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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13127 ***
+
+OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSSULMAUNS OF INDIA
+
+Descriptive of Their Manners, Customs, Habits and Religious Opinions
+Made During a Twelve Years' Residence in Their Immediate Society
+
+by
+
+MRS. MEER HASSAN ALI
+
+Second Edition, Edited with Notes and an Introduction by W. Crooke
+
+1917
+
+
+
+
+WITH SENTIMENTS OF GRATITUDE
+AND PROFOUND RESPECT
+THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE HUMBLY DEDICATED,
+WITH PERMISSION,
+
+TO HER ROYAL HIGHNESS
+THE PRINCESS AUGUSTA;
+
+BY HER ROYAL HIGHNESS'S
+MOST OBEDIENT,
+FAITHFULLY ATTACHED,
+AND VERY HUMBLE SERVANT,
+
+B. MEER HASSAN ALI.
+
+[1832.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
+
+In the present reprint the text of the original edition of this work has
+been reproduced without change, even the curious transliterations of the
+vernacular words and phrases having been preserved. The correct forms of
+these, so far as they have been ascertained, have been given in the Notes
+and in the Index-Glossary. I have added an Introduction containing an
+account of the authoress based on the scanty information available, and I
+have compiled some notes illustrating questions connected with Islam
+and Musalman usages. I have not thought it necessary to give detailed
+references in the notes, but a list of the works which have been used will
+be found at the end of the text. As in other volumes of this series, the
+diacritical marks indicating the varieties of the sound of certain letters
+in the Arabic and Devanagari alphabets have not been given: they are
+unnecessary for the scholar and serve only to embarrass the general reader.
+
+I have to acknowledge help from several friends in the preparation of this
+edition. Mr. W. Foster, C.I.E., has supplied valuable notes from the India
+Office records on Mir Hasan 'Ali and his family; Dr. W. Hoey, late
+I.C.S., and Mr. L.N. Jopling, I.C.S., Deputy-Commissioner, Lucknow, have
+made inquiries on the same subject. Mr. H.C. Irwin, late I.C.S., has
+furnished much information on Oudh affairs in the time of the Nawabi.
+Sir C.J. Lyall, K.C.S.I, C.I.E., and Professor E.G. Browne, M.A., have
+permitted me to consult them on certain obscure words in the text.
+
+W. CROOKE.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Very little is known about the authoress of this interesting book. She is
+reticent about the affairs of her husband and of herself, and inquiries
+recently made at Lucknow, at the India Office, and in other likely
+quarters in England, have added little to the scanty information we
+possess about her.
+
+The family of her husband claimed to be of Sayyid origin, that is to say,
+to be descended from the martyrs, Hasan and Husain, the sons of Fatimah,
+daughter of the Prophet, by her marriage with her cousin-german, 'Ali.
+The father-in-law of the authoress, Mir Haji Shah, of whom she
+speaks with affection and respect, was the son of the Qazi, or
+Muhammadan law-officer, of Ludhiana, in the Panjab. During his
+boyhood the Panjab was exposed to raids by the Mahrattas and incursions of
+the Sikhs. He therefore abandoned his studies, wandered about for a time,
+and finally took service with a certain Raja--where she does not tell
+us--who was then raising a force in expectation of an attack by the Sikhs.
+He served in at least one campaign, and then, while still a young man,
+made a pilgrimage thrice to Mecca and Kerbela, which gained him the title
+of Haji, or pilgrim. While he was in Arabia he fell short of funds,
+but he succeeded in curing the wife of a rich merchant who had long
+suffered from a serious disease. She provided him with money to continue
+his journey. He married under romantic circumstances an Arab girl named
+Fatimah as his second wife, and then went to Lucknow, which, under the
+rule of the Nawabs, was the centre in Northern India of the Shi'ah
+sect, to which he belonged. Here he had an exciting adventure with a tiger
+during a hunting party, at which the Nawab, Shuja-ud-daula, was
+present. He is believed to have held the post of Peshnamaz, or 'leader
+in prayer', in the household of the eunuch, Almas 'Ali Khan, who
+is referred to by the authoress.
+
+His son was Mir Hasan 'Ali, the husband of the authoress. The
+tradition in Lucknow is that he quarrelled with his father and went to
+Calcutta, where he taught Arabic to some British officers and gained a
+knowledge of English. We next hear of him in England, when in May 1810 he
+was appointed assistant to the well-known oriental scholar, John
+Shakespear, professor of Hindustani at the Military College, Addiscombe,
+from 1807 to 1830, author of a dictionary of Hindustani and other
+educational works. Mention is made of two cadets boarding with Mir
+Hasan 'Ali, but it does not appear from the records where he lived.
+After remaining at the College for six years he resigned his appointment
+on the ground of ill-health, with the intention of returning to India. He
+must have been an efficient teacher, because, on his resignation, the East
+India Company treated him with liberality. He received a gift of £50 as a
+reward for his translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, and from the
+Court minutes it appears that on December 17, 1816, it was resolved to
+grant him 100 guineas to provide his passage and £100 for equipment.
+Further, the Bengal Government was instructed to furnish him on his
+arrival with means to reach his native place, and to pay him a pension of
+Rs. 100 _per mensem_ for the rest of his life.[1]
+
+A tradition from Lucknow states that he was sent to England on a secret
+mission, 'to ask the Home authorities to accept a contract of Oudh direct
+from Nasir-ud-din Haidar, who was quite willing to remit the money
+of contract direct to England instead of settling the matter with the
+British Resident at Lucknow'. It is not clear what this exactly means. It
+may be that the King of Oudh, thinking that annexation was inevitable, may
+have been inclined to attempt to secure some private arrangement with the
+East India Company, under which he would remain titular sovereign, paying
+a tribute direct to the authorities in England, and that he wished to
+conduct these negotiations without the knowledge of the Resident at
+Lucknow. There does not seem to be independent evidence of this mission of
+Mir Hasan 'Ali, and we are told that it was, as might have been
+expected, unsuccessful.
+
+No mention is made of his wife in the official records, and I have been
+unable to trace her family name or the date and place of her marriage.
+Mir Hasan 'Ali and his wife sailed for Calcutta, and travelled to
+Lucknow via Patna. She tells little of her career in India, save that she
+lived there for twelve years, presumably from 1816 to 1828, and that
+eleven years of that time were spent in the house of her father-in-law at
+Lucknow. In the course of her book she gives only one date, September 18,
+1825, when her husband held the post of Tahsildar, or sub-collector
+of revenue, at Kanauj in the British district of Farrukhabad. No
+records bearing on his career as a British official are forthcoming.
+Another Lucknow tradition states that on his arrival at the Court of Oudh
+from England he was, on the recommendation of the Resident, appointed to a
+post in the King's service on a salary of Rs. 300 per annum. Subsequently
+he fell into disgrace and was obliged to retire to Farrukhabad with
+the court eunuch, Nawab Mu'tamad-ud-daula, Agha Mir.
+
+With the restoration of Agha Mir to power, Hasan 'Ali returned
+to Lucknow, and was granted a life pension of Rs. 100 _per mensem_ for his
+services as Darogha at the Residency, and in consideration of his
+negotiations between the King and the British Government or the East India
+Company.
+
+From the information collected at Lucknow it appears that he was known as
+Mir Londoni, 'the London gentleman', and that he was appointed
+Safir, or Attaché, at the court of King Ghazi-ud-din Haidar,
+who conferred upon him the title of Maslaha-ud-daula, 'Counsellor of
+State'. By another account he held the post of Mir Munshi, head
+native clerk or secretary to the British Resident.
+
+One of the most influential personages in the court of Oudh during this
+period was that stormy petrel of politics, Nawab Hakim Mehndi. He
+had been the right-hand man of the Nawab Sa'adat Ali, and on the
+accession of his son Ghazi-ud-din Haidar in 1814 he was dismissed on
+the ground that he had incited the King to protest against interference in
+Oudh affairs by the Resident, Colonel Baillie. The King at the last moment
+became frightened at the prospect of an open rupture with the Resident.
+Nawab Hakim Mehndi was deprived of all his public offices and of
+much of his property, and he was imprisoned for a time. On his release he
+retired into British territory, and in 1824 he was living in magnificent
+style at Fatehgarh. In that year Bishop Heber visited Lucknow and received
+a courteous letter from the Nawab inviting him to his house at
+Fatehgarh. He gave the Bishop an assurance 'that he had an English
+housekeeper, who knew perfectly well how to do the honours of his
+establishment to gentlemen of her own nation. (She is, in fact, a singular
+female, who became the wife of one of the Hindustani professors at
+Hertford, now the Hukeem's dewan,[2] and bears, I believe, a very
+respectable character.)' The authoress makes no reference to Hakim
+Mehndi, nor to the fact that she and her husband were in his employment.
+
+The cause of her final departure from India is stated by W. Knighton in a
+highly coloured sketch of court life in the days of King Nasir-ud-daula,
+_The Private Life of an Eastern King_, published in 1855. 'Mrs. Meer
+Hassan was an English lady who married a Lucknow noble during a visit to
+England. She spent twelve years with him in India, and did not allow him
+to exercise a Moslem's privilege of a plurality of wives. Returning to
+England afterwards on account of her health, she did not again rejoin
+him.'[3] The jealousy between rival wives in a polygamous Musalman
+household is notorious. 'A rival may be good, but her son never: a rival
+even if she be made of dough is intolerable: the malice of a rival is
+known to everybody: wife upon wife and heartburnings'--such are the common
+proverbs which define the situation. But if her separation from her
+husband was really due to this cause, it is curious that in her book she
+notes as a mark of a good wife that she is tolerant of such arrangements.
+'She receives him [her husband] with undisguised pleasure, although she
+has just before learned that another member has been added to his
+well-peopled harem. The good and forbearing wife, by this line of conduct,
+secures to herself the confidence of her husband, who, feeling assured
+that the amiable woman has an interest in his happiness, will consult her
+and take her advice in the domestic affairs of his children by other wives,
+and even arrange by her judgement all the settlements for their marriages,
+&c. He can speak of other wives without restraint--for she knows he has
+others--and her education has taught her that they deserve her respect in
+proportion as they contribute to her husband's happiness.'[4]
+
+It is certainly noticeable that she says very little about her husband
+beyond calling him in a conventional way 'an excellent husband' and 'a
+dutiful, affectionate son'. There is no indication that her husband
+accompanied her on her undated visit to Delhi, when she was received in
+audience by the King, Akbar II, and the Queen, who were then living in a
+state of semi-poverty. She tells us that they 'both appeared, and
+expressed themselves, highly gratified with the visit of an English lady,
+who could explain herself in their language without embarrassment, or the
+assistance of an interpreter, and who was the more interesting to them
+from the circumstance of being the wife of a Syaad'.[5]
+
+From inquiries made at Lucknow it has been ascertained that Mir
+Hasan 'Ali had no children by his English wife. By one or more native
+wives he had three children: a daughter, Fatimah Begam, who married a
+certain Mir Sher 'Ali, of which marriage one or more descendants
+are believed to be alive; and two sons, Mir Sayyid 'Ali or Miran
+Sahib, said to have served the British Government as a Tahsildar,
+whose grandson is now living at Lucknow, and Mir Sayyid Husain, who
+became a Risaldar, or commander of a troop, in one of the Oudh
+Irregular Cavalry Regiments. One of his descendants, Mir Agha 'Ali
+Sahib, possesses some landed property which was probably acquired by
+the Risaldar. After the annexation of Oudh Mir Hasan 'Ali is
+said to have been paid a pension of Rs. 100 _per mensem_ till his death in
+1863.
+
+It is also worthy of remark that she carefully avoids any reference to the
+palace intrigues and maladministration which prevailed in Oudh during the
+reigns of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar and Nasir-ud-din Haidar, who
+occupied the throne during her residence at Lucknow. She makes a vague
+apology for the disorganized state of the country: 'Acts of oppression may
+sometimes occur in Native States without the knowledge even, and much less
+by the command of, the Sovereign ruler, since the good order of the
+government mainly depends on the disposition of the Prime Minister for the
+time being'[6]--a true remark, but no defence for the conduct of the weak
+princes who did nothing to suppress corruption and save their subjects
+from oppression.
+
+Little is known of the history of Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali after her
+arrival in England. It has been stated that she was attached in some
+capacity to the household of the Princess Augusta, who died unmarried on
+September 22, 1840.[7] This is probable, because the list of subscribers
+to her book is headed by Queen Adelaide, the Princess Augusta, and other
+ladies of the Royal Family. She must have been in good repute among
+Anglo-Indians, because several well-known names appear in the list: H.T.
+Colebrooke, G.C. Haughton, Mordaunt Ricketts and his wife, and Colonel J.
+Tod.
+
+The value of the book rests on the fact that it is a record of the
+first-hand experiences of an English lady who occupied the exceptional
+position of membership of a Musalman family. She tells us nothing of
+her friends in Lucknow, but she had free access to the houses of
+respectable Sayyids, and thus gained ample facilities for the study of the
+manners and customs of Musalman families. Much of her information on
+Islam was obtained from her husband and his father, both learned,
+travelled gentlemen, and by them she was treated with a degree of
+toleration unusual in a Shi'ah household, this sect being rigid and
+often fanatical followers of Islam. She was allowed to retain a firm
+belief in the Christian religion, and she tells us that Mir Haji
+Shah delighted in conversing on religious topics, and that his happiest
+time was spent in the quiet of night when his son translated to him the
+Bible as she read it.[8]
+
+Her picture of zenana life is obviously coloured by her frank admiration
+for the people amongst whom she lived, who treated her with respect and
+consideration. It is thus to some extent idyllic. At the same time, it may
+be admitted that she was exceptionally fortunate in her friends. Her
+sketch may be usefully compared with that of Mrs. Fanny Parks in her
+charming book, _The Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque_.
+Mrs. Parks had the advantage of having acquired a literary knowledge of
+Hindustani, while Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, to judge from the way in
+which she transliterates native words, can have been able to speak little
+more than a broken patois, knew little of grammar, and was probably unable
+to read or write the Arabic character. Colonel Gardner, who had wide and
+peculiar experience, said to Mrs. Parks: 'Nothing can exceed the quarrels
+that go on in the zenana, or the complaints the begams make against each
+other. A common complaint is "Such a one has been practising witchcraft
+against me". If the husband make a present to one wife, if it be only a
+basket of mangoes, he must make the same exactly to all the other wives to
+keep the peace. A wife, when in a rage with her husband, if on account of
+jealousy, often says, "I wish I were married to a grass-cutter," i.e.
+because a grass-cutter is so poor that he can only afford to have one
+wife.'[9] Mrs. Parks from her own experience calls the zenana 'a place of
+intrigue, and those who live within four walls cannot pursue a straight
+path; how can it be otherwise, when so many conflicting passions are
+called forth?'[10] She adds that 'Musalmani ladies generally forget
+their learning when they grow up, or they neglect it. Everything that
+passes without the four walls is repeated to them by their spies; never
+was any place so full of intrigue, scandal, and chit-chat as a zenana.'[11]
+When she visited the Delhi palace she remarks: 'As for beauty, in a whole
+zenana there may be two or three handsome women, and all the rest
+remarkably ugly.'[12] European officers at the present day have no
+opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of the conditions of zenana life;
+but from the rumours that reach them they would probably accept the views
+of Mrs. Parks in preference to those of Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali.
+
+Though her opinions on the life of Musalman ladies is to some extent
+open to criticism, and must be taken to apply only to the exceptional
+society in which she moved, her account of the religious feasts and fasts,
+the description of the marriage ceremonies and that of the surroundings of
+a native household are trustworthy and valuable. Some errors, not of much
+importance and probably largely due to her imperfect knowledge of the
+language, have been corrected in the notes of the present edition. It must
+also be understood that her knowledge of native life was confined to that
+of the Musalmans, and she displays no accurate acquaintance with the
+religion, life or customs of the Hindus. The account in the text displays
+a bias in favour of the Shi'ah sect of Musalmans, as contrasted with
+that of the Sunnis. For a more impartial study of the question the
+reader is referred to Sir W. Muir, _Annals of the Early Caliphate, The
+Caliphate_, and to Major R.D. Osborn, _Islam under the Khalifs of Baghdad_.
+
+
+[1] Col. H.M. Vibart, _Addiscombe_, pp. 39, 41, 42.
+
+[2] _Diwan_, chief agent, manager.
+
+[3] p. 208.
+
+[4] p. 182.
+
+[5] p. 290.
+
+[6] p. 227.
+
+[7] _Calcutta Review_, ii. 387.
+
+[8] pp. 80, 422.
+
+[9] Vol. i, pp. 230, 453.
+
+[10] i. 391.
+
+[11] i. 450.
+
+[12] ii. 215.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+INTRODUCTORY LETTER
+
+
+LETTER I
+
+  Introductory Remarks.--The characteristic simplicity of manners
+  exhibited in Native families.--Their munificent charity.--The Syaads.
+  Their descent, and the veneration paid to them.--Their pride of
+  birth.--Fast of Mahurrum.--Its origin.--The Sheahs and
+  Soonies.--Memorandum of distances.--Mount Judee (Judea), the
+  attributed burying-place of Adam and Noah.--Mausoleum of Ali.--Tomb
+  of Eve.--Meer Hadjee Shah.
+
+
+LETTER II
+
+  Celebration of Mahurrum.--The Tazia.--Mussulmaun Cemeteries.--An
+  Emaum-baarah.--Piety of the ladies.--Self-inflicted abstinence and
+  privations endured by each sex.--Instances of the devotional zeal of
+  the Mussulmauns.--Attempted infringement on their religious
+  formalities.--The Resident at Lucknow.--Enthusiastic ardour of the
+  poor.--Manner of celebrating the Mahurrum in opposition to the
+  precepts of the Khoraun.--Mosque and Emaum-baarah contrasted.--The
+  supposition of Mussulmauns practising idolatry confuted.
+
+
+LETTER III
+
+  Continuation of Mahurrum.--Consecration of Banners.--Durgah at
+  Lucknow.--Its origin explained.--Regarded with peculiar
+  veneration.--The Nuwaub vows to build a new one.--Its
+  description.--Procession to the Durgah.--Najoomies.--Influence
+  possessed and practised by them.--Eunuchs.--Anecdotes of some having
+  attained great honours and wealth.--Presents bestowed upon them
+  generally revert to the donor.--Rich attire of male and female
+  slaves...Page 32
+
+
+LETTER IV
+
+  Mahurrum concluded.--Night of Mayndhie.--Emaum-baarah of the King of
+  Oude.--Procession to Shaah Nudghiff.--Last day of
+  Mahurrum.--Chattahs.--Musical instruments.--Zeal of the Native
+  gentlemen.--Funeral obsequies over the Tazia at
+  Kraabaallah.--Sentiments of devout Mussulmauns.--The fast followed by
+  acts of charity.--Remarks on the observance of Mahurrum...Page 42
+
+
+LETTER V
+
+  Time.--How divided in Hindoostaun.--Observances after
+  Mahurrum--Luxuries and enjoyments resumed.--Black dye used by the
+  ladies.--Their nose-ring.--Number of rings worn in their ears.--Mode
+  of dressing their hair.--Aversion to our tooth-brushes.--Toilet of
+  the ladies.--The Pyjaamahs.--The Ungeeah (bodice).--The Courtie.--The
+  Deputtah.--Reception of a superior or elder amongst the
+  ladies.--Their fondness for jewels.--Their shoes.--The state of
+  society amongst the Mussulmaun ladies.--Their conversational
+  endowments.--Remark upon the fashion and duty of beards...Page 55
+
+
+LETTER VI
+
+  The Mussulmaun religion.--Sectarians.--Their difference of
+  faith.--History of the Soonies.--The Caliphas Omir, Osman, Aboubuker,
+  &c.--Mahumud's parting charge to Ali.--Omir's jealousy of Ali.--The
+  Khoraun.--How compiled.--The Calipha Omir held in detestation.--Creed
+  of the Sheahs.--Funeral service.--Opinions of the Mussulmauns
+  respecting the Millennium.--The foundation of their faith
+  exhibited.--Sentiments of the most devout followers of
+  Mahumud.--Bridge of Sirraat, the Scales, &c., explained.--Emaum
+  Mhidhie.--Prophecy of his reappearance.--Its early fulfilment
+  anticipated.--Discourse with Meer Hadjee Shaah on this
+  subject...Page 66
+
+
+LETTER VII
+
+  Namaaz (daily prayer).--The Mussulmaun prayers.--Their different
+  names and times.--Extra prayer-service.--The Mosque.--Ablutions
+  requisite previous to devotion.--Prostrations at prayers.--Mosque
+  described.--The Mussulmaun's Sabbath.--Its partial observance.--The
+  amusements of this life not discontinued on the Sabbath.--Employment
+  of domestics undiminished on this day.--Works of importance then
+  commenced.--Reasons for appropriating Friday to the Sabbath.--The
+  Jews opposed to Mahumud.--The Prophet receives instructions from the
+  angel Gabriel.--Their import and definition.--Remarks of a
+  Commentator on the Khoraun.--Prayer of intercession.--Pious
+  observance of Christmas day by a Native Lady.--Opinions entertained
+  of our Saviour.--Additional motives for prayer.--David's Mother's
+  prayer.--Anecdote of Moses and a Woodcutter.--Remarks upon the piety
+  and devotion of the female Mussulmauns...Page 82
+
+
+LETTER VIII
+
+  The Fast of Rumzaun.--Motives for its strict observance.--Its
+  commencement and duration.--Sentiments of Meer Hadjee Shaah on the
+  day of fasting.--Adherence of the females to the observing this
+  fast.--How first broken.--Devout persons extend the term to forty
+  days.--Children permitted to try their zeal.--Calamitous effects of
+  the experiment.--Exemptions from this duty.--Joyful termination of
+  the fast.--Celebration of Eade on the last day.--The
+  Nuzza.--Nautchwomen and Domenie.--Surprise of the Natives at European
+  dancing.--Remarks on their Music.--Anecdotes of Fatima.--The
+  Chuckee...Page 98
+
+
+LETTER IX
+
+  The Hadje (Pilgrimage to Mecca).--Commanded to be performed by
+  Mahumud.--Eagerness of both, sexes to visit the Prophet's
+  tomb.--Qualifications requisite for the undertaking.--Different
+  routes from India to Mecca.--Duties of the pilgrims at the Holy
+  House.--Mecca and its environs.--Place of Abraham.--The
+  Bedouins.--Anecdote of a devotee and two pilgrims.--A Bedouin Arab
+  and the travellers to Mecca.--The Kaabah (Holy
+  House).--Superstitious regard to a chain suspended there.--Account of
+  the gold water-spout.--Tax levied on pilgrims visiting the tomb of
+  Mahumud by the Sheruff of Mecca.--Sacred visit to the tombs of Ali,
+  Hasan, and Hosein.--The importance attached to this duty.--Travellers
+  annoyed by the Arabs.--An instance recorded.--The Nudghiff
+  Usheruff.--Anecdotes of Syaad Harshim...Page 112
+
+
+LETTER X
+
+  The Zuckhaut (God's portion).--Syaads restricted the benefit of this
+  charity.--The Sutkah.--The Emaum's Zaumunee (protection).--The Tenths,
+  or Syaads' Due.--Mussulmauns attribute thanks to God only, for all
+  benefits conferred.--Extracts from the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'.--Mahumud's
+  advice.--His precepts tend to inculcate and encourage
+  charity.--Remarks on the benevolence of Mussulmauns...Page 135
+
+
+LETTER XI
+
+  Mussulmaun festivals.--Buckrah Eade.--Ishmael believed to have been
+  offered in sacrifice by Abraham and not Isaac.--Descent of the
+  Mussulmauns from Abraham.--The Eade-gaarh.--Presentation of
+  Nuzzas.--Elephants.--Description of the Khillaut (robe of
+  honour).--Customs on the day of Buckrah Eade.--Nou-Roze (New Year's
+  Day).--Manner of its celebration.--The Bussund (Spring-colour).--The
+  Sah-bund.--Observances during this month.--Festival of the New
+  Moon.--Superstition of the Natives respecting the influence of the
+  Moon.--Their practices during an eclipse.--Supposed effects of the
+  Moon on a wound.--Medicinal application of lime in
+  Hindoostaun.--Observance of Shubh-burraat.
