching, the soil of Ireland will be populated + by a race of Irishmen free and happy and thriving, owning no master under the + Almighty, and owning no flag but the green flag of an independent Irish + nation."-(<i>W. O'Brien, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"In supporting Home Rule for Ireland we abandon no principle of Irish nationhood + as laid down by the fathers in the Irish movement for independence, from Wolfe Tone + and Emmett to John Mitchell, and from Mitchell to Kickham and Parnell."-(<i>J. + Redmond</i>.)</p> + <p>"Our ultimate goal is the national independence of our + country."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>[pg 96]</span> + <p>"In its essence the National movement is the same to-day as it was in the days + of Hugh O'Niell, Owen Roe, Emmett, or of Wolfe Tone."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"We are as much rebels to England's rule as our forefathers were in + '98."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"I remember when Parnell was asked if he would accept as a final settlement the + Home Rule compromise proposed by Mr. Gladstone. I remember his answer. He said 'I + believe in the policy of taking from England anything we can wring from her which + will strengthen our hands to go for more.'"-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"When we have undermined English misgovernment we have paved the way for Ireland + to take her place among the nations of the earth. And let us not forget that that + is the ultimate goal at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be in + America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be satisfied until we have + destroyed the last link which keeps Ireland bound to England."</p> + <p>(<i>C.S. Parnell</i>.)</p> + <p>"I know there are many people in America who think that the means which we are + operating to-day for the good of Ireland are not sufficiently sharp and decisive + ... I would suggest to those who have constituted themselves <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>[pg 97]</span> the censors of our + movement, would it not be well to give our movement a fair chance-to allow us to + have an Irish Parliament that will give our people all authority over the police + and the judiciary and all government in the nation, and when equipped with + comparative freedom, then would be the time for those who think we should destroy + the last link that binds us to England to operate by whatever means they think best + to achieve that great and desirable end? I am quite sure that I speak for the + United Irish League in the matter."</p> + <p>(<i>J. Devlin, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"What was it, after all, that Wolfe Tone, and Fitzgerald, and Mitchell, and + Smith O'Brien, and O'Meagher Condon, and Allen, Larkins and O'Brien, and all the + other gallant Irishmen strove for, who from generation to generation were inspired + with the spirit of revolution? ... In what respect does our policy differ from the + purpose of these men?"-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"In my opinion, and in the opinion of the vast majority of the advanced + Nationalists of Ireland, the Repeal of the Union is not the full Nationalist + demand; separation is the full Nationalist demand; that is the right on which we + stand, the Nationalist right of Ireland."-(<i>J. Dillon, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"I should never have dedicated my life to this <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page98" id="page98"></a>[pg 98]</span> great struggle if I did not see at the + end the crowning and the consummation of our work-a free and independent + nation."-(<i>Ib.</i>)</p> + <p>"We aim at nothing else than establishing a new nation upon the map of + Europe."-(<i>Dr. Douglas Hyde</i>.)</p> + <p>"If there is any man in this audience who says to us as representing that + Parliamentary movement-'I don't believe in your Parliamentary ideas, I don't accept + Home Rule, I go beyond it; I believe in an independent Irish nation'-if any man + says this, I say that we don't disbelieve in it. These are our tactics-if you are + to take a fortress, first take the outer works."-(<i>T.M. Kettle, M.P.</i>)</p> + <p>"We want to carry on the work that the Fenians tried to do to a triumphal issue. + The Fenians stood for an Irish Republic, and so do we. No policy which left England + in control of the Irish Nation could be regarded as final. There is only one way, + and that is to get the absolute and complete independence of Ireland, free from + English rule and English domination. The Fenians did not go to the Prime Minister + for concessions. No: they started into arms, and if people of the present day + believed in that they should arm themselves to get the independence of + Ireland."-(<i>B. Hobson</i>, speaking at a demonstration at Cork, on the + anniversary of the "martyrdom" of Allen, Larkins, and O'Brien.)</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>[pg 99]</span> + <p>"Should the Germans land in Ireland, they will be received with willing hearts + and strong hands, and should England be their destination, it is to be hoped that + they will find time to disembark 100,000 rifles and a few score of ammunition for + the same in this country, and twelve months later this Ireland will be as free as + the Lord God meant it should be."-(<i>Major McBride</i>, who organized an Irish + force to aid the Boers against England, and has consequently been appointed to a + municipal inspectorship by the Corporation of Dublin.)</p> + <p>"I appeal to you most earnestly to do all in your power to prevent your + countrymen from entering the degraded British army. If you prevent 500 men from + enlisting you do nearly as good work, if not quite so exciting, as if you shot 500 + men on the field of battle, and also you are making the path smoother for the + approaching conquest of England by Germany."-(Ib.)</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>[pg 100]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + <h3>THE REBELLION.</h3> + <p>Early in 1797 it became evident to all but the most shortsighted of politicians + that a rebellion, of which none could foretell the result, was imminent. As one + shrewd observer wrote: "I look upon it that Ireland must soon stand in respect to + England in one of three situations-united with her, the Legislatures being joined; + separated from her, and forming a republic; or as a half-subdued Province." The + supporters of law and order were naturally divided in opinion as to the course to + pursue. Some were in favour of a policy of conciliation. Grattan induced his friend + Ponsonby to bring forward another Reform Bill, abolishing the religious test and the + separate representation of boroughs, and dividing each county into districts; and + when he saw that the motion could not be carried, delivered an impassioned speech, + declaring that he would never again attend the House of Commons, and solemnly walked + out. It was a piece of acting, too transparent to deceive anybody. Grattan was a + disappointed man-disappointed not so much because his proposals were not adopted, as + because his own followers were slipping away from him. They had begun to realize that + he was an orator but not a statesman; his ideas were wild, fanciful dreams. Whilst + vehemently upholding the English connection he was playing into the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>[pg 101]</span> hands of England's + opponents by reminding them that England's difficulty was Ireland's opportunity; + whilst hating the very idea of a Union, he was making the existing system impossible + by preventing the passing of a commercial treaty; whilst passionately supporting + Protestant ascendancy, he was advocating a measure which at that moment would have + brought about the establishment either of a Roman Catholic ascendancy or more + probably of a Jacobin Republic. He saw his supporters dwindling slowly from + seventy-seven in 1783 to thirty in 1797. Men were now alive to the fact that the + country was in an alarming condition. They saw what had happened in France but a few + years before, and how little Louis XVI had gained by trying to pose as a liberator + and a semi-republican; and, knowing that the rebellion with which they were faced was + an avowed imitation of the French Revolution, they were coming to the opinion that + stern measures were necessary. In almost every county of three Provinces conspirators + were at work, trying to bring down on their country a foreign invasion, and stirring + up the people to rebellion and crime by appealing to their agrarian grievances and + cupidity, their religious passion, and the discontent produced by great poverty. For + a second time it appeared that Wolfe Tone would succeed in obtaining aid from + abroad-this time from Spain and Holland; and the rebel party in Ireland were now so + well organized, and Jacobin feeling was so widespread, that had he done so, it was + almost inevitable that Ireland would have been <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page102" id="page102"></a>[pg 102]</span> lost to England. But once more the + unexpected was destined to occur. Early in February Jervis shattered the power of the + Spanish Fleet off Cape St. Vincent; and in the summer, just when the Dutch ships, + with 14,000 troops on board, were ready to start, and resistance on the part of + England seemed hopeless, a violent gale arose and for weeks the whole fleet remained + imprisoned in the river; and when at length they did succeed in making a start, the + English were ready to meet them within a few miles of the coast of Holland; after a + tremendous battle the broken remnant of the Dutch fleet returned to the harbour + defeated. The rage and mortification of Wolfe Tone at his second failure knew no + bounds.</p> + <p>In the North of Ireland, however, the rebellion had practically begun. The + magistrates were powerless; the classes who had supported the gentry during the + Volunteer Movement were amongst the disaffected. The country was in a state of + anarchy; murders and outrages of every sort were incessant. That the measures which + the Government and their supporters took to crush the rising rebellion were illegal + and barbarous, cannot be denied; that they in fact by their violence hurried on the + rebellion is not improbable. But it is still more probable that they were the means + of preventing its success; just as, had the Government of Louis XVI shown more vigour + at the outset of the Revolution, the Reign of Terror would probably never have taken + place. Through evidence obtained by torture, the Government got possession <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>[pg 103]</span> of vast stores of + arms which the rebels had prepared; by twice seizing the directors of the movement + they deprived it of its central organization; and if they were the cause of the + rebellion breaking out sooner than had been intended, the result was that they were + able to quell it in one district before it had time to come to a head in another.</p> + <p>War at best is very terrible; and there were two circumstances which made the war + in Ireland more terrible than others. It was a religious war, and it was a civil war. + It often happens that when religion is turned to hatred it stirs up the worst and + most diabolical passions of the human breast; and the evil feelings brought on by a + civil war necessarily last longer than animosity against a foreign foe. The horrors + of 1798 make one shudder to think what must happen in Ireland if civil war ever + breaks out there again.</p> + <p>From Ulster the United Ireland movement spread during 1797 to Leinster, as far + south as Wexford, and began to assume a more decidedly religious character. As a + contemporary historian wrote:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"So inveterately rooted are the prejudices of religious antipathy in the minds + of the lower classes of Irish Romanists, that in any civil war, however originating + from causes unconnected with religion, not all the efforts of their gentry, or even + priests, to the contrary could (if I am not exceedingly mistaken) restrain them + from converting it into a religious quarrel."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>[pg 104]</span> (Had he + lived a century later, he might have used the same words.) But though this was + generally the case, there were complications as embarrassing as they usually are in + Irish affairs. The yeomanry were mainly Protestants, but the majority of the militia + were Roman Catholics, and those commanded by Lord Fingall entirely so. There was much + disaffection in both branches of the service; besides which, officers and men alike + lacked the discipline and experience of regular troops; but as the supply of soldiers + from England was wholly inadequate for the situation, the Government were obliged to + rely on any forces they could obtain. As the rebellion drifted into being a Roman + Catholic movement, the Orangemen became intensely loyal, and were eager to fight on + the king's side, but the Government dreaded lest by employing them they might offend + the militia. By 1798, when the rebellion in the south was at its height, the north + had become comparatively calm. The severities of the previous year had had some + salutary effect; the staunch Protestants had no desire to aid in what had become a + Roman Catholic rebellion; and the republican party had seen that the universal + fraternity of the Jacobin Government of France had turned into a military despotism + which was engaged in crushing the neighbouring republics and was almost at war with + the sister Republic of America.<br /> + <br /> + + <p>But whilst Ulster was growing calmer, the condition of the south was becoming + daily more appalling. On the 23rd of May the rebellion actually broke out in the + counties of Dublin, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>[pg + 105]</span> Kildare and Meath; and many skirmishes took place in which the losses on + the king's side were comparatively few but those of the rebels enormous, in + consequence of their ignorance of the use of firearms. The better-trained forces soon + got to know that an Irish peasant when armed with a pike was a deadly foe; but when + armed with a musket was almost harmless. This part of the campaign will always be + specially memorable for the attack made on the little town of Prosperous, in the + county of Kildare. It was cleverly made in the early morning; the garrison, taken + unawares, were nearly all killed; the Commander, Captain Swayne, being amongst the + victims. It was soon afterwards found out that the leader of the rebels was Dr. + Esmonde, a gentleman of good family, and first lieutenant in a regiment of yeomanry + stationed a few miles off, who had been dining with Captain Swayne the previous + evening. He appeared in his regiment the next day, but was identified by a yeoman who + had seen him at Prosperous; arrested, tried, and hanged as a traitor.</p> + <p>A Nationalist has recently referred to him as a martyr to the cause of Irish + liberty.</p> + <p>By the month of June Wexford had become the centre of the rebellion. In that + county it had assumed an essentially religious character (there being, however, a few + exceptions on each side), and in no other part of Ireland was the war so terrible + either on account of its magnitude or barbarity. The passions of the ignorant + peasantry were inflamed by all Protestants being spoken of as <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>[pg 106]</span> Orangemen and a + report being diligently circulated that all Orangemen had sworn to destroy the + Catholic Faith-exactly the same course that was followed a hundred years later. Roman + Catholic priests, wearing their sacred vestments and carrying crucifixes, led the + rebel forces; and the ignorant peasants, believing them to be endowed with miraculous + powers, followed them with the blind adherence that only fanaticism can inspire. And + yet-so strangely contradictory is everything in Ireland-there is clear evidence that + amongst those priestly agitators many were at heart deists, who were making use of + religion in the hope of furthering Jacobinism. Many Protestants saved their lives by + apostatizing, or by allowing their children to be rebaptized; it is but fair to add, + however, that several of the older priests, shocked at the conduct of the rebels, + concealed heretics in their houses and churches; and that all through the war many + priests, in spite of the difficulty of their position, remained loyal and did what + they could to aid the king's troops.</p> + <p>The rebels for some weeks held command of the town and county of Wexford, their + chief camp being at a place called Vinegar Hill. The country around was searched and + plundered; the Protestants who were captured were brought into the rebel camp, and + there deliberately butchered in cold blood. How many perished it is impossible to + say; the number must have been at the least 400.</p> + <p>I would willingly pass over this dreadful episode. I have no more desire to dwell + on it than I have on <span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>[pg + 107]</span> Cromwell's conduct at Drogheda. I regard it merely as one of those + terrible incidents which alas have taken place in almost every campaign. It was + probably equalled in character if not in magnitude by several outrages committed by + the other side; and certainly parallels could be found in the French invasion of + Algeria fifty years later and in many other wars of the nineteenth century. When men + have been fired with the diabolical passions that war arouses, and have grown + accustomed to the ghastly sights on battlefields, they cease to be reasoning beings; + they become fiends. But unfortunately it is necessary to explain what really + occurred, as it is to Vinegar Hill and its terrible associations that the + Nationalists of to-day refer with triumph. Songs in praise of the massacre are sung + at Nationalist gatherings; and W. Redmond, speaking at Enniscorthy (close to the + scene of the massacre) on the 110th anniversary of the outrages said: "The heroic + action of the men who fought and died around Vinegar Hill was the heritage of all + Ireland. Whatever measure of comparative freedom we now enjoy was entirely + attributable to the Insurrection of '98. It was the pikemen of '98 who made the world + and England understand that Irishmen knew how to fight for their rights, and it is to + the knowledge of that fact by England that we may look for the real driving force of + any effort we may make for our liberty. The Irish people are in no position to resort + to arms, but the spirit is there, and by demonstrations like this we show our rulers + that it is essential for <span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>[pg + 108]</span> any real and lasting peace that the aspirations of the patriots of '98 + must be satisfied, and that a full measure of National freedom must be granted to + Ireland."</p> + <p>(It will be observed that in the opinion of this orator-a prominent Nationalist + Member of Parliament, who was selected to go round the Colonies collecting money for + the Home Rule cause-the possession of an Independent Parliament, of everything in + fact short of separation, goes for nothing; it is only those who rebelled against + that Parliament who are to be regarded as models for modern Nationalists to follow. + It is interesting also to note the different views which have been put forward by + Irish politicians with regard to the rebellion. In 1843 the leaders of the Repeal + Association stated in one of their manifestoes, as an argument in favour of repeal, + that England had resorted to the diabolical expedient of fomenting a rebellion in + order to distract the country and give excuse for military violence and so bring + about a Union. But the Nationalists of to-day have so completely identified + themselves with the rebels of 1798 that within the last few years splendid monuments + have been erected in all the towns of Wexford and the adjoining counties; some of + these are bronze figures of patriots brandishing pikes, others are representations of + the priestly leaders of the rebel forces. These monuments have been unveiled with + great ceremony, impassioned speeches being made on the occasion by leading orators, + both clerical and lay).</p> + <p>In order to realize the terrible position in which <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page109" id="page109"></a>[pg 109]</span> the loyalists were placed, we must + recollect that whilst the Wexford rebels were triumphant in that county, and the + movement seemed to be spreading into Kilkenny and Carlow, there was a fresh outbreak + in the north; it appeared probable that Dublin might rise at any moment; the French + fleet was hourly expected, and the long looked-for aid from England was still + delayed. But the Irish loyalist minority showed the same dogged determination that + they had done in the time of James II, and that they will show again in the + future.</p> + <p>The numbers engaged in the different battles and skirmishes have been variously + estimated; it seems that at the battle of Arklow the loyalists did not exceed 1,600, + of whom nearly all were militia and yeomanry, with a few artillery; whilst the + rebels, commanded by Father Michael Murphy, amounted to at least 20,000. Yet after a + terrible afternoon's fighting the rebels, disheartened by the fall of their leader + (whom they had believed to be invulnerable) retired, leaving more than 1,000 dead on + the field.</p> + <p>Soon, however, the reinforcements from England began to arrive; and the French + invasion, on which the rebels were building their hopes, was still delayed. By July, + although fighting was still going on in the Wicklow mountains and some other parts of + the country, the worst of the rebellion in Wexford was crushed, and an Act of Amnesty + was carried through Parliament. It is worthy of note that the trials of the rebels + which took place in Dublin were conducted with a fairness and a respect for the forms + of law which are probably <span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" + id="page110"></a>[pg 110]</span> unparalleled in the history of other countries at + moments of such terrible excitement; we can contrast them for instance with the steps + that were taken in putting down the outbreak of the Commune in Paris in 1871. It is + easy now to argue that, as the force of the rebellion was being broken, it would have + been more humane to have allowed those who had plotted and directed it to go + unpunished. But as Lecky has pointed out, "it was scarcely possible to exaggerate the + evil they had produced, and they were immeasurably more guilty than the majority of + those who had already perished.</p> + <p>"They had thrown back, probably for generations, the civilization of their + country. They had been year by year engaged in sowing the seed which had ripened into + the harvest of blood. They had done all in their power to bring down upon Ireland the + two greatest curses that can afflict a nation-the curse of civil war, and the curse + of foreign invasion; and although at the outset of their movement they had hoped to + unite Irishmen of all creeds, they had ended by lashing the Catholics into frenzy by + deliberate and skilful falsehood. The assertion that the Orangemen had sworn to + exterminate the Catholics was nowhere more prominent than in the newspaper which was + the recognised organ of the United Irish leaders. The men who had spread this calumny + through an ignorant and excitable Catholic population, were assuredly not less truly + murderers than those who had fired the barn at Scullabogue or piked the Protestants + on Wexford Bridge."</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>[pg 111]</span> + <p>A strong party, however, led by Lord Clare were in favour of clemency wherever + possible; and there seemed good reason for hoping that the rebellion would slowly die + out. Cooke, the Under Secretary, wrote on the 9th of August: "The country is by no + means settled nor secure should the French land, but I think secure if they do not." + Suddenly, however, the alarming news came that the French were actually in Ireland. + Wolfe Tone and his fellow-plotters, undaunted by their previous failures, had + continued ceaseless in their efforts to induce Napoleon to make an indirect attack on + England by invading Ireland; and if they had succeeded in persuading the French + Government to send an expedition two months earlier when the rebellion was at its + height and the English reinforcements had not arrived, Ireland must have been lost. + Once again, however, fortune favoured the English cause. The first instalment of the + French fleet, carrying 1,000 soldiers, did not start until the 6th of August, and + only arrived on the 22nd. They landed at Killala, in Mayo, and were not a little + surprised at the state of things existing there. They had expected to find a + universal feeling of republicanism; but instead of this, whilst the Protestants + refused to join them, the Roman Catholic peasantry received them with delight, and + declared their readiness to take arms for France and the Blessed Virgin. "God help + these simpletons," said one of the officers, "if they knew how little we care about + the Pope or his religion, they would not be so hot in expecting help from us!"</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>[pg 112]</span> + <p>Arriving at the wrong time and the wrong place, the expedition was foredoomed to + failure. The French were brave men and trained soldiers; but they found their Irish + allies perfectly useless. They succeeded in capturing Castlebar, and routing a force + of militia; but their campaign was brief; on the 8th of September the whole force + surrendered. The Connaught rebellion was speedily and severely put down.</p> + <p>The second instalment of the French invasion consisted of one ship. They landed on + the Island of Arran on the 16th of September; but after spending eight hours on + shore, re-embarked and sailed away to Norway.</p> + <p>The third instalment was, however, more serious. It consisted of a ship of the + line, eight frigates and a schooner, having on board an army of about 3,000 men. They + arrived at Lough Swilly early in October, where they were met by a more powerful + English fleet, and nearly all were destroyed or captured. Amongst the prisoners taken + was Wolfe Tone; who soon afterwards in order to avoid a felon's death, ended his life + by suicide.[See <a href="#page249">Note</a> at the end of the Volume]</p> + <p>A fortnight later the fourth and last instalment arrived at Killala Bay; but the + Admiral, hearing that the rebellion was over, promptly weighed anchor and returned to + France. Thus ingloriously ended the French attempts at the invasion of Ireland. The + calling-in of the foreigner had been of as little use to the cause of Irish rebellion + as it had been two centuries before.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>[pg 113]</span> + <p>By the end of the year the worst of the rebellion was over. But the evil it had + wrought was incalculable. How many had perished during that terrible summer will + never be known; the numbers have been variously computed at from 15,000 to 70,000. At + the outset of the rebellion-in February 1798-Lord Clare had made a memorable speech + in the House of Lords, which has been so often misquoted that it is well here to cite + the passage in full:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"If conciliation be a pledge of national tranquillity and contentment; if it be + a spell to allay popular ferment; there is not a nation in Europe in which it has + had so fair a trial as in the Kingdom of Ireland. For a period of nearly twenty + years a liberal and unvaried system of concession and conciliation has been pursued + and acted on by the British Government. Concession and conciliation have produced + only a fresh stock of grievances; other discontents of Ireland have kept pace with + her prosperity; for I am bold to say there is not a nation on the habitable globe + which has advanced in cultivation and commerce, in agriculture and in manufactures + with the same rapidity in the same period. Her progress is now retarded, and it is + a heart-breaking spectacle to every man who loves the country to see it arrested + only by the perverse and factious folly of the people, stimulated and encouraged by + disappointed statesmen."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>[pg 114]</span> + <p>Within a few months after that speech was made, Ireland was well-nigh ruined. All + the progress in material prosperity which had taken place in the years immediately + following 1782 was swept away. The national debt, which in 1791 had stood at + £2,442,890, involving an annual charge of £142,716, had risen to + £26,662,640, with an annual charge of £1,395,735; the exports of woollen + goods had almost ceased, and those of linen gone down by more than a third; other + industries showed a decay nearly as lamentable; public bankruptcy seemed inevitable. + Though the violent outbreak of rebellion had been put down, many parts of the country + were in a state of anarchy. In the west, armed bands went about every night houghing + the cattle and murdering all who dared to oppose them. If any man prosecuted one of + the offenders, he did it at the moral certainty of being murdered. The same fate hung + over every magistrate who sent a hougher to gaol, every witness who gave evidence + against him, every juryman who convicted him. In Limerick one man ventured on his own + part and on that of eight others to prosecute an offender who had destroyed their + property. All nine were murdered in one night. It was not safe to travel along the + high road within six miles of Dublin. The militia had, from their misbehaviour in the + field, and their extreme licentiousness, fallen into universal contempt and + abhorrence; officers of English regiments declared that it would be impossible to + maintain discipline amongst their troops if they remained in such a country. It was + discovered that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>[pg + 115]</span> the rebels were forming another Directory, and, still expecting aid from + France, planning a fresh outbreak. Religious animosities were more violent than ever. + Government was becoming impossible; for the Roman Catholic population, now thoroughly + disaffected, would not continue to submit to the rule of the Protestant oligarchy; + but the only way to put an end to it would be by another rebellion which if + successful would (as the Roman Catholic bishops and educated laymen fully realized) + probably result in the establishment of a Jacobin republic; clear-headed men of all + parties were beginning to think that there was but one solution of the problem; and + that was-the Union.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>[pg 116]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + <h3>THE UNION.</h3> + <p>We come now to the great turning point in the modern history of Ireland-the Union. + It has been so constantly and so vehemently asserted that this momentous event was + prompted by the wicked desire of England to ruin Ireland, and was carried out by + fraud, bribery, intimidation, and every form of political crime, that not only + ordinary readers, but even writers who are content to receive their information at + second hand without investigating evidence for themselves, generally assume that no + other view is possible. Thus O'Connell boldly asserted that the Irish Catholics never + assented to the Union. Others have blindly repeated his words; and from those + reiterated statements has been developed an argument that as the Catholics did not + assent to the Union, they cannot be bound by it.</p> + <p>I believe that there has been as much exaggeration about this as about most other + episodes of Irish history; and that anyone who, fairly and without prejudice, takes + the trouble to go through the history of the Union as it may be gathered from + contemporary documents, will come to the conclusion that it was devised by great and + earnest statesmen who had the good of both countries at heart. As to the means by + which it was carried, there is much to be said on both sides of the question; <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>[pg 117]</span> Lecky has stated + the case against the Union ably and temperately; other writers, equally honourable, + have taken the opposite side. There is at any rate very much to be said for the + opinion, that, considering the circumstances and the peculiar constitution of the + Irish Parliament, there was nothing which the Government did that was not perfectly + justifiable. As to whether it was in accordance with the wish of the people or not, + there are several points which ought to be borne in mind but to which sufficient + attention is not usually given. A very large part of the nation were ignorant + peasants, who did not and could not properly understand the question; and as a matter + of fact cared little about it. Then of those who were against the measure, many + opposed it not because they wished the existing state of things to continue, but + because they thought that the Union would prevent the one object of their + ambition-total separation and the establishment of a republic; their opinion + therefore has but little weight. When we come to the more educated and propertied + classes, it seems that the majority were in favour of the measure; and as to the + opinion of the Roman Catholic section (which after all was far the largest part of + the nation) I think there can be no doubt whatever. Fortunately it is no longer + necessary to wade through the mass of original papers; for the evidence has been so + carefully investigated during recent years by various impartial writers, and has been + presented to the general reader in so clear and concise a manner that no one now has + any excuse <span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>[pg 118]</span> + for being led away by the impassioned statements of partisan orators. I refer + specially to the "History of the Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland," by + Dr. Dunbar Ingram, published in 1887.</p> + <p>That careful writer commences his work by stating that, dissatisfied with endless + assertions unaccompanied by proof, he had determined to investigate the subject for + himself, examining closely the original and contemporary authorities. He soon found + that there was no evidence to sustain the accusations made against the manner in + which the Union was carried; and that all the charges against the Government rested + finally on Harrington's worthless romances or the declamatory statements of the + Opposition during the sessions of 1799 and 1800, which, when challenged, they + declined to substantiate. Then, as he proceeded in his work, he discovered that, + after its terms were known and the public had had time for reflection, the Union was + thankfully accepted by the two communities which made up Ireland; that the + Protestants, after the first burst of clamour, were as a body converted and became + well-wishers to the measure; and that the Roman Catholics, after a short hesitation, + gave the Union their hearty assent and support. And finally, the whole inquiry left a + strong conviction on his mind that the Union was undertaken from the purest motives, + that it was carried by fair and constitutional means, and that its final + accomplishment was accompanied with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" + id="page119"></a>[pg 119]</span> hearty assent and concurrence of the vast majority + of the two peoples that dwelt in Ireland.</p> + <p>I feel that I cannot do better than follow some of the lines of his argument.</p> + <p>It is true that in the time of the Plantagenets representatives from Ireland were + on several occasions summoned to attend the English Parliament; and that during the + Commonwealth Ireland was incorporated with the rest of the Empire and sent members to + the Parliaments of 1654 and 1657. These incidents, however, are unimportant; it is + more to the purpose to point out that from the time of the Restoration onwards we + find a long list of distinguished thinkers recommending such a Union; and in the + beginning of the eighteenth century both Houses of the Irish Parliament twice + petitioned Queen Anne to the same effect. It may be asked why the English + politicians, who were so anxious to bring about the Union with Scotland, turned a + deaf ear to these petitions. The answer is simple. The Scotch Parliament was + independent, and the impossibility of having two independent Parliaments under one + sovereign had become manifest. Trade jealousies had arisen; the action of the Scotch + had nearly involved England in a war with Spain; the Scotch Parliament had passed an + Act declaring that until provision was made for settling the rights and liberties of + the Scotch nation independently of England the successor to the Scotch Crown should + not be the same person that was possessed of the Crown of England. The Parliament of + England commenced arming the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" + id="page120"></a>[pg 120]</span> militia and fortifying the towns near the Border. + England being at war with France the Scotch Parliament passed an Act allowing + Scotchmen to trade with that country; it therefore was a choice between Union and + War; and the two countries wisely chose Union. In the case of Ireland, however, + England saw no such danger; the Irish legislature was subordinate; Ireland was bound + by English statutes; and the Irish Parliament represented not the whole people but + only that one section of it which was necessarily bound to the English connection; + the Irish petitions for Union therefore remained unheeded. The great Bishop Berkeley, + writing in 1735, strongly advocated a union; at a later time Adam Smith wrote: "By a + union with Great Britain Ireland would gain besides the freedom of trade other + advantages much more important ... Without a union with Great Britain the inhabitants + of Ireland are not likely for many ages to consider themselves as one people." But, + as we have seen, by the Act of 1782, the Irish Parliament had become independent-that + is, it was placed in the same position as the Scotch Parliament had been; and by the + Act of 1893, the bulk of the constituencies in the counties had become Roman + Catholic. Except in the opinion of thoughtless optimists like Grattan, matters were + approaching a deadlock; for sooner or later the Roman Catholic electors would demand + representation in Parliament; the borough members would most probably refuse it, in + which case war might break out again; and if they granted it, the Irish <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>[pg 121]</span> Parliament, then + almost entirely Roman Catholic, would be anxious to break the tie that bound Ireland + to England.</p> + <p>But apart from the religious question, it was evident that the constitution, as + fixed by the Act of 1782, was fraught with dangers. And it is no answer to say that + not many difficulties had arisen in the few years between 1782 and 1799; for, even + though that is partially true, the question for a statesman to consider was whether + they were likely to arise in the future; and the rebellion, which was still seething, + had made this all the more probable. First, on a declaration of war by England, + Ireland might refuse to take part in it; and her refusal would paralyse the Empire. + As early as 1791, Wolfe Tone had pointed out that Ireland need not embark on the side + of Great Britain in the contest which was then pending; and one of his followers had + advocated an alliance with France. (This is of all the more importance at the present + day, when the Nationalists state that their principles are the same as those of Wolfe + Tone.) Secondly, during a war, Ireland might refuse supplies to England. This course + was actually hinted at by Grattan. Thirdly, she might provoke a commercial war of + rates with England. This course was proposed in the Irish House of Commons in 1784. + Fourthly, she might put pressure on the Sovereign to declare war against a country + with which England was at peace. This also was proposed in the Irish House, in the + case of Portugal. Fifthly, she might differ from England in any international + question in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>[pg 122]</span> + reference to the connection between them, as she did in the Regency question. + Sixthly, she might refuse-as she did-to make a commercial treaty with Great Britain; + and thus keep open the most fertile sources of mutual jealousies and discontent. + Grattan's best friends had urged upon him in vain that refusing to assent to a + commercial treaty made the permanent government by two independent legislatures + impossible, and would bring about separation; he refused to be guided by their + advice, and at that time he still had supreme power in the House. It is remarkable + that even at a later date, whilst vehemently opposing the Union, he took a delight in + pointing out how many ways there were in which an Irish Parliament might injure + England; seeming not to realize that he was supplying a forcible argument in favour + of the measure he was opposing.</p> + <p>The dangers of the situation were summed up by Pitt in a few words:-"A party in + England may give to the Throne one species of advice by its Parliament. A party in + Ireland may advise directly opposite upon the most essential points that involve the + safety of both; upon alliance with a foreign power, for instance; upon the army; upon + the navy; upon any branch of the public service; upon trade; upon commerce; or upon + any point essential to the Empire at large." And long afterwards Sir Robert Peel + pointed out that within the short period of six years from the establishment of what + is called the independence of the Irish Parliament-from 1782 to 1788-the foreign + relations <span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>[pg 123]</span> of + the two countries, the commercial intercourse of the two countries, the sovereign + exercise of authority in the two countries, were the subjects of litigation and + dispute; and it was more owing to accident than to any other cause that they did not + produce actual alienation and rupture.</p> + <p>The idea of a Union was first brought before Parliament by the Lord Lieutenant + (Lord Cornwallis) in his speech at the opening of the Session in January 1799. It + appeared at first that a majority of the Peers were in favour of the proposal, but a + small majority of the House of Commons hostile-some to the scheme altogether, others + to its being brought forward at that time. This small majority, however, rapidly + diminished; and before many weeks had passed, the Government possessed a majority in + both Houses. The citizens of Dublin were naturally strongly against the measure, + thinking that it would injure the prestige of the capital; as were also the + proprietors of boroughs and the legal members of the House; and soon after the scheme + had been proposed, several counties held meetings and passed resolutions against it; + but as the year went on, when the details of the measure had been more carefully + considered, there was a general change of feeling throughout the country. Lord + Cornwallis went on tours both north and south, through both Protestant and Roman + Catholic districts, everywhere receiving addresses in favour of the Union from + corporations, grand juries, leading residents, and especially from Roman Catholic + bodies. And, if we may believe Lord <span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" + id="page124"></a>[pg 124]</span> Cornwallis's own letters, these addresses were + entirely spontaneous, and represented the real feelings of the community. Before + Parliament met in March 1800, twenty-two counties had passed resolutions in favour of + the Union; and Lord Castlereagh was able to say in the House that the great body of + the landed property of Ireland, and all the great commercial towns except Dublin and + Drogheda, were friendly to the measure. The Opposition attempted to meet this by + presenting a number of petitions showing that the people of Ireland were against it. + Of the fifty-four petitions presented, five were not against the Union at all, but + merely requests for compensation in the event of its coming about; three were from + individuals or commercial firms; and eight were from Dublin alone. The number + therefore was much smaller than appears at first sight. Besides obtaining these + petitions, the Opposition also collected a large sum of money for the purchase of + seats; in the circumstances and according to the ideas of the time, I do not say that + they were in the least morally wrong in doing so; but the fact takes away from the + value of the votes given; and it neutralizes anything that was done by the Government + in the same way-if it can be proved that the Government so acted.</p> + <p>But as the Roman Catholics constituted three-fourths of the population of Ireland, + it is more important to investigate what their feelings were than to scrutinize the + division lists of the House, if we wish to ascertain what was really the wish of the + nation. Fortunately we have an opportunity <span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" + id="page125"></a>[pg 125]</span> of testing whether there is any truth in the + statement of O'Connell to which I have already referred-that the Irish Catholics did + not assent to the Union. The evidence shows conclusively that the Roman Catholic + peerage, episcopate, priesthood and laity all gave the movement their hearty + concurrence and co-operation. Lords Kenmare and Fingall assured Lord Cornwallis that + the Catholics were in favour of a Union; the entire episcopate-that is, the four + archbishops and nineteen bishops, three sees being vacant-expressed the same view by + their letters which are still extant or by resolutions signed by them; for instance, + the Archbishop of Tuam wrote: "I have had an opportunity of acquiring the strongest + conviction that this measure alone can restore harmony and happiness to our unhappy + country." The Bishop of Cork wrote: "Nothing in my opinion will more effectively tend + to lay these disgraceful and scandalous party feuds and dissensions, and restore + peace and harmony amongst us, than the great measure in contemplation, of the + legislative Union, and incorporation of this Kingdom with Great Britain. I am happy + to tell you it is working its way, and daily gaining ground in the public opinion. + Several counties which appeared most adverse to it have now declared for it, and I + have no doubt but, with the blessing of God, it will be effected, notwithstanding the + violent opposition of Mr. Foster and his party. The Roman Catholics in general are + avowedly for the measure. In the south, where they are the most numerous, they have + declared in its favour." The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" + id="page126"></a>[pg 126]</span> Bishop of Ferns presided at a meeting of Catholics + of Wexford at which an address in favour of incorporation of both legislatures was + signed by 3,000 persons; and throughout the country meetings, presided over by parish + priests, were held to further the movement; and the laity were quite as eager as the + clergy in the matter. Plowden, the Roman Catholic historian, says: "A very great + preponderancy in favour of the Union existed in the Catholic body, particularly in + their nobility, gentry and clergy." Thomas McKenna, the Secretary to the Catholic + Committee, wrote two pamphlets in the same interest; whilst on the other hand not a + single petition against it was presented by any Roman Catholic body.</p> + <p>When the Session of 1800 commenced, a leading member of the Opposition sadly + confessed that the people had deserted them. But the struggle in the House of Commons + was tremendous. The Anti-Unionists had the advantage of the oratory of Grattan, who, + though he had not been in Parliament since 1797, now purchased a seat for + £2,400, and entered the House in a theatrical manner in the midst of the + discussion. But his vehement and abusive style of declamation could not in debate be + compared with the calm reasoning of Castlereagh. The most able speeches against the + measure were not those of Grattan, but Foster. Many divisions were taken, the + Government majority steadily rising from forty-two to sixty-five, and comprising an + actual majority of the members of the House. In the House of Lords it was relatively + much <span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>[pg 127]</span> larger. + But it is constantly affirmed that this majority was only brought about by bribery + and intimidation. The word "bribery" has an ugly sound; and in such a case as this, + it is only fair to examine what is exactly meant by the term. There is no doubt that + compensation was given to the proprietors of boroughs which were not allowed + representation in the United Parliament; and it is said that as the return of members + to Parliament is a public trust and not a species of property, this was not a fair + matter for pecuniary compensation; hence it amounted to bribery. But the ownership of + boroughs had grown up insensibly; and they had long been looked upon and treated as + private property, not only in Ireland but in England and Scotland also; and there + were many honest men in all three countries who contended that the system worked + well, as it was the means whereby a large number of distinguished men obtained their + first introduction into public life-amongst them being Pitt, Canning, and Fox in + England, Grattan, Flood and Plunkett in Ireland. Then in other cases when powers + which had long been regarded as property have been abolished, compensation has been + given. This was the case when the heritable jurisdictions in Scotland were abolished, + and when by the disestablishment of the Irish Church the right of patrons to nominate + to livings was taken away. And even granting for the sake of argument that this is + wrong, is it fair to call it bribery? Eighty-four places were disfranchised, and a + sum of £1,260,000 (which did not nearly amount to the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page128" id="page128"></a>[pg 128]</span> price which the boroughs at that time + fetched in the market) was paid. Of this, £67,500 was paid to Englishmen who + owned seats in the Irish Parliament; £60,000 to boroughs who had no owners; + £30,000 to the executors of a deceased owner; £18,750 to two ladies; and + £1,100,000 to Irishmen who owned boroughs-of which £400,000 went to + Anti-Unionists who opposed the Bill. In many cases, of course, the actual occupant of + the seat was a different person from the owner who received the compensation; for + instance, there is reason to believe that all the fifty barristers in the house had + purchased their seats, but not one of them was the permanent owner. Now, if + compensation is bribery, who was bribed? Really it must be admitted that on + investigation the charge of bribery, so far as it refers to compensation to + borough-owners, falls to the ground.</p> + <p>Then it is said that the Government made actual payments to members for their + votes. This charge was brought forward in a general way at the time in both Houses; + the Government indignantly denied it, and called on the Opposition to prove their + accusation; but they failed to do so. To repeat it now is therefore unjust. It may be + admitted that amongst Lord Castlereagh's letters there is one which taken by itself + looks as if a certain sum of money was to be used in bribery; but, as Dr. Ingram has + pointed out, a careful investigation of the matter shows that it refers to proposed + changes in the tariff, and not to bribery at all.</p> + <p>Again, it is argued that the lavish distribution of <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page129" id="page129"></a>[pg 129]</span> titles amounted to bribery. If so, it + is hard to find any Government in England or Ireland that has not been to some extent + guilty of bribery-though it is true that no British Premier has ever created peerages + or salaried offices on anything like the scale that Mr. Asquith has done. After the + Bill had passed, Pitt created twenty new Irish peerages and four English ones; and + promoted sixteen peers a step in their order; which after all is not very much more + than Lord North had done in 1779, on no special occasion, when he had created + eighteen Irish peerages and promoted twelve existing peers.</p> + <p>As to the charges of intimidation, they may be dismissed at once; the very few + that were brought forward were so completely answered at the time, that even the + Opposition dropped them. The presence of such a large number of troops in Ireland was + quite accounted for by the fact that the rebellion was still to some extent going on, + and that there was again a danger of a French invasion.</p> + <p>And I must contend further that even admitting that there were some acts on the + part of the Government which will not bear strict investigation according to present + ideas, it is only fair to remember the tremendous difficulties of the occasion. The + English House of Commons was almost unanimously in favour of the Union-not more than + thirty members ever voted against it; and in the opinion of Lord Cornwallis, who + throughout his long and varied career showed himself to be a shrewd observer and an + upright, honourable man, "This country could not be saved without the Union."</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>[pg 130]</span> + <p>But really the whole discussion is beside the mark. The Nationalists continually + repeat the charge that the Union was carried by fraud; and so it must be answered; + but it has no bearing on anything existing at the present day. For the old Irish + Parliament has disappeared-merged in the greater and more honourable Assembly of the + United Kingdom; and to revive it now would be a physical impossibility. The whole + state of circumstances has changed; no assembly that could now be formed in Ireland + would bear the faintest resemblance to that which met in the eighteenth century. As + Lecky has well expressed it:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"To an historian of the eighteenth century, however, few things can be more + grotesquely absurd than to suppose that the merits or demerits, the failure or the + successes of the Irish Parliament has any real bearing on modern schemes for + reconstructing the Government of Ireland on a revolutionary and Jacobin basis; + entrusting the protection of property and the maintenance of law to some democratic + assembly consisting mainly of Fenians and Land-leaguers, of paid agitators and of + penniless adventurers. The Parliamentary system of the eighteenth century might be + represented in very different lights by its enemies and by its friends. Its enemies + would describe it as essentially a government carried on through the + instrumentality of a corrupt oligarchy, of a large, compact body of members holding + place and pensions at the pleasure of the Government, removed by the system of + rotten boroughs from <span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>[pg + 131]</span> all effectual popular control. Its friends would describe it as + essentially the government of Ireland by the gentlemen of Ireland and especially + the landlord class.</p> + <p>"Neither representation would be altogether true, but each contains a large + measure of truth. The nature of the Irish constituencies and the presence in the + House of Commons of a body of pensioners and placemen forming considerably more + than a third of the whole assembly, and nearly half of its active members, gave the + Government a power, which, except under very rare and extraordinary circumstances, + must, if fully exercised, have been overwhelming ... On the other hand, the Irish + Parliament was a body consisting very largely of independent country gentlemen, who + on nearly all questions affecting the economical and industrial development of the + country, had a powerful if not a decisive influence ... and it was in reality only + in a small class of political questions that the corrupt power of government seems + to have been strained. The Irish House of Commons ... comprised the flower of the + landlord class. It was essentially pre-eminently the representative of the property + of the country. It had all the instincts and the prejudices, but also all the + qualities and the capacities, of an educated propertied class, and it brought great + local knowledge and experience to its task. Much of its work was of that practical + and unobtrusive character which leaves no trace in history."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>[pg 132]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> + <h3>THE PERIOD FROM THE UNION UNTIL THE REJECTION OF THE FIRST HOME RULE BILL.</h3> + <p>As soon as the Union had become law, the opposition to it died down rapidly. All + the members who had voted for it who became candidates for the Imperial Parliament + were elected, and Irish orators soon began to make their mark in the greater + Assembly. In 1805, however, there was another slight rebellion, led by Robert Emmett. + It never had a chance of success; the mass of the people, thoroughly tired of + anarchy, refused to take part in it; and though the rebels succeeded in committing a + few murders, the movement was speedily quelled, mainly by the yeomen of Dublin. At + the trial of Emmett, Plunket, who had been a vehement opponent of the Union, was + counsel for the prosecution, and in his speech bitterly denounced the conduct of + those men who, having done their utmost to oppose the Irish Parliament, now made the + abolition of that Parliament the pretext for rebellion. "They call for revenge," said + he, "on account of the removal of the Parliament. These men, who, in 1798, + endeavoured to destroy the Parliament, now call upon the loyal men who opposed its + transfer, to join them in rebellion; an appeal vain and fruitless."</p> + <p>It will be observed from statements already quoted, that the Nationalists of + to-day claim that they are the successors of Emmett; he is counted <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>[pg 133]</span> amongst the heroes + who fell in the cause of Ireland-thus making it all the more clear how wide is the + gulf between the Parliamentary opponents of the Union and the modern + Nationalists.</p> + <p>During the early part of the century, Ireland had another period of prosperity. + Travellers through Ireland at the present day cannot fail to notice how many of the + country seats (now, in consequence of later legislation, mostly deserted and already + beginning to fall into ruin) were built at that time. No doubt much of the prosperity + was caused by the rebound which often takes place after a period of anarchy and + desolation; and it would not be fair to attribute it wholly to the effect of the + Union; but at least it proves that the melancholy prognostications of the opponents + of the measure were happily unfulfilled. The total value of the produce and + manufactures exported from Ireland between 1790 and 1801 amounted to + £51,322,620; between 1802 and 1813 it amounted to £63,483,718. In 1800 + the population of Ireland was under 5,000,000; in 1841 it was over 8,000,000. The + tonnage in Irish ports in 1792 was 69,000; by 1797 it had fallen to 53,000; before + 1852 it had risen to 5,000,000. The export of linen in 1796 was 53,000,000 yards; in + 1799 it had fallen to 38,000,000; in 1853 it had risen to 106,000,000; and every + other department of industry and commerce showed figures almost as satisfactory.</p> + <p>There were, however, three important measures which the leading advocates of the + Union had desired to see carried as soon as possible after the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>[pg 134]</span> great change had + been effected, but which-as many writers of various schools of thought to this day + consider unfortunately-were postponed. The first was a provision by the State for the + payment of the Roman Catholic clergy. The bishops had fully expected that this would + be carried. Some modern Nationalists, wishing to win the favour of the English + Nonconformists, have represented that the Roman Catholic Church refused to accept the + money; but that is not the case. Whether the policy of "levelling up" would have been + a wise one or not, it is useless now to conjecture; for once the policy of "levelling + down" had been decided upon, and the Irish Church had been disestablished and + disendowed, it became impracticable. The second measure was Roman Catholic + emancipation. This had been intended by Pitt and other statesmen who helped to bring + about the Union; but unforeseen difficulties arose; and unfortunately nothing was + done until the agitation led by O'Connell brought matters to a crisis; and the + emancipation which might have been carried gracefully years before, and in that case + would have strengthened the Union, was grudgingly yielded in 1829.</p> + <p>The third measure was a readjustment of tithes. All will now admit, and very many + politicians and thinkers at the time fully realized, that the old law as to tithes + was a cruel injustice; but no change was made until the opposition to the payment of + tithes amounted to something like civil war, involving a series of murders and + outrages. Then the fatal precedent was set of a successful and violent revolt <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>[pg 135]</span> against contracts + and debts. In 1838 an Act was passed commuting the tithes into a rent-charge payable + not by the occupiers but the landlords. Some modern writers have argued that the + change was merely a matter of form, as the landlords increased the rents in + proportion; and it seems such a natural thing to have happened that earlier writers + may well be excused for assuming that it actually occurred. But there is no excuse + for repeating the charge now; for in consequence of recent legislation it has been + necessary for the Land Courts to investigate the history of rents from a period + commencing before 1838; and the result of their examination has elicited the strange + fact that in thousands of cases the rent remained exactly the same that it had been + before the Tithe Commutation Act was passed.</p> + <p>But ere long economic causes were at work which tended to check the prosperity of + Ireland. It was soon found that the proportion which by the Act of Union Ireland was + to contribute to the Imperial Government was too large for the country to bear. The + funded debt of Ireland which amounted to £28,000,000 in 1800 rose by 1817 to + £130,000,000; in that year the whole liability was taken over by the Imperial + Government. Then the fall in prices which naturally resulted from the peace of 1815 + pressed heavily on an agricultural community. Improvements in machinery and the + development of steam power squeezed out the handlooms of Ulster and the watermills of + other parts of the country. Wages were low; and the people who <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>[pg 136]</span> depended mainly on + the potato were underfed and undernourished. In 1846 and 1847 came the two terrible + blows to Ireland-first, the potato disease; and then the Repeal of the Corn Laws, + which made the profitable growing of wheat with its accompanying industries, + impossible. During the fearful years of the potato famine, it is only too probable + that some of the efforts for relief were unwisely conducted and that some persons + sadly failed in their duties; no measures or men in the world are ever perfect; and + the difficulties not only of obtaining food but of getting it to the starving people + in days when there were few railways and no motors were enormous. But when modern + writers shower wholesale abuse over the landlords of the period, and even hint that + they brought about the famine, it is well to turn to the writings of an ardent Home + Ruler, who was himself an eye-witness, having lived as a boy through the famine time + in one of the districts that suffered most-Mr. A.M. Sullivan. He says:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The conduct of the Irish landlords throughout the famine period has been + variously described, and has been, I believe, generally condemned. I consider the + censure visited on them too sweeping. I hold it to be in some respects cruelly + unjust. On many of them no blame too heavy could possibly fall. A large number were + permanent absentees; their ranks were swelled by several who early fled the post of + duty at home-cowardly and selfish deserters <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" + id="page137"></a>[pg 137]</span> of a brave and faithful people. Of those who + remained, some may have grown callous; it is impossible to contest authentic + instances of brutal heartlessness here and there. But granting all that has to be + entered on the dark debtor side, the overwhelming balance is the other way. The + bulk of the resident Irish landlords manfully did their best in that dread hour ... + No adequate tribute has ever been paid to the memory of those Irish landlords-they + were men of every party and creed-perished martyrs to duty in that awful time; who + did not fly the plague-reeking work-houses or fever-tainted court. Their names + would make a goodly roll of honour ... If they did too little compared with what + the landlord class in England would have done in similar case, it was because + little was in their power. The famine found most of the resident gentry of Ireland + on the brink of ruin. They were heritors of estates heavily overweighted with the + debts of a bygone generation. Broad lands and lordly mansions were held by them on + settlements and conditions that allowed small scope for the exercise of individual + liberality. To these landlords the failure of year's rental receipts meant mortgage + fore-one and hopeless ruin. Yet cases might be named by the score in which such men + scorned to avert by pressure on their suffering tenantry the fate they saw + impending over them.... They 'went down with the ship.'"</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>[pg 138]</span> + <p>Soon after the famine, the Incumbered Estates Act was passed, by which the + creditors of incumbered landlords could force a sale. This in effect worked a silent + revolution; for whatever might have been said up to that time about the landed + proprietors being the representatives of those who acquired their estates through the + Cromwellian confiscations, after those proprietors had been forced to sell and the + purchasers had obtained a statutory title by buying in the Court, the charge became + obsolete. The motive of the Act was a good one; it was hoped that land would thus + pass out of the hands of impoverished owners and be purchased by English capitalists + who would be able to execute improvements on their estates and thus benefit the + country as a whole. But the scheme brought with it disadvantages which the framers of + the Act had not foreseen. The new purchasers had none of the local feelings of the + dispossessed owners; they regarded their purchases as an investment, which they + wished to make as profitable as possible, and treated the occupants of the land with + a harshness which the old proprietors would never have exercised. Like most things in + Ireland, however, this has been much exaggerated. It is constantly assumed that the + whole soil of Ireland after this belonged to absentee proprietors who took no + interest in the country. That absenteeism is a great evil to any country, and to + Ireland especially, no one can deny; but a Parliamentary enquiry in 1869 elicited the + fact that the number of landed proprietors in the rural area of <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>[pg 139]</span> Ireland then (and + there is no reason to suppose that any great change had taken place in the previous + eighteen years) was 19,547, of whom only 1,443 could be described as "rarely or never + resident in Ireland"; and these represented 15.7 per cent. of the rural area, and + only 15.1 per cent. of the total poor-law valuation of that area.</p> + <p>Between 1841 and 1851 the population of the country fell from 8,200,000 to + 6,574,000. The primary causes of this were of course the famine and the fever which + broke out amongst the half-starved people; but it was also to a large extent caused + by emigration. A number of devoted and noble-hearted men, realizing that it was + hopeless to expect that the potato disease would disappear, and that consequently the + holdings had become "uneconomic" (to use the phrase now so popular) as no other crop + was known which could produce anything like the same amount of food, saw that the + only course to prevent a continuation of the famine would be to remove a large + section of the people to a happier country. In this good work the Quakers, who had + been untiring in their efforts to relieve distress during the famine, took a + prominent part; and the Government gave assistance. At the time no one regarded this + as anything but a beneficent course; for the emigrants found better openings in new + and rising countries than they ever could have had at home, and the reduced + population, earning larger wages, were able to live in greater comfort. One evidence + of this has been that mud cabins, which in 1841 had numbered 491,000 had in <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>[pg 140]</span> 1901 been reduced + to 9,000; whilst the best class of houses increased from 304,000 to 596,000. In 1883 + the Roman Catholic bishops came to the conclusion that matters had gone far enough, + and that in future migration from the poorer to the more favoured districts was + better than emigration from the country; but they did not say anything against the + work that had been done up to that time. Yet a recent Nationalist writer, wishing to + bring every possible charge against the landlords, has hinted that the total loss of + population from 1841 to 1901 was caused by the brutality of the landlords after the + famine, who drove the people out of the country! To show the fallacy of this, it is + sufficient to point out that the powers of the landlords for good or evil were + considerably reduced by the Land Act of 1870, and after that they were further + diminished by each successive Act until the last shred was taken away by the Act of + 1887; yet the population went down from 5,412,377 in 1871 to 4,453,775 in 1901-the + emigration being larger in proportion from those counties where the National League + was omnipotent than from other parts of Ireland.</p> + <p>In the early thirties O'Connell commenced his famous agitation for the Repeal of + the Union. After he had disappeared from the scene, his work was taken up by those of + his followers who advocated physical force; and in 1848 an actual rebellion broke + out, headed by Smith O'Brien. It ended in a ridiculous fiasco. The immediate cause of + its failure, as A.M. Sullivan has pointed out, <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page141" id="page141"></a>[pg 141]</span> was that the leaders, in imitation of + the movement of half a century before, endeavoured to eliminate the religious + difficulty and to bring about a rising in which Orange and Green should be united; + but their fight for religious tolerance exposed them to the charge of infidelity; the + Roman Catholic priests (who now possessed immense political influence) denounced + them; and their antagonism was fatal to the movement.</p> + <p>But one of the most far-seeing of the party-J.F. Lalor-perceived that mere repeal + would never be strong enough to be a popular cry-it must be hitched on to some more + powerful motive, which could drag it along. As he clearly explained in his manifesto, + his objects were the abolition of British government and the formation of a National + one. He considered that neither agitation nor the attempt at military insurrection + were likely to attain those objects, but that the wisest means for that end were the + refusal of obedience to usurped authority; taking quiet possession of all the rights + and powers of government and proceeding to exercise them; and defending the exercise + of such powers if attacked. He saw that the motive power which would carry itself + forward and drag repeal with it, was in the land. He held that the soil of the + country belonged as of right to the entire people of that country, not to any one + class but to the nation-one condition being essential, that the tenant should bear + true and undivided allegiance to the nation whose land he held, and owe no allegiance + whatever to any other prince, power or people, <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page142" id="page142"></a>[pg 142]</span> or any obligation of obedience or + respect to their will, their orders, or their laws. The reconquest of the liberties + of Ireland, he argued, would, even if possible by itself, be incomplete and + worthless, without the reconquest of the land; whereas the latter, if effected, would + involve the former. He therefore recommended (1) That occupying tenants should at + once refuse to pay all rent except the value of the overplus of harvest produce + remaining in their hands after deducting a full provision for their own subsistence + during the ensuing year; (2) that they should forcibly resist being made homeless + under the English law of ejectment; (3) that they ought further on principle to + refuse <i>all</i> rent to the present usurping proprietors, until they should in + National Convention decide what rents they were to pay and to whom they should pay + them; and (4) that the people, on grounds of policy and economy, should decide that + those rents should be paid to themselves-the people-for public purposes for the + benefit of the entire general people. In that way a mighty social revolution would be + accomplished, and the foundation of a national revolution surely laid.</p> + <p>But these views, though shared by J. Mitchel and other leaders, were not at the + time generally adopted; and the next agitations were more distinctly political than + agrarian. The Fenian movement of 1865-1867, the avowed object of which was the + establishment of an independent republic, arose in America, where it was cleverly + devised and ably financed. In Ireland it met with little sympathy <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>[pg 143]</span> except in the + towns; and the attempted outbreaks, both there and in Canada, were dismal failures. + Two of their efforts in England, however, led to important results. Gladstone made + the remarkable statement that it was their attempt to blow up Clerkenwell prison that + enabled him to carry the Act for the Disestablishment of the Irish Church. Many years + afterwards, when this encouragement to incendiarism had done its work, he denied that + he had ever said so; but there is no doubt that he did.</p> + <p>Here I must digress for a moment to refer to the position of the Irish Church. By + the Act of Union it had been provided that the Churches of England and Ireland as + then by law established should be united, and that the continuation and preservation + of the United Church should be deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental + part of the Union; and at the time of the agitation for Catholic emancipation the + Roman Catholic Bishops of Ireland solemnly declared that their Church would never + attempt to destroy the Protestant Establishment. This is interesting as showing how + futile are the attempts of one generation to bind posterity by legislation; and how + foolish it is to expect that men will regard themselves as bound by promises made by + their ancestors. (The same remark may be made with reference to the promises now + being made by Nationalists as to the Home Rule Bill.) The general provisions of the + Disestablishment Act were simple. Existing clergy were secured in their incomes for + life; the disestablished Church was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" + id="page144"></a>[pg 144]</span> allowed to claim all churches then in actual use, + and to purchase rectory houses and glebes at a valuation; and a sum of £500,000 + was given to the Church in lieu of all private endowments. Everything else-even + endowments given by private persons a few years before the Act was passed-was swept + away. The members of the Church showed a liberality which their opponents never + anticipated. They bought the glebes, continued to pay their clergy by voluntary + assessments, and collected a large sum of money towards a future endowment. + Nationalist writers now state that the Act left the Irish Church with an income + adequate to its needs and merely applied the surplus revenues to other purposes; and + hint that the capital sum now possessed by the Church really came from the State, and + that therefore the future Home Rule Government can deal with it as they please. The + alarm felt by Irish Churchmen at the prospect can be understood.</p> + <p>The other Fenian attempt in England which has historical importance was of a + different kind. Two Fenian prisoners were being conveyed in a prison van at + Manchester. Their friends tried to rescue them by force; and in the attempt killed + the officer in charge. For this crime, three of them-Allen, Larkin and O'Brien-were + tried, convicted and hanged in November 1867. These were the "Manchester Martyrs," in + honour of whose unflinching fidelity to faith and country (to quote the words of + Archbishop Croke) so many memorial crosses have been erected, and solemn + demonstrations are held <span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>[pg + 145]</span> every year to this day. At the unveiling of the memorial cross at + Limerick the orator said: "Allen, Larkin and O'Brien died as truly for the cause of + Irish Nationality as did any of the heroes of Irish history. The same cause nerved + the arms of the brave men of '98, of '48, of '65 and '67. For the cause that had + lived so long they would not take half measures-nothing else would satisfy them than + the full measure of Nationality for which they and their forefathers had fought."</p> + <p>Meanwhile another movement was going on, which seems to have been at first wholly + distinct from the Fenian conspiracy-the constitutional agitation for Home Rule or + Repeal, led by Isaac Butt. It commenced its Parliamentary action in 1874; but was ere + long broken up by the more violent spirits within its own ranks. As had so frequently + happened in similar movements in Ireland, France and elsewhere, the moderate men were + thrust aside, and the extremists carried all before them. Fenianism, though + apparently crushed in Ireland, continued to flourish in America. Michael Davitt, who + had been a prominent member both of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood and of the + Fenian Society, had been convicted of treason felony, and sentenced to penal + servitude. On his release in 1877, he was received as a hero, and amongst those who + took part in the welcome to him were C.S. Parnell, J.G. Biggar, J. Carey, D. Curley + and J. Brady. He went to America and there matured the plan of his operations on the + lines laid down by Lalor, which he <span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" + id="page146"></a>[pg 146]</span> proceeded to carry out in Ireland in 1879 by means + of a Society which was at first called the "Land League" but which has since been + known by various other names. Amongst his allies were J. Devoy, O'Donovan Rossa, and + Patrick Ford. Devoy and Rossa took an active part in establishing the Skirmishing + Fund, which was subscribed for the purpose of levying war on England with dynamite. + Rossa afterwards publicly boasted that he had placed an infernal machine onboard + H.M.S. "Dottrell," and had sent it and all its crew to the bottom of the ocean. As a + reward for his patriotic conduct he was some years later granted a pension by the + County Council of Cork, payable out of the rates. Ford was the ablest and most + powerful of the number, for by means of his paper-the <i>Irish World</i>-he collected + vast sums for the Parliamentary party. In this paper he strongly advocated the use of + dynamite as a blessed agent which should be availed of by the Irish people in their + holy war; and elaborated a scheme for setting fire to London in fifty places on a + windy night. After D. Curley and J. Brady had been hanged for the murder of Lord + Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke, he collected money for a testimonial to them as + heroes, and prayed that God would send Ireland more men with hearts like that of J. + Brady. Mr. Redmond has recently described him as "the grand old veteran, who through + his newspaper has done more for the last thirty or forty years for Ireland than + almost any man alive"; Mr. T.P. O'Connor has congratulated him on the great work he + is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>[pg 147]</span> doing for + Ireland; and Mr. Devlin has eulogized him for "the brilliancy in the exposition of + the principles inculcated in our programme."</p> + <p>By 1880 the union between the Dynamite party in America (which bore many names, + such as the Fenian Society, the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, the Invincibles, the + Clan-na-gael, and the Physical Force party, but was essentially the same movement + throughout), the constitutional agitators for Home Rule in Parliament, and the Land + Leaguers in Ireland, was complete. It was but natural that it should be so, for their + objects were the same, though their methods differed according to circumstances. The + American party (according to their own statements) desired the achievement of a + National Parliament so as to give them a footing on Irish soil-to give them the + agencies and instrumentalities for a Government <i>de facto</i> at the very + commencement of the Irish struggle-to give them the plant of an armed revolution. + Hence they gladly contributed large sums for the Parliamentary Fund. Parnell, the + leader of the Parliamentary party, stated that a true revolutionary movement should + partake of a constitutional and an illegal character; it should be both an open and a + secret organization, using the constitution for its own purpose and also taking + advantage of the secret combination; and (as the judges at the Parnell Commission + reported) the Land League was established with the intention of bringing about the + independence of Ireland as a separate nation.</p> + <p>In the preceding autumn the agitation against <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148" id="page148"></a>[pg 148]</span> the payment of rent had begun; and + persons of ordinary intelligence could see that a fresh outbreak of anarchy was + imminent. But Gladstone, when coming into power in March 1880, assumed that air of + easy optimism which his successors in more recent times have imitated; and publicly + stated that there was in Ireland an absence of crime and outrage and a general sense + of comfort and satisfaction such as had been unknown in the previous history of the + country. His Chief Secretary, Forster, however, had not been long in Ireland before + he realized that this was the dream of a madman; and that the Government must either + act or abdicate in favour of anarchy; but the Cabinet refused to support him. Before + the end of the year the Government had practically abdicated, and the rule of the + Land League was the only form of Government in force in a large part of the country. + The name of the unfortunate Captain Boycott will be for ever associated with the + means the League employed to enforce their orders. What those means were, was + explained by Gladstone himself:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"What is meant by boycotting? In the first place it is combined intimidation. In + the second place, it is combined intimidation made use of for the purpose of + destroying the private liberties of choice by fear of ruin and starvation. In the + third place, that which stands in the rear of boycotting and by which alone + boycotting can in the long run be made thoroughly effective is the murder which is + not to be denounced."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>[pg 149]</span> + <p>And a few years later-1886-the Official Report of the Cowper Commission stated it + more fully:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The people are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for its success on the + probability of outrage, than they are of the judgments of the Courts of Justice. + The unwritten law in some districts is supreme. We deem it right to call attention + to the terrible ordeal that a boycotted person has to undergo, which was by several + witnesses graphically described during the progress of our enquiry. The existence + of a boycotted person becomes a burden to him, as none in town or village are + allowed, under a similar penalty to themselves, to supply him or his family with + the necessaries of life. He is not allowed to dispose of the produce of his farm. + Instances have been brought before us in which his attendance at divine service was + prohibited, in which his cattle have been, some killed, some barbarously mutilated; + in which all his servants and labourers were ordered and obliged to leave him; in + which the most ordinary necessaries of life and even medical comforts, had to be + procured from long distances; in which no one would attend the funeral, or dig a + grave for, a member of a boycotted person's family; and in which his children have + been forced to discontinue attendance at the National School of the district."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>This was the ordinary form of Government as conducted by the Nationalists; and any + attempt to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>[pg 150]</span> + interfere with it and to enforce the milder laws of England, is now denounced as + "coercion."</p> + <p>In 1881 Gladstone carried another and a more far-reaching Land Act. To put it + shortly, it may be said that all agricultural land (except that held by leaseholders, + who were brought in under the Act of 1887) was handed over to the occupiers for ever + (with free power of sale), subject only to the payment of rent-the rent not being + that which the tenants had agreed to pay, but that which a Land Court decided to Be a + "fair rent." This was to last for fifteen years, at the end of which time the tenant + might again claim to have a fair rent fixed, and so <i>ad infinitum</i>. The Land + Court in most cases cut down the rent by about 20 or 25 per cent.; and at the end of + fifteen years did the same again. As tithes (which had been secularized but not + abolished), mortgages and family charges remained unchanged, the result was that a + large proportion of landlords were absolutely ruined; in very many cases those who + appear as owners now have no beneficial interest in their estates.</p> + <p>In examining the Act calmly, one must observe in the first place that it was a + wholesale confiscation of property. Not of course one that involved the cruelty of + confiscations of previous ages, but a confiscation all the same. For if A. bought a + farm in the Incumbered Estates Court, with a Parliamentary title, and let it to B. + for twenty years at a rent of £100; and the Act gave B. the right of occupying + it for ever subject to the payment of £50 a year, and selling it for any price + he liked, that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>[pg + 151]</span> can only mean the transfer of property from A. to B. Secondly, the Act + encouraged bad farming; for a tenant knew that if his land got into a slovenly + state-with drains stopped up, fences broken down, and weeds growing everywhere-the + result would be that the rent would be reduced by the Commissioners at the end of the + fifteen years; as the Commissioners did not go into the question of whose the fault + was, but merely took estimates as to what should be the rent of the land in its + actual condition. That farms were in many instances intentionally allowed to go to + decay with this object, has been proved; and this pressed hard on the labouring + class, as less employment was given. Thirdly, although the remission of debt may + bring prosperity for a time, it may be doubted whether it will permanently benefit + the country; for it will be noticed that the attempt to fix prices arbitrarily + applied only to the letting and hiring and not to other transactions. To give a + typical instance of what has occurred in many cases: a tenant held land at a rent of + £1. 