+
+
+LETTER XII
+
+  The Zeenahnah.--Its interior described.--Furniture, decorations,
+  &c.--The Purdah (curtains).--Bedstead.--The Musnud (seat of
+  honour).--Mirrors and ornamental furniture disused.--Display on
+  occasions of festivity.--Observations on the Mussulmaun
+  Ladies.--Happiness in their state of seclusion.--Origin of secluding
+  females by Mahumud.--Anecdote.--Tamerlane's command prohibiting
+  females being seen in public.--The Palankeen.--Bearers.--Their
+  general utility and contentedness of disposition.--Habits peculiar to
+  Mussulmaun Ladies.--Domestic arrangements of a Zeenahnah.--Dinner
+  and its accompanying observances.--The Lota and Lugguns.--The
+  Hookha.--Further investigation of the customs adopted in
+  Zeenahnahs...Page 163
+
+
+LETTER XIII
+
+  Plurality of wives.--Mahumud's motive for permitting this
+  privilege.--State of society at the commencement of the Prophet's
+  mission.--His injunctions respecting marriage.--Parents invariably
+  determine on the selection of a husband.--First marriages attended by
+  a public ceremony.--The first wife takes precedence of all
+  others.--Generosity of disposition evinced by the Mussulmaun
+  ladies.--Divorces obtained under certain restrictions.--Period of
+  solemnizing marriage.--Method adopted in choosing a husband or
+  wife.--Overtures and contracts of marriage, how regulated.--Mugganee,
+  the first contract.--Dress of the bride elect on this occasion.--The
+  ceremonies described as witnessed.--Remarks on the bride.--Present
+  from the bridegroom on Buckrah Eade... Page 179
+
+
+LETTER XIV
+
+  Wedding ceremonies of the Mussulmauns.--The new or full moon
+  propitious to the rites being concluded.--Marriage settlements
+  unknown.--Control of the wife over her own property.--Three days and
+  nights occupied in celebrating the wedding.--Preparations previously
+  made by both families.--Ostentatious display on these occasions.--Day
+  of Sarchuck.--Customs on the day of Mayndhie.--Sending Presents.--Day
+  of Baarraat.--Procession of the bridegroom to fetch the bride.--The
+  bride's departure to her new home.--Attendant ceremonies
+  explained.--Similarity of the Mussulmaun and Hindoo
+  ceremonies.--Anecdote of a Moollah.--Tying the Narrah to the
+  Moosul...Page 195
+
+
+LETTER XV
+
+  On the birth and management of children in Hindoostaun.--Increase of
+  joy on the birth of a Son.--Preference generally shown to male
+  children.--Treatment of Infants.--Day of Purification.--Offerings
+  presented on this occasion to the child.--The anniversary of the
+  birthday celebrated.--Visit of the father to the Durgah.--Pastimes of
+  boys.--Kites.--Pigeons.--The Mhogdhur.--Sword-exercise.--The Bow and
+  Arrows.--The Pellet-bow.--Crows.--Sports of Native
+  gentlemen.--Cock-fighting.--Remarks upon horses, elephants, tigers,
+  and leopards.--Pigeon-shooting.--Birds released from captivity on
+  particular occasions.--Reasons for the extension of the royal
+  clemency in Native Courts.--Influence of the Prime Minister in the
+  administration of justice...Page 210
+
+
+LETTER XVI
+
+  Remarks on the trades and professions of Hindoostaun.--The
+  Bazaars.--Naunbye (Bazaar cook).--The Butcher, and other
+  trades.--Shroffs (Money-changers).--Popular cries in Native
+  cities.--The articles enumerated and the venders of them
+  described.--The Cuppers.--Leechwomen.--Ear-cleaners.--Old
+  silver.--Pickles.--Confectionery.--Toys.--Fans.--Vegetables and
+  fruit.--Mangoes.--Melons.--Melon-cyder.--Fish.--Bird-catcher.--The
+  Butcher-bird, the Coel, and Lollah.--Fireworks.--Parched
+  corn.--Wonder-workers.--Snakes.--Anecdote of the Moonshie and the
+  Snake-catcher.--The Cutler.--Sour curds.--Clotted
+  cream.--Butter.--Singular process of the Natives in making
+  butter.--Ice.--How procured in India.--Ink.--All writing dedicated to
+  God by the Mussulmauns.--The reverence for the name of God.--The
+  Mayndhie and Sulmah...Page 228
+
+
+LETTER XVII
+
+  Seclusion of Females.--Paadshah Begum.--The Suwaarree.--Female
+  Bearers.--Eunuchs.--Rutts.--Partiality of the Ladies to Large
+  retinues.--Female Companions.--Telling the Khaunie.--Games of the
+  Zeenahnah.--Shampooing.--The Punkah.--Slaves and
+  slavery.--Anecdote.--The Persian Poets.--Fierdowsee.--Saadie, his
+  'Goolistaun'.--Haafiz.--Mahumud Baarkur.--'Hyaatool
+  Kaaloob'.--Different manner of pronouncing Scripture names...Page 248
+
+
+LETTER XVIII
+
+  Evils attending a residence in India.--Frogs.--Flies.--Blains.--
+  Musquitoes.--The White Ant.--The Red Ant.--Their destructive
+  habits.--A Tarantula.--Black Ants.--Locusts.--Superstition of the
+  Natives upon their appearance.--The Tufaun, or Haundhie
+  (tempest).--The rainy season.--Thunder and lightning.--Meteors.--
+  Earthquakes.--A city ruined by them.--Reverence of the Mussulmauns
+  for saints.--Prickly heat.--Cholera Morbus.--Mode of
+  Treatment.--Temperance the best remedy.--Recipe...Page 258
+
+
+LETTER XIX
+
+  Kannoge.--Formerly the capital of Hindoostaun.--Ancient
+  castle.--Durability of the bricks made by the aborigines.--Prospect
+  from the Killaah (castle).--Ruins.--Treasures found therein.--The
+  Durgah Baallee Peer Kee.--Mukhburrahs.--Ancient Mosque.--Singular
+  structure of some stone pillars.--The Durgah Mukdoom
+  Jhaunneer.--Conversions to the Mussulmaun Faith.--Anecdote.--Ignorance
+  of the Hindoos.--Sculpture of the Ancients.--Mosque inhabited by
+  thieves.--Discovery of Nitre.--Method of extracting it.--Conjectures
+  of its produce.--Residence in the castle.--Reflections...Page 274
+
+
+LETTER XX
+
+  Delhi.--Description of the city.--Marble hall--The Queen's Mahul
+  (palace).--Audience with the King and Queen.--Conversation with
+  them.--Character of their Majesties.--Visit to a
+  Muckburrah.--Soobadhaars.--The nature of the office.--Durgah of Shah
+  Nizaam ood deen.--Tomb of Shah Allum.--Ruins in the vicinity of Delhi.
+  --Antique pillars (Kootub).--Prospect from its galleries.--Anecdotes
+  of Juangheer and Khareem Zund...Page 289
+
+
+LETTER XXI
+
+  Natural Productions of India.--Trees, shrubs, plants, fruits,
+  &c.--Their different uses and medicinal qualities.--The Rose.--Native
+  medical practice.--Antidote to Hydrophobia.--Remedy for the venom of
+  the Snake.--The Chitcherah (Inverted thorn).--The Neam-tree.--The
+  Hurrundh (Castor-tree).--The Umultass (Cassia-tree).--The
+  Myrtle.--The Pomegranate.--The Tamarind.--The Jahmun.--The
+  Mango.--The Sherrefah.--White and red Guavers.--The Damascus Fig.--The
+  Peach, and other Fruits.--The Mahdhaar (Fire-plant).--The Sirrakee and
+  Sainturh (Jungle-grass).--The Bamboo, and its various uses
+  enumerated...Page 304
+
+
+LETTER XXII
+
+  Monkeys.--Hindoo opinions of their Nature.--Instances of their
+  sagacity.--Rooted animosity of the Monkey tribe to the
+  snake.--Cruelty to each other when maimed.--The female remarkable for
+  affection to its young.--Anecdotes descriptive of the belief of the
+  Natives in the Monkey being endowed with reason.--The Monkeys and the
+  Alligator.--The Traveller and the Monkeys.--The Hindoo and the
+  Monkey...Page 324
+
+
+LETTER XXIII
+
+  The Soofies.--Opinion of the Mussulmauns concerning Solomon.--The
+  Ood-ood.--Description of the Soofies and their sect.--Regarded with
+  great reverence.--Their protracted fasts.--Their opinion esteemed by
+  the Natives.--Instance of the truth of their predictions.--The Saalik
+  and Majoob Soofies.--The poets Haafiz and Saadie.--Character and
+  attainments of Saadie.--His 'Goolistaun'.--Anecdotes descriptive of
+  the origin of that work.--Farther remarks on the character and
+  history of Saadie.--Interesting anecdotes illustrative of his virtues
+  and the distinguishing characteristics of the Soofies...Page 331
+
+
+LETTER XXIV
+
+  The Soofies continued.--Eloy Bauxh.--Assembly of Saalik
+  Soofies.--Singular exhibition of their zeal.--Mystery of Soofeism.--The
+  terms Soofie and Durweish explained.--Anecdote of Shah Sherif.--Shah
+  Jee and the Paltaan.--Dialogue on death between Shah Jee and his
+  wife.--Exemplary life of his grandson.--Anecdote of a Mussulmaun
+  lady.--Reflections on modern Hindoos.--Anecdotes of Shah ood Dowlah
+  and Meer Nizaam...Page 348
+
+
+LETTER XXV
+
+  Mussulmaun Devotees.--The Chillubdhaars.--Peculiar mode of
+  worship.--Propitiatory offerings.--Supposed to be invulnerable to
+  fire.--The Maadhaars or Duffelees.--Character of the
+  founder.--Pilgrimage to his tomb.--Females afflicted on visiting
+  it.--Effects attributed to the violation of the sanctuary by a
+  foreigner.--Superstition of the Natives.--Anecdote of Sheikh Suddoo
+  and the Genii.--The way of the world exemplified, a Khaunie
+  (Hindoostaunie fable).--Moral fable.--The King who longed for
+  fruit...Page 370
+
+
+LETTER XXVI
+
+  Superstition of the Natives.--Fair annually kept by Hindoos.--Supposed
+  practice of witchcraft by an old woman.--Assaulted by an infuriated
+  populace.--Rescued by a Native gentleman.--He inquires their reasons
+  for persecuting her.--Is instrumental in appeasing their
+  malignity.--Endeavours to remove their prejudice.--Proneness of
+  Asiatics to superstition.--Opinion of a Mussulmaun on the influence
+  of evil spirits.--Account of a woman possessed by an evil
+  spirit.--Dialogue with her during the paroxysms of her
+  affliction.--Means used for her recovery.--Further allusions to the
+  false notions of the Natives respecting supernatural agency...Page 387
+
+
+LETTER XXVII
+
+  Memoir of the life of Meer Hadjee Shah.--His descent.--Anecdote of a
+  youthful exploit.--His predilection for the army.--Leaves his home to
+  join the army of a neighbouring Rajah.--Adventures on the way.--Is
+  favourably received and fostered by the Rajah.--His first pilgrimage
+  to Mecca.--Occurrences during his stay in Arabia.--Description of a
+  tiger-hunt.--Detail of events during his subsequent pilgrimages.--The
+  plague.--Seizure by pirates.--Sketch of the life of Fatima, an
+  Arabian lady.--Relieved from slavery by Meer Hadjee Shah.--He marries
+  her.--Observations on the piety of his life.--Concluding
+  remarks...Page 400
+
+
+INDEX...Page 427
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY LETTER
+
+
+Actuated by a sense of duty to the people with whom twelve years of my
+life were passed on terms of intimacy and kindness, I was induced to write
+the principal number of the following Letters as faithful sketches of the
+Manners, Customs, and Habits of a people but little known to the European
+reader. They were at first designed merely for the perusal of private
+friends; who, viewing them with interest, recommended my bringing them
+before the public, considering that the information they contained would
+be acceptable from its originality, as presenting a more familiar view of
+the opinions and the domestic habits of the Mussulmaun community of
+Hindoostaun than any hitherto presented through other channels.
+
+I have found (and I believe many will coincide with me in the opinion)
+that it is far easier to think with propriety than to write our thoughts
+with perspicuity and correctness; but when the object in view is one which
+conscience dictates, the humblest effort of a female pen advances with
+courage; and thus influenced, I venture to present my work to the public,
+respectfully trusting they will extend their usual indulgence to a first
+attempt, from the pen of a very humble scribe, more solicitous for
+approbation than applause.
+
+The orthography of Asiatic words may differ in some instances in my pages
+from those of other writers--this, however, is from error, not design, and
+may be justly attributed to my own faulty pronunciation.
+
+I have inserted in these Letters many anecdotes and fables, which at the
+first view, may be considered as mere nursery tales. My object, however,
+will I trust plead my excuse: they are introduced in order to illustrate
+the people whom I have undertaken to describe; and, primarily strengthened
+by the moral tendency of each anecdote or fable selected for my pages, I
+cannot but consider them as well suited to the purpose.
+
+Without farther apology, but with very great deference, I leave these
+imperfect attempts to the liberality of my readers, acknowledging with
+gratitude the condescending patronage I have been honoured with, and
+sincerely desiring wherever anticipations of amusement or information from
+my observations have been formed, that the following pages may fulfil
+those expectations, and thus gratify my wish to be in the smallest degree
+useful in my generation.
+
+[B. MEER HASSAN ALI]
+
+
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS, ETC.
+
+LETTER I
+
+  Introductory Remarks.--The characteristic simplicity of manners
+  exhibited in Native families.--Their munificent charity.--The
+  Syaads.--Their descent, and the veneration paid to them.--Their pride
+  of birth.--Fast of Mahurrum.--Its origin.--The Sheahs and
+  Soonies.--Memorandum of distances.--Mount Judee (Judea), the
+  attributed burying-place of Adam and Noah.--Mausoleum of Ali.--The
+  tomb of Eve.--Meer Hadjee Shaah.
+
+
+I have promised to give you, my friends, occasional sketches of men and
+manners, comprising the society of the Mussulmauns in India. Aware of the
+difficulty of my task, I must entreat your kind indulgence to the
+weaknesses of a female pen, thus exercised for your amusement, during my
+twelve years' domicile in their immediate society.
+
+Every one who sojourns in India for any lengthened period, will, I believe,
+agree with me, that in order to promote health of body, the mind must be
+employed in active pursuits. The constitutionally idle persons, of either
+sex, amongst Europeans, are invariably most subject to feel distressed by
+the prevailing annoyances of an Indian climate: from a listless life
+results discontent, apathy, and often disease. I have found, by experience,
+the salutary effects of employing time, as regards, generally, healthiness
+of body and of mind. The hours devoted to this occupation (tracing remarks
+for the perusal of far distant friends) have passed by without a murmur or
+a sigh, at the height of the thermometer, or the length of a day during
+the season of hot winds, or of that humid heat which prevails throughout
+the periodical rains. Time flies quickly with useful employment in all
+places; in this exhausting climate every one has to seek amusement in
+their own resources, from sunrise to sunset, during which period there is
+no moving from home for, at least, eight months out of the twelve. I have
+not found any occupation so pleasant as talking to my friends, on paper,
+upon such subjects as may admit of the transfer for their acceptance--and
+may I not hope, for their gratification also?
+
+The patriarchal manners are so often pictured to me, in many of the
+every-day occurrences exhibited in the several families I have been most
+acquainted with in India, that I seem to have gone back to that ancient
+period with my new-sought home and new friends. Here I find the master and
+mistress of a family receiving the utmost veneration from their slaves and
+domestics, whilst the latter are permitted to converse and give their
+opinions with a freedom (always respectful), that at the first view would
+lead a stranger to imagine there could be no great inequality of station
+between the persons conversing. The undeviating kindness to aged servants,
+no longer capable of rendering their accustomed services; the remarkable
+attention paid to the convenience and comfort of poor relatives, even to
+the most remote in consanguinity; the beamings of universal charity; the
+tenderness of parents; and the implicit obedience of children, are a few
+of those amiable traits of character from whence my allusions are drawn,
+and I will add, by which my respect has been commanded. In their
+reverential homage towards parents, and in affectionate solicitude for the
+happiness of those venerated authors of their existence, I consider them
+the most praiseworthy people existing.
+
+On the spirit of philanthropy exhibited in their general charity, I may
+here remark, that they possess an injunction from their Lawgiver, 'to be
+universally charitable'.[1] This command is reverenced and obeyed by all
+who are his faithful followers. They are persuaded that almsgiving
+propitiates the favour of Heaven, consequently this belief is the inducing
+medium for clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, supporting the weak,
+consoling the afflicted, protecting the fatherless, sheltering the
+houseless traveller, and rendering the ear and the heart alive to the
+distresses of the poor in all situations. A good Mussulmaun never allows
+the voice to pass unheeded where the suppliant applies, 'In the name of
+God', or 'For the love of God'.
+
+I have often been obliged to hear the Mussulmauns accused of an
+ostentatious display of their frequent acts of charity. It may be so in
+some instances; human nature has failings common to all complexions. Pride
+may sometimes open the purse of the affluent to the poor man's petition;
+but when the needy benefit by the rich, it is unjust to scrutinize the
+heart's motive, where the act itself alleviates the present sufferings of
+a fellow-creature.
+
+Imposition is doubtless often practised with success by the indolent, who
+excite the good feelings of the wealthy by a tale of woe; the sin rests
+with him who begs unworthily, not with him who relieves the supposed
+distresses of his poorer neighbour. The very best of human beings will
+acknowledge they derive benefits from the bounty of their Maker, not
+because they are deserving, but that 'He is merciful'.
+
+I shall have occasion to detail in my Letters some of the Mussulmaun
+observances, festivals, &c., which cannot be accomplished without feeding
+the poor; and, in justice to their general character, be it acknowledged,
+their liberality is not confined to those stated periods.
+
+The Syaads[2] (Meers[3]) are descendants from Mahumud, the acknowledged
+Prophet and Lawgiver of the Mussulmauns; and, as might be expected, are
+peculiar objects of respect and favour amongst the true believers (as
+those who hold their faith are designated). 'The poor Syaad's family' are
+the first to be considered when the rich have determined on dispensing
+gifts in charity. The Syaads, however, are under peculiar restrictions as
+regards the nature of those gifts which they are permitted to accept.
+Money obtained by unlawful means, as forbidden in the Khoraun[4] (usury
+for instance[5]), is deemed polluted, and must neither be offered to, nor
+accepted by, these 'children of the Prophet'.
+
+The Syaads are the Lords of Mussulmaun society, and every female born to
+them is a Lady (Begum[6]). Heralds' offices they have none, but genealogy
+is strictly kept in each Mussulmaun family, who can boast the high
+privilege of bearing the Prophet's blood in their veins. The children of
+both sexes are taught, from the time of their first speaking intelligibly,
+to recount their pedigree, up to Hasan, or Hosein, the two sons of Ali, by
+his cousin Fatima, the daughter of their Prophet: this forms a striking
+part of their daily education, whilst they continue in their mother's
+zeenahnah[7] (lady's apartment); and, from the frequent repetition, is so
+firmly fixed in the memory, that they have no difficulty in tracing their
+pedigree whenever called upon to do so, unaided by the manuscript
+genealogy kept with care in the parental treasury.
+
+This method of retaining lineage is not always a check against impostors;
+many have taken upon themselves the honourable distinction of the Syaad,
+without having the slightest claim to the title; but when the cheat is
+discovered such persons are disgraced, and become aliens to the
+respectable. So many advantages are enjoyed by Syaads, that it is not
+surprising there should be some, which have no right, anxious to be
+numbered with those who are truly the Mussulmaun lords; though such men
+are taught to believe that, by the usurpation, they shut themselves out
+from the advantages of their Prophet's intercession at the great day of
+judgment.
+
+The Syaads are very tenacious in retaining the purity of their race
+unsullied, particularly with respect to their daughters; a conscientious
+Syaad regards birth before wealth in negotiations for marriage: many a
+poor lady, in consequence of this prejudice, lives out her numbered days
+in single blessedness, although--to their honour be it told--many
+charitably disposed amongst the rich men of the country have, within my
+recollection of Indian society, granted from their abundance sufficient
+sums to defray the expenses of a union, and given the marriage portion,
+unsolicited, to the daughters of the poorer members of this venerated race.
+A Syaad rarely speaks of his pecuniary distresses, but is most grateful
+when relieved.
+
+I am intimately acquainted with a family in which this pride of birth
+predominates over every advantage of interest. There are three unmarried
+daughters, remarkable for their industrious habits, morality, and strict
+observance of their religious duties; they are handsome, well-formed women,
+polite and sensible, and to all this they add an accomplishment which is
+not by any means general amongst the females of Hindoostaun, they have
+been taught by their excellent father to read the Khoraun in Arabic--it is
+not allowed to be translated,[8]--and the Commentary in Persian. The fame
+of their superiority has brought many applications from the heads of
+families possessing wealth, and desirous to secure for their sons wives so
+eminently endowed, who would waive all considerations of the marriage
+dowry, for the sake of the Begum who might thus adorn their untitled house.
+All these offers, however, have been promptly rejected, and the young
+ladies themselves are satisfied in procuring a scanty subsistence by the
+labour of their hands. I have known them to be employed in working the
+jaullie[9] (netting) for courties[10] (a part of the female dress), which,
+after six days' close application, at the utmost could not realize three
+shillings each; yet I never saw them other than contented, happy, and
+cheerful,--a family of love, and patterns of sincere piety.
+
+The titles and distinctions conferred by sovereigns, or the Hon. East
+India Company in India, as Khaun,[11] Bahadhoor,[12] Nuwaub,[13] &c., are
+not actually hereditary honours, though often presumed on, and indulged in,
+by successors. The Syaads, on the contrary, are the Meers and Begums
+(nobility) throughout their generations to the end of time, or at any rate,
+with the continuance of the Mussulmaun religion.
+
+Having thus far explained the honourable distinction of the Syaads, I
+propose giving you some account of the Mahurrum,[14] a celebrated mourning
+festival in remembrance of their first martyrs, and which occupies the
+attention of the Mussulmauns annually to a degree of zeal that has always
+attracted the surprise of our countrymen in India; some of whom, I trust,
+will not be dissatisfied with the observations of an individual, who
+having spent many years of her life with those who are chief actors in
+these scenes, it may be expected, is the better able to explain the nature
+of that Mahurrum which they see commemorated every year, yet many, perhaps,
+without comprehending exactly why. Those strong expressions of grief--the
+sombre cast of countenance,--the mourning garb,--the self-inflicted
+abstinence, submitted to by the Mussulmaun population, during the ten days
+set apart for the fulfilment of the mourning festival, all must have
+witnessed who have been in Hindoostaun for any period.
+
+I must first endeavour to represent the principal causes for the observance
+of Mahurrum; and for the information of those who have witnessed its
+celebration, as well as for the benefit of others who have not had the same
+opportunity, describe the manner of celebrating the event, which occurred
+more than twelve hundred years ago.
+
+Hasan and Hosein were the two sons of Fatima and Ali, from whom the whole
+Syaad race have generated; Hasan was poisoned by an emissary of the
+usurping Calipha's;[15] and Hosein, the last sad victim of the family to
+the King Yuzeed's[16] fury, suffered a cruel death, after the most severe
+trials, on the plains of Kraabaallah,[17] on the tenth day of the Arabian
+month Mahurrum; the anniversary of which catastrophe is solemnized with
+the most devoted zeal.
+
+This brief sketch constitutes the origin of the festival; but I deem it
+necessary to detail at some length the history of that period, which may
+the better explain the motives assigned by the Mussulmauns, for the deep
+grief exhibited every year, as the anniversary of Mahurrum returns to
+these faithful followers of their martyred leaders, Hasan and Hosein, who,
+with their devoted families, suffered innocently by the hands of the
+guilty.
+
+Yuzeed, the King of Shawm,[18] it appears, was the person in power,
+amongst the followers of Mahumud, at that early period of Mussulmaun
+history. Of the Soonie sect,[19] his hatred to the descendants of Mahumud
+was of the most inveterate kind; jealousy, it is supposed, aided by a very
+wicked heart, led him to desire the extirpation of the whole race,
+particularly as he knew that, generally, the Mussulmaun people secretly
+desired the immediate descendants of their Prophet to be their rulers.
+They were, however, intimidated by Yuzeed's authority; whilst he, ever
+fearing the possibility of the Syaads' restoration to their rights,
+resolved, if possible, on sacrificing the whole family, to secure himself
+in his illegal power.
+
+Ali had been treacherously murdered through the contrivances of the
+usurping Calipha; after his death, the whole family removed from Shawm,
+the capital, to Medina, where they lived some years in tranquillity,
+making many converts to their faith, and exercising themselves in the
+service of God and virtuous living. Unostentatious in their habits and
+manners, they enjoyed the affection of their neighbours, their own good
+name increasing daily, to the utter dismay of their subtle enemy.
+
+In the course of time, the devout people of Shawm, being heartily tired of
+Yuzeed's tyrannical rule, and fearing the true faith would be defamed by
+the excesses and abuses of power committed by him, they were desirous of
+calling to their aid a leader from the Prophet's family, who would secure,
+in its original purity, the performance of that religion which Mahumud had
+taught. Some thousands of respectable Mussulmauns, it is related, signed a
+petition to Hosein, requesting his immediate presence at Shawm, in order,
+as the petition stated, 'that the religion his grandsire taught might be
+supported and promoted'; and declaring 'the voluptuousness and infamy of
+Yuzeed's life to be so offensive and glaring, that the true faith was
+endangered by his vicious examples'; and entreating him to accept his
+lawful rights as 'Emaum'[20] (Leader of the Faithful).
+
+Hosein received the petition, but declined accepting the proposed
+restitution of his family's rights at that time; yet he held out hopes in
+his reply, that he might eventually listen to their entreaties, should he
+be convinced his presence was essential to their welfare; and, as a
+prelude to this, he sent his cousin Moslem,[21] on whom he could rely, to
+make personal observation of the real state of things at Shawm; expecting
+to learn, from his matured knowledge, the real causes of complaint, and
+the wishes of the people, and by whose report he would be guided, as to
+his final acceptance or rejection of the proposed measure for his becoming
+their leader.
+
+Moslem, accompanied by his two sons, mere youths, left Medina on this
+important mission, and having accomplished the tedious march without
+accident or interruption, he delivered Hosein's letters to those persons
+of consequence in Shawm, who were at the head of the party petitioning his
+appearance there, and who proffered their influence and support for the
+recovery of the rights and privileges so long withheld from the
+descendants of Mahumud.
+
+Moslem was kindly greeted by them, and multitudes flocked to his quarters,
+declaring Hosein the lawful leader of true Mussulmauns. Elated with these
+flattering indications, he too promptly despatched his messengers to
+Hosein, urging his immediate return to Shawm.
+
+In the mean time, and long before the messengers could reach Medina,
+Yuzeed, learning the state of things in the capital, was seriously alarmed
+and greatly enraged; he issued orders for the seizure of Moslem and his
+children, and desiring to have them brought to his presence, offered
+immense sums of money for their capture. The friends of Moslem, however,
+succeeded, for a time, in secreting his person from King Yuzeed's
+emissaries, trusting the darkness of night would enable him to escape. But
+the slaves and dependants of the tyrant being despatched into all quarters
+of the city, Moslem's retreat was eventually discovered; and, through the
+influence of a purse of gold, his person was given up to the King's
+partizans.
+
+The unfortunate agent of Hosein had confided the charge of his two sons to
+the Kauzy[22] of the city, when the first report reached him of the tyrant
+Yuzeed's fury. This faithful Kauzy, as the night advanced, intended to get
+the poor boys conveyed to the halting place of a Kaarawaun,[23] which he
+knew was but a few miles off, on their route for Medina. The guide, to
+whom the youths were intrusted, either by design or mistake, took the
+wrong road; and, after wandering through the dreary night, and suffering
+many severe trials, they were taken prisoners by the cruel husband of a
+very amiable female, who had compassionately, at first, given them shelter
+as weary travellers only; but, on discovering whose children they were,
+she had secreted them in her house. Her husband, however, having
+discovered the place of their concealment, and identified them as the sons
+of Moslem, cruelly murdered the innocent boys for the sake of the reward
+offered for their heads. In his fury and thirst for gold, this wicked
+husband of the kind-hearted woman spared not his own wife and son, who
+strove by their united efforts, alternately pleading and resisting, to
+save the poor boys from his barbarous hands.
+
+This tragic event is conveyed into pathetic verse, and as often as it is
+repeated in the families of the Mussulmauns, tears of fresh sympathy are
+evinced, and bewailings renewed. This forms the subject for one day's
+celebration during Mahurrum; the boys are described to have been most
+beautiful in person, and amiable in disposition.
+
+After enduring ignominy and torture, and without even being brought to
+trial, Moslem was cast from a precipice, by Yuzeed's orders, and his life
+speedily terminated, to glut the vengeance of the tyrant King.
+
+As the disastrous conclusion of Moslem's mission had not reached the ear
+of Hosein, he, elated with the favourable reception of his cousin, and the
+prospect of being received at Shawm in peace and good will, had without
+delay commenced his journey, accompanied by the females of his family, his
+relations, and a few steady friends who had long devoted themselves to his
+person and cause. The written documents of that remarkable period notice,
+that the whole party of Hosein, travelling from Medina towards Shawm,
+consisted only of seventy-two souls: Hosein having no intention to force
+his way to the post of leader, had not deemed it necessary to set out with
+an army to aid him, which he undoubtedly might have commanded by his
+influence with the people professing 'the Faith'.
+
+Yuzeed, in the mean time, having by his power destroyed Moslem and the two
+youths his sons, and receiving positive intelligence that Hosein had
+quitted Medina to march for Shawm, as his fears suggested, with an army of
+some magnitude, he ordered out an immense force to meet Hosein on the way,
+setting a price on his head, and proclaiming promises of honours and
+rewards, of the most tempting nature, to the fortunate man who should
+succeed in the arduous enterprise.
+
+The first detachment of the Shawmies (as they are designated in the
+manuscript of Arabia), under a resolute chief named Hurrh,[24] fell in
+with Hosein's camp, one day's march beyond the far-famed ground, amongst
+Mussulmauns, of Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree,[25] as it was originally
+called.
+
+Hurrh's heart was subdued when he entered the tent of the peaceable Hosein,
+in whose person he discovered the exact resemblance of the Prophet; and
+perceiving that his small camp indicated a quiet family party journeying
+on their way, instead of the formidable force Yuzeed's fears had
+anticipated, this chief was surprised and confounded, confessed his shame
+to Hosein that he had been induced to accept the command of the force
+despatched against the children of the Prophet, and urged, in mitigation
+of his offences, that he had long been in Yuzeed's service, whose
+commission he still bore; but his heart now yearning to aid, rather than
+persecute the Prophet's family, he resolved on giving them an opportunity
+to escape the threatened vengeance of their bitterest enemy. With this
+view, he advised Hosein to fall with his party into the rear of his force,
+until the main body of the Shawmies had passed by; and as they were then
+on the margin of a forest, there to separate and secrete themselves till
+the road was again clear, and afterwards to take a different route from
+the proposed one to Shawm.
+
+Hosein felt, as may be supposed, grateful to his preserver; and, following
+his directions, succeeded in reaching the confines of Kraabaallah
+unmolested.
+
+The ancient writings of Arabia say, Mahumud had predicted the death of
+Hosein, by the hands of men professing to be of 'the true faith', at this
+very place Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree.
+
+Hosein and his family having concluded their morning devotions, he first
+inquired and learned the name of the place on which their tents were
+pitched, and then imparted the subject of his last night's dream, 'that
+his grandsire had appeared to him, and pronounced that his soul would be
+at peace with him ere that day closed'. Again he fell on his knees in
+devout prayer, from which he rose only to observe the first warnings of an
+approaching army, by the thick clouds of dust which darkened the horizon;
+and before the evening closed upon the scene, Hosein, with every male of
+his small party capable of bearing arms, had been hurried to their final
+rest. One son of Hosein's, insensible from fever at the time, was spared
+from the sacrifice, and, with the females and young children, taken
+prisoners to the King's palace at Shawm.
+
+The account given by historians of this awful battle, describes the
+courage and intrepidity of Hosein's small band, in glowing terms of praise;
+having fought singly, and by their desperate bravery 'each arm (they say)
+levelled his hundreds with their kindred dust ere his own gave way to the
+sway of death'.
+
+Amongst the number of Hosein's brave defenders was a nephew, the son of
+Hasan: this young man, named Cossum,[26] was the affianced husband of
+Hosein's favourite daughter, Sakeena Koobraah;[27] and previous to his
+going to the combat on that eventful day, Hosein read the marriage lines
+between the young couple, in the tent of the females. I mention this here,
+as it points to one particular part of the celebration of Mahurrum, which
+I shall have occasion to mention in due order, wherein all the outward
+forms of the wedding ceremony are strictly performed, annually.
+
+During the whole of this terrible day, at Kraabaallah, the family party of
+Hosein had been entirely deprived of water; and the river Fraught[28]
+(Euphrates) being blockaded by their enemies, they suffered exceedingly
+from thirst. The handsome Abass,[29] another nephew of Hosein, and his
+standard-bearer, made many efforts to procure water for the relief of the
+almost famishing females; he had, at one attempt, succeeded in filling the
+mushukh,[30] when, retreating from the river, he was discovered by the
+enemy, was pursued and severely wounded, the mushukh pierced by arrows,
+and the water entirely lost ere he could reach the camp.
+
+In remembrance of this privation of the sufferers at Kraabaallah, every
+good Mussulmaun, at Mahurrum, distributes sherbet in abundance, to all
+persons who choose to accept this their favourite beverage (sugar and
+water, with a little rosewater, or kurah,[31] to flavour it); and some
+charitable females expend large sums in milk, to be distributed in the
+public streets; for these purposes, there are neat little huts of
+sirrakee[32] (a reed, or grass, resembling bright straw) erected by the
+road side of the Mussulmauns' houses; they are called saabeels,[33] where
+the red earthen cups of milk, sherbet, or pure water are seen ranged in
+rows, for all who choose to call for drink.
+
+Hosein, say their historians, was the last of the party who suffered on
+the day of battle; he was surrounded in his own camp--where, by the usage
+of war, at that time, they had no right to enter--and when there was not
+one friendly arm left to ward the blow. They relate 'that his body was
+literally mangled, before he was released from his unmerited sufferings'.
+He had mounted his favourite horse, which, as well as himself, was pierced
+by arrows innumerable; together they sank on the earth from loss of blood,
+the cowardly spearmen piercing his wounded body as if in sport; and whilst,
+with his last breath, 'Hosein prayed for mercy on his destroyers,
+Shimeear[34] ended his sufferings by severing the already prostrate head
+from the mutilated trunk'.--'Thus they sealed (say those writers) the
+lasting disgrace of a people, who, calling themselves Mussulmauns, were
+the murderers of their Prophet's descendants.'
+
+This slight sketch gives but the outline of those events which are every
+year commemorated amongst the zealous followers of Ali, the class
+denominated Sheahs.
+
+The Mussulmaun people, I must here observe, are divided into two distinct
+sects, viz. the Sheahs and the Soonies. The former believe Ali and his
+descendants were the lawful leaders after Mahumud; the latter are
+persuaded that the Caliphas, as Aboubuker, Omir, &c., were the leaders to
+be accredited 'lawful'; but of this I shall speak more fully in another
+Letter.
+
+Perhaps the violence of party spirit may have acted as an inducement to
+the Sheahs, for the zealous annual observance of this period, so
+interesting to that sect; whatever the motive, we very often find the two
+sects hoard up their private animosities and dislikes until the return of
+Mahurrum, which scarcely ever passes over, in any extensively populated
+city of Hindoostaun, without a serious quarrel, often terminating in
+bloodshed.[35]
+
+I could have given a more lengthened account of the events which led to
+the solemnization of this fast, but I believe the present is sufficient to
+explain the motives by which the Mussulmauns are actuated, and my next
+Letter must be devoted to the description of the rites performed upon the
+celebration of these events in India.
+
+P.S. I have a memorandum in my collection which may here be copied as its
+proper place.
+
+From Mecca, 'The Holy City', to Medina the distance is twelve stages (a
+day's march is one stage, about twenty miles of English measurement). From
+Medina to Kraabaallah there are twenty-one stages; this distance is
+travelled only by those who can endure great difficulties; neither water
+nor provisions are to be met with on the whole journey, excepting at one
+halt, the name of which is Shimmaar. From Kraabaallah to Koofah is two
+stages.
+
+In the vicinity of Koofah[36] stands Mount Judee[37] (Judea), on which is
+built, over the remains of Ali, the mausoleum called Nudghiff Usheruff.[38]
+On this Mount, it is said, Adam and Noah were buried. Ali being aware of
+this, gave directions to his family and friends, that whenever his soul
+should be recalled from earth, his mortal remains were to be deposited
+near those graves venerated and held sacred 'by the faithful'. The ancient
+writers of Arabia authorise the opinion that Ali's body was entombed by
+the hands of his sons, Hasan and Hosein, who found the earth open to
+receive their sire, and which closed immediately on his remains being
+deposited.
+
+Here, too, it is believed Noah's ark rested after the Deluge. When
+pilgrims to Mecca make their zeearut[39] (all sacred visits are so called)
+to this Mount, they offer three prayers, in memory of Adam, Noah, and All.
+
+The grave of Eve is also frequently visited by pilgrims, which is said to
+be situated near Jeddah; this, however, is not considered an indispensable
+duty, but, as they say, prompted by 'respect for the Mother of men'.[40]
+
+These remarks, and many others of an interesting nature, I have been
+favoured with from the most venerable aged man I ever knew, Meer Hadjee
+Shaah,[41] the revered father of my excellent husband; who having
+performed the Hadje[42] (pilgrimage) three several times, at different
+periods of his eventful life--returning after each pilgrimage to his home
+in Lucknow--and being a person of strict veracity, with a remarkably
+intelligent mind and retentive memory, I have profited largely by his
+information, and derived from it both amusement and instruction, through
+many years of social intercourse. When he had numbered more than eighty
+years he dwelt with hope on again performing the Hadje, where it was his
+intention to rest his earthly substance until the great day of restitution,
+and often expressed his wishes to have me and mine to share with him the
+pilgrimage he desired to make. But this was not allowed to his prayer; his
+summons arrived rather unexpectedly to those who loved and revered him for
+virtues rarely equalled; happily for him, his pure soul was prepared to
+meet his Creator, in whose service he had passed this life, with all
+humility, and in whose mercy alone his hopes for the future were centred.
+
+
+[1] 'Whatsoever alms ye shall give, of a truth God knoweth it.... Give ye
+    your alms openly? it is well. Do ye conceal them and give them to the
+    poor? This, too, will be of advantage to you, and will do away your
+    sins: and God is cognizant of your actions' (_Koran_, ii. 274-5).
+
+[2] _Sayyid_, 'lord', 'chief, the class of Musalmans who claim descent
+    from Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet, and 'Ali, his
+    cousin-german and adopted son; they are divided into two branches
+    descended from Hasan and Husain, sons of 'Ali and Fatimah.
+
+[3] _Mir_, a contraction of _Amir_, 'lord'.
+
+[4] _Koran, Qur'an_.
+
+[5] 'They who swallow down usury shall arise in the resurrection only as
+    he ariseth whom Satan hath infected by his touch' (_Koran_, ii.
+    276). But this is rather theory than practice, and many ingenious
+    methods are adopted to avoid the prohibition.
+
+[6] _Begam_, feminine of _Beg_, 'lord', used to denote a Sayyid lady, like
+    Khanam among Pathans.
+
+[7] Here, as elsewhere, _zenanah, zananah_, Persian _zan_, 'woman'.
+
+[8] This is incorrect. The Koran has been translated into various
+    languages, but the translation is always interlineary with the
+    original text. In Central Asia the Musalman conquerors allowed the
+    Koran to be recited in Persian, instead of Arabic, in order that it
+    might be intelligible to all (Arnold, _The Preaching of Islam_, 183).
+
+[9] _Jali_.
+
+[10] _Kurti_, a loose, long-sleeved jacket of muslin or net, among rich
+    women embroidered on the neck and shoulders with gold, and draped down
+    to the ankles in full, loose folds. It is made of red or other
+    light-coloured fabrics for girls and married women; dark blue, bronze,
+    or white for old ladies; bronze or black for widows.
+
+[11] _Khan_, 'lord', 'prince', specially applied to persons of Mughal
+    or Pathan descent.
+
+[12] _Bahadur_, 'champion', a Mongol term; see Yule,
+     _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 48 ff.
+
+[13] _Nawab_, 'a deputy, delegate': the Anglo-Indian Nabob (ibid.,
+    610 ff.).
+
+[14] _Muharram_, 'that which is forbidden', the first month of the
+    Musalman year, the first ten days of which are occupied with this
+    mourning festival.
+
+[15] By his wife Ja'dah, who was suborned to commit the deed by Yazid.
+
+[16] Yazid, son of Mu'awiyah, the second Caliph of the house of
+    Umaiyah, who reigned from A.D. 679 to 683. Gibbon (_Decline and Fall_,
+    ed. W. Smith, vi. 278) calls him 'a feeble and dissolute youth'.
+
+[17] Kerbala, Karbala, a city of Iraq, 50 miles south-west of Baghdad,
+    and about 6 miles from the Euphrates.
+
+[18] Syria.
+
+[19] _Sunni_, Ahlu's-Sunnah, 'one of the Path', a traditionalist. The
+    Sunnis accept the first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Usman,
+    'Ali, as the rightful successors of Muhammad, and follow the six
+    authentic books of the traditions. The Shi'ahs, 'followers' of
+    'Ali, maintain that he was the first legitimate Imam or Caliph,
+    i.e. successor of the Prophet. For a full account of the martyrdom of
+    Husain see Simon Ockley, _History of the Saracens_ (1848), 287 ff.;
+    Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_ (1879), Preface,
+    v ff.
+
+[20] _Imam._
+
+[21] Muslim.
+
+[22] _Qazi_, a Muhammadan law officer.
+
+[23] _Karwan_, a caravan.
+
+[24] al-Hurr.
+
+[25] This term is obscure. Jaffur Shurreef (_Qanoon-e-Islam_, 107) says
+    the plain of the martyrdom was called 'Mareea'. For 'Hurth' Prof. E.G.
+    Browne suggests _hirth_, 'a ploughed field', or _ard_, 'land'. Sir C.
+    Lyall suggests Al-hirah, the old Arabian capital which stood near
+    the site of the later Kufah.
+
+[26] Qasim.
+
+[27] Sakinah, Hebrew Shechinah; Koobraah, _Kibriya_, 'noble'.
+
+[28] The Euphrates is called in Sumerian _pura-num_, 'Great water', whence
+    Purat, Purattu in Semitic Babylonian; Perath in Hebrew; Frat or
+    Furat in Arabic.
+
+[29] 'Abbas, son of 'Ali.
+
+[30] _Mashk_, _Mashak_, the Anglo-Indian Mussuck, a leathern skin for
+    conveying water, in general use amongst Musalmans at this day in
+    India; it is composed of the entire skin of a goat, properly prepared.
+    When filled with water it resembles a huge porpoise, on the back of
+    the beeshtie [Bhishti] (water-carrier). [_Author._]
+
+[31] _Kora_, the fresh juice of _Aloe vera_, said to be cathartic and
+    cooling.
+
+[32] _Sirki_ (_Saccharum ciliare_).
+
+[33] _Sabil_: see Burton, _Pilgrimage_, Memorial ed., i. 286.
+
+[34] Shimar, whose name now means 'contemptible' among Shi'ahs.
+
+[35] This statement is too wide. 'Among Muhammadans themselves there is
+    very little religious discussion, and Sunnis and Shi'ahs, who
+    are at such deadly feud in many parts of Asia, including the Punjab
+    and Kashmir, have, in Oudh, always freely intermarried' (H.C. Irwin,
+    _The Garden of India_, 45).
+
+[36] Kufah, four miles from Najaf, the capital of the Caliph 'Ali,
+    which fell into decay when the government was removed to Baghdad.
+
+[37] Confused with Al-judi, Mt. Ararat, on which the Ark
+    rested.--_Koran_, xi. 46.
+
+[38] Najaf al Sharif, or Mashhad 'Ali, 50 miles south of Karbala,
+    the tomb and shrine of 'Ali.
+
+[39] _Ziyarat_, 'visitation', especially to the tomb of the Prophet or
+    that of a Muhammadan saint. The pilgrim says, not 'I have visited the
+    Prophet's tomb', but 'I have visited the Prophet'. (Burton,
+    _Pilgrimage_, i. 305.)
+
+[40] The grave is said to be nine yards long: according to others, much
+    longer. See the flippant remark of Burton, ibid., ii. 273 ff.
+
+[41] Mir Haji Shah.
+
+[42] _Hajj_, 'setting out'.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER II
+
+  Celebration of Mahurrum.--The Tazia.--Mussulmaun Cemeteries.--An
+  Emaum-baarah.--Piety of the ladies.--Self-inflicted abstinence and
+  privations endured by each sex.--Instances of the devotional zeal of
+  the Mussulmauns.--Attempted infringement on their religious
+  formalities.--The Resident at Lucknow.--Enthusiastic ardour of the
+  poor.--Manner of celebrating the Mahurrum in opposition to the
+  precepts of the Khoraun.--Mosque and Emaum-baarah contrasted.--The
+  supposition of Mussulmauns practising idolatry confuted.
+
+
+My former Letter prepares you for the celebration of Mahurrum, the
+observance of which is at this time going forward here (at Lucknow) with
+all that zealous emulative spirit and enthusiasm which I have before
+remarked the Mussulmaun population of India entertain for their Emaums
+(leaders), and their religion.
+
+This annual solemn display of the regret and veneration they consider due
+to the memory of departed excellence, commences on the first day of the
+Moon (Mahurrum). The Mussulmaun year has twelve moons; every third year
+one moon is added, which regulation, I fancy, renders their years, in a
+chronological point of view, very nearly equal with those of Europe. Their
+day commences and ends when the stars are first visible after sunset.
+
+The first day of Mahurrum invariably brings to my recollection the
+strongly impressed ideas of 'The Deserted Village'. The profound quiet and
+solemn stillness of an extensively populated native city, contrasted with
+the incessant bustle usual at all other times, are too striking to
+Europeans to pass by unheeded. This cessation of the animated scene,
+however, is not of long duration; the second day presents to the view vast
+multitudes of people parading backwards and forwards, on horseback, in
+palkies, and on foot, through the broad streets and roadways, arrayed in
+their several mourning garbs, speeding their way to the Emaum-baarahs[1]
+of the great men, and the houses of friends, to pay the visit of respect
+(zeearut), wherever a Tazia is set up to the remembrance of Hasan and
+Hosein.
+
+The word Tazia[2] signifies grief. The term is applied to a representation
+of the mausoleum at Kraabaallah, erected by their friends and followers,
+over the remains of Hasan and Hosein. It is formed of every variety of
+material, according to the wealth, rank, or preference, of the person
+exhibiting, from the purest silver down to bamboo and paper, strict
+attention being always paid to preserve the model of Kraabaallah, in the
+exact pattern with the original building. Some people have them of ivory,
+ebony, sandal-wood, cedar, &c., and I have seen some beautifully wrought
+in silver filigree. The handsomest of the kind, to my taste, is in the
+possession of his Majesty the King of Oude, composed of green glass, with
+brass mouldings, manufactured in England (by whom I could not learn). All
+these expensive Tazias are fixtures, but there are temporary ones required
+for the out-door ceremony, which, like those available to the poor and
+middling classes, are composed of bamboo frames, over which is fixed
+coloured uberuck[3] (lapis specularum, or tulk); these are made in the
+bazaar, of various sizes and qualities, to suit the views of purchasers,
+from two rupees to two hundred each.
+
+The more common Tazias are conveyed in the procession on the tenth day,
+and finally deposited with funeral rites in the public burial-grounds, of
+which there are several outside the town. These cemeteries are denominated
+Kraabaallah,[4] and the population of a large city may be presumed on by
+the number of these dispersed in the suburbs. They do not bury their dead
+in the vicinity of a mosque, which is held too sacred to be allowed the
+pollution. Any one having only touched a dead body, must bathe prior to
+entering the mosque, or performing their usual prayer-service at
+home;--such is the veneration they entertain for the name of God.
+
+The opulent people of Mussulmaun society have an Emaum-baarah erected in
+the range of buildings exclusively denominated murdanah[5] (men's abode).
+The habitation of all Mussulmauns being composed of separate departments
+for the males and the females, communicating by private entrances, as will
+be explained hereafter.
+
+The Emaum-baarah is a sacred place, erected for the express purpose of
+commemorating Mahurrum; the founder not unfrequently intends this also as
+the mausoleum for himself and family. But we generally find Mukhburrahs[6]
+(mausoleums) built in conspicuous situations, for the remains of kings,
+princes, nobles, and sainted persons. Of the latter, many are visited, at
+stated periods, by the multitude, with religious veneration, the
+illiterate attaching considerable importance to the annual pilgrimage to
+them; and where--to secure the influence of the particular saint's spirit,
+in furthering their views--mothers present their children, in numbers
+beyond all calculation; and each having something to hope for who visits
+the shrine, presents offerings of money and sweetmeats, which become the
+property of the person in charge of the tomb, thus yielding him a
+profitable sinecure, in proportion as the saint is popular amongst the
+ignorant.
+
+An Emaum-baarah is a square building, generally erected with a cupola top,
+the dimensions guided by the circumstances of the founder. The floor is
+matted with the date-leaf mats, in common use in India, on which is spread
+a shutteringhie[7] (cotton carpet), and over this a clean white calico
+covering, on which the assembled party are seated, during the several
+periods of collecting together to remember their leaders: these meetings
+are termed Mudgelluss[8] (mourning assemblies). It would be esteemed
+indecorous or disrespectful to the Emaums, if any one in error called
+these assemblies Moollakhaut,[9] the usual term for mere worldly visiting.
+
+The Tazia is placed against the wall on the side facing Mecca, under a
+canopy of rich embroidery. A reading-desk or pulpit (mhembur[10]) is
+placed in a convenient situation, for the reader to face Mecca, and his
+voice to be heard by the whole assembly of people; it is constructed of
+silver, ivory, ebony, &c. to correspond with the Tazia, if possible: the
+steps are covered sometimes with gold-cloth, or broad-cloth of black, or
+green,[11] if a Syaad's property, being the colour worn by that race for
+mourning. The shape of a mhembur is a flight of steps with a flat top,
+without any railing or enclosed place; the reader, in his recitings,
+occasionally sitting on the steps, or standing, as may be most convenient
+to himself.