15s. 0d. per acre; he took the landlord into Court, swore that the land + could not bear such a rent, and had it reduced to £1. 5s. 0d.; thereupon he + sold it for £20 an acre; and so the present occupier had to pay £1. 5s. + 0d. to the nominal landlord, and the interest on the purchase-money (about £1 + per acre) to a mortgagee; in fact, he has to pay a larger sum annually than any + previous tenant did; and this payment is "rent" in the economic sense though it is + paid not to a resident landlord but to a distant mortgagee. In <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>[pg 152]</span> other words, rent + was increased, and absenteeism became general. Fourthly, it sowed the seeds for + future trouble; for it was the temporary union of two antagonistic principles. On the + one hand it was said that "the man who tills the land should own it," and therefore + rent was an unjust tax (in fact it was seriously argued that men of English and + Scotch descent who had hired farms in the nineteenth century had a moral right to + keep them for ever rent free because tribal tenure had prevailed amongst the Celts + who occupied the country many hundreds of years before); on the other it was said + that the land belonged to the people of Ireland as a whole and not to any + individuals. If that is so, what right has one man to a large farm when there are + hundreds of others in a neighbouring town who have no land at all? The passing of the + Land Acts of 1881 and 1887 made it inevitable that sooner or later a fresh agitation + would be commenced by "landless men." And fifthly, when an excitable, uneducated + people realize that lawlessness and outrages will be rewarded by an Act remitting + debts and breaking contracts, they are not likely in future to limit their operations + to land, but will apply the same maxims to other contracts. The demoralizing of + character is a fact to be taken into consideration.</p> + <p>However, the Act was passed; and if Gladstone really imagined that it would + satisfy the Nationalist party he must have been grievously disappointed. During 1881, + 4,439 agrarian outrages were recorded. The Government declared the Land League to be + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>[pg 153]</span> illegal, and + lodged some of the leaders in gaol. Thereupon Ford, carrying out the plan laid down + by Lalor in 1848, issued his famous "No Rent" proclamation. It was not generally + acted upon; but his party continued active, and in May 1882 Lord Frederick Cavendish + and Mr. Burke (the Chief and Under Secretary) were murdered in the Phoenix Park. This + led to the passing of the Crimes Prevention Act, by which the detectives were enabled + to secure evidence against the conspirators, many of whom (as is usual in Irish + history) turned Queen's evidence. The Act was worked with firmness; and outrages, + which had numbered 2,507 during the first half of 1882, fell to 836 in the latter + half, to 834 in 1883, and to 774 in 1884.</p> + <p>In the autumn of 1885, Gladstone, expecting to return to power at the ensuing + election, besought the electors to give him a majority independent of the Irish vote. + In this he failed; and thereupon took place the "Great Surrender." He suddenly + discovered that everything he had said and done up to that time had been wrong; that + boycotting, under the name of "exclusive dealing," was perfectly justifiable; that + the refusal to pay rent was just the same as a strike of workmen (ignoring the + obvious facts that when workmen strike they cease both to give their labour and to + receive pay, whereas the gist of the "No Rent" movement was that tenants, whilst + ceasing to pay, should retain possession of the farms they have hired; and that a + strike arises from a dispute between employers and employed-usually <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>[pg 154]</span> about rates of pay + or length of hours; whereas Ford's edict that no rent was to be paid was issued not + in consequence of anything that individual landlords had done, but because Gladstone + had put the leaders of the Land League in gaol); that the men whom he had previously + denounced as "marching through rapine to the dismemberment of the Empire" were heroes + who deserved to be placed in charge of the government of the country; and introduced + his first Home Rule Bill. Some of his followers went with him; others refused. His + life-long ally, John Bright, said: "I cannot trust the peace and interests of + Ireland, north and south, to the Irish Parliamentary party, to whom the Government + now propose to make a general surrender. My six years' experience of them, of their + language in the House of Commons and their deeds in Ireland, makes it impossible for + me to consent to hand over to them the property and the rights of five millions of + the Queen's subjects, our fellow-countrymen, in Ireland. At least two millions of + them are as loyal as the population of your town, and I will be no party to a measure + which will thrust them from the generosity and justice of the United and Imperial + Parliament."</p> + <p>The Bill was rejected; at the general election which ensued the people of England + declared against the measure; Gladstone resigned, and Lord Salisbury became Prime + Minister.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>[pg 155]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + <h3>THE UNIONIST GOVERNMENT OF 1886.</h3> + <p>The Unionists, on returning to power in 1886, fully realized the difficulty of the + problem with which they were faced. The Nationalists held a great Convention at + Chicago, at which they resolved to make use of the Land League not merely for the + purpose of exterminating landlords but as a means for promoting universal disorder + and so bringing about a paralysis of the law. As J. Redmond stated at the Convention: + "I assert that the government of Ireland by England is an impossibility, and I + believe it to be our duty to make it so." And, as he afterwards explained in Ireland, + he considered that if the Tories were able to carry on the government with the + ordinary law, the cause of Home Rule might be set back for a generation; but if the + Nationalists could succeed in making such government impossible, and the Tories were + obliged to have recourse to coercion, the people of Great Britain would turn them out + of office, and Gladstone would return to power and carry Home Rule. (This avowed + determination on the part of the Nationalists to reduce the country to anarchy should + be borne in mind when people now express their horror at the Ulstermen being guilty + of such conduct as breaking the law.) With this object, the Nationalists in 1887 + organized the "Plan of Campaign," which was in fact an elaboration of the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>[pg 156]</span> "No Rent" + manifesto of 1881, and a scheme for carrying out, step by step, the programme laid + down by Lalor in 1848. One of Lalor's adherents had been a young priest named Croke. + By 1887 he had become Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cashel. He had considered the "No + Rent" manifesto inopportune; but now formally sanctioned the "Plan of Campaign," and + in a violent letter urged that it should be extended to a general refusal to pay + taxes. The Plan was also approved by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and the + leaders of the Nationalist movement in Ireland and America, such as J. Dillon and + Ford; but Parnell seemed doubtful, and in England the <i>Daily News</i> denounced + it.</p> + <p>However, the Unionist Government had decided on their policy, which they were + determined to carry through. The main items of their programme were (1) To enforce + the law; (2) To facilitate land purchase; (3) To develop the industries of the + country; and (4) To extend local government. It is well to examine these in detail, + so as to arrive at a just estimate of the two rival policies.</p> + <p>(i) The Crimes Prevention Act passed by Gladstone in 1882 had lapsed, having been + limited to a period of three years. Mr. Balfour (who had become Chief Secretary) was + of opinion that the continual passing of temporary measures was a mistake (as some + one has said, it was like a man burning his umbrella every fine day and then + complaining of the expense of buying so many new ones), as was shown by the fact that + the Irish <span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>[pg 157]</span> + Parliament had passed fifty-four of such Acts in the seventeen years of its + independent existence. He therefore, in spite of vehement opposition from the + combined forces of the English Radicals and the Irish Nationalists, carried the + Crimes Act of 1887, which was a permanent measure, to be put in force in disturbed + districts by proclamation when necessary. This was the famous "Coercion Act" which + has been the subject of so much violent denunciation. But in considering the matter, + one must ask, What Government has there ever been in the world that did not employ + force in the carrying out of the law? It is true that in the early days of New + Zealand Mr. Busby was sent out as a Commissioner with no means of enforcing his + orders; but the only result was that he was laughed at by the natives as "a + man-of-war without guns"; and no one can say that the scheme was a success. In fact, + how can a law be a law unless it is enforced? The Act does not make anything a crime + that was not a crime before; it merely provides a shorter form of procedure when a + district is so completely terrorized by an illegal association that injured persons + dare not make complaints, witnesses dare not give evidence, and juries dare not + convict. This, as we have seen, had been the case in parts of Ireland at the + beginning of the rebellion of 1798; and the Nationalists, who claimed to be the + modern representatives of the rebels of that time, had succeeded in bringing about + the same state of things. In some of its most stringent provisions the Act is a copy + of the Police Act permanently in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" + id="page158"></a>[pg 158]</span> force in London; yet ordinary residents in the + Metropolis do not seem to groan much under its tyranny, nor do the Radicals propose + to repeal it.</p> + <p>And certainly the Act has worked satisfactorily from the point of view of those + who desire to see the country in a state of peace and prosperity, though disastrously + in the opinion of those who aim at making government impossible. Between July, 1887, + when the Act came into force, and the end of the year, 628 persons were prosecuted, + of whom 378 were convicted and 37 held to bail. In 1888 there were 1,475 + prosecutions, 907 convictions, and 175 persons required to find bail. By 1891 (the + last full year of Unionist Government) crime had sunk so rapidly that in that year + there were only 243 persons prosecuted, of whom 105 were convicted, and 81 held to + bail. In 1901 (when the Unionists were again in power) there were 29 prosecutions and + 22 convictions. In 1902 there was a revival of crime; the Act was again brought into + operation, with much the same result as before-there were 157 prosecutions, 104 + convictions, and 17 persons were held to bail. In 1903 there were 3 prosecutions and + 3 convictions.</p> + <p>(2) <i>Land Purchase</i>. The Unionist Government considered that the dual + ownership set up by the Act of 1881 would be a constant source of trouble, and that + its working could not be for the benefit of the country. They believed that the best + solution of the land question would be a system of purchase whereby the occupiers + would become owners. This of course was entirely opposed to the wishes <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>[pg 159]</span> of the + Nationalists; for if the land question was settled, the motive power which was to + carry separation with it, would be gone.</p> + <p>Some efforts in the direction of Land Purchase had been made in 1870 (at the + instance of Mr. Bright) and in 1881; but nothing was done on a large scale until + 1885, when the "Ashbourne Act" was passed; and various further steps were taken by + the Unionist Government, culminating in the great "Wyndham Act" of 1903. By the + earlier Acts, 73,858 tenants became owners; by the Wyndham Act, 253,625. As the total + number of agricultural tenants of Ireland amounted to slightly under 600,000, it will + be seen that more than half of them have now purchased their holdings. To explain the + general principles of the Act, it is sufficient to say that when the landlord and + tenants of an estate agree to a sale, the Government advance the money, and the + tenant purchasers undertake to repay it by annual instalments extending over a period + of 68 years. As these annual payments must be less than the existing rent as fixed by + the Land Court under the Act of 1881, the purchasing tenant has no ground for + complaint; and though the income of the landlord is reduced by the sale, he is freed + from further anxiety; and besides, the Government give a bonus to the vendor from + Imperial funds. It will be seen at once that the scheme would have been impossible + under Home Rule; for the English Government had by the end of March 1911, agreed to + advance the enormous sum of nearly £118,000,000; an amount which no <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>[pg 160]</span> Irish Government + could have raised except at such an exorbitant rate of interest that it would have + been out of the question. On the other hand, England has become the creditor of the + new Irish landowners for this vast amount; and in the event of Separation a serious + difficulty may arise as to its repayment.</p> + <p>It may interest readers in the Colonies to learn that the Government thoughtfully + passed a Registration of Titles Act in 1891; so that the Irish purchasers under the + various Land Acts have the benefits which were first introduced in Australia by Sir + Robert Torrens.</p> + <p>The Act of 1903 had the cordial support of a small minority of Nationalists; but + to the majority it was gall and wormwood. Hence Mr. Birrell, when he became Chief + Secretary, threw every obstacle he could into the way of its working; and in 1909 he + passed a new measure, under which land purchase has practically ceased.</p> + <p>(3)<i>The development of the Industries of the Country</i>. That has of course + taken various forms, of which only a few can be mentioned here. By the Light Railways + (for which the country has to thank Mr. Balfour himself) remote and hitherto + inaccessible districts have been brought into touch with the rest of the world; and + by an expenditure of £2,106,000 the railway mileage of Ireland has been + increased from 2,643 miles in 1890 to 3,391 in 1906. Then it is hardly too much to + say that the Labourers' Cottages Act, and the grants made under it, have transformed + the face of the country.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>[pg 161]</span> + <p>By this Act, District Councils are enabled, in localities where accommodation for + labourers is insufficient, to take land compulsorily and erect cottages, the money + advanced by the Government for the purpose being gradually repaid by the ratepayers. + The wretched hovels which were the disgrace of Ireland from the dawn of history until + a period within living memory, have almost disappeared; and comfortable, sanitary and + pleasing dwellings have taken their place.</p> + <p>Even this excellent Act, however, is now used by the Nationalists to further their + own objects. One instance may suffice. In 1907 a farmer fell under the ban of the + League and was ordered to be boycotted. The District Council found that one occupant + of a "Labourer's Cottage" disregarded the order and continued to work for the + boycotted farmer. They promptly evicted him. What would be said in England if a Tory + landlord evicted a cottager for working for a Radical farmer?</p> + <p>But even more important than these measures has been the establishment of the + Department of Agriculture. The success of this has been due to the ability, energy + and unselfishness of Sir Horace Plunkett. The main object of the Department was to + instruct the farming classes in the most effective methods of agriculture and the + industries connected with it. This by itself would have been a great work; but Sir + Horace has also founded the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, to encourage + co-operative organization amongst farmers, based on the principle of mutual help; and + the success of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>[pg + 162]</span> this, worked in conjunction with the Department, has been marvellous. + More than nine hundred local societies have been established, for the promotion of + industries such as dairying and poultry farming; co-operative credit banks have been + formed, based on what is known in Germany as the Raffeisen system. The turnover of + these societies in 1908 amounted to more than £2,250,000. Agricultural + Organization Societies, in imitation of the Irish one, have been formed in England + and Scotland; and so far did its fame reach that the Americans sent over an agent to + enquire into its working.</p> + <p>Of course it is unfair to attribute the prosperity or the decline of a country to + any one measure; and more than that, it is only by taking into consideration a number + of circumstances and a long term of years that we can decide whether prosperity is + real or merely transitory. But that Ireland increased in prosperity under the + influence of the Unionist Government, cannot be denied; indeed Mr. Redmond, when + shepherding the Eighty Club (an English Radical Society) through Ireland in 1911, did + not deny the prosperity of the country, and could only suggest that the same reforms + would have been introduced and better carried out under an Irish + Parliament-regardless of the facts that no Nationalist Government could have found + the money for them; and that Nationalists are orators and politicians, not men of + business. The combined value of exports and imports rose from 104,000,000 in 1904 to + 125,000,000 in 1909; and the gross <span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" + id="page163"></a>[pg 163]</span> receipts on railways from £4,140,000 to + £11,335,000. The deposits in savings banks rose from £3,128,000 in 1888 + to £10,627,000 in 1908. The tonnage of shipping in Irish ports was 11,560,000 + in 1900; in 1910 it was 13,475,000.</p> + <p>Sir Horace had done his utmost to prevent the curse of political strife from + entering into his agricultural projects. He had been careful to appoint Nationalists + to some of the most important offices in his Department, and to show no more favour + to one part of the country than another. But all in vain; the National League, when + their friends returned to power, at once resolved to undo his labours, some of them + openly saying that the increased attention devoted to trade and agriculture was + turning men's thoughts away from the more important work of political agitation. Mr. + T.W. Russell, a man totally ignorant of agricultural affairs, whose only claim to the + office was that he was a convert to Nationalism, was appointed in place of Sir + Horace. He promptly declined to continue to the Agricultural Organization Society the + support which it had previously received from the Department; and, with the aid of + the United Irish League, succeeded in preventing the Society from receiving a grant + from the Board of Agriculture similar to those given to the English and Scotch + societies; threw discredit on the Co-operative Credit Banks, and denounced the + Co-operative Farming Societies as injurious to local shopkeepers. And thus he made it + clear that it is impossible in Ireland to conduct even such a business as the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>[pg 164]</span> development of + agriculture without stirring up political bitterness.</p> + <p>Another effort of Mr. Balfour's-the establishment of the Congested Districts + Board-has had a strange and instructive history. It was established in 1891. Mr. + Balfour decided to entrust to a small body of Irishmen, selected irrespective of + party considerations, the task of making an experiment as to what could be done to + relieve the poorest parts of Ireland; and with this object, the Board, though endowed + with only small funds, were given the widest powers over the area within which they + were to operate. They were empowered to take such steps as they thought proper for + (1) Aiding migration or emigration from the congested districts, and settling the + migrant or emigrant in his new home; and (2) Aiding and developing agriculture, + forestry, and breeding of live stock and poultry, weaving, spinning, fishing + (including the construction of piers and harbours, and supplying fishing boats and + gear and industries subservient to and connected with fishing), and any other + suitable industries. Both the powers and the revenues of the Board were increased + from time to time, until by 1909 its annual expenditure amounted to nearly + £250,000. It became clear almost at the beginning of its labours that amongst + the many difficulties which the Board would have to face there were two pre-eminent + ones; if it was desired to enlarge uneconomic holdings by removing a part of the + population to other districts, the people to be removed might not wish to go; and the + landless <span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>[pg 165]</span> men + in the district to which they were to be removed might say that they had a better + right to the land than strangers from a distance, and the result might be a free + fight. As the only chance of success for the labours of the Board was the elimination + of party politics, Mr. J. Morley, on becoming Chief Secretary in the Gladstonian + Government of 1892, appointed as Commissioners Bishop O'Donnell of Raphoe (the Patron + of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, and a Trustee of the Parliamentary Fund of the + United Irish League); and the Rev. D. O'Hara, a leading Clerical Nationalist of a + violent type. It is needless to say that under their influence the action of the + Board has been conducted on strictly Nationalist lines. One instance may suffice. In + 1900, the Board, having come into the possession of the Dillon estate, wished to sell + it to the tenants; and when doing so, considering the sporting rights to be a + valuable asset, decided to reserve them. A considerable number of the tenants + expressed their readiness to purchase their holdings subject to the reservation. The + Board received an offer of £11,000 for the mansion, demesne and sporting rights + over the estate. The reservation of sporting rights when, taking the whole estate, + they were of pecuniary value, had been the common practice of the Board in other + sales; but an agitation was at once got up (not by the tenants) against the + reservation in this case, on the ground that it was not right for the Board to place + any burden on the fee simple of the holdings; the offer of £11,000 was refused, + and soon afterwards the Board sold the mansion <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166" id="page166"></a>[pg 166]</span> and the best part of the demesne to a + community of Belgian nuns for £2,100. The sporting rights, which became the + property of the purchasing tenants, ceased to be of any appreciable pecuniary value, + though in a few cases the tenants succeeded in selling their share of them for small + sums to local agitators. When a witness before the Royal Commission of 1906 ventured + to point out that the taxpayers thus lost £8,900 by the transaction, he was + severely rebuked by the Clerical members of the Commission for suggesting that the + presence of the Belgian nuns was not a great benefit to the neighbourhood.</p> + <p>This Royal Commission was appointed ostensibly for the purpose of enquiring into + and reporting upon the operations of the Board since its foundation. After going + through a mass of evidence, the Chairman (Lord Dudley) said that the Board had tried + for twenty years to develop new industries and had failed; and another member (Lord + MacDonnell) said that it had only touched the fringe of the question; and, + considering that in spite of all its efforts at promoting local industries, + emigration continued to be greater from the district subject to its control than from + any other part of Ireland, it is hard to see what other view was possible. But the + large majority of the Commission were ardent Nationalists-in fact, one of them a + short time before his appointment had publicly advocated an absolute, rigorous, + complete and exhaustive system of boycotting; and the witness who spoke for the + United Irish League told the Commission that it <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page167" id="page167"></a>[pg 167]</span> was the strong view of the League + that the Board should be preserved. It was only natural therefore that the Commission + should report that in their opinion the powers and scope of its operations should be + extended and its income largely increased. This was accordingly done by the Birrell + Act of 1909. One of the most important functions of the Board was the purchase of + land, for which they possessed compulsory powers. The witness who had appeared before + the Commission as representing the United Irish League was Mr. FitzGibbon, Chairman + of the Roscommon County Council, and now a Member of Parliament. He had previously + been sent to prison for inciting to the Plan of Campaign, and for criminal + conspiracy. He had also taken a leading part in the cattle-driving agitation (to + which I shall refer later) and had announced that his policy was "to enable the Board + to get land at fag-end prices." He was therefore appointed by Mr. Birrell to be a + member of the Board, as being a suitable person to decide what compensation should be + paid for land taken compulsorily. He publicly stated that his object was to carry out + the great work of Michael Davitt. And he certainly has been active in doing so; and + now the agitators, when they want to have an estate transferred to the Board, + commence by preventing its being let or used, and so compelling the owner to leave it + derelict and unprofitable; then, when by every description of villainy and boycotting + it has been rendered almost worthless, the Congested Districts Board (who have + carefully lain by until <span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>[pg + 168]</span> then) step in with a preposterous offer which the unfortunate owner has + no choice but to accept. This may appear strong language to use with reference to a + Government Department presided over by Roman Catholic bishops and priests; but the + words are not mine; they are taken from the judgment of Mr. Justice Ross, in the case + of the Browne Estate.</p> + <p>At any rate, whatever else the Congested Districts Board may have achieved, they + have done one good thing; they have shown to Unionists in Ireland what the principles + of justice are by which the Nationalist Government will be conducted.</p> + <p>(4) The fourth division of the Unionist policy was the extension of local + government. By the Act of 1898 County and District Councils were formed, like those + which had been existing in England for a few years previously; and the powers of the + old Grand Juries (who it was admitted had done their work well, but were now objected + to on principle as not being elected bodies) were abolished. The importance of the + measure can hardly be overestimated; for not only did it re-organize local government + on what would elsewhere be a democratic but is in Ireland a Clerical basis; but also + it may be described as Home Rule on a small scale. By examining into the practical + working of the scheme we may form an idea as to what Home Rule is likely to be; and + both parties refer to it as a ground for their opinion. It is curious now to note + that it was Gerald Balfour, the Unionist Chief Secretary, who, when introducing the + measure, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>[pg 169]</span> + appealed to the Irish gentry not to stand aloof from the new order of things, but to + seek from the suffrages of their fellow-citizens that position which no others were + so well qualified to fill as themselves-in much the same way that English Radical + orators now accuse the Ulstermen of want of patriotism when they declare that they + will never take part in a Nationalist Government. The Nationalists were of course + loud in their protestations that in the noble work of local government all narrow + political and sectarian bitterness would be put aside, and all Irishmen irrespective + of creed, class or party would be welcome to take part-just as they are now when they + promise the same about the National Parliament. Thus J. Redmond said:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"No man's politics or religion will be allowed to be a bar to him if he desires + to serve his country on one of the new bodies. Men of different creeds, who have + had an almost impassable gulf between them all their lives, will be brought + together for the first time in the working of this scheme of Local Government.... + On every one of the juries in Ireland there have been county gentlemen who have + shown the greatest aptitude for business, the greatest industry, and the greatest + ability; and I say it would be a monstrous thing if, by working the election of + these County Councils on narrow sectarian or political lines, men of that class + were excluded from the service of their country."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>[pg 170]</span> + <p>And another Nationalist Member added: "We are anxious for the co-operation of + those who have leisure, wealth and knowledge." Irish Unionists who refused to believe + these assurances were denounced by Nationalists as bigots and humbugs. The value of + the assurances of 1912 may be gauged by the manner in which those of 1898 have been + fulfilled. At the election of 1899 a few Protestants and Unionists were returned. But + the general feeling of the newly-formed Councils may be gathered from the following + resolution which was passed by the Mayo County Council in that year:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That we, the members of the Mayo County Council, congratulate the gallant Boers + on their brilliant defeats of the troops of the pirate Saxon. That we hope that a + just Providence will strengthen the arms of these farmer fighters in their brave + struggle for their independence. And we trust that as Babylon fell, and as Rome + fell, so also may fall the race and nation whose creed is the creed of greed, and + whose god is the god of Mammon."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And by 1902, when the next triennial elections were coming on, the mask was thrown + off. The <i>Freeman's Journal</i> (the principal Nationalist organ) said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In every County or District Council where a landlord, however amiable, or + personally estimable, offers himself for election, the answer of the majority must + be the same: 'No admittance here.'"</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>[pg 171]</span> And J. + Redmond stated the case still more plainly:<br /> + <br /> + + <blockquote> + <p>"We have in our hands a weapon recently won, the full force of which is not yet, + I believe, thoroughly understood by the English Government or by ourselves. I mean + the weapon of freely-elected County Councils and District Councils who to-day form + a network of National organizations all over Ireland, and who to-morrow, I doubt + not, if the other organizations were struck, would be willing to come forward and + take their place, and, in their Council Chambers, carry on the National work."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Pledges in the following form were presented for signature to all candidates by + the United Irish League (except of course in north-east Ulster):-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"I -- hereby pledge myself, if elected to represent the -- Division on the + County Council, to promote the interests of the United Irish League, and to resign + my position whenever called upon to do so by the -- Divisional Executive."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>So completely has the policy been carried out that by 1911, to quote the words of + Mr. FitzGibbon, M.P. (to whom I have previously referred):-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"There was not a landlord in the country who could get his agent returned as + District Councillor or County Councillor, or even his eldest son or himself. The + Organization had emancipated the people; it had given them the power <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>[pg 172]</span> which their + enemies had wielded; it had cleared the road for Ireland's freedom."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>At present Unionists and Nationalists are pretty evenly divided in the County + Councils of Ulster; in the other three Provinces amongst 703 County Councillors there + are only fifteen Unionists. In other words, the Act has enabled the Nationalist party + to carry out the plan laid down by Lalor of taking quiet and peaceable possession of + all the rights and powers of government, as a stepping-stone towards + Independence.</p> + <p>Of course it may be said with much truth that if the large majority of the people + are Nationalists they are perfectly justified in choosing Nationalists as their + representatives. But that is not the point. The real point is that in spite of the + protestations of the Nationalists at the time of the passing of the Act, politics in + their bitterest form have been brought in, and the Unionist minority have been + deprived of all share in the local government of the country.</p> + <p>To illustrate this still further, I may add that a General Council of County + Councils was formed in 1900, for the purpose of promoting a fair and equitable + administration of the Act. In order that the Ulster Councils might unite with the + others, it was agreed that politics should be excluded. But after the election of + 1902, that agreement was abandoned; and, rather than take part in what had become a + mere political gathering, the Ulster representatives withdrew. Left to themselves, + the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>[pg 173]</span> + Nationalist General Council in 1906 passed the following resolution:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That the Irish people are a free people, with a natural right to govern + themselves; that no Parliament is competent to make such laws for Ireland except an + Irish Parliament, sitting in Dublin; and that the claim by other bodies of men to + make laws for us to govern Ireland is illegal, unconstitutional, and at variance + with the rights of the people."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>If such a body as the General Council of County Councils pass a resolution like + this, is there much probability that the Nationalist Parliament will refrain from + doing the same, should the Imperial Parliament attempt to exercise the power given to + it by the present Bill, and to legislate for Ireland?</p> + <p>But again it may be said that though the Councils have thus become political + bodies, they have conducted their business so admirably that their conduct is a + powerful argument to show that a Nationalist Parliament will be equally practical and + liberal. This is the view put forward by Nationalist orators and their humble + follower Mr. Birrell, who in November 1911, informed his friends at Bristol that the + Irish had shown a great capacity for local government and that from what people who + had seen a great deal of the south and west of Ireland told him there was no fear of + persecution or oppression by the Catholic majority of their Protestant + fellow-subjects. In support of this, various facts <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page174" id="page174"></a>[pg 174]</span> are adduced, which it is well to + examine in detail, remembering the poet's words that</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"A lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest of lies."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>One of the greatest powers possessed by the County Councils is the exercise of + patronage. It would probably be generally admitted in any country but Ireland that + there, if anywhere, religion and politics should be excluded, and men selected only + for their qualifications. The Nationalists, wishing to demonstrate the fairness of + the Councils which hold their views, contrast the bigotry shown by the Unionist + Corporation of Belfast with the liberality of similar bodies in other parts of the + country. And certainly the figures they adduce, when addressing audiences in England + or writing for English readers, are very striking. Thus Mr. Birrell said at Skipton + in November 1911 that he had been told that in the great Unionist City of Belfast + there was only one Roman Catholic in the employment of the Corporation, and he was a + scavenger. (It will be observed that here, as in many of his speeches, he carefully + used the expression "he had been told"-so that what he said may be literally true, + even though when he heard the statement he knew that it was false.) And Stephen + Gwynn, M.P., in his "Case for Home Rule," says: "In Belfast, Catholics are a third of + the population; but the Corporation pays £51,405 in a year in salaries, of + which only £640 goes to Catholics." And about the same time as Mr. Birrell's + oration, Mr. Redmond, speaking at <span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" + id="page175"></a>[pg 175]</span> Swindon, said that in Galway, Cork, Westmeath and + King's County (where Roman Catholics form the large majority of the population) + Protestants held 23 per cent. of the salaried appointments in the gift of the + Councils.</p> + <p>But when we descend from the airy height of Nationalist rhetoric to the prosaic + region of fact, we find that the rates of the City of Belfast amount to about + £342,000; of this sum, Roman Catholic ratepayers pay less than £18,000. + There are nine hundred Roman Catholics in the employment of the Corporation, and they + receive in salaries about £48,000 per annum. And as to the figures quoted by + Mr. Redmond, we find that he omitted to state that not one of the 23 per cent. had + been appointed by a County Council; they were all survivals of the system in force + before 1899, whose positions were secured by statute; and in not one of the counties + he mentioned has a Unionist been appointed to any salaried office since that date. To + take the County of Cork as a specimen; there are ninety-four salaried offices in the + gift of the County Council; of these nine are held by Protestants-but they were all + appointed before 1899. Of the thirty-three salaried offices in the gift of the City + Corporation, two are held by Protestants-but these also were appointed before 1898; + and yet the Protestants pay nearly half the rates. And in Ireland there is not the + slightest attempt at concealment in the matter; thus in one case a District Council + adopted by formal resolution the request of the local priests not to support any + candidate who did not produce a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" + id="page176"></a>[pg 176]</span> testimonial from the parish priest; as a Councillor + remarked, it was the simplest way of stating that no Protestant need apply.</p> + <p>But it is in the appointment of medical officers ("dispensary doctors" as they are + technically called in Ireland) that the policy of the Nationalists has been most + marked. Many years ago, the late Cardinal Cullen ruled that it was a mortal sin to + vote for a heretic for such an office; now, however, the bishops have gone further. + There are three medical schools in Dublin-Trinity College, the College of Surgeons, + and the Catholic University School; and three in the provinces-at Belfast, Cork and + Galway. The Medical School of Trinity College has a world-wide reputation. The + students are required to complete their Arts course before specializing in medicine + (thus ensuring that they shall be men of general culture and not merely of + professional training); the professors and lecturers are amongst the ablest men of + the day; the students have the advantage of the large city hospitals for their + clinical studies; and the standard required for a degree is high. And not only is + Trinity College open to all students without distinction of creed, but the College + authorities have frequently offered a site within their grounds for a Roman Catholic + Chapel and the salary of a Chaplain who would take spiritual care of his flock. + Nevertheless the Roman Catholic bishops have ordered that no candidate who has been + trained at any College except the Catholic University school shall be eligible for + the post of Dispensary Doctor; and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" + id="page177"></a>[pg 177]</span> when an election takes place (as for instance that + at Kiltimagh in 1905) the question of professional qualification is not taken into + consideration-having been trained at a "godless college" is a fatal bar to any + candidate, however able. In the Kiltimagh case, the resolution passed shortly after + the election by the local branch of the United Irish League is instructive + reading:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That we, the members of the Kiltimagh Branch of the United Irish League, take + advantage of this our first meeting since the important Election of Medical Officer + for the Kiltimagh Dispensary District, to express our appreciation of all the + Guardians for the several divisions in this parish for the faithful honesty with + which they represented us on that occasion. We feel proud to know that not one of + our representatives voted for a Queen's College man against a Catholic University + man. They voted for a man who is the stamp of man we want-a sound Catholic, a sound + Nationalist, a Gaelic Leaguer, and a highly qualified medical man. We believe their + action will meet with the approval of the Bishops and Priests of Ireland."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>To one who lives in Ireland it is sad enough to see year by year the most able and + promising of the medical students being driven out of the country on account of their + religion, and forced to look for openings elsewhere; but to a thoughtful observer it + is even worse than that; it is the beginning of the new Penal Laws.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>[pg 178]</span> + <p>And when we turn to other matters, where the marvellous efficiency of the County + Councils exists, is hard for an unprejudiced enquirer to find. The old Grand Juries + handed over the roads and bridges in excellent order; they are certainly not better + now, and in many cases worse. In fact, one English theoretical Radical who paid a + brief visit to Ireland, inhaled so much Hibernian logic during his hurried tour that + he solemnly argued that the badness of the roads proved that the Councils had been + governing too economically; and therefore what was needed was a central body-that is, + an Irish Parliament-to stir up the local administration! Nationalist writers claim + that the rates are going down; but that merely means that they are not so high now as + they were soon after the Act came into force, not that they are lower than before + 1898. It was expected that the rates would be reduced by the operation of the Old Age + Pensions Act; but that has not proved to be the case. And the increase in local + indebtedness is alarming.</p> + <p>To sum up, therefore, I trust that I have, even in this brief sketch, made it + clear that the policy of the Unionist Government, taken as a whole, has been of + immense benefit to the social and material prosperity of Ireland; and that the points + in which it has failed have been those where their reforms have fallen under the + power of the Nationalists, who have either thwarted them, or made use of them to + further their own ideas. I shall next proceed to examine the alternative policy, + which is being carried out by the present Government.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>[pg 179]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + <h3>THE GLADSTONIAN GOVERNMENT OF 1892. THE POLITICAL SOCIETIES.</h3> + <p>During the Gladstone-Rosebery Government-from 1892 to 1895-matters in Ireland were + quiet. The Nationalists were at first on their best behaviour, in consequence of the + promised introduction of the Home Rule Bill; and after its rejection by the Upper + House, the time was too short for anything serious to happen. But the period was + marked by the commencement of one great change in Irish administration. It must be + admitted by impartial observers that the old landlord party, with all their faults, + made as a rule excellent magistrates. A large proportion of them were retired + military officers, who had gained some experience in duties of the sort in their + regiments; others were men of superior education, who studied with care the laws they + were to administer. Living in the locality, they knew the habits and feelings of the + people; and yet they were sufficiently separated from them to be able to act as + impartial judges; and no charges of bribery were ever made against them. And, the + work being congenial, they gladly devoted their spare time to it. Gladstone's Chief + Secretary (the present Lord Morley) determined to alter all this; he accordingly + appointed to the Bench a large number of men drawn from a lower social stratum, less + educated and intelligent than those previously chosen, but more likely to administer + "Justice <span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>[pg 180]</span> + according to Irish ideas." Then the operation of the Local Government Act, by which + Chairmen of Councils (all of course Nationalists) became <i>ex officio</i> + magistrates, completed a social revolution by entirely altering the character of the + Bench. In some localities the magistrates previously appointed realizing that, being + now in a minority, they could be of no further use on the Bench, withdrew; in others, + though the old magistrates continued to sit, they found themselves persistently + outvoted on every point; so what good they have done by remaining, it is hard to see. + Amongst the men appointed under the new system, there have been several instances of + justices who have continued to act without the slightest shame or scruple although + they have been convicted of such offences as drunkenness, selling drink on unlicensed + premises, or corrupt practices at elections. But worse than that: the new order of + justices do not regard their duties as magisterial, but political; they give but + little attention to ordinary cases, but attend in full strength to prevent the + conviction of any person for an outrage organized by the United Irish League; and do + not hesitate to promise beforehand that they will do so. If by any chance a + sufficient number are not present to carry their purpose, the names of the absentees + are published in the Black List of the League-and the result of that is so well known + that they are not likely to offend again. Hence comes the contemptible exhibition-now + not infrequent-of men being charged before the Bench, and no evidence being offered + for the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>[pg 181]</span> + defence; yet the Stipendiary Magistrate being obliged to say that though he considers + the case proved, the majority of the Bench have decided to refuse informations. Even + a Roman Catholic Bishop has confessed that now magistrates too often have no respect + for their obligations to dispense the law justly and without favour; and that the + Bench is sometimes so "packed" that the culprits, though guilty, are certain to be + acquitted.</p> + <hr /> + <p>Before discussing the policy of the present Government since it came into power in + 1906, it is well to explain what the principal societies-secret or other-are which + now conduct the Government of Ireland. In one sense indeed the names are immaterial; + for, as in 1798, in whatever various ways the societies have commenced, they are all + working towards the same end, and being controlled by the same forces.</p> + <p>The Land League, which was founded in 1879 as a league for ruining landlords as a + stepping-stone towards independence, having been suppressed by Gladstone in 1881, was + reformed under the name of the Irish National League. This was in its turn suppressed + in 1887, and in 1898 appeared once more under the name of the United Irish League + with J. Redmond as President and J. Devlin as Secretary. In 1901 Mr. Redmond + explained the objects of the League as follows:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The United Irish League is not merely an agrarian movement. It is first, last, + and all the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>[pg + 182]</span> time a National movement; and those of us who are endeavouring to rouse + the farmers of Ireland, as we endeavoured twenty years ago in the days of the Land + League, to rouse them, are doing so, not merely to obtain the removal of their + particular grievances, but because we believe by rousing them we will be + strengthening the National movement and helping us to obtain our end, which is, + after all, National independence of Ireland."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And to make the exact meaning of the phrase "National Independence of Ireland" + quite clear, he soon afterwards stated that their object was the same as that aimed + at by Emmett and Wolfe Tone-in other words, to place Ireland in the scale of nations + with a constitution resembling that of the United States.</p> + <p>By March 1908 (that is, about two years after the present Government came into + power), to quote the words of Mr. Justice Wright, "the only law feared and obeyed was + the law not of the land but of the United Irish League"; and before the end of that + year Mr. Redmond was able to report to his friends in America:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We have in Ireland an organization which is practically a government of the + country. There is in O'Connell Street, Dublin, a great office managed by the real + Chief Secretary for Ireland, J. Devlin, the Member for Belfast."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The organization of the League is admirable. <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183" id="page183"></a>[pg 183]</span> The country is covered with a network + of branches, to which people in the district are obliged to contribute under penalty + of being boycotted; these branches are united under provincial executives, whilst the + Directory in Dublin controls the whole. The union between the League and the Roman + Catholic Church is as complete as the union between that Church and some societies + started on a non-sectarian basis became during the rebellion of 1798; as we have + seen, a bishop is one of the trustees, and other bishops are amongst the subscribers; + the Sunday meetings of the various branches, at which boycotting and other measures + of the kind are arranged, are usually presided over by the parish priests. On the + other hand, few laymen, whatever their religion may be, who have any stake in the + country, can be got to join the League; in the words of A.J. Kettle, M.P.:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"On its roll of membership there are no landlords or ex-landlords, few + merchants, fewer Irish manufacturers. There are few of the men who are managing the + business of Ireland in city or town, connected with the League. The bankers who + regulate our finances, the railway or transit men who control our trade, internal + and external, even the leading cattle men who handle most of our animal produce, + are not to be found in its ranks."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>In further evidence of this it may be noted that in spite of all the efforts of + the League at collecting money, the subscriptions to the Irish Parliamentary <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>[pg 184]</span> Fund do not amount + to a halfpenny per head of the population; as J. Dillon has remarked: "The National + cause in Ireland could not live for six months if it were deprived of the support of + the Irish across the Atlantic."</p> + <p>Closely allied with the League is the Ancient Order of Hibernians, a secret + political and exclusively Roman Catholic association, of which J. Devlin, M.P. (the + Secretary of the League), is President. It is also called the Board of Erin, to + distinguish it from the American branch. The American branch, I may remark, is also + known as the Molly Maguires, as it was under that name that it conducted the series + of murders and outrages at the Pennsylvanian mines thirty years ago. Hence the Irish + branch is sometimes nicknamed the "Molly Maguires." The Order is very religious, in + the sense that part of its programme is to deprive heretics of every means of earning + their livelihood; as a Nationalist who did not sympathize with the operations of the + Order expressed it: "If Protestants are to be robbed of their business, if they are + to be deprived of public contracts, and shut out of every office and emolument,-what + is that but extermination?" The political principles of the Order can be gathered + from the Address presented by them to Captain Condon on the occasion of his visit to + Dublin in 1909. Captain Condon, I may explain, had been a prominent Fenian and member + of the Irish Republican brotherhood, and had taken part in the riot at Manchester in + 1867 which resulted in the murder of Sergeant Brett; he now resides in <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>[pg 185]</span> America. In 1909 + he visited Ireland on the invitation of J. Redmond; and the address presented to him + by the Ancient Order of Hibernians contained the following words:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In you, O'Meagher Condon, we recognize one of those connecting links with the + past which all nations cherish, and you are ready to-day with voice and pen to give + your unflagging support to Ireland's leaders with as much enthusiasm as you grasped + the sword to lead Ireland in the dark but historic '67. We are sure it will + interest you to know that the ranks of the Hibernians to-day are composed of the + men and children of those who swore allegiance to the Irish Republic with you."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The Order has lately acquired additional strength by becoming an "Approved + Society" under the Insurance Act of 1911. In Ireland it is no more possible for life + insurance than for anything else to exist without being dragged into the vortex of + religious and political quarrels.</p> + <p>The "Clan-na-gael"-that is, the Dynamite Club-still flourishes in America; but for + obvious reasons it does not make any public appearance in Ireland; and the exact part + which it takes in the movement at the present time, it is impossible to say.</p> + <p>"Sinn Fein" (which means "Ourselves") is another Separatist Association, aiming at + the establishment of Ireland as a Sovereign State, and teaching that the election of + Irishmen to serve in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>[pg + 186]</span> British Parliament is treason to the Irish State. As its name implies, it + desires to make use of the revival of the Irish language as a means towards the end + for which it is working. It was founded in 1905. Why this Society and the United + Irish League, whose objects seem identical, should be ready to fly at one another's + throats, is one of the things that those who are outside the Nationalist circle + cannot understand. But the Clerical leaders, who do their utmost to further the + operations of the League, look askance at Sinn Fein; its ultimate success therefore + is very doubtful.</p> + <p>Then, working in conjunction with these societies is the "Gaelic League," founded + for the "de-Anglicizing" of Ireland, as helping towards separation. As J. Sweetman + (who, besides being a prominent member of the Gaelic League, is also Vice-President + of Sinn Fein and Vice-Chairman of the Central Council of Irish County Councils and + may therefore be regarded as speaking with authority) has expressed it:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Out of the Gaelic League's de-Anglicizing propaganda have already grown a + series of movements not only strongly political but each and all making for a + separate independent Irish nation, freed from every link of the British + connection."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Were it not for its political object, the folly of this "revival of the Irish + language" would be past belief. The language of Shakespeare and Milton, of Gibbon and + Macaulay, ought surely to be good <span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" + id="page187"></a>[pg 187]</span> enough for ordinary people; and it must be obvious + to every reasoning being that at the present moment of the world's history, English + is one of the most useful languages in existence. It is spoken by 40,000,000 of + people in Europe and twice that number in America, not to mention Australasia and + South Africa. It is the language of commerce, of science, and of a vast amount of + literature. Europeans of various nationalities learn it, for the sake of its + convenience; although, as we all know, one of the difficulties of modern life is that + boys and girls have too much to study; educationalists everywhere complain that the + curriculum is overloaded. Its position in Ireland can be seen exactly by the census + returns; for the papers contain a "language column," each person being required to + state whether he speaks English or Irish or both. According to the returns of 1891, + the total population was in round numbers 4,725,000; of whom 4,037,000 spoke English + only, 643,000 both languages, and 44,000 Irish only. And that trifling minority + existed only in certain localities, and was confined to the less educated classes. + The only counties in which a majority of the population spoke Irish (including those + who spoke both languages) were Mayo and Galway. Yet now it is solemnly said that + Ireland, being an independent nation, must have a language of its own; even in + counties where no language but English has been spoken for centuries, and where + probably none of the ancestors of the present population ever spoke any other + language, Irish is being taught in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" + id="page188"></a>[pg 188]</span> Roman Catholic primary schools, and the unhappy + children who might be studying arithmetic or elementary geography, are wasting their + time over a totally useless language. I say "totally useless" deliberately; for the + arguments usually brought forward in favour of the study, apart from the political + one-that Irish is of use in the study of philology, and that the MSS. of centuries + ago contain fine specimens of poetry-are too absurd to be worth discussing. The real + object of the Nationalists in "encouraging the revival of the Irish language" is + clearly set out in the following words of T. MacSeamus in a recent number of the + <i>Irish Review</i>:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Most important of all, the Irish language is one of the things that distinguish + us from England. It is a mark of that separateness which it is the business of + every Nationalist to maintain and emphasise on every possible occasion. It is one + of the signs-perhaps the chief sign-of nationality.... The Irish language is a + weapon in our fight against England, and we cannot afford to throw away even the + smallest weapon that may serve us in that struggle."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And the policy of the League as regards the primary schools is made quite clear by + the resolution passed unanimously at their annual meeting in 1912:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That we re-affirm the demand of the last Ard Fheis in regard to the position of + Irish in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>[pg + 189]</span> primary schools, viz., that Irish be the sole medium of instruction in + the Irish-speaking districts; that it be the medium as far as possible in all other + schools, and that it be a compulsory subject in every school throughout the country + where parents are not opposed to it; furthermore, that a knowledge of Irish be + required from all teachers entering for training as teachers, and that no + certificate be issued to those who fail to qualify in Irish at the final + examination, and that none but inspectors having a knowledge of Irish be employed + to inspect schools where Irish is taught."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>It will be seen therefore that if the League carry their point (as no doubt they + will under a Home Rule Government) no graduate of the Belfast University who wishes + to become a teacher in a Belfast school will be allowed to do so unless he passes an + examination in a language which not one of his pupils will ever wish to learn; and + this, not for the purpose of ensuring general culture, but to further a political + object with which he has no sympathy.</p> + <p>The League leave no stone unturned in their efforts to substitute the Irish for + the English language. For instance, it is usually considered in other countries that + the names of the streets of a town are put up in order to help people who want to + find their way, and not for political reasons. But in Dublin, where not one per cent. + of the people can read Irish, the names have recently all been painted up in that + language, in the hope of de-Anglicizing <span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" + id="page190"></a>[pg 190]</span> the rising generation. An incident occurred recently + which will show how the movement is being taken up. There is in Dublin an excellent + regulation that children may not become "street traders" without a licence. A bright + little boy came to apply for one. The magistrate, being a kindly man, enquired of the + lad what his circumstances were. The boy explained that part of his earnings went + towards the support of his widowed mother; and that he was trying to keep up his + education by attending a night school. "And what are you learning there?" said the + magistrate. "Irish," replied the boy. Even the magistrate could not resist telling + him that he thought his time would be better spent at Arithmetic. Yet from the boy's + point of view, there is something to be said. Irish may be of use to him in obtaining + a Government appointment, however small; for local bodies (such as the Dublin Boards + of Guardians) now refuse to appoint clerks who cannot send out notices of meetings in + Irish, though no member of the Board to whom they are sent can read them; and the + League fully expect that the Home Rule Government will do the same with regard to + every appointment in their gift. If the railways are taken over by the Government (as + they probably will be) it can be seen what an immense impetus can be given to the + movement.</p> + <p>Then Secondary Schools have been established for the same object. The <i>Irish + Educational Review</i> recently contained the following account of one of them:-</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>[pg 191]</span> + <blockquote> + <p>"At Ring, in the County Waterford, there is already in existence an Irish + secondary school where classics, modern languages and all the usual secondary + school subjects are taught and where Irish and English fill their rightful places, + the former being the ordinary language of the school, the latter a foreign language + on no higher level than French or German."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The Act of 1909, which founded the "National" University (to which I shall refer + again), gave power to County Councils to levy a rate for scholarships. Immediately + the Gaelic League saw their opportunity. They endeavoured to persuade the Councils to + refuse to do so unless Irish were made compulsory at the University. The Councils + generally (except of course in Ulster) agreed to the plan; but some of them (such as + the Kildare Council) were faced by a difficulty. Not a single child in the county + spoke Irish; and so if that language were made compulsory, no one could compete for + the scholarships. So they compromised matters, by deciding that they would levy a + rate if Irish were made compulsory after 1915, by which time some of the young people + in the county would have been able to learn it; and the University agreed to do + so.</p> + <p>This rating power, I may remark, looks extremely liberal as it appears in the Act; + for the scholarships are to be tenable at any University. The Irish Unionist members, + knowing quite well how it would be worked, opposed the clause; and as usual were + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>[pg 192]</span> denounced as + bigots and fanatics. It is needless to add that as soon as the Act came into force, + County Councils and Corporations at once passed resolutions that scholarships derived + from the rates should not be tenable at Trinity College, Dublin, or at Belfast, but + only at the National University-thus practically saying that no Protestants need + compete.</p> + <p>Beyond forcing the children to acquire a smattering of Irish, it cannot be said + that so far the efforts of the League as to the language have been very successful; + for the census returns show that the proportion of the population who could speak + Irish in 1891 was 14'5; in 1901, 14'4; and in 1911, 13'3; and the numbers who spoke + Irish only fell from 20,953 in 1901 to 16,870 in 1911.</p> + <p>But the efforts of the League are not confined to the language. English games, + such as cricket, are forbidden; if football is played, it must be the Gaelic variety + with rules totally different from those observed by the hated Saxon. Even the + patients in asylums are forbidden to play cricket or lawn tennis. And some of the + more enthusiastic members of the League have actually "donned the saffron," in + imitation of the Ersefied Normans of 400 years ago. However, it is so hideously ugly, + and so suggestive of the obnoxious Orange, that that phase of the movement is not + likely to extend.</p> + <p>Even the "Boy Scout" movement has been made use of for the same object. As soon as + some corps had been established in Ireland, the Nationalists started a rival + organization with an Irish name, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" + id="page193"></a>[pg 193]</span> in which all the boys solemnly undertake to work for + the independence of Ireland, and never to join England's armed forces. The boys take + a prominent part in the annual ceremonies in honour of Wolfe Tone, the Manchester + martyrs, and other Nationalist heroes.</p> + <p>The whole thing would be laughable if it were not so very sad. Even such matters + as sports and education, where all creeds and parties might be expected to work + together amicably, must be used as instruments to bring about separation; and the + result already is not so much to widen the gulf between Ireland and England as the + gulf between the two parties in Ireland; for the Protestant minority in the south, + who know that most of their children will have to leave the country, are not likely + to let them fritter away their youth in the study of a language which can be of no + possible benefit to them in any part of the world to which they may go; and the idea + that the Ulstermen will ever adopt a Celtic tongue is too ridiculous to be + considered. But perhaps the most painful thought of all is that the Nationalists + should be ready even to sacrifice the prospects in life of the rising generation of + the country in order to satisfy their blind hatred of England.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>[pg 194]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + <h3>IRELAND UNDER THE PRESENT GOVERNMENT.</h3> + <p>I come now to the policy which has been pursued by the present Government since + 1906. It must be remembered that the Radical party returned to power pledged to Home + Rule as a principle, but with a sufficient majority to enable them to retain office + without depending on the Irish vote. Hence there was no necessity for them to + introduce a Home Rule Bill; but of course they set aside the policy of the Unionist + Government, and resolved to govern Ireland according to their own ideas. What those + ideas were, and what the result has been, I shall now proceed to show; but in doing + so I shall as far as possible confine myself to quotations and statistics which can + be verified, so that I may not be accused of giving an unfair report.</p> + <p>The Chief Secretary for the first year was Mr. Bryce, who was afterwards appointed + British Ambassador at Washington. The Government at once repealed the Act which + forbade the carrying of arms without a licence; withdrew all proclamations under the + Crimes Act of 1887; and resolved not to stop any political meetings. Accordingly the + Nationalists commenced holding a series of demonstrations all over the country. A few + specimens taken from the speeches made at them will suffice to show their general + tenour.</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Let them all be ready, and when England <span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" + id="page195"></a>[pg 195]</span> got into trouble with European Powers, they would + pounce upon her with the ferocity of a tiger."-<i>T. Walsh, District + Councillor.</i></p> + </blockquote> + <blockquote> + <p>"They must stand together as one man, and make it impossible for England to + govern Ireland."-<i>P. White, M.P.</i></p> + </blockquote> + <blockquote> + <p>"If there had been 100,000 Fenians in Ireland at the time of the Boer War there + might now have been a Republic in Ireland, and British supremacy would have been + tumbled in the dust."-<i>J. Daly, formerly Mayor of Limerick.</i></p> + </blockquote> + <p>And Mr. Bryce, when leaving Ireland at the end of the year, stated that he had not + found any harm in any of the speeches delivered at the meetings.</p> + <p>At this time the agitation began to assume a new form. One of the most important + of Irish industries is the cattle trade with England, the annual value of which + exceeds £14,000,000. In several parts of Ireland, notably in Meath and the + central counties, the soil and climate are specially suited for cattle raising, and + the land is generally held in large grazing farms. It was decided by the Nationalists + in the autumn of 1906 that this industry must be destroyed. Bodies of men assembled + night after night to break down the fences and gates of the farms and drive the + cattle many miles away, in order that the farmers might be ruined and forced to leave + the country; and then the derelict farms would be divided amongst the "landless men." + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>[pg 196]</span> L. Ginnell, + M.P., explained the programme fully in a speech he made in October 1906:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The ranches must be broken up, not only in Westmeath but throughout all Ireland + ... He advised them to stamp out the ranch demon themselves, and not leave an alien + Parliament to do the duty ... He advised them to leave the ranches unfenced, unused + and unusable ... so that no man or demon would dare to stand another hour between + the people and the land that should be theirs."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The agitation, commencing in Meath, was gradually extended, county by county, over + a large part of Ireland where the Nationalists are supreme. Other measures were + resorted to, in order to carry out their object. Arson, the burning of hayricks, + firing into dwelling-houses, spiking meadows, the mutilation of horses and cows, the + destruction of turf, the damaging of machinery, and various other forms of lawless + violence began to increase and multiply. At the Spring Assizes in 1907, the Chief + Justice, when addressing the Grand Jury at Ennis, in commenting on the increasing + need for placing law-abiding people under special police protection, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In a shire in England, if it was found necessary, either by special protection + or protection by patrol, to protect from risk of outrage thirty persons, what would + be thought?"</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And Mr. Justice Kenny at Leitrim, after commenting <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page197" id="page197"></a>[pg 197]</span> upon the increased number of + specially reported cases, as shown by the official statistics, and alluding to + several cases of gross intimidation, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"In these latter cases I regret to say no one has been made amenable; and when + there is such a state of things, it justifies the observation made by the learned + judge who presided at last Connaught Winter Assizes, that when the chain of + terrorism was complete, no witness would give evidence and no jury would + convict."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Thereupon Mr. Birrell, who at the beginning of the year had succeeded Mr. Bryce as + Chief Secretary, having no doubt studied these and similar reports, said in a speech + at Halifax in the following month:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"You may take my word for this, that Ireland is at this moment in a more + peaceful condition than for the last six hundred years."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Soon afterwards, Mr. Justice Ross, who, as Judge of the Land Judge's Court, + Chancery Division, was in charge of many estates in Ireland, said:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"He had known from other Receivers about this widespread and audacious + conspiracy at present rampant in the West of Ireland ... This was actually a + conspiracy which on ordinary moral grounds amounted to highway robbery, to seize on + these grass lands, to drive away the stock of the people who had been in the habit + of taking it; and then, when the owner <span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" + id="page198"></a>[pg 198]</span> had been starved out, the Estates Commissioners + were expected to buy up the property and to distribute it amongst the very people + who had been urging on the business, and who had been engaged in these + outrages."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>When an Ulster member drew attention to this in the House of Commons, Mr. Birrell + replied:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"There is no evidence before the Government that a widespread conspiracy is + rampant in the West of Ireland."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And in reply to another question he said that:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The reports he received from the police and other persons revealed the + condition of Ireland generally as to peace and order as being very + satisfactory."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>During the month of October 1907, twenty-nine claims for compensation from the + rates in respect of malicious injuries had been proved and granted in twelve + counties, the amount levied from the ratepayers being about £900. The malicious + injuries comprised destruction of and firing into dwelling houses, mutilation of + horses and cattle, burning cattle to death, spiking meadows and damaging mowing + machines, damages to fences and walls, burning heather and pasturage, damage to gates + in connection with cattle driving, and injury to cattle by driving. And in November + an attempt was made to assassinate Mr. White Blake and his mother when driving home + from church in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>[pg + 199]</span> County Galway. A few days after this occurred Mr. Redmond said at a + meeting in North Wales:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Whilst there is no crime or outrage there is widespread unrest and impatience, + and there are, over a certain section of the country, taking place technical + breaches of the strict letter of the law in the shape of what is called cattle + driving. Now let me say first of all that in no instance has any single beast been + injured in the smallest degree in any of these cattle-drives; in no instance has + any malicious injury been done to property, life or limb, or beast."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>All this time the Government adhered to their determination not to put the Crimes + Act in force, but merely to place accused persons on trial before juries at the + Assizes. The results were as follows: At the Summer Assizes in 1907, 167 persons were + returned for trial; of these, 57 were actually tried, of whom three were convicted, + 31 acquitted, and in 23 cases the juries disagreed. The trials of the remaining 110 + were postponed. At the Michaelmas sittings, 94 persons were put on trial, of whom 5 + were convicted and 2 acquitted; in 72 cases the juries disagreed, and in the + remaining 15 the Crown abandoned proceedings. At the Winter Assizes 86 persons were + tried for unlawful assembly, riot and conspiracy in connection with cattle-driving. + None were convicted; 11 were acquitted; in 12 cases the prisoners were discharged on + legal points; and in 63 the juries disagreed.</p> + <p>I fully admit that there is much to be said for the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page200" id="page200"></a>[pg 200]</span> juries who refused to convict. When a + Government is doing its utmost to suppress anarchy and to enforce law and order, it + is no doubt the duty of every loyal subject to render assistance even at the risk of + his own life and property. But when a Government is conniving at anarchy, and + deliberately refusing to put in force the Act which would put a stop to it, I say it + is too much to expect of any man that he should face the prospect of being ruined and + probably murdered, and his family reduced to beggary, in order to enable the + Government to keep up the farce of pretending that they are trying to do their + duty.</p> + <p>During the first half of 1908, there were 418 reported cases of cattle-driving; + and arson, outrages with firearms, meadow-spiking, and similar offences increased in + proportion. The judges urged in vain that the law should be put in force. But the + policy of the Government remained unchanged; the <i>Daily News</i> (the Government + organ) when cattle-driving was at its height said that thanks to the excellent + government of Mr. Birrell cattle-driving now had practically become extinct even in + those few parts of the country in which it had existed; and in July Mr. Birrell, + addressing a political meeting at Port Sunlight, said that:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"They were led to believe that the state of Ireland was of an appalling + character, that crime predominated, and that lawlessness almost universally + prevailed. All he could say was that a more cheerful land was nowhere to be + found."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>[pg 201]</span> + <p>In 1909 matters became somewhat quieter, chiefly because Mr. Birrell promised to + introduce a Land Bill by which the cattle-drivers hoped to get all they wanted. Hence + their leaders advised them to "give Birrell a chance," but Mr. Redmond warned the + Government that if they did not carry out their pledge, they would speedily find + Ireland ungovernable. In February 1909, Lord Crewe, speaking for the Government in + the House of Lords, made the remarkable statement:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"As regards intimidation, I have always shared the view that well-organized + intimidation cannot be checked by law. I know no method of checking it."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>If this is not an admission that the Government had failed in their duty, it is + hard to say what is. The result of their line of action will be seen by the following + table, which has been taken from various returns which the Ulster members, by + repeated questions in Parliament at last succeeded in forcing Mr. Birrell to make + public:-</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>[pg 202]</span> + <table summary="" align="center"> + <tr> + <td align="left">Agrarian outrages</td> + <td align="left">1906</td> + <td align="right">234</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1907</td> + <td align="right">372</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">576</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cattle-drives</td> + <td align="left">1905</td> + <td align="right">Nil</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1907-8</td> + <td align="right">513</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908-9</td> + <td align="right">622</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">219</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cattle maiming, mutilating, etc.</td> + <td align="left">1907</td> + <td align="right">142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Persons boycotted</td> + <td align="left">1907</td> + <td align="right">196</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">270</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">" "</td> + <td align="left">1909</td> + <td align="right">335</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Cost of extra police</td> + <td align="left">1908</td> + <td align="right">£47,000</td> + </tr> + </table> + <br /> + <table summary="" align="center"> + <tr> + <td align="left">1911.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Agrarian outrages</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">581</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Malicious injuries to property, Intimidating</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">by threatening letters, etc.</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">285</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Firing into dwelling houses</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Rioting, robbery of arms, etc.</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Killing and maiming cattle</td> + <td align="left"> + </td> + <td align="right">83</td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>It may be asked, why did not the Ulster members call the attention of Parliament + to this state of things? The answer is, they did so again and again; Mr. Birrell gave + stereotyped replies, much after this form, with hardly a variation:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>I have seen in the newspapers a report that a few shots were fired into a + farmhouse in Galway. No one appears to have been seriously injured. The police are + making enquiries. No arrests have been made.</p> + </blockquote> + <p>(He might as well have added that he knew perfectly well that no arrests ever + would be made.) Then he would go to a political meeting and say that the peaceful + condition of Ireland was shown by the small number of criminal cases returned for + trial at the Assizes; and would bitterly denounce the "Carrion Crows" (as he + designated the Ulster members) for trying to blacken the reputation of their + country.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>[pg 203]</span> + <p>One instance may be given more in detail, as typical of the condition to which + Ireland had been brought. Lord Ashtown (a Unionist Peer residing in County Galway) + began issuing month by month a series of pamphlets entitled "Grievances from + Ireland." They contained little besides extracts from Nationalist papers giving + reports of the meetings of the United Irish League, the outrages that took place, and + the comments of Nationalist papers on them. His object was to let the people in + England see from the accounts given by the Nationalists themselves, what was going on + in Ireland. This, however, was very objectionable to them; and one of their members + asked Mr. Birrell in the House of Commons whether the pamphlets could not be + suppressed. Mr. Birrell made the curious reply that he would be very glad if Lord + Ashtown were stopped, but that he did not see how to do it. What he expected would be + the results of that remark, I do not know; but no one living in Ireland was much + surprised when a few weeks afterwards a bomb outrage occurred at the residence of + Lord Ashtown in the County Waterford. It was a clumsy failure. A jar containing + gunpowder was placed against the wall of the house where he was staying and set on + fire. The explosion wrecked part of the building, but Lord Ashtown escaped unhurt. He + gave notice of his intention to apply at the next assizes for compensation for + malicious injury. The usual custom in such cases is for a copy of the police report + showing the injury complained of, to be sent to the person seeking compensation; + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>[pg 204]</span> but on this + occasion the police refused to show Lord Ashtown their report, stating that they had + received orders from the Government not to do so. But shortly before the case came + on, a report, not made by the police authority in charge of the district, but by + another brought in specially for the purpose, appeared in the Nationalist papers. + This report contained the remarkable suggestion that Lord Ashtown had done it + himself! When under cross-examination at the trial, the Inspector of the Royal Irish + Constabulary who made the report was obliged to confess that he did not believe that + he had, but had only inserted the suggestion in obedience to instruction received + from the Government. Lord Ashtown proved his case and was awarded compensation. But + the matter did not end there. He had employed a surveyor, Mr. Scully, to draw plans + and take photographs showing the amount of the damage. Mr. Scully was surveyor to the + Waterford Corporation. It was proposed at the next meeting of the Corporation that he + should be dismissed from his office for having given evidence for Lord Ashtown. The + motion was carried unanimously, eight councillors being present; and at the following + meeting it was ratified by eight votes to two. A question was asked about the matter + in the House of Commons; and Mr. Birrell, with the figures before him, replied that + Mr. Scully had never been dismissed.