+
+On the walls of the Emaum-baarah, mirrors and looking-glasses are fixed in
+suitable situations to give effect to the brilliant display of light, from
+the magnificent chandeliers suspended from the cupola and cornices. The
+nobles and the wealthy are excited with a desire to emulate each other in
+the splendour of their display on these occasions;--all the mirrors, glass,
+lustres, chandeliers, &c. are brought together to this place, from their
+several stations in the mansion; and it is due to them to admit the effect
+to be often imposingly grand, and the blaze of light splendid. I have
+frequently been reminded in these scenes of the visionary castles conjured
+to the imagination, whilst reading 'The Arabian Nights' Entertainments'.
+
+On each side the Tazia--the whole length of the wall--banners are ranged,
+in great variety of colour and fabric; some of them are costly and
+splendid. I have seen many constructed of the richest embroidery, on silk
+grounds, of gold and silver, with massy gold fringes, cords, and tassels;
+the staff is cased with gold or silver, worked into figures of birds and
+other animals, in every variety; the top of which has a crest, in some a
+spread hand,[12] in others a sort of plume, and not unfrequently a crest
+resembling a grenade, formed of the precious metals, and set with stones
+of great value.
+
+On the base of the Tazia the several articles are placed conceived likely
+to have been used by Hosein at Kraabaallah; a turban of gold or silver
+tissue, a splendid sword and belt, the handle and hilt set with precious
+stones, a shield, the Arabian bow and arrows. These ancient emblems of
+royalty are indispensable in order to do honour to Hosein, in the view
+they take of his sovereign right to be the head or leader of the true
+Mussulmauns. Wax lights, red and green, are also placed in great numbers
+about its base, in silver or glass candlesticks; and censers of gold and
+silver, burning incense perpetually during Mahurrum. Many other minor
+tributes to the Emaums are discovered near the Tazia, as choice fruits and
+garlands of sweet-scented flowers, the offerings of ladies of the family
+to their relative's Tazia.
+
+Amongst the poorer classes of the people an equal proportion of zealous
+spirit is evinced; and according to their several abilities, so they
+commemorate the period, interesting alike to all. Those who cannot compass
+the real splendour of an Emaum-baarah, are satisfied with an imitative one
+in the best hall their habitation affords; and, where mirrors and
+chandeliers are not available, they are content to do honour to the Emaums
+with lamps of uberuck, which in truth are pleasing substitutes at a small
+price: these lamps are made in a variety of pretty shapes, curiously
+painted, and ingeniously ornamented with cut paper; they burn oil in them,
+and, when well arranged, and diversified with their wonted taste, produce
+a good light, and pleasing effect.
+
+The banners of Hosein, in the houses of the poor, are formed of materials
+according to their humble means, from tinsel imitations down to dyed
+muslin; and a similar difference is to be perceived in their selection of
+the metal of which their crests are made.
+
+Mourning assemblies are held in the Emaum-baarahs twice every day during
+Mahurrum; those of the evening, however, are the most attractive, and have
+the fullest attendance of visitors. The master of the house, at the
+appointed hour, takes his seat on the floor near the pulpit, surrounded by
+the males of his family and intimate friends, and the crowd of strangers
+arrange themselves--wherever there is sitting room--without impeding the
+view of the Tazia.
+
+One of the most popular Maulvees[13] of the age is engaged to recite the
+particular portion appointed for each day, from the manuscript documents,
+called Dhie Mudgelluss,[14] in the Persian language. This work is in ten
+parts and contains a subject for each day's service, descriptive of the
+life and sufferings of the Emaums, their friends, and children,
+particularly as regards the eventful period of Mahurrum in which they were
+engaged. It is, I am assured, a pathetic, fine composition, and a faithful
+narrative of each particular circumstance in the history of their leaders,
+the heroic bravery of their friends, &c. They are particularly anxious to
+engage an eloquent reader for this part of the performance, who by his
+impressive manner compels his hearers to sympathise in the affecting
+incidents which are recited by him.
+
+I have been present when the effect produced by the superior oratory and
+gestures of a Maulvee has almost terrified me, the profound grief, evinced
+in his tears and groans, being piercing and apparently sincere. I have
+even witnessed blood issuing from the breast of sturdy men, who beat
+themselves simultaneously as they ejaculated the names 'Hasan!'
+'Hosein!'[15] for ten minutes, and occasionally during a longer period, in
+that part of the service called Mortem.[16]
+
+The portion of Dhie Mudgelluss concluded, sherbet is handed round to the
+assembly; and as they voluntarily abstain from luxuries at this season, a
+substitute for pawn[17]--the green leaf in general use amongst the
+natives--has been introduced, consisting of dried coffee, cocoa-nut shreds,
+betel-nut, cardimuns,[18] dunyah,[19] and a proportionate quantity of
+tobacco-leaf and lime; these are mixed together and handed to the
+visitors, on small silver trays. The hookha[20] is introduced to the
+superiors of the assembly; you are perhaps aware that inferiors do not
+smoke in the presence of superiors without their command or permission.
+
+This ceremony terminated, the Murseeah[21] is chanted, by several
+well-practised voices, with good effect. This part of the service is,
+perhaps, the most impressive, as the very ignorant, even, can comprehend
+every word,--the Murseeah being in the Hindoostanic tongue, a poetical
+composition of great merit, and embracing all the subjects they meet to
+commemorate. The whole assembly rise up afterwards, and, as with one voice,
+recount the names of the lawful leaders after Mahumud, entreating
+blessings and peace to their souls. They then repeat the names of the
+hated usurpers (Caliphas), on whose memory they invoke curses, &c. Mortem
+follows, beating of breasts in unison with the voices, and uttering the
+names of Hasan and Hosein; this performance concludes each day's
+Mudgelluss, either of the morning or evening.
+
+The ladies celebrate the returning season of Mahurrum with as much spirit
+and zeal as the confinement, in which they exist, can possibly admit of.
+There are but few, and those chiefly princesses, who have Emaum-baarahs at
+command, within the boundary of the zeenahnah; the largest and best
+apartment in their establishment is therefore selected for the purpose of
+an Emaum-baarah, into which none but females are admitted, excepting the
+husband, father, son, or brother, of the lady; who having, on this
+occasion, full liberty to invite her female acquaintance, those who are
+her nearest male relatives even are not admitted until previous notice is
+given, in order that the female guests may secrete themselves from the
+sight of these relatives of their hostess.
+
+In commemorating this remarkable event in Mussulmaun history, the
+expressions of grief, manifested by the ladies, are far greater, and
+appear to me more lasting than with the other sex; indeed, I never could
+have given credit to the extent of their bewailings, without witnessing,
+as I have done for many years, the season for tears and profound grief
+return with the month of Mahurrum. In sorrowing for the martyred Emaums,
+they seem to forget their private griefs; the bereavement of a beloved
+object even is almost overlooked in the dutiful remembrance of Hasan and
+Hosein at this period; and I have had opportunities of observing this
+triumph of religious feeling in women, who are remarkable for their
+affectionate attachment to their children, husbands, and parents;--they
+tell me, 'We must not indulge selfish sorrows of our own, whilst the
+Prophet's family alone have a right to our tears'.
+
+The religious zeal of these people is evinced, likewise, in a stern,
+systematic, line of privations, during the period of Mahurrum; no one is
+obliged by any law or command; it is voluntary abstinence on the part of
+each individual--they impose it on themselves, out of pure pity and
+respect for their Emaums' well-remembered sufferings. Every thing which
+constitutes comfort, luxury, or even convenience at other times, on these
+occasions are rigidly laid aside. The pallungh and the charpoy[22] (the
+two descriptions of bedsteads in general use), on which the females love
+to lounge for some hours in the day and night, are removed from their
+standings, and, in lieu of this comfort, they take their rest on a common
+date mat, on the floor. The musnud,[23] and all its cushioned luxuries,
+give place, on this occasion, to the simply matted floor. The indulgence
+in choice dainties, at other times so necessary to their happiness, is now
+foregone, and their meal limited, throughout Mahurrum, to the coarsest
+food--such as barley bread, rice and peas boiled together (called
+kutcher),[24] without even the usual additions to make it palatable
+ketcherie,[25] as ghee, salt, pepper, and spices; these ingredients being
+considered by the zealous females too indulgent and luxurious for humble
+mourners during Muhurrum.
+
+The pawn leaf, another luxury of no small moment to Asiatic tastes, is now
+banished for the ten days' mourning. A very poor substitute has been
+adopted, in the mixture described at the gentlemen's assembly--it is
+called goattur.[26] The truth is, their health would suffer from any long
+disuse of tobacco-leaf, lime, and a bitter gum,[27] which are in general
+use with the pawn; the latter is of a warm aromatic nature, and imparts a
+fine flavour to the other ingredients; but, as it is considered a great
+indulgence to eat pawn, they abstain from it altogether during
+Mahurrum;--the mixture, they say, is only allowed for health's sake.
+
+When visitors call on the Mussulmaun ladies at Mahurrum, the goattur is
+presented on trays, accompanied by bags, neatly embroidered in silver and
+gold, of many different shapes and patterns, mostly their own work and
+invention; they are called buttooah[28] and jhaumdanies.[29]
+
+The variety of ornaments, which constitute the great delight of all
+classes of females in India, are entirely laid aside, from the first hour
+of Mahurrum, until the period for mourning concludes. I never heard of any
+people so thoroughly attached to ornaments as the females of India are
+generally. They are indulged in this foible--pardonable it may be--by
+their husbands and parents. The wealthiness of a family may often be
+judged by a single glance at the principal lady of the zeenahnah, who
+seldom omits doing honour to her husband, by a full display of the
+precious metals, with a great variety of gems or jewels on ordinary
+occasions. The men of all ranks are proud of their wives' finery; even the
+poorest hold in derision all ornament that is not composed of sterling
+metal, of which they seem excellent judges. The massy chains of gold or
+silver, the solid bangles for the arms and ancles, the nut[30] (nose-ring)
+of gold wire, on which is strung a ruby between two pearls, worn only by
+married women; the joshun[31] (armlet), of silver or gold, often set with
+precious stones; the many rings for the fingers, thumbs, and toes, form
+the daily dress of a lady;--but I must not digress further. These are all
+removed from the person, as soon as the moon is seen, when the first day
+of Mahurrum commences; the hair is unloosed from its usual confinement,
+and allowed to flow in disorder about the person; the coloured
+pyjaamahs[32] and deputtahs[33] are removed, with every other article of
+their usual costume, for a suit that, with them, constitutes
+mourning--some choose black, others grey, slate, or green, and the widow
+wears white from the day her husband dies.
+
+A widow never alters her style of dress, neither does she wear a single
+ornament, during her widowhood, which generally lasts with her life. I
+never heard of one single instance, during my twelve years' residence
+amongst them, of a widow marrying again--they have no law to prohibit it;
+and I have known some ladies, whose affianced husbands died before the
+marriage was concluded, who preferred a life of solitude and prayer,
+although many other overtures were made.[34]
+
+Many of the rigidly zealous, among the females, mortify themselves by
+wearing their suit of mourning, during the ten days, without changing; the
+dress is worn next the skin, and, in very warm weather, must be
+comfortless after the first day--but so it is; and so many are the
+varieties of self-inflicted privations, at this period, that my letter
+might be filled with the observations I have made. I cannot, however, omit
+to mention my old woman-servant (ayah[35]), whose mode of abstinence, in
+remembrance of Hosein, is rigidly severe; my influence does not prevail in
+dissuading her, although I fear the consequences to her health will be
+seriously felt if she persist in the fulfilment of her self-imposed trial.
+This poor old creature resolves on not allowing one drop of water, or any
+liquid, to pass her lips during the ten days' mourning; as she says, 'her
+Emaum, Hosein, and his family, suffered from thirst at Kraabaallah, why
+should such a creature as she is be indulged with water?' This shows the
+temper of the people generally; my ayah is a very ignorant old woman, yet
+she respects her Emaum's memory.[36]
+
+The Tazia, you are to understand, graces the houses of all good
+Mussulmauns in India, who are not of the sect called Soonies. This model
+of their Emaum's tomb is an object of profound respect. Hindoos, even, on
+approaching the shrine, bow their heads with much solemn gravity; I often
+fancied they mistook the Tazia for a Bootkhanah[37] (the house of an idol).
+
+It is creditable to the Mussulmauns, that they do not restrict any
+profession of people from visiting their assemblies; there is free
+admission granted when the Emaum-baarah is first lighted up, until the
+hour of performing the service, when strangers, that is the multitude, are
+civilly requested to retire. Every one is expected, on entering the
+outward verandah, to leave their shoes at the threshold of the
+sanctuary;[38] none but Europeans have any occasion to be reminded of this,
+as it is a well known and general observance with all degrees of natives
+in Asia. The servants, in charge of the Emaum-baarah, are responsible for
+the due observance of respect to the place, and when any foreigners are
+advancing, they are politely requested to leave their shoes outside; which
+must be complied with, or they cannot possibly be admitted.
+
+Some few years since, a party of young gentlemen, from cantonments, had
+made up their minds to evade the necessity for removing their boots, on
+the occasion of a visit to one of the great men's Emaum-baarahs, at a
+Native city; they had provided themselves with white socks, which they
+drew over their boots before leaving their palkies. The cheat was
+discovered by the servants in attendance, after they had been admitted;
+they made a precipitate retreat to avoid the consequences of a
+representation to the Resident, by the proprietor of the Emaum-baarah; who,
+hearing of the circumstance, made all possible inquiry, without, however,
+discovering the names of the gentlemen, who had thus, in his opinion,
+violated the sanctuary.
+
+The Natives are aware that the Resident sets the bright example of
+conforming to the observances of the people, over whom he is placed as
+governor and guardian; and that he very properly discountenances every
+attempt of his countrymen to infringe on their rights, prejudices, or
+privileges; and they have, to my knowledge, always looked up to him as to
+a parent and a friend, from the first to the last day of his exalted
+station amongst them. Many a tear marked the regret of the Natives, when
+their best, their kindest, earthly friend quitted the city he had blessed
+by his presence; and to the latest page of their history, his memory will
+doubtless be cherished with sincere veneration and respectful
+attachment.[39]
+
+The poor people vie with their rich neighbours, in making a brilliant
+light in their little halls containing the Tazia; the very poorest are
+liberal in the expenditure of oil and tallow candles--I might say
+extravagantly so, but for the purity of their intentions, supposing it to
+be a duty--and they certainly manifest their zeal and respect to the
+utmost of their power; although many, to my knowledge, live all the year
+round on the very coarsest fare, to enable them to show this reverence to
+their Emaum's memory.
+
+The ladies assemble, in the evening, round the Tazia they have set up in
+their purdahed privacy--female friends, slaves, and servants, surrounding
+the mistress of the house, in solemn gravity.
+
+The few females who have been educated are in great request at this season;
+they read the Dhie Mudgelluss, and chant the Musseeah with good effect.
+These women, being hired for the purpose, are detained during the ten days;
+when the Mahurrum ceases, they are dismissed to their own homes, loaded
+with the best gifts the good lady their employer can conveniently spare,
+commensurate with the services performed. These educated females are
+chiefly daughters of poor Syaads, who have not been married for the lack
+of a dowry; they live devoutly in the service of God, according to their
+faith. They are sometimes required, in the families of the nobility, to
+teach the Khoraun to the young ladies, and, in that capacity, they are
+called Oustaardie, or more familiarly Artoojee.[40]
+
+As I have mentioned before, the Musseeah narrative of the sufferings at
+Kraabaallah is a really pathetic and interesting composition; the work
+being conveyed in the language of the country, every word is understood,
+and very deeply felt, by the females in all these assemblies, who, having
+their hearts softened by the emphatic chantings of the readers, burst into
+violent tears and sobbings of the most heart-rending description. As in
+the gentlemen's assembly, they conclude with Mortem, in which they
+exercise themselves until they are actually exhausted; indeed, many
+delicate females injure their health by the violence and energy of their
+exertions, which they nevertheless deem a most essential duty to perform,
+at all hazards, during the continuance of Mahurrum.
+
+This method of keeping Mahurrum is not in strict obedience to the
+Mahumudan laws; in which code may be found prohibitions against all
+violent and excessive grief--tearing the hair, or other expressions of
+ungovernable sorrow.[41]
+
+I have observed that the Maulvees, Moollahs,[42] and devoutly religious
+persons, although mixing with the enthusiasts on these occasions, abstain
+from the violent exhibition of sorrows which the uninformed are so prone
+to indulge in. The most religious men of that faith feel equal, perhaps
+greater sympathy, for the sufferings of the Emaums, than those who are
+less acquainted with the precepts of the Khoraun; they commemorate the
+Mahurrum without parade or ostentatious display, and apparently wear
+mourning on their hearts, with their garb, the full term of forty
+days--the common period of mourning for a beloved object; but these
+persons never join in Mortem, beating breasts, or other outward show of
+sadness, although they are present when it is exercised; but their quiet
+grief is evidently more sincere.
+
+I have conversed with many sensible men of the Mussulmaun persuasion on
+the subject of celebrating Mahurrum, and from all I can learn, the pompous
+display is grown into a habit, by a long residence amongst people, who
+make a merit of showy parades at all their festivals. Foreign Mussulmauns
+are equally surprised as Europeans, when they visit Hindoostaun, and first
+see the Tazia conveyed about in procession, which would be counted
+sacrilegious in Persia or Arabia; but here, the ceremony is not complete
+without a mixture of pageantry with, the deeply expressed and public
+exposure of their grief.[43]
+
+The remarkable plainness of the mosque, contrasted with the superb
+decorations of an Emaum-baarah, excited my surprise. I am told by the most
+venerable of Syaads, 'The Mosque is devoted only to the service of God,
+where it is commanded no worldly attractions or ornaments shall appear, to
+draw off the mind, or divert the attention, from that one great object for
+which the house of prayer is intended'. An Emaum-baarah is erected for the
+purpose of doing honour to the memory of the Emaums, and of late years the
+emulative spirit of individuals has been the great inducement to the
+display of ornamental decorations.
+
+It is rather from their respect to the Founder of their religion and his
+descendants, than any part of their profession of faith, that the
+Mussulmaun population of Hindoostaun are guided by in these displays,
+which are merely the fashion of other people whom they imitate; and with
+far different motives to the weak-minded Hindoos, who exalt their idols,
+whilst the former thus testify their respect to worthy mortals only. This
+is the explanation I have received from devout Mussulmauns, who direct me
+to remark the strong similarity--in habit only, where 'the faith' is not
+liable to innovations--between themselves and the Hindoo population;--the
+out-of-door celebrations of marriage festivals, for instance, which are so
+nearly resembling each other, in the same classes of society, that
+scarcely any difference can be discovered by the common observer.
+
+Idolatry is hateful to a Mussulmaun, who acknowledges 'one only true God',
+and 'Him alone to be worshipped'.[44] They respect, venerate, love, and
+would imitate, their acknowledged Prophet and the Emaums (who succeeded
+Mahumud in the mission), but they never worship them, as has been often
+imagined. On the contrary, they declare to me that their faith compels
+them 'to believe in one God, and that He alone is to be worshipped by the
+creature; and that Mahumud is a creature, the Prophet sent by God to make
+His will known, and declare His power. That to bow down and worship
+Mahumud would be gross idolatry; and, although he is often mentioned in
+their prayers, yet he is never prayed to. They believe their Prophet is
+sensible of whatever passes amongst his true disciples; and that, in
+proportion as they fulfil the commands he was instructed by God to leave
+with them, so will they derive benefit from his intercession, on that
+great and awful day, when all mankind shall appear before the judgment
+seat of God.'
+
+
+[1] _Imambara_, 'enclosure of the Imam', the place where the
+    Muharram rites are performed, as contrasted with Masjid, a mosque, and
+    'Idgah, where the service at the 'Id festivals is conducted.
+
+[2] _Ta'ziya_, 'consoling'. The use of these miniature tombs is said to
+    date from the time of Amir Taimur (A.D. 1336-1405), who on his
+    return from Karbala made a model of Husain's tomb. See a good account
+    of them in Sir G. Birdwood, _Sva_, 173 ff.
+
+[3] _Abrak_, tale.
+
+[4] From Karbala, the place of pilgrimage.
+
+[5] _Mardanah_.
+
+[6] _Maqbarah_, 'place of graves'.
+
+[7] _Shatranj[-i]_, a chequered cloth, from _shatrang_, the game of chess.
+
+[8] _Majlis_.
+
+[9] _Mulaqat_.
+
+[10] _Mimbar_, sometimes a wooden structure, sometimes of masonry.
+
+[11] Green is the Sayyid colour (E.W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_, i. 38).
+    But it is an innovation in Islam, and Sayyids in Al-Hijaz, as a
+    general rule, do not wear a green turban (Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 4).
+
+[12] The spread hand designates the Sheah sect. There are times when
+    holding up the spread hand declares the Sheah, whilst the Soonie is
+    distinguished by his holding up three fingers only. In villages, the
+    spread hand is marked on the walls where Sheahs reside during Mahurrum.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+    [The five spread fingers are regarded as emblematical of the Prophet,
+    Fâtimah, 'Ali, Hasan, and Husain. The Sunnis prefer three
+    fingers, signifying the first three Caliphs. In its ultimate origin,
+    the spread hand is a charm against demons and evil spirits.]
+
+[13] _Maulavi_, a Muhammadan doctor of law, a judge.
+
+[14] From Dhie, ten; Mudgelluss, assembling together for sacred purposes.
+    [_Author_.] or [_Dah_, or _Dahha majlis_ denotes the ten days of
+    Muharram; see Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_,
+    i. 74.]
+
+[15] Corrupted by Anglo-Indians into _Hobson-Jobson_, the title of Sir H.
+    Yule's _Anglo-Indian Glossary_.
+
+[16] _Matam_, 'mourning'.
+
+[17] _Pan_, 'betel leaf'.
+
+[18] Cardamom.
+
+[19] _Dhaniya_ (_Coriandrum sativitm_).
+
+[20] _Huqqah_, 'a water tobacco pipe'.
+
+[21] _Marsiyah_, 'a funeral elegy'.
+
+[22] _Palang_, a more pretentious piece of furniture than the
+    _charpai_, or common 'cot'.
+
+[23] _Masnad_, 'a thing leaned on', a pile of cushions; the throne of a
+    sovereign.
+
+[24] _Khichar_.
+
+[25] _Khichri_, the 'Kedgeree' of Anglo-Indians.
+
+[26] _Gota_.
+
+[27] Catechu, Hindi _Kath_.
+
+[28] _Batua_.
+
+[29] _Jamdani_, properly a portmanteau for holding clothes
+    (_Jama_): a kind of flowered cloth.
+
+[30] _Nath_.
+
+[31] _Joshan_, an ornament worn on the upper arm.
+
+[32] _Pa[~e]jama_, 'leg clothing', drawers.
+
+[33] _Dopatta_, a sheet made of two breadths of cloth.
+
+[34] Amongst the Muhammadans the proportion of widows has declined
+    steadily since 1881, and is now only 143 per mille compared with 170
+    in that year. It would seem that the prejudices against
+    widow-marriages are gradually becoming weaker.--_Report Census of
+    India_, 1911, i. 273.
+
+[35] [~A]y[~a], from Portuguese _aia_, 'a nurse'.
+
+[36] After much, entreaty, this humble zealot was induced to take a sweet
+    lime, occasionally, to cool her poor parched mouth. She survived the
+    trial, and lived many years to repeat her practised abstinence at the
+    return of Mahurrum. [_Author_.]
+
+[37] _Butkhanah_.
+
+[38] This was a primitive Semitic taboo (Exodus iii. 5; Joshua v. 15, &c.).
+    The reason of this prohibition is that shoes could not be easily
+    washed.--W.R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_[2], 453.
+
+[39] Mordaunt Ricketts was Resident at Lucknow between 1821 and 1830, when
+    he was 'superannuated' owing to financial scandals, for the details of
+    which see Sir G. Trevelyan, _Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay_, cap.
+    x; H.G. Keene, _Here and There_, 10; on November 1, 1824, he was
+    married at Lucknow by Bishop Heber to the widow of George Ravenscroft,
+    the civilian who was Collector of Cawnpore, and there embezzled large
+    sums of money, the property of Government. He fled with his wife and
+    child to Bhinga in Oudh, where, on May 6, 1823, he was murdered by
+    Dacoits. The strange story is well told by Sleeman, _A Journey through
+    the Kingdom of Oudh_, i. 112 ff.
+
+[40] Persian _ustad, ustadji_, 'an instructor'.
+
+[41] Lamentation for the dead was strictly prohibited by the Prophet; but,
+    like all orientals, the Indian Musalmans indulge in it.
+    (_Mishkat_, i, chap, vii.)
+
+[42] _Mulla_, the Persian form of Maulavi, 'a doctor of law'.
+
+[43] It is a mistake to suppose that the procession of the Ta'ziya or
+    Tabut is peculiar to India. It is practised in Persia and Egypt.
+
+[44] The Prophet was obliged to make some compromise with idolatry, as in
+    the case of the Black Stone at Mecca. But he protested against idols
+    in one of the earliest Suurahs of the Koraan (lii 35-43), and in
+    other passages.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER III
+
+  Continuation of Mahurrum.--Consecration of Banners.--Durgah at
+  Lucknow.--Its origin explained.--Regarded with peculiar
+  veneration.--The Nuwaub vows to build a new one.--Its
+  description.--Procession to the Durgah.--Najoomies.--Influence
+  possessed and practised by them.--Eunuchs.--Anecdotes of some having
+  attained great honours and wealth.--Presents bestowed upon them
+  generally revert to the donor.--Rich attire of male and female slaves.
+
+
+After the Tazia is brought home (as the temporary ones are from the bazaar
+on the eve of Mahurrum, attended by a ceremonious display of persons,
+music, flags, flambeaux, &c.), there is little to remark of out-door
+parade beyond the continual activity of the multitude making the sacred
+visits to their several Emaum-baarahs, until the fifth day, when the
+banners are conveyed from each of them in solemn procession, to be
+consecrated at the Durgah[1] (literally translated, 'The threshold' or
+'Entrance to a sanctified place').
+
+This custom is perhaps exclusively observed by the inhabitants of Lucknow,
+where I have had the privilege of acquiring a knowledge of the motives
+which guide most of their proceedings; and as there is a story attached to
+the Durgah, not generally known to European visitors, I propose relating
+it here, as it particularly tends to explain the reasons for the
+Mussulmauns conveying their banners for consecration to that celebrated
+shrine.
+
+'A native of India--I forget his name--remarkable for his devotion and
+holy life, undertook the pilgrimage to Mecca; whilst engaged in these
+duties at the "holy house", he was visited with a prophetic dream. Abass
+Ali (the standard-bearer and relation of Hosein) appeared to him in his
+dream, commanding him, that as soon as his duties at Mecca were fulfilled
+he should, without delay, proceed to Kraabaallah, to the tomb of Hosein;
+directing him, with great precision, how he was to find the exact spot of
+earth where was deposited the very Allum[2] (banner) of Hosein, which he
+(Abass Ali) had, on the great day of Kraabaallah, carried to the field.
+The man was further instructed to possess himself of this relic secretly,
+and convey it about his person until he should reach his native country,
+when he would be more fully directed by the orderings of Providence how
+the relic should be disposed of.
+
+'The Hadjee followed all the injunctions he had received punctually; the
+exact spot was easily discovered, by the impressions from his dream; and,
+fearing the jealousy of the Arabs, he used the utmost precaution, working
+by night, to secure to himself the possession of so inestimable a prize,
+without exciting their suspicion, or attracting the notice of the numerous
+pilgrims who thronged the shrine by day. After several nights of severe
+labour he discovered, to his great joy, the metal crest of the banner; and
+concluding the banner and staff to have mouldered away, from their having
+been so long entombed in the earth, he cautiously secreted the crest about
+his person, and after enduring the many vicissitudes and privations,
+attendant on the long journey from Arabia to India, he finally succeeded
+in reaching Lucknow in safety with his prize.
+
+'The Nuwaub Asof ood Duolah[3] ruled at this period in Oude; the pilgrim
+made his adventures known to him, narrating his dream, and the
+circumstances which led to his gaining possession of the crest. The Nuwaub
+gave full credence to his story, and became the holder of the relic
+himself, rewarding the Hadjee handsomely for his trouble, and gave
+immediate orders for a small building to be erected under the denomination
+of "Huzerut Abass Ali Ke Durgah",[4] in which the crest was safely
+deposited with due honours, and the fortunate pilgrim was appointed
+guardian with a liberal salary.
+
+'In the course of time, this Durgah grew into great repute amongst the
+general classes of the Mussulmaun population, who, venerating their Emaum
+Hosein, had more than common respect for this trifle, which they believed
+had been used in his personal service. Here the public were permitted to
+offer their sacrifices and oblations to God, on occasions of importance to
+themselves; as after the performance of the rite of circumcision in
+particular, grand processions were formed conveying the youthful
+Mussulmaun, richly attired, attended by music, &c. and offering presents
+of money and sweetmeats at the shrine which contains their Emaum's sacred
+relic. On these occasions the beggars of every denomination were benefited
+by the liberality of the grateful father, and the offerings at the shrine
+became the property of the guardian of the Durgah, who, it was expected,
+would deal out from his receipts to the necessitous as occasions served.'
+
+This custom is still observed, with equal veneration for the shrine and
+its deposit; and when a lady recovers from the perils attendant on giving
+to her husband's house a desired heir, she is conveyed, with all the pomp
+and parade due to her rank in life, to this Durgah, attended by her female
+relatives, friends, domestics, eunuchs, and slaves, in covered conveyances;
+in her train are gentlemen on horseback, in palkies, or on elephants, to
+do honour to the joyful event; the Guardian's wife having charge on these
+occasions of the ladies' visits; and the Guardian, with the gentlemen and
+all the males, guarding the sanctuary outside; for they are not permitted
+to enter whilst it is occupied by the ladies, the eunuchs alone having
+that privilege where females congregate.
+
+Recovery from sickness, preservation from any grievous calamity, danger,
+or other event which excites grateful feelings, are the usual inducements
+to visiting the Durgah, with both males and females, amongst the
+Mussulmaun population of Lucknow. These recurrences yield ample stores of
+cash, clothes, &c. left at the disposal of the Guardian, who, if a good
+man, disperses these charitable donations amongst the indigent with a
+liberality equal to that of the donors in their various offerings.
+
+The Durgah had grown into general respect, when a certain reigning Nuwaub
+was afflicted by a severe and tedious illness, which baffled the skill of
+his physicians, and resisted the power of the medicine resorted to for his
+recovery. A confidential Najoom[5] (astrologer), in the service of his
+Highness, of great repute in his profession, advised his master to make a
+vow, that 'If in the wisdom of Divine Providence his health should be
+restored, he would build a new Durgah on the site of the old one, to be
+dedicated to Abass Ali, and to be the shrine for the sacred deposit of the
+crest of Hosein'. The Nuwaub, it appears, recovered rapidly after the vow
+had been made, and he went in great pomp and state to return thanks to God
+in this Durgah, surrounded by the nobles and officers of his Court, and
+the whole strength of his establishment accompanied him on the occasion.
+So grand was the spectacle, that the old people of the city talk of it at
+this day as a scene never equalled in the annals of Lucknow, for splendour
+and magnificence; immense sums of money were distributed on the road to
+the populace, and at the Durgah; the multitude, of all classes, hailing
+his emancipation from the couch of sickness with deafening cheers of
+vociferous exultation.
+
+In fulfilment of his vow, the Nuwaub gave immediate orders for erecting
+the magnificent edifice, which now graces the suburbs of Lucknow, about
+five miles from that part of the city usually occupied by the Sovereign
+Ruler of the province of Oude. By virtue of the Nuwaub's vow and recovery,
+the before-respected Durgah has, thus newly built, increased in favour
+with the public; and, on account of the veneration they have for all that
+concerns their Emaums, the banners which adorn the Tazias of Hosein must
+be consecrated by being brought to this sacred edifice; where, by the
+condescending permission of the Sovereign, both the rich and the poor are
+with equal favour admitted, at that interesting period of Mahurrum, to
+view the crest of their Leader, and present their own banners to be
+touched and thus hallowed by the, to them, sacred relic. The crest is
+fixed to a staff, but no banner attached to it; this is placed within a
+high railing, supported by a platform, in the centre of the building; on
+either side splendid banners are exhibited on these occasions.
+
+The Durgah is a square building, entered by flights of steps from the
+court-yard; the banner of each person is conveyed through the right
+entrance, opposite the platform, where it is immediately presented to
+touch the revered crest; this is only the work of a few seconds; that
+party walks on, and moves out to the left again into the court-yard; the
+next follows in rapid succession, and so on till all have performed this
+duty: by this arrangement, confusion is obviated; and, in the course of
+the day, perhaps forty or fifty thousand banners[6] may have touched the
+Emaum's consecrated crest. On these occasions, the vast population of
+Lucknow may be imagined by the almost countless multitude, of every rank,
+who visit this Durgah: there is no tax levied on the people, but the sums
+collected must be immense, since every one conscientiously offers
+something, according to his inclination or his means, out of pure respect
+to the memory of Hosein.
+
+The order of procession, appointed by each noble proprietor of banners, to
+be consecrated at the Durgah, forms a grand spectacle. There is no
+material difference in their countless numbers; the most wealthy and the
+meanest subjects of the province make displays commensurate with their
+ability, whilst those persons who make the most costly exhibitions enjoy
+the greatest share of popular favour, as it is considered a proof of their
+desire to do honour to the memory of Hosein and Hasan, their venerated
+Emaums.
+
+A description of one, just passing my house, will give you a general idea
+of these processions,--it belongs to a rich man of the city:--A guard of
+soldiers surrounds four elephants on which several men are seated, on pads
+or cushions, supporting the banners; the staffs of several are of
+silver,--the spread hand, and other crests, are formed of the same metal,
+set with precious stones. Each banner--they all resemble--is in the shape
+of a long scarf of rich silk, of bright florid colours, embroidered very
+deep at the ends, which are finished with gold and silver bullion fringes;
+it is caught together near the middle, and tied with rich gold and silver
+cords and tassels to the top of the staff, just under the hand or crest.
+The silks, I observe, are of many different colours, forming an agreeable
+variety, some blue, purple, green, yellow, &c. Red is not used; being the
+Soonies' distinguishing colour at Mahurrum it is carefully avoided by the
+zealous Sheahs--the Soonies are violently opposed to the celebration of
+this festival. After the elephants, a band of music follows, composed of
+every variety of Native instruments, with drums and fifes; the trumpets
+strike me as the greatest novelty in their band; some of them are very
+long and powerful in their effect.
+
+Next in the order of procession I observe a man in deep mourning,
+supporting a black pole, on which two swords are suspended from a bow
+reversed--the swords unsheathed glittering in the sun. The person who owns
+the banners, or his deputy, follows next on foot, attended by readers of
+the Musseeah, and a large party of friends in mourning. The readers select
+such passages as are particularly applicable to the part Abass Ali took in
+the affair at Kraabaallah, which is chanted at intervals, the procession
+pausing for that purpose.
+
+Then comes Dhull Dhull,[7]--the name of Hosein's horse at
+Kraabaallah;--that selected for the present purpose is a handsome white
+Arab, caparisoned according to the olden style of Arabia: due care is
+taken to represent the probable sufferings of both animal and rider, by
+the bloody horsecloth--the red-stained legs--and the arrows apparently
+sticking in several parts of his body; on the saddle is fixed a turban in
+the Arabian style, with the bow and arrows;--the bridle, &c. are of very
+rich embroidery; the stirrups and mountings of solid silver. The horse and
+all its attire are given after Mahurrum, in charity, to a poor Syaad.
+Footmen, with the afthaadah[8] and chowrie[9]--peculiar emblems of royalty
+in India--attend Dhull Dhull. The friends of the family walk near the
+horse; then servants of all classes, to fill up the parade, and many
+foot-soldiers, who occasionally fire singly, giving to the whole
+description a military effect.
+
+I have seen many other processions on these fifth days of Mahurrum--they
+all partake of one style,--some more splendid than others; and the very
+poor people parade their banners, with, perhaps, no other accompaniment
+than a single drum and fife, and the owner supporting his own banner.
+
+My next letter will contain the procession of Mayndhie, which forms a
+grand feature of Mahurrum display on the seventh night.
+
+P.S.--The Najoomee are men generally with some learning, who, for their
+supposed skill in astrology, have, in all ages since Mahumud's death, been
+more or less courted and venerated by the Mussulmaun people;--I should say,
+with those who have not the fear of God stronger in their hearts than the
+love of the world and its vanities;--the really religious people
+discountenance the whole system and pretended art of the astrologer.
+
+It is wonderful the influence a Najoom acquires in the houses of many
+great men in India;--wherever one of these idlers is entertained he is the
+oracle to be consulted on all occasions, whether the required solution be
+of the utmost importance, or the merest trifling subject. I know those who
+submit, with a childlike docility, to the Najoom's opinion, when their
+better reason, if allowed to sway, would decide against the astrologer's
+prediction. If Najoom says it is not proper for Nuwaub Sahib, or his Begum,
+to eat, to drink, to sleep, to take medicine, to go from home, to give
+away or accept a gift, or any other action which human reason is the best
+guide to decide upon, Najoom has said it,--and Najoom must be right.
+Najoom can make peace or war, in the family he overrules, at his pleasure;
+and many are the houses divided against themselves by the wicked influence
+of a bad man, thus exercising his crafty wiles over the weakness of his
+credulous master.--So much for Najoomee; and now for my second notice of
+the Eunuchs:--[10]
+
+They are in great request among the highest order of people, and from
+their long sojourn in a family, this class of beings are generally
+faithfully attached to the interest and welfare of their employer; they
+are much in the confidence of their master and mistress, and very seldom
+betray their trust. Being frequently purchased, whilst children, from the
+base wretches who have stolen them in infancy from the parental roof, they
+often grow up to a good old age with the family by whom they are adopted;
+they enjoy many privileges denied to other classes of slaves;--are
+admitted at all hours and seasons to the zeenahnahs; and often, by the
+liberality of their patrons, become rich and honourable;--still 'he is but
+a slave', and when he dies, his property reverts to his owner.
+
+In Oude there have been many instances of Eunuchs arriving to great honour,
+distinctions, and vast possessions. Al Mauss Ali Khaun[11] was of the
+number, within the recollection of many who survive him; he was the
+favoured Eunuch of the House of Oude; a person of great attainments, and
+gifted with a remarkably superior mind, he was appointed Collector over an
+immense tract of country, by the then reigning Nuwaub, whose councils he
+benefited by his great judgment. He lived to a good old age, in the
+unlimited confidence of his prince, and enjoyed the good will and
+affection of all who could appreciate what is valuable in honest integrity.
+He died as he had lived, in the most perfect resignation to whatever was
+the will of God, in whose mercy he trusted through time, and for eternity.
+Many of the old inhabitants speak of him with veneration and respect,
+declaring he was the perfect pattern for good Mussulmauns to imitate.
+
+Another remarkable Eunuch, Affrine Khaun,[12] of the Court of Oude, is
+well remembered in the present generation also,--the poor having lost a
+kind benefactor, and the rich a sensible companion, by his death. His vast
+property he had willed to others than the sovereign ruler of Oude (whose
+property he actually was), who sent, as is usual in these cases, to take
+possession of his estate, immediately after his death; the gates were
+barred, and the heirs the Eunuch had chosen to his immense wealth had
+taken possession; which I am not aware was disputed afterwards by the
+reigning Nuwaub, although by right of the Mussulmaun law, the Nuwaub owned
+both the slave and the slave's wealth.
+
+This accounts, perhaps, for the common practice in the higher circles of
+the Mussulmaun population, of heaping ornaments and riches on favourite
+slaves; the wealth thus expended at one time, is but a loan in the hands
+of safe keepers, to revert again to the original proprietor whenever
+required by the master, or no longer of service to the slave, who has
+neither power to bestow, nor heirs to benefit from the property he may
+leave when he dies.
+
+I have frequently observed, among the most exalted ladies, that their
+female slaves are very often superbly dressed; and, on occasions of
+marriage ceremonies, or other scenes of festivity, they seem proud of
+taking them in their suite, handsomely dressed, and richly adorned with
+the precious metals, in armlets, bangles, chains, &c.; the lady thus
+adding to her own consequence by the display of her attendant slaves. The
+same may be observed with regard to gentlemen, who have men-slaves
+attending them, and who are very frequently attired in costly dresses,
+expensive shawls, and gold ornaments.
+
+
+[1] _Dargah_, '(sacred) door-place'.
+
+[2] '_Alam_. For illustrations of those banners see Hughes,
+    _Dictionary of Islam_, 408 ff.; Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a
+    Pilgrim_, ii. 18.
+
+[3] Asaf-ud-daula, eldest son of Nawab Shuja'-ud-daula, on whose
+    death in 1775 he succeeded. He changed the seat of government
+    from Faizabad to Lucknow, where he died in 1797, and was
+    buried in the Imambara. He is principally remembered for
+    his liberality. The merchants, on opening their shops, used to
+    sing:
+
+      _Jisko na de Maula,
+      Tisko de Asaf-ud-daula_.
+      Who from Heaven nought receiveth,
+      To him Asaf-ud-daula giveth.
+
+[4] Mr. H.C. Irwin informs me that the Dargah is situated on the
+    Crommelin Road, rather more than a mile south-west of the
+    Machhi Bhawan fort. It was here that Nawab Sa'adat
+    'Al'i, on his accession, vowed that he would reform his
+    ways--an intention which was not realized.
+
+[5] _Nujumi_, 'an astrologer'; '_ilm-i-nujum_, 'astrology,
+    astronomy'.
+
+[6] The numbers are greatly exaggerated.
+
+[7] Duldul was the name of the Prophet's mule which he gave to
+    'Ali. It is often confounded with Buraq, the
+    Assyrian-looking gryphon on which he alleged that he flew to
+    Mecca.
+
+[8] _Aftabgir_, 'a sun-screen'; see p. 47.
+
+[9] _Chaunri_, the bushy tail of the yak, used as a fly-flapper.
+
+[10] Writing in 1849, General Sleeman remarks that Dom singers and eunuchs
+    are the virtual rulers of Oudh.--_A Journey through Oudh_, i, introd.
+    lxi, 178.
+
+[11] Almas ['the diamond'] 'Ali Khan, known as Miyan ['Master']
+    Almas, according to General Sleeman, was 'the greatest and best man
+    of any note that Oude has produced. He held for about forty years
+    Miyanganj and other districts, yielding to the Oude  Government an
+    annual revenue of more than eighty lacs of rupees [about £850,000].
+    During this time he kept the people secure in life and property, and
+    as happy as people in such a state of society can be; and the whole
+    country under his charge was during his lifetime a garden. He lived
+    here in great magnificence, and was often visited by his sovereign.'
+    (Ibid., i. 320 f.). Lord Valentia more than once speaks highly of him
+    (_Travels_, i. 136, 241). He also notes that the Nawab was
+    anxiously watching for his death, because, being a slave, under
+    Muhammadan law his estates reverted to the Crown.--See N.B.E. Baillie,
+    _Digest of Moohummudan Law_ (1875), 367 f.
+
+[12] Afrin Khan, 'lord of praise', Mr. Irwin informs me, is
+    mentioned in the _Tarikh Farahbakhsh_ (tr. W. Hoey, 129) as
+    engaged in negotiations when Nawab Asaf-ud-daula, at the
+    instigation of Warren Hastings and Haidar Beg, was attempting to
+    extort money from the Nawab Begam.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER IV
+
+  Mahurrum concluded.--Night of Mayndhie.--Emaum-baarah of the King of
+  Oude.--Procession to Shaah Nudghiff.--Last day of Mahurrum.--Chattahs.
+  --Musical instruments.--Zeal of the Native gentlemen.--Funeral
+  obsequies over the Tazia at Kraabaallah.--Sentiments of devout
+  Mussulmauns.--The fast followed by acts of charity.--Remarks on the
+  observance of Mahurrum.
+
+
+The public display on the seventh Mahurrum is by torch-light, and called
+the night of Mayndhie,[1] intending to represent the marriage ceremony for
+Cossum, who, it will be remembered, in the sketch of the events of
+Kraabaallah, was married to his cousin Sakeena Koobraah, the favourite
+daughter of Hosein, on the morning of the celebrated battle.
+
+This night presents to the public all the outward and showy parade which
+marks the Mayndhie procession of a real wedding ceremony, of which I
+propose speaking further in another place. This display at Mahurrum is
+attended with considerable expense; consequently, the very rich only
+observe the out-door formalities to be exhibited on this occasion; yet all
+classes, according to their means, remember the event, and celebrate it at
+home.
+
+The Mayndhie procession of one great personage, in Native cities, is
+directed--by previous arrangement--to the Emaum-baarah of a superior. I
+was present, on one occasion, when the Mayndhie of the Prime Minister of
+Oude was sent to the King's Emaum-baarah, called Shaah Nudghiff,[2]--from
+the mausoleum of Ali, of which it is an exact representation, on a small
+scale.
+
+It is situated near the banks of the river Goomtie,[3] some distance from
+the palace at Lucknow; the entrance to the outer court, or quadrangle, is
+by a handsome gateway of brickwork plastered and polished, resembling
+marble. On each side of the gateway, and carried up the two sides, in a
+line with the building, are distinct apartments, designed for the abode of
+the distressed and houseless poor; the back of these apartments forms a
+substantial wall or enclosure. The Shaah Nudghiff faces the gateway, and
+appears to be a square building, on a broad base of flights of steps, with
+a cupola roof; the interior is paved with black and white marble
+tesselated, the walls and dome neatly ornamented with plaster and gold in
+relief, the beading, cornices, &c. of gold, to correspond on a
+stone-colour ground. The cupola and cornices on the outside are richly
+ornamented with plaster designs, relieved with gold; on the summit of the
+dome is placed a crown, of pure silver, gilt, of an immense size.
+
+The decorations of the interior, for the season of Mahurrum, were on a
+scale of grandeur not easily to be conveyed by description. The walls were
+well covered with handsome glasses and mirrors; the splendid
+chandeliers,--one containing a hundred wax lights,--in every variety, and
+relieved with coloured lamps--amber, blue, and green,--mellowing the light,
+and giving a fairy-like effect to the brilliant scene. In the centre of
+the building stood the green glass Tazia, surrounded by wax lights; on
+the right of which was placed an immense lion, and on the left, a fish,[4]
+both formed of the same bright emerald-green glass as the Tazia. The
+richness and elegance of the banners,--which were numerous and well
+arranged,--could be equalled only by the costliness of their several
+mountings.
+
+In Asiatic buildings niches and recesses prevail in all convenient
+situations, and here they are appropriated for the reception of the relics
+of antiquity and curiosities; such as models of Mecca, the tent of Hosein,
+the gate of Kraabaallah, &c.; these three are made of pure silver, and
+rest on tables of the same metal. Many curious sabres, of all ages,
+shields, chain armour of the ancients, lances, &c., arranged with much
+taste, adorn the interior.
+
+The pulpit (mhembur) is of silver, and of very handsome workmanship; the
+whole of the fitting up and arrangements had been made under the eye of
+his Majesty, and to his good taste may be ascribed all the merit of the
+well-ordered display for these occasions. He delighted in visiting this
+place, which he not only designed as a tribute of his respect to the
+Emaums, but as the future repository for his own remains, when this world
+should cease to be his place of joy, or anxious care. His intention has
+been fulfilled--he died in 1827, aged fifty years, much and justly beloved
+and regretted by all who knew him; his funeral obsequies were impressively
+grand, according to Mussulmaun custom. This good and amiable King was
+succeeded by his only son Nusseer ood deen Hyder,[5] who had just
+completed his twenty-second year when he began to reign.
+
+On the evening of Mayndhie, the crowds of admiring people were admitted to
+view their Paidshah's (King's) exhibition; until the distant sounds of
+musketry announced the approach of the spectacle, when the multitude were
+desired to quit the Emaum-baarah. Hundreds still lingering, could not be
+prevailed on to depart, except by the stripes dealt out unsparingly from
+the whips of the hurkaarahs[6] and peons, appointed to keep order on the
+occasion. The place cleared, and quiet restored, I had leisure to view the
+fairy-like palace of splendour, before the bustle of the procession
+reached the building. I could hardly persuade myself the picture before me
+was not a dream, instead of a reality.
+
+I stood at the entrance to watch the approach of the minister's train,
+through the gateway into the illuminated quadrangle. Spacious as this
+court-yard is, it was nearly filled with the many people forming the
+Mayndhie parade. I should imagine there could not be less than three
+thousand souls engaged in this service, including the match-lock soldiery.
+Several trays of Mayndhie are brought, with the other requisites for the
+usual forms of marriage gifts, such as sweetmeats, dried fruits, garlands
+of sweet jasmine, imitative beds of flowers, composed of uberuck: in some
+of the flowers, fireworks were concealed, to be let off in the quadrangle.
+An imitative tomb on a bier is also paraded, together with the palkie and
+chundole of silver, which are the covered conveyances for females of the
+royal family, or such of the nobility as are privileged by grants from the
+crown; all other females use the covered palkie, mahanah, dhollee, and the
+rutt.[7] Several bands of music follow, and torches out of number. The
+elephants, camels, cavalry, &c., are left in the open space, outside the
+gateway--the gentlemen, dismounting, enter with Dhull Dhull and the trays
+of Mayndhie.
+
+I trembled for the probable destruction of the brilliant ornaments in the
+Emaum-baarah, when I heard the noble animal was to make the circuit round
+the Tazia. Dhull Dhull, being led in, went up the steps with little
+difficulty; and to my astonishment, the gentle creature paced the
+tesselated floor, in very slow time, without once slipping, or seeming
+concerned at the novelty of his situation; indeed, this docile animal
+seemed to me the only living thing present that felt no interest in the
+scene--rendered more attractive and conspicuous by the gentle manners of
+the pretty Dhull Dhull himself. The circuit being made, he was conducted
+back into the court-yard, without the slightest accident or confusion
+occurring during his visit to the Emaum-baarah.