</p> + <p>Two other instances of this period must be briefly referred to. It has already + been shown how the Irish Parliament endowed Maynooth as a College <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>[pg 205]</span> for Roman Catholic + students both lay and theological; and how Trinity College, Dublin, opened its doors + to all students, without distinction of creed. But the Roman Catholic Church turned + Maynooth into a seminary for theological students only; and the bishops forbade young + laymen to go to Trinity. In 1845 Sir Robert Peel attempted to supply the want by + founding the Queen's University, with Colleges at Belfast, Cork and Galway, where + mixed education should be given in secular subjects, and separate instruction in + those appertaining to religion; but that again was denounced as a "satanic scheme for + the ruin of faith in the rising generation"; and the crusade against the university + was so successful that in 1879 it was destroyed and another-the Royal University-put + in its place. This in its turn was abolished in 1909; the College at Belfast was + raised to the status of a University, and a new University ominously called the + "National University" was founded into which the existing Colleges at Cork and Galway + were absorbed, with a new and richly endowed College in Dublin at the head. It may + seem strange that the Radical Government who are pledged to destroy all religious + education in England should found and endow a Denominational University in Ireland. + But the matter could be arranged by a little judicious management and prevarication; + it was represented in Parliament that the new University was to be strictly + unsectarian; during the debate, Sir P. Magnus, the member for the London University, + said that he had no reason to believe that there <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page206" id="page206"></a>[pg 206]</span> was any intention on the part of the + Chief Secretary to set up denominational Universities in Ireland; he accepted his + word that they were to be entirely undenominational. Then, when the Act was passed, + the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin was appointed Chancellor of the National + University, with a number of Jesuits as Professors, and Cardinal Logue stated as + follows:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"No matter what obstacles the Nonconformists may have inserted in the + Constitution of the University to keep it from being Catholic, we will make it + Catholic in spite of them."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Personally, I do not object to denominational Universities. I regret that young + men who are going to live in the same country should not be able to study law and + medicine together; but if that is their feeling and the feeling of their parents, I + admit that having separate Universities may be the best solution of the difficulty. + But if so, let it be openly avowed that the University is denominational; to "make it + Catholic" and at the same time to say that it is no injustice to Protestants that + County Scholarships paid for by the ratepayers should be tenable there and nowhere + else, seems to me absurd.</p> + <p>The other incident to which reference must be made was the great Convention held + in Dublin in 1909. The Nationalists, believing that a Home Rule Bill would soon be + introduced, devised the scheme of assembling a monster Convention, which would be + evidence to the world of how admirably <span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" + id="page207"></a>[pg 207]</span> fitted the Irish people were to govern their own + country. It was attended by 2,000 delegates from all parts of the country, who were + to form a happy family, as of course no disturbing Unionist element would be present + to mar the harmony and the clerical element would be strong. Mr. Redmond, who + presided, said in his opening address:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Ireland's capacity for self-government will be judged at home and abroad by the + conduct of this Assembly. Ireland's good name is at stake, and therefore every man + who takes part in this Assembly should weigh his words and recognise his + responsibility."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The meeting ended in a free fight.</p> + <p>At the end of 1909 Mr. Asquith did a very clever thing. A general election was + pending, and he wished to avoid the mistake which Gladstone had made in 1885. He + therefore, at a great meeting at the Albert Hall unfolded an elaborate programme of + the long list of measures which the Government would introduce and carry, and in the + course of his remarks said that Home Rule was the only solution of the Irish problem, + and that in the new House of Commons the hands of a Liberal Government and of a + Liberal majority would in this matter be entirely free. He and his followers + carefully abstained from referring to the subject in their election addresses; and + Mr. Asquith was thus free, if he should obtain a majority independent of the Irish + vote, to say that he had never promised to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" + id="page208"></a>[pg 208]</span> make Home Rule part of his programme; but if he + found he could not retain office without that vote, he might buy it by promising to + introduce the Bill and refer to his words at the Albert Hall as justification for + doing so. The latter happened; hence the "Coalition Ministry." The Irish party + consented to please the Radicals by voting for the Budget, and the Nonconformists by + voting for Welsh Disestablishment, on condition that they should in return vote for + Home Rule. As Mr. Hobhouse (a Cabinet Minister) expressed it in 1911:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Next year we must pay our debt to the Nationalist Members, who were good enough + to vote for a Budget which they detested and knew would be an injury to their + country."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>But the people of England still had to be hood-winked. It was hardly likely that + they would consent to their representatives voting for the separation of Ireland from + Great Britain; so the Nationalists and their Radical allies went about England + declaring that they had no wish for such a thing; that all they desired was a + subordinate Parliament leaving the Imperial Parliament supreme. Thus Mr. Redmond + suggested at one meeting that Ireland should be conceded the right of managing her + own purely local affairs for herself in a subordinate Parliament, subject to the + supremacy of the Imperial Parliament; and at another meeting said:</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We are not asking for a Repeal of the Union. We are not asking for the + restoration <span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>[pg + 209]</span> of a co-ordinate Parliament such as Ireland had before the Union. We + are only asking that there should be given to Ireland a subordinate Parliament. We + therefore admit the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament. That means that after + this subordinate Parliament is created in Ireland, if the Parliament is foolish + enough, rash enough, as it never will be, but if it were foolish enough and + criminal enough to use the powers given to it for injustice or oppression of any + class or creed, the Imperial Parliament would have the power to stretch forth the + arm of its authority and to say 'you shall not do that.'"</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Of course it may be argued that they had changed their minds; that in former times + they worked for separation, but now realised that a subordinate Parliament was all + that Ireland required. But unfortunately for this theory, they have themselves + repudiated it; when Mr. Redmond was accused of speaking with two voices, one in + America and one in Great Britain, he passionately replied:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"I indignantly deny that accusation. I have never in my life said one word on a + platform in America one whit stronger than I had said in my place on the floor of + the House of Commons. I have never in America or anywhere else, advocated the + separation of Ireland from Great Britain."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>How far this is true, the quotations from his speeches which have already been + given, will have <span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>[pg + 210]</span> shown. But the Government have kept up the farce; Mr. Winston Churchill + said during the debate on the Bill of 1912:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"The Home Rule movement has never been a separatist movement. In the whole + course of its career it has been a moderating, modifying movement, designed to + secure the recognition of Irish claims within the circuit of the British + Empire."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>But not even the immediate prospect of Home Rule can be said to have made those + parts of Ireland where the League is supreme a happy place of residence to any but + advanced Nationalists. The following report of a case in the Magistrate's Court at + Ennis in November 1912 will speak for the condition of the County Clare:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>Patrick Arkins was charged with knocking down walls on the farm of Mrs. + Fitzpatrick in order to compel her to give up the farm. Inspector Davis gave + evidence that from January 1910 to that date there were 104 serious outrages in his + district. In 42 firearms were used, 27 were malicious injuries, 32 were threatening + notices, 1 case of bomb explosion outside a house, 1 robbery of arms, and 1 + attempted robbery. A sum of £268 had been awarded as compensation for + malicious injury and there were claims for £75 pending for malicious injuries + committed during the week ended 11th inst. There were two persons under constant + police protection, and 16 receiving protection by patrol. Head Constable <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>[pg 211]</span> Mulligan said + that Mrs. Fitzpatrick was under police protection. Since February 11th, 1912, there + had been 12 outrages in the district, Mrs. Fitzpatrick was under almost constant + police protection. Acting Sergeant Beegan deposed that there had been 12 outrages + on the Fitzpatrick family during the last four years; these included driving cattle + off the lands, threatening notices, firing shots at the house, knocking down walls, + spiking meadows; the new roof of a hay barn was perforated with bullets, and at + Kiltonaghty Chapel there were notices threatening death to anyone who would work + for Mrs. Fitzpatrick. Timothy Fitzpatrick gave similar evidence as to the outrages, + and said that his father had taken the farm twenty-one years ago, and had paid the + son of the former tenant £40 for his goodwill.</p> + </blockquote> + <p>(I may add that Arkins was committed for trial, convicted at the Assizes and + sentenced to seven years penal servitude; and was released by Mr. Birrell a few weeks + afterwards.)</p> + <p>In another Clare case, in February of the present year, the resident Magistrate + said as follows:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It is a mistake to say that these outrages are arising out of disputes between + landlord and tenant; nine out of ten arise out of petty disputes about land. What + is the use of having new land laws? A case occurred not long ago in this county of + a man who had bought some land twenty years ago, and paid down hard <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>[pg 212]</span> cash to the + outgoing tenant. The man died, and left a widow and children on the land for + fourteen years. But in 1908 a man who had some ulterior object got the man who had + sold the farm to send in a claim under the Evicted Tenant's Act, which was + rejected. That was what the advisers of the man wanted-they only wanted a pretext + for moonlighting and other disgraceful outrages, and the woman was kept in a hell + for four years. A man was caught at last and convicted, and one would think that + this was a subject for rejoicing for all right-minded men in the county. But what + was the result? A perfect tornado of letters was printed, and resolutions and + speeches appeared in the public press, condemning this conviction of a moonlighter + in Clare as an outrage against justice."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>The Roman Catholic Bishop of Killaloe, in a sermon preached in December 1912, + referring to County Clare said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"That county had had an evil record in the matter of crime, and they were so + accustomed to outrages of almost weekly occurrence around them that it was not easy + to shock them. There was an inoffensive family sitting round the fireside with a + couple of neighbours. They had given no offence, they had wronged no man, they had + crossed no man's path. But that inhuman beast went to the door and lifted the + latch, and there, at a few yards distance, fired <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page213" id="page213"></a>[pg 213]</span> into that innocent group of men, + women and children, as if they were a flock of crows, killing the mother outright + and almost blowing the forehead off a young girl. There was no denying the fact + that that brutal murder was the natural outcome of the disgraceful system of + intimidation and outrage that had been rampant for a long time in certain districts + of that unhappy county and of the immunity from punishment enjoyed by the wicked + and cowardly moonlighter. In addition to their other acts of savagery, they had + shot out the eyes of two men within the last couple of years. A decent, honest man + was shot on the road to Ennis. The people passed the wounded man by and refused to + take him into their car through fear. Not one of these well-known miscreants was + brought to justice. The murderers of poor Garvey, the cow-houghers, the + hay-burners, were said to be known. In any other country, for instance in the + United States, such ruffianism would be hunted down or lynched; but there, in the + places he referred to, they had a curtain of security drawn round them by the + cowardice or perverted moral sense on the part of the community amongst whom they + lived.... It was only last Thursday night, before the county had recovered from the + shock of Mrs. O'Mara's murder, that right over the mountain an unfortunate postman + was shot on the public road between Crusheen and Baliluran for no other reason + apparently than that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>[pg + 214]</span> another fellow wanted his job of one and six-pence a day! It has come + to this, that if you differ with one of them for a shilling, or refuse to give him + his way in everything the first thing that comes into his head is to moonlight + you.... They have not elevation or social instinct to settle their petty disputes + by process of law provided for the purpose by a civilized society, nor have they + Christianity enough to bear a little wrong or disappointment for Christ's sake. No, + nor the manliness even to meet an opponent face to face and see it out with him + like a man; but with the cunning of a mean and vicious dog, he steals behind him in + the dark and shoots him in the back, or murders the helpless woman of his family, + or shoots out the eyes of the poor man's horse, or cuts the throat of his bullock + and spikes his beast upon a gate."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Nor has the present year brought much improvement. In May 1913, Mr. R. Maunsell + was fired at and wounded close to the town of Ennis. His crime was that he managed a + farm for a Mr. Bannatyne, whose family had been in possession of it for about sixty + years, but who had recently been denounced by the United Irish League and ordered to + surrender it. As he has refused to do so, he is now compelled to live under police + protection.</p> + <p>The abolition of landlordism and the acquisition of firearms can hardly be said to + have brought peace and tranquillity to the County of Clare.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>[pg 215]</span> + <p>And as to Galway, we may gather the state of affairs from the report of a case + tried at the Winter Assizes of 1912. Three men were charged with having done grievous + bodily harm to a man named Conolly. Conolly swore that he knew a man named Broderick + who had become unpopular but he (Conolly) kept to him and this brought displeasure on + him from the accused and others. On the night of the 11th September he went to bed; + he was subsequently awakened and found 44 grains of shot in his left knee and four in + his right. He then lay flat on the floor. Other shots were fired through the window + but did not strike him. The judge said the district was a disgrace to Ireland. Day + after day, night after night, heaps of outrages were committed there, and not one + offender was made amenable to justice. The jury disagreed, and the accused were again + put on their trial. The judge in charging the jury on the second trial said that + then, and for some time, the district was swarming with police, and though outrages + were frequent, it was impossible for them to bring anyone to justice. No one was sure + he might not be fired at during the night; and people were afraid to give evidence. + The jury again disagreed.</p> + <p>During the autumn of 1912 an effort was made to hold a series of meetings + throughout the south and west of Ireland to protest against Home Rule. The conduct of + the Nationalists with regard to them supplies a striking commentary on Mr. Redmond's + statement at Banbury not long before, that all through his political life he had + preached conciliation <span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>[pg + 216]</span> towards those who differed from him on the question of Home Rule. The + meetings were in some cases stopped by force; at Limerick the windows of the + Protestant Church and of some houses occupied by Protestants were smashed; at Tralee + the principal speaker was a large farmer named Crosbie; all his hay and sheds were + burned down, and he was awarded £600 compensation by the County Court + Judge.</p> + <p>But an incident had occurred in the north which, though in a sense comparatively + slight, has, in consequence of the circumstances connected with it, done more to + inflame the men of Ulster than persons not living in Ireland can realise. In June of + last year a party of Sunday School children from a suburb of Belfast went for a + picnic to Castledawson (co. Derry) under the charge of a Presbyterian minister and a + few teachers and ladies. On their way back to the railway station, they were met and + assailed by a procession of men belonging to the Order of Hibernians armed with pikes + who attacked the children with the pikes and with stones, seized a Union Jack which a + small boy was carrying, and knocked down and kicked some of the girls and teachers. + Worse might have happened had not some Protestant young men, seeing what was going + on, come to the rescue. The minister was struck with stones whilst he was + endeavouring to get some of the children to a place of safety. No Nationalist has + ever expressed the slightest regret at the occurrence. Several of the aggressors were + tried at the Winter Assizes and sentenced to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" + id="page217"></a>[pg 217]</span> three months' imprisonment. Before the end of the + term they were released by order of the Government. Mr. Birrell, in justifying his + action, said that the judge had remarked that there was no evidence before him of + actual injury. This, like many of his statements, was literally true; but he omitted + to mention that he had prevented the evidence from being given; the injured women and + children were quite ready to give their testimony, but were not called by the counsel + for the crown.</p> + <p>It is unnecessary to say that this foretaste of Home Rule government has made the + Presbyterians of Ulster more determined than ever to resist it to the bitter end.</p> + <p>I shall next proceed to consider the Bill which the Government have introduced as + a panacea for the woes of Ireland.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>[pg 218]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + <h3>CRITICISM OF THE BILL NOW BEFORE THE COUNTRY.</h3> + <p>That the maintenance of the Union is possible, and that complete separation is + possible, are two indisputable facts. But the question is, was Wolfe Tone right when + he said that these were the only two possibilities; or is there a third one, and if + so, what?</p> + <p>Residents in the Dominions will naturally be inclined to reply "Yes; place Ireland + in the position of a colony possessing responsible government, such as New Zealand." + It is a taking idea; but a little reflection will show the falseness of the analogy. + The relations between the Mother Country and the self-governing colonies (now often + called "Dominions") have grown up of themselves; and, like most political conditions + which have so come about, are theoretically illogical but practically convenient. The + practical convenience arises partly from the friendly spirit which animates both + parties, but still more from the nature of the case. The distance which separates the + Mother Country from the Dominions causes the anomalies to be scarcely perceptible. In + theory the Sovereign, acting on the advice of British Ministers, can disallow any + colonial statute, and the British Parliament is supreme-it can pass laws that will + bind the colonies, even laws imposing taxes. But we all know that if the Home + Government were persistently <span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" + id="page219"></a>[pg 219]</span> to veto laws passed by the large majority of the + people in New Zealand, or the British Parliament were to attempt to legislate for the + colonies, relations would at once become strained, and separation would be + inevitable. The only important matters on which the Home Government attempts to bind + the colonies are those relating to foreign countries (which are necessarily of an + Imperial nature) and those as to which the colonies themselves wish to have an Act + passed, such as the Act establishing Australian Federation. In other words, the + "supremacy of Parliament," which is a stern reality in England, has very little + meaning as regards New Zealand. Even if the people of New Zealand were to manage the + affairs of their country in a manner contrary to English ideas-for instance if they + were to establish State lotteries and public gambling tables-England would be but + slightly affected, and certainly would never think of taking steps to prevent them. + And those matters in which the Home Government is obliged to act are just those in + which New Zealand has no desire to interfere; for instance, New Zealand would never + want to appoint consuls of her own (which was the immediate cause of the separation + between Norway and Sweden); in the very few cases in which New Zealand desires to + make use of political or commercial agents abroad, she is content to employ the + British representatives, for whom she is not called upon to pay. If New Zealand + attempted to take part in a European war in which England was not concerned-the idea + is almost too absurd to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>[pg + 220]</span> suggest-the only thing that England could do would be to break off the + connection and repudiate New Zealand altogether. And if New Zealand desired to + separate from the Mother Country, many people would think it a most grievous mistake, + but England certainly would not seek to prevent her doing so by force; and though + England would in some ways be the worse for it, the government of England and of the + rest of the Empire would go on much the same as before. In certain points, it is + true, thoughtful men have generally come to the conclusion that the present state of + affairs cannot go on unchanged; the time is coming when the great Dominions must + provide for their own defence by sea as well as by land; and whether this is to be + done by separate navies working together or by joint contributions to a common navy, + it will probably result in the formation of some Imperial Council in which all parts + will have a voice. That however, is a matter for future discussion and + arrangement.</p> + <p>But when we turn to Ireland, everything is different. The two islands are + separated by less than fifty miles. Ireland has for more than a century been + adequately represented in the Imperial Parliament; the journey from Galway to London + is shorter than that from Auckland or Dunedin to Wellington. So long as Europe + remains as it is, Great Britain and Ireland must have a common system of + defence-which means one army, one navy, and one plan of fortifications. Again, + Irishmen, traders and others, will constantly have to <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page221" id="page221"></a>[pg 221]</span> make use of government agents in + other countries. Now unless Great Britain is to arrange and pay for the whole of + this, we are met at once by the insoluble problem of Irish representation in the + British Parliament. If Ireland is not represented there, we are faced with the old + difficulty of taxation without representation; if Ireland is represented there for + all purposes, Ireland can interfere in the local affairs of England, but England + cannot in those of Ireland; if we have what has been called the "in-and-out" scheme + as proposed by Gladstone in 1893-that is, for the Irish members to vote on all + questions of an Imperial nature, but to retire when matters affecting England only + are under discussion-then, even if the line could be drawn (which is doubtful) we + might have the absurdity of an English ministry which possessed the confidence of the + majority of Englishmen and whose management of England met their approval, being + turned out of office by the Irish vote, and England being governed according to a + policy which the majority of Englishmen detested. Of course it may be said that there + ought to be a number of small Parliaments in the British Isles, like those in the + Provinces of Canada or the States of Australia, with one great Parliament supreme + over them-in other words, Federation. That might be a good thing, although it would + in its turn start many difficulties which it is unnecessary now to discuss, for it is + not Home Rule nor does Home Rule lead to it. Federal systems arise by the union of + separate States, each State giving up a part of its power to <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page222" id="page222"></a>[pg 222]</span> a joint body which can levy taxes and + can overrule the local authorities. In fact, when Federation comes about, the States + cease to be nations.</p> + <p>(I must here remark in passing that constant confusion has been caused by the + various senses in which the word "nation" is used. Thus it is often quite correctly + employed in a sentimental sense-we speak of Scottish National character, or of the + National Bible Society of Scotland, though Scotland has no separate Parliament or + flag and would on a map of Europe be painted the same colour as the rest of Great + Britain. Quite distinct from that is the political sense, in which the Irish + Nationalists use the word when speaking of being "A Nation once again," or of "The + National Independence of Ireland.")</p> + <p>It might be possible for the United Kingdom to be broken up into a Federation + (though it is strange that there is no precedent in history for such a course); but + that would not be "satisfying the National Aspirations of Ireland." In fact, as Mr. + Childers, one of the ablest of English advocates of Home Rule, has stated: "The term + Federal, as applied to Irish Home Rule at the present time, is meaningless."</p> + <p>But when we come to examine the existing Bill, which will become law in 1914 + unless something unforeseen occurs, we find that it is neither the Colonial plan nor + Federation but an elaborate system which really seems as if it had been devised with + the object of satisfying nobody and producing friction at every point. England (by + which of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>[pg 223]</span> + course I mean Great Britain; I merely use the shorter term for convenience) is not + only to pay the total cost of the army, navy and diplomatic services, including the + defences of Ireland, but is also to grant an annual subsidy to Ireland commencing + with £500,000 but subsequently reduced to £200,000. Whether the English + taxpayer will relish this when he comes to realise it, may be doubted. Certainly no + precedent can be cited for a Federal system under which all the common expenditure is + borne by one of the parties. And further, the present Government state freely that + they hope to carry out their policy by introducing a Bill for Home Rule for Scotland + and possibly also for Wales. Will the Scotch and Welsh consent to contribute towards + the government of Ireland; or will they demand that they shall be treated like + Ireland, and leave the people of England to pay all Imperial services and to + subsidize Ireland, Scotland and Wales? Then again, Ireland is to send forty-two + representatives to what is still sarcastically to be called the "Parliament of the + United Kingdom," but will no doubt popularly be known as the English Parliament. They + are to vote about the taxation of people in Great Britain, and to interfere in local + affairs of that country, whilst the people of Great Britain are not to tax Ireland or + interfere in any way with its affairs. This is indeed representation without + taxation. Of course it is inevitable that the Irish members will continue to do what + they are doing at present-that is, offer their votes to whatever party will <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>[pg 224]</span> promise further + concessions to Irish Nationalism; and they will probably find no more difficulty in + getting an English party to consent to such an immoral bargain than they do now.</p> + <p>The provisions as to legislation for Ireland are still more extraordinary. The + Irish Parliament is to have complete power of legislating as to Irish affairs, with + the exception of certain matters enumerated in the Act; thus it may repeal any Acts + of the Imperial Parliament passed before 1914. On the other hand, the English + Parliament (in which Ireland will have only forty-two representatives) will also be + able to pass laws binding Ireland (and in this way to re-enact the laws which the + Irish Parliament has just repealed), and these new laws the Irish Parliament may not + repeal or overrule. Now this power of the English Parliament will either be a reality + or a farce; if it is a reality, the Irish Nationalists will be no more inclined to + submit to laws made by "an alien Parliament" in which they have only forty-two + representatives than they are at present to submit to those made by one in which they + have 103; if it is a farce, the "supremacy of the Imperial Parliament" is a + misleading expression. The Lord Lieutenant is to act as to some matters on the advice + of the Irish Ministry, as to others on the advice of the English. Anyone who has + studied the history of constitutional government in the colonies in the early days, + when the governor was still supposed to act as to certain affairs independently of + ministerial advice, will see the confusion to which this must lead. Suppose <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>[pg 225]</span> the Lord + Lieutenant acts on the advice of the English ministers in a way of which the Irish + Parliament do not approve, and the Irish Ministry resign in consequence, what can + result but a deadlock?</p> + <p>But most extraordinary of all are the provisions as to finance. The Government + appointed a Committee of Experts to consider this question. The committee made their + report; but the Government rejected their advice and substituted another plan which + is so elaborate that it is only possible to touch on some of its more important + features here. I have already said that the English Parliament will have no power to + tax Ireland. That statement, however, must be taken subject to two reservations. The + Bill provides that if ever the happy day arrives when for three consecutive years the + revenue of Ireland has exceeded the cost of government, the English Parliament (with + the addition of twenty-three extra members summoned from Ireland for the purpose) may + make new provisions securing from Ireland a contribution towards Imperial + expenditure. As this is the only reference to the subject in the Bill, the general + opinion was that until those improbable circumstances should occur, the English + Parliament would have no power to tax Ireland; but when the debates were drawing to a + close, the Government astonished the House by stating that according to their + construction of the Bill, should any new emergency arise at any time after the Bill + becomes law (for instance, a great naval emergency requiring an addition to the <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>[pg 226]</span> Income Tax) it + would be not merely the right but also the duty of the Imperial Chancellor of the + Exchequer to see that the charge should be borne by the whole United Kingdom-in other + words, the Parliament in which Ireland possesses only forty-two representatives may + and ought to tax Ireland for Imperial purposes. The friction which will arise should + any attempt of the sort be made, especially as the power is not stated in the Bill, + is evident. In plain words, it will be impossible to levy the tax.</p> + <p>But apart from these rights, which one may safely say will never be exercised, the + financial arrangements will from their very complexity be a constant source of + trouble. All taxes levied in Ireland are to be paid into the English Exchequer (or as + it is called in the Bill "The Exchequer of the United Kingdom"). Some of the objects + for which these taxes have been levied are to be managed by the Irish + Government-these are called "Irish services"; others are to be managed by the English + Government-these are called "Reserved services." The English Exchequer will then hand + over to the Irish Exchequer:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>(a) A sum representing the net cost to the Exchequer of the United Kingdom of + "Irish Services" at the time of the passing of the Act;</p> + <p>(b) The sum of £500,000 a year, reducible to £200,000, above + referred to; and</p> + <p>(c) A sum equal to the proceeds of any new taxes levied by the Irish + Parliament.</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>[pg 227]</span> + <p>Then the balance which the English Exchequer will retain, after handing over these + three sums, will go to the "Reserved Services." But as, in consequence of the + establishment of the Old Age Pensions and some other similar liabilities, the + aggregate cost of governing Ireland at this moment exceeds the revenue derived from + Ireland by about £1,500,000, the English taxpayer will have to make up this + sum, as well as to give to Ireland an annual present of £500,000; and even if + the Irish Government succeeds in managing its affairs more economically than the + Government at present does, that will give no relief to the British taxpayer, for it + will be observed that the first of the three sums which the Exchequer of the United + Kingdom is to hand over is not a sum representing the cost of the "Irish Services" at + any future date but the cost at the time of the passing of the Act.</p> + <p>It is possible of course that the Irish revenue derived from existing taxes may + increase, and so the burden on the English taxpayer may be lightened; but as it is + more probable that it will decrease, and consequently the burden become heavier, the + English taxpayer cannot derive much consolation from that.</p> + <p>It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that a number of extremely intricate + and difficult financial questions must arise; for instance, what sum really + represents the net cost of "Irish Services" at the time of the passing of the Act; + what sum equals the net proceeds of new taxes imposed by the Irish Parliament; and at + what <span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>[pg 228]</span> moment + it can be said that the revenue of Ireland has for three consecutive years exceeded + the cost of government. All such matters are to be decided by a Board of Five, of + whom one is to be nominated by the King (presumably on the advice of the English + Ministers), two by the English Government, and two by the Irish. From the decisions + of this Board on matters of fact there is to be no appeal. It is needless to point + out that every detail in which the three English members overrule the two Irish will + be fought out again in the English Parliament by the forty Irish members. This again + will show how vain is the hope that future English Parliaments will be relieved from + endless discussions as to Irish affairs. Professor Dicey has well named the able work + in which he has analysed the Bill and shown its impossibilities "A Fool's + Paradise."</p> + <p>The provisions concerning those matters as to which the Irish Parliament is to + have no power to legislate are as strange as the other clauses of the Bill. For six + years the Constabulary are to be a "reserved service"; but as they will be under the + orders of the Irish Government, the object of this is hard to see-unless indeed it is + to create an impression that the Ulstermen if they refuse to obey them are rebelling + not against the Irish but the Imperial Government. The Post Office Savings Banks are + "reserved" for a longer period; as to the postal services to places beyond Ireland, + the Irish Parliament will have no power to legislate; but the Post Office, so far as + it relates to Ireland <span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>[pg + 229]</span> alone, will be handed over at once to the Irish Parliament-although even + in the case of Federal Unions such as Australia the Post Office is usually considered + to be eminently a matter for the Federal authority. And the question whether an Irish + Act is unconstitutional and therefore void will be decided by the Privy Council, + which will be regarded as an essentially English body; hence if it attempts to veto + an Irish Act, its action will be at once denounced as a revival of Poyning's Act and + the Declaratory Act of George I.</p> + <p>The Bill excludes the relations with Foreign States from the powers of the Irish + Parliament, but says nothing to prevent the Irish Government from appointing a + political agent to the Vatican. That is probably one of the first things that it will + do; and as the Lord Lieutenant could never form a Government which would consent to + any other course, he will be obliged to consent. This agent, not being responsible to + the British Foreign Office, may cause constant friction between England and + Italy.</p> + <p>But quite apart from the unworkable provisions of the Bill, everything connected + with its introduction and passing through Parliament has tended to increase the + hatred which the Opposition feel towards it, and the determination of the Ulstermen + to resist it if necessary even by force. Those who lived in Australia whilst + Federation was under discussion will recollect how carefully the scheme was brought + before the people, discussed in various Colonial Parliaments, considered over again + line by <span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>[pg 230]</span> line + by the delegates in an Inter-Colonial Conference, examined afresh in the Colonial + Office in London and in the Imperial Parliament and finally laid before each colony + for its acceptance. Yet here is a matter which vitally affects the government not of + Ireland only but of the whole United Kingdom, and thus indirectly of the Empire at + large; it was (as I have shown) not fairly brought before the people at a general + election; it has been introduced by what is admittedly merely a coalition Government + as a matter of bargain between the various sections, at a time when the British + Constitution is in a state of dislocation, as the power of the House of Lords has + been destroyed and the new Upper Chamber not yet set up; and it has been passed + without adequate discussion. This I say deliberately; it is no use to point out how + many hours have been spent in Committee, for the way in which the discussion has been + conducted has deprived it of any real value. The custom has been for the Government + to state beforehand the time at which each batch of clauses is to be passed, and what + amendments may be discussed (the rest being passed over in silence); when the + discussion is supposed to begin, their supporters ostentatiously walk out, and the + Opposition argue to empty benches; then when the moment for closing the discussion + arrives, the Minister in charge gets up and says that the Government cannot accept + any of the amendments proposed; the bell rings, the Government supporters troop back, + and pass all the clauses unamended. As an instance of this <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page231" id="page231"></a>[pg 231]</span> contemptible way of conducting the + debate, it is sufficient to point to the fact already mentioned, that so vital a + matter as the power of the English Parliament to tax Ireland was not even hinted at + until nearly the end of the debates.</p> + <p>And now the Bill is to become law without any further appeal to the people.</p> + <p>Are English Unionists to be blamed if they declare that an Act so passed will + possess no moral obligation, and that they are determined, should the terrible + necessity arise, to aid the Ulstermen in resisting it to the uttermost?</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>[pg 232]</span> + <h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2> + <h3>THE DANGER TO THE EMPIRE OF ANY FORM OF HOME RULE. THE QUESTIONS ANSWERED.</h3> + <p>In the last chapter I explained how hopelessly unworkable is the particular scheme + of Home Rule which is contained in the present Bill. I now proceed to show why Home + Rule in any form must lead to disaster-primarily to Ireland, ultimately to the + Empire.</p> + <p>Politicians who, like ostriches, possess the happy faculty of shutting their eyes + to unpleasant facts, may say that there is only one nation in Ireland; but everyone + who knows the country is quite aware that there are two, which may be held together + as part of the United Kingdom, but which can no more be forced into one nation than + Belgium and Holland could be forced to combine as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. And + whatever cross-currents there may be, the great line of cleavage is religion. Of + course I am aware of the violent efforts that have been made ever since the + commencement of the Nationalist agitation to prove that this is not so. Thus Parnell, + addressing an English audience, explained that religion had nothing to do with the + movement, and as evidence stated that he was the leader of it though not merely a + Protestant but a member of the Protestant Synod and a parochial nominator for his own + parish. Of course everyone in Ireland knew perfectly well that he was only a + Protestant in the sense that Garibaldi <span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" + id="page233"></a>[pg 233]</span> was a Roman Catholic-he had been baptised as such in + infancy; and that he was not a member of the synod or a parochial nominator, and + never had been one; but the statement was good enough to deceive his Nonconformist + hearers. That Protestant Home Rulers exist is not denied. But the numbers are so + small that it is evident that they are the rare exceptions that prove the rule. The + very anxiety with which, when a Protestant Home Ruler can be discovered he is put + forward, and the fact of his being a Protestant Home Ruler referred to again and + again, shows what a rare bird he is. To mention one instance amongst many; a + Protestant Home Ruler has recently been speaking on platforms in England explaining + that he came in a representative capacity in order to testify to the people of + England that the Irish Protestants were now in favour of Home Rule. He did not + mention the fact that in the district where he resided there were about 1,000 + Protestants and he was the only Home Ruler amongst them-in fact, nearly all the rest + had signed a Petition against the Bill. And when we come to examine who these + Protestant Home Rulers are, about whom so much has been said, we find first that + there is in this as in every other movement, a very small number of faddists, who + like to go against their own party; secondly a few who though they still call + themselves Protestants have to all intents and purposes abandoned their religion, and + therefore cannot fairly be reckoned; thirdly, a few who hold appointments from which + they would be dismissed if they did not <span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" + id="page234"></a>[pg 234]</span> conform; fourthly, some who say openly that Home + Rule is coming and that whatever their private opinions may be it is the wisest + policy to worship the rising sun (bearing in mind that Mr. Dillon has promised that + when the Nationalists attain their end they will remember who were their friends and + who their enemies, and deal out rewards and punishments accordingly); and fifthly, + those who have accepted what future historians will describe as bribes. For the + present Government have showered down Peerages, Knighthoods of various orders, + Lieutenancies of Counties, Deputy-Lieutenancies and Commissions of the Peace-not to + speak of salaried offices both in Ireland and elsewhere-on Protestants who would + consent to turn Nationalists, in a manner which makes it absurd to talk any more + about bribery at the time of the Union. And yet with all this the Protestant Home + Rulers are such an extremely small body that they may be disregarded. And indeed it + is hard to see how an earnest, consistent and logically-minded Protestant can be a + Nationalist; for loyalty to the King is a part of his creed; and, in the words of a + Nationalist organ, the <i>Midland Tribune</i>, "If a man be a Nationalist he must + <i>ipso facto</i> be a Disloyalist, for Irish Nationalism and loyalty to the throne + of England could not be synonymous."</p> + <p>On the other hand, a large proportion of the educated Roman Catholics, the men who + have a real stake in the country, are Unionists. Some of them, however earnest they + may be in their religion, dread the domination of a political priesthood; <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>[pg 235]</span> others dread still + more the union of the Church with anarchism. As has already been shown, they refuse + to join the United Irish League; some in the north have actually subscribed the + Ulster Covenant; many others have signed petitions against Home Rule throughout the + country; and a still larger number have stated that they would gladly do so if they + did not fear the consequences. It is probably therefore correct to say that the + number of Unionists in Ireland decidedly exceeds the number of Protestants; in other + words, less than three-fourths of the population are Nationalists, and more than + one-fourth (perhaps about one-third) are Unionists. And more than that; if we are to + test the reality of a movement, we must look not merely at numbers but at other + matters. Violent language may be used; but the fact remains as I have previously + stated that even if the Nationalists are taken as being only two-thirds of the + population, their annual subscriptions to the cause do not amount to anything like a + penny per head and that the agitation could not last for six months if it were not + kept alive by contributions from America and the Colonies. But though the Nationalist + movement has not brought about a Union between the Orange and the Green, it has + caused two other Unions to be formed which will have an important influence on the + future history of the country. In the first place it has revived, or cemented, the + Union which, as we have seen, existed at former periods of Irish history, but which + has existed in no other country in the world-the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page236" id="page236"></a>[pg 236]</span> Union between the Black and the Red. + That a Union between two forces so essentially antagonistic as Ultramontanism and + Jacobinism will be permanent, one can hardly suppose; whether the clericals, if they + succeed in crushing the heretics, will afterwards be able to turn and crush the + anarchists with whom they have been in alliance, and then reign supreme; or whether, + as happened in France at the end of the eighteenth century and in Portugal recently, + the anarchists who have grown up within the bosom of the Church will prove to be a + more deadly foe to the clericals than the heretics ever were-it is impossible to say; + but neither prospect seems very cheerful.</p> + <p>In the second place, the Nationalist movement has drawn all the Protestant bodies + together as nothing else could. Episcopalians, Presbyterians and Methodists have all + joined hands in the defence of their common liberties. The Nationalists have left no + stone unturned in their efforts to prove that the northern Protestants are disloyal. + They have succeeded in finding one speech that was made by an excited orator (not a + leader) forty-four years ago, to the effect that the Disestablishment of the Church + might result in the Queen's Crown being kicked into the Boyne. As this is the only + instance they can rake up, it has been quoted in the House of Commons and elsewhere + again and again; and Mr. Birrell (whose knowledge of Ireland seems to be entirely + derived from Nationalist speeches) has recently elaborated it by saying that when the + Church was going to be disestablished "they used <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page237" id="page237"></a>[pg 237]</span> to declare" that the Queen's Crown + would be kicked into the Boyne, and yet their threats came to nothing and therefore + the result of Home Rule will be the same. The fact was that the Church establishment + was the last relic of Protestant Ascendancy; and as I have already shown, that meant + Anglican ascendancy in which Presbyterianism did not participate; hence, when the + agitation for Disestablishment arose, though some few Presbyterians greatly disliked + it, their opposition as a whole was lukewarm. But when in 1886 Home Rule became a + question of practical politics, they rose up against it as one man; in 1893, when the + second Home Rule Bill was introduced and actually passed the House of Commons, they + commenced organising their Volunteer army to resist it, if necessary, by force of + arms; and they are just as keen to-day as they were twenty years ago. They are + certainly not disloyal; the republican spirit which permeated their ancestors in the + eighteenth century has long since died out completely. Sir Walter Scott said that if + he had lived at the time of the Union between Scotland and England, he would have + fought against it; but, living a century later and seeing the benefit that it had + been to his country, his feelings were all on the other side. That is what the + Presbyterians of Ulster say to-day. They point to the way in which Ulster has, under + the Union, been able to develop itself; with no richer soil, no better climate, and + no greater natural advantages than other parts of Ireland, the energy, ability, and + true patriotism of the people have <span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" + id="page238"></a>[pg 238]</span> enabled them to establish and encourage commerce and + manufactures which have brought wealth and prosperity to Ulster whilst the other + Provinces have been stationary or retrograde. There cannot be a better instance of + the different spirit which animates the two communities than the history of the linen + industry. Michael Davitt bitterly described it as "Not an Irish, but an Orange + industry." And from his point of view, he was quite right; for it is practically + confined to Ulster. In that Province it has during the nineteenth century developed + so steadily that the annual export now exceeds £15,000,000 in value and more + than 70,000 hands are employed in the mills. Not long ago, a Royal Commission was + appointed to enquire whether it was not possible to grow flax in the south and west, + and if so why it was not done. The Commission made careful enquiries, and reported + that in both Munster and Connaught efforts had been made to establish the industry + (notably by the late Lord Bandon, one of the much-abused landlord class, who had let + land for the purpose at a nominal charge, obtained seed and brought experts from the + north to instruct the people); that it had been proved that both soil and climate + were quite as well adapted for it as in Ulster; but that after a few years the buyers + refused any longer to purchase the flax as it was so carelessly and badly prepared + that it was valueless; and so the industry had died out. In both south and west the + people expressed their readiness to revive it if a large grant were made to them by + the Government, but not otherwise.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>[pg 239]</span> + <p>Then again we may take the growth of the cities. It seems hard now to realise that + one reason why the people of Dublin opposed the Union was because they feared lest, + when their city ceased to be the capital, Cork might grow into a great industrial + centre and surpass it. Cork has remained stationary ever since; Belfast, then an + insignificant country town, has become a city of 400,000 inhabitants, and the customs + from it alone are more than double those from all the rest of Ireland put together. + And what is true of Belfast is true also on a smaller scale of all the other towns + north of the Boyne.</p> + <p>This remarkable contrast between the progress of the north-east and the stagnation + of the rest of the country is no new thing. It has been observed ever since the + Union. So long ago as 1832 the Report of the Commission on the linen manufacture of + Ireland contained the following words:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Political and religious animosities and dissensions, and increasing agitation + first for one object and then for another have so destroyed confidence and shaken + the bonds of society-undermined men's principles and estranged neighbour from + neighbour, friend from friend, and class from class-that, in lieu of observing any + common effort to ameliorate the condition of the people, we find every proposition + for this object, emanate from which party it may, received with distrust by the + other; maligned, perverted and destroyed, to gratify the political <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>[pg 240]</span> purposes of a + faction.... The comparative prosperity enjoyed by that portion of Ireland where + tranquillity ordinarily prevails, such as the Counties Down, Antrim, and Derry, + testify the capabilities of Ireland to work out her own regeneration, when freed of + the disturbing causes which have so long impeded her progress in civilization and + improvement. We find there a population hardy, healthy and employed; capital fast + flowing into the district; new sources of employment daily developing themselves; a + people well disposed alike to the government and institutions of their country; and + not distrustful and jealous of their superiors. Contrast the social condition of + these people with such pictures as we have presented to us from other + districts."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>This energetic, self-reliant and prosperous community now see before their eyes + what the practical working of government by the League is. They see it generally in + the condition of the country, and especially in the Dublin Convention of 1909, the + narrow-minded administration of the Local Government Act wherever the power of the + League prevails, and the insecurity for life and property in the west; they know also + that a Home Rule Government must mean increased taxation (as the Nationalists + themselves confess) which will probably-in fact, one may almost say must certainly, + as no other source is available-be thrown on the Ulster manufactures; is it not + therefore a matter of life and death to them to resist it to the uttermost?</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>[pg 241]</span> + <p>But as I have said, the great line of cleavage is religion. Here I know that I + shall be accused of "Orange bigotry." But I am not afraid of the charge; first + because I do not happen to be an Orangeman; and secondly because I regard bigotry as + the outcome of ignorance and prejudice, and consider therefore that a calm + examination of the evidence is the very antithesis of bigotry. In order to make this + examination I desire in the first place to avoid the mistake that Grattan made in + judging the probabilities of the future from the opinions of personal friends whom I + like and respect, but who, as I know (and regret to think), possess no influence + whatever. I consider that there are other data-such as works of authority, the action + of the public bodies, statements by men in prominent positions, and articles in + leading journals-from which it is safer to form an estimate. The Ulstermen are + content that the country should be governed, as far as religion is concerned, on + modern principles-that is to say, in much the same way that England, Australia and + New Zealand are governed to-day. The Nationalists, whatever they may say in England + or the Colonies, have never in Ireland from the commencement of the movement + attempted to deny that their object is to see Ireland governed on principles which + are totally different and which the Ulstermen detest. As long ago as 1886, the + <i>Freeman's Journal</i>, the leading Nationalist organ, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"We contend that the good government of Ireland by England is impossible ... the + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>[pg 242]</span> one people + has not only accepted but retained with inviolable constancy the Christian faith; + the other has not only rejected it, but has been for three centuries the leader of + the great apostasy, and is at this day the principal obstacle to the conversion of + the world."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And as recently as December 1912, Professor Nolan of Maynooth, addressing the + Roman Catholic students at the Belfast University, said:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"Humanly speaking, we are on the eve of Home Rule. We shall have a free hand in + the future. Let us use it well. This is a Catholic country, and if we do not govern + it on Catholic lines, according to Catholic ideals, and to safe-guard Catholic + interests, it will be all the worse for the country and all the worse for us. We + have now a momentous opportunity of changing the whole course of Irish + history."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Then another of their papers, the <i>Rosary</i>, has said: "We have played the + game of tolerance until the game is played out"; and has prophesied that under Home + Rule the Church will become an irresistible engine before whom all opposition must go + down. And whatever the educated laity may desire, no one who knows Ireland can doubt + that it is the clerical faction that will be all-powerful. The leading ecclesiastics + are trained at the Gregorian University at Rome; and one of the Professors at that + institution, in a work published in 1901 with the special approval of Pope Leo XIII, + enunciated the doctrine that it is the duty of a Christian State <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>[pg 243]</span> to put to death + heretics who have been condemned by the Ecclesiastical Court. Of course no one + supposes that such a thing will ever take place in Ireland; but what the Ulstermen + object to is putting themselves under the rule of men who have been trained in such + principles and believe them to be approved by an infallible authority.</p> + <p>In 1904 some foreign merchants at Barcelona wished to build a church for + themselves. Republican feeling is so strong in the municipality that permission was + obtained without difficulty. But the bishop at once protested and appealed to the + King. The King wrote back a sympathetic letter expressing his deep regret that he was + unable to prevent this fresh attack on the Catholic faith.</p> + <p>We are constantly being told that the tolerance and liberality shown by the + majority in Quebec is sufficient of itself to prove how foolish are the apprehensions + felt by the minority in Ireland. Well, I will quote from a journal which cannot be + accused of Protestant bias, the <i>Irish Independent</i>, one of the leading organs + of the Nationalist-clerical party in Ireland:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"(From our own Correspondent.)</p> + <p>"Montreal, Thursday.</p> + <p>"In connection with the celebration of the anniversary of Wolfe's victory and + death, which takes place in September, prominent members of the Anglican Church + have inaugurated a movement for the erection of a Wolfe Memorial Chapel on the + Plains of Abraham. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>[pg + 244]</span> organisers of the movement hope ultimately to secure the transfer of + the General's remains to the chapel for interment on the scene of his victory.</p> + <p>"The population being largely French-Canadian Catholics, the Catholic Church + organ of Quebec strongly protests against the erection of an Anglican chapel in the + heart of a Catholic district."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>Now if this conduct on the part of the Roman Catholic authorities is quite right + at Barcelona and Quebec, why is it "Orange bigotry" to suggest that the same people + may act in the same way at Cork or Galway?</p> + <p>Again, in 1910, a remarkable volume was published, written by Mrs. Hugh Fraser, + the sister of the novelist, Marion Crawford, entitled "A Diplomat's Wife in Many + Lands." The authoress was a very able woman, who had travelled much and mixed in + cultured society wherever she had been; her book was highly reviewed by various + English Magazines. She tells the story of a child of Jewish parents living at Rome in + the days of Pope Pius IX, who was secretly baptized in infancy by a nurse, and at the + age of seven was forcibly taken from his parents and placed in a Convent School. She + explains that not only was this quite right, but that such a course is inevitable in + every country in which the Church has power; and that the feelings of the heretic + mother whose child is taken from her are a fair subject of ridicule on the part of + good <span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>[pg 245]</span> + Catholics. Can Irish Protestants be accused of bigotry when they contend that these + writers mean what they say? English Nonconformists argue that they ought to wait + until the time comes and then either fight or leave the country; but the Irish + Protestants reply that it is more sensible to take steps beforehand to ward off the + danger. And whether they are right or wrong, the fact remains that those are their + ideas, and that is their determination; and this is the situation which must be faced + if Home Rule is forced upon the people of Ulster.</p> + <p>By a striking coincidence, two meetings have recently been held on the same + day-the 16th of May 1913-which form an apt illustration of the position adopted by + the two parties. The first was a great demonstration of Unionists at Belfast, + organised in order to make a further protest against the Bill and to perfect the + organisation for opposing it by force, if the necessity arises; the second was a + large meeting of the United Irish League at Mullingar. The Chairman, Mr. Ginnell, + M.P. (who has gained prominence and popularity by his skill in arranging + cattle-drives), said that the chief cause of the pressure last session was to get the + Home Rule Bill through its first stage. It was still called a Home Rule Bill, though + differing widely from what most of them always understood by Home Rule. Deeply though + he regretted the Bill's defects and limitations, still he thought almost any + Parliament in Ireland was worth accepting-first, because it was in some sense a + recognition <span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>[pg 246]</span> + of the right to govern themselves; and secondly, because even a crippled Parliament + would give them fresh leverage for complete freedom. No one could be silly enough to + suppose that an intelligent Ireland, having any sort of a Parliament of its own, + would be prevented by any promise given now by place-hunters, from using that + Parliament for true national purposes.</p> + <p>That no army which the Ulstermen can form will be able to stand against British + troops supported by cavalry and artillery is evident; but it seems almost past belief + that England should be ready to plunge the country into civil war; or that British + troops should march out-with bands playing "Bloody England, we hate you still," or + some other inspiring Nationalist air-to shoot down Ulstermen who will come to meet + them waving the Union Jack and shouting "God save the King." And if they do-what + then? Lord Wolseley, when Commander-in-Chief in Ireland in 1893, pointed out the + probable effect on the British Army in a letter to the Duke of Cambridge:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"If ever our troops are brought into collision with the loyalists of Ulster, and + blood is shed, it will shake the whole foundations upon which our army rests to + such an extent that I feel that our Army will never be the same again. Many + officers will resign to join Ulster, and there will be such a host of retired + officers in the Ulster ranks that men who would stand by the Government no matter + what it did, will be worse than <span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" + id="page247"></a>[pg 247]</span> half-hearted in all they do. No army could stand + such a strain upon it."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>And then England, having crushed her natural allies in Ulster, will hand over the + Government of Ireland to a party whose avowed object is to break up the Empire and + form a separate Republic. Dangers and difficulties arose even when the independent + legislature of Ireland was in the hands of men who were loyal and patriotic in the + noblest sense of the term, and when there were in every district a certain number of + educated gentlemen of position who (as we have seen) were always ready to risk their + lives and fortunes for the defence of the realm; what will happen when the loyal + minority have been shot down, driven out of the country, or forced into bitter + hostility to the Government who have betrayed and deserted them? As Lecky wrote years + ago:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the danger that would arise if the + vast moral legislative, and even administrative powers which every separate + legislature must necessarily possess, were exercised in any near and vital part of + the British Empire, by men who were disloyal to its interests. To place the + government of a country by a voluntary and deliberate act in the hands of dishonest + and disloyal men, is perhaps the greatest crime that a public man can commit: a + crime which, in proportion to the strength and soundness of national morality, must + consign those who are guilty of it to undying infamy."</p> + </blockquote> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>[pg 248]</span> + <p>If English people are so blind that they cannot perceive this, foreigners, whose + vision is clearer, have warned them. Bismarck said that England, by granting Home + Rule to Ireland, would dig its own grave; and Admiral Mahan has recently + written:-</p> + <blockquote> + <p>"It is impossible for a military man or a statesman to look at the map and not + perceive that the ambition of the Irish separatists, if realised, would be even + more threatening to the national life of Great Britain than the secession of the + South was to the American Union.</p> + <p>"The legislative supremacy of the British Parliament against the assertion of + which the American Colonists revolted and which to-day would be found intolerable + in Canada and Australia cannot be yielded in the case of an island, where + independent action might very well be attended with fatal consequences to its + partner. The instrument for such action, in the shape of an independent Parliament, + could not be safely trusted even to avowed friends."</p> + </blockquote> + <p>So then, having reviewed the evidence as calmly and dispassionately as I can, I + answer the two questions which I propounded at the outset of the enquiry-That the + real objects of the Nationalists are the total separation of Ireland from England and + the establishment of an Independent Republic; and that the men of Ulster in resisting + them to the uttermost are not merely justified on the ground of self-preservation, + but are in reality fighting for the cause of the Empire.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>[pg 249]</span> + <h3>NOTE.</h3> + <p>The following Report of the Annual Pilgrimage in memory of Wolfe Tone, which took + place on the 22nd of June last, and the article in the <i>Leinster Leader</i> (a + prominent Nationalist journal) will show how closely the Nationalists of to-day + follow in the footsteps of Wolfe Tone.</p> + <h3>THE MEMORY OF WOLFE TONE.</h3> + <h4>ANNUAL PILGRIMAGE TO BODENSTOWN.</h4> + <p>(<i>From our Reporter</i>.)</p> + <p>On Sunday last the annual pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe Tone took + place to Bodenstown churchyard. This year the numbers who attended exceeded those of + last year, about a thousand coming from Dublin and another contingent from Tullamore, + Clare, and Athlone. The procession formed outside Sallins station was a most imposing + one, being made up of St. James' Brass Band and the Lorcan O'Toole Pipers' Band and + the Athlone Pipers' Band, the National Boy Scouts, the Daughters of Erin, and members + of the Wolfe Tone Memorial Clubs.</p> + <p>At the graveside demonstration, Mr. Thos. J. Clarke presided and said it was a + gratifying thing that numbers of their fellow-countrymen were to-day swinging back to + the old fighting line and taking pride in the old Fenian principles. He introduced + Mr. P.H. Pearse, B.A.</p> + <p>Mr. Pearse then came forward and delivered an eloquent and impressive oration, + first speaking in Irish. Speaking in English, he said they had <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>[pg 250]</span> come to the + holiest place in Ireland, holier to them than that sacred spot where Patrick sleeps + in Down. Patrick brought them life, but Wolfe Tone died for them. Though many had + testified in death to the truth of Ireland's claim to Nationhood, Wolfe Tone was the + greatest of all that had made that testimony; he was the greatest of Ireland's dead. + They stood in the holiest place in Ireland, for what spot of the Nation's soil could + be holier than the spot in which the greatest of her dead lay buried. He found it + difficult to speak in that place, and he knew they all partook of his emotion. There + were no strangers there for they were all in a sense own brothers to Tone (hear, + hear). They shared his faith, his hope still unrealised and his great love. They had + come there that day not merely to salute this noble dust and to pay their homage to + the noble spirit of Tone, but to renew their adhesion to the faith of Tone and to + express their full acceptance of the gospel of which Tone had given such a clear + definition. That gospel had been taught before him by English-speaking men, uttered + half-articulately by Shan O'Neill, expressed in some passionate metaphor by Geoffrey + Keating, and hinted at by Swift in some bitter jibe, but it was stated definitely and + emphatically by Wolfe Tone and it did not need to be ever again stated anew for any + new generation. Tone was great in mind, but he was still greater in spirit. He had + the clear vision of the prophet; he saw things as they were and saw things as they + would be. They owed more to this dead man than they should be ever <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>[pg 251]</span> able to repay him + by making pilgrimages to his grave or building the stateliest monuments in the + streets of his city. They owed it to him that there was such a thing as Irish + Nationalism; to his memory and the memory of '98 they owed it that there was any + manhood left in Ireland (hear, hear). The soul of Wolfe Tone was like a burning + flame, a flame so pure, so ardent, so generous, that to come into communion with it + was as a new optimism and regeneration. Let them try in some way to get into contact + with the spirit of Tone and possess themselves of its ardour. If they could do that + it would be a good thing for them and their country, because they would carry away + with them a new life from that place of death and there would be a new resurrection + of patriotic grace in their souls (hear, hear). Let them think of Tone; think of his + boyhood and young manhood in Dublin and in Kildare; think of his adventurous spirit + and plans, think of his glorious failure at the bar, and his healthy contempt for + what he called a foolish wig and gown, think how the call of Ireland came to him; + think how he obeyed that call; think how he put virility into the Catholic movement; + think how this heretic toiled to make freemen of Catholic helots (applause). Think + how he grew to love the real and historic Irish nation, and then there came to him + that clear conception that there must be in Ireland not three nations but one; that + Protestant and Dissenter must close in amity with Catholic, and Catholic, Protestant + and Dissenter must unite to achieve freedom for all (applause). Let them <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>[pg 252]</span> consider the + sacrifices Tone had made; he had to leave so much. Never was there a man who was so + richly endowed as he was, he had so much love in his warm heart. He (speaker) would + rather have known Tone than any other man of whom he ever read or heard. He never + read of any one man who had more in him of the heroic stuff than Tone had; how gaily + and gallantly he had set about the doing of a mighty thing. He (speaker) had always + loved the very name of Thomas Russell because Tone so loved him. To be Tone's friend! + What a privilege! for Tone had for his friends an immense love, an immense charity. + He had such love for his wife and children! But such was the destiny of the heroes of + their nation; they had to stifle in their hearts all that love and that sweet music + and to follow only the faint voice that called them to the battlefield or to the + harder death at the foot of the gibbet. Tone heard that voice and obeyed it and from + his grave to-day he was calling on them and they were there to answer his voice; and + they pledged themselves to carry out his programme to abolish the connection with + England, the never-failing source of political evils and to establish the + independence of their country, to abolish the memory of past dissensions, and to + replace for the denominations of Protestant, Catholic and Dissenter, the common name + of Irishman (applause). In that programme was to be found the whole philosophy of + Irish Nationality; that programme included the philosophy of the Gaelic League and of + later prophets, and it was to that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" + id="page253"></a>[pg 253]</span> programme they pledged their adhesion; they pledged + it now at the graveside of Tone; they pledged themselves to follow in the steps of + Tone, never to rest by day or night until this be accomplished, until Ireland be free + (applause); fighting on, not in despondency, but in great joy as Tone fought; prizing + it above all privileges, and hoping for the victory in their own day. And if it + should be granted to them in this generation to complete the work that Tone's + generation left unaccomplished! But if that was not their destiny, they should fight + on still, hoping still, self-sacrificing still, knowing as they must know that causes + like this did not lose for ever, and that men like Tone did not die in vain + (applause).</p> + <p>The address having concluded, wreaths were placed on the grave by the National Boy + Scouts and the Inghanite Na h-Eireann.</p> + <p>During the afternoon an aeridheacht was held in an adjoining field at which music, + songs and recitations were contributed, and a thoroughly enjoyable Irish-Ireland + evening was spent.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>[pg 254]</span> + <h3>AT THE GRAVE OF WOLFE TONE.</h3> + <p>The lifework of Theobald Wolfe Tone, for the subversion of English Government in + Ireland, and the supreme sacrifice he made in the mighty effort to erect in its stead + an independent Ireland free from all foreign denomination and control, was fittingly + commemorated on Sunday last, when the annual pilgrimage took place to Bodenstown + Churchyard, where all that is mortal of the great patriot lie buried. The pilgrimage + this year was worthy of the cause and the man, and afforded some object lessons in + what might be accomplished by a cultivation of those principles of discipline and + devotion to duty, in the pursuit of a glorious ideal, which Tone taught and adhered + to throughout his adventurous and brilliant career. The well-ordered procession, the + ready obedience to the commands of the marshals, the intense earnestness of the + multitude, and the display made by the youths-the national boy scouts-their military + bearing, and the bands and banners which interspersed the procession as it marched + from Sallins to Bodenstown was a spectacle which pleased the eye and stirred the + emotions. Everything in connection with the pilgrimage was carried out with a close + attention to detail, and military-like precision which must have been very acceptable + to the great patriot in whose honour it was organised, were he but permitted to gaze + from the great Unknown upon this practical demonstration of the perpetuation of the + spirit <span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>[pg 255]</span> which + animated him and his time, in the struggle against English misrule, and the love and + veneration in which he is still held, after the lapse of the century and more that + has passed since he made the final sacrifice of his life in the cause of freedom. + Tone done to death did not die in vain. The truth of this was evident in the + character of the pilgrimage on Sunday last, when all that is best and purest in + patriotism in the land assembled at his graveside, to renew fealty to the aims and + ideals for which he suffered and died, and to hear the gospel of Irish nationality + preached and expounded as he knew and inculcated it in his day. A fusion of forces, + and the cultivation of a spirit and bond of brotherhood and friendship amongst + Irishmen in the common cause, were his methods to attain the great ideal of a + separate and distinct nationality, for then, as to-day, the chief obstacle to freedom + and nationhood was not so much English domination in itself, as want of cohesion, + faction, and the disruption caused by alien traditions and teachings. This was the + prevailing spirit of Sunday's commemoration, and as the great mass of people filed + past in orderly array and knelt, prayed, and laid wreaths on the lonely grave, the + solemnity and impressiveness of the occasion was intensified. In the suppressed + murmurs, and silent gaze on the tomb of the mighty dead, one could recognise the + eagerness and the hope for another Tone to arise to complete the work which he + promoted, and vindicate the purity of the motives which moved men like the leaders of + '98 to do and dare for all, and to "substitute the <span class="pagenum"><a + name="page256" id="page256"></a>[pg 256]</span> common name of Irishman for Catholic, + Protestant, and Dissenter." The promoters, too, were fortunate in their choice of + orator for the occasion. Mr. P.H. Pearse did full justice to the occasion, and in + language, beautiful and impressive, pictured the man and his movements and the + lessons to be drawn by us to-day from the lifework of leaders in thought and action + like Tone. Close and consistent adhesion to principles of patriotism and a readiness + of self-sacrifice in the pursuit of those principles, were his distinguishing + characteristics all through life, and if we in our time would emulate the example of + Tone and his times, we must also be ready when the call came to meet any demand made + upon us for the promotion of our national welfare. The orator of the day rightly, in + our opinion, described that hallowed spot in Bodenstown as one of the holiest places + in Ireland to-day, from the nationalist standpoint, holding as it does the ashes of + the man who, without friends, money or influence to help him, and by sheer force of + character, intensity of purpose and earnestness, prevailed upon the greatest + emperor-general the world has ever seen Napoleon Bonaparte, to make a descent on + Ireland, in order to aid our starved, tortured, and persecuted people to shake off + the shackles that kept them in slavery, and elevate Ireland once more to the dignity + of full, free, and untrammelled nationhood. We are all familiar with the events + following this great effort of Tone's, and the dark chapters that closed a glorious + career. All that is mortal of Tone is in the keeping of Kildare, and it is a trust + that we feel <span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>[pg 257]</span> + sure is not alone felt to be a high honour, but which cannot fail to keep the + cultivation of a high standard of nationality before the people in whose midst repose + the remains of one of Ireland's greatest sons. Ireland, from the centre to the sea, + was represented in Sunday's great gathering to commemorate the achievements of Wolfe + Tone, and the occasion was honoured first by the large and representative character + of the throng, secondly by the decorum observed all through the day's proceedings, + and thirdly, by the regularity and precision which attended the entire arrangements. + There was just one other feature which must have been very gratifying to those + identified with the organisation of the pilgrimage, namely: the large proportion of + ladies and young people, coming long distances, who made up the gathering. And they + were by no means the least enthusiastic of the throng. This enthusiasm amongst our + young people is one of the most encouraging and promising signs of the times, serving + as it does to demonstrate the undying spirit of Irish nationality, and the + perpetuation of those principles to which Tone devoted his time, talents, and + eventually made the supreme sacrifice of his life in having inculcated amongst his + people. It is a glorious legacy, and one that has ever been cherished with veneration + for the men who left it. He died a martyr to the cause he espoused, but his memory + and the cause live. The living blaze he and his co-workers, in the cause of Irish + freedom, kindled has never been completely stamped out, and it still smoulders, and + has occasionally burst <span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>[pg + 258]</span> into flame only to be temporarily extinguished in the blood and tears of + our bravest and best who never forgot the teachings of Tone. And now, when the sky is + bright once more, and every circumstance portends the dawn of a new era, full of hope + and promise for the ultimate realisation of those ideals for which thousands of our + race have sacrificed their lives, the spark of nationality which, even since Tone's + death, has repeatedly leaped into flame, still glows fitfully to remind us that come + what may it remains undying and unquenchable, a beacon to light us on the path to + freedom should disappointment and dashed hopes again darken the outlook.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>[pg 259]</span> + <h2>INDEX</h2> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Abjuration, oath of, <a href="#page51">51</a>.</p> + <p>Absentees, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a + href="#page139">139</a>.<br /> + </p> + <p>Acton, Lord, <a href="#page37">37</a>.</p> + <p>Adrian, Pope, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</p> + <p>Agrarian outrages, <a name="agrarian" id="agrarian"></a> <a + href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page196">196</a>-202, <a + href="#page210">210</a>-215.</p> + <p>Agriculture, Department of, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a + href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + <p>Alexander, Pope, <a href="#page14">14</a>.</p> + <p>Alfred the Great, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p> + <p>American War of Independence, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</p> + <p>Anglican Church in Ireland, <a name="anglican" id="anglican"></a> <a + href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a + href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a + href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>Anne, Queen, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</p> + <p>Arkins, P., <a href="#page210">210</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</p> + <p>Arklow, battle of, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>Armagh, Bishop of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Ashbourne Act, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Ashtown, Lord, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Asquith, Rt. Hon. H.H., <a href="#page129">129</a>, <a + href="#page207">207</a>.</p> + <p>Athenry founded by Normans, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur J., <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a + href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>.</p> + <p>Balfour, Rt. Hon. Gerald, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</p> + <p>Baltimore, Lord, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</p> + <p>Bandon, Lord, <a href="#page238">238</a>.</p> + <p>Bannatyne, Mr., <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p> + <p>Barcelona, Church at, <a href="#page243">243</a>, <a + href="#page244">244</a>.</p> + <p>Belfast, growth of, <a href="#page239">239</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">meeting at, <a href="#page245">245</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by Corporation of, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a + href="#page175">175</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">University, <a name="belfast" id="belfast"></a> <a + href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a + href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Berkeley, Bishop, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</p> + <p>Biggar, J.G., <a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> + <p>Birrell, Rt. Hon. Augustine, Chief Secretary, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a + href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a + href="#page198">198</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>-205, <a + href="#page211">211</a>, <a href="#page216">216</a>, <a + href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>Bismarck, Prince, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <p>Blake, W., <a href="#page198">198</a>.</p> + <p>"Board of Erin," <a href="#page184">184</a>.</p> + <p>Boers, Nationalist sympathy with, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</p> + <p>Borromeo, San Carlo, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + <p>Bossuet, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + <p>Bounties granted by Irish Parliament, <a href="#page80">80</a>.</p> + <p>Boy Scouts, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</p> + <p>Boycotting, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a + href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>.</p> + <p>Boyne, battle of the, <a href="#page48">48</a>.</p> + <p>Brady, J., <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>Brian Boroo, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a + href="#page19">19</a>.