+
+The model of the tomb of Cossum, the chundole and palkie, the trays of
+Mayndhie, sweetmeats, &c. were deposited here until the tenth day, when
+they accompany the King's temporary Tazia cavalcade to Kraabaallah for
+interment.
+
+The ceremonies performed on this night of Mayndhie resemble, in every
+particular, those of the same rank of persons on the actual solemnization
+of a wedding, even to the distribution of money amongst the populace who
+crowd in multitudes on such occasions, though apparently more eager for
+the prize than the sight.
+
+The most imposing spectacle in the celebration of Mahurrum, is reserved
+for the last day;[8] and, judging from the activity of all classes, the
+zealous exertions of the multitude, the deep interest marked on every face,
+male and female, a mere spectator might well imagine this morning to be of
+more importance than any other in the Mussulmaun's catalogue of days.
+
+At the earliest hour of the dawning day, the preparations for the march
+being complete,--which had occupied the hours usually devoted to
+sleep,--the streets and roads present a very animated picture. From the
+bustle and outpouring of the multitude, on this one absorbing engagement,
+a stranger might be led back in imagination to the flight from Egypt; the
+object, however, is very different from that of the children of Israel.
+The order of the day being to commemorate the death of Hosein, a grand
+military funeral is pourtrayed in each person's cavalcade, all pressing
+forward to their chosen Kraabaallah,--the poor man, with his humble Tazia
+and flags, falling in the rear of the more affluent person's display, as
+well for protection as for speed. There is so much of similarity in these
+processions, that the description of one will be sufficient to convey the
+idea of the whole, as they pass on in succession to the chosen place of
+burial.[9]
+
+The consecrated banners take the precedence, in the order of march,
+carried by men on elephants; then a band of music. Next comes the
+jillewdhar[10] (sword-bearer), supporting, on a black staff, the bow
+reversed, with brilliant swords suspended; on each side of him are men
+bearing black poles, on which are fixed immense long streamers of black
+unspun silk,--designed to symbolize grief, despair, &c.
+
+Then follows the horse, caparisoned as on the day of consecrating the
+banners; it is attended by servants, in the same order as when a prince
+rides out,--viz. a man with the afthaadah[11] (or sun),--the well-dressed
+grooms, holding the bridle rein on either side,--a man with the chowrie of
+peacock's feathers in a silver handle,--chobdhaahs[12] with long silver
+and gold staffs,--sota badhaahs,[13] with short staffs resembling fish, of
+the same materials,--hurkaarahs (running-footmen, or messengers), bearing
+small triangular banners with silver handles,--shoe-bearers, &c.
+
+The royal chattah[14] (umbrella), of embroidered velvet, is supported over
+the head of Dhull Dhull. This article in its plain garb, so generally used
+in Europe, is, in Hindoostaun, an original distinguishing mark of royalty,
+gracing the King's throne in lieu of a canopy. In Oude, the chattah cannot
+be used by the subject when in view of the sovereign; if the King's
+dunkah[15] be heard abroad, the people hide their chattahs, and even
+descend from their carriages, elephants, horses, or palkies, standing with
+their hands folded, in all humility, to make obeisance to the
+King,--resuming them only when the royal cortège has moved out of sight. I
+have known many of the first nobility in the Court of Oude, and English
+gentlemen in the King's suite, exposed to the rays of the morning sun,
+during the hottest season of the year; in these airings, the King alone
+has the benefit of a chattah, except the Resident happens to be of the
+party, who being always received as an equal, is privileged to the chattah,
+the chowrie, and the hookha; indulgences of which those only who have
+lived in India can possibly estimate the true value.
+
+But to my subject:--The saddle is adorned with Hosein's chain armour, gold
+turban, a richly set sword, with an embroidered belt: some of the family
+and friends attend respectfully near the horse. Then follow the bearers of
+incense, in gold censers, suspended to chains, which they wave about,
+fumigating the air with the refreshing smell of lahbaun,[16]--a
+sweet-scented resin from the cedar of Lebanon, I imagine, though some
+suppose it to be the frankincense noticed in Scripture.
+
+Next in the cavalcade is a chanter or reader of the Musseeah, who selects
+passages from that well-arranged work suited to the time when Hosein's
+person was the mark for Yuzeed's arrows, and which describe his conduct on
+the trying occasion; one or two couplets being chanted, the procession
+advances in slow time, halting every five minutes on the way from the
+beginning to the end of the march. The reader is attended by the
+proprietor of the Tazia display, and his many relatives and friends,
+bare-footed, and without any covering on their heads;--many of these
+persons throw chaff on their heads,[17] expressive of grief, and whilst
+the Musseeah is chanted, their boisterous expressions of sorrow are
+painfully severe to the mere observer of the scene.
+
+The Tazia then follows, surrounded by banners, and covered with a canopy
+upheld by silver poles in the hands of the supporters, according to the
+general style of conveying their dead at the funerals of the Mussulmauns.
+The canopy is of green, bordered and embroidered with gold. The model of
+Cossum's tomb follows in succession, which is covered with gold cloth, and
+has a canopy also supported over it, in the same way, by poles carried by
+several men. The palkie and chundole of silver and tissue are next seen;
+the trays of Mayndhie, the flowers of uberuck, and the other paraphernalia
+of the marriage ceremony, follow in due order. Then the camels and
+elephants, conveying the tent equipage and luggage of Hosein, form a long
+train, representing the supposed style of his march from Medina to
+Kraabaallah.
+
+The last and most judicious feature in the arrangement is the several
+elephants with confidential servants, distributing bread and money to the
+poor, who are thus attracted to the rear in countless numbers, leaving the
+cavalcade in quiet possession of the space of roadway uncrowded by the
+multitude. The bread given on these occasions is in great esteem amongst
+the females, who receive a small portion from the followers on their
+return from Kraabaallah with veneration, for the Emaum's sake, in whose
+name it is given. I have often been led to the remembrance of past times
+by this act of theirs, when the cross-buns of Good-Friday were esteemed by
+the aged women as possessing virtues beyond the mere substance of the cake.
+
+The whole line of march is guarded in each procession by burkhandhars[18]
+(matchlock men), who fire singly, at intervals on the way. Several bands
+of music are dispersed in the cavalcade, performing solemn dirge-like airs,
+peculiar to the style of composition in Hindoostaun and well-suited to the
+occasion--muffled drums and shrill trumpets, imitating the reiteration of
+'Hasan, Hosein', when Mortem is performed. I remember a fine female
+elephant, belonging to King Ghauzee ood deen Hyder, which had been so well
+instructed, as to keep time with the soundings from her proboscis with the
+occasional Mortems. I cannot say that she clearly pronounced the names of
+the two sons of Ali, yet the regularity of keeping time with the music and
+the human voices was of itself sufficient to excite admiration--the
+Natives declare that she pronounces the names distinctly. Her name is
+Hoseinie, the feminine of Hosein.
+
+Amongst the many varieties of Native musical instruments I have seen in
+India, the kettle-drum is the most simple and singular, which I will take
+the liberty of describing:--It is of well-baked earth, moulded in the
+usual way, and very similar in shape to those of the Royal Horse Guards. A
+globe of the common size, divided into exact halves, would be about the
+dimension and shape of a pair of Indian manufacture; the parchment is
+strained over the open mouth, with a thin hoop to fix it firm; the
+slightest pressure with the fingers on this hoop draws it into tune. The
+simplicity of this accompaniment to the human voice, when touched by the
+fingers, very much in the way Europeans use the tambourine, is only to be
+appreciated by those who have been long acquainted with the sound. The
+only time when it is beaten with sticks is, when used as dunkahs, before
+the King and Queen, on their appearing in public--a sort of alarum to warn
+obstructing hackeries, or carriages, to move out of the way.
+
+I have occasionally observed a singular mode of imitating the sound of
+cavalry going over hard ground, adopted in the processions of great men on
+the tenth of Mahurrum; the contrivance is called chuckee,[19] and composed
+of ebony, or some equally hard wood, the shape and size of a pocket globe,
+divided into halves; each person, having the pair, beats them with a
+particular tact on the flat surface, so as to produce the desired sound of
+horses galloping; and where from fifty to a hundred men, or more, are
+engaged in this performance, the resemblance may be easily conceived.
+
+There are many little observances, not of sufficient importance to make
+them general to all who keep Mahurrum, that need not here be
+detailed;--but one must not be omitted, as it is a feature in the domestic
+observances of Mussulmauns. On the Tazias, when about to be conveyed to
+Kraabaallah, I discovered small portions of corn, rice, bread, fruits,
+flowers, cups of water, &c.;--this is in keeping with the Mussulmaun
+funerals, who invariably convey food to the tomb with their dead.[1] For
+the same reason, at Mahurrum, camphor and rosewater are always carried
+with the Tazia to Kraabaallah, although there is not the same occasion for
+the articles, as will be observed when the burial service is explained.
+
+I have seen females of rank, with their own hands, place red and green wax
+lights in front of the Tazia in their halls, on the night of Mayndhie. I
+was told, in answer to my inquiry, What was meant by the solemn process I
+had witnessed?--that these ladies had some petition to make, for which
+they sought the Emaum's intercession at the throne of mercy. The red light
+was for Hosein, who died in battle; the green for Hasan, who died by
+poison,--which these colours symbolize; and that those females place great
+dependance on the fulfilment of their desires, who thus present to their
+Emaums the wax lights on the night of Mayndhie.
+
+I have remarked that the noblemen and gentlemen generally engaged in the
+service of celebrating Mahurrum, walk on the tenth morning with their
+heads bare and their feet uncovered from their homes to the burial
+ground[2] called Kraabaallah, whatever may be the distance,--perhaps four
+or five miles,--exposed to the fiery rays of the sun: some persons, who on
+this occasion are very scrupulous in thus humbling their nature, walk back
+again in the same manner, after the funeral ceremony has been duly gone
+through at Kraabaallah. The magnitude of this undertaking can be only well
+understood by those who have experienced the state of an atmosphere in the
+shady rooms of a large house, when the thermometer ranges from eighty-four
+to eighty-eight, or even ninety degrees; and when, if you venture to the
+verandah for a few seconds, the flames of heated wind are not only
+insupportable to Europeans, but frequently produce severe attacks of fever.
+The luxurious habits of the Eastern great men may be well recollected when
+counting over the proofs of zeal exhibited in this undertaking, where
+every selfish consideration for the time is banished. The nobility (or
+indeed any one who lays the slightest claim to gentility) never walk from
+one house to another during their lives, but at this particular season;
+even in their gardens indulging in whatever luxury they may boast, by
+being conveyed round in their palkie, or thonjaun[22]--a chair with poles,
+supported by bearers. On the tenth day, the good Mussulmauns rigidly fast
+until after the third watch; not even a drop of water, or the hookha,
+enters their mouths;--as they believe Hosein's sufferings only concluded
+just before the third watch, they cautiously abstain from indulgences,
+until that hour has passed.
+
+The procession having reached Kraabaallah, the whole ceremony of a funeral
+is gone through. The Tazia is committed to the grave with equal solemnity
+to that which is observed when their dead are deposited in the tomb: this
+occupies some time. I never witnessed the movements at Kraabaallah,--the
+season of the year, the confusion, and the anticipated feuds between
+Sheahs and Soonies, ever deterred me from gratifying my curiosity. It is
+always expected that the bad feelings between the two sects, amongst the
+lower orders of the people, may produce a real battle on the imitative
+ground of Kraabaallah; and I have heard of many such terminations of the
+Mahurrum at Lucknow, where the enthusiastic Sheahs and Soonies--having
+reserved their long hatred for a favourable opportunity of giving it
+vent,[23]--have found an early grave on the very ground to which their
+Tazia has been consigned. Private quarrels are often reserved for decision
+on the field of Kraabaallah.
+
+I may here remark, swords form a part of every man's daily costume, from
+the king to the poorest peasant; save only the devout men, who having
+forsaken the world have no occasion for a sword. I have often heard them
+say, 'My trust is not resting on a morsel of steel, but on the great mercy
+of my God'.--'What shall I defend? my life? Where is the arm that can
+assault me without the permission of my God; if He ordains it, should I
+murmur, or ward off the blow?'--'Is it my worldly goods I am to defend?
+From whose bounty have I received them? Is not the great Giver able to
+defend His gifts? and if He wills that I should lose them, what shall I
+say, but as Yoube[24] (Job) said, "It is the Lord, to do His own will";
+blessed be His great name for ever.' These are the sentiments of the
+devout men of all creeds; and these are likewise the exemplary opinions of
+some good Mussulmauns I have known in India.
+
+Returned to their home, the rich men are occupied in dispensing benefits
+among the poor. Food, money, and clothes, are distributed in nearly as
+great proportions as when they have to mourn over a recent separation by
+death from a beloved relative. The clothes worn during Mahurrum are never
+retained for the next occasion, but always distributed amongst the poor,
+who derive so many advantages from the annual commemoration of Mahurrum,
+that the philanthropic heart will rather be pleased than vexed at the zeal
+which produces such a harvest of benefits to the necessitous.
+
+The riches of a native city may be calculated by the immense sums expended
+at Mahurrum every year; and if no greater advantage be derived from the
+gorgeous display of the wealthy, than the stimulus to honest industry
+amongst the several trades, whose labour is brought into use on these
+occasions, there is enough in the result to excuse the expenditure of
+surplus cash in apparent trifles. This, however, is strictly the result,
+not the design, of those expensive displayers at Mahurrum, who are
+actuated solely by fervent zeal, in keeping a continued remembrance of the
+sufferings of their Emaums, and doing honour to their memory.
+
+It is not my province either to praise or condemn, but merely to mark out
+what I observe of singularity in the habits, manners, and customs of the
+Mussulmauns, in whose domestic circles I have been so many years a
+sojourner. On the subject which my pen has faintly traced to your
+view,--the celebration of Mahurrum,--I cannot refrain from offering one
+remark; I think them to be actuated by so fervent a zeal, that if they
+could believe with me, that whatever we do in this life is for Eternity,
+they would still persevere in this their supposed duty of honouring their
+Emaums.
+
+
+[1] _Mendhi_ in its primary sense is the plant _Lawsonia alba_, the
+    leaves of which are used for dyeing the hands and feet of the bride
+    and bridegroom; hence, the marriage rites on this occasion.
+
+[2] This edifice was built under the superintendence of Ghauzee ood deen
+    Hyder, first King of Oude; and it is here his remains are deposited.
+    May his soul rest in peace! [_Author_.] [This building was named after
+    Shah Najaf or Najaf Ashraf, the scene of the martyrdom of 'Ali,
+    120 miles south-west of Baghdad. The capture of the Shah Najaf, in
+    which the guns of Captain Peel played a leading part, was a notable
+    incident in the relief of Lucknow by Sir Colin Campbell.--T.R.E.
+    Holmes, _History of the Indian Mutiny_ (1885), 398 ff.]
+
+[3] The Gumti, Gomati, 'abounding in cattle'.
+
+[4] The fish is a symbol of sovereignty, or authority emanating from the
+    sovereign, in Hindoostaun, since the period of Timour.--Possessors of
+    Jaghires, Collectors of Districts, &c., have permission to use the
+    fish, in the decorations on their flags, in the way similar to our
+    armorial bearings. In Oude the fish is represented in many useful
+    articles--pleasure boats, carriages, &c. Some of the King's Chobdhaars
+    carry a staff representing a gold or silver fish. [_Author_.] [The
+    Order of the Fish (_mahi maratib_) is said to have been founded
+    by Khusru Parviz, King of Persia (A.D. 591-628), and thence
+    passed to the Moghul Emperors of Delhi and to the Court of Oudh.--W.H.
+    Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections_, ed. V.A. Smith, 135 ff.]
+
+[5] Nasir-ud-din Haidar, son of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar, whom
+    he succeeded in 1827, died, poisoned by his own family, in 1837. 'He
+    differed from his father, Ghazi-ud-din Haidar, in being
+    considerably more debauched and disreputable. His father had been an
+    outwardly decent hedonist and voluptuary, but the son was under no
+    restraints of any sort or kind, and it is probable that his character
+    was not unfavourably depicted in that highly coloured sketch, "The
+    Private Life of an Eastern King" (by W. Knighton, 1855). "Any one", we
+    are told, "was his friend who would drink with him," and his whole
+    reign was one continued satire upon the subsidiary and protected
+    system.'--H.C. Irwin, _The Garden of India_, p. 117.
+
+[6] _Harkara_, 'a messenger, orderly'.
+
+[7] _Palki_, the common palanquin or litter; _chandol_, usually carried
+    by four men at each end (a drawing representing one carried by twelve
+    men will be found in N. Manucci, _Storia do Mogor_, iv. 32, and see ii.
+    76 f.;) _miyana_, a middle-sized litter out of which the type used
+    by Europeans was developed; the Anglo-Indian 'dhooly', properly
+    _duli_; the _rath_ is a kind of bullock-carriage, often with
+    four wheels, used by women and by portly merchants.
+
+[8] Known as 'Ashura.
+
+[9] See a graphic account of the procession at Bombay in Sir G. Birdwood,
+    _Sva_, 177 ff.
+
+[10] _Jilaudar, Jalaudar_, properly an attendant holding the bridle
+    of a mounted officer or magnate.
+
+[11] The afthaadah is a sun embroidered on crimson velvet, both sides the
+    same, and fixed on a circular framework, about two yards in
+    circumference; this is attached to a silver or gold staff, the circle
+    deeply and fully flounced with gold brocade, or rich silk bound with
+    silver ribands. The person riding is sheltered from the rays of the
+    sun by the afthaadah being carried in an elevated position.
+    [_Author_.] (See p. 38.)
+
+[12] _Chobdar_, 'a stick-or staff-bearer'.
+
+[13] _Sontabardar_, 'a bearer of the silver stick or mace'.
+
+[14] _Chhata_, a mark of dignity in the East.
+
+[15] _Danka_, 'a kettle-drum'.
+
+[16] _Loban_, _luban_, frankincense, olibanum, procured from various
+    species of _Boswellia_.
+
+[17] As early as A.D. 1000 the people of Baghdad used to throw dust and
+    ashes about the streets, and dress in black sackcloth on the
+    anniversary of the death of Husain (Ockley, _History of the Saracens_,
+    418). The custom was common among the Hebrews (Isaiah iii. 26, xlvii.
+    1; Job ii. 8, & c.). Robertson Smith suggests that the dust was
+    originally taken from the grave, and the ashes from the funeral pyre
+    (_Religion, of the Semites_, 413).
+
+[18] _Barqandaz_, 'lightning-darter'.
+
+[19] _Charkhi_; the description is reproduced, without acknowledgement,
+    by Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 299.
+
+[20] The practice of offering food to the dead is an Indian innovation on
+    Musalman practice; it is based on the Hindu custom of offering
+    flour-balls (_pinda_) to the spirit of the dead man.
+
+[21] This was a Hebrew practice, condemned by the prophets (2 Samuel
+    xv. 30; Ezekiel xxiv. 17).
+
+[22] _Tamjhan, thamjan_, the Anglo-Indian 'tonjon' or
+    'tomjohn', the derivation of which is obscure. See Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 930 f.
+
+[23] Ill-feeling between Sunnis and Shi'ahs is not universal in
+    India. 'Though the Sunnis consider the Shi'ah observances as
+    impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The fact that
+    the British Government punishes all who break the peace may have
+    something to do with this. Still the Sunni and the Shi'ah in
+    India live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other
+    than the Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some
+    Musalman poets, indeed, are both Sunnis and Shi'ahs.'--E.
+    Sell, _The Faith of Islam_, 292 f.; cf. p. 14.
+
+[24] Aiyub.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER V
+
+  Time.--How divided in Hindoostaun.--Observances after
+  Mahurrum.--Luxuries and enjoyments resumed.--Black dye used by the
+  ladies.--Their nose-ring.--Number of rings worn in their ears.--Mode
+  of dressing their hair.--Aversion to our tooth-brushes.--Toilet of
+  the ladies.--The Pyjaamahs.--The Ungeeah (bodice).--The Courtie.--The
+  Deputtah.--Reception of a superior or elder amongst the
+  ladies.--Their fondness for jewels.--Their shoes.--The state of
+  society amongst the Mussulmaun ladies.--Their conversational
+  endowments.--Remarks upon the fashion and duty of beards.
+
+
+In my last I alluded to the 'third watch'; it will now, perhaps, be
+necessary to explain the divisions of time, as observed by the Mussulmauns
+of Hindoostaun.
+
+The day is divided into four equal parts, or watches, denominated
+purrhs[1]; as, first purrh, second purrh, &c. The night is also divided
+into four purrhs, each of which is subdivided into ghurries[2] (hours),
+varying in number with the changes of season; the longest days require
+eight ghurries to one purrh; the shortest, only six. The same division is
+observed for the night. The day is reckoned from the earliest dawn to the
+last decline of light:--there is very little twilight in the Upper
+Provinces of India.
+
+By this method of calculating time, you will understand that they have no
+occasion for those useful, correct, mechanical time-keepers, in general
+use in Europe; but they have a simple method of measuring the hour, by
+means of a brass vessel, with a small aperture at the bottom, which, being
+floated on a tank or large pan of water, one drop to a second of time
+forces its way through the aperture into the floating vessel, on which
+marks are made outside and in, to direct the number of ghurries by the
+depth of water drawn into it; and in some places, a certain division of
+time is marked by the sinking of the vessel. Each hour, as it passes, is
+struck by the man on duty with a hammer on a broad plate of bell-metal,
+suspended to the branch of a tree, or to a rail;--the gong of an English
+showman at the country fairs is the exact resemblance of the metal plates
+used in India for striking the hours on, and must, I think, have been
+introduced into England from the East.
+
+The durwaun (gate-keeper), or the chokeedhars (watchmen), keep the time.[3]
+In most establishments the watchmen are on guard two at a time, and are
+relieved at every watch, day and night. On these men devolves the care of
+observing the advance of time by the floating vessel, and striking the
+hour, in which duty they are required to be punctual, as many of the
+Mussulmauns' services of prayer are scrupulously performed at the
+appointed hours, which will be more particularly explained when their
+creed is brought forward in a future Letter; and now, after this
+digression, I will pursue my subject.
+
+When a member of the Mussulmaun family dies, the master of the house
+mourns forty days, during which period the razor is laid aside.[4] In the
+same manner the devout Mussulmaun mourns every year for his martyred
+Emaums; this, however, is confined to the most religious men; the general
+practice of the many is to throw off their mourning garb and restore the
+razor to its duties on the third day after the observances of Mahurrum
+have terminated.
+
+It is stated, on the authority of ancient Arabian writers, on whose
+veracity all Mussulmauns rely, that the head of Hosein being taken to
+Yuzeed, one of his many wives solicited and received the head, which she
+gave to the family of the martyred leader, who were prisoners to the King,
+and that they contrived to have it conveyed to Kraabaallah, where it was
+deposited in the same grave with his body on the fortieth day after the
+battle.[5]
+
+When a death occurs in a Mussulmaun family, the survivor provides dinners
+on the third, seventh, and fortieth days succeeding, in memory of the
+deceased person; these dinners are sent in trays to the immediate
+relatives and friends of the party,--on which sacred occasion all the poor
+and the beggars are sought to share the rich food provided. The like
+customs are observed for Hosein every year. The third day offering is
+chiefly composed of sugar, ghee, and flour, and called meetah[6]; it is of
+the consistence of our rice-puddings, and whether the dainty is sent to a
+king or a beggar there is but one style in the presentation--all is served
+in the common brown earthen dish,--in imitation of the humility of Hosein
+and his family, who seldom used any other in their domestic circle. The
+dishes of meetah are accompanied with the many varieties of bread common
+to Hindoostaun, without leaven, as sheah-maul,[7] bacherkaunie,[8]
+chapaatie,[9] &c.; the first two have milk and ghee mixed with the flour,
+and nearly resemble our pie-crust. I must here stay to remark one custom I
+have observed amongst Natives: they never cook food whilst a dead body
+remains in the house;[10] as soon as it is known amongst a circle of
+friends that a person is dead, ready-dressed dinners are forwarded to the
+house for them, no one fancying he is conferring a kindness, but
+fulfilling a duty.
+
+The third day after the accomplishment of the Mahurrum ceremonies is a
+busy time with the inmates of zeenahnahs, when generally the mourning garb
+is thrown off, and preparations commence at an early hour in the morning
+for bathing and replacing the banished ornaments. Abstinence and privation
+being no longer deemed meritorious by the Mussulmauns, the pawn--the dear
+delightful pawn, which constitutes the greatest possible luxury to the
+Natives,--pours in from the bazaar, to gladden the eye and rejoice the
+heart of all classes, who after this temporary self-denial enjoy the
+luxury with increased zest.
+
+Again the missee[11] (a preparation of antimony) is applied to the lips,
+the gums, and occasionally to the teeth of every married lady, who emulate
+each other in the rich black produced;--such is the difference of taste as
+regards beauty;--where we admire the coral hue, with the females of
+Hindoostaun, Nature is defaced by the application of black dye. The eyelid
+also is pencilled afresh with prepared black, called kaarjil[12]: the
+chief ingredient in this preparation is lampblack. The eyebrow is well
+examined for fear an ill-shaped hair should impair the symmetry of that
+arch esteemed a beauty in every clime, though all do not, perhaps,
+exercise an equal care with Eastern dames to preserve order in its growth.
+The mayndhie is again applied to the hands and feet, which restores the
+bright red hue deemed so becoming and healthy.
+
+The nose once more is destined to receive the nutt[13] (ring) which
+designates the married lady; this ring, I have before mentioned, is of
+gold wire, the pearls and ruby between them are of great value, and I have
+seen many ladies wear the nutt as large in circumference as the bangle on
+her wrist, though of course much lighter; it is often worn so large, that
+at meals they are obliged to hold it apart from the face with the left
+hand, whilst conveying food to the mouth with the other. This nutt,
+however, from ancient custom, is indispensable with married women, and
+though they may find it disagreeable and inconvenient, it cannot possibly
+be removed, except for Mahurrum, from the day of their marriage until
+their death or widowhood, without infringing on the originality of their
+customs, in adhering to which they take so much pride.
+
+The ears of the females are pierced in many places; the gold or silver
+rings return to their several stations after Mahurrum, forming a broad
+fringe of the precious metals on each side the head; but when they dress
+for great events,--as paying visits or receiving company,--these give
+place to strings of pearls and emeralds, which fall in rows from the upper
+part of the ear to the shoulder in a graceful, elegant style. My ayah, a
+very plain old woman, has no less than ten silver rings in one ear and
+nine in the other,[15] each of them having pendant ornaments; indeed, her
+ears are literally fringed with silver.
+
+After the hair has undergone all the ceremonies of washing, drying, and
+anointing with the sweet jessamine oil of India, it is drawn with great
+precision from the forehead to the back, where it is twisted into a queue
+which generally reaches below the waist; the ends are finished with strips
+of red silk and silver ribands entwined with the hair, and terminating
+with a good-sized rosette. The hair is jet black, without a single
+variation of tinge, and luxuriantly long and thick, and thus dressed
+remains for the week,--about the usual interval between their laborious
+process of bathing;--nor can they conceive the comfort other people find
+in frequent brushing and combing the hair. Brushes for the head and the
+teeth have not yet been introduced into Native families, nor is it ever
+likely they will, unless some other material than pigs' bristles can be
+rendered available by the manufacturers for the present purposes of
+brushes. The swine is altogether considered abominable to Mussulmauns; and
+such is their detestation of the unclean animal that the most angry
+epithet from a master to a slave would be to call him 'seur'[15] (swine).
+
+It must not, however, be supposed that the Natives neglect their teeth;
+they are the most particular people living in this respect, as they never
+eat or drink without washing their mouths before and after meals; and as a
+substitute for our tooth-brush, they make a new one every day from the
+tender branch of a tree or shrub,--as the pomegranate, the neem,[16]
+babool,[17] &c. The fresh-broken twig is bruised and made pliant at the
+extremity, after the bark or rind is stripped from it, and with this the
+men preserve the enamelled-looking white teeth which excite the admiration
+of strangers; and which, though often envied, I fancy, are never surpassed
+by European ingenuity.
+
+As I have rather prematurely introduced the Native ladies' style of dress
+into this Letter, I may as well conclude the whole business of their
+toilet under the present head, instead of reserving the detail of the
+subject for a future Letter when the zeenahnah is to be described, and
+accordingly proceed to tell you that the ladies' pyjaamahs are formed of
+rich satin, or gold cloth, goolbudden,[18] or mussheroo[19] (striped
+washing silks manufactured at Benares), fine chintz,--English manufacture
+having the preference,--silk or cotton ginghams,--in short, all such
+materials are used for this article of female dress as are of sufficiently
+firm texture, down to the white calico of the country, suited to the means
+of the wearer. By the most fashionable females they are worn very full
+below the knee, and reach to the feet, which are partially covered by the
+fulness, the extremity finished and the seams are bound with silver riband;
+a very broad silver riband binds the top of the pyjaamah; this being
+double has a zarbund[20] (a silk net cord) run through, by which this part
+of the dress is confined at the waist. The ends of the zarbund are
+finished with rich tassels of gold and silver, curiously and expressly
+made for this purpose, which extend below the knees: for full dress, these
+tassels are rendered magnificent with pearls and jewels.
+
+One universal shape is adopted in the form of the ungeeah[21] (bodice),
+which is, however, much varied in the material and ornamental part; some
+are of gauze or net, muslin, &c., the more transparent in texture the more
+agreeable to taste, and all are more or less ornamented with spangles and
+silver trimmings. It is made to fit the bust with great exactness, and to
+fasten behind with strong cotton cords; the sleeves are very short and
+tight, and finished with some fanciful embroidery or silver riband. Even
+the women servants pride themselves on pretty ungeeahs, and all will
+strive to have a little finery about them, however coarse the material it
+is formed of may happen to be. They are never removed at night but
+continue to be worn a week together, unless its beauty fades earlier, or
+the ornamental parts tarnish through extreme heat.
+
+With the ungeeah is worn a transparent courtie (literally translated shirt)
+of thread net; this covers the waistband of the pyjaamah but does not
+screen it; the seams and hems are trimmed with silver or gold ribands.
+
+The deputtah is a useful envelope, and the most graceful part of the whole
+female costume. In shape and size, a large sheet will convey an idea of
+the deputtah's dimensions; the quality depends on choice or circumstances;
+the preference is given to our light English manufacture of leno or muslin
+for every-day wear by gentlewomen; but on gala days, gold and silver gauze
+tissues are in great request, as is also fine India muslin manufactured at
+Decca--transparent and soft as the web of the gossamer spider;--this is
+called shubnum[22] (night dew), from its delicate texture, and is procured
+at a great expense, even in India; some deputtahs are formed of
+gold-worked muslin, English crape, coloured gauze, &c. On ordinary
+occasions ladies wear them simply bound with silver riband, but for dress
+they are richly trimmed with embroidery and bullion fringes, which add
+much to the splendour of the scene, when two or three hundred females are
+collected together in their assemblies. The deputtah is worn with much
+original taste on the back of the head, and falls in graceful folds over
+the person; when standing, it is crossed in front, one end partially
+screening the figure, the other thrown over the opposite shoulder.
+
+I should say they rarely stand; but when distinguished guests, or their
+elders amongst relatives, are announced, this mark of respect is never
+omitted. It is an interesting sight, as they have much ease and grace in
+their manner, which no tutoring could impart; they rise and arrange their
+drapery, advance a few steps from their place in the hall, and embrace
+their visitor thrice in due form, ending by salaaming, with the head bowed
+very low towards the ground and the open hand raised to the forehead,
+three times in succession, with solemnity and dignity.
+
+I have told you, in a former Letter, how many precious ornaments were laid
+aside on the eve of Mahurrum, and need hardly describe them again. Their
+fondness for good jewellery perhaps exceeds the same propensity in any
+other females on the globe: the rude workmanship of Native jewellers is
+never an object of weighty consideration, provided the precious metals are
+unalloyed in quality. The same may be remarked in their selection of
+jewels: pearls of the largest size, even when discoloured or misshapen,
+are selected in preference to the most regular in form and colour, of a
+smaller size; large diamonds, having flaws, are often preferred to smaller
+ones most perfect. The gentlemen are good judges of precious stones, and
+evince some taste in their style of ornaments; they are worn on their
+turbans, and in necklaces or harrhs[23]--rings, armlets, &c.; but these
+are all laid aside at seasons of devotion, when they are restricted
+wearing, not only ornaments, but mixed articles of silk and wool in their
+apparel. The most religious men and women invariably abstain from
+ornamental dress in every way, deeming it frivolous vanity, and
+inconsistent with that they profess--'to be seeking God, and forsaking
+worldly things'.
+
+The ladies never wear stockings,[24] and only cover the feet with shoes
+when pacing across their court-yard, which bounds their view and their
+walks. Nevertheless, there is a fashion and taste about the ladies' shoes,
+which is productive of much emulation in zeenahnah life;--they are
+splendidly worked in many patterns, with gold and silver spangles,
+variously-coloured small seed beads and embroidery--the whole one mass of
+glittering metal;--they are made with sharp points curling upwards, some
+nearly reaching half-way to the knees, and always worn down at the heel,
+as dressing slippers; the least costly for their every-day wear are of
+gold embroidery on velvet; the less opulent condescend to wear tinsel work,
+and the meanest servants yellow or red cloth with silver binding. The same
+style of shoes are worn by the males as by the females; I have seen some
+young men with green shagreen slippers for the rainy season; these are
+made with a high heel and look unseemly. The fashion of shoes varies with
+the times in this country, as well as in others--sometimes it is genteel
+to have small points to the shoes; at another, the points are long and
+much curled; but they still retain the preference for pointed shoes
+whatever be the fashion adopted.
+
+The greatest novelty in the way of shoes, which came under my observation
+in India, was a pair of silver embroidery, small pointed, and very neatly
+made: on the points and round the instep small silver bells were fastened,
+which produced harmony with every step, varied by the quick or more gentle
+paces of the wearer; these were a present to me from a lady of distinction
+in Oude. Upon visiting this lady on one occasion, my black silk slippers,
+which I had left at the entrance (as is the custom here), had most likely
+attracted the curiosity of the Begum's slaves, for when that lady attended
+me to the threshold, they could nowhere be found; and I was in danger of
+being obliged to soil my stockings by walking shoeless to my palkie,
+across the court-yard. In this dilemma the lady proffered me the pair here
+described; I was much amused with the novelty of the exchange, upon
+stepping into the musical shoes, which, however they may be prized by
+Native ladies, did not exactly suit my style of dress, nor convenience in
+walking, although I must always remember the Begum's attention with
+gratitude.
+
+
+The ladies' society is by no means insipid or without interest; they are
+naturally gifted with good sense and politeness, fond of conversation,
+shrewd in their remarks, and their language is both correct and refined.
+This, at first, was an enigma to me, considering that their lives are
+spent in seclusion, and that their education was not conducted on European
+principles; the mystery, however, has passed away upon an intimate
+acquaintance with the domestic habits of the people. The men with whom
+genteel women converse, are generally well educated, and from the
+naturally inquisitive disposition of the females, not a word escapes the
+lips of a father, husband, or brother, without an inquiry as to its
+meaning, which having once ascertained, is never forgotten, because their
+attention is not diverted by a variety of pursuits, or vain amusements.
+The women look up to the opinions of their male relatives with the same
+respect as children of other climes are accustomed to regard their tutor
+or governess,--considering every word pronounced as worthy of imitation,
+and every sentiment expressed, as a guide to their own. Thus the habit of
+speaking correctly is so familiar to the females of Mussulmaun society,
+that even women servants, long accustomed to serve in zeenahnahs, may be
+readily distinguished by their language from the same class of people in
+attendance on European ladies.
+
+P.S. All good Mussulmauns are expected to wear their beards, by command of
+the Prophet; so says my informant, who is of 'the faith', and wears his
+beard, in accordance with the injunction of his Lawgiver. In modern times,
+however, the Mussulmauns have seen fit to modify the strict letter of the
+law, and we perceive generally, mustachios only reserved on the upper lip.
+This ornament is trained with the nicest care amongst the fashionable
+young men of the present day, and made to creep over the lip at each
+corner of the mouth with curling points; well-trained mustachios being
+with them much esteemed.
+
+The religious Mussulmauns become more scrupulous as they advance in
+knowledge of their faith, when they allow their beards to grow and their
+heads to be shaven; if the hair turns white--while to look well is an
+object of interest--a dye is resorted to, composed of mayndhie and indigo,
+which restores its youthful appearance, and the beard retains its black
+glossy hue for about six weeks, when the process of dyeing is again made
+the business of a convenient hour.[25] The vanities of the world ceasing
+to charm (the heart being fixed on more important subjects), the beard is
+permitted to retain its natural colour; and, truly, the venerable
+countenance of an aged Mussulmaun, with a silvery-white beard flowing
+nearly to his girdle, is a picture that would interest every beholder well
+acquainted with Bible history.
+
+When the Mussulmaun determines on fulfilling the command of his Lawgiver,
+in making the pilgrimage to Mecca, the beard is allowed to grow whatever
+be his age; and this may be considered a badge of their faith, none being
+admitted at 'the Holy House' who have not this passport on their chin.
+
+
+[1] _Pahar_.
+
+[2] _Ghari_, about twenty-four minutes.
+
+[3] _Darwan, chaukidar_.
+
+[4] See p. 64.
+
+[5] According to the Shi'ahs, Zainu-l-'Abidin obtained from Yazid,
+    after forty days, the head of Husain, and brought it to Karbala. They
+    deny that the head is at Cairo and the body at Karbala. Others say
+    that the head was sent to Medina, and buried near the grave of
+    Fatimah.--Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 40; Ockley, _History of the
+    Saracens_, 412, 415 note.
+
+[6] _Mitha_, 'sweet'.
+
+[7] _Shirmal_, bread made with milk.
+
+[8] _Baqirkhani_, a kind of crisp bread or cake, like piecrust,
+    made of milk, sugar, and flour.
+
+[9] _Chapati_, the griddle cake, the standard food of the people.
+
+[10] No food should be cooked in the house of a Musalman during the
+    forty days of mourning. Sir J.G. Frazer thinks that this is due to
+    the risk of eating the ghost clinging to the food (_Journal
+    Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) 92 ff.).
+
+[11] _Missi_, from _mis_, 'copper', because copper-filings form its
+    chief ingredient, to which are added myrobalan, gall-nuts, vitriol, &c.
+    The custom is based on the Arab admiration for the rose-red colour of
+    the inner lip.--Burton, _A Thousand Nights and A Night_, iii. 365.
+
+[12] _Kajal_.
+
+[13] _Nath_, a love-token presented to the bride by the bridegroom. The
+    very mention of it is considered indelicate.
+
+
+[14] They generally adopt an odd number.
+
+[15] _Suar_.
+
+[16] _Nim_ (_Melia Azidirachta_).
+
+[17] _Babul_ (_Acacia arabica_).
+
+[18] _Gulbadan_, 'with body like a rose', a fine silk fabric.
+
+[19] _Mashru_ 'conformable to law', a silk-cotton cloth, which--but not
+    pure silk--a Musulman can wear during prayer.
+
+[20] _Zerband_, 'fastening below', 'a girth'.
+
+[21] _Angiya_.
+
+[22] _Shabnam_. The finest varieties of these cloths were made at Dacca.
+    Aurungzeb is said to have remonstrated with his daughter for wearing
+    what he thought to be a _Coa vestis_. She answered that she wore seven
+    folds of this cloth.
+
+[23] _Har_, a necklace, an embroidered garland thrown round the neck of
+    a visitor on his departure, as a mark of respect. These garlands were
+    substituted for the pearl necklaces which, in former days, were
+    presented to guests.
+
+[24] 'Stockings are never worn [in the Zenana]: but I have seen little
+    coloured stockings, made of the wool from Cashmir, worn at times
+    during the cold season.'--Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_,
+     i. 456.
+
+[25] According to the traditions, the Prophet said, 'Change the whiteness
+    of your hair, but not with anything black'. The first Caliph is said
+    to have dyed his beard red with henna. Nowadays indigo is largely used.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VI
+
+  The Mussulmaun religion.--Sectarians.--Their difference of
+  faith.--History of the Soonies.--The Caliphas Omir, Osman, Aboubuker,
+  &c.--Mahumud's parting charge to Ali.--Omir's jealousy of Ali.--The
+  Khoraun.--How compiled.--The Calipha Omir held in detestation.--Creed
+  of the Sheahs.--Funeral service.--Opinions of the Mussulmauns
+  respecting the Millennium.--The foundation of their faith
+  exhibited.--Sentiments of the most devout followers of
+  Mahumud.--Bridge of Sirraat, the Scales, &c. explained.--Emaum
+  Mhidhie.--Prophecy of his reappearance.--Its early fulfilment
+  anticipated.--Discourse with the Meer Hadjee Shaah on this subject.
+
+
+I do not presume to offer opinions on the nature, substance, or character,
+of the Mussulmaun Faith; but confine myself to the mere relation of such
+facts as I have received from the best possible authority, viz. the
+religious men who are of that faith, and live in strict accordance with
+the tenets they profess.
+
+There are two sects of the Mussulmaun persuasion, as I have before
+remarked, viz. the Sheahs and the Soonies. The leaders of the former are
+called Emaums; and those of the latter Caliphas. The Sheahs acknowledge
+Ali and his immediate descendants (eleven in number) 'the right and only
+lawful Emaums', in succession, after Mahumud. The Soonies declare the
+Caliphas--as Omir, Aboubuker, &c.--to be their lawful leaders after
+Mahumud.
+
+I do not find that there is any great difference in the points of faith
+between the two sects; they are equally guided by the same laws and
+ordinances inculcated by Mahumud in the Khoraun;--the Sheahs pursuing the
+pattern of observances traced out in the life and manners of Ali and his
+descendants;--and the Soonies taking their examples from the manners of
+the Caliphas. There is a distinguishing method in ablutions before prayers,
+and also in the manner of bowing and prostrating in their devotional
+exercises;[1] this difference, however, has nothing to do with their
+faith,--the subject and form of their daily prayer is one; but both sects
+have extra services for particular occasions, agreeable to the instruction
+of their favourite leaders. The Namaaz (daily prayer) was taught by
+Mahumud to his followers, every line of which is religiously reverenced by
+Mussulmauns, and cannot be altered by sectarian principles.
+
+The Mussulmaun faith is founded on three roots; from these spring, with
+the Sheahs, six branches; with the Soonies, five. The roots are as
+follows:--
+
+First.--'There is but one God, self existing; ever was, and ever will be;
+in Whom is all Power, Majesty, and Dominion; by Whom all things are, and
+were created. With Whom is neither partner or substance:[2] and He alone
+is to be worshipped.'
+
+Second.--'The Prophets were all true; and all their writings to be relied
+on, with a true faith.'
+
+Third.--'The resurrection of the dead is certain.'
+
+The Sheahs' branches, or emanations, from the three roots of their faith,
+are as follow:--
+
+1st.--'Namaaz,'[3] (prayer five times daily); a necessary duty, never to
+be omitted.
+
+2nd.--'Rumzaun,'[4] (fasting) the whole thirty days of that month; a
+service acceptable to God from His humble creatures.
+
+3rd.--'The Hadje,'[5] (pilgrimage to Mecca); commanded by Mahumud, and
+therefore to be obeyed.
+
+4th.--'Zuckhaut;'[6] the fortieth portion of all worldly goods to be set
+apart every year (an offering to God) for the service of the poor.
+
+5th.--To fight in the road of God, or in His service, against the
+idolaters.
+
+6th.--To believe that the twelve Emaums were the true and lawful leaders,
+after Mahumud; to follow in their path, or example, and to succour and
+defend the Syaads, their descendants.
+
+The Soonies omit the last branch in their profession of faith; with this
+solitary exception, the creed of the two sects, from all I can understand,
+is the same. The Sheahs are those who celebrate Mahurrum: in my
+description of that event will be seen the zealous partizans of the sect;
+and here may be introduced with propriety, some account of the opposite
+party denominated Soonies.
+
+The word Calipha[7] implies the master or head of any trade, profession,
+or calling,--as the master of the tailors, the head master of a college or
+school, &c. Omir was the first to usurp the title after Mahumud's death,
+and to him succeeded Aboubuker, and then Ausmaun (Osman).[8]
+
+Aboubuker may have claimed some relationship to Mahumud;--he was converted
+by his preaching from idolatry to the faith;--he gave his daughter in
+marriage to Mahumud, by whom two sons were born to him, Ishmael and
+Ibrahim.[9] 'An angel appeared to Mahumud, saying, Which of thy family
+shall be taken from thee, Oh, Mahumud! such is the command of God; two of
+thy youth must die, and I am sent to demand of thee whether it is thy wish
+Ishmael and Ibrahim, thine own sons, shall be taken from this world, or
+Hasan and Hosein, the sons of Fatima thy daughter?' The historian
+continues, after dwelling much on the virtues of the Prophet's only
+daughter, 'Such was the affection of Mahumud for his daughter Fatima and
+her children, and so well he knew the purity of their hearts, that he
+hesitated not a moment in replying, "If the Lord graciously permits His
+servant to choose, I freely offer my two sons Ishmael and Ibrahim; that
+Hasan and Hosein may live by His mercy "'.
+
+Omir was also a convert to the faith Mahumud taught: he likewise gave a
+daughter in marriage to Mahumud;[10] by whom, however, the same historian
+remarks, his house was not peopled. His only daughter, Fatima, lived to
+add numbers to his family: she was born to him by the pious female (a
+widow) who was his first wife[11] and to whom he was united before he
+commenced his work of conversion. Ali, to whom Fatima was married, was the
+nephew of Mahumud, and from this union the Syaad race descend to the
+present day. The Prophet observing real piety in Ali, designed him not
+only to be the most suitable husband for his amiable daughter, but the
+best qualified person to be chosen as his successor, when he should be
+called by 'the hand of death'; and in the most public manner gave charge
+of his flock to Ali, not long before that event occurred. Mahumud's speech
+to Ali on that occasion is much reverenced by the Sheah sect;--it has been
+translated for me by my husband, and is as follows:--
+
+'You, my son, will suffer many persecutions in the cause of religion; many
+will be the obstructions to your preaching, for I see they are not all as
+obedient and faithful as yourself. Usurpers of the authority, delegated to
+you, will arise, whose views are not pure and holy as your own; but let my
+admonitions dwell on your mind, remember my advice without swerving. The
+religion I have laboured to teach, is, as yet, but as the buds shooting
+forth from the tree; tender as they are, the rude blasts of dissension may
+scatter them to the winds, and leave the parent tree without a leaf:--but
+suffered to push forth its produce quietly, the hand of Time will ripen
+and bring to perfection that which has been the business of my awakened
+life to cultivate. Never, my son, suffer your sword to be unsheathed in
+the justice of your cause; I exhort you to bear this injunction on your
+mind faithfully; whatever may be the provocations you receive, or insults
+offered to your person,--I know this trial is in store for my
+son,--remember the cause you are engaged in; suffer patiently; never draw
+your sword against the people who profess the true faith, even though they
+are but by name Mussulmauns.
+
+'Against the enemies of God, I have already given you directions; you may
+fight for Him--the only true God,--but never against Him, or His faithful
+servants.'
+
+When Mahumud was numbered with the dead, Omir soon set himself forward as
+the lawful successor; he was of good address, and insinuating manners, and
+succeeded in drawing 'numbers to his threshold'. He preached the same
+doctrine Mahumud had taught, but sensual indulgence and early developed
+ambition were more strong in his heart than the faith he preached. Omir
+grew jealous of Ali's virtues and forbearance, under the various trials of
+oppression and injustice he chose to visit him with; and resolved that, if
+possible, he would destroy not only Ali, but his whole family. Omir caused
+his house to be fired treacherously, but as the historians say, 'the mercy
+of God watched over the sanctified family'; they escaped from the flames,
+with no other loss than that of their small property.
+
+The Khoraun was not the work of any particular period in the life of
+Mahumud. It was not compiled into a book until after Mahumud's death, who
+was totally unacquainted with letters; each chapter having been conveyed
+by the angel Gabriel[12] to Mahumud, his inspired memory enabled him to
+repeat, verbatim, the holy messenger's words to his disciples and converts
+when assembled as was their daily custom. To as many as committed verse,
+chapter, or portion to memory, by this oral communication, Mahumud
+rewarded with the highest seats in his assembly (meaning nearest his
+person); and to those who wished for employment, he gave the command of
+detachments sent out against the infidels.
+
+The whole Khoraun was thus conveyed to Mahumud by the angel Gabriel, at
+many different periods of his mission; and by daily repetition, did he
+instil into the memory of his followers that mental scripture. But when
+Omir usurped the right to lead, he ambitiously planned for himself a large
+share of popularity by causing the Khoraun to be committed to paper, and
+he accordingly gave orders, that the best scribes should be employed to
+convey its precepts to writing.
+
+Ali had been engaged in the same employment for some time, perceiving the
+future benefit to the faith which would accrue from such a labour, and on
+the very day, when Omir was seated in form to receive the work of his
+scribes, Ali also presented himself with his version of the Khoraun. It is
+asserted that Omir treated him with some indignity, and gave the
+preference to the volume his own scribes had prepared, desiring Ali,
+nevertheless, to leave that he had transcribed with him, though he
+candidly told him he never intended it should be 'the Book for the People'.
+Ali found, on this trying occasion, the benefit of Mahumud's advice, to
+keep his temper subdued for the trial, and withdrew with his book clasped
+to his heart, assuring Omir, that the volume should only be the property
+of his descendants; and that when the twelfth Emaum, prophesied by Mahumud,
+should disappear from the eye of man, the Khoraun he had written should
+also disappear, until that Emaum returned, with whom the book he had
+written should again be found.