</p> + <p>Bright, John, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Brook, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p> + <p>Browne estate, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</p> + <p>Bruce, Edward, invasion by, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Bruce, King Robert, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page26">26</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>[pg 260]</span> + <p>Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, Chief Secretary, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a + href="#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Bulls, Papal, <a href="#page13">13</a>-15.</p> + <p>Burke, Mr., Under Secretary, murder of, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a>.</p> + <p>Busby, Mr., <a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> + <p>Butt, Isaac, advocates Home Rule, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Carey, James, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</p> + <p>Carlow, rebellion in, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>"Carrion Crows," <a href="#page202">202</a>.</p> + <p>Castlebar, capture of by the French, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</p> + <p>Castledawson outrage, <a href="#page216">216</a>, <a + href="#page217">217</a>.</p> + <p>Castlereagh, Lord, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</p> + <p>Catholic University Medical School, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p> + <p>Cattle driving, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a + href="#page195">195</a>-202.</p> + <p>Cavan, raid by septs of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Cavendish, murder of Lord F., <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a><br /> + .</p> + <p>Celts, <a href="#page5">5</a>-14, <a href="#page20">20</a>, <a + href="#page23">23</a>, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>Charlemont, Lord, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</p> + <p>Charles I, <a href="#page40">40</a>-42.</p> + <p>Charles II, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</p> + <p>Chicago Convention, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>Childers, Erskine, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</p> + <p>Church, Celtic. See Celts of Ireland.</p> + <p class="i2">See <a href="#anglican">Anglican Church</a>.</p> + <p>Churchill, Rt. Hon. Winston, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</p> + <p>Clan-na-gael, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>.</p> + <p>Clare, state of, in 1912, <a href="#page210">210</a>-214.</p> + <p>Clare, Lord, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a + href="#page85">85</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p> + <p>Clerkenwell explosion, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</p> + <p>Clontarf, battle of, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p> + <p>"Coalition Ministry," <a href="#page208">208</a>.</p> + <p>"Coigne and livery," <a href="#page11">11</a>.</p> + <p>College of Surgeons, Dublin, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p> + <p>Condon, O'Meagher, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a + href="#page185">185</a>.</p> + <p>Confiscations, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>, <a + href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>.</p> + <p>Congested Districts Board, <a href="#page164">164</a>-168.</p> + <p>Connaught, Celtic raids into, <a href="#page7">7</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">lands in, given to rebels, <a href="#page42">42</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</p> + <p>Conolly, Mr., <a href="#page215">215</a>.</p> + <p>Convention in Dublin in 1909, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a + href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>.</p> + <p>Cooke, Mr., Under Secretary, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p> + <p>Co-operative Credit Banks, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a + href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + <p>Co-operative Farming Societies, <a href="#page161">161</a>-163.</p> + <p>Cork, Medical School at, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>.</p> + <p>Corn Laws, repeal of the, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</p> + <p>Cornwallis, Lord, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</p> + <p>County Councils, <a href="#page168">168</a>-178, <a href="#page191">191</a>, + <a href="#page193">193</a>.</p> + <p>Covenant, Ulster. See <a href="#ulster">Ulster Covenant</a>.</p> + <p>Cowper Commission, <a href="#page149">149</a>.</p> + <p>Crewe, Lord, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>[pg 261]</span> + <p>Crimes Act of 1887, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a + href="#page194">194</a>.</p> + <p>Crimes Prevention Act, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a + href="#page157">157</a>.</p> + <p>Croke, Archbishop, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>.</p> + <p>Cromwell and Cromwellians, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>, + <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a + href="#page67">67</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>.</p> + <p>Crosbie, Mr., <a href="#page216">216</a>.</p> + <p>Curley, D., <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Daily News</i>, <a href="#page200">200</a>.</p> + <p>Daly, J., <a href="#page195">195</a>.</p> + <p>Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a + href="#page13">13</a><br /> + .</p> + <p>Davies, Sir, J., <a href="#page5">5</a>.</p> + <p>Davitt, Michael, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a + href="#page238">238</a>.</p> + <p>Declaratory Act of George I, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a + href="#page229">229</a>.</p> + <p>Defenders, <a href="#page87">87</a>.</p> + <p>Department of Agriculture, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a + href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + <p>Derry, siege of, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Desmond rebellion, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</p> + <p>Devlin, J., <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Devoy, J., <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>Dicey, Professor A.V., <a href="#page228">228</a>.</p> + <p>Dillon, John, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a + href="#page184">184</a>, <a href="#page234">234</a>.</p> + <p>Dillon estate, <a href="#page165">165</a>.</p> + <p>Disestablishment of the Irish Church, <a href="#page143">143</a>, <a + href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>Dispensary doctors, appointment of, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a + href="#page177">177</a>.</p> + <p>District Councils, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a>, <a + href="#page178">178</a>.</p> + <p>Down, Celtic raid into, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Dublin, founded by Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Bishopric of, <a href="#page8">8</a>, <a href="#page9">9</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Henry II at, <a href="#page16">16</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Simnel crowned at, <a href="#page22">22</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in neighbourhood of, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a + href="#page109">109</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Convention at, in 1909, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a + href="#page207">207</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>.</p> + <p>Dudley, Lord, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</p> + <p>"Dynamite Party," <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Edward III, <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + <p>Edward VI, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>Eighty Club, <a href="#page162">162</a>.</p> + <p>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a + href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a + href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Emancipation, Roman Catholic, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> + <p>Emigration, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>Emmett, R., <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Endowment of R.C. Church proposed, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> + <p>Ersefied Normans, <a href="#page18">18</a>, <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + <p>Esmonde, Dr., <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>Exchequers, amalgamation of, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Fair rents," <a href="#page150">150</a>.</p> + <p>Famine. See <a href="#potato">Potato famine</a>.</p> + <p>Fenianism, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a + href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Feudal system, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</p> + <p>Firbolgs, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</p> + <p>FitzGerald rebellion, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a + href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>FitzGibbon, J., <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>.</p> + <p>Fitzpatrick, case of Mrs., <a href="#page210">210</a>, <a + href="#page211">211</a>.</p> + <p>Fiudir, <a href="#page11">11</a>.</p> + <p>Flax. See <a href="#linen">Linen</a>.</p> + <p>"Flight of the Earls," <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Ford, Patrick, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a + href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>Forster, Rt. Hon. W.E., Chief Secretary, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>[pg 262]</span> + <p>Foster, Speaker, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>France, persecution in, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a + href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48;</p> + <p class="i2">war with, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">religious thought in, <a href="#page76">76</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">revolution in, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a + href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">invasions by, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, + <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</p> + <p>Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#page73">73</a>.</p> + <p>Fraser, Mrs. Hugh, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</p> + <p><i>Freeman's Journal</i>, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a + href="#page241">241</a>.</p> + <p><i>Frontier Sentinel</i>, <a href="#page2">2</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Gaelic League, <a href="#page186">186</a>-193.</p> + <p>Galway, founded by Normans, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Medical School at, <a href="#page176">176</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">state of, in 1912, <a href="#page215">215</a>.</p> + <p>Games, English, forbidden, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</p> + <p>Gaughran, Bishop, <a href="#page4">4</a>.</p> + <p>Gavelkind, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p> + <p>General Council of County Councils, <a href="#page172">172</a>, <a + href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>.</p> + <p>George III, <a href="#page68">68</a>.</p> + <p>Germany, persecution in, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a + href="#page38">38</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Nationalist hopes of aid from, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a + href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</p> + <p>Ginnell, L., <a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> + <p>Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W.E., <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a + href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, + <a href="#page152">152</a>-155, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</p> + <p>Grand juries, <a href="#page178">178</a>.</p> + <p>Grattan, <a href="#page74">74</a>-77, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a + href="#page100">100</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a + href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>"Grievances from Ireland," <a href="#page203">203</a>.</p> + <p>Gwynn, Stephen, <a href="#page174">174</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Habeus Corpus, suppression of, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>Henry II, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a + href="#page20">20</a>, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Henry VII, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p> + <p>Henry VIII, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a + href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>.</p> + <p>Hibernians, Ancient Order of, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a + href="#page216">216</a>.</p> + <p>Hobhouse, Rt. Hon. C.E., <a href="#page208">208</a>.</p> + <p>Hobson, B., <a href="#page98">98</a>.</p> + <p>Holland, intended invasion from, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + <p>Home Rule, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>Home Rule Bill, of 1886, <a href="#page154">154</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">of 1893, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a + href="#page221">221</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">of 1912, <a href="#page208">208</a>, <a + href="#page218">218</a>-231, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> + <p>Huguenots, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a + href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</p> + <p>Hyde, Dr. Douglas, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Incumbered Estates Act, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a + href="#page150">150</a>.</p> + <p>Independence of Ireland real object of Nationalists, <a name="independence" + id="independence"></a> <a href="#page173">173</a>,<a href="#page181">181</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a + href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a>, + <a href="#page246">246</a>-248.</p> + <p class="i2">And see <a href="#republic">Republic</a>.</p> + <p>Ingram, Dr. Dunbar on the Union, <a href="#page118">118</a>-129.</p> + <p>Insurance Act, 1911, <a href="#page185">185</a>.</p> + <p>"Invincibles," the, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Irish Agricultural Organization Society, <a href="#page161">161</a>, <a + href="#page162">162</a>.</p> + <p>Irish brigade in France, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</p> + <p><i>Irish Freedom</i>, <a href="#page94">94</a>.</p> + <p><i>Irish Independent</i>, <a href="#page243">243</a>.</p> + <p>Irish language, <a href="#page186">186</a>-193.</p> + <p><i>Irish Review</i>, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</p> + <p>Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a + href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>[pg 263]</span> + <p>"Irish services," <a href="#page227">227</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Jacobinism, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a + href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>.</p> + <p>James I, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</p> + <p>James II, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a + href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a>-51.</p> + <p>Jews, persecution of the, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Kabyles, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</p> + <p>Kenny, Mr. Justice, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Kettle, A.J., <a href="#page183">183</a>.</p> + <p>Kettle, T.M., <a href="#page97">97</a>.</p> + <p>Kickham, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</p> + <p>Kildare, church burnt at, <a href="#page7">7</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>Kilkenny, founded by Normans, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">statutes of, <a href="#page20">20</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>Killala, French landing at, <a href="#page111">111</a>.</p> + <p>Killaloe, R.C. Bishop of, <a href="#page212">212</a>-214.</p> + <p>Kiltimagh case, <a href="#page177">177</a>.</p> + <p>King, title of, taken by Henry VIII, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p> + <p>Kings, Celtic, of Ireland, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</p> + <p>King's County, plantation of, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a + href="#page30">30</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Labourer's Cottages Act, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a + href="#page161">161</a>.</p> + <p>Lalor, J.F., <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</p> + <p>Land Acts from 1870 to 1887, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a + href="#page150">150</a>-152, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Land Court, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Land League, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a + href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Land Purchase Acts, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a + href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + <p>Land tenure, tribal, <a href="#page6">6</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">primogeniture, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a + href="#page12">12</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">gavelkind, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in the 18th century, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a + href="#page66">66</a>.</p> + <p>Laws of England, attempted introduction of, <a href="#page18">18</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">made binding in Ireland, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</p> + <p>Lecky, Dr. W.E.H., <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a + href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a>, + <a href="#page247">247</a>.</p> + <p><i>Leinster Leader</i>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a + href="#page249">249</a>.</p> + <p>Leitrim, raid by septs of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Leo XIII, Pope, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>Light Railways Act, <a href="#page160">160</a>.</p> + <p>Limerick, founded by Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Scotch invasion of, <a href="#page19">19</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">church windows broken at, <a href="#page216">216</a>.</p> + <p>Linen industry, <a name="linen" id="linen"></a> <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a + href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a + href="#page239">239</a>.</p> + <p>Local Government Act, 1898, <a href="#page168">168</a>-178, <a + href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page240">240</a>.</p> + <p>Loise, persecution in the, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</p> + <p>Louis XIV, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48, <a + href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Louis XVI, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>MacAlpine, Kennett, <a href="#page9">9</a>.</p> + <p>McBride, Major, <a href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</p> + <p>MacDonnell, Lord, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</p> + <p>McKenna, Thomas, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>McNicholas, Rev. J.T., <a href="#page85">85</a>.</p> + <p>MacSeamus, T., <a href="#page188">188</a>.</p> + <p>Magdeburg, sacking of, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</p> + <p>Magistrates, appointment of, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a + href="#page180">180</a>.</p> + <p>Magnus, Sir P., <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Mahan, Admiral, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <p>"Manchester Martyrs," <a href="#page96">96</a>-98, <a href="#page144">144</a>, + <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>[pg 264]</span> + <p>Maori customary claims, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Marriage, law of R.C. Church as to, <a href="#page85">85</a>.</p> + <p>Maryborough, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p> + <p>Maryland, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</p> + <p>Mayo County Council, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</p> + <p>Maunsell, R., <a href="#page214">214</a>.</p> + <p>Maynooth, foundation of, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a + href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Metropolitan Police Act, <a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> + <p>"Middlemen," <a href="#page65">65</a>.</p> + <p><i>Midland Tribune</i>, <a href="#page234">234</a>.</p> + <p>Mitchell, J., <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a + href="#page142">142</a>.</p> + <p>"Molly Maguires," <a href="#page184">184</a>.</p> + <p>Morley, Rt. Hon. John, Chief Secretary, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a + href="#page179">179</a>.</p> + <p>Mountcashel, Lord, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Munster, raid by men of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Murphy, Father Michael, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + <p>Mutiny Act, <a href="#page74">74</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Nantes, revocation of Edict of, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a + href="#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48.</p> + <p>Napoleon, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>"Nation," meaning of word, <a href="#page222">222</a>.</p> + <p>National University, <a name="national" id="national"></a> <a + href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>, + <a href="#page206">206</a>.</p> + <p>Nationalists, real objects of, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a + href="#page93">93</a>-99, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <p class="i2">And see <a href="#independence">Independence</a>; <a + href="#republic">Republic</a>.</p> + <p>Netherlands, persecution in the, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</p> + <p>New Zealand, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a + href="#page218">218</a>-220, <a href="#page241">241</a>.</p> + <p>Nolan, Professor, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>"No Rent" proclamation, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a + href="#page156">156</a>.</p> + <p>Normans, character of, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">adoption of Celtic customs by, <a href="#page18">18</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellions by, <a href="#page23">23</a>-25, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Oakboys, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>O'Brien, Smith, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>O'Brien, William, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</p> + <p>O'Connell, Daniel, misstatements by, as to the Union, <a + href="#page116">116</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">leads agitation for emancipation, <a href="#page134">134</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">and for repeal, <a href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>O'Connor, T.P., <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>O'Donnell, Bishop, <a href="#page165">165</a>.</p> + <p>O'Hara, Rev. D., <a href="#page165">165</a>.</p> + <p>O'Mahony, Mr., <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p> + <p>O'Mara, Mrs., <a href="#page213">213</a>.</p> + <p>O'Neill, Shan, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a + href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Orange Society, foundation of, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a + href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Outrages, Agrarian. See <a href="#agrarian">Agrarian outrages</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Pale, the English, <a href="#page20">20</a>-22, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a + href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>.</p> + <p>Parliament, Irish, <a href="#page21">21</a>-24, <a href="#page35">35</a>, <a + href="#page63">63</a>-65, <a href="#page69">69</a>-71;</p> + <p class="i2">becomes independent, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a + href="#page77">77</a>-79;</p> + <p class="i2">disqualification of votes for, abolished, <a + href="#page84">84</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">religious test for, not abolished, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a + href="#page87">87</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">proposed reform of, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a + href="#page88">88</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">criticized, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a + href="#page131">131</a>.</p> + <p class="i2">See also <a href="#regency">Regency question</a>.</p> + <p>Parnell, C.S., <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a + href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a + href="#page232">232</a>.</p> + <p>Parnell Commission, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Paul III, Pope, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>[pg 265]</span> + <p>Peel, Sir Robert, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>"Peep of Day Boys," <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page90">90</a>.</p> + <p>Penal Laws, the, <a href="#page49">49</a>-58, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a + href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</p> + <p>Persecution, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a + href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a>, <a + href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>-48, <a + href="#page52">52</a>-54, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>Philip and Mary, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Philip II of Spain, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Philipstown, <a href="#page30">30</a>.</p> + <p>"Physical Force Party," the, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</p> + <p>Pitt, William, commercial treaty proposed by, <a href="#page78">78</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">views of, on the Union, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</p> + <p>Pius V, Pope, <a href="#page37">37</a>.</p> + <p>"Plan of Campaign," the, <a href="#page155">155</a>.</p> + <p>"Plantations," <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a>.</p> + <p>Plowden, F., <a href="#page126">126</a>.</p> + <p>Plunket, Lord, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</p> + <p>Plunkett, Rt. Hon. Sir Horace, <a href="#page161">161</a>.</p> + <p>Portugal, persecution in, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, + <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Potato famine, <a name="potato" id="potato"></a> <a href="#page136">136</a>, + <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</p> + <p>Poyning's Act, <a href="#page22">22</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a>, <a + href="#page229">229</a>.</p> + <p>Pretender, the, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page51">51</a>.</p> + <p>Primogeniture, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>.</p> + <p>Prosperous, attack on the, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>"Protestant ascendancy," <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a + href="#page101">101</a>.</p> + <p>Protestant Home Rulers, <a href="#page233">233</a>, <a + href="#page234">234</a>.</p> + <p>Puritans, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Queen's County, plantation of, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a + href="#page30">30</a>.</p> + <p>Queen's University, <a name="queen" id="queen"></a> <a + href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Quakers, emigration aided by, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Raffeisen system, <a href="#page162">162</a>.</p> + <p>Rebellion of 1641, <a href="#page40">40</a>-42.</p> + <p>Rebellions of 1715 and 1745, <a href="#page52">52</a>.</p> + <p>Rebellion of 1798, rise of, in Ulster, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">becomes religious, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a + href="#page105">105</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Leinster, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a + href="#page105">105</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Wexford, <a href="#page105">105</a>-108, <a + href="#page110">110</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Kilkenny, Carlow and Wicklow, <a href="#page109">109</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">in Connaught, <a href="#page112">112</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">amnesty after, <a href="#page109">109</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">effects of, <a href="#page114">114</a>.</p> + <p>Rebellion of 1805, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</p> + <p>Redmond, John, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a + href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page169">169</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>, + <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a + href="#page199">199</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page207">207</a>-209, <a + href="#page215">215</a>.</p> + <p>Redmond, William, <a href="#page107">107</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</p> + <p>Reformation, <a href="#page26">26</a>-28.</p> + <p>Regency question, <a name="regency" id="regency"></a> <a + href="#page80">80</a>-82.</p> + <p>Registration of Titles Act, 1891, <a href="#page160">160</a>.</p> + <p>Rent, agitation against, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a + href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</p> + <p>Repeal Association, statement by, as to Rebellion, <a + href="#page108">108</a>.</p> + <p>"Reserved Services," <a href="#page227">227</a>.</p> + <p>Republic, rebels of 1798 sought to establish, <a name="republic" + id="republic"></a><a href="#page93">93</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">object of Nationalists, <a href="#page94">94</a>-99, <a + href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>[pg 266]</span> + <p class="i2">And see <a href="#independence">Independence</a>.</p> + <p>Richard II, <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + <p>Richey, Professor, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page13">13</a>, <a + href="#page21">21</a>, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p> + <p><i>Rosary, The</i>, <a href="#page242">242</a>.</p> + <p>Rosen, Conrade de, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Ross, Mr. Justice, <a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</p> + <p>Rossa, O'Donovan, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</p> + <p>Royal University, <a name="royal" id="royal"></a> <a + href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + <p>Russell, Rt. Hon. T.W., <a href="#page163">163</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Saffron dress, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</p> + <p>St. Vincent, Cape, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + <p>Savoy, persecution in, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a + href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + <p>Salisbury, Lord, <a href="#page154">154</a>.</p> + <p>Scholarships, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</p> + <p>Scotland, Norman kingdom of, <a href="#page17">17</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">invasion of Ireland from, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Union of, with England, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</p> + <p>Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#page237">237</a>.</p> + <p>Scullabogue barn, massacre at, <a href="#page110">110</a>.</p> + <p>Scully, Mr., <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Settlement, Act of, <a href="#page43">43</a>-45.</p> + <p>Separation. See <a href="#independence">Independence</a>;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#republic">Republic</a>.</p> + <p>Sevigné, Madame de, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a + href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Simnel, Lambert, <a href="#page22">22</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>.</p> + <p>Sinn Fein, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a>.</p> + <p>Slave trade, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p> + <p>Smith, Adam, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</p> + <p>Societies, secret, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a + href="#page181">181</a>.</p> + <p>Spain, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a + href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a + href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a + href="#page53">53</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a>.</p> + <p>Spenser, Edmund, <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p> + <p>"Steelboys," <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>Sullivan, A.M., <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a + href="#page140">140</a>.</p> + <p>Swayne, Captain, <a href="#page105">105</a>.</p> + <p>Sweetman, J., <a href="#page186">186</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Tithes, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a + href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</p> + <p>Tone, Wolfe, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>-97, <a + href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, + <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a + href="#page182">182</a>,</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page218">218</a>, <a + href="#page249">249</a>-258.</p> + <p>Trade, restrictions on Irish, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a + href="#page64">64</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">abolition of, <a href="#page74">74</a>,</p> + <p>Tribal tenure of land, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</p> + <p>Trinity College, Dublin,<a name="trinity" id="trinity"></a> <a + href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrconnell, flight of Earl of, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrone, raid by men of, <a href="#page7">7</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrone, flight of Earl of, <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + <p>Tyrrell, Father, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ulster Covenant, <a name="ulster" id="ulster"></a> <a href="#page1">1</a>, <a + href="#page235">235</a>.</p> + <p>Ulster, Scotch invasion of, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a + href="#page33">33</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">plantation of, <a href="#page39">39</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion of 1641 in, <a href="#page41">41</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">volunteer movement in, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>, <a href="#page237">237</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion of 1798 in, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a + href="#page102">102</a>.</p> + <p>Union, suggested in time of Queen Anne, <a href="#page63">63</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">necessity of, seen by Pitt, <a href="#page78">78</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">became probable in 1797, <a href="#page100">100</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion made inevitable, <a href="#page115">115</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">mis-statements as to, <a href="#page116">116</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">feelings of people as to, <a href="#page117">117</a>, <a + href="#page118">118</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">previous efforts towards, <a href="#page119">119</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">really caused by Parliament becoming independent, <a + href="#page120">120</a>-123;</p> + <p class="i2">proposed, <a href="#page123">123</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">discussed, <a href="#page124">124</a>;</p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>[pg 267]</span> + <p class="i2">approved by R.C. Church, <a href="#page125">125</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">carried, <a href="#page126">126</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">charges of bribery concerning, <a href="#page127">127</a>-129;</p> + <p class="i2">cannot now be reversed, <a href="#page130">130</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">prosperity of Ireland after, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</p> + <p>United Irish League, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page166">166</a>, + <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a + href="#page180">180</a>-183, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a + href="#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>.</p> + <p>United Irish Society, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a + href="#page91">91</a>.</p> + <p>Universities. See <a href="#trinity">Trinity</a> College, Dublin;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#queen">Queen's</a> University;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#royal">Royal</a> University;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#belfast">Belfast</a> Belfast University;</p> + <p class="i2"><a href="#national">National</a> University.</p> + <p>University College, Cork, <a href="#page205">205</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Galway, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Victoria, Queen, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Vinegar Hill, massacre at, <a href="#page105">105</a>-107.</p> + <p>Volunteer movement, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a>, <a + href="#page237">237</a>.</p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Waitangi, Treaty of, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + <p>Waldenses, persecution of, <a href="#page43">43</a>, <a + href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + <p>Walsh, T., <a href="#page195">195</a>.</p> + <p>Waterford, founded by Danes, <a href="#page8">8</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">Henry II lands at, <a href="#page16">16</a>.</p> + <p>Waterford Corporation and Mr. Scully, <a href="#page204">204</a>.</p> + <p>Westmeath, persons employed by County Council of, <a + href="#page175">175</a>.</p> + <p>Wexford, raid by men of, <a href="#page7">7</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">landing of Spaniards at, <a href="#page34">34</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">rebellion in, <a href="#page105">105</a>-107, <a + href="#page110">110</a>;</p> + <p class="i2">monuments of rebels in, <a href="#page108">108</a>.</p> + <p>White, P., <a href="#page195">195</a>.</p> + <p>Whiteboys, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</p> + <p>William III, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</p> + <p>Wolfe, memorial to General, <a href="#page243">243</a>, <a + href="#page244">244</a>.</p> + <p>Wolseley, letter from Lord, <a href="#page246">246</a>.</p> + <p>Wright, Mr. Justice, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</p> + <p>Wyndham Act, <a href="#page159">159</a>.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p class="c1">Sherratt and Hughes, Printers, London and Manchester.</p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Is Ulster Right?, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS ULSTER RIGHT? *** + +***** This file should be named 13157-h.htm or 13157-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/1/5/13157/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Alison Hadwin and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Is Ulster Right? + +Author: Anonymous + +Release Date: August 10, 2004 [EBook #13157] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS ULSTER RIGHT? *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Alison Hadwin and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + + + + +IS ULSTER RIGHT? + + +A STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION AT ISSUE BETWEEN ULSTER AND THE +NATIONALIST PARTY, AND OF THE REASONS--HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND +FINANCIAL--WHY ULSTER IS JUSTIFIED IN OPPOSING HOME RULE + + +BY AN IRISHMAN + + +LONDON + +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. + +1913 + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +Preface + +Chapter + +I. The Ulster Covenant. The Questions Stated. Ireland under the Celts +and the Danes + +II. Ireland from the time of Henry II to the time of Henry VIII + +III. Ireland under the Tudors + +IV. The Seventeenth Century, until the end of the reign of James II + +V. The period of the Penal Laws + +VI. The earlier part of the reign of George III. The acquisition of +independence by the Irish Parliament + +VII. The independent Parliament. The Regency Question. The +commencement of the Rebellion + +VIII. The Rebellion + +IX. The Union + +X. The period from the Union until the rejection of the first Home +Rule Bill + +XI. The Unionist Government of 1886 + +XII. The Gladstonian Government of 1892. The Political Societies + +XIII. Ireland under the present Government + +XIV. Criticism of the Bill now before the Country + +XV. The danger to the Empire of any form of Home Rule. The Questions +answered + +Index + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In the following chapters I have endeavoured to lay before ordinary +readers a simple statement of the present position of the Irish +question. Following the maxim of Confucius that it is well "to study +the Past if you would divine the Future," I have first shown that the +tales which are told about the glories of the ancient Celtic +Kingdom are foolish dreams, not supported by the accounts given by +contemporary annalists or the investigations of modern writers, and +that Ireland never was a nation in the political sense, with the +possible exception of the few years between 1782 and 1800, during +which the Irish Parliament was independent; that the charges made +against the English government with reference to their action between +the "Conquest" by Henry II and the assumption of the title of King +by Henry VIII are baseless; and that though there is much which the +historian must look back upon with regret in the period between the +reign of Henry VIII and the passing of the Act of Union, it is mere +waste of time now to dwell on the wrongs of a former age which +have long since passed away and which in any other country would be +forgotten. Then I have traced the brief history of the independent +Parliament, and shown that whatever may have been its virtues or +its failings, it would be impossible to revive it now; all the +circumstances of the country have changed. I have striven also to make +it clear that the Nationalists of to-day are not the representatives +of the leaders of that Parliament but of the party which fought +against it and brought on the horrors of the Rebellion; that the +Union was a political necessity, if the connection between the British +Islands was to be maintained at all; and that if the people of Ireland +have not derived all the benefits from the Union which they might have +done, it is their own fault, as the history of Ulster during the last +century has shown. Next, I have explained the rise of the present +Home Rule movement, and its dependence on agrarian agitation. I have +analyzed some of the provisions of the present Bill, which independent +writers consider to be hopelessly unworkable; and lastly I have stated +why in my opinion Home Rule in any form must be fraught with disaster +not only to Ireland but also to the Empire at large. + +I have no desire unnecessarily to wound the feelings of those who take +a different view; if it can be shown that any of my statements are +incorrect or my inference illogical, I shall be glad to correct +them; but to mere abuse, such as the Nationalists are in the habit of +pouring on Unionist writers, I shall pay no heed. I admit that it may +be said that there are several matters which I ought to have gone into +more fully; to that I can only reply that I wished to be as brief as +possible, and that I have done my best to compress with fairness. +What I am really anxious to do is to draw the attention of thoughtful +readers, before it is too late, to the terrible dangers with which we +are faced. As an Irish historian has said:-- + + "No political madness could be greater than to put the + legislative machinery of an integral and essential portion + of the Empire into the hands of men who are largely or mainly + disaffected with that Empire, and who, in times of difficulty, + danger and disaster are likely to betray it." + + * * * * * + +The following are the principal works of which use has been made +in preparing this volume. They are cited here in order to avoid the +necessity of constant footnotes:-- + + "Short History of the Irish People." By Professor Richey. + + "Irish Nationalism." By the late Duke of Argyll. + + "History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century." By W.E.H. + Lecky. + + "History of the Legislative Union of Great Britain and + Ireland." By Dunbar Ingram. + + "Ireland and Her Fairy Godmother." By J. Warren. + + "The Continuity of the Irish Revolutionary Movement." By Prof. + Brougham Leech. + + "A Fool's Paradise." By Professor Dicey. + + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE ULSTER COVENANT. THE QUESTIONS STATED. IRELAND UNDER THE CELTS AND +THE DANES. + + "Being convinced in our consciences that Home Rule would be + disastrous to the material well-being of Ulster as well as of + the whole of Ireland, subversive of our civil and religious + freedom, destructive of our citizenship and perilous to the + unity of the Empire, We, whose names are underwritten, Men of + Ulster, loyal subjects of His Gracious Majesty King George V, + humbly relying on the God whom our fathers in days of stress + and trial confidently trusted, do hereby pledge ourselves + in Solemn Covenant throughout this our time of threatened + calamity to stand by one another in defending for ourselves + and our children our cherished position of equal citizenship + in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be + found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a + Home Rule Parliament in Ireland. And, in the event of such + a Parliament being forced upon us, we further solemnly + and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to recognise its + authority. In such confidence that God will defend the right, + we hereunto subscribe our names." + +Such is the Solemn Covenant which 220,000 resolute, determined +Ulstermen--of various creeds and of all sections of the community, +from wealthy merchants to farm labourers--fully realizing the +responsibility they were undertaking, signed on the 28th September, +1912. To represent that it was merely the idle bombast of ignorant +rustics, or a passing ebullition of political passion coming from +hot-headed youths excited by irresponsible demagogues, is folly. +It expresses the calm resolution of earnest men who, having thought +deeply over the matter had decided that it was better even to face +the horrors of civil war rather than to submit to the rule of a +Nationalist Government. + +The opinions of the Nationalists with regard to the Ulster Covenant +can be gathered from many speeches and sermons. The following extract +from one of their papers--the _Frontier Sentinel_--may be taken as a +specimen:-- + + "It may not be out of place here to translate into simple + English the terms of the Covenant. It denies the claim of + Ireland to self-government and the capacity of Irishmen to + govern Ireland. It asserts that the Catholics of Ireland are + the spawn of the devil; that they are ruthless savages and + dangerous criminals with only one object in life--the wiping + out of Protestants. It claims for the Protestant Unionist + majority of four Ulster counties a monopoly of Christianity, + public and private morality, and clean successful business + enterprise. In the name of God it seeks to stimulate the + basest passions in human nature, and calls on God to witness + a catalogue of falsehoods. Only a few of the local Protestant + clergymen, it should be stated, signed this notoriously wicked + document." + +It is well then to pause and consider calmly two questions: What +are the real objects of the Nationalists; and, Are the men of Ulster +justified in resisting them to the uttermost? + +It is a mere truism to remark that in every political question the +main controversy is complicated by a number of side issues. Thus in +the tangled skein of politics in South Eastern Europe there is not +merely the great struggle between the Crescent and the Cross, but +there are also jealousies between Greek and Bulgarian, between Servian +and Austrian, which have to be considered. So in Ireland, if we +take the religious question as the dominating one, we find ourselves +involved in a maze of racial animosities, class prejudices, and +trade disputes; by ignoring these we can arrive at a simple but +unfortunately a totally erroneous solution of the question. And to +weigh them all fairly involves more trouble than the average man cares +to take. + +Irish history is at best a dismal subject. And those who ought to +be historians are too often politicians; regarding themselves as +advocates and not as judges they deliberately omit incidents which +tell against their views, and enlarge on others, frequently without +even examining the evidence in support of them. Then in arriving +at the truth about any matter connected with Ireland there is the +additional difficulty arising from the custom, almost universal +amongst Irishmen, of talking in superlatives. The exaggerated +expressions, both of praise and blame, which are constantly employed, +at first puzzle a stranger coming to Ireland from another country; he +soon, however, gets to realize that they are mere forms of speech, and +are no more intended to be taken seriously than similar phrases are +when used by an Oriental. They are therefore harmless. But it becomes +a more serious matter when learned men employ inflated language in +addressing ignorant and excitable audiences. Thus Bishop Gaughran, +when recently preaching to a crowded congregation in Dublin a sermon +which was reported in full in the Roman Catholic papers, said:-- + + "The persecution of the Catholics in Ireland had no parallel + in the history of the Church save perhaps those of the early + Christians in the Catacombs of Rome. Edicts were sent + forth before which those of Nero might be said to pale into + insignificance--the Edicts of Elizabeth and Cromwell, for + example." + +Yet these words came from a man who was doubtless familiar with the +histories of Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands; and who is a +leader of a party which had not long before expressed the opinion that +Catholics have no reason to be ashamed of the Inquisition, which was +a coercive and corporally punitive force which had effected its ends +splendidly! + +One of the many popular delusions under which English people labour +with regard to Ireland is that all the population of the country at +the present day are Celts, and that this is the key to the whole Irish +question. Thus a review of Father Tyrrell's autobiography recently +appeared in an English journal in which the reviewer said: "Probably +no Englishmen could have written such a book; it needs a Latin like +Rousseau, or a Celt like Tyrrell to lay bare his soul in this way." +No doubt these words were written in perfectly good faith; but if +the writer had cared to make any enquiry he could have found out in a +moment that the Tyrrell family were thoroughly English and that none +of them had gone to Ireland before the nineteenth century. The fact +is that the inhabitants of Ireland, like the inhabitants of all other +countries in Western Europe, are of mixed origin. The Celts were +themselves immigrants, who conquered and enslaved a pre-existing race +called the Firbolgs; then came the Scandinavian invasion; and then +wave after wave of immigration from England and Scotland, so that +Sir J. Davies, writing three hundred years ago--that was, before the +Cromwellian settlement and the arrival of the French refugees who had +escaped from the persecution of Louis XIV--said that if the people of +Ireland were numbered those descended of English race would be found +more in number than the ancient natives. + +This, however, is only one of many errors into which English writers +have fallen. Mistakes of course will always be made; but unfortunately +it is a charge from which Mr. Gladstone's admirers cannot clear him +that when he wished to bring the English people round to the idea of +Home Rule he deliberately falsified Irish history in order to make +it serve his ends; and his misrepresentations have gained credence +amongst careless thinkers who are content to shelter themselves under +a great name without looking at what has been written in answer. The +general idea of an average Englishman about Irish history seems to be +that Ireland in Celtic times was a peaceful, orderly, united kingdom, +famous for its piety and learning, where land was held by "tribal +tenure"--that is, owned by the whole tribe who were closely related +in blood--rent being unknown, and the chief being elected by the whole +tribe in solemn assembly. Into this happy country came the Norman +invaders, who fought against and conquered the king; drove the native +owners out of their possessions, and introduced a feudal system and an +alien code of law unsuited to the people; and the modern landlords +are the representatives of the conquering Normans and the tenants +the descendants of the ancient tribesmen who naturally and rightfully +resist paying rent for the lands which by ancestral right should be +their own. There could not be a more complete travesty of history. + +The Celtic Church no doubt had its golden age. It produced saints and +men of learning. It sent out its missionaries to the heathen beyond +the seas. So famous were its schools that students came to them from +distant lands. But centuries before the Normans appeared in Ireland +the salt had lost its savour. The Celtic Church had sunk into being +a mere appendage of the wild tribes it had once tried to tame. The +chiefs of one tribe would sack the colleges and shrines of another +tribe as freely as they would sack any of their other possessions. +For instance, the annals tell us that in the year 1100 the men of the +south made a raid into Connaught and burned many churches; in 1113 +Munster tribe burned many churches in Meath, one of them being full of +people; in 1128 the septs of Leitrim and Cavan plundered and slew the +retinue of the Bishop of Armagh; in the same year the men of Tyrone +raided Down and a great number of people suffered martyrdom; four +years later Kildare was invaded by raiders from Wexford, the church +was burnt and many men slain; and so on with dreary monotony. Bishops +and abbots fought in the incessant tribal wars as keenly as laymen. +Worse still, it was not infrequent for one band of clergy to make +war on another. In the ninth century, Phelim, who claimed to be both +Bishop and King of Leinster, ravaged Ulster and murdered its monks and +clergy. In the eleventh century the annals give an account of a fierce +battle between the Bishop of Armagh and the Bishop of Clonard. Nor did +time work any improvement; we read of bloody conflicts between abbots +and bishops as late as the middle of the fifteenth century. What +influence for good could such a church have had upon the mass of the +people? + +And even in its noblest period the Celtic Church seems to have had but +little power beyond the walls of its own colleges. The whole history +of Celtic Ireland, as we learn from the annalists, was one miserable +succession of tribal wars, murders and plunderings. Of course it may +be said with perfect truth that the annals of other countries at the +time tell much the same story. But there is this difference between +them: wild and barbarous though the wars of other countries were, +they were at any rate the slow and painful working up towards a higher +civilization; the country became consolidated under the most powerful +chief; in time peace was enforced, agriculture improved, and towns +grew up. The tribal raids of Celtic Ireland, however, were merely +for plunder and destruction. From such conflicts no higher state of +society could possibly be evolved. The Irish Celts built no cities, +promoted no agriculture, and never coalesced so as to form even the +nucleus of a united kingdom. + +It was about the end of the eighth century that the first foreign +influence was brought to bear on Celtic Ireland. The Danish invasion +began. Heathen though the Danes were, they brought some ideas of +settled government and the germs of national progress. They founded +cities, such as Dublin, Waterford and Limerick. And when they, like +their fellow-countrymen in England, accepted Christianity, they +established bishoprics in the new towns, but took care that they +should be wholly independent of the Celtic tribal episcopate; they +looked to Canterbury and Rome. + +Much has been written and sung about the fame of Brian Boroo. No doubt +he was in some ways a great man; and it seemed for a time that he +might do for Ireland something like what Alfred the Great had done for +England and Kenneth MacAlpine had done for Scotland--might consolidate +the country into one kingdom. But the story of his life is a striking +commentary on the wretchedness of the period. Forming an alliance with +some of the Danes he succeeded in crushing the chiefs of several rival +Celtic tribes; then in turn he attacked his former allies, and beat +them at the battle of Clontarf in the year 1014, though they were +aided by other Celtic tribes who hated Brian and his schemes even more +than they hated the foreigners. Important though this battle was, its +effect has been much exaggerated and misunderstood. It certainly +did not bring the Danish power in Ireland to an end; Dublin was a +flourishing Danish colony long afterwards--in fact it was thirty years +after the battle that the Danish king of Dublin founded the Bishopric. + +But Brian was slain in the moment of victory. The soldiers of his +army murdered his only surviving son, and began fighting amongst +themselves. Brian's dream of a united Ireland came to an end, and the +country relapsed into chaos. If the immediate result of the battle +was a victory of Celt over Dane, the lasting effect was a triumph of +anarchy over order. It was on the Celtic people that the ruin fell; +and the state of things for the next two centuries was if possible +worse than it had ever been before. + +It will be readily understood that throughout this terrible period of +history anything like a peaceful cultivation of the soil or a regular +election to the office of chief was out of the question. It was quite +an ordinary thing for a chief to obtain his position by murdering his +predecessor. The annalists give us a long list of Kings of Ireland +dating from before the Christian era until the arrival of the Normans. +Of course the word "king" can mean little more than "prominent +chief," for no one man ever had real authority over the whole of the +distracted land. Even of these prominent chiefs, however, according +to the annalists, very few died natural deaths. Some fell in battle, +others were assassinated; but the most common fate for a monarch was +to be "slain by his successor." If this was true of the most powerful +men in the country, to speak of the office of chief as elective is +really absurd. But more than this: there is no evidence that the +"tribal system," in the sense of all the tribe being related by blood +and all owning their lands in common, ever existed in Ireland even +in theory. At the earliest date of which we possess any distinct +information on the subject, wealth, representing physical force, had +become the acknowledged basis of political power and private right; +and the richer members of the community were rapidly reducing the +poorer freemen--many of whom were the descendants of an earlier race +or of conquered tribes--to a state of serfdom. The system (if such +a word can be applied at all) was in fact a bad form of feudalism +without its advantages. There was no central overlord (like those +in other countries who gradually developed into the sovereigns of +mediaeval kingdoms and thus became able to enforce peace and progress), +each petty chief being independent; and on the other hand the dues +payable by the retainers were not fixed by law or custom. We must +probably reject the suggested derivation of the word "feodal" from the +Celtic "Fiudir"; but if so, it is curious that two words accidentally +resembling each other conveyed ideas so closely alike; for a Celtic +"Fiudir" was practically a tenant at the will of the lord; and it must +be admitted that the word "vassal" is of Celtic origin. Charters which +date from before the Norman invasion show that the land was regarded +as the private property of the chiefs; frequently the wretched +occupiers, instead of paying fixed rents, were liable to unlimited +exactions, one of them being the right of the lord to "coigne and +livery"--that is, to quarter himself and his retainers as long as he +pleased on any occupier who possessed a few cows (which were the only +form of wealth in those days of universal poverty); in some cases, +however, land was let for a term of years, on a fixed payment of +cattle. + +On the death of a freeholder his land was divided amongst his sons +equally, according to what is called "the custom of gavelkind." +Whether primogeniture is a good or a bad thing in England or the +British Colonies at the present day is of course a totally different +question; the circumstances of the times are totally different. But +it can hardly be doubted by a thoughtful student of history that the +adoption of primogeniture in the early days of feudalism in other +European countries was a social necessity if civilization was to rise +to a higher state; and that its not being introduced in Ireland was if +not a cause at least an evidence that civilization in that country +did not progress. For in a condition not far removed from anarchy +the connection between the ownership of land and political power is +inevitable; hence if holdings are small their owners become an easy +prey to stronger neighbours; whereas the possessors of larger areas +can repel attacks and enable their dependents to live in some sort of +security. It was the enormous number of petty independent chiefs that +added to the miseries of Celtic Ireland. + +I shall probably be accused of having painted too dark a picture in +the brief sketch that I have given of Ireland before the coming of the +Normans. I admit that it is very different from the glowing accounts +of "Irish Ireland" that may be found in the pages of Nationalist +journals. But the question to me is not which account is more pleasant +but which is true. And I defy anyone who has cared to look through the +works of such writers as Richey, Stokes, and Sullivan, to prove that +what I have said is incorrect or unfair. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +IRELAND FROM THE TIME OF HENRY II TO THE TIME OF HENRY VIII. + + +In the last chapter I dealt with the long period during which the +Celtic tribes of Ireland were free from foreign influence except for +the comparatively brief time when a small part of the country was +under the rule of the Danes; and I endeavoured to show that according +to the evidence of their own annalists and in the opinion of modern +writers of various political sentiments, the whole island throughout +that period remained in a chronic state of anarchy, without any +advance towards a higher civilization. + +As Dr. Richey, when describing the condition of Ireland about the year +1170, says, "The state of the Celtic people was beyond all hope of +self-amendment. The want of law, order and justice, the absence of +self-knowledge and self-control, paralysed their national action and +reduced the power of their chief king to insignificance." + +I come now to what has been absurdly called the conquest of Ireland +under Henry II. + +That the English king was instigated in his efforts by the Pope is +perfectly clear. The Bull of Pope Adrian, issued in 1155, is still +extant:-- + + "... There is indeed no doubt but that Ireland, and all the + islands on which Christ, the Sun of Righteousness, hath shone, + and which have received the doctrine of the Christian faith, + do belong to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and the Holy Roman + Church ... therefore we are the more solicitous to propagate + the righteous plantation of faith in this land, and the + branch acceptable to God, as we have the secret conviction of + conscience that this is more especially our bounden duty. You + then, our dear son in Christ, have signified to us your desire + to enter into the island of Ireland, in order to reduce the + people to obedience under the laws, and to extirpate the + plants of vice, and that you are willing to pay from each + house a yearly pension of one penny to St. Peter, and that you + will preserve the rights of the churches whole and inviolate. + We, therefore, do hold it good and acceptable that ... you + enter this island and execute therein whatever shall pertain + to the honour of God and welfare of the land; and that the + people of the land receive you honourably and reverence you as + their lord." + +And in 1172 Pope Alexander III ratified the action of his predecessor. + + "Forasmuch as these things which have been on good reasons + granted by our predecessors, deserve to be confirmed ... + and considering the grant of the dominion of the land by the + venerable Pope Adrian, we ... do ratify and confirm the same + (reserving to St. Peter and to the Holy Roman Church, as well + in England as in Ireland the yearly pension of one penny from + every house) provided that, the abominations of the land being + removed, the barbarous people, Christians only in name, may + by your means, be reformed, and their lives and conversations + mended, so that their disordered Church being thus reduced + to regular discipline, that nation may, with the name of + Christians, be so in act and deed." + +Whether the description here given was literally correct, or whether +the Pope's views were coloured by the fact that the Celtic Church did +not acknowledge the supremacy of Rome and was heretical on certain +points of doctrine, is a question outside the present subject. The +Bulls are only quoted here as showing the part taken by Rome. And it +must be admitted that in the succeeding century the power of the Pope +became strong enough to enable him to levy taxes in Ireland for the +purpose of carrying on his wars against the Emperor and the King of +Aragon. + +But Henry did not conquer Ireland. He did not even pretend to do so. +Previous to his arrival there had been some little fighting done by a +few adventurous Norman knights who had been invited by a native chief +to assist him in a domestic war; but Henry II fought no battle in +Ireland; he displaced no ancient national government; the Irish had +no national flag, no capital city as the metropolis of the country, no +common administration of the law. The English, coming in the name of +the Pope, with the aid of the Irish bishops, with a superior national +organization which the Irish easily recognised, were accepted by the +Irish. The king landed at Waterford; his journey to Dublin was rather +a royal progress than a hostile invasion. He came as feudal sovereign +to receive the homage of the Irish tribes; the chiefs flocked to his +court, readily became his vassals, and undertook to hold the lands +they already occupied as fiefs of the Crown. But Henry did not take +the title, or assume the position of King of Ireland. He merely sought +to establish a suzerainty in which he would be the overlord. And in +fact a conquest of Ireland in the modern sense of the term would have +been impossible. England possessed no standing army; the feudal levies +of mediaeval times were difficult and expensive. It might of course +have been possible to have organized a wholesale immigration and an +enslavement of the natives, something like that which the Normans had +accomplished in England, and the Saxons had done centuries before; but +nothing of the kind was attempted. Whether Henry's original intention +was simply to leave the Irish chiefs in possession or not, it is +useless now to enquire. But if it was, he appears to have changed his +views; for not long afterwards he granted large fiefs with palatinate +jurisdiction to various Normans who had made their way over to Ireland +independently. + +It may be that Henry--knowing that the Conqueror, whilst taking +care that no powerful seignories should grow up in the heart of his +kingdom, as rivals to the throne, yet made exceptions in cases +where the lands verged on hostile territory, such as Durham or +Chester--thought that he could best follow the spirit of that policy +by establishing what were practically semi-independent principalities +in an island already inhabited by another race. But the result was +disastrous. + +That the Normans were savage and brutal, dealing out no justice or +mercy to their victims, is proved by the account of their conquest of +England. Yet they possessed certain great qualities, which eminently +fitted them to become rulers in those wild, unsettled times; as their +successes, not merely in Britain, but also in Southern Italy and +Syria, show. They had the idea of a strong, centralized Government; +and more than that they had a marvellous capacity for receptivity. +Thus we see that in England, after a period of rough tyranny, they +blended the existing Anglo-Saxon Government--the strength of which lay +in its local organization--with their own; and from the union of +the two has come the British Constitution. So too in the Lowlands +of Scotland it was the Norman knight Robert Bruce who, accepting the +already existing Saxon and Roman civilization, raised Scotland into a +powerful kingdom. But in Ireland all was different. The only state +of society which the Normans found was Celtic barbarism. Political +institutions did not exist. As the Normans in England had become +Anglified, and in Scotland Scottified, so in Ireland they became +Ersefied. It is true that they built stone castles which at any rate +were better than the hovels of the Irish Chiefs, and (like the +Danes before them) founded a few towns, such as Kilkenny, Galway and +Athenry; but there their efforts ended. Scattered amongst the tribes, +they learnt their ways. They sank to the position of the Celtic +Chiefs around them; local wars went on the same as before; the only +difference being that they were waged sometimes by Normans against +Normans or against Celts, but more frequently by one body of Celts +against another, each side being aided by Norman allies. + +One class of Nationalist writers has inveighed against the English +kings for not having forcibly introduced English law and put an end to +the barbarous Celtic customs. The simple answer is, How could they do +so? Whilst England was being weakened by long continental wars or +by struggles between rival Houses, what strength had she left to +undertake the real conquest of Ireland? The English kings had turned +to the only people who could have helped them--the Normans settled in +Ireland; and they failed them. Other Nationalist writers have on +the other hand declaimed with equal vehemence against the tyranny of +England in forcing an alien system of law on an unwilling people. To +this the answer is that nothing of the kind occurred. It is true that +petitions were sent from Ireland to the King urging him to introduce +English law; but these petitions came mainly from the poorer classes +of English settlers who found that instead of attaining greater +liberty in their new home they were being ground down to the miserable +position of the native Irish. The King issued proclamations directing +the English barons to permit the Irish to be governed by the law of +England; but his orders were totally disregarded; many of the unhappy +English settlers fled from the country and returned to England; +the barons supplied their places with native retainers. Thus the +Ersefication of the degenerate Normans became complete; they +"donned the saffron"--that is, they adopted the yellow dress of the +Celts--abandoned their original language, and gave themselves up to a +life of constant plunder and rapine. + +Early in the fourteenth century the Irish septs united so far as to +form a joint effort to expel the English. The incident is specially +interesting, in the light of later history. Robert Bruce, a Norman +knight, had recently consolidated the Scottish tribes into a kingdom +and succeeded in shaking off the English yoke. The Irish Celts +resolved to imitate his example. King Robert was shrewd enough to see +that by aiding them he could attack his enemy at the most vulnerable +point; consequently, when the chiefs offered the Crown of Ireland to +his brother Edward if he would come and help them, he gladly accepted +the invitation. For three years a devastating war raged over a large +part of Ireland; the Scotch went from the North of Ulster almost to +Limerick, burning, slaying, plundering, sacking towns, castles and +churches; and a terrible famine ensued. But the Irish chiefs were no +more energetic in supporting Edward Bruce than their ancestors had +been in supporting Brian; he and his chief officers fell in a battle +against the English near Dundalk, and the rest of his followers +escaped to Scotland. The coalition fell to pieces; and the only result +of the Scotch invasion was to increase the misery of the people, +especially of the unhappy English settlers, who continued to flock +back to England in greater numbers than before. + +As soon as the rebellion was put down, the great legislator Edward +III made another effort at introducing order into the distracted land. +Acts were passed by the English Parliament providing that the same +law should be applicable to both English and Irish, and forbidding +landowners to keep larger bands of armed men than were necessary for +self-defence. But the Ersefied barons on whom he relied refused to +obey the new laws; they renounced their allegiance and joined the +rebellious Celtic tribes. Then the king, seeing the impossibility +of carrying out his scheme for pacifying the whole of Ireland, was +reduced to the expedient of dividing the country into two; leaving the +larger part of it for the natives and degenerate English to misgovern +as they pleased according to their own customs, and preserving only +a mere fraction (the "English Pale") in allegiance to the Crown of +England. This was the real meaning of the "Statutes of Kilkenny," +which have been so often misrepresented by modern writers. + +The next king, Richard II, attempted to imitate the policy of his +ancestor Henry II. He went to Ireland with great pomp. Again the +Celtic chiefs flocked to Dublin to swear allegiance to their lord; +and as soon as his back was turned commenced not only fighting amongst +themselves but even attacking the English Pale. The result of all his +efforts was that the limits of the Pale were still further contracted; +the English power was confined to a small area in the neighbourhood of +Dublin. + +But even within that narrow boundary the power of the king was far +from being secure. When England was torn by the Wars of the Roses, the +so-called Parliament (which was really an irregular assembly at best +representing a territory about the size of a modern county) seized +the opportunity of declaring itself independent. It is interesting, in +view of present-day questions, to observe that Dr. Richey, writing +in 1869, seems to consider their action as not only justifiable but +inevitable. He says:-- + + "The Irish Parliament declared the complete independence + of the Irish Legislature, and boldly affirmed those + constitutional rights which, though involved in the existence + of separate parliament, had not hitherto been categorically + expressed. They asserted their rights to a distinct coinage, + and their absolute freedom from all laws and statutes except + such as were by the Lords spiritual and temporal and Commons + of Ireland freely admitted and accepted in their Parliament. + They declared that no Irish subject was bound to answer + any writs except those under the great seal of Ireland, and + enacted heavy penalties against any officer who should attempt + to put English decrees in force in Ireland. They, in fact, + took the same position and laid down the same principles as + the celebrated Parliament of 1782." + +Whether they imagined that they could form a separate kingdom of +Dublin, or dreamt of making an alliance with the tribes outside the +Pale, it is useless now to conjecture; but we can see that though they +had no chance of benefiting themselves they might have caused serious +injury to England. Nor was it long before a difficulty arose. The +inhabitants of the Pale remained attached to the House of York even +after the Battle of Bosworth, and readily accepted Lambert Simnel as +King of Ireland. He was crowned in the Cathedral of Dublin, and held +a Parliament. After the defeat of this Pretender, the able and astute +Henry VII saw that it was necessary without further delay to make the +shadowy suzerainty of England over Ireland a reality. He accordingly +persuaded the Irish Parliament to pass an Act which from the name of +the Lord Deputy was known as "Poyning's Act." By this Act, all English +statutes then existing in England were made of force in Ireland; the +chief fortresses were secured to the Crown of England; and the Irish +Parliament was relegated to the position of a subordinate legislature; +for it was enacted that no Parliament should be held in Ireland unless +the King's Lieutenant and Council should first certify the King, under +the Great Seal of Ireland, the Acts which they considered should pass; +then the King and his Council should approve the proposed Acts, +and issue a licence under the Great Seal of England, summoning the +Parliament. + +Though some writers have spoken of this as the most disgraceful Act +ever passed by an independent legislature, the people in Ireland at +the time considered it a boon and a favour; for it shielded them from +the unauthorized power of a Lord Deputy supported by a Parliament of +his own creatures. + +And so, with the close of the mediaeval period, ended the second +chapter of Irish history. It will be observed that there had been no +religious persecution, unless indeed the conduct of the Norman--that +is, the Roman--Church towards the ancient Celtic Church, or the +burning of some heretics in the fourteenth century, could be so +described; a view which the Nationalists of to-day will hardly care to +put forward. Nor can the English Government be fairly blamed for the +condition of affairs; for responsibility depends on power, and English +power in Ireland hardly existed. The suzerainty of England, feeble at +best, had gradually been limited to a mere fraction of the country. +The Celtic tribes had long since thrown off even a nominal submission +to the English Crown; the Anglo-Norman lords had become either +avowedly or practically independent. But the inhabitants of Ireland +did not constitute a nation or possess any common interest or bond of +union. There was no trace of an organization by which the Irish tribes +could be united into one people. The ceaseless civil wars had indeed +supplanted the original tribesmen by the mercenary followers of +another set of rival chiefs; but there had been no union; and the mass +of the people, still under the influence of their native customs, were +probably in a more wretched condition than they had ever been before. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +IRELAND UNDER THE TUDORS. + + +We have seen that at the close of the Middle Ages Ireland was in the +condition that some people in England now consider the panacea for +all the woes of the country; it possessed a subordinate Parliament and +England interfered as little as possible in its local affairs. Henry +VIII attempted "to govern Ireland according to Irish ideas"; having no +army of his own, he appointed the most powerful of the Norman barons +his deputy. But this deputy used his authority precisely as an +Ersefied Norman (who possessed no more patriotism or national feeling +than a Celtic chief) might have been expected to use it,--that was, to +aid him in a succession of family quarrels and tribal wars in which, +allied with some of the native septs he attacked others. Even the +towns outside the Pale fared little better than the remoter districts; +there was actually a civil war between Cork and Limerick. The state of +affairs in Celtic Ireland during the brief period from 1500 to 1534 +as stated in the annals (which, however, only deal with a part of the +country, hardly referring to what took place in Leinster or Munster) +has been summed up by Dr. Richey in the following words:-- + + "Battles, plunderings, etc., exclusive of those in which the + English Government was engaged, 116; Irish gentlemen of + family killed in battle, 102; murdered, 168--many of them with + circumstances of great atrocity; and during this period, on + the other hand, there is no allusion to the enactment of any + law, the judicial decision of any controversy, the founding of + any town, monastery or church; and all this is recorded by + the annalist without the slightest expression of regret or + astonishment, as if such were the ordinary course of life in a + Christian country." + +At length, in 1534, matters came to a head; the Lord Deputy broke out +into open rebellion. We can learn from the State papers of the period +what the condition of Ireland then was. The Pale--now but the remnant +of a fraction--was constantly invaded and ravished by wild tribes, +and was itself becoming Ersefied; for the poorer English settlers had +either fled back to England, joined the Celtic tribes in despair, as +their only way of escaping from the harshness of the English lords, or +been crushed out of existence; and, as had already happened elsewhere, +their place had been taken by Irish retainers. Then in the rest of the +country there were some ninety chiefs, of whom about sixty represented +ancient septs and the remainder degenerate Normans, all claiming +independence and preying sometimes on one another and sometimes on +their unfortunate followers. Not infrequently also a tribe was divided +against itself, and a civil war was raging between the two factions. +And one result of the Ersefication of the Norman barons was that, +in addition to the regular feudal dues, they demanded every kind +of Celtic tribute from the occupiers of the land. In fact, how the +wretched tenants managed to support life at all seems a mystery. +Whatever law there may at one time have been was now long extinct; +and as King Henry himself pointed out, if the natives were to have any +sort of law at all, the only possible law was the law of England. + +At this time also a new factor came into the already complicated +problem--the Reformation. Henry VIII never was a Protestant, in +the sense of adopting the doctrines which are now usually called +Protestant; but he had renounced the authority of the Pope. In 1535 +Pope Paul III passed sentence upon him, consigning his kingdoms to +whoever might invade them, and commanding his nobles to take up +arms against him. Both the Emperor and the King of France saw their +opportunity, as Robert Bruce had done centuries before. They commenced +a correspondence with the Irish chiefs with the object of bringing +about an invasion of Ireland. Thereupon King Henry resolved to take +the only course that seemed to him possible--to make the conquest +of Ireland a reality and to enforce law and order in that distracted +land. His letters, which are still extant, show the care with which he +thought out the matter, and his earnest desire for the welfare of +the people of both races; a perusal of them would astonish those who +regard him merely as a savage sensualist. Strange to say, in their +Irish policy, the character of Henry VIII shows itself at the best, +and that of Elizabeth at its worst. When Henry had with difficulty +succeeded in crushing the Geraldine rebellion and a series of others +which broke out soon after, he got the Irish Parliament to pass an +Act conferring on him the title of king; he was solemnly proclaimed as +such, and his title was confirmed by the almost unanimous consent of +the Irish princes. + +This was important in more ways than one: it was universally +recognized that the word "king" meant much more than "lord"; and it +gave him a title independent of the Pope's donation. + +It is one of the ironies of history that the renunciation of the Papal +authority and the submission to the king's supremacy was far more +rapid and general in Ireland than it was in England. For not only did +all the lay chiefs readily yield their adhesion, but only two of the +bishops refused to take the oath of supremacy. Rebellions such as that +of Fitzgerald had no connection with religion; it was not until years +afterwards when England had become identified with Protestantism and +Spain with Catholicism that the Irish became intensely Papal. On the +other hand, the Reformation, as a religious movement, made no headway +in Ireland. It was purely negative and destructive, and emanated from +the Government, not from the mass of the people. The monasteries were +destroyed; hence there were no vicars to supply the parish churches, +which fell into ruin; the king endeavoured rather to Anglify than to +Protestantise the people by sending to them bishops and clergy from +England--but they were mere state officials, not fathers in God; +unable even to speak the Irish language; what real preaching there +was was done by friars sent from Rome and Madrid. Henry's efforts at +establishing parish schools were also a total failure. Had there not +been later immigrations from England and Scotland, Irish Protestantism +would probably have died out. Yet it is but fair to state, and to bear +in mind, that there was no religious persecution as such in Ireland +during the Tudor period. Elizabeth's policy was, without making any +actual promise of freedom of conscience, to leave the question of +religious opinions alone as far as possible. The real difficulty came +from the political nature of the Church of Rome; when the Pope deposed +Elizabeth and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain every Irish Roman +Catholic had either to be false to his religion or to become a +traitor--_in esse_ or _in posse_--to the queen. + +When Henry had resolved to do his utmost to bring Ireland to a state +of civilization, there were not wanting advisers who urged upon him +that his only safe course was absolutely to destroy the whole native +population by sword and famine and re-people the vacant lands by +immigrants from England. Such a course would have been quite in +accordance with the ideas of the time. Not thirty years previously, +the combined forces of Church and State had pursued the heretic +population of the Loise into the mountain fastnesses to which they had +fled, and had piled logs of wood at the mouths of the caves in which +they had taken refuge, and set them on fire. Then, when all the +unhappy people--men, women and children, numbering some thousands +in all--had perished, their lands were distributed amongst strangers +brought in from a distance to occupy them. And at a later date--in the +middle of the sixteenth century--the native inhabitants of the Canary +Islands were exterminated by the Spanish Inquisition, and their lands +taken by the invading race. But to Henry it appeared that there was +one milder course that might still be possible. Might not the native +chiefs and the degenerate Normans who had shown that their only idea +of independency was anarchy yet be brought together as nobles under +a strong central government with a Parliament representing not merely +the Pale, but all Ireland? Might not the mass of the people, whose +native customs had been well nigh crushed out by civil wars, +be persuaded to _adopt_ the law of England? This was the policy +deliberately adopted by Henry and acted on by him during his life. +It is easy for writers living in modern times to sneer at some of the +details of his scheme; but it is not so easy for them to point out +what other course would have been better; or indeed, whether any other +course short of a policy of extermination, would have been possible. + +The remarkable thing, however, is that the change to a more severe +line took place not under Henry or his Protestant son, but under the +most Catholic Sovereigns Philip and Mary. It was by their orders that +the first of the confiscations (which were to play so important a part +in the later history of Ireland) was carried out. By an Act passed +in their reign the lands occupied by the O'Moores, O'Connors and +O'Dempseys were confiscated and formed into the King's and +Queen's counties, Leix and Offaly being renamed "Philipstown" and +"Maryborough"; and a "Plantation" of English settlers was established. + +And here it is well to pause for a moment and consider these +confiscations, about which so much has been written. That +confiscations have taken place in every country is a plain fact of +history. There is probably no part of Western Europe where land is +now held by the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants. Forcible +conquest and adverse occupation is nearly always the primary root +of title. But it is part of the policy of every civilized country to +recognize what lawyers call "Statutes of limitations." When centuries +have elapsed and new rights have grown up, it is impossible to rectify +the wrongs of times long gone by. Thus we cannot suppose that any +future Government of Spain would ever recognize the title of the Moors +in Africa to the properties from which their ancestors were driven +by Philip IV; or that the Huguenots, now scattered over various +countries, could ever succeed in recovering possession of the estates +in France which were confiscated at the time of the Revocation of the +Edict of Nantes. And the only people who have a cause to complain, +even on sentimental grounds, of the wrongs of past ages, are the +lineal descendants of those who suffered ill-treatment. No Englishman +to-day can feel aggrieved because Saxons drove out Britons, or Normans +Saxons. + +But more than that: the confiscation of the lands of rebels stands on +a different basis, and has been so regarded in every country in the +world, even New Zealand. The lands confiscated by Philip and Mary were +owned by the arch-rebel FitzGerald. Naturally fertile and capable if +properly cultivated of supporting a large population, they were at +this time a wild pathless tract of forest and bog. The ceaseless +tribal wars had prevented their being drained and cleared; the +miserable remnants of the Celtic tribes gained a precarious living by +periodical raids on the more peaceful inhabitants of the Pale. During +the whole of the reign of Edward VI fighting had gone on in Leix and +Offaly with great loss of life and at enormous expense to the English +Government. The object of the confiscation was not to drive out the +few existing tribesmen; for the land, when cleared and drained, might +well support them as well as the new settlers. Nor was it to confer +great estates on absentee proprietors, but to establish a fairly +thickly settled district which might be a source of strength rather +than a constant cause of trouble to the dwellers in the Pale. Nor +again was it to introduce feudalism; for as I have shown, the system +already in existence was feudalism without its advantages; the +substitution of fixed dues for the barbarous custom of "coigne and +livery" was an unmixed benefit to the occupiers of land. And it cannot +be denied that the first "Plantation" was a thorough success--thriving +settlements and prosperous farms took the place of forest and swamp. + +If the position of Henry VIII had been one of difficulty, that of +Elizabeth was far more critical. The separation of the Church of +England from Rome was now complete. The great powers of the Continent +were united in one supreme effort to stamp out the new heresy. The +massacre of St. Bartholomew had taken place in France; Philip II had +ordered a _Te Deum_ to be sung at Madrid, and the Pope had had a medal +struck to commemorate the glorious event. The lowest computation of +those put to death for heresy in the Netherlands by Charles V was +50,000; and his successor had, at the instigation of the Holy Office, +issued a proclamation sentencing to death the whole population--men, +women and children--with the exception of a few persons specially +named. Alva boasted that he had put 18,000 Dutchmen to death on the +scaffold, and the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and +sword, an honour which had previously been bestowed only on reigning +sovereigns. In Spain it was regarded not only as a sacred duty but a +pleasant amusement for the King and his Court to watch the +torturing of heretics. England alone--then a comparatively weak +and insignificant country--stood out against this overwhelming +combination. And in attempting to realize the position of affairs we +must remember that in the sixteenth century the Papacy was not merely +a religious system but also a tremendous political power. We may now +regard the claim of the Pope to depose princes as a harmless dream; +but at that time it was a stern reality. Thus matters came to a crisis +when the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth and all who remained loyal +to her, released her subjects from their allegiance, offered plenary +indulgence and remission of sins to all who would take up arms against +her, promised a liberal supply of graces and indulgences to Irish +chieftains who would rebel, and gave Ireland to Philip of Spain. + +It can hardly be denied therefore that England was engaged in a +life and death struggle. And unless Elizabeth would consent to the +annexation of Ireland by Spain and to the conquest of England by some +power that would treat the people there much as the heretics of the +Netherlands were being treated by Philip, it must be admitted that any +measures, however violent, became a political necessity--a mere act +of self-defence. But though Elizabeth had already on hand a war with +France, Spain and Scotland, her difficulties did not end there. The +North of Ireland was being invaded by Celts from Scotland, and the +principal chief, Shan O'Neill (who was described by the Spanish +Ambassador as "so good a Christian that he cuts off the head of any +man who enters his country if he be not a Catholic") was in open +rebellion with the avowed object of crushing out the English power, +exterminating the rival tribes, and making himself King of Ulster. To +so miserable a state had that part of Ireland been reduced by petty +local wars between rival chiefs that hundreds of people had died +of hunger. Can it be wondered that Elizabeth conceived the idea of +imitating her sister's policy and forming a "plantation" in the North? + +Then came another formidable rebellion in Munster, headed by an +Ersefied Norman, Desmond. These rebellions were fomented by the Pope, +and in the South the rebels were aided by Spanish troops. In the +amount of the aid sent from Spain, however, the Irish rebels were +sadly disappointed. That has been one of the characteristic features +of all Irish rebellions; the foreign powers on which they have relied +have been liberal enough with promises of aid, but when the time for +performance has come they have left the unfortunate Irish to their +fate. (Thus in 1641 not only did the rebels fully expect that a +powerful Spanish force would come to their assistance, but they even +believed that 18,000 Spanish troops had actually landed at Wexford.) +That these rebellions were crushed by the forces of Queen Elizabeth +with a savage violence that is more suggestive of the government of +the Netherlands by Spain than of what should have been the action of +a Christian nation cannot be denied; but when reading the accounts +of the terrible condition to which the country was reduced one cannot +help thinking that the stories of outrages committed by the English +troops must be exaggerated. In the first place, the writers, even when +eye-witnesses, seem to have assumed that the country was peaceful and +prosperous up to that time; whereas not only had the tribal wars which +had gone on incessantly until a few years before reduced the people +almost to a condition of famine, but the rebels themselves, such +as O'Neill and Desmond, had ravaged the country anew. And if it was +obvious that the object of Elizabeth was to exterminate the whole +Irish population and the Roman Catholic religion, it seems impossible +(even allowing for the eccentricity of human nature in general and of +the Irish character in particular) to believe that a large part of the +queen's forces should have been composed of Irish Roman Catholics; or +that the inhabitants of the towns, most of whom were also Irish Roman +Catholics, should have taken her side; but such was undoubtedly +the case. Again, if nearly the whole native population had been +exterminated by slaughter and famine it would have taken at least a +century to recover. Yet--a few years after the commencement of +the English settlement we find Spenser complaining that the new +proprietors were acting as the Norman barons had done centuries +before; instead of keeping out the Irish they were making them their +tenants and thrusting out the English; and some of the proprietors +were themselves becoming "mere Irish." Then, although no doubt +a certain proportion of the Elizabethan settlers renounced their +Protestantism and embraced the Roman Catholic religion, that can +hardly have been the case with the mass of them; and yet before the +middle of the seventeenth century we find that the great majority +of the freeholders of Ireland and even of the members of the Irish +Parliament were Roman Catholics; surely they must have represented +the earlier population. And lastly, considering the wild exaggerations +that occur in the accounts of every other event of Irish history, we +cannot suppose that this period alone has escaped. + +Towards the end of the queen's reign occurred the last of the +native rebellions. It too was crushed; and, by the "flight of the +earls"--Tyrone and Tyrconnell--was completed the work which had been +commenced by Henry II. And so the third chapter of Irish history was +ended. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, UNTIL THE END OF THE REIGN OF JAMES II. + + +The seventeenth century is a terrible period of European history. It +has been described as "the age of religious wars"; and those wars were +waged with a savage ferocity which it is impossible even now to read +of without a shudder. + +It is a plain matter of history that from the very commencement of the +Reformation the idea of toleration never entered into the heads of +any of the authorities of the Church of Rome. France, Spain, Portugal, +Savoy and Germany all tell the same story. Except in countries such as +England where the sovereigns adopted the new opinions, the only chance +which the reforming party had of being able to exercise their religion +was by means of rebellion and all the horrors of civil war. What that +meant, the history of the rise of the Dutch Republic tells us. As Lord +Acton has said: "In the seventeenth century the murder of a heretic +was not only permitted but rewarded. It was a virtuous deed to +slaughter Protestant men and women until they were all exterminated. +Pius V held that it was sound Catholic doctrine that any man may +stab a heretic; and every man was a heretic who attacked the papal +prerogatives." And it is equally true that in those cases where the +reforming party succeeded in gaining the upper hand, they did not show +much more mercy than had been shown to them previously or was being +shown to their co-religionists in other countries at the time. Yet +it is only fair to add that when the idea of toleration did arise, it +arose amongst the reformed churches. Probably the only Roman Catholic +State in the world where toleration existed during the seventeenth +century was the little English colony of Maryland, of which Lord +Baltimore was the proprietor. And when at length the religious wars +died out it was, as far as Catholic countries were concerned, because +the lay mind had become thoroughly disgusted with the whole thing, and +men's minds were turning in other directions--not because the clerical +rulers showed the slightest desire to relax their efforts or change +their policy. + +It would be well if the whole dreadful period could be buried in +oblivion. But it is necessary to mention the subject here, for the +Nationalist party are continually referring to the horrors of the +Cromwellian massacres and the penal laws; and if such matters are to +be gone into at all it is only fair, in order to make a just estimate +of them, to glance at the great European struggle of which they formed +an incident. In the century which saw Germany deluged with blood +for thirty years, and which witnessed the revocation of the Edict of +Nantes and the revival of vehement persecution in France, it was not +likely that Ireland should remain unaffected. + +Soon after James I came to the throne he commenced his famous Scotch +plantation in the desolated and half-emptied province of Ulster. That +it was even a greater success than the plantation formed by Philip +and Mary everyone is of course aware; it is the descendants of those +immigrants who, though they live in a district not so highly favoured +by nature as other parts of the country, form the only really +prosperous and progressive section of the community at the present +day. The native Irish do not seem to have looked on the Scotchmen with +much disfavour, perhaps partly because there being plenty of room for +all in the desolated tract, and lands being assigned to them, they +realised that they were safer in the immediate neighbourhood of a +peaceful settlement than they would have been had they remained a prey +to unscrupulous adventurers like Shan O'Neill. A member of the legal +profession must feel shame and sorrow in recording the fact that +the chicanery of the lawyers added much to the harshness of the +politicians. That, however, is only another way of saying that +the humane policy of the nineteenth century was unknown in the +seventeenth. Had courts been established in Ireland like the native +land courts of New Zealand in which claims under customary law might +be investigated, and equitable awards made, the later history of +Ireland might have been very different. Yet one must remember that +even in the reign of Queen Victoria there was a strong party in +England and there were not a few people in New Zealand who argued +that Maori customary claims should be disregarded and the treaty +of Waitangi ignored. And in the seventeenth century such ideas were +unheard of. Lawyers searched for every technicality of English law +by which the titles of holders of land could be upset, in favour of +English claimants. Then matters became strangely complicated, as they +seem to be periodically throughout Irish history. The struggle between +Charles I and the Parliament began, and it soon became evident that +the Parliamentary party was the stronger of the two. To the Irish the +Parliamentarians meant the Puritans; and they believed, not wholly +without reason, that a determined attempt would be made not only to +seize all their lands but also to stamp out their religion. (It +must be observed that the Elizabethan anti-Roman Acts had never been +strictly carried out in Ireland, and during the reign of James I their +severity had been relaxed still further--a line of conduct which had +no parallel in any Roman Catholic country in Europe at the time.) +Thereupon in 1641 the Roman Catholics of Ulster broke into open +rebellion, and soon afterwards they applied to the kings of France and +Spain for aid; and the Pope issued a bull granting a full and plenary +indulgence and absolute remission for all their sins to all who would +do their utmost to extirpate and totally root out those workers of +iniquity who in the kingdom of Ireland had infected and were always +striving to infect the mass of Catholic purity with the pestiferous +leaven of their heretical contagion. + +The stories told of the actual outbreak of the rebellion are +interesting as an illustration of the universal habit of exaggeration +about Irish affairs, to which I have already alluded. Clarendon +affirms that 40,000 English Protestants were murdered before they +suspected themselves to be in any danger; Temple states that in +the first two months of the rebellion 150,000 Protestants had been +massacred. The Jesuit, O'Mahony, writing in 1645, says "Persevere, +my countrymen, in the path you have entered on, and exterminate your +heretical opponents, their adherents and helpers. Already within four +or five years you have killed 150,000 of them, as you do not deny. I +myself believe that even a greater number of the heretics have been +cut off; would that I could say all." He had doubtless obtained +his information from the returns made by the priests engaged in the +rebellion to the military leaders, the figures of which were much the +same. Yet Lecky (who, though in certain passages of his history he +shows himself to be somewhat biassed in favour of the Irish Roman +Catholic party, is on the whole a remarkably fair and impartial +historian) argues with much force that there is no evidence of +anything like a general massacre, and brings down the number murdered +to about 8,000. Still, that there was a widespread rebellion and all +the consequent horrors of civil war, there can be no doubt. The rebels +of Ulster at one time tried to identify their cause with that of +Charles I by producing a forged commission from the king--which +annoyed the Royalists and made the Parliamentary party all the more +bitter. Charles certainly did his utmost to bring about a peace--no +doubt being anxious to obtain the assistance of his Irish subjects +in his Scotch and English wars. But his efforts were thwarted by the +Papal Nuncio, whose instructions from Rome were that the Holy See +could never by any positive Act approve of the civil allegiance of +Catholic subjects to an heretical prince; and thus the Royalist cause +became as completely lost in Ireland as it was in England. Before the +peace was finally concluded, Charles was a prisoner in the hands of +his enemies. + +Then came the terrible episode of the Cromwellian war, in which +Romanist and Royalist alike went down before the Puritan force. Still, +though he would be a bold man who could attempt to excuse--much less +to justify--the barbarities that took place, it may be doubted whether +all the Cromwellian outrages put together equalled a single one of +those which the Imperial troops had committed during the war which +had been raging for thirty years in Germany--such for instance as the +sacking of Magdeburg. It is estimated, however, that about 600,000 +people (of whom 500,000 were of the Irish race and 100,000 of the +English) perished by the sword, pestilence or famine in the fearful +years between 1641 and 1652--in other words, about a third part of +the population was wiped out. And the war was followed by a wholesale +confiscation--having fought for the king being considered as much an +act of treason as having rebelled against him. The confiscated lands +were allotted to soldiers, to persons who had supplied money to the +Parliamentary forces, and to other supporters of the new Government. +It is but just, however, to add that 700,000 acres of profitable land +in Connaught were allotted to dispossessed Romanists, and that they +were allowed to occupy 100,000 acres in other parts of the country; a +striking contrast to the lot of the unhappy Waldenses who were at that +time being driven from their homes and slaughtered without mercy for +no crime but heresy; or to the treatment a few years later by Louis +XIV of his Huguenot subjects whose lands were confiscated without +compensation and who were only given the choice of death or the +galleys. + +At the Restoration some effort was made to undo the injustice of the +Cromwellian confiscations. But the matter was one of great difficulty. +In many cases land had been allotted by Cromwell in payment for money +received; in others the grantees had sold their holdings to purchasers +who had paid in cash, regarding the original grant as indefeasible. +A reconfiscation of such lands would obviously have worked a great +injustice; and it is a common maxim of law that between two claimants +each with a good title the one in possession is to be preferred. Still +it cannot be said that the decisions of the Royal Commissioners were +always equitable according to our ideas; for instance, the award of +80,000 acres to the Duke of York (afterwards James II) of land which +had been forfeited under Cromwell because the owner had fought for his +father, would be hard to justify on any possible grounds. Still, an +Act of Settlement was passed, by which a certain amount of justice +was done; it is difficult to arrive at the figures accurately, but +it appears that after the passing of the Act nearly one-third of +the Island was vested in Roman Catholic proprietors. Archbishop King +estimated that at the time when he was writing--1689--two-thirds +of the Protestant landowners held their estates under the Act of +Settlement. And Lecky says, "Only an infinitesimal portion of the soil +belongs to the descendants of those who possessed it before Cromwell." +But Archbishop King was influenced by the fear he had felt as to what +the effect of a repeal of the Act would be; and there can hardly be +a doubt that his feelings led him to overestimate the number. With +regard to Lecky's remark, one can only take it as a strange instance +of a gross exaggeration having crept into a book which is usually +careful and accurate. It may be that the statement was not very +incorrect according to the evidence the author had before him; but if +so, that only proves that the evidence was wrong; for the proceedings +in the Land Courts which have been set up in Ireland during the last +half century have shown that the proportion of titles to estates which +date from an earlier period was far larger than people had supposed. + +During the peaceful and tolerant reign of Charles II the country made +steady progress. + +Under James II, however, everything was reversed. That unhappy +monarch, having ascended the throne tranquilly, with many +protestations of toleration and justice to all, succeeded in less than +two years in making it clear to the people of England that his object +was to confine liberty to those who professed his own creed and that +his idea of good government was something like that which was then +existing in France and Savoy. Driven from Great Britain, on his +arrival in Ireland he issued a proclamation declaring that his +Protestant subjects, their religion, privileges and properties were +his especial care; and he had previously directed the Lord Lieutenant +to declare in Council that he would preserve the Act of Settlement +inviolable. But the Protestants soon had reason to fear that his +promises were illusory and that the liberty which might be allowed to +them would be at best temporary. In a word, what the one party looked +forward to with hope and the other with dread was "a confederacy with +France which would make His Majesty's monarchy absolute." + +In order to understand what that meant, to Irish Protestants, it is +well to glance at the condition of France at the time. Louis XIV had +begun by directing that the Edict of Nantes was to be interpreted by +the strictest letter of the law; and soon after that the condition +of the Huguenots became more unhappy than that of the Irish Roman +Catholics ever was during the penal laws. The terrible "Dragonnades" +commenced in 1682; soldiers were billeted on heretics, and unfortunate +women were insulted past endurance; Huguenots were restricted even +as to holding family prayers; children at the age of seven were +encouraged to renounce their faith, and if they did so they were +taken from their parents who, however, were obliged to pay for their +maintenance in convent schools. Protestant churches were closed, and +their endowments handed over to Roman Catholic institutions. Huguenot +children were forbidden all education except the most elementary. No +heretic was allowed to sue a Catholic for debt. All this, however, did +not satisfy the monarch or his ecclesiastical advisers. On the 18th +of October 1685, he issued his famous Revocation of the Edict of +Nantes:-- + + "We by the present Edict which is perpetual and irrevocable, + revoke the Edict given at Nantes in 1583 together with every + concession to the Protestants of whatever nature they be. + We will that all temples of that religion be instantly + demolished. We prohibit our Protestant subjects to assemble + for worship in any private house. We prohibit all our lords + to exercise that religion within their fiefs under penalty of + confiscation of property and imprisonment of person. We enjoin + all ministers of the said faith to leave the kingdom within + fifteen days of the publication of this Edict, under penalty + of the galleys. We enjoin that all children who shall be + born henceforth be baptized by the Catholic curates. Persons + awaiting the enlightening grace of God may live in our kingdom + unhindered on account of their religion on condition that they + do not perform any of its exercises or assemble for prayer or + worship under penalty of body and wealth." + +This Edict met with cordial approval from the Catholic party in +France. The famous Madame de Sevigne wrote: "I admire the king for the +means he has devised for ruining the Huguenots. The wars and massacres +of former days only gave vigour to the sect; but the edict just +issued, aided by the dragoons, will give them the _coup de grace_." + +The Irish Protestants saw with alarm that amongst the soldiers who +came from France to aid King James were some who had taken an active +part in the dragonnades organized by Louis XIV in order to carry out +his edict. Then one Act was passed by the Dublin Parliament repealing +the Act of Settlement; and by another 2,461 persons were declared +guilty of high treason unless they appeared before the Dublin +authorities on a certain day and proved they were not guilty. What +steps King James was prepared to take in order to subdue the rebels of +Derry who held out against him can be gathered from the proclamation +which he directed Conrade de Rosen, his Mareschal General, to issue. +He warned the rebels that if they did not surrender immediately, all +the members of their faction, whether protected or not, in the whole +neighbourhood, would be brought close to the walls of the city and +there starved to death; that he would ravish the countryside, and see +that no man, woman or child escaped; and that if the city still held +out he would give no quarter and spare neither age nor sex, in case it +was taken by force. + +Even if there had been no Derry to relieve and no Protestants in +other parts of the country, the conquest of Ireland was a political +necessity to King William. England was at this time in much the same +position that it had been in the days of Elizabeth, substituting the +name France for Spain. The continental powers were again united in a +supreme effort to stamp out Protestantism, and England once more +stood almost alone. In Spain and Portugal, heresy was of course still +punishable with death; the Pope had celebrated the Revocation of the +Edict of Nantes with a triumphal _Te Deum_; a terrible persecution was +raging not only throughout the Protestant districts of France but also +on the Rhine, in Hungary, Savoy and the Alpine Valleys; if Ireland +had remained a separate kingdom ruled by the ally and admirer of Louis +XIV, the next step would certainly have been an invasion of England +by the joint forces of France and Ireland. All that we in modern +times include in the term "religious liberty" hung on the issue of the +battle that was fought and won on the banks of the Boyne. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE PERIOD OF THE PENAL LAWS. + + +The flight of James II brings us to the era of the "penal laws." To +one who lives in the twentieth century and is embued with the spirit +of modern thought, the whole subject is more than painful--it is +detestable. But to pass it over in silence is impossible; and in order +to get a clear view of the position it is necessary to examine +what the penal laws were, what they were not, and what were the +circumstances of the time during which they were in force. + +The penal laws were a series of enactments carefully planned so as to +harass the Roman Catholics at every moment of their lives, in the hope +of inducing them to abandon their religion. The unhappy people were +prohibited from becoming or voting for members of Parliament; they +were excluded from corporations, the army, the navy and the legal +profession. They were forbidden to bear arms, or even to possess a +horse worth more than L5. Education was denied to them, as they could +not send their sons to the university and were forbidden either to +have schools of their own in Ireland or to send their children abroad. +They were not allowed to possess freehold estates in land, and even as +to leaseholds they were seriously restricted. On the death of a Roman +Catholic his estate was divided amongst his children equally, unless +the eldest son became a Protestant, in which case he inherited the +whole. And as no Roman Catholic was allowed to act as a guardian, a +man never knew that if he should die his children might not be brought +up in a faith that he detested. The performance of Roman Catholic +worship was barely tolerated, as no bishops or other dignitaries were +allowed to remain in Ireland, and the only priests authorized to +say mass were those who were "registered" and had taken the oath of +abjuration--that is, an oath declaring that the Pretender had no right +to the throne. + +Such in brief were those terrible statutes. But without attempting +to excuse them, there are various matters which must be taken into +account if we are to judge them fairly. In the first place, the +political aspect of the question should not be forgotten. The +Protestant minority might justly fear that if the Roman Catholic party +were as powerful as their numbers would naturally cause them to be, +they would aid in bringing about a French invasion for the restoration +of the Stuarts and the re-establishment of the system which had been +in evidence under James II. An army was actually formed in France, and +on more than one occasion was in readiness to start. The Stuarts were +regarded by the Pope as the rightful sovereigns. The Roman Catholic +prelates whose entry into Ireland was forbidden were appointed by +the Pretender and were his political agents; it was that fact, and no +doctrinal reason, that caused their expulsion. It is necessary to make +this quite clear, as there has been as much exaggeration on this point +as on most other subjects connected with Irish history. The words of +the "oath of abjuration" were as follows: + + "I do solemnly and sincerely declare that I do believe in my + conscience that the person pretended to be Prince of Wales + during the life of the late King James and since his decease + taking upon himself the style and title of King of England by + the name of James III hath not any right or title whatever to + the crown of this realm." + +A modern Roman Catholic writer has thus described the oath:-- + + "By the Oath of Abjuration the priest was ordered to swear + that the sacrifice of the mass and the invocation of the + Blessed Virgin and the saints were damnable and idolatrous. In + other words, the priest was ordered to apostatize, or fly for + his life." + +And even if Roman Catholics took the oath of allegiance, the old +difficulty arose as to the papal right to depose princes and to order +their subjects to rebel. So late as 1768, when a declaration was drawn +up which it was hoped the leaders of the Roman Catholic party would +sign, so that the penal laws might be finally done away with, the +Papal Nuncio vetoed the proposal because the declaration contained a +reprobation of the doctrines that faith need not be kept with heretics +and that if the Pope banned a sovereign his subjects might depose and +slay him. It is but fair to add, however, that a large number of Roman +Catholics did sign the declaration; and the penal laws (which had been +relaxed from time to time when it was seen that the Irish took no +part in the Stuart rebellions of 1715 and 1745) were soon afterwards +practically abolished. + +Then it must be borne in mind that the Irish penal laws, although +to some extent modelled on the legislation of Louis XIV against the +Huguenots, were absolutely insignificant compared with those which +were in force at the time in every Roman Catholic country in Europe. +Galling though the Irish laws were, they never went so far as to +make the mere holding of heretical opinions criminal. Thus no one in +Ireland was ever put to death for believing in transubstantiation; +whereas in one diocese of Portugal 20,000 people were sent to the +stake for denying it. As every one who has visited the Madrid picture +gallery will recollect, it was still the custom in the eighteenth +century for the King of Spain to preside in state at the burning of +heretics; and it was not until that century was drawing to a close +that it was for the first time enacted in Portugal that sentence of +death for heresy when passed by the ecclesiastical court should not be +carried into effect unless the order was countersigned by the king. In +France, for two or three heretics to meet for worship anywhere (their +churches had of course all been pulled down) was a crime punishable +with death; and any Huguenot caught whilst attempting to escape from +the country was sent to the galleys--a fate worse than mere death, +for it meant death by slow torture. And every child was forcibly +taken from its heretic parents at the age of five, and educated in a +convent. + +But more than that: Roman Catholics who fled from the tyranny of the +penal laws at home had no scruple, when they reached the Continent, in +taking part in persecutions far more terrible than anything they had +seen in Ireland. During the dragonnades in Languedoc, Louis XIV's +Irish brigade joined eagerly in the butchery of old men, women +and children and the burning of whole villages. The same heroes +distinguished themselves by destroying everything they could find in +remote Alpine valleys so that the unfortunate Waldenses might die of +starvation. And the Irish troops under Lord Mountcashel aided in the +burning of 1,000 villages in the Palatinate of the Rhine, in which +all the inhabitants--men, women and children--were slain by the sword, +burnt to death, or left to perish from hunger. These persecutions were +practically brought to an end by the French Revolution and the rise +of modern ideas; but the ecclesiastical authorities, though they +have lost their power, have shown no sign of having changed their +principles. Even in the middle of the nineteenth century King Victor +Emmanuel was excommunicated by Pope Pius IX for allowing his Vaudois +subjects to build a church for themselves at Turin. + +Of course it may be said with perfect truth that two blacks do not +make one white. Still, the constant complaints about the tyranny of +the penal laws have less force when they come from the representatives +of a party who acted in the same way themselves whenever they had the +opportunity. + +It is indeed frequently urged as a matter of aggravation that whereas +other persecutions were those of a minority by a majority, this was of +a majority by a minority. To me, so far as this makes any difference +at all, it tells the other way. As a matter of morality, I fail to +see any difference; putting all the inhabitants of an Alpine valley +to death as heretics does not seem to me one whit the less horrible +because the sovereign also ruled a large Catholic population on +the plains. On the other hand, the fact that the Roman Catholics +in Ireland formed the majority of the population prevented the +persecution from being strictly carried out. It was comparatively +easy for Louis XIV to surround a heretic district with a cordon of +soldiers, and then draw them closer together searching every house as +they went, seizing the clergy and taking them off to the galleys; but +it was impossible to track unregistered priests through the mountains +and valleys of Munster. Hence the law as to the registration of +priests soon became a dead letter. + +There was indeed one great difference, between Irish and continental +persecution. On the continent it was the holiest and best men who were +the keenest persecutors. (This may seem strange to modern readers; +but anyone who has studied the lives of Bossuet and San Carlo Borromeo +will admit that it is true.) Hence the persecution was carried out +with that vigour which was necessary to make it a success. In Spain, +if a heretic under torture or the fear of it consented to recant, the +Holy Office was not satisfied with a mere formal recantation; for the +rest of his life the convert was watched day and night to see that +there was no sign of back-sliding; and even the possession of a +fragment of the New Testament was considered as sufficient evidence +of a relapse to send the wretched man to the stake. Consequently, in a +generation or two heresy became as extinct as Christianity did amongst +the Kabyles of North Africa after the Mohammedan persecution. In +Ireland, however, persecution was always against the grain with +religiously-minded Protestants. Seven bishops protested against the +first enactment of the Penal Laws; and during the period when they +were in force, the bishops repeatedly spoke and voted in favour of +each proposed mitigation of them. (With this one may contrast the +action of the French bishops who on the accession of Louis XVI in +1774 presented an address to the new king urging him to increase the +persecution of the Huguenots which had become somewhat slack during +the later years of his predecessor. By the irony of fate the same men +were a few years later pleading vainly for the mercy which they had +never shown in the days of their power.) Nor was this tolerant feeling +confined to the bishops. By the aid of the Protestant gentry, the laws +were continually being evaded. Protestants appointed by the Court as +guardians of Roman Catholic children, used to carry out the wishes of +the Roman Catholic relations; Roman Catholic proprietors frequently +handed over their estates to Protestant friends as Trustees, and, +though such Trusts were of course not enforceable at law, there were +very few instances in which they were not faithfully performed. Many +strange stories are told of the evasions of the Acts. On one occasion +whilst it was still illegal for a popish recusant to own a horse of +a greater value than L5, a man met a Roman Catholic gentleman who +was riding a handsome horse; he held out L5 in one hand, and with the +other caught hold of the bridle. The rider, naturally infuriated at +this, struck the man with his whip so heavily that he fell down dead. +When he was tried for murder, the judge decided that as the man had +laid a hand on the bridle, the rider had reason to suppose that he +intended to take it as well as the horse, which would have been +an illegal act; consequently he was justified in defending himself +against highway robbery; and therefore the charge must be dismissed. +Again, a Roman Catholic proprietor found out that an effort was likely +to be made to deprive him of his estate. He rode up to Dublin on a +Saturday; on Sunday he received the Holy Communion at a Protestant +Church; on Monday he executed a deed transferring his estate to a +Protestant friend as Trustee; on Tuesday he was received back into +the Church of Rome; and on Wednesday he rode home again, to enjoy his +estate free from further molestation. + +The schools which were founded in order to convert the rising +generation were a strange contrast to the admirably conducted +institutions established in France and Spain for a similar purpose. +They were so disgracefully mismanaged that the pupils who had passed +through them looked back on everything that had been taught them there +with a lifelong disgust. + +It is needless to say that laws thus carried out were a dead failure +as far as winning converts was concerned. On the other hand, they +became in one sense the more galling as the enforcement of them fell +into the hands of a low class of informers who had no object beyond +making money for themselves. Still, public feeling was so strong that +by the middle of the century the laws had almost fallen into abeyance. +Brook, writing in 1762, says: "Though these laws are still in force, +it is long since they have been in action. They hang like a sword by a +thread over the heads of these people, and Papists walk under them in +security and peace; for whoever should adventure to cut this thread +would become ignominious and detestable." And in 1778 and 1782 (that +is, when, as an Irish Roman Catholic writer has pointed out, there was +still neither toleration nor peace for Protestant populations in any +Catholic state in Europe) the Irish Protestant Parliament formally +repealed nearly all the penal laws. + +Probably their most lasting effect was that relating to the tenure +of land. If free purchase and sale regardless of religion had been +allowed throughout the eighteenth century, one may conjecture that +the effect of the Cromwellian confiscations would long since have died +away. But these laws perpetuated that peculiar state of things which +has been the cause of so much unhappiness in Ireland--the landlords +generally belonged to one religion, and their tenants and dependents +to another. + +It may be asked, As these odious laws all came to an end generations +ago, what is the good of recalling the sorrows of the past which had +much better be forgotten? I reply, None whatever; and very glad I +should be if the whole subject were quietly dropped. But unfortunately +that is just what the Roman Catholic party in Ireland will not do. One +of the ways in which religious animosity is being kept alive (and I +regret to say is being steadily increased) is by the teaching in +the Roman Catholic schools of exaggerated accounts of the penal laws +without referring to any of the mitigating circumstances. Even in the +present year--1913--the Lenten pastoral of one of the bishops goes +back to the same old subject. If other countries acted in a similar +manner, how could the grievances of bygone centuries ever be +forgotten? The Jews, cruelly treated though they were during the time +of the Norman kings, do not harp on the subject in England to-day. It +may be doubted whether all the religious persecutions of Europe +put together were as great a disgrace to Christendom as the slave +trade--in which, I am ashamed to say, England strove to obtain the +pre-eminence amongst European nations and which she forced upon her +colonies against their will. Yet I should regret it deeply if that +were the one passage of history selected for study in the schools and +colleges for coloured pupils in the West Indies at the present day. +When a man who has suffered wrong in former years broods over it +instead of thinking of his present blessings and his future prospects, +one may be sure that he is a man who will not succeed in life; and +what is true of individuals is true also of nations. + +The expression "Protestant ascendancy," although it never came into +use during the period with which we are dealing, has so frequently +since then been employed with reference to it, that it is necessary +to explain its meaning. Probably no word in the English language +has suffered more from being used in different senses than the word +"Protestant." In Ireland it frequently used to be, and still sometimes +is, taken as equivalent to "Anglican" or "Episcopalian"; to an +Irishman of the last century it would have appeared quite natural to +speak of "Protestants and Presbyterians," meaning thereby two distinct +bodies. This is a matter of historical importance; for so far from +the Presbyterian element being favoured during the period of the Penal +Laws, the English Toleration Act had not been extended to Ireland; +Presbyterians were by the sacramental test excluded from all municipal +offices; their worship, though never in practice interfered with, +remained technically illegal. Their share in "Protestant ascendancy" +was therefore very limited. + +But if the Established Church was the one favoured body, it had to pay +dearly for its privileges. In truth, the state of the Irish Church +at this period of its history, was deplorable. All the positions of +value--bishoprics, deaneries and important parishes--were conferred +on Englishmen, who never resided in their cures, but left the duties +either to be performed by half-starved deputies or not at all. Many +of the churches were in ruins, and the glebes had fallen into decay; +a union of half-a-dozen parishes would scarcely supply a meagre +salary for one incumbent. A large proportion of the tithes had been +appropriated by laymen; how small a sum actually reached the clergy +is shown by the fact that the first-fruits (that is, the year's income +paid by incumbents on their appointment) did not amount to more than +L500 a year in all. It may be that the standard of religious life +was not lower in Ireland than it was in England when the +spiritually-minded non-Jurors had been driven out and Hanoverian +deadness was supreme; but in England there was no other Church to form +a contrast. In Ireland the apathy and worldliness of the Protestant +clergy stood out in bold relief against the heroic devotion of the +priests and friars; and at the time when the unhappy peasants, forced +to pay tithes to a Church which they detested, were ready to starve +themselves to support their own clergy and to further the cause of +their religion, the well-to-do Protestant graziers and farmers were +straining the law so as to evade the payment of tithes, and never +thought of doing anything further to support the Church to which they +were supposed to belong. (It is but fair, however, to state that +this condition of things has long since passed away; the Evangelical +revival breathed new life into the dry bones of Irish Protestantism.) + +But it was not merely in religious matters that Ireland suffered +during this melancholy period. Students of modern history whose +researches usually commence with the early part of the nineteenth +century, are wont to gather from text-books the idea that the policy +of the manufacturing party in England has always been liberal, +progressive and patriotic; whereas that of the landed interest has +been retrograde and selfish. There cannot be a greater delusion. +English manufacturers have been just as self-seeking and narrow-minded +as other people--no more and no less; they have been quite as ready +to sacrifice the interests of others when they believed them to be +opposed to their own, as the much-abused landowners. At this time +every nation in Europe regarded the outlying portions of the Empire +as existing only for the benefit of the centre; in fact, the English +development of the "Colonial System" even then was more liberal than +those of Spain or Holland. The English system, if perfectly carried +out, was by no means unfair. The ground idea was that the mother +country voluntarily restricted herself in matters of trade for the +benefit of the Colonies, and the Colonies had to do the same for the +benefit of the mother country. Thus, when England refused to admit +timber from the Baltic in order to benefit the Canadian lumber trade; +and placed a prohibitive duty on sugar from Cuba so as to secure the +English market for Jamaica; it was but fair that the trade in other +articles from Canada and Jamaica should be directed to England. To +say that the whole thing was a mistake, as such restrictions really +injured both parties, is no answer, as no one at that time dreamed of +such a thing as free trade. The real answer is that it was impossible +to keep the balance true; some slight change of circumstances might +render that unfair which up to then had been perfectly equal. And +as the English merchants were on the spot and commanded votes in +Parliament, any injustice against them would be speedily rectified; +the colonists living at a distance and having no means of making their +voice heard, would be left to suffer. + +In applying the colonial system to Ireland, it is true that in theory +England undertook to protect her by means of the British army and +navy, from foreign foes; but beyond that, the system was to Ireland +all loss and no gain. Every branch of Irish industry was deliberately +ruined by the English Government. By the Navigation Act of 1663, trade +between Ireland and the British Colonies was forbidden; soon after, +the importation of Irish beef, mutton, pork and butter into +England was prohibited; then, at the request of the English woollen +manufacturers, the export of woollen goods from Ireland to any country +was stopped; and finally, with a refinement of cruelty, the export of +linen articles--the one industry that had hitherto been left to +the unfortunate country--was restricted to the coarsest and poorest +varieties, for fear of offending the Dutch. + +The result of all this wretched misgovernment was not merely +destitution bordering on famine, but a wholesale emigration. Whilst +the Roman Catholics were leaving the country to avoid the penal laws, +the most skilful and industrious of the artizan class,--the very +backbone of the nation--were being driven out by the prohibition of +their trades. It is said that no less than 30,000 men were thrown out +of employment by the destruction of the woollen industry alone. These +were nearly all Protestants; to encourage them would have done more to +Protestantize the country than all the penal laws and charter schools +put together; but they were ruthlessly sacrificed to the greed of the +English manufacturers. Some went to the Continent, many more to New +England and the other American colonies, where they prospered, and +they and their sons became some of Washington's best soldiers in the +War of Independence. + +It was only natural that thoughtful men in Ireland should cast envious +eyes on Scotland, which had recently secured the benefit of union +with England, and consequently was able to develop her commerce +and manufactures unhindered. But though the subject of a union was +discussed, and even referred to in addresses from the Irish Parliament +to Queen Anne, no active steps were taken. + +Still, in considering these commercial restrictions, as in the case of +the penal laws, we must not lose sight of the fact that the state +of circumstances we are dealing with has long passed away. It is +necessary for a historian to refer to it, even if he finds it hard to +do so in a perfectly dispassionate way; but it is waste of time and +energy for the present generation to go on brooding over woes which +had come to an end before their grandfathers were born. Yet that is +what the Nationalists of to-day are doing. Not long ago, the Old +Boys' Association of an Irish Roman Catholic College resolved, very +laudably, to found an annual prize at their alma mater. The subject +they selected was an essay on the treatment by England of Irish +industries before the year 1800! Had it been a Scotch or a German +College, the subject chosen would probably have been, The progress +in scientific knowledge during the last century, or, Improvements in +means of travel since 1820; and one must ask, which subject of study +is likely to be most profitable to young men who have to make their +way in the modern world? + +It may be asked, why did the Irish Parliament do nothing to stay this +national ruin? The answer is that the Irish Parliament possessed very +little power. The Bill of Rights of course did not apply to Ireland; +general elections were very rare, and a large number of members +were paid officers of the Government; the English Parliament had a +co-ordinate power of legislating for Ireland; and since Poyning's Act +(as explained by the declaratory Act of George I) was still in force, +no Bill could be introduced into the Irish Parliament until it had +been approved both by the Irish and the English Councils; and the +Irish Parliament might then pass it or reject it but had no power to +amend it. + +And the use which the English Government made of the Irish Parliament +was as disgraceful as their treatment of Irish industries. Miserably +poor though the country was, it was burdened by the payment of +pensions of a nature so scandalous that the English Parliament even of +that period would not have tolerated them. + +The conditions of land tenure also added to the miseries of the +country. It is often said that the land belonged to wealthy English +absentees, and the unfortunate occupiers, who had no security of +tenure, were ground down by the payment of exorbitant rents. This is +literally true; but, like most partial statements, misleading. Much +of the land was owned by wealthy Englishmen--which of itself was a +serious evil; but they let it in large farms at low rents on long +leases, in the hope that the occupiers would execute their own +improvements. Instead of that, however, their tenants sublet their +holdings in smaller lots to others; and these subtenants did the same +again; thus there were sometimes three or four middlemen, and the rent +paid by the actual occupier to his immediate landlord was ten times +the amount the nominal owner received. As the rate of wages +was miserably low, and the rent of a cabin and a plot of ground +scandalously high, how the wretched occupiers managed to keep body and +soul together is a mystery. Much has been written about the useless, +dissipated lives of these middlemen or "squireens"; and no doubt it is +to a great extent true, although, like everything else in Ireland, it +has been exaggerated. Travellers have told us of some landlords +who resided on their estates, did their utmost to improve them, and +forbade subletting (in spite of the unpopularity caused by their doing +so). And one of the remarkable features of later Irish history is that +whenever there was a period of acute difficulty and danger there were +always country gentlemen to be found ready to risk their lives and +fortunes or to undertake the thankless and dangerous duties of county +magistrates. + +It is curious how close a parallel might be drawn between the way +in which Norman Ireland was Ersefied and that in which Cromwellian +Ireland was Catholicized. Many of those who became large landowners +by the Cromwellian confiscations, having no religious prejudices (some +might say, no religious or humane feelings), when the leases of +their tenants fell in, put the farms up to auction regardless of the +feelings of the occupiers. As the Roman Catholics were content with +a simpler manner of life than the Protestants, they generally offered +higher rents; the dispossessed Protestants, driven from their homes, +joined their brethren in America. Then in the South, the poorer of +Cromwell's settlers, in some cases, neglected by their own pastors, +joined the religion of the majority; in others, intermarrying with the +natives, allowed their children to be brought up in the faith of their +mothers. Hence we arrive at the curious fact that at the present day +some of the most ardent Romanists and violent Nationalists, who are +striving to have the Irish language enforced all over the country, +and pose as the representatives of ancient Irish septs, are really the +descendants of Cromwell's soldiers. + +So passed the greater part of the eighteenth century; and the unhappy +country seemed as far off from progress and prosperity as ever. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE EARLIER PART OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. THE ACQUISITION OF +INDEPENDENCE BY THE IRISH PARLIAMENT. + + +When we come to the reign of George III we have arrived at a specially +interesting period of Irish history. For we are no longer dealing with +a state of society that has wholly passed away; the great events that +occurred towards the close of the eighteenth century are continually +referred to as bearing, at least by analogy, on the questions of the +present day. It is for the honest historian to examine how far that +analogy is real, and how far it is delusive. + +For some time after the accession of George III, the state of Ireland +was almost as miserable as before. Trade and manufactures being nearly +crushed out, want of employment brought the people in the towns to the +brink of starvation. In the country, although the middle classes were +on the whole becoming more prosperous, the condition of the labourers +and cottiers was wretched in the extreme. It is not to be wondered at +therefore that we now hear of the commencement of two movements which +were destined later on to play so important a part in the history of +Ireland--the agitation against the payment of tithes and the rise of +secret societies. Few men at the present day could be found who would +attempt to justify the tithe system as it prevailed in the eighteenth +century. It was not merely that the starving peasantry were forced to +contribute towards the maintenance of a religion in which they did not +believe, but the whole manner of levying and collecting the tithes +was bad; and what made them still more annoying was the fact that the +clergy never thought of performing the duties for which tithes were +supposed to exist; the large majority of the rectors did not even +reside in their parishes. The principal secret societies were the +Oakboys and the Steelboys of the north, and the Whiteboys of +the south. The northern societies soon came to an end; but the +organization of the Whiteboys continued to spread, and for a time +it assumed alarming proportions. Commencing as a war against tithe +proctors, the enclosure of commons, and the substitution of grazing +land for tillage, they went on to commit outrages of various sorts, +and something like a reign of terror spread over a large tract of +country. But it may safely be said that generally speaking their +conduct was not nearly so violent as that of other secret societies of +a later date; and the evidence of any foreign influence being at +work, or of religious animosity being connected with the movement, is +slight. + +It is interesting to observe that, whenever there was a violent and +abnormal outbreak of crime, the Irish Parliament did not hesitate to +pass special laws to meet the case. Such measures as the Whiteboy Act +of 1787, or the Insurrection Act and the Habeas Corpus Suppression +Act of 1796, which were readily passed whilst the Irish Parliament was +completely independent, are frequently referred to by modern agitators +as amongst the brutal Coercion Acts which the tyranny of England has +forced on an innocent people. + +The harshness of the Penal Laws was steadily being relaxed. All +restrictions on worship, or the number of clergy allowed, had long +since fallen into abeyance. Roman Catholic students were admitted +into Trinity College, Dublin; and the authorities of the University +expressed their readiness to appoint a Divinity Professor of their own +faith for them if they wished it. The restrictions on property were +becoming obsolete; and political restrictions were not felt so keenly +since most of the Roman Catholics would have been ineligible for the +franchise on the ground of their poverty even if the stumbling block +of religion had been removed. And the loyal sentiments expressed by +the Roman Catholics made the best of the Protestants all the more +anxious to repeal the laws which they had never regarded with favour. +Then amongst educated people not only in Ireland but elsewhere, +religion was ceasing to be the great line of cleavage; other +matters--political, social, and commercial--were occupying men's +thoughts and forming new combinations. + +The political state of the country was peculiar. The real government +was carried on by the Lord Lieutenant and his officials; but as the +hereditary revenue did not supply funds sufficient for that purpose, +it was necessary to have recourse to Parliament. And the constitution +of that Parliament was as extraordinary as most things in Ireland. +A session was usually held every second year, but a Parliament might +last for a whole reign. The House of Commons consisted of 300 members, +of whom only 64 represented counties, and most of the rest nominally +sat for small boroughs, but really were appointed by certain +individuals. It was at one time computed that 124 members were +nominated by 53 peers, whilst 91 others were chosen by 52 commoners. +A large number of the members--a third of the whole house, it is +said--were in receipt of pensions, or held offices of profit under the +Crown. Of course there was no such thing as party government--in fact, +parties did not exist, though individuals might sometimes vote against +the wish of the government. The Lord Lieutenant, however, managed to +retain a majority by what would now be called flagrant and wholesale +bribery. Peerages, sinecures and pensions were bestowed with a lavish +hand; and every appointment, ecclesiastical or civil, was treated as +a reward for political services. But history affords many instances of +how assemblies constituted in what seems to be the most unsatisfactory +way possible, have been remarkable for the ability and patriotism they +have shown; and certainly this was the case with that unrepresentative +collection of Protestant landlords, Dublin barristers, and paid +officials, who composed the Irish Parliament. A "National" party arose +(I shall presently explain what was the meaning attached to that word +at the time) who strove to win for Ireland the laws which in England +had been enacted long before and which were regarded as the very +foundations of British liberty. Statutes were passed limiting the +duration of Parliament to eight years; establishing the _Habeas +Corpus_; and making judges irremoveable. Afterwards, most of the +Penal Laws were repealed; and at the same time the disabilities of the +Protestant Dissenters were abolished. + +But meanwhile foreign affairs were tending to bring about changes yet +more sweeping. When England went to war with both France and Spain, +the condition of Ireland was well-nigh desperate. The country was +almost denuded of regular troops; steps had indeed been taken for the +establishment of a militia, and arms had actually been purchased; but +in the hopelessly insolvent condition of the Irish Exchequer, it was +impossible to do anything further. And a French invasion might arrive +at any moment. At this crisis the country gentlemen came forward. They +formed their tenants and dependants into regiments of volunteers, of +which they took command themselves, and strained their resources to +the utmost in order to bear the expense of the undertaking. And +the rank and file--farmers and labourers--seemed fired by the same +enthusiasm. The movement spread rapidly over the country, but it +possessed more vitality in Ulster than elsewhere. It soon became +evident that Ulster volunteers may form a body not to be disregarded. + +The troubles of England, however, were not limited to the Continent. +The American War broke out. We, who view the question impartially +through the long vista of years, can see that there was much to be +said for the English claim. The mother country had been brought to the +verge of bankruptcy by a long and exhausting war waged with France for +the protection of the American colonies; surely it was only fair that +those colonies, who had taken but a very small part in the war, should +at least bear a fraction of the cost. But the cry of "No taxation +without representation" was raised; the Americans rebelled; and +England was placed in the humiliating position of being defeated by +her own colonists. During that period Ireland remained thoroughly +loyal; the efforts of Franklin and his party to enlist Ireland +on their side were as complete a failure as those of the French +emissaries had been shortly before. But it was inevitable that the +success of the American revolution should have a strong effect on +Irish affairs. Amongst the northern Presbyterians there had always +been a feeling somewhat akin to Republicanism; and (as we have seen) +many of their relations were fighting in Washington's army. Then +in Ireland there was something much worse than taxation without +representation: the English Parliament, in which Ireland had no part, +claimed to legislate for Ireland and was actually at that moment +keeping the country in a state of semi-starvation by imposing severe +restrictions on commerce. Irish politicians read the offers of +conciliation made by the English Government to the revolted colonies, +in which not only was the power of taxation given up and freedom of +internal legislation established, but all power of the Parliament of +Great Britain over America was renounced; and began to ask whether +England could withhold from loyal Irishmen the boons which she offered +to rebellious Americans. The claims were urged in Parliament and +at meetings of the volunteers and other public bodies; the English +Government for some time refused to grant any concession; but at +length, fearing an Irish Revolution, gave way on every point. They +granted, in fact, as an Irish statesman expressed it, "everything +short of separation." First (in spite of the opposition of the English +manufacturing classes) all restrictions on trade were swept away; +then, in 1782, the Declaratory Act of George I, by virtue of which the +English Parliament had claimed the right to legislate for Ireland, was +repealed, and with it went the right of the English House of Lords to +act as a court of final appeal for Ireland; the restrictions imposed +by Poyning's Act on the legislative powers of the Irish Parliament +were abolished; and the Irish Executive was made practically dependent +on the Irish Parliament by the Mutiny Act, which had previously been +perpetual, being limited to two years. + +Thus Ireland became a nation in a sense she had never been before. The +only tie to any power beyond sea was that the King of England was also +King of Ireland; Ireland could legislate for itself, and enter into +commercial treaties with foreign powers; but, on the other hand, it +had to pay its own debts and provide its own army and navy. + +As Grattan was not merely the most prominent politician of the period, +but also the leader of the now triumphant "National" party, we may +fairly take the views expressed by him as representative of those of +the party that followed him. A study of his speeches and letters will +show how utterly different were the ideas and aims of the National +party of 1782 from those of the Nationalists of to-day. In the first +place, Grattan was intensely loyal; that is to say, it never occurred +to him that Ireland could ever wish to be independent in the sense of +not being subject to the King of England, or could seek to be united +to any other power. Secondly, he was intensely aristocratic. His idea +was that Government should and would always be in the hands of the +propertied and educated classes; that Parliament should consist of +country gentlemen and professional men from the towns, elected on a +narrow franchise. (It must be remembered that the country gentlemen +had recently given evidence of their patriotic zeal by the +inauguration of the Volunteer movement; and the ability and eloquence +of the Irish Bar at that period is proverbial). Thirdly, he regarded +Protestant ascendancy as a fundamental necessity. It is true that +other politicians at the time saw that they were faced with a serious +difficulty: the very principles to which they had appealed and by +virtue of which they had obtained their legislative independence +made it illogical that three-fourths of the community should be +unrepresented; whereas if votes were given to the Roman Catholic +majority it was inevitable that they would soon become eligible for +seats in the Legislature; and if so, the Protestant minority must be +swamped, and the country ruled by a very different class and according +to very different ideas from those which prevailed in the Parliament +of which Grattan was a member. And would a Roman Catholic Parliament +and nation care to remain subject to a King of England whose title +depended on his being a Protestant? Grattan, however, swept all such +considerations aside with an easy carelessness. He believed that under +the influences of perfect toleration large numbers of Roman Catholics +would conform; and the remainder, quite satisfied with their position, +would never dream of attacking the Church or any other existing +institution. We may smile at his strange delusions as to the future; +but he was probably not more incorrect than many people are to-day in +their conjectures as to what the world will be like a hundred years +hence; and if we try to place ourselves in Grattan's position, +there is something to be said for his conjectures. At that time the +influence of the Church of Rome was at its lowest; Spain had almost +ceased to exist as a European power; and in France the state of +religious thought was very different from what it had been in the days +of Louis XIV. Irish Roman Catholic gentlemen who sent their sons to +be educated in France found that they came back Voltaireans; even the +young men who went to study for the priesthood in French seminaries +became embued with liberalism to an extent that would make a modern +Ultramontane shudder. Then in Ireland all local power was in the hands +of the landlords; the Roman Catholic bishops possessed hardly any +political influence. It would have required more keenness than a mere +enthusiast like Grattan possessed to foresee that the time would come +when all this would be absolutely reversed. What was there in the +eighteenth century to lead him to surmise that in the twentieth the +landlords would be ruined and gone, and that local government would +have become vested in District Councils in which Protestants would +have no power, but over which the authority of the bishops would be +absolute? + +So Grattan and his party entered on the new conditions of political +life with airy optimism. But there were, both in England and France, +shrewder and more far-seeing men than he, who realised from the first +that the new state of affairs could not possibly be a lasting one, but +must lead either to union or complete separation. Of course so long +as all parties happened to be of the same mind, no difficulties +would arise; but it was merely a question of time when some cause +of friction would occur, and then the inherent weakness of the +arrangement would be apparent. A moment's thought will show that +for Ireland to be subject to the English King but independent of the +English Parliament was a physical impossibility. The king would act +on the advice of his ministers who were responsible to the English +Parliament; either the Irish Parliament must obey, or a deadlock would +ensue. Then, suppose that England were to become engaged in a war of +which the people of Ireland disapproved, Ireland might not only +refuse to make any voluntary grant in aid, but even declare her +ports neutral, withdraw her troops, and pass a vote of censure on the +English Government. Again, with regard to trade; Ireland might adopt a +policy of protection against England, and enter into a treaty for free +trade with some foreign country which might be at the moment England's +deadliest rival. The confusion that might result would be endless. + +Considerations such as these presented themselves at once to the +master-mind of Pitt. He pointed out that as England had relinquished +her right to limit Irish trade for the benefit of English, she was in +fairness relieved from the corresponding duty of protecting Ireland +against foreign foes; the two countries should therefore both +contribute to their joint defence in proportion to their means. He +proposed that regular treaties should be drawn up between the two +countries, by which Ireland should contribute a certain sum to the +navy, free trade between Ireland and England should be established, +and regulations made whereby the duties payable on foreign goods +should be assimilated. By such measures as these he hoped to make +things run smoothly for a time at least; but when his projects were +rejected by the Irish Parliament, he saw more clearly than ever that +sooner or later the Gordian knot would have to be cut, and that the +only way of cutting it would be the Union. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE INDEPENDENT PARLIAMENT. THE REGENCY QUESTION. THE COMMENCEMENT OF +THE REBELLION. + + +That Ireland increased in prosperity rapidly towards the end of the +eighteenth century, there is no doubt. Politicians will say that this +prosperity came from the increased powers gained by the Parliament in +1782; economists will reply that that had little if anything to say +to it; far more important causes being the abolition of trade +restrictions and the relaxation of the Penal Laws, which encouraged +people to employ their money in remunerative works at home instead of +having to send it abroad. It may sound somewhat Hibernian to mention +the rise in rents, as another cause of prosperity; yet anyone who +knows Ireland will admit that it is not impossible; and it was +certainly put forward gravely by writers of the period who were by no +means biassed towards the landlord interest. Thus McKenna, writing in +1793, says:-- + + "In several parts of Ireland the rents have been tripled + within 40 years. This was not so much the effect as the cause + of national prosperity; ... before the above-mentioned period, + when rent was very low and other taxes little known, half the + year was lavished in carousing. But as soon as labour became + compulsory, fortunes have been raised both by the tenantry and + landlords, and civilization has advanced materially." + +There was also another cause of prosperity, which modern economists +cannot look on with much favour. It was the policy of the Irish +Government to grant enormous bounties for the development of various +industries, especially the growth of corn. This no doubt gave much +employment, promoted the breaking up of grass lands, the subdivision +of farms and the erection of mills; and so long as the price of corn +was maintained, brought much prosperity to the country, and thus was +indirectly one cause of the enormous increase of population, which +rose from about 2,370,000 in 1750, to about 4,500,000 in 1797. But +when, during the nineteenth century, prices fell, the whole structure, +built on a fictitious foundation, came down with a crash. + +Not long after the Irish Parliament had acquired its independence, a +controversy arose which, although it had no immediate result, yet +was of vast importance on account of the principle involved. The king +became insane. It was necessary that there should be a Regent, and it +was obvious that the Prince of Wales was the man for the post. But +the British constitution contained no provision for making the +appointment. After much deliberation, the English Parliament decided +to pass an Act appointing the Prince Regent and defining his powers, +the Royal assent being given by Commission. The two houses of the +Irish Parliament, however, without waiting for the Prince to be +invested with the Regency in England, voted an address to him asking +him to undertake the duties of Regent, without naming any limitations. +As the king recovered almost immediately, the whole matter ended in +nothing; but thoughtful men realized what was involved in the position +which the Irish Parliament had taken up. Grattan's resolution was +to the effect that in addressing the Prince to take upon himself +the government of the country the Lords and Commons of Ireland were +exercising an undoubted right and discharging an indispensable duty to +which in the emergency they alone were competent. By the Act of Henry +VIII the King of England was _ipso facto_ King of Ireland. An Irish +Act of William and Mary declared that the Crown of Ireland and all the +powers and prerogatives belonging to it should be for ever annexed to +and dependent on the Crown of England. And the Act of 1782 made the +Great Seal of Great Britain necessary to the summoning of an Irish +Parliament and the passing of Irish Acts. Now did the words "King" +and "Crown" merely refer to the individual who had the right to wear +a certain diadem, or did they include the chief executive magistrate, +whoever that might be--King, Queen or Regent? It was ably contended by +Lord Clare that the latter was the only possible view; for the Regent +of Great Britain must hold the Great Seal; and so he alone could +summon an Irish Parliament; therefore the Irish Parliament in choosing +their Regent had endangered the only bond which existed between +England and Ireland--the necessary and perpetual identity of the +executive. If the Irish Parliament appointed one person Regent and the +English Parliament another, separation or war might be the result; and +even as it was, the appointment of the Prince with limited powers in +England and unlimited in Ireland, must lead to confusion. But more +than that; suppose that the House of Brunswick were to die out, and +another Act of Settlement were to become necessary, might not the +Irish Parliament choose a different sovereign from the one chosen by +England? Constitutional lawyers recollected that such a difficulty +nearly arose between Scotland and England, but was settled by the Act +of Union; and that it was the recognition of Lambert Simnel by the +Irish Parliament that was the immediate cause of the passing of +Poyning's Act; and saw what the revived powers of the Irish Parliament +might lead to. + +Although the Parliament had now become independent, there was still +nothing like a responsible ministry as we now understand it, and the +government managed to maintain its control, partly by the peculiar +composition of the Parliament (to which I have already referred), and +partly by the disposal of favours. And it cannot be denied that the +Parliament passed much useful legislation. Two questions, however, +were now coming forward on which the whole political condition of the +country depended, and which were closely entwined with one another. +The first was the reform of the legislature, so as to make the House +of Commons a really representative body; the second was the final +abolition of the Penal Laws. As to reform, the Parliament was +naturally slow (did any political assembly in the world ever divest +itself of its own privileges without pressure from without?); but as +to the abolition of the Penal Laws there was a cordiality which is +remarkable, and which is seldom referred to by the Nationalist writers +of the present day when they discourse about the Penal Laws. With +regard to social matters--such as admission to Corporations, taking +Degrees at the University, and holding medical professorships,--there +was hardly any hesitation; the political question, however, was more +difficult. In both England and Ireland at that time a forty-shilling +freehold gave a vote. That was a matter of slight importance in +England, as the number of small freeholders was limited, land being +usually let for a term of years. In Ireland, however, the ordinary +arrangement was for peasants to hold their scraps of land for life; +and land having recently increased in value enormously, a large +proportion of these were of the value of forty shillings. Hence, the +whole constituency would be altered; thousands of new electors, all of +them poor and illiterate, would be added in many constituencies; +and the representation of the country would at once pass into Roman +Catholic hands. To fix a higher qualification for Roman Catholics than +for Protestants would be not to abolish but to perpetuate the Penal +Laws; to deprive the existing voters of the franchise was out of the +question; hence the franchise was granted but not without considerable +hesitation on the part of the more thoughtful members. On the other +hand it was urged with great force that to give these privileges to +the uneducated mass but to continue the disabilities of the Roman +Catholic gentry by not allowing them to sit in Parliament was absurd. +The proposal to abolish the religious test in the case of Members of +Parliament was, however, defeated. + +Looking back, with the light of later history to aid us, it is +interesting to see how much more correct were Lord Clare's predictions +of the future than Grattan's. Grattan (as I have already explained), +taking his ideas from his lay friends among the cultured classes, and +seeing the decline of the Papal influence on the continent, considered +that anyone who regarded Popery as a political influence of the future +totally misunderstood the principles which then governed human action; +for controverted points of religion (such as belief in the Real +Presence) had ceased to be a principle of human action. He maintained +that the cause of the Pope, as a political force, was as dead as that +of the Stuarts; that priestcraft was a superannuated folly; and +that in Ireland a new political religion had arisen, superseding +all influence of priest and parson, and burying for ever theological +discord in the love of civil and religious liberty. Clare, who was +not only a shrewder observer but a much more deeply read man, realized +that in order to find out what would guide the Roman Catholic Church +in the future one must look not at the passing opinions of laymen but +at the constitution of the Church; he foresaw that if the artificial +supports which maintained the Protestant ascendancy were removed, the +mere force of numbers would bring about a Roman Catholic ascendancy; +and in enumerating the results of that he even said that the time +would come when the Church would decide on all questions as to +marriage. + +In order to show how far Lord Clare's expectations have been verified, +I will quote, not the words of an Orange speaker or writer, but of +an eminent Roman Catholic, the Rev. J.T. McNicholas, O.P., in his +recently published book on "The New Marriage Legislation" which, being +issued with an _Imprimatur_, will be received by all parties as a work +of authority. He says:-- + + "Many Protestants may think the Church presumptuous in + decreeing their marriages valid or invalid according as they + have or have not complied with certain conditions. As the + Church cannot err, neither can she be presumptuous. She alone + is judge of the extent of her power. Anyone validly baptised, + either in the Church or among heretics, becomes thereby a + subject of the Roman Catholic Church." + +But whilst politicians were amusing themselves with fervid but useless +oratory in Parliament, stirring events were taking place elsewhere. +To trace in these pages even a bare outline of the main incidents of +those terrible years is impossible; and yet without doing so it is not +easy to obtain a correct view of the tangled skein of Irish politics +at the time. In studying any history of the period, we cannot but be +struck by observing on the one hand how completely in some respects +circumstances and ideas have changed since then; it is hard to realize +that Ulster was for a time the scene of wild disorder--assassination, +arson, burglary and every form of outrage--brought about mainly by a +society which claimed to be, and to a certain extent was, formed by a +union of the Presbyterian and Roman Catholic parties--whilst the south +and west remained fairly orderly and loyal. And yet on the other hand +we find many of the phenomena which have been characteristic of later +periods of Irish political agitation, already flourishing. Boycotting +existed in fact, though the name was not yet invented; also nocturnal +raids for arms, the sacking of lonely farmhouses, the intimidation of +witnesses and the mutilation of cattle. Again, we see all through the +history of Irish secret societies that their organization has been so +splendid that the ordinary law has been powerless against them; for +witnesses will not give evidence and juries will not convict if they +know that to do so will mean certain ruin and probable death; and yet +those same societies have always possessed one element of weakness: +however terrible their oaths of secrecy have been, the Government +have never had the slightest difficulty in finding out, through +their confidential agents, everything that has taken place at their +meetings, and what their projects are. + +As early as 1785 there had been two societies carrying on something +like civil war on a small scale in the north. How they originated, +is a matter of dispute; but at any rate before they had long been in +existence, the religious element became supreme--as it does sooner +or later in every Irish movement; whatever temporary alliances may be +formed for other reasons, religion always ultimately becomes the line +of cleavage. In this case, the "Peep of Day Boys" were Protestants, +the "Defenders" Roman Catholic. Some of the outrages committed by +the Defenders were too horrible to put in print; many Roman Catholic +families fled the country on account of the treatment which they +received from the Peep of Day Boys, and took refuge among their +co-religionists in the south. + +But now a greater crisis was at hand. The terrible upheaval of the +French Revolution was shaking European society to its foundation. The +teaching of Paine and Voltaire had borne fruit; the wildest socialism +was being preached in every land. Ulster had shown sympathy with +Republican ideas at the time of the American War of Independence; and +now a large number of the Presbyterians of Belfast eagerly accepted +the doctrines of Jacobinism. Nothing can sound more charmingly +innocent than the objects of the United Irish Society as put forward +publicly in 1791; the members solemnly and religiously pledged +themselves to use all their influence to obtain an impartial and +adequate representation of the Irish nation in Parliament; and as a +means to this end to endeavour to secure the co-operation of Irishmen +of all religious persuasions. Some writers have tried to make out that +if the Relief Act of 1793 had been extended in 1795 by another Act +enabling Roman Catholics to become Members of Parliament; and if +a Reform Bill had been passed making the House of Commons really +representative, the society would never have been anything but a +perfectly legal and harmless association. Of course it is always +possible to suggest what might have been; but in this case it is far +more probable that if Parliament had been so reformed as to be a fair +reflex of the opinion of the country, it would immediately have passed +a resolution declaring Ireland a Republic and forming an alliance with +France; for whatever objects were stated in public, the real guiding +spirits of the United Irish Society from the beginning (as of other +societies of a later date with equally innocent names) were ardent +republicans, who joined the society in order to further those views; +it is absurd to suggest that men who were actually in correspondence +with the leaders of the Directory and were trying to bring about an +invasion from France in order to aid them in establishing a Republic +on Jacobin lines would have been deterred by the passing of a Bill +making it lawful for Roman Catholics to sit in Parliament. Nor again +is it reasonable to contend that earnest-minded Roman Catholics would, +in consequence of the failure of such a Bill to become law, have +rebelled against a Government under which they were able to exercise +their religion in peace and which was at that moment founding and +endowing a College for the training of candidates for the priesthood, +in favour of one which had confiscated the seminaries and was sending +the priests to the guillotine. The fact seems to have been that the +society was formed by Presbyterians, for political reasons; they tried +to get the Roman Catholics to join them, but the lower class Roman +Catholics cared very little about seats in Parliament; so the founders +of the society cleverly added abolition of tithes and taxes, and +reduction of rents, to their original programme; this drew in numbers +of Roman Catholics, whose principles were really the very antithesis +of Jacobinism. + +It is a fair instance of the confusion which has always reigned +throughout Irish politics, that after the Relief Act of 1793 had been +passed, the Catholic Committee expressed their jubilation by voting +L2,000 for a statue to the King, and presenting a gold medal to their +Secretary, Wolfe Tone, who was at that moment scheming to set up a +Jacobin Republic. + +This celebrated man, Wolfe Tone, was not unlike many others who have +posed as Irish patriots. Hating the very name of England, he schemed +to get one appointment after another from the English Government--at +one time seeking to be put in command of a filibustering expedition to +raid the towns of South America, at another time trying for a post in +India; hating the Pope and the priests, he acted as Secretary to the +Catholic Committee; then hating Grattan and the Irish Parliament and +everything to say to it, he showed his patriotism by devoting his +energies to trying to persuade the French Republican Government to +invade Ireland. + +On the 21st of September, 1795, an incident occurred which, though +apparently trivial at the time, was destined to be of great historical +importance. Ulster had now for some time been in a state bordering +on anarchy; not only were the secret societies constantly at war, +but marauding bands, pretending to belong to one or other of the +societies, were ravishing the country. Something like a pitched battle +was fought between the Protestants and the Defenders, in which the +Defenders, although they were the stronger party and made the attack, +were utterly routed. In the evening, the victors agreed to form +themselves into a society which should bear the name of William of +Orange. There had previously been some societies called by that name; +but this was the foundation of the Orange Society of the present day. +The oath which at first was taken by every member of the society was +to defend the king and his heirs so long as he or they support the +Protestant ascendancy. (This conditional form of oath of allegiance +has long since been abolished.) It was industriously circulated by +the United Irishmen that the actual words of the oath were: "I will be +true to the King and Government and I will exterminate as far as I am +able the Catholics of Ireland." There is no evidence, however, that +any words of the kind ever formed part of an oath prescribed by the +Orange Society; and those who make the statement now must be aware +that they are repeating a calumny. + +After this time, the quarrel gradually tended more and more to become +a religious one; the Peep of Day Boys becoming merged in the Orange +Society, and the Protestants slowly withdrawing from the United Irish +Society; on the other hand, the Defenders ultimately coalesced +with the United Irishmen and thus, by an illogical combination of +inconsistent forces, formed the party which brought about the terrible +rebellion. + +The close of the year 1796 was one of the most critical moments in the +history of England. On the continent the power of republican France +under the genius of Napoleon and his generals was sweeping all before +it. England was in a state of bankruptcy, and almost as completely +isolated as she had been in the time of Elizabeth. Wolfe Tone and his +Irish plotters saw their opportunity as clearly as their predecessors +had in the times of Edward Bruce and Philip II. They laid a statement +of the condition of Ireland before the French Government which, +though as full of exaggerations as most things in Irish history, was +sufficiently based on fact to lead the French Government to believe +that if a French force were landed in Ireland, the Irishmen in the +British Army and Navy would mutiny, the Yeomen would join the French, +and the whole of the North of Ireland would rise in rebellion. + +Accordingly a French fleet of forty-three sail, carrying about 15,000 +troops, sailed from Brest for Bantry Bay. No human power could have +prevented their landing; and had they done so, they could have +marched to Cork and seized the town without any difficulty; the United +Irishmen would have risen, and the whole country might have been +theirs. But the same power which saved England from the Armada of +Catholic Spain 200 years before now shielded her from the invasion of +republican France. Storms and fogs wrought havoc throughout the French +fleet. In less than a month from the time of their starting, Wolfe +Tone and the shattered remains of the invading force were back at +Brest, without having succeeded in landing a single man on the Irish +shore. + +Had this projected invasion taken place fifty years before, amongst +the French troops would have been the Irish brigade, who were always +yearning for the opportunity of making an attack on their native land. +But half a century had caused strange changes; the Irish brigade had +fallen with the collapse of the French monarchy; and some of the few +survivors were now actually serving under King George III. + +It was a remarkable fact that no one in the neighbourhood of Bantry +showed the slightest sympathy with the Frenchmen. The few resident +gentry, the moment the danger was evident, called together the +yeomanry and organized their tenantry to oppose the foe--though the +utmost they could have done would have been to delay the progress +of the invaders for a little at the cost of their own lives; and the +peasantry did all in their power to support their efforts. + +If it is possible to analyse the state of political feeling at +this time, we may say that first there was a very limited number of +thoughtful men who saw that after the Acts of 1782 and 1793 either +separation or union was inevitable, and who consequently opposed all +idea of parliamentary reform, because they thought it would tend to +separation and make union more difficult. A second party (a leading +member of which was Charlemont) approved of the existing state of +things, and believed that it could be continued; a third (of which +Grattan was one) fondly imagined that all would go smoothly if only a +Catholic Relief Bill and a Reform Bill were carried, and so directed +all their efforts towards those objects; and a fourth believed that +no reform would be granted without pressure, and so were ready even to +work up a rebellion in order to obtain it; but that was a very small +party at best, and was soon carried away by the whirlwind of those +revolutionists who cared nothing about the Parliament then sitting +in Dublin, or about any other possible Parliament which might own +allegiance to the King of England, for their real aim was to sever +Ireland from England altogether and establish a separate republic. As +Wolfe Tone wrote: "To break the connection with England and to assert +the independence of my country were my objects." + +It is this party that is represented by the Nationalists of to-day, +except that when they look for foreign aid, their hopes lie in the +direction of Germany rather than France. I know that this remark may +call forth a storm of denials from those who judge by the speeches +which Nationalist leaders have made in England when trying to win the +Radical vote, or in the Colonies when aiming at getting money from +people who had not studied the question. But I judge not by speeches +such as those, but by statements continually put forward by political +writers and orators when they have cast off the mask and are +addressing their sympathizers in Ireland and America:-- + + "The Nationalists of Ireland stand for the complete + independence of Ireland, and they stand for nothing else. In + the English Empire they have no part or lot, and they wish to + have no part or lot. We stand for the Irish nation, free + and independent and outside the English Empire."--(_Irish + Freedom_.) + + "Our aim is the establishment of an Irish Republic, for the + simple and sole reason that no other ending of our quarrel + with England could be either adequate or final. This is the + one central and vital point of agreement among all who are + worthy of the name of Irish Nationalists--that Ireland is + a separate nation--separate in thought, mind, in ideals and + outlooks. Come what may, we work for Ireland as separate from + England as Germany is separate."--(Ib.) + + "Year by year the pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe + Tone grows more significant of the rising tide of militant and + uncompromising Nationalism, more significant of the fact that + Young Ireland has turned away from the false thing that has + passed for patriotism, and has begun to reverence only the + men and the things and the memories that stand for Ireland an + independent nation. Paying tribute to the memory of men + like Tone, lifting up the language of Ireland from the mire, + linking up the present with the old days of true patriotic + endeavour--these are the doings that will eventually bring our + land from the mazes of humbug into the clear dawn that heralds + Nationhood."--(_The Leinster Leader_.) + + "The object aimed at by the advanced National party is the + recovery of Ireland's national independence and the severance + of all political connection with England."--(_J. Devoy_.) + + "In the better days that are approaching, the soil of Ireland + will be populated by a race of Irishmen free and happy and + thriving, owning no master under the Almighty, and owning no + flag but the green flag of an independent Irish nation."--(_W. + O'Brien, M.P._) + + "In supporting Home Rule for Ireland we abandon no principle + of Irish nationhood as laid down by the fathers in the Irish + movement for independence, from Wolfe Tone and Emmett to John + Mitchell, and from Mitchell to Kickham and Parnell."--(_J. + Redmond_.) + + "Our ultimate goal is the national independence of our + country."--(Ib.) + + "In its essence the National movement is the same to-day as it + was in the days of Hugh O'Niell, Owen Roe, Emmett, or of Wolfe + Tone."--(Ib.) + + "We are as much rebels to England's rule as our forefathers + were in '98."--(Ib.) + + "I remember when Parnell was asked if he would accept as a + final settlement the Home Rule compromise proposed by Mr. + Gladstone. I remember his answer. He said 'I believe in the + policy of taking from England anything we can wring from her + which will strengthen our hands to go for more.'"--(Ib.) + + "When we have undermined English misgovernment we have paved + the way for Ireland to take her place among the nations of the + earth. And let us not forget that that is the ultimate goal + at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be + in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be + satisfied until we have destroyed the last link which keeps + Ireland bound to England." + + (_C.S. Parnell_.) + + "I know there are many people in America who think that the + means which we are operating to-day for the good of Ireland + are not sufficiently sharp and decisive ... I would suggest + to those who have constituted themselves the censors of our + movement, would it not be well to give our movement a fair + chance--to allow us to have an Irish Parliament that will give + our people all authority over the police and the judiciary + and all government in the nation, and when equipped with + comparative freedom, then would be the time for those who + think we should destroy the last link that binds us to England + to operate by whatever means they think best to achieve that + great and desirable end? I am quite sure that I speak for the + United Irish League in the matter." + + (_J. Devlin, M.P._) + + "What was it, after all, that Wolfe Tone, and Fitzgerald, and + Mitchell, and Smith O'Brien, and O'Meagher Condon, and Allen, + Larkins and O'Brien, and all the other gallant Irishmen strove + for, who from generation to generation were inspired with + the spirit of revolution? ... In what respect does our policy + differ from the purpose of these men?"--(Ib.) + + "In my opinion, and in the opinion of the vast majority of the + advanced Nationalists of Ireland, the Repeal of the Union + is not the full Nationalist demand; separation is the full + Nationalist demand; that is the right on which we stand, the + Nationalist right of Ireland."--(_J. Dillon, M.P._) + + "I should never have dedicated my life to this great struggle + if I did not see at the end the crowning and the consummation + of our work--a free and independent nation."--(Ib.) + + "We aim at nothing else than establishing a new nation upon + the map of Europe."--(_Dr. Douglas Hyde_.) + + "If there is any man in this audience who says to us as + representing that Parliamentary movement--'I don't believe + in your Parliamentary ideas, I don't accept Home Rule, I go + beyond it; I believe in an independent Irish nation'--if any + man says this, I say that we don't disbelieve in it. These + are our tactics--if you are to take a fortress, first take the + outer works."--(_T.M. Kettle, M.P._) + + "We want to carry on the work that the Fenians tried to do to + a triumphal issue. The Fenians stood for an Irish Republic, + and so do we. No policy which left England in control of the + Irish Nation could be regarded as final. There is only one + way, and that is to get the absolute and complete independence + of Ireland, free from English rule and English domination. The + Fenians did not go to the Prime Minister for concessions. + No: they started into arms, and if people of the present + day believed in that they should arm themselves to get + the independence of Ireland."--(_B. Hobson_, speaking at a + demonstration at Cork, on the anniversary of the "martyrdom" + of Allen, Larkins, and O'Brien.) + + "Should the Germans land in Ireland, they will be received + with willing hearts and strong hands, and should England be + their destination, it is to be hoped that they will find time + to disembark 100,000 rifles and a few score of ammunition for + the same in this country, and twelve months later this Ireland + will be as free as the Lord God meant it should be."--(_Major + McBride_, who organized an Irish force to aid the Boers + against England, and has consequently been appointed to a + municipal inspectorship by the Corporation of Dublin.) + + "I appeal to you most earnestly to do all in your power to + prevent your countrymen from entering the degraded British + army. If you prevent 500 men from enlisting you do nearly as + good work, if not quite so exciting, as if you shot 500 men on + the field of battle, and also you are making the path smoother + for the approaching conquest of England by Germany."--(Ib.) + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE REBELLION. + + +Early in 1797 it became evident to all but the most shortsighted of +politicians that a rebellion, of which none could foretell the result, +was imminent. As one shrewd observer wrote: "I look upon it that +Ireland must soon stand in respect to England in one of three +situations--united with her, the Legislatures being joined; separated +from her, and forming a republic; or as a half-subdued Province." The +supporters of law and order were naturally divided in opinion as to +the course to pursue. Some were in favour of a policy of conciliation. +Grattan induced his friend Ponsonby to bring forward another Reform +Bill, abolishing the religious test and the separate representation +of boroughs, and dividing each county into districts; and when he saw +that the motion could not be carried, delivered an impassioned speech, +declaring that he would never again attend the House of Commons, and +solemnly walked out. It was a piece of acting, too transparent to +deceive anybody. Grattan was a disappointed man--disappointed not +so much because his proposals were not adopted, as because his own +followers were slipping away from him. They had begun to realize that +he was an orator but not a statesman; his ideas were wild, fanciful +dreams. Whilst vehemently upholding the English connection he was +playing into the hands of England's opponents by reminding them that +England's difficulty was Ireland's opportunity; whilst hating the +very idea of a Union, he was making the existing system impossible +by preventing the passing of a commercial treaty; whilst passionately +supporting Protestant ascendancy, he was advocating a measure which +at that moment would have brought about the establishment either of a +Roman Catholic ascendancy or more probably of a Jacobin Republic. +He saw his supporters dwindling slowly from seventy-seven in 1783 to +thirty in 1797. Men were now alive to the fact that the country was in +an alarming condition. They saw what had happened in France but a few +years before, and how little Louis XVI had gained by trying to pose +as a liberator and a semi-republican; and, knowing that the rebellion +with which they were faced was an avowed imitation of the French +Revolution, they were coming to the opinion that stern measures were +necessary. In almost every county of three Provinces conspirators were +at work, trying to bring down on their country a foreign invasion, and +stirring up the people to rebellion and crime by appealing to their +agrarian grievances and cupidity, their religious passion, and the +discontent produced by great poverty. For a second time it appeared +that Wolfe Tone would succeed in obtaining aid from abroad--this time +from Spain and Holland; and the rebel party in Ireland were now so +well organized, and Jacobin feeling was so widespread, that had he +done so, it was almost inevitable that Ireland would have been lost to +England. But once more the unexpected was destined to occur. Early in +February Jervis shattered the power of the Spanish Fleet off Cape St. +Vincent; and in the summer, just when the Dutch ships, with 14,000 +troops on board, were ready to start, and resistance on the part of +England seemed hopeless, a violent gale arose and for weeks the whole +fleet remained imprisoned in the river; and when at length they did +succeed in making a start, the English were ready to meet them within +a few miles of the coast of Holland; after a tremendous battle the +broken remnant of the Dutch fleet returned to the harbour defeated. +The rage and mortification of Wolfe Tone at his second failure knew no +bounds. + +In the North of Ireland, however, the rebellion had practically begun. +The magistrates were powerless; the classes who had supported the +gentry during the Volunteer Movement were amongst the disaffected. The +country was in a state of anarchy; murders and outrages of every +sort were incessant. That the measures which the Government and +their supporters took to crush the rising rebellion were illegal +and barbarous, cannot be denied; that they in fact by their violence +hurried on the rebellion is not improbable. But it is still more +probable that they were the means of preventing its success; just as, +had the Government of Louis XVI shown more vigour at the outset of the +Revolution, the Reign of Terror would probably never have taken place. +Through evidence obtained by torture, the Government got possession +of vast stores of arms which the rebels had prepared; by twice +seizing the directors of the movement they deprived it of its central +organization; and if they were the cause of the rebellion breaking out +sooner than had been intended, the result was that they were able +to quell it in one district before it had time to come to a head in +another. + +War at best is very terrible; and there were two circumstances which +made the war in Ireland more terrible than others. It was a religious +war, and it was a civil war. It often happens that when religion is +turned to hatred it stirs up the worst and most diabolical passions +of the human breast; and the evil feelings brought on by a civil war +necessarily last longer than animosity against a foreign foe. The +horrors of 1798 make one shudder to think what must happen in Ireland +if civil war ever breaks out there again. + +From Ulster the United Ireland movement spread during 1797 to +Leinster, as far south as Wexford, and began to assume a more +decidedly religious character. As a contemporary historian wrote:-- + + "So inveterately rooted are the prejudices of religious + antipathy in the minds of the lower classes of Irish + Romanists, that in any civil war, however originating from + causes unconnected with religion, not all the efforts of their + gentry, or even priests, to the contrary could (if I am not + exceedingly mistaken) restrain them from converting it into a + religious quarrel." + +(Had he lived a century later, he might have used the same words.) +But though this was generally the case, there were complications as +embarrassing as they usually are in Irish affairs. The yeomanry +were mainly Protestants, but the majority of the militia were Roman +Catholics, and those commanded by Lord Fingall entirely so. There +was much disaffection in both branches of the service; besides which, +officers and men alike lacked the discipline and experience of +regular troops; but as the supply of soldiers from England was wholly +inadequate for the situation, the Government were obliged to rely on +any forces they could obtain. As the rebellion drifted into being a +Roman Catholic movement, the Orangemen became intensely loyal, and +were eager to fight on the king's side, but the Government dreaded +lest by employing them they might offend the militia. By 1798, when +the rebellion in the south was at its height, the north had become +comparatively calm. The severities of the previous year had had some +salutary effect; the staunch Protestants had no desire to aid in what +had become a Roman Catholic rebellion; and the republican party had +seen that the universal fraternity of the Jacobin Government of France +had turned into a military despotism which was engaged in crushing the +neighbouring republics and was almost at war with the sister Republic +of America. + +But whilst Ulster was growing calmer, the condition of the south +was becoming daily more appalling. On the 23rd of May the rebellion +actually broke out in the counties of Dublin, Kildare and Meath; and +many skirmishes took place in which the losses on the king's side were +comparatively few but those of the rebels enormous, in consequence of +their ignorance of the use of firearms. The better-trained forces soon +got to know that an Irish peasant when armed with a pike was a deadly +foe; but when armed with a musket was almost harmless. This part of +the campaign will always be specially memorable for the attack made +on the little town of Prosperous, in the county of Kildare. It was +cleverly made in the early morning; the garrison, taken unawares, were +nearly all killed; the Commander, Captain Swayne, being amongst the +victims. It was soon afterwards found out that the leader of the +rebels was Dr. Esmonde, a gentleman of good family, and first +lieutenant in a regiment of yeomanry stationed a few miles off, who +had been dining with Captain Swayne the previous evening. He appeared +in his regiment the next day, but was identified by a yeoman who had +seen him at Prosperous; arrested, tried, and hanged as a traitor. + +A Nationalist has recently referred to him as a martyr to the cause of +Irish liberty. + +By the month of June Wexford had become the centre of the rebellion. +In that county it had assumed an essentially religious character +(there being, however, a few exceptions on each side), and in no +other part of Ireland was the war so terrible either on account of its +magnitude or barbarity. The passions of the ignorant peasantry were +inflamed by all Protestants being spoken of as Orangemen and a report +being diligently circulated that all Orangemen had sworn to destroy +the Catholic Faith--exactly the same course that was followed a +hundred years later. Roman Catholic priests, wearing their sacred +vestments and carrying crucifixes, led the rebel forces; and the +ignorant peasants, believing them to be endowed with miraculous +powers, followed them with the blind adherence that only fanaticism +can inspire. And yet--so strangely contradictory is everything in +Ireland--there is clear evidence that amongst those priestly agitators +many were at heart deists, who were making use of religion in the +hope of furthering Jacobinism. Many Protestants saved their lives by +apostatizing, or by allowing their children to be rebaptized; it is +but fair to add, however, that several of the older priests, shocked +at the conduct of the rebels, concealed heretics in their houses and +churches; and that all through the war many priests, in spite of the +difficulty of their position, remained loyal and did what they could +to aid the king's troops. + +The rebels for some weeks held command of the town and county of +Wexford, their chief camp being at a place called Vinegar Hill. The +country around was searched and plundered; the Protestants who were +captured were brought into the rebel camp, and there deliberately +butchered in cold blood. How many perished it is impossible to say; +the number must have been at the least 400. + +I would willingly pass over this dreadful episode. I have no more +desire to dwell on it than I have on Cromwell's conduct at Drogheda. +I regard it merely as one of those terrible incidents which alas have +taken place in almost every campaign. It was probably equalled in +character if not in magnitude by several outrages committed by the +other side; and certainly parallels could be found in the French +invasion of Algeria fifty years later and in many other wars of the +nineteenth century. When men have been fired with the diabolical +passions that war arouses, and have grown accustomed to the ghastly +sights on battlefields, they cease to be reasoning beings; they become +fiends. But unfortunately it is necessary to explain what really +occurred, as it is to Vinegar Hill and its terrible associations that +the Nationalists of to-day refer with triumph. Songs in praise of the +massacre are sung at Nationalist gatherings; and W. Redmond, speaking +at Enniscorthy (close to the scene of the massacre) on the 110th +anniversary of the outrages said: "The heroic action of the men who +fought and died around Vinegar Hill was the heritage of all Ireland. +Whatever measure of comparative freedom we now enjoy was entirely +attributable to the Insurrection of '98. It was the pikemen of '98 who +made the world and England understand that Irishmen knew how to fight +for their rights, and it is to the knowledge of that fact by England +that we may look for the real driving force of any effort we may make +for our liberty. The Irish people are in no position to resort to +arms, but the spirit is there, and by demonstrations like this we show +our rulers that it is essential for any real and lasting peace that +the aspirations of the patriots of '98 must be satisfied, and that a +full measure of National freedom must be granted to Ireland." + +(It will be observed that in the opinion of this orator--a prominent +Nationalist Member of Parliament, who was selected to go round the +Colonies collecting money for the Home Rule cause--the possession of +an Independent Parliament, of everything in fact short of separation, +goes for nothing; it is only those who rebelled against that +Parliament who are to be regarded as models for modern Nationalists to +follow. It is interesting also to note the different views which have +been put forward by Irish politicians with regard to the rebellion. +In 1843 the leaders of the Repeal Association stated in one of their +manifestoes, as an argument in favour of repeal, that England had +resorted to the diabolical expedient of fomenting a rebellion in order +to distract the country and give excuse for military violence and so +bring about a Union. But the Nationalists of to-day have so completely +identified themselves with the rebels of 1798 that within the last few +years splendid monuments have been erected in all the towns of Wexford +and the adjoining counties; some of these are bronze figures of +patriots brandishing pikes, others are representations of the priestly +leaders of the rebel forces. These monuments have been unveiled with +great ceremony, impassioned speeches being made on the occasion by +leading orators, both clerical and lay). + +In order to realize the terrible position in which the loyalists +were placed, we must recollect that whilst the Wexford rebels were +triumphant in that county, and the movement seemed to be spreading +into Kilkenny and Carlow, there was a fresh outbreak in the north; +it appeared probable that Dublin might rise at any moment; the French +fleet was hourly expected, and the long looked-for aid from England +was still delayed. But the Irish loyalist minority showed the same +dogged determination that they had done in the time of James II, and +that they will show again in the future. + +The numbers engaged in the different battles and skirmishes have +been variously estimated; it seems that at the battle of Arklow the +loyalists did not exceed 1,600, of whom nearly all were militia and +yeomanry, with a few artillery; whilst the rebels, commanded by Father +Michael Murphy, amounted to at least 20,000. Yet after a terrible +afternoon's fighting the rebels, disheartened by the fall of their +leader (whom they had believed to be invulnerable) retired, leaving +more than 1,000 dead on the field. + +Soon, however, the reinforcements from England began to arrive; and +the French invasion, on which the rebels were building their hopes, +was still delayed. By July, although fighting was still going on in +the Wicklow mountains and some other parts of the country, the worst +of the rebellion in Wexford was crushed, and an Act of Amnesty was +carried through Parliament. It is worthy of note that the trials of +the rebels which took place in Dublin were conducted with a fairness +and a respect for the forms of law which are probably unparalleled in +the history of other countries at moments of such terrible excitement; +we can contrast them for instance with the steps that were taken in +putting down the outbreak of the Commune in Paris in 1871. It is easy +now to argue that, as the force of the rebellion was being broken, it +would have been more humane to have allowed those who had plotted and +directed it to go unpunished. But as Lecky has pointed out, "it was +scarcely possible to exaggerate the evil they had produced, and they +were immeasurably more guilty than the majority of those who had +already perished. + +"They had thrown back, probably for generations, the civilization of +their country. They had been year by year engaged in sowing the seed +which had ripened into the harvest of blood. They had done all in +their power to bring down upon Ireland the two greatest curses that +can afflict a nation--the curse of civil war, and the curse of foreign +invasion; and although at the outset of their movement they had +hoped to unite Irishmen of all creeds, they had ended by lashing +the Catholics into frenzy by deliberate and skilful falsehood. The +assertion that the Orangemen had sworn to exterminate the Catholics +was nowhere more prominent than in the newspaper which was the +recognised organ of the United Irish leaders. The men who had spread +this calumny through an ignorant and excitable Catholic population, +were assuredly not less truly murderers than those who had fired the +barn at Scullabogue or piked the Protestants on Wexford Bridge." + +A strong party, however, led by Lord Clare were in favour of clemency +wherever possible; and there seemed good reason for hoping that the +rebellion would slowly die out. Cooke, the Under Secretary, wrote +on the 9th of August: "The country is by no means settled nor secure +should the French land, but I think secure if they do not." Suddenly, +however, the alarming news came that the French were actually in +Ireland. Wolfe Tone and his fellow-plotters, undaunted by their +previous failures, had continued ceaseless in their efforts to induce +Napoleon to make an indirect attack on England by invading Ireland; +and if they had succeeded in persuading the French Government to send +an expedition two months earlier when the rebellion was at its height +and the English reinforcements had not arrived, Ireland must have been +lost. Once again, however, fortune favoured the English cause. The +first instalment of the French fleet, carrying 1,000 soldiers, did +not start until the 6th of August, and only arrived on the 22nd. They +landed at Killala, in Mayo, and were not a little surprised at the +state of things existing there. They had expected to find a universal +feeling of republicanism; but instead of this, whilst the Protestants +refused to join them, the Roman Catholic peasantry received them with +delight, and declared their readiness to take arms for France and the +Blessed Virgin. "God help these simpletons," said one of the officers, +"if they knew how little we care about the Pope or his religion, they +would not be so hot in expecting help from us!" + +Arriving at the wrong time and the wrong place, the expedition was +foredoomed to failure. The French were brave men and trained soldiers; +but they found their Irish allies perfectly useless. They succeeded +in capturing Castlebar, and routing a force of militia; but +their campaign was brief; on the 8th of September the whole force +surrendered. The Connaught rebellion was speedily and severely put +down. + +The second instalment of the French invasion consisted of one ship. +They landed on the Island of Arran on the 16th of September; but after +spending eight hours on shore, re-embarked and sailed away to Norway. + +The third instalment was, however, more serious. It consisted of a +ship of the line, eight frigates and a schooner, having on board +an army of about 3,000 men. They arrived at Lough Swilly early in +October, where they were met by a more powerful English fleet, and +nearly all were destroyed or captured. Amongst the prisoners taken +was Wolfe Tone; who soon afterwards in order to avoid a felon's death, +ended his life by suicide.[See note at the end of the Volume] + +A fortnight later the fourth and last instalment arrived at Killala +Bay; but the Admiral, hearing that the rebellion was over, promptly +weighed anchor and returned to France. Thus ingloriously ended the +French attempts at the invasion of Ireland. The calling-in of the +foreigner had been of as little use to the cause of Irish rebellion as +it had been two centuries before. + + +By the end of the year the worst of the rebellion was over. But the +evil it had wrought was incalculable. How many had perished during +that terrible summer will never be known; the numbers have been +variously computed at from 15,000 to 70,000. At the outset of the +rebellion--in February 1798--Lord Clare had made a memorable speech in +the House of Lords, which has been so often misquoted that it is well +here to cite the passage in full:-- + + "If conciliation be a pledge of national tranquillity and + contentment; if it be a spell to allay popular ferment; there + is not a nation in Europe in which it has had so fair a trial + as in the Kingdom of Ireland. For a period of nearly twenty + years a liberal and unvaried system of concession and + conciliation has been pursued and acted on by the British + Government. Concession and conciliation have produced only a + fresh stock of grievances; other discontents of Ireland have + kept pace with her prosperity; for I am bold to say there + is not a nation on the habitable globe which has advanced in + cultivation and commerce, in agriculture and in manufactures + with the same rapidity in the same period. Her progress is now + retarded, and it is a heart-breaking spectacle to every man + who loves the country to see it arrested only by the perverse + and factious folly of the people, stimulated and encouraged by + disappointed statesmen." + +Within a few months after that speech was made, Ireland was well-nigh +ruined. All the progress in material prosperity which had taken place +in the years immediately following 1782 was swept away. The national +debt, which in 1791 had stood at L2,442,890, involving an annual +charge of L142,716, had risen to L26,662,640, with an annual charge of +L1,395,735; the exports of woollen goods had almost ceased, and those +of linen gone down by more than a third; other industries showed +a decay nearly as lamentable; public bankruptcy seemed inevitable. +Though the violent outbreak of rebellion had been put down, many parts +of the country were in a state of anarchy. In the west, armed bands +went about every night houghing the cattle and murdering all who dared +to oppose them. If any man prosecuted one of the offenders, he did +it at the moral certainty of being murdered. The same fate hung over +every magistrate who sent a hougher to gaol, every witness who gave +evidence against him, every juryman who convicted him. In Limerick one +man ventured on his own part and on that of eight others to prosecute +an offender who had destroyed their property. All nine were murdered +in one night. It was not safe to travel along the high road within +six miles of Dublin. The militia had, from their misbehaviour in +the field, and their extreme licentiousness, fallen into universal +contempt and abhorrence; officers of English regiments declared that +it would be impossible to maintain discipline amongst their troops +if they remained in such a country. It was discovered that the rebels +were forming another Directory, and, still expecting aid from France, +planning a fresh outbreak. Religious animosities were more violent +than ever. Government was becoming impossible; for the Roman Catholic +population, now thoroughly disaffected, would not continue to submit +to the rule of the Protestant oligarchy; but the only way to put an +end to it would be by another rebellion which if successful would +(as the Roman Catholic bishops and educated laymen fully realized) +probably result in the establishment of a Jacobin republic; +clear-headed men of all parties were beginning to think that there was +but one solution of the problem; and that was--the Union. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE UNION. + + +We come now to the great turning point in the modern history of +Ireland--the Union. It has been so constantly and so vehemently +asserted that this momentous event was prompted by the wicked desire +of England to ruin Ireland, and was carried out by fraud, bribery, +intimidation, and every form of political crime, that not only +ordinary readers, but even writers who are content to receive +their information at second hand without investigating evidence for +themselves, generally assume that no other view is possible. Thus +O'Connell boldly asserted that the Irish Catholics never assented +to the Union. Others have blindly repeated his words; and from those +reiterated statements has been developed an argument that as the +Catholics did not assent to the Union, they cannot be bound by it. + +I believe that there has been as much exaggeration about this as about +most other episodes of Irish history; and that anyone who, fairly and +without prejudice, takes the trouble to go through the history of the +Union as it may be gathered from contemporary documents, will come to +the conclusion that it was devised by great and earnest statesmen who +had the good of both countries at heart. As to the means by which it +was carried, there is much to be said on both sides of the question; +Lecky has stated the case against the Union ably and temperately; +other writers, equally honourable, have taken the opposite side. There +is at any rate very much to be said for the opinion, that, considering +the circumstances and the peculiar constitution of the Irish +Parliament, there was nothing which the Government did that was not +perfectly justifiable. As to whether it was in accordance with the +wish of the people or not, there are several points which ought to be +borne in mind but to which sufficient attention is not usually given. +A very large part of the nation were ignorant peasants, who did not +and could not properly understand the question; and as a matter +of fact cared little about it. Then of those who were against the +measure, many opposed it not because they wished the existing state +of things to continue, but because they thought that the Union would +prevent the one object of their ambition--total separation and the +establishment of a republic; their opinion therefore has but little +weight. When we come to the more educated and propertied classes, it +seems that the majority were in favour of the measure; and as to the +opinion of the Roman Catholic section (which after all was far the +largest part of the nation) I think there can be no doubt whatever. +Fortunately it is no longer necessary to wade through the mass of +original papers; for the evidence has been so carefully investigated +during recent years by various impartial writers, and has been +presented to the general reader in so clear and concise a manner +that no one now has any excuse for being led away by the impassioned +statements of partisan orators. I refer specially to the "History of +the Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland," by Dr. Dunbar +Ingram, published in 1887. + +That careful writer commences his work by stating that, dissatisfied +with endless assertions unaccompanied by proof, he had determined to +investigate the subject for himself, examining closely the original +and contemporary authorities. He soon found that there was no evidence +to sustain the accusations made against the manner in which the Union +was carried; and that all the charges against the Government rested +finally on Harrington's worthless romances or the declamatory +statements of the Opposition during the sessions of 1799 and 1800, +which, when challenged, they declined to substantiate. Then, as he +proceeded in his work, he discovered that, after its terms were known +and the public had had time for reflection, the Union was thankfully +accepted by the two communities which made up Ireland; that the +Protestants, after the first burst of clamour, were as a body +converted and became well-wishers to the measure; and that the Roman +Catholics, after a short hesitation, gave the Union their hearty +assent and support. And finally, the whole inquiry left a strong +conviction on his mind that the Union was undertaken from the purest +motives, that it was carried by fair and constitutional means, and +that its final accomplishment was accompanied with the hearty assent +and concurrence of the vast majority of the two peoples that dwelt in +Ireland. + +I feel that I cannot do better than follow some of the lines of his +argument. + +It is true that in the time of the Plantagenets representatives from +Ireland were on several occasions summoned to attend the English +Parliament; and that during the Commonwealth Ireland was incorporated +with the rest of the Empire and sent members to the Parliaments of +1654 and 1657. These incidents, however, are unimportant; it is more +to the purpose to point out that from the time of the Restoration +onwards we find a long list of distinguished thinkers recommending +such a Union; and in the beginning of the eighteenth century both +Houses of the Irish Parliament twice petitioned Queen Anne to the +same effect. It may be asked why the English politicians, who were so +anxious to bring about the Union with Scotland, turned a deaf ear +to these petitions. The answer is simple. The Scotch Parliament +was independent, and the impossibility of having two independent +Parliaments under one sovereign had become manifest. Trade jealousies +had arisen; the action of the Scotch had nearly involved England in a +war with Spain; the Scotch Parliament had passed an Act declaring that +until provision was made for settling the rights and liberties of the +Scotch nation independently of England the successor to the Scotch +Crown should not be the same person that was possessed of the Crown +of England. The Parliament of England commenced arming the militia and +fortifying the towns near the Border. England being at war with France +the Scotch Parliament passed an Act allowing Scotchmen to trade with +that country; it therefore was a choice between Union and War; and +the two countries wisely chose Union. In the case of Ireland, however, +England saw no such danger; the Irish legislature was subordinate; +Ireland was bound by English statutes; and the Irish Parliament +represented not the whole people but only that one section of it which +was necessarily bound to the English connection; the Irish petitions +for Union therefore remained unheeded. The great Bishop Berkeley, +writing in 1735, strongly advocated a union; at a later time Adam +Smith wrote: "By a union with Great Britain Ireland would gain besides +the freedom of trade other advantages much more important ... Without +a union with Great Britain the inhabitants of Ireland are not likely +for many ages to consider themselves as one people." But, as we +have seen, by the Act of 1782, the Irish Parliament had become +independent--that is, it was placed in the same position as the +Scotch Parliament had been; and by the Act of 1893, the bulk of the +constituencies in the counties had become Roman Catholic. Except +in the opinion of thoughtless optimists like Grattan, matters were +approaching a deadlock; for sooner or later the Roman Catholic +electors would demand representation in Parliament; the borough +members would most probably refuse it, in which case war might break +out again; and if they granted it, the Irish Parliament, then almost +entirely Roman Catholic, would be anxious to break the tie that bound +Ireland to England. + +But apart from the religious question, it was evident that the +constitution, as fixed by the Act of 1782, was fraught with dangers. +And it is no answer to say that not many difficulties had arisen +in the few years between 1782 and 1799; for, even though that is +partially true, the question for a statesman to consider was whether +they were likely to arise in the future; and the rebellion, which +was still seething, had made this all the more probable. First, on a +declaration of war by England, Ireland might refuse to take part in +it; and her refusal would paralyse the Empire. As early as 1791, Wolfe +Tone had pointed out that Ireland need not embark on the side of +Great Britain in the contest which was then pending; and one of his +followers had advocated an alliance with France. (This is of all the +more importance at the present day, when the Nationalists state that +their principles are the same as those of Wolfe Tone.) Secondly, +during a war, Ireland might refuse supplies to England. This course +was actually hinted at by Grattan. Thirdly, she might provoke a +commercial war of rates with England. This course was proposed in the +Irish House of Commons in 1784. Fourthly, she might put pressure on +the Sovereign to declare war against a country with which England was +at peace. This also was proposed in the Irish House, in the case of +Portugal. Fifthly, she might differ from England in any international +question in reference to the connection between them, as she did in +the Regency question. Sixthly, she might refuse--as she did--to make +a commercial treaty with Great Britain; and thus keep open the most +fertile sources of mutual jealousies and discontent. Grattan's best +friends had urged upon him in vain that refusing to assent to a +commercial treaty made the permanent government by two independent +legislatures impossible, and would bring about separation; he refused +to be guided by their advice, and at that time he still had supreme +power in the House. It is remarkable that even at a later date, whilst +vehemently opposing the Union, he took a delight in pointing out +how many ways there were in which an Irish Parliament might injure +England; seeming not to realize that he was supplying a forcible +argument in favour of the measure he was opposing. + +The dangers of the situation were summed up by Pitt in a few +words:--"A party in England may give to the Throne one species of +advice by its Parliament. A party in Ireland may advise directly +opposite upon the most essential points that involve the safety of +both; upon alliance with a foreign power, for instance; upon the army; +upon the navy; upon any branch of the public service; upon trade; upon +commerce; or upon any point essential to the Empire at large." And +long afterwards Sir Robert Peel pointed out that within the short +period of six years from the establishment of what is called the +independence of the Irish Parliament--from 1782 to 1788--the foreign +relations of the two countries, the commercial intercourse of the two +countries, the sovereign exercise of authority in the two countries, +were the subjects of litigation and dispute; and it was more owing +to accident than to any other cause that they did not produce actual +alienation and rupture. + +The idea of a Union was first brought before Parliament by the Lord +Lieutenant (Lord Cornwallis) in his speech at the opening of the +Session in January 1799. It appeared at first that a majority of the +Peers were in favour of the proposal, but a small majority of the +House of Commons hostile--some to the scheme altogether, others to +its being brought forward at that time. This small majority, however, +rapidly diminished; and before many weeks had passed, the Government +possessed a majority in both Houses. The citizens of Dublin were +naturally strongly against the measure, thinking that it would injure +the prestige of the capital; as were also the proprietors of boroughs +and the legal members of the House; and soon after the scheme had +been proposed, several counties held meetings and passed resolutions +against it; but as the year went on, when the details of the measure +had been more carefully considered, there was a general change of +feeling throughout the country. Lord Cornwallis went on tours both +north and south, through both Protestant and Roman Catholic +districts, everywhere receiving addresses in favour of the Union from +corporations, grand juries, leading residents, and especially from +Roman Catholic bodies. And, if we may believe Lord Cornwallis's own +letters, these addresses were entirely spontaneous, and represented +the real feelings of the community. Before Parliament met in March +1800, twenty-two counties had passed resolutions in favour of the +Union; and Lord Castlereagh was able to say in the House that the +great body of the landed property of Ireland, and all the great +commercial towns except Dublin and Drogheda, were friendly to the +measure. The Opposition attempted to meet this by presenting a number +of petitions showing that the people of Ireland were against it. Of +the fifty-four petitions presented, five were not against the Union at +all, but merely requests for compensation in the event of its coming +about; three were from individuals or commercial firms; and eight were +from Dublin alone. The number therefore was much smaller than appears +at first sight. Besides obtaining these petitions, the Opposition +also collected a large sum of money for the purchase of seats; in the +circumstances and according to the ideas of the time, I do not say +that they were in the least morally wrong in doing so; but the fact +takes away from the value of the votes given; and it neutralizes +anything that was done by the Government in the same way--if it can be +proved that the Government so acted. + +But as the Roman Catholics constituted three-fourths of the population +of Ireland, it is more important to investigate what their feelings +were than to scrutinize the division lists of the House, if we wish to +ascertain what was really the wish of the nation. Fortunately we have +an opportunity of testing whether there is any truth in the statement +of O'Connell to which I have already referred--that the Irish +Catholics did not assent to the Union. The evidence shows conclusively +that the Roman Catholic peerage, episcopate, priesthood and laity all +gave the movement their hearty concurrence and co-operation. Lords +Kenmare and Fingall assured Lord Cornwallis that the Catholics were +in favour of a Union; the entire episcopate--that is, the four +archbishops and nineteen bishops, three sees being vacant--expressed +the same view by their letters which are still extant or by +resolutions signed by them; for instance, the Archbishop of Tuam +wrote: "I have had an opportunity of acquiring the strongest +conviction that this measure alone can restore harmony and happiness +to our unhappy country." The Bishop of Cork wrote: "Nothing in my +opinion will more effectively tend to lay these disgraceful and +scandalous party feuds and dissensions, and restore peace and +harmony amongst us, than the great measure in contemplation, of +the legislative Union, and incorporation of this Kingdom with Great +Britain. I am happy to tell you it is working its way, and daily +gaining ground in the public opinion. Several counties which appeared +most adverse to it have now declared for it, and I have no doubt but, +with the blessing of God, it will be effected, notwithstanding the +violent opposition of Mr. Foster and his party. The Roman Catholics in +general are avowedly for the measure. In the south, where they are the +most numerous, they have declared in its favour." The Bishop of Ferns +presided at a meeting of Catholics of Wexford at which an address +in favour of incorporation of both legislatures was signed by 3,000 +persons; and throughout the country meetings, presided over by parish +priests, were held to further the movement; and the laity were quite +as eager as the clergy in the matter. Plowden, the Roman Catholic +historian, says: "A very great preponderancy in favour of the Union +existed in the Catholic body, particularly in their nobility, gentry +and clergy." Thomas McKenna, the Secretary to the Catholic Committee, +wrote two pamphlets in the same interest; whilst on the other hand not +a single petition against it was presented by any Roman Catholic body. + +When the Session of 1800 commenced, a leading member of the Opposition +sadly confessed that the people had deserted them. But the struggle +in the House of Commons was tremendous. The Anti-Unionists had the +advantage of the oratory of Grattan, who, though he had not been in +Parliament since 1797, now purchased a seat for L2,400, and entered +the House in a theatrical manner in the midst of the discussion. But +his vehement and abusive style of declamation could not in debate +be compared with the calm reasoning of Castlereagh. The most able +speeches against the measure were not those of Grattan, but Foster. +Many divisions were taken, the Government majority steadily rising +from forty-two to sixty-five, and comprising an actual majority of +the members of the House. In the House of Lords it was relatively +much larger. But it is constantly affirmed that this majority was only +brought about by bribery and intimidation. The word "bribery" has an +ugly sound; and in such a case as this, it is only fair to examine +what is exactly meant by the term. There is no doubt that compensation +was given to the proprietors of boroughs which were not allowed +representation in the United Parliament; and it is said that as the +return of members to Parliament is a public trust and not a species of +property, this was not a fair matter for pecuniary compensation; hence +it amounted to bribery. But the ownership of boroughs had grown up +insensibly; and they had long been looked upon and treated as private +property, not only in Ireland but in England and Scotland also; and +there were many honest men in all three countries who contended that +the system worked well, as it was the means whereby a large number +of distinguished men obtained their first introduction into public +life--amongst them being Pitt, Canning, and Fox in England, Grattan, +Flood and Plunkett in Ireland. Then in other cases when powers which +had long been regarded as property have been abolished, compensation +has been given. This was the case when the heritable jurisdictions in +Scotland were abolished, and when by the disestablishment of the Irish +Church the right of patrons to nominate to livings was taken away. And +even granting for the sake of argument that this is wrong, is it fair +to call it bribery? Eighty-four places were disfranchised, and a sum +of L1,260,000 (which did not nearly amount to the price which the +boroughs at that time fetched in the market) was paid. Of this, +L67,500 was paid to Englishmen who owned seats in the Irish +Parliament; L60,000 to boroughs who had no owners; L30,000 to the +executors of a deceased owner; L18,750 to two ladies; and +L1,100,000 to Irishmen who owned boroughs--of which L400,000 went to +Anti-Unionists who opposed the Bill. In many cases, of course, the +actual occupant of the seat was a different person from the owner who +received the compensation; for instance, there is reason to believe +that all the fifty barristers in the house had purchased their seats, +but not one of them was the permanent owner. Now, if compensation +is bribery, who was bribed? Really it must be admitted that +on investigation the charge of bribery, so far as it refers to +compensation to borough-owners, falls to the ground. + +Then it is said that the Government made actual payments to members +for their votes. This charge was brought forward in a general way at +the time in both Houses; the Government indignantly denied it, and +called on the Opposition to prove their accusation; but they failed to +do so. To repeat it now is therefore unjust. It may be admitted that +amongst Lord Castlereagh's letters there is one which taken by itself +looks as if a certain sum of money was to be used in bribery; but, +as Dr. Ingram has pointed out, a careful investigation of the matter +shows that it refers to proposed changes in the tariff, and not to +bribery at all. + +Again, it is argued that the lavish distribution of titles amounted +to bribery. If so, it is hard to find any Government in England or +Ireland that has not been to some extent guilty of bribery--though it +is true that no British Premier has ever created peerages or salaried +offices on anything like the scale that Mr. Asquith has done. After +the Bill had passed, Pitt created twenty new Irish peerages and four +English ones; and promoted sixteen peers a step in their order; which +after all is not very much more than Lord North had done in 1779, on +no special occasion, when he had created eighteen Irish peerages and +promoted twelve existing peers. + +As to the charges of intimidation, they may be dismissed at once; the +very few that were brought forward were so completely answered at the +time, that even the Opposition dropped them. The presence of such a +large number of troops in Ireland was quite accounted for by the fact +that the rebellion was still to some extent going on, and that there +was again a danger of a French invasion. + +And I must contend further that even admitting that there were +some acts on the part of the Government which will not bear strict +investigation according to present ideas, it is only fair to remember +the tremendous difficulties of the occasion. The English House of +Commons was almost unanimously in favour of the Union--not more than +thirty members ever voted against it; and in the opinion of Lord +Cornwallis, who throughout his long and varied career showed himself +to be a shrewd observer and an upright, honourable man, "This country +could not be saved without the Union." + +But really the whole discussion is beside the mark. The Nationalists +continually repeat the charge that the Union was carried by fraud; and +so it must be answered; but it has no bearing on anything existing at +the present day. For the old Irish Parliament has disappeared--merged +in the greater and more honourable Assembly of the United Kingdom; and +to revive it now would be a physical impossibility. The whole state +of circumstances has changed; no assembly that could now be formed in +Ireland would bear the faintest resemblance to that which met in the +eighteenth century. As Lecky has well expressed it:-- + + "To an historian of the eighteenth century, however, few + things can be more grotesquely absurd than to suppose that the + merits or demerits, the failure or the successes of the + Irish Parliament has any real bearing on modern schemes for + reconstructing the Government of Ireland on a revolutionary + and Jacobin basis; entrusting the protection of property and + the maintenance of law to some democratic assembly consisting + mainly of Fenians and Land-leaguers, of paid agitators and + of penniless adventurers. The Parliamentary system of the + eighteenth century might be represented in very different + lights by its enemies and by its friends. Its enemies would + describe it as essentially a government carried on through the + instrumentality of a corrupt oligarchy, of a large, compact + body of members holding place and pensions at the pleasure of + the Government, removed by the system of rotten boroughs from + all effectual popular control. Its friends would describe it + as essentially the government of Ireland by the gentlemen of + Ireland and especially the landlord class. + + "Neither representation would be altogether true, but each + contains a large measure of truth. The nature of the Irish + constituencies and the presence in the House of Commons of a + body of pensioners and placemen forming considerably more than + a third of the whole assembly, and nearly half of its active + members, gave the Government a power, which, except under + very rare and extraordinary circumstances, must, if fully + exercised, have been overwhelming ... On the other hand, + the Irish Parliament was a body consisting very largely of + independent country gentlemen, who on nearly all questions + affecting the economical and industrial development of the + country, had a powerful if not a decisive influence ... and + it was in reality only in a small class of political questions + that the corrupt power of government seems to have been + strained. The Irish House of Commons ... comprised the flower + of the landlord class. It was essentially pre-eminently the + representative of the property of the country. It had all the + instincts and the prejudices, but also all the qualities + and the capacities, of an educated propertied class, and it + brought great local knowledge and experience to its task. Much + of its work was of that practical and unobtrusive character + which leaves no trace in history." + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +THE PERIOD FROM THE UNION UNTIL THE REJECTION OF THE FIRST HOME RULE +BILL. + + +As soon as the Union had become law, the opposition to it died down +rapidly. All the members who had voted for it who became candidates +for the Imperial Parliament were elected, and Irish orators soon began +to make their mark in the greater Assembly. In 1805, however, there +was another slight rebellion, led by Robert Emmett. It never had +a chance of success; the mass of the people, thoroughly tired of +anarchy, refused to take part in it; and though the rebels succeeded +in committing a few murders, the movement was speedily quelled, mainly +by the yeomen of Dublin. At the trial of Emmett, Plunket, who had been +a vehement opponent of the Union, was counsel for the prosecution, and +in his speech bitterly denounced the conduct of those men who, +having done their utmost to oppose the Irish Parliament, now made the +abolition of that Parliament the pretext for rebellion. "They call for +revenge," said he, "on account of the removal of the Parliament. These +men, who, in 1798, endeavoured to destroy the Parliament, now +call upon the loyal men who opposed its transfer, to join them in +rebellion; an appeal vain and fruitless." + +It will be observed from statements already quoted, that the +Nationalists of to-day claim that they are the successors of +Emmett; he is counted amongst the heroes who fell in the cause of +Ireland--thus making it all the more clear how wide is the gulf +between the Parliamentary opponents of the Union and the modern +Nationalists. + +During the early part of the century, Ireland had another period of +prosperity. Travellers through Ireland at the present day cannot fail +to notice how many of the country seats (now, in consequence of later +legislation, mostly deserted and already beginning to fall into ruin) +were built at that time. No doubt much of the prosperity was caused +by the rebound which often takes place after a period of anarchy and +desolation; and it would not be fair to attribute it wholly to the +effect of the Union; but at least it proves that the melancholy +prognostications of the opponents of the measure were happily +unfulfilled. The total value of the produce and manufactures exported +from Ireland between 1790 and 1801 amounted to L51,322,620; between +1802 and 1813 it amounted to L63,483,718. In 1800 the population +of Ireland was under 5,000,000; in 1841 it was over 8,000,000. The +tonnage in Irish ports in 1792 was 69,000; by 1797 it had fallen to +53,000; before 1852 it had risen to 5,000,000. The export of linen +in 1796 was 53,000,000 yards; in 1799 it had fallen to 38,000,000; +in 1853 it had risen to 106,000,000; and every other department of +industry and commerce showed figures almost as satisfactory. + +There were, however, three important measures which the leading +advocates of the Union had desired to see carried as soon as possible +after the great change had been effected, but which--as many writers +of various schools of thought to this day consider unfortunately--were +postponed. The first was a provision by the State for the payment of +the Roman Catholic clergy. The bishops had fully expected that this +would be carried. Some modern Nationalists, wishing to win the +favour of the English Nonconformists, have represented that the Roman +Catholic Church refused to accept the money; but that is not the case. +Whether the policy of "levelling up" would have been a wise one +or not, it is useless now to conjecture; for once the policy of +"levelling down" had been decided upon, and the Irish Church had been +disestablished and disendowed, it became impracticable. The second +measure was Roman Catholic emancipation. This had been intended by +Pitt and other statesmen who helped to bring about the Union; but +unforeseen difficulties arose; and unfortunately nothing was done +until the agitation led by O'Connell brought matters to a crisis; +and the emancipation which might have been carried gracefully years +before, and in that case would have strengthened the Union, was +grudgingly yielded in 1829. + +The third measure was a readjustment of tithes. All will now admit, +and very many politicians and thinkers at the time fully realized, +that the old law as to tithes was a cruel injustice; but no change +was made until the opposition to the payment of tithes amounted to +something like civil war, involving a series of murders and outrages. +Then the fatal precedent was set of a successful and violent revolt +against contracts and debts. In 1838 an Act was passed commuting +the tithes into a rent-charge payable not by the occupiers but the +landlords. Some modern writers have argued that the change was merely +a matter of form, as the landlords increased the rents in proportion; +and it seems such a natural thing to have happened that earlier +writers may well be excused for assuming that it actually occurred. +But there is no excuse for repeating the charge now; for in +consequence of recent legislation it has been necessary for the Land +Courts to investigate the history of rents from a period commencing +before 1838; and the result of their examination has elicited the +strange fact that in thousands of cases the rent remained exactly the +same that it had been before the Tithe Commutation Act was passed. + +But ere long economic causes were at work which tended to check the +prosperity of Ireland. It was soon found that the proportion which by +the Act of Union Ireland was to contribute to the Imperial Government +was too large for the country to bear. The funded debt of Ireland +which amounted to L28,000,000 in 1800 rose by 1817 to L130,000,000; +in that year the whole liability was taken over by the Imperial +Government. Then the fall in prices which naturally resulted from +the peace of 1815 pressed heavily on an agricultural community. +Improvements in machinery and the development of steam power squeezed +out the handlooms of Ulster and the watermills of other parts of the +country. Wages were low; and the people who depended mainly on the +potato were underfed and undernourished. In 1846 and 1847 came the +two terrible blows to Ireland--first, the potato disease; and then the +Repeal of the Corn Laws, which made the profitable growing of wheat +with its accompanying industries, impossible. During the fearful years +of the potato famine, it is only too probable that some of the efforts +for relief were unwisely conducted and that some persons sadly failed +in their duties; no measures or men in the world are ever perfect; and +the difficulties not only of obtaining food but of getting it to the +starving people in days when there were few railways and no motors +were enormous. But when modern writers shower wholesale abuse over +the landlords of the period, and even hint that they brought about the +famine, it is well to turn to the writings of an ardent Home Ruler, +who was himself an eye-witness, having lived as a boy through the +famine time in one of the districts that suffered most--Mr. A.M. +Sullivan. He says:-- + + "The conduct of the Irish landlords throughout the famine + period has been variously described, and has been, I believe, + generally condemned. I consider the censure visited on them + too sweeping. I hold it to be in some respects cruelly unjust. + On many of them no blame too heavy could possibly fall. + A large number were permanent absentees; their ranks were + swelled by several who early fled the post of duty at + home--cowardly and selfish deserters of a brave and faithful + people. Of those who remained, some may have grown callous; + it is impossible to contest authentic instances of brutal + heartlessness here and there. But granting all that has to be + entered on the dark debtor side, the overwhelming balance + is the other way. The bulk of the resident Irish landlords + manfully did their best in that dread hour ... No adequate + tribute has ever been paid to the memory of those Irish + landlords--they were men of every party and creed--perished + martyrs to duty in that awful time; who did not fly the + plague-reeking work-houses or fever-tainted court. Their names + would make a goodly roll of honour ... If they did too little + compared with what the landlord class in England would have + done in similar case, it was because little was in their + power. The famine found most of the resident gentry of Ireland + on the brink of ruin. They were heritors of estates heavily + overweighted with the debts of a bygone generation. Broad + lands and lordly mansions were held by them on settlements + and conditions that allowed small scope for the exercise + of individual liberality. To these landlords the failure of + year's rental receipts meant mortgage fore-one and hopeless + ruin. Yet cases might be named by the score in which such men + scorned to avert by pressure on their suffering tenantry the + fate they saw impending over them.... They 'went down with the + ship.'" + +Soon after the famine, the Incumbered Estates Act was passed, by which +the creditors of incumbered landlords could force a sale. This in +effect worked a silent revolution; for whatever might have been said +up to that time about the landed proprietors being the representatives +of those who acquired their estates through the Cromwellian +confiscations, after those proprietors had been forced to sell and the +purchasers had obtained a statutory title by buying in the Court, the +charge became obsolete. The motive of the Act was a good one; it +was hoped that land would thus pass out of the hands of impoverished +owners and be purchased by English capitalists who would be able to +execute improvements on their estates and thus benefit the country +as a whole. But the scheme brought with it disadvantages which the +framers of the Act had not foreseen. The new purchasers had none of +the local feelings of the dispossessed owners; they regarded their +purchases as an investment, which they wished to make as profitable as +possible, and treated the occupants of the land with a harshness which +the old proprietors would never have exercised. Like most things in +Ireland, however, this has been much exaggerated. It is constantly +assumed that the whole soil of Ireland after this belonged to absentee +proprietors who took no interest in the country. That absenteeism is a +great evil to any country, and to Ireland especially, no one can deny; +but a Parliamentary enquiry in 1869 elicited the fact that the number +of landed proprietors in the rural area of Ireland then (and there +is no reason to suppose that any great change had taken place in +the previous eighteen years) was 19,547, of whom only 1,443 could +be described as "rarely or never resident in Ireland"; and these +represented 15.7 per cent. of the rural area, and only 15.1 per cent. +of the total poor-law valuation of that area. + +Between 1841 and 1851 the population of the country fell from +8,200,000 to 6,574,000. The primary causes of this were of course the +famine and the fever which broke out amongst the half-starved people; +but it was also to a large extent caused by emigration. A number +of devoted and noble-hearted men, realizing that it was hopeless to +expect that the potato disease would disappear, and that consequently +the holdings had become "uneconomic" (to use the phrase now so +popular) as no other crop was known which could produce anything +like the same amount of food, saw that the only course to prevent a +continuation of the famine would be to remove a large section of the +people to a happier country. In this good work the Quakers, who had +been untiring in their efforts to relieve distress during the famine, +took a prominent part; and the Government gave assistance. At the +time no one regarded this as anything but a beneficent course; for the +emigrants found better openings in new and rising countries than +they ever could have had at home, and the reduced population, earning +larger wages, were able to live in greater comfort. One evidence of +this has been that mud cabins, which in 1841 had numbered 491,000 +had in 1901 been reduced to 9,000; whilst the best class of houses +increased from 304,000 to 596,000. In 1883 the Roman Catholic bishops +came to the conclusion that matters had gone far enough, and that in +future migration from the poorer to the more favoured districts was +better than emigration from the country; but they did not say anything +against the work that had been done up to that time. Yet a recent +Nationalist writer, wishing to bring every possible charge against the +landlords, has hinted that the total loss of population from 1841 to +1901 was caused by the brutality of the landlords after the famine, +who drove the people out of the country! To show the fallacy of this, +it is sufficient to point out that the powers of the landlords for +good or evil were considerably reduced by the Land Act of 1870, and +after that they were further diminished by each successive Act until +the last shred was taken away by the Act of 1887; yet the population +went down from 5,412,377 in 1871 to 4,453,775 in 1901--the emigration +being larger in proportion from those counties where the National +League was omnipotent than from other parts of Ireland. + +In the early thirties O'Connell commenced his famous agitation for the +Repeal of the Union. After he had disappeared from the scene, his work +was taken up by those of his followers who advocated physical force; +and in 1848 an actual rebellion broke out, headed by Smith O'Brien. It +ended in a ridiculous fiasco. The immediate cause of its failure, as +A.M. Sullivan has pointed out, was that the leaders, in imitation of +the movement of half a century before, endeavoured to eliminate the +religious difficulty and to bring about a rising in which Orange +and Green should be united; but their fight for religious tolerance +exposed them to the charge of infidelity; the Roman Catholic priests +(who now possessed immense political influence) denounced them; and +their antagonism was fatal to the movement. + +But one of the most far-seeing of the party--J.F. Lalor--perceived +that mere repeal would never be strong enough to be a popular cry--it +must be hitched on to some more powerful motive, which could drag it +along. As he clearly explained in his manifesto, his objects were the +abolition of British government and the formation of a National one. +He considered that neither agitation nor the attempt at military +insurrection were likely to attain those objects, but that the wisest +means for that end were the refusal of obedience to usurped authority; +taking quiet possession of all the rights and powers of government and +proceeding to exercise them; and defending the exercise of such powers +if attacked. He saw that the motive power which would carry itself +forward and drag repeal with it, was in the land. He held that the +soil of the country belonged as of right to the entire people of that +country, not to any one class but to the nation--one condition being +essential, that the tenant should bear true and undivided allegiance +to the nation whose land he held, and owe no allegiance whatever to +any other prince, power or people, or any obligation of obedience or +respect to their will, their orders, or their laws. The reconquest +of the liberties of Ireland, he argued, would, even if possible by +itself, be incomplete and worthless, without the reconquest of the +land; whereas the latter, if effected, would involve the former. He +therefore recommended (1) That occupying tenants should at once refuse +to pay all rent except the value of the overplus of harvest produce +remaining in their hands after deducting a full provision for their +own subsistence during the ensuing year; (2) that they should forcibly +resist being made homeless under the English law of ejectment; (3) +that they ought further on principle to refuse _all_ rent to the +present usurping proprietors, until they should in National Convention +decide what rents they were to pay and to whom they should pay them; +and (4) that the people, on grounds of policy and economy, should +decide that those rents should be paid to themselves--the people--for +public purposes for the benefit of the entire general people. In +that way a mighty social revolution would be accomplished, and the +foundation of a national revolution surely laid. + +But these views, though shared by J. Mitchel and other leaders, were +not at the time generally adopted; and the next agitations were more +distinctly political than agrarian. The Fenian movement of 1865--1867, +the avowed object of which was the establishment of an independent +republic, arose in America, where it was cleverly devised and ably +financed. In Ireland it met with little sympathy except in the towns; +and the attempted outbreaks, both there and in Canada, were dismal +failures. Two of their efforts in England, however, led to important +results. Gladstone made the remarkable statement that it was their +attempt to blow up Clerkenwell prison that enabled him to carry +the Act for the Disestablishment of the Irish Church. Many years +afterwards, when this encouragement to incendiarism had done its work, +he denied that he had ever said so; but there is no doubt that he did. + +Here I must digress for a moment to refer to the position of the Irish +Church. By the Act of Union it had been provided that the Churches of +England and Ireland as then by law established should be united, and +that the continuation and preservation of the United Church should be +deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental part of the Union; +and at the time of the agitation for Catholic emancipation the Roman +Catholic Bishops of Ireland solemnly declared that their Church +would never attempt to destroy the Protestant Establishment. This is +interesting as showing how futile are the attempts of one generation +to bind posterity by legislation; and how foolish it is to expect +that men will regard themselves as bound by promises made by their +ancestors. (The same remark may be made with reference to the promises +now being made by Nationalists as to the Home Rule Bill.) The general +provisions of the Disestablishment Act were simple. Existing clergy +were secured in their incomes for life; the disestablished Church +was allowed to claim all churches then in actual use, and to purchase +rectory houses and glebes at a valuation; and a sum of L500,000 was +given to the Church in lieu of all private endowments. Everything +else--even endowments given by private persons a few years before the +Act was passed--was swept away. The members of the Church showed a +liberality which their opponents never anticipated. They bought the +glebes, continued to pay their clergy by voluntary assessments, and +collected a large sum of money towards a future endowment. Nationalist +writers now state that the Act left the Irish Church with an income +adequate to its needs and merely applied the surplus revenues to other +purposes; and hint that the capital sum now possessed by the Church +really came from the State, and that therefore the future Home Rule +Government can deal with it as they please. The alarm felt by Irish +Churchmen at the prospect can be understood. + +The other Fenian attempt in England which has historical importance +was of a different kind. Two Fenian prisoners were being conveyed in a +prison van at Manchester. Their friends tried to rescue them by force; +and in the attempt killed the officer in charge. For this crime, three +of them--Allen, Larkin and O'Brien--were tried, convicted and hanged +in November 1867. These were the "Manchester Martyrs," in honour of +whose unflinching fidelity to faith and country (to quote the words +of Archbishop Croke) so many memorial crosses have been erected, +and solemn demonstrations are held every year to this day. At the +unveiling of the memorial cross at Limerick the orator said: "Allen, +Larkin and O'Brien died as truly for the cause of Irish Nationality as +did any of the heroes of Irish history. The same cause nerved the arms +of the brave men of '98, of '48, of '65 and '67. For the cause that +had lived so long they would not take half measures--nothing else +would satisfy them than the full measure of Nationality for which they +and their forefathers had fought." + +Meanwhile another movement was going on, which seems to have been at +first wholly distinct from the Fenian conspiracy--the constitutional +agitation for Home Rule or Repeal, led by Isaac Butt. It commenced its +Parliamentary action in 1874; but was ere long broken up by the more +violent spirits within its own ranks. As had so frequently happened in +similar movements in Ireland, France and elsewhere, the moderate +men were thrust aside, and the extremists carried all before them. +Fenianism, though apparently crushed in Ireland, continued to flourish +in America. Michael Davitt, who had been a prominent member both of +the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood and of the Fenian Society, had +been convicted of treason felony, and sentenced to penal servitude. On +his release in 1877, he was received as a hero, and amongst those who +took part in the welcome to him were C.S. Parnell, J.G. Biggar, J. +Carey, D. Curley and J. Brady. He went to America and there matured +the plan of his operations on the lines laid down by Lalor, which he +proceeded to carry out in Ireland in 1879 by means of a Society which +was at first called the "Land League" but which has since been known +by various other names. Amongst his allies were J. Devoy, O'Donovan +Rossa, and Patrick Ford. Devoy and Rossa took an active part in +establishing the Skirmishing Fund, which was subscribed for the +purpose of levying war on England with dynamite. Rossa afterwards +publicly boasted that he had placed an infernal machine onboard H.M.S. +"Dottrell," and had sent it and all its crew to the bottom of the +ocean. As a reward for his patriotic conduct he was some years later +granted a pension by the County Council of Cork, payable out of the +rates. Ford was the ablest and most powerful of the number, for by +means of his paper--the _Irish World_--he collected vast sums for the +Parliamentary party. In this paper he strongly advocated the use of +dynamite as a blessed agent which should be availed of by the Irish +people in their holy war; and elaborated a scheme for setting fire to +London in fifty places on a windy night. After D. Curley and J. Brady +had been hanged for the murder of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. +Burke, he collected money for a testimonial to them as heroes, and +prayed that God would send Ireland more men with hearts like that of +J. Brady. Mr. Redmond has recently described him as "the grand old +veteran, who through his newspaper has done more for the last thirty +or forty years for Ireland than almost any man alive"; Mr. T.P. +O'Connor has congratulated him on the great work he is doing for +Ireland; and Mr. Devlin has eulogized him for "the brilliancy in the +exposition of the principles inculcated in our programme." + +By 1880 the union between the Dynamite party in America (which bore +many names, such as the Fenian Society, the Irish Revolutionary +Brotherhood, the Invincibles, the Clan-na-gael, and the Physical +Force party, but was essentially the same movement throughout), the +constitutional agitators for Home Rule in Parliament, and the Land +Leaguers in Ireland, was complete. It was but natural that it should +be so, for their objects were the same, though their methods differed +according to circumstances. The American party (according to their own +statements) desired the achievement of a National Parliament so as +to give them a footing on Irish soil--to give them the agencies and +instrumentalities for a Government _de facto_ at the very commencement +of the Irish struggle--to give them the plant of an armed revolution. +Hence they gladly contributed large sums for the Parliamentary Fund. +Parnell, the leader of the Parliamentary party, stated that a true +revolutionary movement should partake of a constitutional and +an illegal character; it should be both an open and a secret +organization, using the constitution for its own purpose and also +taking advantage of the secret combination; and (as the judges at the +Parnell Commission reported) the Land League was established with the +intention of bringing about the independence of Ireland as a separate +nation. + +In the preceding autumn the agitation against the payment of rent had +begun; and persons of ordinary intelligence could see that a fresh +outbreak of anarchy was imminent. But Gladstone, when coming into +power in March 1880, assumed that air of easy optimism which his +successors in more recent times have imitated; and publicly stated +that there was in Ireland an absence of crime and outrage and a +general sense of comfort and satisfaction such as had been unknown +in the previous history of the country. His Chief Secretary, Forster, +however, had not been long in Ireland before he realized that this +was the dream of a madman; and that the Government must either act or +abdicate in favour of anarchy; but the Cabinet refused to support him. +Before the end of the year the Government had practically abdicated, +and the rule of the Land League was the only form of Government in +force in a large part of the country. The name of the unfortunate +Captain Boycott will be for ever associated with the means the League +employed to enforce their orders. What those means were, was explained +by Gladstone himself:-- + + "What is meant by boycotting? In the first place it is + combined intimidation. In the second place, it is combined + intimidation made use of for the purpose of destroying the + private liberties of choice by fear of ruin and starvation. In + the third place, that which stands in the rear of boycotting + and by which alone boycotting can in the long run be made + thoroughly effective is the murder which is not to be + denounced." + +And a few years later--1886--the Official Report of the Cowper +Commission stated it more fully:-- + + "The people are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for + its success on the probability of outrage, than they are of + the judgments of the Courts of Justice. The unwritten law in + some districts is supreme. We deem it right to call attention + to the terrible ordeal that a boycotted person has to undergo, + which was by several witnesses graphically described during + the progress of our enquiry. The existence of a boycotted + person becomes a burden to him, as none in town or village are + allowed, under a similar penalty to themselves, to supply him + or his family with the necessaries of life. He is not allowed + to dispose of the produce of his farm. Instances have been + brought before us in which his attendance at divine service + was prohibited, in which his cattle have been, some killed, + some barbarously mutilated; in which all his servants and + labourers were ordered and obliged to leave him; in which the + most ordinary necessaries of life and even medical comforts, + had to be procured from long distances; in which no one + would attend the funeral, or dig a grave for, a member of a + boycotted person's family; and in which his children have been + forced to discontinue attendance at the National School of the + district." + +This was the ordinary form of Government as conducted by the +Nationalists; and any attempt to interfere with it and to enforce the +milder laws of England, is now denounced as "coercion." + +In 1881 Gladstone carried another and a more far-reaching Land Act. To +put it shortly, it may be said that all agricultural land (except that +held by leaseholders, who were brought in under the Act of 1887) +was handed over to the occupiers for ever (with free power of sale), +subject only to the payment of rent--the rent not being that which the +tenants had agreed to pay, but that which a Land Court decided to Be +a "fair rent." This was to last for fifteen years, at the end of which +time the tenant might again claim to have a fair rent fixed, and so +_ad infinitum_. The Land Court in most cases cut down the rent by +about 20 or 25 per cent.; and at the end of fifteen years did the +same again. As tithes (which had been secularized but not abolished), +mortgages and family charges remained unchanged, the result was that +a large proportion of landlords were absolutely ruined; in very many +cases those who appear as owners now have no beneficial interest in +their estates. + +In examining the Act calmly, one must observe in the first place that +it was a wholesale confiscation of property. Not of course one +that involved the cruelty of confiscations of previous ages, but a +confiscation all the same. For if A. bought a farm in the Incumbered +Estates Court, with a Parliamentary title, and let it to B. for twenty +years at a rent of L100; and the Act gave B. the right of occupying it +for ever subject to the payment of L50 a year, and selling it for any +price he liked, that can only mean the transfer of property from A. to +B. Secondly, the Act encouraged bad farming; for a tenant knew that +if his land got into a slovenly state--with drains stopped up, fences +broken down, and weeds growing everywhere--the result would be that +the rent would be reduced by the Commissioners at the end of the +fifteen years; as the Commissioners did not go into the question of +whose the fault was, but merely took estimates as to what should be +the rent of the land in its actual condition. That farms were in many +instances intentionally allowed to go to decay with this object, has +been proved; and this pressed hard on the labouring class, as less +employment was given. Thirdly, although the remission of debt may +bring prosperity for a time, it may be doubted whether it will +permanently benefit the country; for it will be noticed that the +attempt to fix prices arbitrarily applied only to the letting and +hiring and not to other transactions. To give a typical instance of +what has occurred in many cases: a tenant held land at a rent of L1. +15s. 0d. per acre; he took the landlord into Court, swore that the +land could not bear such a rent, and had it reduced to L1. 5s. 0d.; +thereupon he sold it for L20 an acre; and so the present occupier had +to pay L1. 5s. 0d. to the nominal landlord, and the interest on the +purchase-money (about L1 per acre) to a mortgagee; in fact, he has +to pay a larger sum annually than any previous tenant did; and this +payment is "rent" in the economic sense though it is paid not to a +resident landlord but to a distant mortgagee. In other words, rent +was increased, and absenteeism became general. Fourthly, it sowed +the seeds for future trouble; for it was the temporary union of two +antagonistic principles. On the one hand it was said that "the man who +tills the land should own it," and therefore rent was an unjust +tax (in fact it was seriously argued that men of English and Scotch +descent who had hired farms in the nineteenth century had a moral +right to keep them for ever rent free because tribal tenure had +prevailed amongst the Celts who occupied the country many hundreds of +years before); on the other it was said that the land belonged to the +people of Ireland as a whole and not to any individuals. If that is +so, what right has one man to a large farm when there are hundreds of +others in a neighbouring town who have no land at all? The passing of +the Land Acts of 1881 and 1887 made it inevitable that sooner or later +a fresh agitation would be commenced by "landless men." And fifthly, +when an excitable, uneducated people realize that lawlessness and +outrages will be rewarded by an Act remitting debts and breaking +contracts, they are not likely in future to limit their operations +to land, but will apply the same maxims to other contracts. The +demoralizing of character is a fact to be taken into consideration. + +However, the Act was passed; and if Gladstone really imagined that +it would satisfy the Nationalist party he must have been grievously +disappointed. During 1881, 4,439 agrarian outrages were recorded. The +Government declared the Land League to be illegal, and lodged some of +the leaders in gaol. Thereupon Ford, carrying out the plan laid down +by Lalor in 1848, issued his famous "No Rent" proclamation. It was not +generally acted upon; but his party continued active, and in May 1882 +Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke (the Chief and Under Secretary) +were murdered in the Phoenix Park. This led to the passing of the +Crimes Prevention Act, by which the detectives were enabled to secure +evidence against the conspirators, many of whom (as is usual in Irish +history) turned Queen's evidence. The Act was worked with firmness; +and outrages, which had numbered 2,507 during the first half of 1882, +fell to 836 in the latter half, to 834 in 1883, and to 774 in 1884. + +In the autumn of 1885, Gladstone, expecting to return to power at +the ensuing election, besought the electors to give him a majority +independent of the Irish vote. In this he failed; and thereupon took +place the "Great Surrender." He suddenly discovered that everything +he had said and done up to that time had been wrong; that boycotting, +under the name of "exclusive dealing," was perfectly justifiable; +that the refusal to pay rent was just the same as a strike of workmen +(ignoring the obvious facts that when workmen strike they cease both +to give their labour and to receive pay, whereas the gist of the "No +Rent" movement was that tenants, whilst ceasing to pay, should retain +possession of the farms they have hired; and that a strike arises from +a dispute between employers and employed--usually about rates of pay +or length of hours; whereas Ford's edict that no rent was to be paid +was issued not in consequence of anything that individual landlords +had done, but because Gladstone had put the leaders of the Land League +in gaol); that the men whom he had previously denounced as "marching +through rapine to the dismemberment of the Empire" were heroes who +deserved to be placed in charge of the government of the country; and +introduced his first Home Rule Bill. Some of his followers went with +him; others refused. His life-long ally, John Bright, said: "I cannot +trust the peace and interests of Ireland, north and south, to the +Irish Parliamentary party, to whom the Government now propose to +make a general surrender. My six years' experience of them, of their +language in the House of Commons and their deeds in Ireland, makes it +impossible for me to consent to hand over to them the property and +the rights of five millions of the Queen's subjects, our +fellow-countrymen, in Ireland. At least two millions of them are as +loyal as the population of your town, and I will be no party to a +measure which will thrust them from the generosity and justice of the +United and Imperial Parliament." + +The Bill was rejected; at the general election which ensued the people +of England declared against the measure; Gladstone resigned, and Lord +Salisbury became Prime Minister. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE UNIONIST GOVERNMENT OF 1886. + + +The Unionists, on returning to power in 1886, fully realized the +difficulty of the problem with which they were faced. The Nationalists +held a great Convention at Chicago, at which they resolved to make +use of the Land League not merely for the purpose of exterminating +landlords but as a means for promoting universal disorder and so +bringing about a paralysis of the law. As J. Redmond stated at the +Convention: "I assert that the government of Ireland by England is an +impossibility, and I believe it to be our duty to make it so." And, as +he afterwards explained in Ireland, he considered that if the Tories +were able to carry on the government with the ordinary law, the +cause of Home Rule might be set back for a generation; but if the +Nationalists could succeed in making such government impossible, and +the Tories were obliged to have recourse to coercion, the people +of Great Britain would turn them out of office, and Gladstone would +return to power and carry Home Rule. (This avowed determination on the +part of the Nationalists to reduce the country to anarchy should be +borne in mind when people now express their horror at the Ulstermen +being guilty of such conduct as breaking the law.) With this object, +the Nationalists in 1887 organized the "Plan of Campaign," which +was in fact an elaboration of the "No Rent" manifesto of 1881, and +a scheme for carrying out, step by step, the programme laid down by +Lalor in 1848. One of Lalor's adherents had been a young priest named +Croke. By 1887 he had become Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cashel. He +had considered the "No Rent" manifesto inopportune; but now formally +sanctioned the "Plan of Campaign," and in a violent letter urged that +it should be extended to a general refusal to pay taxes. The Plan +was also approved by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and the +leaders of the Nationalist movement in Ireland and America, such as +J. Dillon and Ford; but Parnell seemed doubtful, and in England the +_Daily News_ denounced it. + +However, the Unionist Government had decided on their policy, which +they were determined to carry through. The main items of their +programme were (1) To enforce the law; (2) To facilitate land +purchase; (3) To develop the industries of the country; and (4) To +extend local government. It is well to examine these in detail, so as +to arrive at a just estimate of the two rival policies. + +(i) The Crimes Prevention Act passed by Gladstone in 1882 had lapsed, +having been limited to a period of three years. Mr. Balfour (who had +become Chief Secretary) was of opinion that the continual passing of +temporary measures was a mistake (as some one has said, it was like +a man burning his umbrella every fine day and then complaining of the +expense of buying so many new ones), as was shown by the fact that the +Irish Parliament had passed fifty-four of such Acts in the seventeen +years of its independent existence. He therefore, in spite of vehement +opposition from the combined forces of the English Radicals and +the Irish Nationalists, carried the Crimes Act of 1887, which was +a permanent measure, to be put in force in disturbed districts by +proclamation when necessary. This was the famous "Coercion Act" +which has been the subject of so much violent denunciation. But in +considering the matter, one must ask, What Government has there ever +been in the world that did not employ force in the carrying out of the +law? It is true that in the early days of New Zealand Mr. Busby was +sent out as a Commissioner with no means of enforcing his orders; +but the only result was that he was laughed at by the natives as "a +man-of-war without guns"; and no one can say that the scheme was a +success. In fact, how can a law be a law unless it is enforced? The +Act does not make anything a crime that was not a crime before; it +merely provides a shorter form of procedure when a district is so +completely terrorized by an illegal association that injured persons +dare not make complaints, witnesses dare not give evidence, and juries +dare not convict. This, as we have seen, had been the case in parts +of Ireland at the beginning of the rebellion of 1798; and the +Nationalists, who claimed to be the modern representatives of the +rebels of that time, had succeeded in bringing about the same state of +things. In some of its most stringent provisions the Act is a copy of +the Police Act permanently in force in London; yet ordinary residents +in the Metropolis do not seem to groan much under its tyranny, nor do +the Radicals propose to repeal it. + +And certainly the Act has worked satisfactorily from the point of +view of those who desire to see the country in a state of peace and +prosperity, though disastrously in the opinion of those who aim at +making government impossible. Between July, 1887, when the Act came +into force, and the end of the year, 628 persons were prosecuted, of +whom 378 were convicted and 37 held to bail. In 1888 there were 1,475 +prosecutions, 907 convictions, and 175 persons required to find bail. +By 1891 (the last full year of Unionist Government) crime had sunk so +rapidly that in that year there were only 243 persons prosecuted, +of whom 105 were convicted, and 81 held to bail. In 1901 (when the +Unionists were again in power) there were 29 prosecutions and 22 +convictions. In 1902 there was a revival of crime; the Act was again +brought into operation, with much the same result as before--there +were 157 prosecutions, 104 convictions, and 17 persons were held to +bail. In 1903 there were 3 prosecutions and 3 convictions. + +(2) _Land Purchase_. The Unionist Government considered that the dual +ownership set up by the Act of 1881 would be a constant source of +trouble, and that its working could not be for the benefit of the +country. They believed that the best solution of the land question +would be a system of purchase whereby the occupiers would become +owners. This of course was entirely opposed to the wishes of the +Nationalists; for if the land question was settled, the motive power +which was to carry separation with it, would be gone. + +Some efforts in the direction of Land Purchase had been made in 1870 +(at the instance of Mr. Bright) and in 1881; but nothing was done on +a large scale until 1885, when the "Ashbourne Act" was passed; +and various further steps were taken by the Unionist Government, +culminating in the great "Wyndham Act" of 1903. By the earlier Acts, +73,858 tenants became owners; by the Wyndham Act, 253,625. As the +total number of agricultural tenants of Ireland amounted to slightly +under 600,000, it will be seen that more than half of them have now +purchased their holdings. To explain the general principles of the +Act, it is sufficient to say that when the landlord and tenants of +an estate agree to a sale, the Government advance the money, and +the tenant purchasers undertake to repay it by annual instalments +extending over a period of 68 years. As these annual payments must be +less than the existing rent as fixed by the Land Court under the Act +of 1881, the purchasing tenant has no ground for complaint; and though +the income of the landlord is reduced by the sale, he is freed from +further anxiety; and besides, the Government give a bonus to the +vendor from Imperial funds. It will be seen at once that the scheme +would have been impossible under Home Rule; for the English Government +had by the end of March 1911, agreed to advance the enormous sum of +nearly L118,000,000; an amount which no Irish Government could have +raised except at such an exorbitant rate of interest that it would +have been out of the question. On the other hand, England has become +the creditor of the new Irish landowners for this vast amount; and +in the event of Separation a serious difficulty may arise as to its +repayment. + +It may interest readers in the Colonies to learn that the Government +thoughtfully passed a Registration of Titles Act in 1891; so that the +Irish purchasers under the various Land Acts have the benefits which +were first introduced in Australia by Sir Robert Torrens. + +The Act of 1903 had the cordial support of a small minority of +Nationalists; but to the majority it was gall and wormwood. Hence Mr. +Birrell, when he became Chief Secretary, threw every obstacle he could +into the way of its working; and in 1909 he passed a new measure, +under which land purchase has practically ceased. + +(3)_The development of the Industries of the Country_. That has of +course taken various forms, of which only a few can be mentioned here. +By the Light Railways (for which the country has to thank Mr. Balfour +himself) remote and hitherto inaccessible districts have been brought +into touch with the rest of the world; and by an expenditure of +L2,106,000 the railway mileage of Ireland has been increased from +2,643 miles in 1890 to 3,391 in 1906. Then it is hardly too much to +say that the Labourers' Cottages Act, and the grants made under it, +have transformed the face of the country. + +By this Act, District Councils are enabled, in localities where +accommodation for labourers is insufficient, to take land compulsorily +and erect cottages, the money advanced by the Government for the +purpose being gradually repaid by the ratepayers. The wretched hovels +which were the disgrace of Ireland from the dawn of history until a +period within living memory, have almost disappeared; and comfortable, +sanitary and pleasing dwellings have taken their place. + +Even this excellent Act, however, is now used by the Nationalists to +further their own objects. One instance may suffice. In 1907 a farmer +fell under the ban of the League and was ordered to be boycotted. The +District Council found that one occupant of a "Labourer's Cottage" +disregarded the order and continued to work for the boycotted farmer. +They promptly evicted him. What would be said in England if a Tory +landlord evicted a cottager for working for a Radical farmer? + +But even more important than these measures has been the establishment +of the Department of Agriculture. The success of this has been due to +the ability, energy and unselfishness of Sir Horace Plunkett. The main +object of the Department was to instruct the farming classes in the +most effective methods of agriculture and the industries connected +with it. This by itself would have been a great work; but Sir Horace +has also founded the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, to +encourage co-operative organization amongst farmers, based on +the principle of mutual help; and the success of this, worked in +conjunction with the Department, has been marvellous. More than nine +hundred local societies have been established, for the promotion of +industries such as dairying and poultry farming; co-operative credit +banks have been formed, based on what is known in Germany as the +Raffeisen system. The turnover of these societies in 1908 amounted +to more than L2,250,000. Agricultural Organization Societies, in +imitation of the Irish one, have been formed in England and Scotland; +and so far did its fame reach that the Americans sent over an agent to +enquire into its working. + +Of course it is unfair to attribute the prosperity or the decline of +a country to any one measure; and more than that, it is only by taking +into consideration a number of circumstances and a long term of years +that we can decide whether prosperity is real or merely transitory. +But that Ireland increased in prosperity under the influence of +the Unionist Government, cannot be denied; indeed Mr. Redmond, when +shepherding the Eighty Club (an English Radical Society) through +Ireland in 1911, did not deny the prosperity of the country, and could +only suggest that the same reforms would have been introduced and +better carried out under an Irish Parliament--regardless of the facts +that no Nationalist Government could have found the money for +them; and that Nationalists are orators and politicians, not men +of business. The combined value of exports and imports rose from +104,000,000 in 1904 to 125,000,000 in 1909; and the gross receipts on +railways from L4,140,000 to L11,335,000. The deposits in savings banks +rose from L3,128,000 in 1888 to L10,627,000 in 1908. The tonnage +of shipping in Irish ports was 11,560,000 in 1900; in 1910 it was +13,475,000. + +Sir Horace had done his utmost to prevent the curse of political +strife from entering into his agricultural projects. He had been +careful to appoint Nationalists to some of the most important offices +in his Department, and to show no more favour to one part of the +country than another. But all in vain; the National League, when their +friends returned to power, at once resolved to undo his labours, some +of them openly saying that the increased attention devoted to +trade and agriculture was turning men's thoughts away from the more +important work of political agitation. Mr. T.W. Russell, a man totally +ignorant of agricultural affairs, whose only claim to the office was +that he was a convert to Nationalism, was appointed in place of +Sir Horace. He promptly declined to continue to the Agricultural +Organization Society the support which it had previously received +from the Department; and, with the aid of the United Irish League, +succeeded in preventing the Society from receiving a grant from the +Board of Agriculture similar to those given to the English and Scotch +societies; threw discredit on the Co-operative Credit Banks, and +denounced the Co-operative Farming Societies as injurious to local +shopkeepers. And thus he made it clear that it is impossible in +Ireland to conduct even such a business as the development of +agriculture without stirring up political bitterness. + +Another effort of Mr. Balfour's--the establishment of the Congested +Districts Board--has had a strange and instructive history. It was +established in 1891. Mr. Balfour decided to entrust to a small body of +Irishmen, selected irrespective of party considerations, the task of +making an experiment as to what could be done to relieve the poorest +parts of Ireland; and with this object, the Board, though endowed with +only small funds, were given the widest powers over the area within +which they were to operate. They were empowered to take such steps as +they thought proper for (1) Aiding migration or emigration from the +congested districts, and settling the migrant or emigrant in his +new home; and (2) Aiding and developing agriculture, forestry, +and breeding of live stock and poultry, weaving, spinning, fishing +(including the construction of piers and harbours, and supplying +fishing boats and gear and industries subservient to and connected +with fishing), and any other suitable industries. Both the powers and +the revenues of the Board were increased from time to time, until by +1909 its annual expenditure amounted to nearly L250,000. It became +clear almost at the beginning of its labours that amongst the many +difficulties which the Board would have to face there were two +pre-eminent ones; if it was desired to enlarge uneconomic holdings by +removing a part of the population to other districts, the people to be +removed might not wish to go; and the landless men in the district to +which they were to be removed might say that they had a better right +to the land than strangers from a distance, and the result might be a +free fight. As the only chance of success for the labours of the Board +was the elimination of party politics, Mr. J. Morley, on becoming +Chief Secretary in the Gladstonian Government of 1892, appointed as +Commissioners Bishop O'Donnell of Raphoe (the Patron of the Ancient +Order of Hibernians, and a Trustee of the Parliamentary Fund of the +United Irish League); and the Rev. D. O'Hara, a leading Clerical +Nationalist of a violent type. It is needless to say that under their +influence the action of the Board has been conducted on strictly +Nationalist lines. One instance may suffice. In 1900, the Board, +having come into the possession of the Dillon estate, wished to sell +it to the tenants; and when doing so, considering the sporting rights +to be a valuable asset, decided to reserve them. A considerable number +of the tenants expressed their readiness to purchase their holdings +subject to the reservation. The Board received an offer of L11,000 +for the mansion, demesne and sporting rights over the estate. The +reservation of sporting rights when, taking the whole estate, they +were of pecuniary value, had been the common practice of the Board in +other sales; but an agitation was at once got up (not by the tenants) +against the reservation in this case, on the ground that it was not +right for the Board to place any burden on the fee simple of the +holdings; the offer of L11,000 was refused, and soon afterwards the +Board sold the mansion and the best part of the demesne to a community +of Belgian nuns for L2,100. The sporting rights, which became the +property of the purchasing tenants, ceased to be of any appreciable +pecuniary value, though in a few cases the tenants succeeded in +selling their share of them for small sums to local agitators. When a +witness before the Royal Commission of 1906 ventured to point out that +the taxpayers thus lost L8,900 by the transaction, he was severely +rebuked by the Clerical members of the Commission for suggesting +that the presence of the Belgian nuns was not a great benefit to the +neighbourhood. + +This Royal Commission was appointed ostensibly for the purpose of +enquiring into and reporting upon the operations of the Board since +its foundation. After going through a mass of evidence, the Chairman +(Lord Dudley) said that the Board had tried for twenty years to +develop new industries and had failed; and another member (Lord +MacDonnell) said that it had only touched the fringe of the question; +and, considering that in spite of all its efforts at promoting local +industries, emigration continued to be greater from the district +subject to its control than from any other part of Ireland, it is hard +to see what other view was possible. But the large majority of the +Commission were ardent Nationalists--in fact, one of them a short time +before his appointment had publicly advocated an absolute, rigorous, +complete and exhaustive system of boycotting; and the witness who +spoke for the United Irish League told the Commission that it was the +strong view of the League that the Board should be preserved. It was +only natural therefore that the Commission should report that in their +opinion the powers and scope of its operations should be extended and +its income largely increased. This was accordingly done by the Birrell +Act of 1909. One of the most important functions of the Board was +the purchase of land, for which they possessed compulsory powers. The +witness who had appeared before the Commission as representing the +United Irish League was Mr. FitzGibbon, Chairman of the Roscommon +County Council, and now a Member of Parliament. He had previously been +sent to prison for inciting to the Plan of Campaign, and for criminal +conspiracy. He had also taken a leading part in the cattle-driving +agitation (to which I shall refer later) and had announced that his +policy was "to enable the Board to get land at fag-end prices." He +was therefore appointed by Mr. Birrell to be a member of the Board, as +being a suitable person to decide what compensation should be paid +for land taken compulsorily. He publicly stated that his object was to +carry out the great work of Michael Davitt. And he certainly has been +active in doing so; and now the agitators, when they want to have an +estate transferred to the Board, commence by preventing its being +let or used, and so compelling the owner to leave it derelict +and unprofitable; then, when by every description of villainy and +boycotting it has been rendered almost worthless, the Congested +Districts Board (who have carefully lain by until then) step in with +a preposterous offer which the unfortunate owner has no choice but +to accept. This may appear strong language to use with reference to +a Government Department presided over by Roman Catholic bishops and +priests; but the words are not mine; they are taken from the judgment +of Mr. Justice Ross, in the case of the Browne Estate. + +At any rate, whatever else the Congested Districts Board may have +achieved, they have done one good thing; they have shown to Unionists +in Ireland what the principles of justice are by which the Nationalist +Government will be conducted. + +(4) The fourth division of the Unionist policy was the extension of +local government. By the Act of 1898 County and District Councils were +formed, like those which had been existing in England for a few +years previously; and the powers of the old Grand Juries (who it +was admitted had done their work well, but were now objected to on +principle as not being elected bodies) were abolished. The importance +of the measure can hardly be overestimated; for not only did it +re-organize local government on what would elsewhere be a democratic +but is in Ireland a Clerical basis; but also it may be described as +Home Rule on a small scale. By examining into the practical working of +the scheme we may form an idea as to what Home Rule is likely to be; +and both parties refer to it as a ground for their opinion. It is +curious now to note that it was Gerald Balfour, the Unionist Chief +Secretary, who, when introducing the measure, appealed to the Irish +gentry not to stand aloof from the new order of things, but to seek +from the suffrages of their fellow-citizens that position which no +others were so well qualified to fill as themselves--in much the same +way that English Radical orators now accuse the Ulstermen of want +of patriotism when they declare that they will never take part in a +Nationalist Government. The Nationalists were of course loud in their +protestations that in the noble work of local government all narrow +political and sectarian bitterness would be put aside, and all +Irishmen irrespective of creed, class or party would be welcome to +take part--just as they are now when they promise the same about the +National Parliament. Thus J. Redmond said: + + "No man's politics or religion will be allowed to be a bar + to him if he desires to serve his country on one of the + new bodies. Men of different creeds, who have had an almost + impassable gulf between them all their lives, will be brought + together for the first time in the working of this scheme of + Local Government.... On every one of the juries in Ireland + there have been county gentlemen who have shown the greatest + aptitude for business, the greatest industry, and the greatest + ability; and I say it would be a monstrous thing if, by + working the election of these County Councils on narrow + sectarian or political lines, men of that class were excluded + from the service of their country." + +And another Nationalist Member added: "We are anxious for the +co-operation of those who have leisure, wealth and knowledge." Irish +Unionists who refused to believe these assurances were denounced by +Nationalists as bigots and humbugs. The value of the assurances of +1912 may be gauged by the manner in which those of 1898 have been +fulfilled. At the election of 1899 a few Protestants and Unionists +were returned. But the general feeling of the newly-formed Councils +may be gathered from the following resolution which was passed by the +Mayo County Council in that year: + + "That we, the members of the Mayo County Council, congratulate + the gallant Boers on their brilliant defeats of the troops + of the pirate Saxon. That we hope that a just Providence will + strengthen the arms of these farmer fighters in their brave + struggle for their independence. And we trust that as Babylon + fell, and as Rome fell, so also may fall the race and nation + whose creed is the creed of greed, and whose god is the god of + Mammon." + +And by 1902, when the next triennial elections were coming on, +the mask was thrown off. The _Freeman's Journal_ (the principal +Nationalist organ) said:-- + + "In every County or District Council where a landlord, however + amiable, or personally estimable, offers himself for election, + the answer of the majority must be the same: 'No admittance + here.'" +And J. Redmond stated the case still more plainly: + + "We have in our hands a weapon recently won, the full force + of which is not yet, I believe, thoroughly understood by + the English Government or by ourselves. I mean the weapon + of freely-elected County Councils and District Councils who + to-day form a network of National organizations all over + Ireland, and who to-morrow, I doubt not, if the other + organizations were struck, would be willing to come forward + and take their place, and, in their Council Chambers, carry on + the National work." + +Pledges in the following form were presented for signature to all +candidates by the United Irish League (except of course in north-east +Ulster):-- + + "I ---- hereby pledge myself, if elected to represent the ---- + Division on the County Council, to promote the interests of + the United Irish League, and to resign my position whenever + called upon to do so by the ---- Divisional Executive." + +So completely has the policy been carried out that by 1911, to +quote the words of Mr. FitzGibbon, M.P. (to whom I have previously +referred):-- + + "There was not a landlord in the country who could get his + agent returned as District Councillor or County Councillor, + or even his eldest son or himself. The Organization had + emancipated the people; it had given them the power which + their enemies had wielded; it had cleared the road for + Ireland's freedom." + +At present Unionists and Nationalists are pretty evenly divided in the +County Councils of Ulster; in the other three Provinces amongst 703 +County Councillors there are only fifteen Unionists. In other words, +the Act has enabled the Nationalist party to carry out the plan laid +down by Lalor of taking quiet and peaceable possession of all +the rights and powers of government, as a stepping-stone towards +Independence. + +Of course it may be said with much truth that if the large majority of +the people are Nationalists they are perfectly justified in choosing +Nationalists as their representatives. But that is not the point. The +real point is that in spite of the protestations of the Nationalists +at the time of the passing of the Act, politics in their bitterest +form have been brought in, and the Unionist minority have been +deprived of all share in the local government of the country. + +To illustrate this still further, I may add that a General Council +of County Councils was formed in 1900, for the purpose of promoting a +fair and equitable administration of the Act. In order that the Ulster +Councils might unite with the others, it was agreed that politics +should be excluded. But after the election of 1902, that agreement +was abandoned; and, rather than take part in what had become a mere +political gathering, the Ulster representatives withdrew. Left +to themselves, the Nationalist General Council in 1906 passed the +following resolution:-- + + "That the Irish people are a free people, with a natural right + to govern themselves; that no Parliament is competent to make + such laws for Ireland except an Irish Parliament, sitting in + Dublin; and that the claim by other bodies of men to make laws + for us to govern Ireland is illegal, unconstitutional, and at + variance with the rights of the people." + +If such a body as the General Council of County Councils pass a +resolution like this, is there much probability that the Nationalist +Parliament will refrain from doing the same, should the Imperial +Parliament attempt to exercise the power given to it by the present +Bill, and to legislate for Ireland? + +But again it may be said that though the Councils have thus become +political bodies, they have conducted their business so admirably +that their conduct is a powerful argument to show that a Nationalist +Parliament will be equally practical and liberal. This is the view put +forward by Nationalist orators and their humble follower Mr. Birrell, +who in November 1911, informed his friends at Bristol that the Irish +had shown a great capacity for local government and that from what +people who had seen a great deal of the south and west of Ireland told +him there was no fear of persecution or oppression by the Catholic +majority of their Protestant fellow-subjects. In support of this, +various facts are adduced, which it is well to examine in detail, +remembering the poet's words that + + "A lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest of lies." + +One of the greatest powers possessed by the County Councils is the +exercise of patronage. It would probably be generally admitted in any +country but Ireland that there, if anywhere, religion and politics +should be excluded, and men selected only for their qualifications. +The Nationalists, wishing to demonstrate the fairness of the Councils +which hold their views, contrast the bigotry shown by the Unionist +Corporation of Belfast with the liberality of similar bodies in other +parts of the country. And certainly the figures they adduce, when +addressing audiences in England or writing for English readers, are +very striking. Thus Mr. Birrell said at Skipton in November 1911 that +he had been told that in the great Unionist City of Belfast there was +only one Roman Catholic in the employment of the Corporation, and he +was a scavenger. (It will be observed that here, as in many of his +speeches, he carefully used the expression "he had been told"--so +that what he said may be literally true, even though when he heard the +statement he knew that it was false.) And Stephen Gwynn, M.P., in his +"Case for Home Rule," says: "In Belfast, Catholics are a third of the +population; but the Corporation pays L51,405 in a year in salaries, +of which only L640 goes to Catholics." And about the same time as +Mr. Birrell's oration, Mr. Redmond, speaking at Swindon, said that in +Galway, Cork, Westmeath and King's County (where Roman Catholics form +the large majority of the population) Protestants held 23 per cent. of +the salaried appointments in the gift of the Councils. + +But when we descend from the airy height of Nationalist rhetoric to +the prosaic region of fact, we find that the rates of the City +of Belfast amount to about L342,000; of this sum, Roman Catholic +ratepayers pay less than L18,000. There are nine hundred Roman +Catholics in the employment of the Corporation, and they receive in +salaries about L48,000 per annum. And as to the figures quoted by Mr. +Redmond, we find that he omitted to state that not one of the 23 per +cent. had been appointed by a County Council; they were all survivals +of the system in force before 1899, whose positions were secured by +statute; and in not one of the counties he mentioned has a Unionist +been appointed to any salaried office since that date. To take the +County of Cork as a specimen; there are ninety-four salaried +offices in the gift of the County Council; of these nine are held +by Protestants--but they were all appointed before 1899. Of the +thirty-three salaried offices in the gift of the City Corporation, two +are held by Protestants--but these also were appointed before 1898; +and yet the Protestants pay nearly half the rates. And in Ireland +there is not the slightest attempt at concealment in the matter; +thus in one case a District Council adopted by formal resolution the +request of the local priests not to support any candidate who did +not produce a testimonial from the parish priest; as a Councillor +remarked, it was the simplest way of stating that no Protestant need +apply. + +But it is in the appointment of medical officers ("dispensary doctors" +as they are technically called in Ireland) that the policy of the +Nationalists has been most marked. Many years ago, the late Cardinal +Cullen ruled that it was a mortal sin to vote for a heretic for such +an office; now, however, the bishops have gone further. There are +three medical schools in Dublin--Trinity College, the College of +Surgeons, and the Catholic University School; and three in the +provinces--at Belfast, Cork and Galway. The Medical School of Trinity +College has a world-wide reputation. The students are required to +complete their Arts course before specializing in medicine (thus +ensuring that they shall be men of general culture and not merely of +professional training); the professors and lecturers are amongst the +ablest men of the day; the students have the advantage of the large +city hospitals for their clinical studies; and the standard required +for a degree is high. And not only is Trinity College open to all +students without distinction of creed, but the College authorities +have frequently offered a site within their grounds for a Roman +Catholic Chapel and the salary of a Chaplain who would take spiritual +care of his flock. Nevertheless the Roman Catholic bishops have +ordered that no candidate who has been trained at any College except +the Catholic University school shall be eligible for the post of +Dispensary Doctor; and when an election takes place (as for instance +that at Kiltimagh in 1905) the question of professional qualification +is not taken into consideration--having been trained at a "godless +college" is a fatal bar to any candidate, however able. In the +Kiltimagh case, the resolution passed shortly after the election by +the local branch of the United Irish League is instructive reading:-- + + "That we, the members of the Kiltimagh Branch of the United + Irish League, take advantage of this our first meeting since + the important Election of Medical Officer for the Kiltimagh + Dispensary District, to express our appreciation of all the + Guardians for the several divisions in this parish for the + faithful honesty with which they represented us on that + occasion. We feel proud to know that not one of our + representatives voted for a Queen's College man against a + Catholic University man. They voted for a man who is the + stamp of man we want--a sound Catholic, a sound Nationalist, a + Gaelic Leaguer, and a highly qualified medical man. We believe + their action will meet with the approval of the Bishops and + Priests of Ireland." + +To one who lives in Ireland it is sad enough to see year by year the +most able and promising of the medical students being driven out +of the country on account of their religion, and forced to look for +openings elsewhere; but to a thoughtful observer it is even worse than +that; it is the beginning of the new Penal Laws. + +And when we turn to other matters, where the marvellous efficiency of +the County Councils exists, is hard for an unprejudiced enquirer +to find. The old Grand Juries handed over the roads and bridges in +excellent order; they are certainly not better now, and in many cases +worse. In fact, one English theoretical Radical who paid a brief visit +to Ireland, inhaled so much Hibernian logic during his hurried tour +that he solemnly argued that the badness of the roads proved that the +Councils had been governing too economically; and therefore what was +needed was a central body--that is, an Irish Parliament--to stir up +the local administration! Nationalist writers claim that the rates +are going down; but that merely means that they are not so high now as +they were soon after the Act came into force, not that they are lower +than before 1898. It was expected that the rates would be reduced by +the operation of the Old Age Pensions Act; but that has not proved to +be the case. And the increase in local indebtedness is alarming. + +To sum up, therefore, I trust that I have, even in this brief sketch, +made it clear that the policy of the Unionist Government, taken as +a whole, has been of immense benefit to the social and material +prosperity of Ireland; and that the points in which it has failed +have been those where their reforms have fallen under the power of the +Nationalists, who have either thwarted them, or made use of them +to further their own ideas. I shall next proceed to examine the +alternative policy, which is being carried out by the present +Government. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE GLADSTONIAN GOVERNMENT OF 1892. THE POLITICAL SOCIETIES. + + +During the Gladstone-Rosebery Government--from 1892 to 1895--matters +in Ireland were quiet. The Nationalists were at first on their best +behaviour, in consequence of the promised introduction of the Home +Rule Bill; and after its rejection by the Upper House, the time was +too short for anything serious to happen. But the period was marked by +the commencement of one great change in Irish administration. It must +be admitted by impartial observers that the old landlord party, +with all their faults, made as a rule excellent magistrates. A large +proportion of them were retired military officers, who had gained some +experience in duties of the sort in their regiments; others were men +of superior education, who studied with care the laws they were to +administer. Living in the locality, they knew the habits and feelings +of the people; and yet they were sufficiently separated from them to +be able to act as impartial judges; and no charges of bribery were +ever made against them. And, the work being congenial, they gladly +devoted their spare time to it. Gladstone's Chief Secretary (the +present Lord Morley) determined to alter all this; he accordingly +appointed to the Bench a large number of men drawn from a lower social +stratum, less educated and intelligent than those previously chosen, +but more likely to administer "Justice according to Irish ideas." +Then the operation of the Local Government Act, by which Chairmen of +Councils (all of course Nationalists) became _ex officio_ magistrates, +completed a social revolution by entirely altering the character of +the Bench. In some localities the magistrates previously appointed +realizing that, being now in a minority, they could be of no further +use on the Bench, withdrew; in others, though the old magistrates +continued to sit, they found themselves persistently outvoted on every +point; so what good they have done by remaining, it is hard to see. +Amongst the men appointed under the new system, there have been +several instances of justices who have continued to act without the +slightest shame or scruple although they have been convicted of such +offences as drunkenness, selling drink on unlicensed premises, or +corrupt practices at elections. But worse than that: the new order +of justices do not regard their duties as magisterial, but political; +they give but little attention to ordinary cases, but attend in +full strength to prevent the conviction of any person for an outrage +organized by the United Irish League; and do not hesitate to promise +beforehand that they will do so. If by any chance a sufficient number +are not present to carry their purpose, the names of the absentees are +published in the Black List of the League--and the result of that is +so well known that they are not likely to offend again. Hence comes +the contemptible exhibition--now not infrequent--of men being charged +before the Bench, and no evidence being offered for the defence; +yet the Stipendiary Magistrate being obliged to say that though he +considers the case proved, the majority of the Bench have decided to +refuse informations. Even a Roman Catholic Bishop has confessed that +now magistrates too often have no respect for their obligations to +dispense the law justly and without favour; and that the Bench is +sometimes so "packed" that the culprits, though guilty, are certain to +be acquitted. + + * * * * * + +Before discussing the policy of the present Government since it +came into power in 1906, it is well to explain what the principal +societies--secret or other--are which now conduct the Government of +Ireland. In one sense indeed the names are immaterial; for, as in +1798, in whatever various ways the societies have commenced, they are +all working towards the same end, and being controlled by the same +forces. + +The Land League, which was founded in 1879 as a league for ruining +landlords as a stepping-stone towards independence, having been +suppressed by Gladstone in 1881, was reformed under the name of the +Irish National League. This was in its turn suppressed in 1887, and in +1898 appeared once more under the name of the United Irish League +with J. Redmond as President and J. Devlin as Secretary. In 1901 Mr. +Redmond explained the objects of the League as follows:-- + + "The United Irish League is not merely an agrarian movement. + It is first, last, and all the time a National movement; + and those of us who are endeavouring to rouse the farmers of + Ireland, as we endeavoured twenty years ago in the days of the + Land League, to rouse them, are doing so, not merely to obtain + the removal of their particular grievances, but because we + believe by rousing them we will be strengthening the National + movement and helping us to obtain our end, which is, after + all, National independence of Ireland." + +And to make the exact meaning of the phrase "National Independence of +Ireland" quite clear, he soon afterwards stated that their object was +the same as that aimed at by Emmett and Wolfe Tone--in other words, to +place Ireland in the scale of nations with a constitution resembling +that of the United States. + +By March 1908 (that is, about two years after the present Government +came into power), to quote the words of Mr. Justice Wright, "the only +law feared and obeyed was the law not of the land but of the United +Irish League"; and before the end of that year Mr. Redmond was able to +report to his friends in America:-- + + "We have in Ireland an organization which is practically + a government of the country. There is in O'Connell Street, + Dublin, a great office managed by the real Chief Secretary for + Ireland, J. Devlin, the Member for Belfast." + +The organization of the League is admirable. The country is covered +with a network of branches, to which people in the district are +obliged to contribute under penalty of being boycotted; these branches +are united under provincial executives, whilst the Directory in +Dublin controls the whole. The union between the League and the Roman +Catholic Church is as complete as the union between that Church and +some societies started on a non-sectarian basis became during the +rebellion of 1798; as we have seen, a bishop is one of the trustees, +and other bishops are amongst the subscribers; the Sunday meetings of +the various branches, at which boycotting and other measures of the +kind are arranged, are usually presided over by the parish priests. On +the other hand, few laymen, whatever their religion may be, who have +any stake in the country, can be got to join the League; in the words +of A.J. Kettle, M.P.:-- + + "On its roll of membership there are no landlords or + ex-landlords, few merchants, fewer Irish manufacturers. There + are few of the men who are managing the business of Ireland + in city or town, connected with the League. The bankers who + regulate our finances, the railway or transit men who control + our trade, internal and external, even the leading cattle men + who handle most of our animal produce, are not to be found in + its ranks." + +In further evidence of this it may be noted that in spite of all the +efforts of the League at collecting money, the subscriptions to the +Irish Parliamentary Fund do not amount to a halfpenny per head of the +population; as J. Dillon has remarked: "The National cause in Ireland +could not live for six months if it were deprived of the support of +the Irish across the Atlantic." + +Closely allied with the League is the Ancient Order of Hibernians, a +secret political and exclusively Roman Catholic association, of which +J. Devlin, M.P. (the Secretary of the League), is President. It is +also called the Board of Erin, to distinguish it from the American +branch. The American branch, I may remark, is also known as the Molly +Maguires, as it was under that name that it conducted the series of +murders and outrages at the Pennsylvanian mines thirty years ago. +Hence the Irish branch is sometimes nicknamed the "Molly Maguires." +The Order is very religious, in the sense that part of its programme +is to deprive heretics of every means of earning their livelihood; as +a Nationalist who did not sympathize with the operations of the Order +expressed it: "If Protestants are to be robbed of their business, if +they are to be deprived of public contracts, and shut out of every +office and emolument,--what is that but extermination?" The political +principles of the Order can be gathered from the Address presented by +them to Captain Condon on the occasion of his visit to Dublin in 1909. +Captain Condon, I may explain, had been a prominent Fenian and member +of the Irish Republican brotherhood, and had taken part in the riot at +Manchester in 1867 which resulted in the murder of Sergeant Brett; he +now resides in America. In 1909 he visited Ireland on the invitation +of J. Redmond; and the address presented to him by the Ancient Order +of Hibernians contained the following words:-- + + "In you, O'Meagher Condon, we recognize one of those + connecting links with the past which all nations cherish, + and you are ready to-day with voice and pen to give your + unflagging support to Ireland's leaders with as much + enthusiasm as you grasped the sword to lead Ireland in the + dark but historic '67. We are sure it will interest you to + know that the ranks of the Hibernians to-day are composed + of the men and children of those who swore allegiance to the + Irish Republic with you." + +The Order has lately acquired additional strength by becoming an +"Approved Society" under the Insurance Act of 1911. In Ireland it is +no more possible for life insurance than for anything else to exist +without being dragged into the vortex of religious and political +quarrels. + +The "Clan-na-gael"--that is, the Dynamite Club--still flourishes +in America; but for obvious reasons it does not make any public +appearance in Ireland; and the exact part which it takes in the +movement at the present time, it is impossible to say. + +"Sinn Fein" (which means "Ourselves") is another Separatist +Association, aiming at the establishment of Ireland as a Sovereign +State, and teaching that the election of Irishmen to serve in the +British Parliament is treason to the Irish State. As its name implies, +it desires to make use of the revival of the Irish language as a means +towards the end for which it is working. It was founded in 1905. +Why this Society and the United Irish League, whose objects seem +identical, should be ready to fly at one another's throats, is one of +the things that those who are outside the Nationalist circle cannot +understand. But the Clerical leaders, who do their utmost to further +the operations of the League, look askance at Sinn Fein; its ultimate +success therefore is very doubtful. + +Then, working in conjunction with these societies is the "Gaelic +League," founded for the "de-Anglicizing" of Ireland, as helping +towards separation. As J. Sweetman (who, besides being a prominent +member of the Gaelic League, is also Vice-President of Sinn Fein and +Vice-Chairman of the Central Council of Irish County Councils and may +therefore be regarded as speaking with authority) has expressed it:-- + + "Out of the Gaelic League's de-Anglicizing propaganda + have already grown a series of movements not only strongly + political but each and all making for a separate independent + Irish nation, freed from every link of the British + connection." + +Were it not for its political object, the folly of this "revival of +the Irish language" would be past belief. The language of Shakespeare +and Milton, of Gibbon and Macaulay, ought surely to be good enough for +ordinary people; and it must be obvious to every reasoning being that +at the present moment of the world's history, English is one of the +most useful languages in existence. It is spoken by 40,000,000 of +people in Europe and twice that number in America, not to mention +Australasia and South Africa. It is the language of commerce, of +science, and of a vast amount of literature. Europeans of various +nationalities learn it, for the sake of its convenience; although, as +we all know, one of the difficulties of modern life is that boys and +girls have too much to study; educationalists everywhere complain +that the curriculum is overloaded. Its position in Ireland can be +seen exactly by the census returns; for the papers contain a "language +column," each person being required to state whether he speaks +English or Irish or both. According to the returns of 1891, the total +population was in round numbers 4,725,000; of whom 4,037,000 spoke +English only, 643,000 both languages, and 44,000 Irish only. And that +trifling minority existed only in certain localities, and was confined +to the less educated classes. The only counties in which a majority of +the population spoke Irish (including those who spoke both languages) +were Mayo and Galway. Yet now it is solemnly said that Ireland, +being an independent nation, must have a language of its own; even in +counties where no language but English has been spoken for centuries, +and where probably none of the ancestors of the present population +ever spoke any other language, Irish is being taught in the Roman +Catholic primary schools, and the unhappy children who might be +studying arithmetic or elementary geography, are wasting their time +over a totally useless language. I say "totally useless" deliberately; +for the arguments usually brought forward in favour of the study, +apart from the political one--that Irish is of use in the study of +philology, and that the MSS. of centuries ago contain fine specimens +of poetry--are too absurd to be worth discussing. The real object of +the Nationalists in "encouraging the revival of the Irish language" +is clearly set out in the following words of T. MacSeamus in a recent +number of the _Irish Review_:-- + + "Most important of all, the Irish language is one of the + things that distinguish us from England. It is a mark of that + separateness which it is the business of every Nationalist to + maintain and emphasise on every possible occasion. It is one + of the signs--perhaps the chief sign--of nationality.... The + Irish language is a weapon in our fight against England, and + we cannot afford to throw away even the smallest weapon that + may serve us in that struggle." + +And the policy of the League as regards the primary schools is made +quite clear by the resolution passed unanimously at their annual +meeting in 1912:-- + + "That we re-affirm the demand of the last Ard Fheis in regard + to the position of Irish in the primary schools, viz., that + Irish be the sole medium of instruction in the Irish-speaking + districts; that it be the medium as far as possible in all + other schools, and that it be a compulsory subject in every + school throughout the country where parents are not opposed + to it; furthermore, that a knowledge of Irish be required from + all teachers entering for training as teachers, and that no + certificate be issued to those who fail to qualify in Irish at + the final examination, and that none but inspectors having a + knowledge of Irish be employed to inspect schools where Irish + is taught." + +It will be seen therefore that if the League carry their point (as +no doubt they will under a Home Rule Government) no graduate of the +Belfast University who wishes to become a teacher in a Belfast school +will be allowed to do so unless he passes an examination in a language +which not one of his pupils will ever wish to learn; and this, not for +the purpose of ensuring general culture, but to further a political +object with which he has no sympathy. + +The League leave no stone unturned in their efforts to substitute the +Irish for the English language. For instance, it is usually considered +in other countries that the names of the streets of a town are put +up in order to help people who want to find their way, and not for +political reasons. But in Dublin, where not one per cent. of the +people can read Irish, the names have recently all been painted up in +that language, in the hope of de-Anglicizing the rising generation. An +incident occurred recently which will show how the movement is being +taken up. There is in Dublin an excellent regulation that children +may not become "street traders" without a licence. A bright little boy +came to apply for one. The magistrate, being a kindly man, enquired +of the lad what his circumstances were. The boy explained that part of +his earnings went towards the support of his widowed mother; and that +he was trying to keep up his education by attending a night school. +"And what are you learning there?" said the magistrate. "Irish," +replied the boy. Even the magistrate could not resist telling him that +he thought his time would be better spent at Arithmetic. Yet from the +boy's point of view, there is something to be said. Irish may be of +use to him in obtaining a Government appointment, however small; for +local bodies (such as the Dublin Boards of Guardians) now refuse +to appoint clerks who cannot send out notices of meetings in Irish, +though no member of the Board to whom they are sent can read them; and +the League fully expect that the Home Rule Government will do the same +with regard to every appointment in their gift. If the railways are +taken over by the Government (as they probably will be) it can be seen +what an immense impetus can be given to the movement. + +Then Secondary Schools have been established for the same object. The +_Irish Educational Review_ recently contained the following account of +one of them:-- + + "At Ring, in the County Waterford, there is already in + existence an Irish secondary school where classics, modern + languages and all the usual secondary school subjects are + taught and where Irish and English fill their rightful places, + the former being the ordinary language of the school, the + latter a foreign language on no higher level than French or + German." + +The Act of 1909, which founded the "National" University (to which I +shall refer again), gave power to County Councils to levy a rate for +scholarships. Immediately the Gaelic League saw their opportunity. +They endeavoured to persuade the Councils to refuse to do so unless +Irish were made compulsory at the University. The Councils generally +(except of course in Ulster) agreed to the plan; but some of them +(such as the Kildare Council) were faced by a difficulty. Not a single +child in the county spoke Irish; and so if that language were made +compulsory, no one could compete for the scholarships. So they +compromised matters, by deciding that they would levy a rate if Irish +were made compulsory after 1915, by which time some of the young +people in the county would have been able to learn it; and the +University agreed to do so. + +This rating power, I may remark, looks extremely liberal as it appears +in the Act; for the scholarships are to be tenable at any University. +The Irish Unionist members, knowing quite well how it would be +worked, opposed the clause; and as usual were denounced as bigots +and fanatics. It is needless to add that as soon as the Act came into +force, County Councils and Corporations at once passed resolutions +that scholarships derived from the rates should not be tenable at +Trinity College, Dublin, or at Belfast, but only at the National +University--thus practically saying that no Protestants need compete. + +Beyond forcing the children to acquire a smattering of Irish, it +cannot be said that so far the efforts of the League as to the +language have been very successful; for the census returns show that +the proportion of the population who could speak Irish in 1891 was +14'5; in 1901, 14'4; and in 1911, 13'3; and the numbers who spoke +Irish only fell from 20,953 in 1901 to 16,870 in 1911. + +But the efforts of the League are not confined to the language. +English games, such as cricket, are forbidden; if football is played, +it must be the Gaelic variety with rules totally different from +those observed by the hated Saxon. Even the patients in asylums +are forbidden to play cricket or lawn tennis. And some of the more +enthusiastic members of the League have actually "donned the saffron," +in imitation of the Ersefied Normans of 400 years ago. However, it +is so hideously ugly, and so suggestive of the obnoxious Orange, that +that phase of the movement is not likely to extend. + +Even the "Boy Scout" movement has been made use of for the same +object. As soon as some corps had been established in Ireland, the +Nationalists started a rival organization with an Irish name, in +which all the boys solemnly undertake to work for the independence +of Ireland, and never to join England's armed forces. The boys take a +prominent part in the annual ceremonies in honour of Wolfe Tone, the +Manchester martyrs, and other Nationalist heroes. + +The whole thing would be laughable if it were not so very sad. Even +such matters as sports and education, where all creeds and parties +might be expected to work together amicably, must be used as +instruments to bring about separation; and the result already is not +so much to widen the gulf between Ireland and England as the gulf +between the two parties in Ireland; for the Protestant minority in +the south, who know that most of their children will have to leave the +country, are not likely to let them fritter away their youth in the +study of a language which can be of no possible benefit to them in +any part of the world to which they may go; and the idea that the +Ulstermen will ever adopt a Celtic tongue is too ridiculous to be +considered. But perhaps the most painful thought of all is that the +Nationalists should be ready even to sacrifice the prospects in life +of the rising generation of the country in order to satisfy their +blind hatred of England. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +IRELAND UNDER THE PRESENT GOVERNMENT. + + +I come now to the policy which has been pursued by the present +Government since 1906. It must be remembered that the Radical party +returned to power pledged to Home Rule as a principle, but with a +sufficient majority to enable them to retain office without depending +on the Irish vote. Hence there was no necessity for them to introduce +a Home Rule Bill; but of course they set aside the policy of the +Unionist Government, and resolved to govern Ireland according to their +own ideas. What those ideas were, and what the result has been, I +shall now proceed to show; but in doing so I shall as far as possible +confine myself to quotations and statistics which can be verified, so +that I may not be accused of giving an unfair report. + +The Chief Secretary for the first year was Mr. Bryce, who was +afterwards appointed British Ambassador at Washington. The Government +at once repealed the Act which forbade the carrying of arms without a +licence; withdrew all proclamations under the Crimes Act of 1887; +and resolved not to stop any political meetings. Accordingly the +Nationalists commenced holding a series of demonstrations all over +the country. A few specimens taken from the speeches made at them will +suffice to show their general tenour. + + "Let them all be ready, and when England got into trouble with + European Powers, they would pounce upon her with the ferocity + of a tiger."--_T. Walsh, District Councillor._ + + "They must stand together as one man, and make it impossible + for England to govern Ireland."--_P. White, M.P._ + + "If there had been 100,000 Fenians in Ireland at the time of + the Boer War there might now have been a Republic in + Ireland, and British supremacy would have been tumbled in the + dust."--_J. Daly, formerly Mayor of Limerick._ + +And Mr. Bryce, when leaving Ireland at the end of the year, stated +that he had not found any harm in any of the speeches delivered at the +meetings. + +At this time the agitation began to assume a new form. One of the most +important of Irish industries is the cattle trade with England, +the annual value of which exceeds L14,000,000. In several parts of +Ireland, notably in Meath and the central counties, the soil and +climate are specially suited for cattle raising, and the land +is generally held in large grazing farms. It was decided by the +Nationalists in the autumn of 1906 that this industry must be +destroyed. Bodies of men assembled night after night to break down the +fences and gates of the farms and drive the cattle many miles away, +in order that the farmers might be ruined and forced to leave the +country; and then the derelict farms would be divided amongst the +"landless men." L. Ginnell, M.P., explained the programme fully in a +speech he made in October 1906:-- + + "The ranches must be broken up, not only in Westmeath but + throughout all Ireland ... He advised them to stamp out the + ranch demon themselves, and not leave an alien Parliament to + do the duty ... He advised them to leave the ranches unfenced, + unused and unusable ... so that no man or demon would dare to + stand another hour between the people and the land that should + be theirs." + +The agitation, commencing in Meath, was gradually extended, county +by county, over a large part of Ireland where the Nationalists are +supreme. Other measures were resorted to, in order to carry out their +object. Arson, the burning of hayricks, firing into dwelling-houses, +spiking meadows, the mutilation of horses and cows, the destruction +of turf, the damaging of machinery, and various other forms of lawless +violence began to increase and multiply. At the Spring Assizes in +1907, the Chief Justice, when addressing the Grand Jury at Ennis, in +commenting on the increasing need for placing law-abiding people under +special police protection, said:-- + + "In a shire in England, if it was found necessary, either by + special protection or protection by patrol, to protect from + risk of outrage thirty persons, what would be thought?" + +And Mr. Justice Kenny at Leitrim, after commenting upon the increased +number of specially reported cases, as shown by the official +statistics, and alluding to several cases of gross intimidation, +said:-- + + "In these latter cases I regret to say no one has been + made amenable; and when there is such a state of things, + it justifies the observation made by the learned judge who + presided at last Connaught Winter Assizes, that when the chain + of terrorism was complete, no witness would give evidence and + no jury would convict." + +Thereupon Mr. Birrell, who at the beginning of the year had succeeded +Mr. Bryce as Chief Secretary, having no doubt studied these and +similar reports, said in a speech at Halifax in the following month:-- + + "You may take my word for this, that Ireland is at this moment + in a more peaceful condition than for the last six hundred + years." + +Soon afterwards, Mr. Justice Ross, who, as Judge of the Land Judge's +Court, Chancery Division, was in charge of many estates in Ireland, +said: + + "He had known from other Receivers about this widespread and + audacious conspiracy at present rampant in the West of Ireland + ... This was actually a conspiracy which on ordinary moral + grounds amounted to highway robbery, to seize on these grass + lands, to drive away the stock of the people who had been + in the habit of taking it; and then, when the owner had been + starved out, the Estates Commissioners were expected to buy up + the property and to distribute it amongst the very people who + had been urging on the business, and who had been engaged in + these outrages." + +When an Ulster member drew attention to this in the House of Commons, +Mr. Birrell replied:-- + + "There is no evidence before the Government that a widespread + conspiracy is rampant in the West of Ireland." + +And in reply to another question he said that:-- + + "The reports he received from the police and other persons + revealed the condition of Ireland generally as to peace and + order as being very satisfactory." + +During the month of October 1907, twenty-nine claims for compensation +from the rates in respect of malicious injuries had been proved and +granted in twelve counties, the amount levied from the ratepayers +being about L900. The malicious injuries comprised destruction of and +firing into dwelling houses, mutilation of horses and cattle, burning +cattle to death, spiking meadows and damaging mowing machines, damages +to fences and walls, burning heather and pasturage, damage to gates in +connection with cattle driving, and injury to cattle by driving. And +in November an attempt was made to assassinate Mr. White Blake and his +mother when driving home from church in the County Galway. A few days +after this occurred Mr. Redmond said at a meeting in North Wales:-- + + "Whilst there is no crime or outrage there is widespread + unrest and impatience, and there are, over a certain section + of the country, taking place technical breaches of the strict + letter of the law in the shape of what is called cattle + driving. Now let me say first of all that in no instance has + any single beast been injured in the smallest degree in any of + these cattle-drives; in no instance has any malicious injury + been done to property, life or limb, or beast." + +All this time the Government adhered to their determination not to put +the Crimes Act in force, but merely to place accused persons on trial +before juries at the Assizes. The results were as follows: At the +Summer Assizes in 1907, 167 persons were returned for trial; of these, +57 were actually tried, of whom three were convicted, 31 acquitted, +and in 23 cases the juries disagreed. The trials of the remaining 110 +were postponed. At the Michaelmas sittings, 94 persons were put on +trial, of whom 5 were convicted and 2 acquitted; in 72 cases the +juries disagreed, and in the remaining 15 the Crown abandoned +proceedings. At the Winter Assizes 86 persons were tried for unlawful +assembly, riot and conspiracy in connection with cattle-driving. None +were convicted; 11 were acquitted; in 12 cases the prisoners were +discharged on legal points; and in 63 the juries disagreed. + +I fully admit that there is much to be said for the juries who refused +to convict. When a Government is doing its utmost to suppress anarchy +and to enforce law and order, it is no doubt the duty of every loyal +subject to render assistance even at the risk of his own life +and property. But when a Government is conniving at anarchy, and +deliberately refusing to put in force the Act which would put a stop +to it, I say it is too much to expect of any man that he should face +the prospect of being ruined and probably murdered, and his family +reduced to beggary, in order to enable the Government to keep up the +farce of pretending that they are trying to do their duty. + +During the first half of 1908, there were 418 reported cases of +cattle-driving; and arson, outrages with firearms, meadow-spiking, +and similar offences increased in proportion. The judges urged in vain +that the law should be put in force. But the policy of the Government +remained unchanged; the _Daily News_ (the Government organ) when +cattle-driving was at its height said that thanks to the excellent +government of Mr. Birrell cattle-driving now had practically become +extinct even in those few parts of the country in which it had +existed; and in July Mr. Birrell, addressing a political meeting at +Port Sunlight, said that:-- + + "They were led to believe that the state of Ireland was of + an appalling character, that crime predominated, and that + lawlessness almost universally prevailed. All he could say was + that a more cheerful land was nowhere to be found." + +In 1909 matters became somewhat quieter, chiefly because Mr. Birrell +promised to introduce a Land Bill by which the cattle-drivers hoped to +get all they wanted. Hence their leaders advised them to "give Birrell +a chance," but Mr. Redmond warned the Government that if they did not +carry out their pledge, they would speedily find Ireland ungovernable. +In February 1909, Lord Crewe, speaking for the Government in the House +of Lords, made the remarkable statement:-- + + "As regards intimidation, I have always shared the view that + well-organized intimidation cannot be checked by law. I know + no method of checking it." + +If this is not an admission that the Government had failed in their +duty, it is hard to say what is. The result of their line of action +will be seen by the following table, which has been taken from various +returns which the Ulster members, by repeated questions in Parliament +at last succeeded in forcing Mr. Birrell to make public:-- + + +Agrarian outrages 1906 234 + " " 1907 372 + " " 1908 576 +Cattle-drives 1905 Nil + " " 1907-8 513 + " " 1908-9 622 + " " 1908 219 +Cattle maiming, mutilating, etc. 1907 142 +Persons boycotted 1907 196 + " " 1908 270 + " " 1909 335 +Cost of extra police 1908 L47,000 + + +1911. + +Agrarian outrages 581 +Malicious injuries to property, Intimidating + by threatening letters, etc. 285 +Firing into dwelling houses 58 +Rioting, robbery of arms, etc. 31 +Killing and maiming cattle 83 + + +It may be asked, why did not the Ulster members call the attention of +Parliament to this state of things? The answer is, they did so again +and again; Mr. Birrell gave stereotyped replies, much after this form, +with hardly a variation:-- + + I have seen in the newspapers a report that a few shots were + fired into a farmhouse in Galway. No one appears to have been + seriously injured. The police are making enquiries. No arrests + have been made. + +(He might as well have added that he knew perfectly well that no +arrests ever would be made.) Then he would go to a political meeting +and say that the peaceful condition of Ireland was shown by the small +number of criminal cases returned for trial at the Assizes; and would +bitterly denounce the "Carrion Crows" (as he designated the Ulster +members) for trying to blacken the reputation of their country. + +One instance may be given more in detail, as typical of the condition +to which Ireland had been brought. Lord Ashtown (a Unionist Peer +residing in County Galway) began issuing month by month a series of +pamphlets entitled "Grievances from Ireland." They contained little +besides extracts from Nationalist papers giving reports of the +meetings of the United Irish League, the outrages that took place, and +the comments of Nationalist papers on them. His object was to let +the people in England see from the accounts given by the Nationalists +themselves, what was going on in Ireland. This, however, was very +objectionable to them; and one of their members asked Mr. Birrell in +the House of Commons whether the pamphlets could not be suppressed. +Mr. Birrell made the curious reply that he would be very glad if Lord +Ashtown were stopped, but that he did not see how to do it. What he +expected would be the results of that remark, I do not know; but no +one living in Ireland was much surprised when a few weeks afterwards +a bomb outrage occurred at the residence of Lord Ashtown in the County +Waterford. It was a clumsy failure. A jar containing gunpowder was +placed against the wall of the house where he was staying and set on +fire. The explosion wrecked part of the building, but Lord Ashtown +escaped unhurt. He gave notice of his intention to apply at the next +assizes for compensation for malicious injury. The usual custom in +such cases is for a copy of the police report showing the injury +complained of, to be sent to the person seeking compensation; but on +this occasion the police refused to show Lord Ashtown their report, +stating that they had received orders from the Government not to do +so. But shortly before the case came on, a report, not made by the +police authority in charge of the district, but by another brought in +specially for the purpose, appeared in the Nationalist papers. This +report contained the remarkable suggestion that Lord Ashtown had done +it himself! When under cross-examination at the trial, the Inspector +of the Royal Irish Constabulary who made the report was obliged to +confess that he did not believe that he had, but had only inserted the +suggestion in obedience to instruction received from the Government. +Lord Ashtown proved his case and was awarded compensation. But the +matter did not end there. He had employed a surveyor, Mr. Scully, to +draw plans and take photographs showing the amount of the damage. Mr. +Scully was surveyor to the Waterford Corporation. It was proposed at +the next meeting of the Corporation that he should be dismissed from +his office for having given evidence for Lord Ashtown. The motion +was carried unanimously, eight councillors being present; and at the +following meeting it was ratified by eight votes to two. A question +was asked about the matter in the House of Commons; and Mr. Birrell, +with the figures before him, replied that Mr. Scully had never been +dismissed. + +Two other instances of this period must be briefly referred to. It +has already been shown how the Irish Parliament endowed Maynooth as a +College for Roman Catholic students both lay and theological; and how +Trinity College, Dublin, opened its doors to all students, without +distinction of creed. But the Roman Catholic Church turned Maynooth +into a seminary for theological students only; and the bishops forbade +young laymen to go to Trinity. In 1845 Sir Robert Peel attempted to +supply the want by founding the Queen's University, with Colleges at +Belfast, Cork and Galway, where mixed education should be given in +secular subjects, and separate instruction in those appertaining to +religion; but that again was denounced as a "satanic scheme for the +ruin of faith in the rising generation"; and the crusade against +the university was so successful that in 1879 it was destroyed and +another--the Royal University--put in its place. This in its turn was +abolished in 1909; the College at Belfast was raised to the status +of a University, and a new University ominously called the "National +University" was founded into which the existing Colleges at Cork and +Galway were absorbed, with a new and richly endowed College in Dublin +at the head. It may seem strange that the Radical Government who are +pledged to destroy all religious education in England should found and +endow a Denominational University in Ireland. But the matter could be +arranged by a little judicious management and prevarication; it was +represented in Parliament that the new University was to be strictly +unsectarian; during the debate, Sir P. Magnus, the member for the +London University, said that he had no reason to believe that there +was any intention on the part of the Chief Secretary to set up +denominational Universities in Ireland; he accepted his word that they +were to be entirely undenominational. Then, when the Act was passed, +the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin was appointed Chancellor of +the National University, with a number of Jesuits as Professors, and +Cardinal Logue stated as follows:-- + + "No matter what obstacles the Nonconformists may have inserted + in the Constitution of the University to keep it from being + Catholic, we will make it Catholic in spite of them." + +Personally, I do not object to denominational Universities. I regret +that young men who are going to live in the same country should not be +able to study law and medicine together; but if that is their feeling +and the feeling of their parents, I admit that having separate +Universities may be the best solution of the difficulty. But if so, +let it be openly avowed that the University is denominational; to +"make it Catholic" and at the same time to say that it is no injustice +to Protestants that County Scholarships paid for by the ratepayers +should be tenable there and nowhere else, seems to me absurd. + +The other incident to which reference must be made was the great +Convention held in Dublin in 1909. The Nationalists, believing that +a Home Rule Bill would soon be introduced, devised the scheme of +assembling a monster Convention, which would be evidence to the world +of how admirably fitted the Irish people were to govern their own +country. It was attended by 2,000 delegates from all parts of the +country, who were to form a happy family, as of course no disturbing +Unionist element would be present to mar the harmony and the clerical +element would be strong. Mr. Redmond, who presided, said in his +opening address:-- + + "Ireland's capacity for self-government will be judged at home + and abroad by the conduct of this Assembly. Ireland's good + name is at stake, and therefore every man who takes part + in this Assembly should weigh his words and recognise his + responsibility." + +The meeting ended in a free fight. + + +At the end of 1909 Mr. Asquith did a very clever thing. A general +election was pending, and he wished to avoid the mistake which +Gladstone had made in 1885. He therefore, at a great meeting at +the Albert Hall unfolded an elaborate programme of the long list of +measures which the Government would introduce and carry, and in the +course of his remarks said that Home Rule was the only solution of +the Irish problem, and that in the new House of Commons the hands of +a Liberal Government and of a Liberal majority would in this matter be +entirely free. He and his followers carefully abstained from referring +to the subject in their election addresses; and Mr. Asquith was thus +free, if he should obtain a majority independent of the Irish vote, +to say that he had never promised to make Home Rule part of his +programme; but if he found he could not retain office without that +vote, he might buy it by promising to introduce the Bill and refer to +his words at the Albert Hall as justification for doing so. The latter +happened; hence the "Coalition Ministry." The Irish party consented to +please the Radicals by voting for the Budget, and the Nonconformists +by voting for Welsh Disestablishment, on condition that they should +in return vote for Home Rule. As Mr. Hobhouse (a Cabinet Minister) +expressed it in 1911:-- + + "Next year we must pay our debt to the Nationalist Members, + who were good enough to vote for a Budget which they detested + and knew would be an injury to their country." + +But the people of England still had to be hood-winked. It was hardly +likely that they would consent to their representatives voting for +the separation of Ireland from Great Britain; so the Nationalists and +their Radical allies went about England declaring that they had +no wish for such a thing; that all they desired was a subordinate +Parliament leaving the Imperial Parliament supreme. Thus Mr. Redmond +suggested at one meeting that Ireland should be conceded the right +of managing her own purely local affairs for herself in a subordinate +Parliament, subject to the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament; and +at another meeting said: + + "We are not asking for a Repeal of the Union. We are not + asking for the restoration of a co-ordinate Parliament such + as Ireland had before the Union. We are only asking that + there should be given to Ireland a subordinate Parliament. We + therefore admit the supremacy of the Imperial Parliament. That + means that after this subordinate Parliament is created in + Ireland, if the Parliament is foolish enough, rash enough, as + it never will be, but if it were foolish enough and criminal + enough to use the powers given to it for injustice or + oppression of any class or creed, the Imperial Parliament + would have the power to stretch forth the arm of its authority + and to say 'you shall not do that.'" + +Of course it may be argued that they had changed their minds; that +in former times they worked for separation, but now realised that +a subordinate Parliament was all that Ireland required. But +unfortunately for this theory, they have themselves repudiated it; +when Mr. Redmond was accused of speaking with two voices, one in +America and one in Great Britain, he passionately replied:-- + + "I indignantly deny that accusation. I have never in my life + said one word on a platform in America one whit stronger than + I had said in my place on the floor of the House of Commons. + I have never in America or anywhere else, advocated the + separation of Ireland from Great Britain." + +How far this is true, the quotations from his speeches which have +already been given, will have shown. But the Government have kept up +the farce; Mr. Winston Churchill said during the debate on the Bill of +1912:-- + + "The Home Rule movement has never been a separatist movement. + In the whole course of its career it has been a moderating, + modifying movement, designed to secure the recognition of + Irish claims within the circuit of the British Empire." + +But not even the immediate prospect of Home Rule can be said to have +made those parts of Ireland where the League is supreme a happy place +of residence to any but advanced Nationalists. The following report of +a case in the Magistrate's Court at Ennis in November 1912 will speak +for the condition of the County Clare:-- + + Patrick Arkins was charged with knocking down walls on the + farm of Mrs. Fitzpatrick in order to compel her to give up the + farm. Inspector Davis gave evidence that from January 1910 to + that date there were 104 serious outrages in his district. + In 42 firearms were used, 27 were malicious injuries, 32 were + threatening notices, 1 case of bomb explosion outside a house, + 1 robbery of arms, and 1 attempted robbery. A sum of L268 had + been awarded as compensation for malicious injury and there + were claims for L75 pending for malicious injuries committed + during the week ended 11th inst. There were two persons under + constant police protection, and 16 receiving protection by + patrol. Head Constable Mulligan said that Mrs. Fitzpatrick was + under police protection. Since February 11th, 1912, there had + been 12 outrages in the district, Mrs. Fitzpatrick was under + almost constant police protection. Acting Sergeant Beegan + deposed that there had been 12 outrages on the Fitzpatrick + family during the last four years; these included driving + cattle off the lands, threatening notices, firing shots at the + house, knocking down walls, spiking meadows; the new roof of + a hay barn was perforated with bullets, and at Kiltonaghty + Chapel there were notices threatening death to anyone who + would work for Mrs. Fitzpatrick. Timothy Fitzpatrick gave + similar evidence as to the outrages, and said that his father + had taken the farm twenty-one years ago, and had paid the son + of the former tenant L40 for his goodwill. + +(I may add that Arkins was committed for trial, convicted at the +Assizes and sentenced to seven years penal servitude; and was released +by Mr. Birrell a few weeks afterwards.) + +In another Clare case, in February of the present year, the resident +Magistrate said as follows:-- + + "It is a mistake to say that these outrages are arising out + of disputes between landlord and tenant; nine out of ten arise + out of petty disputes about land. What is the use of having + new land laws? A case occurred not long ago in this county of + a man who had bought some land twenty years ago, and paid down + hard cash to the outgoing tenant. The man died, and left a + widow and children on the land for fourteen years. But in 1908 + a man who had some ulterior object got the man who had sold + the farm to send in a claim under the Evicted Tenant's Act, + which was rejected. That was what the advisers of the man + wanted--they only wanted a pretext for moonlighting and other + disgraceful outrages, and the woman was kept in a hell for + four years. A man was caught at last and convicted, and one + would think that this was a subject for rejoicing for all + right-minded men in the county. But what was the result? A + perfect tornado of letters was printed, and resolutions + and speeches appeared in the public press, condemning this + conviction of a moonlighter in Clare as an outrage against + justice." + +The Roman Catholic Bishop of Killaloe, in a sermon preached in +December 1912, referring to County Clare said:-- + + "That county had had an evil record in the matter of crime, + and they were so accustomed to outrages of almost weekly + occurrence around them that it was not easy to shock them. + There was an inoffensive family sitting round the fireside + with a couple of neighbours. They had given no offence, they + had wronged no man, they had crossed no man's path. But that + inhuman beast went to the door and lifted the latch, and + there, at a few yards distance, fired into that innocent group + of men, women and children, as if they were a flock of crows, + killing the mother outright and almost blowing the forehead + off a young girl. There was no denying the fact that that + brutal murder was the natural outcome of the disgraceful + system of intimidation and outrage that had been rampant for + a long time in certain districts of that unhappy county and + of the immunity from punishment enjoyed by the wicked and + cowardly moonlighter. In addition to their other acts of + savagery, they had shot out the eyes of two men within the + last couple of years. A decent, honest man was shot on the + road to Ennis. The people passed the wounded man by and + refused to take him into their car through fear. Not one + of these well-known miscreants was brought to justice. The + murderers of poor Garvey, the cow-houghers, the hay-burners, + were said to be known. In any other country, for instance in + the United States, such ruffianism would be hunted down or + lynched; but there, in the places he referred to, they had + a curtain of security drawn round them by the cowardice or + perverted moral sense on the part of the community amongst + whom they lived.... It was only last Thursday night, before + the county had recovered from the shock of Mrs. O'Mara's + murder, that right over the mountain an unfortunate postman + was shot on the public road between Crusheen and Baliluran for + no other reason apparently than that another fellow wanted his + job of one and six-pence a day! It has come to this, that if + you differ with one of them for a shilling, or refuse to give + him his way in everything the first thing that comes into his + head is to moonlight you.... They have not elevation or social + instinct to settle their petty disputes by process of law + provided for the purpose by a civilized society, nor have they + Christianity enough to bear a little wrong or disappointment + for Christ's sake. No, nor the manliness even to meet an + opponent face to face and see it out with him like a man; but + with the cunning of a mean and vicious dog, he steals behind + him in the dark and shoots him in the back, or murders the + helpless woman of his family, or shoots out the eyes of the + poor man's horse, or cuts the throat of his bullock and spikes + his beast upon a gate." + +Nor has the present year brought much improvement. In May 1913, Mr. +R. Maunsell was fired at and wounded close to the town of Ennis. His +crime was that he managed a farm for a Mr. Bannatyne, whose family had +been in possession of it for about sixty years, but who had recently +been denounced by the United Irish League and ordered to surrender it. +As he has refused to do so, he is now compelled to live under police +protection. + +The abolition of landlordism and the acquisition of firearms can +hardly be said to have brought peace and tranquillity to the County of +Clare. + +And as to Galway, we may gather the state of affairs from the report +of a case tried at the Winter Assizes of 1912. Three men were charged +with having done grievous bodily harm to a man named Conolly. Conolly +swore that he knew a man named Broderick who had become unpopular but +he (Conolly) kept to him and this brought displeasure on him from the +accused and others. On the night of the 11th September he went to bed; +he was subsequently awakened and found 44 grains of shot in his left +knee and four in his right. He then lay flat on the floor. Other shots +were fired through the window but did not strike him. The judge said +the district was a disgrace to Ireland. Day after day, night after +night, heaps of outrages were committed there, and not one offender +was made amenable to justice. The jury disagreed, and the accused were +again put on their trial. The judge in charging the jury on the second +trial said that then, and for some time, the district was swarming +with police, and though outrages were frequent, it was impossible for +them to bring anyone to justice. No one was sure he might not be fired +at during the night; and people were afraid to give evidence. The jury +again disagreed. + +During the autumn of 1912 an effort was made to hold a series of +meetings throughout the south and west of Ireland to protest against +Home Rule. The conduct of the Nationalists with regard to them +supplies a striking commentary on Mr. Redmond's statement at Banbury +not long before, that all through his political life he had preached +conciliation towards those who differed from him on the question +of Home Rule. The meetings were in some cases stopped by force; at +Limerick the windows of the Protestant Church and of some houses +occupied by Protestants were smashed; at Tralee the principal speaker +was a large farmer named Crosbie; all his hay and sheds were burned +down, and he was awarded L600 compensation by the County Court Judge. + +But an incident had occurred in the north which, though in a sense +comparatively slight, has, in consequence of the circumstances +connected with it, done more to inflame the men of Ulster than persons +not living in Ireland can realise. In June of last year a party of +Sunday School children from a suburb of Belfast went for a picnic to +Castledawson (co. Derry) under the charge of a Presbyterian minister +and a few teachers and ladies. On their way back to the railway +station, they were met and assailed by a procession of men belonging +to the Order of Hibernians armed with pikes who attacked the children +with the pikes and with stones, seized a Union Jack which a small +boy was carrying, and knocked down and kicked some of the girls and +teachers. Worse might have happened had not some Protestant young men, +seeing what was going on, come to the rescue. The minister was struck +with stones whilst he was endeavouring to get some of the children +to a place of safety. No Nationalist has ever expressed the slightest +regret at the occurrence. Several of the aggressors were tried at the +Winter Assizes and sentenced to three months' imprisonment. Before +the end of the term they were released by order of the Government. Mr. +Birrell, in justifying his action, said that the judge had remarked +that there was no evidence before him of actual injury. This, like +many of his statements, was literally true; but he omitted to mention +that he had prevented the evidence from being given; the injured women +and children were quite ready to give their testimony, but were not +called by the counsel for the crown. + +It is unnecessary to say that this foretaste of Home Rule government +has made the Presbyterians of Ulster more determined than ever to +resist it to the bitter end. + +I shall next proceed to consider the Bill which the Government have +introduced as a panacea for the woes of Ireland. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +CRITICISM OF THE BILL NOW BEFORE THE COUNTRY. + + +That the maintenance of the Union is possible, and that complete +separation is possible, are two indisputable facts. But the question +is, was Wolfe Tone right when he said that these were the only two +possibilities; or is there a third one, and if so, what? + +Residents in the Dominions will naturally be inclined to reply "Yes; +place Ireland in the position of a colony possessing responsible +government, such as New Zealand." It is a taking idea; but a little +reflection will show the falseness of the analogy. The relations +between the Mother Country and the self-governing colonies (now +often called "Dominions") have grown up of themselves; and, like +most political conditions which have so come about, are theoretically +illogical but practically convenient. The practical convenience arises +partly from the friendly spirit which animates both parties, but still +more from the nature of the case. The distance which separates the +Mother Country from the Dominions causes the anomalies to be scarcely +perceptible. In theory the Sovereign, acting on the advice of +British Ministers, can disallow any colonial statute, and the British +Parliament is supreme--it can pass laws that will bind the colonies, +even laws imposing taxes. But we all know that if the Home Government +were persistently to veto laws passed by the large majority of the +people in New Zealand, or the British Parliament were to attempt to +legislate for the colonies, relations would at once become strained, +and separation would be inevitable. The only important matters on +which the Home Government attempts to bind the colonies are those +relating to foreign countries (which are necessarily of an Imperial +nature) and those as to which the colonies themselves wish to have +an Act passed, such as the Act establishing Australian Federation. In +other words, the "supremacy of Parliament," which is a stern reality +in England, has very little meaning as regards New Zealand. Even if +the people of New Zealand were to manage the affairs of their country +in a manner contrary to English ideas--for instance if they were to +establish State lotteries and public gambling tables--England would be +but slightly affected, and certainly would never think of taking steps +to prevent them. And those matters in which the Home Government is +obliged to act are just those in which New Zealand has no desire +to interfere; for instance, New Zealand would never want to appoint +consuls of her own (which was the immediate cause of the separation +between Norway and Sweden); in the very few cases in which New Zealand +desires to make use of political or commercial agents abroad, she is +content to employ the British representatives, for whom she is +not called upon to pay. If New Zealand attempted to take part in a +European war in which England was not concerned--the idea is almost +too absurd to suggest--the only thing that England could do would be +to break off the connection and repudiate New Zealand altogether. +And if New Zealand desired to separate from the Mother Country, many +people would think it a most grievous mistake, but England certainly +would not seek to prevent her doing so by force; and though England +would in some ways be the worse for it, the government of England +and of the rest of the Empire would go on much the same as before. In +certain points, it is true, thoughtful men have generally come to the +conclusion that the present state of affairs cannot go on unchanged; +the time is coming when the great Dominions must provide for their own +defence by sea as well as by land; and whether this is to be done by +separate navies working together or by joint contributions to a +common navy, it will probably result in the formation of some Imperial +Council in which all parts will have a voice. That however, is a +matter for future discussion and arrangement. + +But when we turn to Ireland, everything is different. The two islands +are separated by less than fifty miles. Ireland has for more than a +century been adequately represented in the Imperial Parliament; the +journey from Galway to London is shorter than that from Auckland +or Dunedin to Wellington. So long as Europe remains as it is, Great +Britain and Ireland must have a common system of defence--which means +one army, one navy, and one plan of fortifications. Again, Irishmen, +traders and others, will constantly have to make use of government +agents in other countries. Now unless Great Britain is to arrange and +pay for the whole of this, we are met at once by the insoluble problem +of Irish representation in the British Parliament. If Ireland is not +represented there, we are faced with the old difficulty of taxation +without representation; if Ireland is represented there for all +purposes, Ireland can interfere in the local affairs of England, but +England cannot in those of Ireland; if we have what has been called +the "in-and-out" scheme as proposed by Gladstone in 1893--that is, for +the Irish members to vote on all questions of an Imperial nature, +but to retire when matters affecting England only are under +discussion--then, even if the line could be drawn (which is doubtful) +we might have the absurdity of an English ministry which possessed +the confidence of the majority of Englishmen and whose management of +England met their approval, being turned out of office by the Irish +vote, and England being governed according to a policy which the +majority of Englishmen detested. Of course it may be said that there +ought to be a number of small Parliaments in the British Isles, like +those in the Provinces of Canada or the States of Australia, with one +great Parliament supreme over them--in other words, Federation. +That might be a good thing, although it would in its turn start many +difficulties which it is unnecessary now to discuss, for it is not +Home Rule nor does Home Rule lead to it. Federal systems arise by the +union of separate States, each State giving up a part of its power +to a joint body which can levy taxes and can overrule the local +authorities. In fact, when Federation comes about, the States cease to +be nations. + +(I must here remark in passing that constant confusion has been caused +by the various senses in which the word "nation" is used. Thus it is +often quite correctly employed in a sentimental sense--we speak of +Scottish National character, or of the National Bible Society of +Scotland, though Scotland has no separate Parliament or flag and would +on a map of Europe be painted the same colour as the rest of Great +Britain. Quite distinct from that is the political sense, in which the +Irish Nationalists use the word when speaking of being "A Nation once +again," or of "The National Independence of Ireland.") + +It might be possible for the United Kingdom to be broken up into a +Federation (though it is strange that there is no precedent in history +for such a course); but that would not be "satisfying the National +Aspirations of Ireland." In fact, as Mr. Childers, one of the ablest +of English advocates of Home Rule, has stated: "The term Federal, as +applied to Irish Home Rule at the present time, is meaningless." + +But when we come to examine the existing Bill, which will become law +in 1914 unless something unforeseen occurs, we find that it is neither +the Colonial plan nor Federation but an elaborate system which really +seems as if it had been devised with the object of satisfying nobody +and producing friction at every point. England (by which of course I +mean Great Britain; I merely use the shorter term for convenience) +is not only to pay the total cost of the army, navy and diplomatic +services, including the defences of Ireland, but is also to grant an +annual subsidy to Ireland commencing with L500,000 but subsequently +reduced to L200,000. Whether the English taxpayer will relish this +when he comes to realise it, may be doubted. Certainly no precedent +can be cited for a Federal system under which all the common +expenditure is borne by one of the parties. And further, the present +Government state freely that they hope to carry out their policy by +introducing a Bill for Home Rule for Scotland and possibly also for +Wales. Will the Scotch and Welsh consent to contribute towards the +government of Ireland; or will they demand that they shall be treated +like Ireland, and leave the people of England to pay all Imperial +services and to subsidize Ireland, Scotland and Wales? Then again, +Ireland is to send forty-two representatives to what is still +sarcastically to be called the "Parliament of the United Kingdom," but +will no doubt popularly be known as the English Parliament. They +are to vote about the taxation of people in Great Britain, and to +interfere in local affairs of that country, whilst the people of +Great Britain are not to tax Ireland or interfere in any way with its +affairs. This is indeed representation without taxation. Of course it +is inevitable that the Irish members will continue to do what they are +doing at present--that is, offer their votes to whatever party will +promise further concessions to Irish Nationalism; and they will +probably find no more difficulty in getting an English party to +consent to such an immoral bargain than they do now. + +The provisions as to legislation for Ireland are still more +extraordinary. The Irish Parliament is to have complete power of +legislating as to Irish affairs, with the exception of certain matters +enumerated in the Act; thus it may repeal any Acts of the Imperial +Parliament passed before 1914. On the other hand, the English +Parliament (in which Ireland will have only forty-two representatives) +will also be able to pass laws binding Ireland (and in this way to +re-enact the laws which the Irish Parliament has just repealed), and +these new laws the Irish Parliament may not repeal or overrule. Now +this power of the English Parliament will either be a reality or a +farce; if it is a reality, the Irish Nationalists will be no more +inclined to submit to laws made by "an alien Parliament" in which they +have only forty-two representatives than they are at present to submit +to those made by one in which they have 103; if it is a farce, the +"supremacy of the Imperial Parliament" is a misleading expression. +The Lord Lieutenant is to act as to some matters on the advice of the +Irish Ministry, as to others on the advice of the English. Anyone who +has studied the history of constitutional government in the colonies +in the early days, when the governor was still supposed to act as +to certain affairs independently of ministerial advice, will see the +confusion to which this must lead. Suppose the Lord Lieutenant acts +on the advice of the English ministers in a way of which the +Irish Parliament do not approve, and the Irish Ministry resign in +consequence, what can result but a deadlock? + +But most extraordinary of all are the provisions as to finance. The +Government appointed a Committee of Experts to consider this question. +The committee made their report; but the Government rejected their +advice and substituted another plan which is so elaborate that it is +only possible to touch on some of its more important features here. +I have already said that the English Parliament will have no power +to tax Ireland. That statement, however, must be taken subject to two +reservations. The Bill provides that if ever the happy day arrives +when for three consecutive years the revenue of Ireland has exceeded +the cost of government, the English Parliament (with the addition of +twenty-three extra members summoned from Ireland for the purpose) +may make new provisions securing from Ireland a contribution towards +Imperial expenditure. As this is the only reference to the subject +in the Bill, the general opinion was that until those improbable +circumstances should occur, the English Parliament would have no power +to tax Ireland; but when the debates were drawing to a close, the +Government astonished the House by stating that according to their +construction of the Bill, should any new emergency arise at any time +after the Bill becomes law (for instance, a great naval emergency +requiring an addition to the Income Tax) it would be not merely the +right but also the duty of the Imperial Chancellor of the Exchequer +to see that the charge should be borne by the whole United Kingdom--in +other words, the Parliament in which Ireland possesses only forty-two +representatives may and ought to tax Ireland for Imperial purposes. +The friction which will arise should any attempt of the sort be made, +especially as the power is not stated in the Bill, is evident. In +plain words, it will be impossible to levy the tax. + +But apart from these rights, which one may safely say will never be +exercised, the financial arrangements will from their very complexity +be a constant source of trouble. All taxes levied in Ireland are to be +paid into the English Exchequer (or as it is called in the Bill "The +Exchequer of the United Kingdom"). Some of the objects for which +these taxes have been levied are to be managed by the Irish +Government--these are called "Irish services"; others are to be +managed by the English Government--these are called "Reserved +services." The English Exchequer will then hand over to the Irish +Exchequer:-- + + (a) A sum representing the net cost to the Exchequer of the + United Kingdom of "Irish Services" at the time of the passing + of the Act; + + (b) The sum of L500,000 a year, reducible to L200,000, above + referred to; and + + (c) A sum equal to the proceeds of any new taxes levied by the + Irish Parliament. + +Then the balance which the English Exchequer will retain, after +handing over these three sums, will go to the "Reserved Services." But +as, in consequence of the establishment of the Old Age Pensions +and some other similar liabilities, the aggregate cost of governing +Ireland at this moment exceeds the revenue derived from Ireland by +about L1,500,000, the English taxpayer will have to make up this sum, +as well as to give to Ireland an annual present of L500,000; and +even if the Irish Government succeeds in managing its affairs more +economically than the Government at present does, that will give no +relief to the British taxpayer, for it will be observed that the first +of the three sums which the Exchequer of the United Kingdom is to hand +over is not a sum representing the cost of the "Irish Services" at any +future date but the cost at the time of the passing of the Act. + +It is possible of course that the Irish revenue derived from existing +taxes may increase, and so the burden on the English taxpayer may +be lightened; but as it is more probable that it will decrease, and +consequently the burden become heavier, the English taxpayer cannot +derive much consolation from that. + +It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that a number of extremely +intricate and difficult financial questions must arise; for instance, +what sum really represents the net cost of "Irish Services" at the +time of the passing of the Act; what sum equals the net proceeds of +new taxes imposed by the Irish Parliament; and at what moment it can +be said that the revenue of Ireland has for three consecutive years +exceeded the cost of government. All such matters are to be decided +by a Board of Five, of whom one is to be nominated by the King +(presumably on the advice of the English Ministers), two by the +English Government, and two by the Irish. From the decisions of this +Board on matters of fact there is to be no appeal. It is needless +to point out that every detail in which the three English members +overrule the two Irish will be fought out again in the English +Parliament by the forty Irish members. This again will show how vain +is the hope that future English Parliaments will be relieved from +endless discussions as to Irish affairs. Professor Dicey has well +named the able work in which he has analysed the Bill and shown its +impossibilities "A Fool's Paradise." + +The provisions concerning those matters as to which the Irish +Parliament is to have no power to legislate are as strange as the +other clauses of the Bill. For six years the Constabulary are to be a +"reserved service"; but as they will be under the orders of the Irish +Government, the object of this is hard to see--unless indeed it is to +create an impression that the Ulstermen if they refuse to obey them +are rebelling not against the Irish but the Imperial Government. The +Post Office Savings Banks are "reserved" for a longer period; as to +the postal services to places beyond Ireland, the Irish Parliament +will have no power to legislate; but the Post Office, so far as it +relates to Ireland alone, will be handed over at once to the Irish +Parliament--although even in the case of Federal Unions such as +Australia the Post Office is usually considered to be eminently a +matter for the Federal authority. And the question whether an Irish +Act is unconstitutional and therefore void will be decided by the +Privy Council, which will be regarded as an essentially English body; +hence if it attempts to veto an Irish Act, its action will be at once +denounced as a revival of Poyning's Act and the Declaratory Act of +George I. + +The Bill excludes the relations with Foreign States from the powers of +the Irish Parliament, but says nothing to prevent the Irish Government +from appointing a political agent to the Vatican. That is probably one +of the first things that it will do; and as the Lord Lieutenant could +never form a Government which would consent to any other course, he +will be obliged to consent. This agent, not being responsible to the +British Foreign Office, may cause constant friction between England +and Italy. + +But quite apart from the unworkable provisions of the Bill, everything +connected with its introduction and passing through Parliament has +tended to increase the hatred which the Opposition feel towards it, +and the determination of the Ulstermen to resist it if necessary even +by force. Those who lived in Australia whilst Federation was under +discussion will recollect how carefully the scheme was brought before +the people, discussed in various Colonial Parliaments, considered over +again line by line by the delegates in an Inter-Colonial Conference, +examined afresh in the Colonial Office in London and in the Imperial +Parliament and finally laid before each colony for its acceptance. Yet +here is a matter which vitally affects the government not of Ireland +only but of the whole United Kingdom, and thus indirectly of the +Empire at large; it was (as I have shown) not fairly brought before +the people at a general election; it has been introduced by what +is admittedly merely a coalition Government as a matter of bargain +between the various sections, at a time when the British Constitution +is in a state of dislocation, as the power of the House of Lords has +been destroyed and the new Upper Chamber not yet set up; and it has +been passed without adequate discussion. This I say deliberately; it +is no use to point out how many hours have been spent in Committee, +for the way in which the discussion has been conducted has deprived +it of any real value. The custom has been for the Government to state +beforehand the time at which each batch of clauses is to be passed, +and what amendments may be discussed (the rest being passed over in +silence); when the discussion is supposed to begin, their supporters +ostentatiously walk out, and the Opposition argue to empty benches; +then when the moment for closing the discussion arrives, the Minister +in charge gets up and says that the Government cannot accept any of +the amendments proposed; the bell rings, the Government supporters +troop back, and pass all the clauses unamended. As an instance of this +contemptible way of conducting the debate, it is sufficient to point +to the fact already mentioned, that so vital a matter as the power +of the English Parliament to tax Ireland was not even hinted at until +nearly the end of the debates. + +And now the Bill is to become law without any further appeal to the +people. + +Are English Unionists to be blamed if they declare that an Act so +passed will possess no moral obligation, and that they are determined, +should the terrible necessity arise, to aid the Ulstermen in resisting +it to the uttermost? + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +THE DANGER TO THE EMPIRE OF ANY FORM OF HOME RULE. THE QUESTIONS +ANSWERED. + + +In the last chapter I explained how hopelessly unworkable is the +particular scheme of Home Rule which is contained in the present +Bill. I now proceed to show why Home Rule in any form must lead to +disaster--primarily to Ireland, ultimately to the Empire. + +Politicians who, like ostriches, possess the happy faculty of shutting +their eyes to unpleasant facts, may say that there is only one nation +in Ireland; but everyone who knows the country is quite aware that +there are two, which may be held together as part of the United +Kingdom, but which can no more be forced into one nation than +Belgium and Holland could be forced to combine as the Kingdom of the +Netherlands. And whatever cross-currents there may be, the great line +of cleavage is religion. Of course I am aware of the violent efforts +that have been made ever since the commencement of the Nationalist +agitation to prove that this is not so. Thus Parnell, addressing an +English audience, explained that religion had nothing to do with the +movement, and as evidence stated that he was the leader of it though +not merely a Protestant but a member of the Protestant Synod and a +parochial nominator for his own parish. Of course everyone in Ireland +knew perfectly well that he was only a Protestant in the sense that +Garibaldi was a Roman Catholic--he had been baptised as such in +infancy; and that he was not a member of the synod or a parochial +nominator, and never had been one; but the statement was good enough +to deceive his Nonconformist hearers. That Protestant Home Rulers +exist is not denied. But the numbers are so small that it is evident +that they are the rare exceptions that prove the rule. The very +anxiety with which, when a Protestant Home Ruler can be discovered +he is put forward, and the fact of his being a Protestant Home Ruler +referred to again and again, shows what a rare bird he is. To mention +one instance amongst many; a Protestant Home Ruler has recently +been speaking on platforms in England explaining that he came in a +representative capacity in order to testify to the people of England +that the Irish Protestants were now in favour of Home Rule. He did +not mention the fact that in the district where he resided there +were about 1,000 Protestants and he was the only Home Ruler amongst +them--in fact, nearly all the rest had signed a Petition against the +Bill. And when we come to examine who these Protestant Home Rulers +are, about whom so much has been said, we find first that there is in +this as in every other movement, a very small number of faddists, who +like to go against their own party; secondly a few who though they +still call themselves Protestants have to all intents and purposes +abandoned their religion, and therefore cannot fairly be reckoned; +thirdly, a few who hold appointments from which they would be +dismissed if they did not conform; fourthly, some who say openly that +Home Rule is coming and that whatever their private opinions may be it +is the wisest policy to worship the rising sun (bearing in mind that +Mr. Dillon has promised that when the Nationalists attain their end +they will remember who were their friends and who their enemies, and +deal out rewards and punishments accordingly); and fifthly, those who +have accepted what future historians will describe as bribes. For the +present Government have showered down Peerages, Knighthoods of +various orders, Lieutenancies of Counties, Deputy-Lieutenancies and +Commissions of the Peace--not to speak of salaried offices both +in Ireland and elsewhere--on Protestants who would consent to turn +Nationalists, in a manner which makes it absurd to talk any more about +bribery at the time of the Union. And yet with all this the Protestant +Home Rulers are such an extremely small body that they may be +disregarded. And indeed it is hard to see how an earnest, consistent +and logically-minded Protestant can be a Nationalist; for loyalty to +the King is a part of his creed; and, in the words of a Nationalist +organ, the _Midland Tribune_, "If a man be a Nationalist he must _ipso +facto_ be a Disloyalist, for Irish Nationalism and loyalty to the +throne of England could not be synonymous." + +On the other hand, a large proportion of the educated Roman Catholics, +the men who have a real stake in the country, are Unionists. Some +of them, however earnest they may be in their religion, dread the +domination of a political priesthood; others dread still more the +union of the Church with anarchism. As has already been shown, +they refuse to join the United Irish League; some in the north have +actually subscribed the Ulster Covenant; many others have signed +petitions against Home Rule throughout the country; and a still larger +number have stated that they would gladly do so if they did not fear +the consequences. It is probably therefore correct to say that +the number of Unionists in Ireland decidedly exceeds the number of +Protestants; in other words, less than three-fourths of the population +are Nationalists, and more than one-fourth (perhaps about one-third) +are Unionists. And more than that; if we are to test the reality of +a movement, we must look not merely at numbers but at other matters. +Violent language may be used; but the fact remains as I have +previously stated that even if the Nationalists are taken as being +only two-thirds of the population, their annual subscriptions to the +cause do not amount to anything like a penny per head and that the +agitation could not last for six months if it were not kept alive +by contributions from America and the Colonies. But though the +Nationalist movement has not brought about a Union between the Orange +and the Green, it has caused two other Unions to be formed which will +have an important influence on the future history of the country. In +the first place it has revived, or cemented, the Union which, as we +have seen, existed at former periods of Irish history, but which has +existed in no other country in the world--the Union between the +Black and the Red. That a Union between two forces so essentially +antagonistic as Ultramontanism and Jacobinism will be permanent, one +can hardly suppose; whether the clericals, if they succeed in crushing +the heretics, will afterwards be able to turn and crush the anarchists +with whom they have been in alliance, and then reign supreme; or +whether, as happened in France at the end of the eighteenth century +and in Portugal recently, the anarchists who have grown up within +the bosom of the Church will prove to be a more deadly foe to the +clericals than the heretics ever were--it is impossible to say; but +neither prospect seems very cheerful. + +In the second place, the Nationalist movement has drawn all the +Protestant bodies together as nothing else could. Episcopalians, +Presbyterians and Methodists have all joined hands in the defence of +their common liberties. The Nationalists have left no stone unturned +in their efforts to prove that the northern Protestants are disloyal. +They have succeeded in finding one speech that was made by an excited +orator (not a leader) forty-four years ago, to the effect that the +Disestablishment of the Church might result in the Queen's Crown being +kicked into the Boyne. As this is the only instance they can rake up, +it has been quoted in the House of Commons and elsewhere again +and again; and Mr. Birrell (whose knowledge of Ireland seems to be +entirely derived from Nationalist speeches) has recently elaborated +it by saying that when the Church was going to be disestablished +"they used to declare" that the Queen's Crown would be kicked into the +Boyne, and yet their threats came to nothing and therefore the +result of Home Rule will be the same. The fact was that the Church +establishment was the last relic of Protestant Ascendancy; and as +I have already shown, that meant Anglican ascendancy in which +Presbyterianism did not participate; hence, when the agitation for +Disestablishment arose, though some few Presbyterians greatly disliked +it, their opposition as a whole was lukewarm. But when in 1886 Home +Rule became a question of practical politics, they rose up against it +as one man; in 1893, when the second Home Rule Bill was introduced and +actually passed the House of Commons, they commenced organising their +Volunteer army to resist it, if necessary, by force of arms; and +they are just as keen to-day as they were twenty years ago. They are +certainly not disloyal; the republican spirit which permeated +their ancestors in the eighteenth century has long since died out +completely. Sir Walter Scott said that if he had lived at the time of +the Union between Scotland and England, he would have fought against +it; but, living a century later and seeing the benefit that it had +been to his country, his feelings were all on the other side. That is +what the Presbyterians of Ulster say to-day. They point to the way in +which Ulster has, under the Union, been able to develop itself; with +no richer soil, no better climate, and no greater natural advantages +than other parts of Ireland, the energy, ability, and true patriotism +of the people have enabled them to establish and encourage commerce +and manufactures which have brought wealth and prosperity to Ulster +whilst the other Provinces have been stationary or retrograde. There +cannot be a better instance of the different spirit which animates the +two communities than the history of the linen industry. Michael Davitt +bitterly described it as "Not an Irish, but an Orange industry." And +from his point of view, he was quite right; for it is practically +confined to Ulster. In that Province it has during the nineteenth +century developed so steadily that the annual export now exceeds +L15,000,000 in value and more than 70,000 hands are employed in the +mills. Not long ago, a Royal Commission was appointed to enquire +whether it was not possible to grow flax in the south and west, and +if so why it was not done. The Commission made careful enquiries, and +reported that in both Munster and Connaught efforts had been made to +establish the industry (notably by the late Lord Bandon, one of the +much-abused landlord class, who had let land for the purpose at a +nominal charge, obtained seed and brought experts from the north +to instruct the people); that it had been proved that both soil and +climate were quite as well adapted for it as in Ulster; but that after +a few years the buyers refused any longer to purchase the flax as it +was so carelessly and badly prepared that it was valueless; and so +the industry had died out. In both south and west the people expressed +their readiness to revive it if a large grant were made to them by the +Government, but not otherwise. + +Then again we may take the growth of the cities. It seems hard now to +realise that one reason why the people of Dublin opposed the Union was +because they feared lest, when their city ceased to be the capital, +Cork might grow into a great industrial centre and surpass it. Cork +has remained stationary ever since; Belfast, then an insignificant +country town, has become a city of 400,000 inhabitants, and the +customs from it alone are more than double those from all the rest of +Ireland put together. And what is true of Belfast is true also on a +smaller scale of all the other towns north of the Boyne. + +This remarkable contrast between the progress of the north-east and +the stagnation of the rest of the country is no new thing. It has been +observed ever since the Union. So long ago as 1832 the Report of the +Commission on the linen manufacture of Ireland contained the following +words:-- + + "Political and religious animosities and dissensions, and + increasing agitation first for one object and then for + another have so destroyed confidence and shaken the bonds of + society--undermined men's principles and estranged + neighbour from neighbour, friend from friend, and class + from class--that, in lieu of observing any common effort + to ameliorate the condition of the people, we find every + proposition for this object, emanate from which party it may, + received with distrust by the other; maligned, perverted and + destroyed, to gratify the political purposes of a faction.... + The comparative prosperity enjoyed by that portion of Ireland + where tranquillity ordinarily prevails, such as the Counties + Down, Antrim, and Derry, testify the capabilities of Ireland + to work out her own regeneration, when freed of the disturbing + causes which have so long impeded her progress in civilization + and improvement. We find there a population hardy, healthy and + employed; capital fast flowing into the district; new sources + of employment daily developing themselves; a people well + disposed alike to the government and institutions of their + country; and not distrustful and jealous of their superiors. + Contrast the social condition of these people with such + pictures as we have presented to us from other districts." + +This energetic, self-reliant and prosperous community now see before +their eyes what the practical working of government by the League is. +They see it generally in the condition of the country, and especially +in the Dublin Convention of 1909, the narrow-minded administration of +the Local Government Act wherever the power of the League prevails, +and the insecurity for life and property in the west; they know also +that a Home Rule Government must mean increased taxation (as the +Nationalists themselves confess) which will probably--in fact, one may +almost say must certainly, as no other source is available--be thrown +on the Ulster manufactures; is it not therefore a matter of life and +death to them to resist it to the uttermost? + +But as I have said, the great line of cleavage is religion. Here I +know that I shall be accused of "Orange bigotry." But I am not afraid +of the charge; first because I do not happen to be an Orangeman; and +secondly because I regard bigotry as the outcome of ignorance and +prejudice, and consider therefore that a calm examination of the +evidence is the very antithesis of bigotry. In order to make this +examination I desire in the first place to avoid the mistake that +Grattan made in judging the probabilities of the future from the +opinions of personal friends whom I like and respect, but who, as I +know (and regret to think), possess no influence whatever. I consider +that there are other data--such as works of authority, the action +of the public bodies, statements by men in prominent positions, +and articles in leading journals--from which it is safer to form +an estimate. The Ulstermen are content that the country should be +governed, as far as religion is concerned, on modern principles--that +is to say, in much the same way that England, Australia and New +Zealand are governed to-day. The Nationalists, whatever they may +say in England or the Colonies, have never in Ireland from the +commencement of the movement attempted to deny that their object is +to see Ireland governed on principles which are totally different +and which the Ulstermen detest. As long ago as 1886, the _Freeman's +Journal_, the leading Nationalist organ, said:-- + + "We contend that the good government of Ireland by England + is impossible ... the one people has not only accepted but + retained with inviolable constancy the Christian faith; + the other has not only rejected it, but has been for three + centuries the leader of the great apostasy, and is at this day + the principal obstacle to the conversion of the world." + +And as recently as December 1912, Professor Nolan of Maynooth, +addressing the Roman Catholic students at the Belfast University, +said:-- + + "Humanly speaking, we are on the eve of Home Rule. We shall + have a free hand in the future. Let us use it well. This is + a Catholic country, and if we do not govern it on Catholic + lines, according to Catholic ideals, and to safe-guard + Catholic interests, it will be all the worse for the country + and all the worse for us. We have now a momentous opportunity + of changing the whole course of Irish history." + +Then another of their papers, the _Rosary_, has said: "We have +played the game of tolerance until the game is played out"; and has +prophesied that under Home Rule the Church will become an irresistible +engine before whom all opposition must go down. And whatever the +educated laity may desire, no one who knows Ireland can doubt that +it is the clerical faction that will be all-powerful. The leading +ecclesiastics are trained at the Gregorian University at Rome; and +one of the Professors at that institution, in a work published in 1901 +with the special approval of Pope Leo XIII, enunciated the doctrine +that it is the duty of a Christian State to put to death heretics +who have been condemned by the Ecclesiastical Court. Of course no one +supposes that such a thing will ever take place in Ireland; but what +the Ulstermen object to is putting themselves under the rule of +men who have been trained in such principles and believe them to be +approved by an infallible authority. + +In 1904 some foreign merchants at Barcelona wished to build a church +for themselves. Republican feeling is so strong in the municipality +that permission was obtained without difficulty. But the bishop +at once protested and appealed to the King. The King wrote back a +sympathetic letter expressing his deep regret that he was unable to +prevent this fresh attack on the Catholic faith. + +We are constantly being told that the tolerance and liberality shown +by the majority in Quebec is sufficient of itself to prove how foolish +are the apprehensions felt by the minority in Ireland. Well, I will +quote from a journal which cannot be accused of Protestant bias, +the _Irish Independent_, one of the leading organs of the +Nationalist-clerical party in Ireland:-- + + "(From our own Correspondent.) + + "Montreal, Thursday. + + "In connection with the celebration of the anniversary of + Wolfe's victory and death, which takes place in September, + prominent members of the Anglican Church have inaugurated a + movement for the erection of a Wolfe Memorial Chapel on + the Plains of Abraham. The organisers of the movement hope + ultimately to secure the transfer of the General's remains to + the chapel for interment on the scene of his victory. + + "The population being largely French-Canadian Catholics, the + Catholic Church organ of Quebec strongly protests against + the erection of an Anglican chapel in the heart of a Catholic + district." + +Now if this conduct on the part of the Roman Catholic authorities is +quite right at Barcelona and Quebec, why is it "Orange bigotry" +to suggest that the same people may act in the same way at Cork or +Galway? + +Again, in 1910, a remarkable volume was published, written by Mrs. +Hugh Fraser, the sister of the novelist, Marion Crawford, entitled "A +Diplomat's Wife in Many Lands." The authoress was a very able woman, +who had travelled much and mixed in cultured society wherever she had +been; her book was highly reviewed by various English Magazines. She +tells the story of a child of Jewish parents living at Rome in the +days of Pope Pius IX, who was secretly baptized in infancy by a nurse, +and at the age of seven was forcibly taken from his parents and placed +in a Convent School. She explains that not only was this quite right, +but that such a course is inevitable in every country in which the +Church has power; and that the feelings of the heretic mother whose +child is taken from her are a fair subject of ridicule on the part of +good Catholics. Can Irish Protestants be accused of bigotry when they +contend that these writers mean what they say? English Nonconformists +argue that they ought to wait until the time comes and then either +fight or leave the country; but the Irish Protestants reply that it +is more sensible to take steps beforehand to ward off the danger. And +whether they are right or wrong, the fact remains that those are their +ideas, and that is their determination; and this is the situation +which must be faced if Home Rule is forced upon the people of Ulster. + +By a striking coincidence, two meetings have recently been held on the +same day--the 16th of May 1913--which form an apt illustration of +the position adopted by the two parties. The first was a great +demonstration of Unionists at Belfast, organised in order to make a +further protest against the Bill and to perfect the organisation for +opposing it by force, if the necessity arises; the second was a large +meeting of the United Irish League at Mullingar. The Chairman, Mr. +Ginnell, M.P. (who has gained prominence and popularity by his skill +in arranging cattle-drives), said that the chief cause of the pressure +last session was to get the Home Rule Bill through its first stage. It +was still called a Home Rule Bill, though differing widely from +what most of them always understood by Home Rule. Deeply though he +regretted the Bill's defects and limitations, still he thought almost +any Parliament in Ireland was worth accepting--first, because it was +in some sense a recognition of the right to govern themselves; and +secondly, because even a crippled Parliament would give them fresh +leverage for complete freedom. No one could be silly enough to suppose +that an intelligent Ireland, having any sort of a Parliament of its +own, would be prevented by any promise given now by place-hunters, +from using that Parliament for true national purposes. + +That no army which the Ulstermen can form will be able to stand +against British troops supported by cavalry and artillery is evident; +but it seems almost past belief that England should be ready to +plunge the country into civil war; or that British troops should march +out--with bands playing "Bloody England, we hate you still," or some +other inspiring Nationalist air--to shoot down Ulstermen who will come +to meet them waving the Union Jack and shouting "God save the King." +And if they do--what then? Lord Wolseley, when Commander-in-Chief in +Ireland in 1893, pointed out the probable effect on the British Army +in a letter to the Duke of Cambridge:-- + + "If ever our troops are brought into collision with the + loyalists of Ulster, and blood is shed, it will shake the + whole foundations upon which our army rests to such an extent + that I feel that our Army will never be the same again. Many + officers will resign to join Ulster, and there will be such + a host of retired officers in the Ulster ranks that men who + would stand by the Government no matter what it did, will be + worse than half-hearted in all they do. No army could stand + such a strain upon it." + +And then England, having crushed her natural allies in Ulster, will +hand over the Government of Ireland to a party whose avowed object +is to break up the Empire and form a separate Republic. Dangers and +difficulties arose even when the independent legislature of Ireland +was in the hands of men who were loyal and patriotic in the noblest +sense of the term, and when there were in every district a certain +number of educated gentlemen of position who (as we have seen) were +always ready to risk their lives and fortunes for the defence of the +realm; what will happen when the loyal minority have been shot down, +driven out of the country, or forced into bitter hostility to the +Government who have betrayed and deserted them? As Lecky wrote years +ago:-- + + "It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the danger + that would arise if the vast moral legislative, and even + administrative powers which every separate legislature must + necessarily possess, were exercised in any near and vital + part of the British Empire, by men who were disloyal to its + interests. To place the government of a country by a voluntary + and deliberate act in the hands of dishonest and disloyal men, + is perhaps the greatest crime that a public man can commit: + a crime which, in proportion to the strength and soundness of + national morality, must consign those who are guilty of it to + undying infamy." + +If English people are so blind that they cannot perceive this, +foreigners, whose vision is clearer, have warned them. Bismarck said +that England, by granting Home Rule to Ireland, would dig its own +grave; and Admiral Mahan has recently written:-- + + "It is impossible for a military man or a statesman to look + at the map and not perceive that the ambition of the Irish + separatists, if realised, would be even more threatening to + the national life of Great Britain than the secession of the + South was to the American Union. + + "The legislative supremacy of the British Parliament against + the assertion of which the American Colonists revolted + and which to-day would be found intolerable in Canada and + Australia cannot be yielded in the case of an island, where + independent action might very well be attended with fatal + consequences to its partner. The instrument for such action, + in the shape of an independent Parliament, could not be safely + trusted even to avowed friends." + +So then, having reviewed the evidence as calmly and dispassionately as +I can, I answer the two questions which I propounded at the outset of +the enquiry--That the real objects of the Nationalists are the +total separation of Ireland from England and the establishment of an +Independent Republic; and that the men of Ulster in resisting them +to the uttermost are not merely justified on the ground of +self-preservation, but are in reality fighting for the cause of the +Empire. + + + + +NOTE. + +The following Report of the Annual Pilgrimage in memory of Wolfe Tone, +which took place on the 22nd of June last, and the article in the +_Leinster Leader_ (a prominent Nationalist journal) will show how +closely the Nationalists of to-day follow in the footsteps of Wolfe +Tone. + + +THE MEMORY OF WOLFE TONE. + +ANNUAL PILGRIMAGE TO BODENSTOWN. + +(_From our Reporter_.) + +On Sunday last the annual pilgrimage to the grave of Theobald Wolfe +Tone took place to Bodenstown churchyard. This year the numbers who +attended exceeded those of last year, about a thousand coming from +Dublin and another contingent from Tullamore, Clare, and Athlone. The +procession formed outside Sallins station was a most imposing one, +being made up of St. James' Brass Band and the Lorcan O'Toole Pipers' +Band and the Athlone Pipers' Band, the National Boy Scouts, the +Daughters of Erin, and members of the Wolfe Tone Memorial Clubs. + +At the graveside demonstration, Mr. Thos. J. Clarke presided and said +it was a gratifying thing that numbers of their fellow-countrymen were +to-day swinging back to the old fighting line and taking pride in the +old Fenian principles. He introduced Mr. P.H. Pearse, B.A. + +Mr. Pearse then came forward and delivered an eloquent and impressive +oration, first speaking in Irish. Speaking in English, he said they +had come to the holiest place in Ireland, holier to them than that +sacred spot where Patrick sleeps in Down. Patrick brought them life, +but Wolfe Tone died for them. Though many had testified in death +to the truth of Ireland's claim to Nationhood, Wolfe Tone was the +greatest of all that had made that testimony; he was the greatest of +Ireland's dead. They stood in the holiest place in Ireland, for what +spot of the Nation's soil could be holier than the spot in which the +greatest of her dead lay buried. He found it difficult to speak in +that place, and he knew they all partook of his emotion. There were +no strangers there for they were all in a sense own brothers to Tone +(hear, hear). They shared his faith, his hope still unrealised and +his great love. They had come there that day not merely to salute this +noble dust and to pay their homage to the noble spirit of Tone, but +to renew their adhesion to the faith of Tone and to express their +full acceptance of the gospel of which Tone had given such a clear +definition. That gospel had been taught before him by English-speaking +men, uttered half-articulately by Shan O'Neill, expressed in some +passionate metaphor by Geoffrey Keating, and hinted at by Swift in +some bitter jibe, but it was stated definitely and emphatically by +Wolfe Tone and it did not need to be ever again stated anew for any +new generation. Tone was great in mind, but he was still greater in +spirit. He had the clear vision of the prophet; he saw things as they +were and saw things as they would be. They owed more to this dead man +than they should be ever able to repay him by making pilgrimages to +his grave or building the stateliest monuments in the streets of +his city. They owed it to him that there was such a thing as Irish +Nationalism; to his memory and the memory of '98 they owed it that +there was any manhood left in Ireland (hear, hear). The soul of +Wolfe Tone was like a burning flame, a flame so pure, so ardent, so +generous, that to come into communion with it was as a new optimism +and regeneration. Let them try in some way to get into contact with +the spirit of Tone and possess themselves of its ardour. If they could +do that it would be a good thing for them and their country, because +they would carry away with them a new life from that place of death +and there would be a new resurrection of patriotic grace in their +souls (hear, hear). Let them think of Tone; think of his boyhood +and young manhood in Dublin and in Kildare; think of his adventurous +spirit and plans, think of his glorious failure at the bar, and his +healthy contempt for what he called a foolish wig and gown, think how +the call of Ireland came to him; think how he obeyed that call; think +how he put virility into the Catholic movement; think how this heretic +toiled to make freemen of Catholic helots (applause). Think how he +grew to love the real and historic Irish nation, and then there came +to him that clear conception that there must be in Ireland not three +nations but one; that Protestant and Dissenter must close in amity +with Catholic, and Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter must unite to +achieve freedom for all (applause). Let them consider the sacrifices +Tone had made; he had to leave so much. Never was there a man who was +so richly endowed as he was, he had so much love in his warm heart. He +(speaker) would rather have known Tone than any other man of whom he +ever read or heard. He never read of any one man who had more in him +of the heroic stuff than Tone had; how gaily and gallantly he had set +about the doing of a mighty thing. He (speaker) had always loved the +very name of Thomas Russell because Tone so loved him. To be Tone's +friend! What a privilege! for Tone had for his friends an immense +love, an immense charity. He had such love for his wife and children! +But such was the destiny of the heroes of their nation; they had +to stifle in their hearts all that love and that sweet music and to +follow only the faint voice that called them to the battlefield or to +the harder death at the foot of the gibbet. Tone heard that voice and +obeyed it and from his grave to-day he was calling on them and they +were there to answer his voice; and they pledged themselves to +carry out his programme to abolish the connection with England, +the never-failing source of political evils and to establish +the independence of their country, to abolish the memory of past +dissensions, and to replace for the denominations of Protestant, +Catholic and Dissenter, the common name of Irishman (applause). +In that programme was to be found the whole philosophy of Irish +Nationality; that programme included the philosophy of the Gaelic +League and of later prophets, and it was to that programme they +pledged their adhesion; they pledged it now at the graveside of Tone; +they pledged themselves to follow in the steps of Tone, never to rest +by day or night until this be accomplished, until Ireland be free +(applause); fighting on, not in despondency, but in great joy as Tone +fought; prizing it above all privileges, and hoping for the victory in +their own day. And if it should be granted to them in this generation +to complete the work that Tone's generation left unaccomplished! But +if that was not their destiny, they should fight on still, hoping +still, self-sacrificing still, knowing as they must know that causes +like this did not lose for ever, and that men like Tone did not die in +vain (applause). + +The address having concluded, wreaths were placed on the grave by the +National Boy Scouts and the Inghanite Na h-Eireann. + +During the afternoon an aeridheacht was held in an adjoining field at +which music, songs and recitations were contributed, and a thoroughly +enjoyable Irish-Ireland evening was spent. + + + + +AT THE GRAVE OF WOLFE TONE. + + +The lifework of Theobald Wolfe Tone, for the subversion of English +Government in Ireland, and the supreme sacrifice he made in the mighty +effort to erect in its stead an independent Ireland free from all +foreign denomination and control, was fittingly commemorated on Sunday +last, when the annual pilgrimage took place to Bodenstown Churchyard, +where all that is mortal of the great patriot lie buried. The +pilgrimage this year was worthy of the cause and the man, and afforded +some object lessons in what might be accomplished by a cultivation of +those principles of discipline and devotion to duty, in the pursuit +of a glorious ideal, which Tone taught and adhered to throughout his +adventurous and brilliant career. The well-ordered procession, +the ready obedience to the commands of the marshals, the intense +earnestness of the multitude, and the display made by the youths--the +national boy scouts--their military bearing, and the bands and banners +which interspersed the procession as it marched from Sallins to +Bodenstown was a spectacle which pleased the eye and stirred the +emotions. Everything in connection with the pilgrimage was carried out +with a close attention to detail, and military-like precision which +must have been very acceptable to the great patriot in whose honour +it was organised, were he but permitted to gaze from the great Unknown +upon this practical demonstration of the perpetuation of the spirit +which animated him and his time, in the struggle against English +misrule, and the love and veneration in which he is still held, after +the lapse of the century and more that has passed since he made the +final sacrifice of his life in the cause of freedom. Tone done to +death did not die in vain. The truth of this was evident in the +character of the pilgrimage on Sunday last, when all that is best and +purest in patriotism in the land assembled at his graveside, to renew +fealty to the aims and ideals for which he suffered and died, and to +hear the gospel of Irish nationality preached and expounded as he knew +and inculcated it in his day. A fusion of forces, and the cultivation +of a spirit and bond of brotherhood and friendship amongst Irishmen +in the common cause, were his methods to attain the great ideal of +a separate and distinct nationality, for then, as to-day, the chief +obstacle to freedom and nationhood was not so much English domination +in itself, as want of cohesion, faction, and the disruption caused +by alien traditions and teachings. This was the prevailing spirit of +Sunday's commemoration, and as the great mass of people filed past in +orderly array and knelt, prayed, and laid wreaths on the lonely grave, +the solemnity and impressiveness of the occasion was intensified. +In the suppressed murmurs, and silent gaze on the tomb of the mighty +dead, one could recognise the eagerness and the hope for another Tone +to arise to complete the work which he promoted, and vindicate the +purity of the motives which moved men like the leaders of '98 to do +and dare for all, and to "substitute the common name of Irishman +for Catholic, Protestant, and Dissenter." The promoters, too, were +fortunate in their choice of orator for the occasion. Mr. P.H. Pearse +did full justice to the occasion, and in language, beautiful and +impressive, pictured the man and his movements and the lessons to be +drawn by us to-day from the lifework of leaders in thought and action +like Tone. Close and consistent adhesion to principles of patriotism +and a readiness of self-sacrifice in the pursuit of those principles, +were his distinguishing characteristics all through life, and if we in +our time would emulate the example of Tone and his times, we must also +be ready when the call came to meet any demand made upon us for the +promotion of our national welfare. The orator of the day rightly, in +our opinion, described that hallowed spot in Bodenstown as one of the +holiest places in Ireland to-day, from the nationalist standpoint, +holding as it does the ashes of the man who, without friends, money or +influence to help him, and by sheer force of character, intensity of +purpose and earnestness, prevailed upon the greatest emperor-general +the world has ever seen Napoleon Bonaparte, to make a descent on +Ireland, in order to aid our starved, tortured, and persecuted people +to shake off the shackles that kept them in slavery, and elevate +Ireland once more to the dignity of full, free, and untrammelled +nationhood. We are all familiar with the events following this great +effort of Tone's, and the dark chapters that closed a glorious career. +All that is mortal of Tone is in the keeping of Kildare, and it is +a trust that we feel sure is not alone felt to be a high honour, +but which cannot fail to keep the cultivation of a high standard of +nationality before the people in whose midst repose the remains of one +of Ireland's greatest sons. Ireland, from the centre to the sea, +was represented in Sunday's great gathering to commemorate the +achievements of Wolfe Tone, and the occasion was honoured first by +the large and representative character of the throng, secondly by the +decorum observed all through the day's proceedings, and thirdly, by +the regularity and precision which attended the entire arrangements. +There was just one other feature which must have been very gratifying +to those identified with the organisation of the pilgrimage, +namely: the large proportion of ladies and young people, coming long +distances, who made up the gathering. And they were by no means the +least enthusiastic of the throng. This enthusiasm amongst our young +people is one of the most encouraging and promising signs of the +times, serving as it does to demonstrate the undying spirit of Irish +nationality, and the perpetuation of those principles to which Tone +devoted his time, talents, and eventually made the supreme sacrifice +of his life in having inculcated amongst his people. It is a glorious +legacy, and one that has ever been cherished with veneration for the +men who left it. He died a martyr to the cause he espoused, but his +memory and the cause live. The living blaze he and his co-workers, in +the cause of Irish freedom, kindled has never been completely stamped +out, and it still smoulders, and has occasionally burst into flame +only to be temporarily extinguished in the blood and tears of our +bravest and best who never forgot the teachings of Tone. And now, when +the sky is bright once more, and every circumstance portends the dawn +of a new era, full of hope and promise for the ultimate realisation +of those ideals for which thousands of our race have sacrificed their +lives, the spark of nationality which, even since Tone's death, has +repeatedly leaped into flame, still glows fitfully to remind us that +come what may it remains undying and unquenchable, a beacon to light +us on the path to freedom should disappointment and dashed hopes again +darken the outlook. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abjuration, oath of, 51. + Absentees, 65, 138, 139. + Acton, Lord, 37. + Adrian, Pope, 13. + Agrarian outrages, 152, 196-202, 210-215. + Agriculture, Department of, 161, 163. + Alexander, Pope, 14. + Alfred the Great, 9. + American War of Independence, 63, 72, 73, 83. + Anglican Church in Ireland, 27, 28, 60, 143, 144, 236. + Anne, Queen, 63. + Arkins, P., 210, 211. + Arklow, battle of, 109. + Armagh, Bishop of, 7. + Ashbourne Act, 159. + Ashtown, Lord, 203, 204. + Asquith, Rt. Hon. H.H., 129, 207. + Athenry founded by Normans, 17. + + Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur J., 156, 160, 164. + Balfour, Rt. Hon. Gerald, 168. + Baltimore, Lord, 38. + Bandon, Lord, 238. + Bannatyne, Mr., 214. + Barcelona, Church at, 243, 244. + Belfast, growth of, 239; + meeting at, 245; + persons employed by Corporation of, 174, 175; + University, 176, 193, 205. + Berkeley, Bishop, 120. + Biggar, J.G., 145. + Birrell, Rt. Hon. Augustine, Chief Secretary, 160, 167, 173, + 174, 197, 198, 200-205, 211, 216, 236. + Bismarck, Prince, 248. + Blake, W., 198. + "Board of Erin," 184. + Boers, Nationalist sympathy with, 170. + Borromeo, San Carlo, 54. + Bossuet, 54. + Bounties granted by Irish Parliament, 80. + Boy Scouts, 193. + Boycotting, 86, 148, 149, 153. + Boyne, battle of the, 48. + Brady, J., 145, 146. + Brian Boroo, 8, 9, 19. + Bright, John, 154, 159. + Brook, 57. + Browne estate, 168. + Bruce, Edward, invasion by, 19, 26, 91. + Bruce, King Robert, 17, 19, 26. + Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, Chief Secretary, 194, 195, 197. + Bulls, Papal, 13-15. + Burke, Mr., Under Secretary, murder of, 146, 153. + Busby, Mr., 157. + Butt, Isaac, advocates Home Rule, 145. + + Carey, James, 145. + Carlow, rebellion in, 109. + "Carrion Crows," 202. + Castlebar, capture of by the French, 112. + Castledawson outrage, 216, 217. + Castlereagh, Lord, 126, 128. + Catholic University Medical School, 176. + Cattle driving, 167, 195-202. + Cavan, raid by septs of, 7. + Cavendish, murder of Lord F., 146, 153. + Celts, 5-14, 20, 23, 24, 31. + Charlemont, Lord, 93. + Charles I, 40-42. + Charles II, 44. + Chicago Convention, 155. + Childers, Erskine, 222. + Church, Celtic. See Celts of Ireland. + See Anglican Church. + Churchill, Rt. Hon. Winston, 209. + Clan-na-gael, 147, 185. + Clare, state of, in 1912, 210-214. + Clare, Lord, 81, 84, 85, 111. + Clerkenwell explosion, 143. + Clontarf, battle of, 9. + "Coalition Ministry," 208. + "Coigne and livery," 11. + College of Surgeons, Dublin, 176. + Condon, O'Meagher, 96, 184, 185. + Confiscations, 30, 42, 43, 57, 150. + Congested Districts Board, 164-168. + Connaught, Celtic raids into, 7; + lands in, given to rebels, 42; + rebellion in, 112. + Conolly, Mr., 215. + Convention in Dublin in 1909, 206, 207, 240. + Cooke, Mr., Under Secretary, 111. + Co-operative Credit Banks, 162, 163. + Co-operative Farming Societies, 161-163. + Cork, Medical School at, 176; + persons employed by County Council of, 175. + Corn Laws, repeal of the, 136. + Cornwallis, Lord, 123, 129. + County Councils, 168-178, 191, 193. + Covenant, Ulster. See Ulster Covenant. + Cowper Commission, 149. + Crewe, Lord, 201. + Crimes Act of 1887, 157, 158, 194. + Crimes Prevention Act, 153, 157. + Croke, Archbishop, 144, 156. + Cromwell and Cromwellians, 38, 42, 44, 57, 66, 67, 106. + Crosbie, Mr., 216. + Curley, D., 145, 146. + + _Daily News_, 200. + Daly, J., 195. + Danes, 8, 9, 13. + Davies, Sir, J., 5. + Davitt, Michael, 145, 167, 238. + Declaratory Act of George I, 74, 229. + Defenders, 87. + Department of Agriculture, 161, 163. + Derry, siege of, 47. + Desmond rebellion, 34. + Devlin, J., 96, 146, 182. + Devoy, J., 94, 146. + Dicey, Professor A.V., 228. + Dillon, John, 97, 156, 184, 234. + Dillon estate, 165. + Disestablishment of the Irish Church, 143, 144, 236. + Dispensary doctors, appointment of, 176, 177. + District Councils, 161, 168, 178. + Down, Celtic raid into, 7. + Dublin, founded by Danes, 8, 9; + Bishopric of, 8, 9; + Henry II at, 16; + Simnel crowned at, 22; + rebellion in neighbourhood of, 104, 109; + Convention at, in 1909, 206, 207, 240. + Dudley, Lord, 166. + "Dynamite Party," 147. + + Edward III, 20. + Edward VI, 29, 31. + Eighty Club, 162. + Elizabeth, Queen, 4, 27, 28, 33, 48, 91. + Emancipation, Roman Catholic, 134. + Emigration, 139, 140. + Emmett, R., 95, 132, 182. + Endowment of R.C. Church proposed, 134. + Ersefied Normans, 18, 20. + Esmonde, Dr., 105. + Exchequers, amalgamation of, 135. + + "Fair rents," 150. + Famine. See Potato famine. + Fenianism, 142, 144, 145, 147. + Feudal system, 14, 26. + Firbolgs, 5. + FitzGerald rebellion, 25, 27, 31. + FitzGibbon, J., 167, 171. + Fitzpatrick, case of Mrs., 210, 211. + Fiudir, 11. + Flax. See Linen. + "Flight of the Earls," 36. + Ford, Patrick, 146, 152, 154, 155. + Forster, Rt. Hon. W.E., Chief Secretary, 148. + Foster, Speaker, 126. + France, persecution in, 30, 37, 38, 45-48; + war with, 72, 73; + religious thought in, 76; + revolution in, 87, 101, 236; + invasions by, 91, 92, 111, 112. + Franklin, Benjamin, 73. + Fraser, Mrs. Hugh, 244. + _Freeman's Journal_, 170, 241. + _Frontier Sentinel_, 2. + + Gaelic League, 186-193. + Galway, founded by Normans, 17; + Medical School at, 176; + persons employed by County Council of, 175; + state of, in 1912, 215. + Games, English, forbidden, 193. + Gaughran, Bishop, 4. + Gavelkind, 11, 12. + General Council of County Councils, 172, 173, 186. + George III, 68. + Germany, persecution in, 37, 38; + Nationalist hopes of aid from, 93, 98, 99. + Ginnell, L., 196, 245. + Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W.E., 6, 95, 143, 148, 150, 152-155, + 179. + Grand juries, 178. + Grattan, 74-77, 93, 100, 120, 126. + "Grievances from Ireland," 203. + Gwynn, Stephen, 174. + + Habeus Corpus, suppression of, 69. + Henry II, 14, 15, 20, 36. + Henry VII, 22. + Henry VIII, 24, 26, 28, 29. + Hibernians, Ancient Order of, 184, 216. + Hobhouse, Rt. Hon. C.E., 208. + Hobson, B., 98. + Holland, intended invasion from, 101, 102. + Home Rule, 145, 155. + Home Rule Bill, of 1886, 154; + of 1893, 179, 221; + of 1912, 208, 218-231, 245. + Huguenots, 30, 45, 47, 55. + Hyde, Dr. Douglas, 97. + + Incumbered Estates Act, 138, 150. + Independence of Ireland real object of Nationalists, 173,181, + 182, 185, 186, 241, 242, 246-248. + And see Republic. + Ingram, Dr. Dunbar on the Union, 118-129. + Insurance Act, 1911, 185. + "Invincibles," the, 147. + Irish Agricultural Organization Society, 161, 162. + Irish brigade in France, 92. + _Irish Freedom_, 94. + _Irish Independent_, 243. + Irish language, 186-193. + _Irish Review_, 188. + Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, 145, 147. + "Irish services," 227. + + Jacobinism, 87, 89, 101, 236. + James I, 38, 40. + James II, 43, 44, 47, 49-51. + Jews, persecution of the, 58. + + Kabyles, 55. + Kenny, Mr. Justice, 197. + Kettle, A.J., 183. + Kettle, T.M., 97. + Kickham, 95. + Kildare, church burnt at, 7; + rebellion in, 105. + Kilkenny, founded by Normans, 17; + statutes of, 20; + rebellion in, 109. + Killala, French landing at, 111. + Killaloe, R.C. Bishop of, 212-214. + Kiltimagh case, 177. + King, title of, taken by Henry VIII, 27. + Kings, Celtic, of Ireland, 10. + King's County, plantation of, 29, 30; + persons employed by County Council of, 175. + + Labourer's Cottages Act, 160, 161. + Lalor, J.F., 141, 142, 153, 172. + Land Acts from 1870 to 1887, 140, 150-152, 159. + Land Court, 150, 197. + Land League, 147, 148, 152, 181, 182. + Land Purchase Acts, 158, 159. + Land tenure, tribal, 6; + primogeniture, 11, 12; + gavelkind, 11, 12; + in the 18th century, 65, 66. + Laws of England, attempted introduction of, 18; + made binding in Ireland, 22. + Lecky, Dr. W.E.H., 41, 44, 110, 117, 130, 247. + _Leinster Leader_, 95, 249. + Leitrim, raid by septs of, 7. + Leo XIII, Pope, 242. + Light Railways Act, 160. + Limerick, founded by Danes, 8; + Scotch invasion of, 19; + church windows broken at, 216. + Linen industry, 62, 63, 238, 239. + Local Government Act, 1898, 168-178, 180, 240. + Loise, persecution in the, 28. + Louis XIV, 43, 45-48, 53. + Louis XVI, 101, 102. + + MacAlpine, Kennett, 9. + McBride, Major, 98, 99. + MacDonnell, Lord, 166. + McKenna, Thomas, 79, 126. + McNicholas, Rev. J.T., 85. + MacSeamus, T., 188. + Magdeburg, sacking of, 42. + Magistrates, appointment of, 179, 180. + Magnus, Sir P., 205. + Mahan, Admiral, 248. + "Manchester Martyrs," 96-98, 144, 145, 192. + Maori customary claims, 39. + Marriage, law of R.C. Church as to, 85. + Maryborough, 30. + Maryland, 38. + Mayo County Council, 170. + Maunsell, R., 214. + Maynooth, foundation of, 88, 204. + Metropolitan Police Act, 157. + "Middlemen," 65. + _Midland Tribune_, 234. + Mitchell, J., 95, 97, 142. + "Molly Maguires," 184. + Morley, Rt. Hon. John, Chief Secretary, 165, 179. + Mountcashel, Lord, 53. + Munster, raid by men of, 7. + Murphy, Father Michael, 109. + Mutiny Act, 74. + + Nantes, revocation of Edict of, 30, 38, 45-48. + Napoleon, 91. + "Nation," meaning of word, 222. + National University, 191, 192, 205, 206. + Nationalists, real objects of, 3, 93-99, 248. + And see Independence; Republic. + Netherlands, persecution in the, 4, 33, 34. + New Zealand, 39, 157, 218-220, 241. + Nolan, Professor, 242. + "No Rent" proclamation, 153, 156. + Normans, character of, 17; + adoption of Celtic customs by, 18; + rebellions by, 23-25, 33, 34, 36. + + Oakboys, 69. + O'Brien, Smith, 96, 140. + O'Brien, William, 95. + O'Connell, Daniel, misstatements by, as to the Union, 116; + leads agitation for emancipation, 134; + and for repeal, 140. + O'Connor, T.P., 146. + O'Donnell, Bishop, 165. + O'Hara, Rev. D., 165. + O'Mahony, Mr., 41. + O'Mara, Mrs., 213. + O'Neill, Shan, 33, 34, 39. + Orange Society, foundation of, 90, 91. + Outrages, Agrarian. See Agrarian outrages. + + Pale, the English, 20-22, 24, 25, 31. + Parliament, Irish, 21-24, 35, 63-65, 69-71; + becomes independent, 74, 77-79; + disqualification of votes for, abolished, 84; + religious test for, not abolished, 84, 87; + proposed reform of, 87, 88; + criticized, 130, 131. + See also Regency question. + Parnell, C.S., 95, 96, 145, 156, 232. + Parnell Commission, 147. + Paul III, Pope, 26. + Peel, Sir Robert, 122, 205. + "Peep of Day Boys," 87, 90. + Penal Laws, the, 49-58, 63, 70, 72, 79, 82, 83. + Persecution, 4, 23, 32, 37, 38, 40, 43, 45-48, + 52-54, 242. + Philip and Mary, 29, 39. + Philip II of Spain, 28, 32, 33, 91. + Philipstown, 30. + "Physical Force Party," the, 147. + Pitt, William, commercial treaty proposed by, 78; + views of, on the Union, 122. + Pius V, Pope, 37. + "Plan of Campaign," the, 155. + "Plantations," 30, 31, 33, 38. + Plowden, F., 126. + Plunket, Lord, 132. + Plunkett, Rt. Hon. Sir Horace, 161. + Portugal, persecution in, 37, 48, 53. + Potato famine, 136, 137, 139. + Poyning's Act, 22, 74, 229. + Pretender, the, 50, 51. + Primogeniture, 11, 12. + Prosperous, attack on the, 105. + "Protestant ascendancy," 59, 101. + Protestant Home Rulers, 233, 234. + Puritans, 40, 42. + + Queen's County, plantation of, 29, 30. + Queen's University, 205. + Quakers, emigration aided by, 139. + + Raffeisen system, 162. + Rebellion of 1641, 40-42. + Rebellions of 1715 and 1745, 52. + Rebellion of 1798, rise of, in Ulster, 86, 102; + becomes religious, 103, 105; + in Leinster, 104, 105; + in Wexford, 105-108, 110; + in Kilkenny, Carlow and Wicklow, 109; + in Connaught, 112; + amnesty after, 109; + effects of, 114. + Rebellion of 1805, 132. + Redmond, John, 95, 146, 162, 169, 171, 174, 175, 199, + 201, 207-209, 215. + Redmond, William, 107, 108. + Reformation, 26-28. + Regency question, 80-82. + Registration of Titles Act, 1891, 160. + Rent, agitation against, 148, 153, 154. + Repeal Association, statement by, as to Rebellion, 108. + "Reserved Services," 227. + Republic, rebels of 1798 sought to establish, 93; + object of Nationalists, 94-99, 147, 248. + And see Independence. + Richard II, 20. + Richey, Professor, 12, 13, 21, 24. + _Rosary, The_, 242. + Rosen, Conrade de, 47. + Ross, Mr. Justice, 168, 197. + Rossa, O'Donovan, 146. + Royal University, 205. + Russell, Rt. Hon. T.W., 163. + + Saffron dress, 19, 192. + St. Vincent, Cape, 102. + Savoy, persecution in, 37, 45, 48, 54. + Salisbury, Lord, 154. + Scholarships, 191, 192. + Scotland, Norman kingdom of, 17; + invasion of Ireland from, 19, 33; + Union of, with England, 63, 119, 120. + Scott, Sir Walter, 237. + Scullabogue barn, massacre at, 110. + Scully, Mr., 204. + Settlement, Act of, 43-45. + Separation. See Independence; + Republic. + Sevigne, Madame de, 46, 47. + Simnel, Lambert, 22, 82. + Sinn Fein, 185, 186. + Slave trade, 58. + Smith, Adam, 120. + Societies, secret, 68, 69, 181. + Spain, 27, 28, 30, 32, 34, 37, 40, 48, 53, 55, 72, + 76, 101. + Spenser, Edmund, 35. + "Steelboys," 69. + Sullivan, A.M., 136, 137, 140. + Swayne, Captain, 105. + Sweetman, J., 186. + + Tithes, 68, 69, 134, 135. + Tone, Wolfe, 89, 91-97, 101, 102, 111, 112, 121, 182, + 193, 218, 249-258. + Trade, restrictions on Irish, 63, 64; + abolition of, 74, + Tribal tenure of land, 6. + Trinity College, Dublin, 70, 176. + Tyrconnell, flight of Earl of, 36. + Tyrone, raid by men of, 7. + Tyrone, flight of Earl of, 36. + Tyrrell, Father, 5. + + Ulster Covenant, 1, 235. + Ulster, Scotch invasion of, 19, 33; + plantation of, 39; + rebellion of 1641 in, 41; + volunteer movement in, 72, 102, 237; + rebellion of 1798 in, 86, 102. + Union, suggested in time of Queen Anne, 63; + necessity of, seen by Pitt, 78; + became probable in 1797, 100; + rebellion made inevitable, 115; + mis-statements as to, 116; + feelings of people as to, 117, 118; + previous efforts towards, 119; + really caused by Parliament becoming independent, 120-123; + proposed, 123; + discussed, 124; + approved by R.C. Church, 125; + carried, 126; + charges of bribery concerning, 127-129; + cannot now be reversed, 130; + prosperity of Ireland after, 133. + United Irish League, 163, 166, 167, 171, 180-183, 203, 235, + 245. + United Irish Society, 87, 88, 91. + Universities. See Trinity College, Dublin; + Queen's University; + Royal University; + Belfast University; + National University. + University College, Cork, 205; + Galway, 205. + + Victoria, Queen, 39. + Vinegar Hill, massacre at, 105-107. + Volunteer movement, 72, 102, 237. + + Waitangi, Treaty of, 39. + Waldenses, persecution of, 43, 53. + Walsh, T., 195. + Waterford, founded by Danes, 8; + Henry II lands at, 16. + Waterford Corporation and Mr. Scully, 204. + Westmeath, persons employed by County Council of, 175. + Wexford, raid by men of, 7; + landing of Spaniards at, 34; + rebellion in, 105-107, 110; + monuments of rebels in, 108. + White, P., 195. + Whiteboys, 69. + William III, 47. + Wolfe, memorial to General, 243, 244. + Wolseley, letter from Lord, 246. + Wright, Mr. Justice, 182. + Wyndham Act, 159. + + + +_Sherratt and Hughes, Printers, London and Manchester._ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Is Ulster Right?, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IS ULSTER RIGHT? *** + +***** This file should be named 13157.txt or 13157.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/3/1/5/13157/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Alison Hadwin and PG Distributed +Proofreaders + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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