+
+The name of Omir is detestable to all lovers of literature, or admirers of
+ancient history and valuable records. By his orders, the bath was heated
+with the valuable collection of manuscripts, which it had been the work of
+ages to complete.[13] Omir was told that the people valued the writings of
+the ancients, and that they were displeased at this irreparable
+destruction of valuable records; he asked if the people were not satisfied
+with the Khoraun? and if satisfied, why should they seek for other
+knowledge than that book contained? declaring it to be an useless
+employment of time, to be engaged in any other readings. They say the
+collection of books thus destroyed was so vast, that it served the purpose,
+to which it was applied, for many successive days. I have thus far given
+the accounts I have received of the origin of the two sects amongst the
+Mussulmauns from good authority. My husband says, that in Hindoostaun the
+two sects may be nearly equal in number;[14] in Persia the Sheahs
+certainly prevail; in Turkey all are Soonies; and in Arabia the Sheahs are
+supposed to preponderate. On the whole, perhaps, the two sects are about
+equally divided.
+
+The Mussulmauns' Creed, of the Sheah sect, is as follows:--
+
+'I believe in one God, supreme over all, and Him alone do I worship.
+
+'I believe that Mahumud was the creature of God, the Creator; I believe
+that Mahumud was the messenger of God, (the Lord of messengers); and that
+he was the last of the prophets. I believe that Ali was the chief of the
+faithful, the head of all the inheritors of the law, and the true leader
+appointed of God; consequently to be obeyed by the faithful. Also I
+believe that Hasan and Hosein, the sons of Ali, and Ali son of Hosein, and
+Mahumud son of Ali, and Jaufur son of Mahumud, and Moosa son of Jaufur,
+and Ali son of Moosa, and Mahumud son of Ali, and Ali son of Mahumud, and
+Hasan son of Ali, and Mhidhie (the standing proof) son of Hasan; the mercy
+of God be upon them! these were the true leaders of the faithful, and the
+proof of God was conveyed by them to the people.'[15]
+
+This creed is taught to the children of both sexes, in Mussulmaun families,
+as soon as they are able to talk; and, from the daily repetition, is
+perfectly familiar to them at an early age.
+
+I propose describing the funeral service here, as the substance of their
+particular faith is so intimately connected with the appointed service for
+the dead.
+
+The dead body of a Mussulmaun, in about six hours after life is extinct,
+is placed in a kuffin[16] (coffin) and conveyed to the place of burial,
+with parade suited to the rank he held in life.
+
+A tent, or the kaanaut[17] (screen), is pitched in a convenient place,
+where water is available near to the tomb, for the purpose of washing and
+preparing the dead body for interment. They then take the corpse out of
+the coffin and thoroughly bathe it; when dry, they rub pounded camphor on
+the hands, feet, knees, and forehead, these parts having, in the method of
+prostrating at prayer, daily touched the ground; the body is then wrapped
+neatly in a winding-sheet of white calico, on which has been written
+particular chapters from the Khoraun:[18] this done, it is taken up with
+great gentleness and laid in the grave on the side, with the face towards
+Mecca. The officiating Maulvee steps solemnly into the grave (which is
+much deeper and wider than ours), and with a loud voice repeats the creed,
+as before described; after which he says, 'These were thy good and holy
+leaders, O son of Adam! (here he repeats the person's names). Now when the
+two angels come unto thee, who are the Maccurrub[19] (messengers) from thy
+great and mighty God, they will ask of thee, "Who is thy Lord? Who is thy
+Prophet? What is thy faith? Which is thy book? Where is thy Kiblaah?[20]
+Who is thy Leader?"
+
+'Then shalt thou answer the Maccurrub thus:--
+
+  '"God, greatest in glory, is my only Lord; Mahumud, my Prophet; Islaaim,
+  my faith, (Islaaim means true faith); the Khoraun, my book; the Kaubah
+  (Holy House at Mecca), my Kiblaah;
+
+  '"Emaum Ali, son of Aboutalib,
+    "   Hasan and Hosein,
+    "   Ali, surnamed Zynool Auberdene,
+    "   Mahumud,  "   Baakur,
+    "   Jaufur,   "   Saadick,
+    "   Moosa,    "   Khazim,
+    "   Ali,      "   Reezah,
+    "   Mahumud,  "   Ul Jawaad,
+    "   Ali,      "   Ul Hoodah,
+    "   Hasan,    "   Ul Ushkeree,
+    "   Mhidhie, the standing proof that we are waiting for.[21]
+
+  '"These are all my leaders, and they are my intercessors, with them is my
+  love, with their enemies is my hatred, in the world of earth and in the
+  world to come eternal."'
+
+Then the Maulvee says:--
+
+'Know ye for a truth, O man (repeating his name), that the God we worship
+is One only, Great and Glorious, Most High and Mighty God, who is above
+all lords, the only true God.
+
+'Know ye also, That Mahumud is the best of the Lord's messengers.
+
+'That Ali and his successors (before enumerated, but always here repeated)
+were the best of all leaders.
+
+'That whatever came with Mahumud is true, (meaning the whole work of his
+mission);--Death is true; the Interrogation by Moonkih and Nykee[22] (the
+two angels) is true; the Resurrection is true; Destruction is true; the
+Bridge of Sirraat[23] is true; the Scales are true; Looking into the Book
+is true; Heaven and Earth are true; Hell is true; the Day of Judgment is
+true.
+
+'Of these things there is no doubt--all are true; and, further, that God,
+the great and glorious God, will raise all the dead bodies from their
+graves.'
+
+Then the Maulvee reads the following prayer or benediction, which is
+called Dooar[24] prayer:--
+
+'May the Lord God, abundant in mercy, keep you with the true speech; may
+He lead you to the perfect path; may He grant you knowledge of Him, and of
+His prophets.
+
+'May the mercy of God be fixed upon you for ever. Ameen.'
+
+This concluded, the Maulvee quits the grave, and slowly moves forty
+measured paces in a line with it; then turning round, he comes again to
+the grave, with the same solemnity in his steps, and standing on the edge,
+he prays,
+
+'O great and glorious God, we beseech Thee with humility make the earth
+comfortable to this Thy servant's side, and raise his soul to Thee, and
+with Thee may he find mercy and forgiveness.'
+
+'Ameen, Ameen,' is responded by all present.
+
+This ends the funeral service: the earth is closed over by the servants,
+&c. and, except with the very poor, the grave is never entirely forsaken
+day or night, during the forty days of mourning; readers of the Khoraun
+are paid for this service, and in the families of the nobility the grave
+is attended for years by those hired, who are engaged to read from that
+book perpetually, relieving each other at intervals day and night.
+
+They believe that when the Maulvee quits the grave, the angels enter to
+interrogate the dead body, and receive the confession of his particular
+faith; this is the object of the Maulvee's retiring forty paces, to give
+the angels time to enter on their mission to the dead.
+
+The Mussulmauns all believe that Mhidhie, the standing proof as he is
+called, will visit the earth at a future period; they are said to possess
+prophecies, that lead them to expect the twelve hundred and sixtieth year
+of the Hegirah, as the time for his coming. The Soonies say, this Emaum
+has yet to be born:--the Sheahs believe that Emaum Mhidhie is the person
+to reappear. Some believe he is still on earth, dwelling, as they
+conjecture, in the wilds and forests; and many go so far as to assert,
+that Mhidhie visits (without being recognized) the Holy House of Mecca
+annually, on the great day of sacrifice; but I cannot find any grounds
+they have for this opinion.[25]
+
+They also possess a prophecy, on which much dependance is placed, that
+'When the four quarters of the globe contain Christian inhabitants, and
+when the Christians approach the confines of Kaabah, then may men look for
+that Emaum who is to come'. And it is the general belief amongst
+Mussulmauns, founded on the authority of their most revered and valued
+writers, that Emaum Mhidhie will appear with Jesus Christ at his second
+coming; and with whom, they declare and firmly believe, he will act in
+concert to purge the world of sin and wickedness. When, they add, 'all men
+shall be of one mind and one faith'.
+
+Of the three principal Roots of the Mussulmauns' faith, little need be
+further said in explanation. I have had various opportunities of learning
+their undisguised thoughts, and wish only to impart what the people are,
+who are so little known to the world in general. All persons having had
+the opportunity of studying the peculiarities of their particular faith,
+will, I think, give them due credit, that reverence for, and belief in God,
+forms a prominent trait in their character and faith: 'The English
+translation of the Khoraun by Sale, (imperfect as all works must be, where
+the two languages are inadequate to speak each other's meaning,) will tell
+without a commentary, that the worship of God was the foundation on which
+Mahumud built his code of laws; and that the prophets were all
+acknowledged by him as messengers sent from God to His people, in every
+age of the world; and, lastly, that Mahumud was the Prophet, who came when
+the people of the earth, vicious and profane, had fallen into the most
+dissolute habits, worshipping idols instead of God.' This passage is the
+sentiment expressed to me by a worthy man, and a true Mussulmaun; I have
+traced it out for the sake of explaining what is in the hearts of the
+Mussulmauns of the present day.
+
+When I have conversed with some of them on the improbability of Mahumud's
+prophetic mission, I have been silenced by a few words, 'How many prophets
+were sent to the Israelites?'--'Many.'--'You cannot enumerate them? then,
+is it too much to be probable that God's mercy should have been graciously
+extended to the children of Ishmael? they also are Abraham's seed. The
+Israelites had many prophets, in all of whom we believe; the Ishmaelites
+have one Prophet only, whose mission was to draw men from idolatry to the
+true God. All men, they add will be judged according to their fidelity in
+the faith they have professed. It is not the outward sign which makes a
+man the true Mussulmaun; neither is it the mere profession of Christianity
+which will clear the man at the last day. Religion and faith are of the
+heart.'
+
+In their collection of writings, I have had access to a voluminous work,
+entitled 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'[26] (Enlightener of the Heart). My husband has
+translated for me, occasionally, portions of this valuable work, which
+bears a striking similarity to our Holy Scriptures, though collected after
+a different manner; I have acquired, by this means, a more intimate
+acquaintance with the general character of the Mussulmaun's belief. This
+book contains all the prophets' lives, at every age of the world. It was
+compiled by Mahumud Baakur, first in Arabic, and afterwards translated by
+him into the Persian language, for the benefit of the public; and is of
+great antiquity--I cannot now ascertain the exact date.
+
+The Mussulmaun belief on the subject of the resurrection is, 'When the
+fulness of time cometh, of which no man knoweth, then shall the earth be
+destroyed by fire--and after this will be the resurrection of the dead'.
+
+The branches emanating from the roots of the Mussulmaun faith will require
+further explanation which shall follow in due course. I will in this
+letter merely add what is meant by the Bridge of Sirraat,[27] the
+Scales,[28] and Looking into the Book as noted in the burial service.
+
+'The Bridge of Sirraat', they understand, is to be passed over by every
+person in their passage to eternity, and is represented sharp as the
+keenest sword.[29] The righteous will be gifted with power to pass over
+with the rapidity of lightning, neither harm nor inconvenience will attend
+them on the passage. The wicked, on the contrary, will be without help,
+and must be many times injured and cut down in the attempt. An idea has
+crept into the minds of some, that whoever offers up to God, at different
+periods of his life, such animals as are deemed clean and fitting for
+sacrifice, the same number and kind, on their day of passing Sirraat,
+shall be in readiness to assist them on the passage over.
+
+On this supposition is grounded the object of princes and nobles in India
+offering camels in sacrifice on the day of Buckrah Eade.[30] This event
+answers our Scripture account of Abraham's offering, but the Mussulmauns
+say, the son of Abraham so offered was Ishmael, and not Isaac. I have
+disputed the point with some of their learned men, and brought them to
+search through their authorities; in some one or two there is a doubt as
+to which was the son offered, but the general writers and most of the
+Mussulmauns themselves believe Ishmael was the offering made by Abraham.
+
+'The Scales are true;' the Mussulmauns believe, that on the day of
+judgment, the good and the bad deeds of every mortal will be submitted to
+the scales prepared in Heaven for that purpose.
+
+'Looking into the Book is true;' the Mussulmauns believe that every human
+being from their birth is attended by two angels,[31] one resting on the
+right shoulder the other on the left, continually; their business is to
+register every action of the individual they attend; when a good action is
+to be recorded, they beseech the Almighty in His mercy to keep the person
+in the good and perfect way; when evil ways are to be registered, they
+mourn with intercessions to God that His mercy may be extended, by
+granting them repentant hearts, and then, His forgiveness. Thus they
+explain 'Looking into the Book is true', that whatever is contained in
+this book will be looked into on the day of judgment, and by their deeds
+therein registered shall they be judged.
+
+In the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob' is to be found the lives of the Emaums, from
+which is gleaned the following remarks:--
+
+The Emaum Mhidhie was an orphan at nine years old. Alrouschid,[32] the
+King of Bagdad, advised by his wicked minister, resolved on destroying
+this boy (the last of the Emaums), fearing as he grew into favour with the
+people, that the power of his sovereignty would decrease.
+
+The King sent certain soldiers to seize Mhidhie, who was at prayers in an
+inner room when they arrived. The soldiers demanded and were refused
+admittance they then forced an entrance and proceeded to the room in which
+the Emaum was supposed to be at prayers, they discovered him immersed to
+the waist in a tank of water; the soldiers desired him to get out of the
+water and surrender himself, he continued repeating his prayer, and
+appeared to take no notice of the men nor their demand. After some
+deliberations amongst the soldiers, they thought the water was too shallow
+to endanger their lives, and one entered the tank intending to take the
+Emaum prisoner, he sank instantly to rise no more, a second followed who
+shared the same fate; and the rest, deterred by the example of their
+brother soldiers, fled from the place, to report the failure of their plan
+to the King at Bagdad.
+
+This writer reports that Emaum Mhidhie was secretly conveyed away,
+supposed by the interposition of Divine Providence, and was not again seen,
+to be recognized, on earth; yet it is believed he still lives and will
+remain for the fulfilment of that prophecy which sayeth:--'When Mecca is
+filled with Christian people Emaum Mhidhie will appear, to draw men to the
+true faith; and then also, Jesus Christ will descend from heaven to Mecca,
+there will be great slaughter amongst men; after which there will be but
+one faith--and then shall there be perfect peace and happiness over all
+the world.'
+
+The Mussulmauns of the present age discourse much on the subject of that
+prophecy--particularly during the contest between the Greeks and Turks, of
+which however they had no very correct information, yet they fancied the
+time must be fast approaching, by these leading events, to the fuller
+accomplishment; often, when in conversation with the most religious men of
+the country, I have heard them declare it as their firm belief that the
+time was fast approaching when there should be but one mind amongst all
+men. 'There is but little more to finish;' 'The time draws near;' are
+expressions of the Mussulmauns' belief, when discoursing of the period
+anticipated, as prophesied in their sacred writings;--so persuaded are
+they of the nearness of that time. In relating the substance of my last
+serious conversation with the devout Meer Hadjee Shaah, I shall disclose
+the real sentiments of most, if not every religious reflecting, true
+Mussulmaun of his sect in India.
+
+Meer Hadjee Shaah delighted in religious conversations; it was his
+happiest time when, in the quiet of night, the Meer, his son, translated,
+as I read, the Holy Bible to him. We have often been thus engaged until
+one or two, and even to a later hour in the morning; he remembered all he
+heard, and drew comparisons, in his own mind, between the two authorities
+of sacred writings--the Khoraun and Bible; the one he had studied through
+his long life, the other, he was now equally satisfied, contained the word
+of God; he received them both, and as the 'two witnesses' of God. The last
+serious conversation I had with him, was a very few days before his death;
+he was then nearly in as good health as he had been for the last year; his
+great age had weakened his frame, but he walked about the grounds with his
+staff, as erect as when I first saw him, and evinced nothing in his
+general manner that could excite a suspicion that his hours had so nearly
+run their course.
+
+We had been talking of the time when peace on earth should be universal;
+'My time, dear baittie[33] (daughter), is drawing to a quick conclusion.
+You may live to see the events foretold, I shall be in my grave; but
+remember, I tell you now, though I am dead, yet when Jesus Christ returns
+to earth, at His coming, I shall rise again from my grave; and I shall be
+with Him, and with Emaum Mhidhie also.'
+
+This was the substance of his last serious conversation with me, and
+within one short week he was removed from those who loved to hear his
+voice; but he still lives in the memory of many, and those who knew his
+worth are reconciled by reflecting on the 'joy that awaits the righteous'.
+
+'Other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring,
+and they shall hear My voice; and there shall be one fold, and one
+shepherd.' Also, 'In My Father's house are many mansions'. These were
+particularly pleasing passages to him, and often referred to in our
+scriptural conversations.
+
+
+[1] The Shi'ahs only wipe or rub the feet, instead of washing them, as
+    do the Sunnis. In the standing posture (_qiyam_) in prayer, the
+    Sunnis place the right hand over the left below the navel; the
+    Shi'ahs keep their hands hanging on both sides of the body.
+
+[2] I have met with the creed of the modern Jews, some time in the course
+    of my life, in Hurd's _History of all Religions_; the belief of the
+    Mussulmauns, as regards the unity of God, strictly coincides with that
+    of the Jews, described in the first four articles of their creed.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[3] _Namaz_, liturgical prayer, as contrasted with _du'a_, ordinary
+    prayer.
+
+[4] _Ramzan, Ramazan_.
+
+[5] _Hajj_.
+
+[6] _Zakat_.
+
+[7] Khalifah, 'successor,' 'lieutenant,' 'viceregent.'
+
+[8] 'Umar, Abu Bakr, 'Usman.
+
+[9] No son named Ishmail is recorded. Ibrahim, his son from
+    his slave girl, Mary the Copt, died A.D. 631, and was buried at Medina.
+    The daughter of Abu Bakr was 'Ayishah.
+
+[10] The Prophet married Hafsah, daughter of 'Umar, as his third wife.
+
+[11] Khadijah.
+
+[12] 'Whoso is the enemy of Gabriel--for he has by God's leave caused to
+    descend on thy heart the confirmation of previous
+    revelations.'--_Koran_, ii. 91.
+
+[13] 'The story of the destruction of the library at Alexandria is first
+    told by Bar-hebraeus (Abulfaragius), a Christian writer who lived six
+    centuries later: it is of very doubtful authority.'--_Encyclopaedia
+    Britannica_, i. 570.
+
+[14] This is incorrect, Sunnis very largely preponderating over
+    Shi'ahs. According to the latest information there were in the
+    United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, nearly 6-1/2 million Sunnis and
+    183,000 Shi'ahs (_Imperial Gazetteer_ (1908), xxiv. 172). This
+    information was not collected in recent census reports. In the whole
+    of India, in 1881, there were 46-3/4 million Sunnis, as compared
+    with 809,561 Shi'ahs.
+
+[15] The correct list of the Imams recognized by the Imamiya or
+    orthodox Shi'ahs is as follows: 'Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet;
+    Al-Hasan, son of 'Ali, Al-Husain, second son of 'Ali; 'Ali
+    Zain-ul-'Abidin, son of Al-Husain; Muhammad Al-Baqir, son of
+    Zain-ul-'Abidin; Ja'afar as-Sadiq, son of Muhammad Al-Baqir;
+    Ar-Raza, son of Musa; Muhammad At-Taqi, son of Ar-Raza;
+    'Ali-an Naqi, son of Muhammad At-Taqi; Al-Hasan Al-Askari,
+    son of 'Ali-an Naqi; Muhammad, son of Al-Hasan Al-Askari, or
+    the Imam Al-Mahdi, who is believed to be still alive, and will
+    appear in the last days as the Mahdi.
+
+[16] _Kafn_, properly 'a winding-sheet'.
+
+[17] _Qanat_.
+
+[18] The religious man generally prepares his own winding-sheet, keeping
+    it always ready, and occasionally taking out this monitor to add
+    another verse or chapter, as the train of thought may have urged at
+    the time. I have seen this done by the Meer Hadjee Shaah, who
+    appropriated a piece of fine white cambric muslin, he had received
+    from me, to this sacred purpose. I have often been a silent observer
+    of my revered friend whilst he was engaged in writing passages from
+    the book whose rules he lived by. The anticipated moment when he
+    should require this his kuffin dress, was never clouded by dread, but
+    always looked forward to with cheerfulness and fervent hope; for he
+    trusted in the mercy of God whom he loved and worshipped. [_Author_.]
+    [Many pilgrims buy at Mecca the shroud in which they desire to be
+    buried, and wash it in the well Zamzam, supposing that the holy water
+    will secure the repose of the soul after death.]
+
+[19] Maccurrub means those angels who are at all times privileged to
+    appear in the presence of God;--they are supposed to have eyes of
+    great brilliance. In order that the Mussulmauns may have the reply
+    ready for that awful moment, they have a custom of repeating the
+    responses to the angel every evening, when the lamp is first lighted,
+    as they say this sudden light resembles the angels' eyes. I had
+    noticed the custom for some time, and fancied the Mussulmaun people
+    worshipped light, until I was made acquainted with the real motive for
+    this general observance both with the men and women. [_Author._]
+    [_Muqarrab_, 'those allowed to come near'.]
+
+[20] Kiblaah is the holy place to which men turn their face when offering
+    up their prayer to God, as the Jews face Jerusalem. Literally,
+    'worshipping place'. [_Author._] [_Qiblah_: the direction of prayer
+    was changed by the Prophet from Jerusalem to Mecca (_Koran_, ii.
+    138-9, with Sale's note).]
+
+[21] See p. 72.
+
+[22] Munkir, or Munkar, and Nakir are the two recording angels.
+
+[23] See p. 78.
+
+[24] _Du'a_.
+
+[25] Al-Mahdi, 'the directed one', who will appear in the last day.
+    According to the Shi'ahs, he has already appeared in the person of
+    Muhammad Abu'l-Qasim, the 12th Imam. Later claimants are
+    Sayyid Ahmad, who fought against the Sikhs in 1826; Muhammad Ahmad ibn
+    Sayyid Abdulla, who fled after the fatal day of Omdurman, and was
+    killed in battle in 1899.
+
+[26] _Hayat[u']l-Qulub_ compiled by Muhammad Baqir, whose last
+    work was published A.D. 1627. It has been partly translated into
+    English by J.L. Morrick, Boston, 1850.
+
+[27] Sirat, the bridge over which the soul must cross on its way to
+    Paradise.
+
+[28] Mizan, the Balance, with which the deeds of the dead man are
+    weighed.--_Koran_, xxi. 47.
+
+[29] May not this be a poetical symbol, similar to the scythe? [_Author._]
+
+[30] Baqarah 'Id, 'cow festival,' held on the 10th of the month
+    Zu'l-Hijjah, the month of pilgrimage, the attempted sacrifice of
+    Ishmael having, it is said, occurred at Mount Mina, near Mecca.
+
+[31] Kiramu'l-Katibin, one recording the good, the other the
+    evil actions of the dead.
+
+[32] Harun-al-Rashid, 'Aaron the Orthodox', fifth Abbasid Caliph,
+    of Baghdad (A.D. 763 or 776-809), best known from _The Arabian Nights_.
+
+[33] _Beti_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VII
+
+  Namaaz (daily prayer).--The Mussulmaun prayers.--Their different names
+  and times.--Extra prayer-service.--The Mosque.--Ablutions requisite
+  previous to devotion.--Prostrations at prayers.--Mosque
+  described.--The Mussulmauns' Sabbath.--Its partial observance.--The
+  amusements of this life not discontinued on the Sabbath.--Employment
+  of domestics undiminished on this day.--Works of importance then
+  commenced.--Reasons for appropriating Friday to the Sabbath.--The Jews
+  opposed to Mahumud.--The Prophet receives instructions from the angel
+  Gabriel.--Their import and definition. Remarks of a Commentator on the
+  Khoraun.--Prayer of intercession.--Pious observance of Christmas Day
+  by a Native Lady.--Opinions entertained of our Saviour.--Additional
+  motives for prayer.--David's Mother's prayer.--Anecdote of Moses and
+  a Woodcutter.--Remarks upon the piety and devotion of the female
+  Mussulmauns.
+
+
+The Mussulmaun Lawgiver commanded Namaaz (daily prayer) five times a day:
+
+1st. 'The Soobhoo Namaaz,' to commence at the dawn of day.
+
+2nd. 'The Zohur,' at the second watch of the day, or mid-day.
+
+3rd. 'The Ausur,' at the third day watch.
+
+4th. 'The Muggrib,' at sunset; and,
+
+5th. 'The Eshaa,' at the fourth ghurrie of the night.[1]
+
+These are the commanded hours for prayer. Mahumud himself observed an
+additional service very strictly, at the third watch of the night, which
+was called by him, 'Tahujjoot,'[2] and the most devout men, in all ages of
+their faith, have imitated this example scrupulously.
+
+'The Soobhoo Namaaz' is deemed a necessary duty, and commences with the
+earliest dawn of day. The several prayers and prostrations occupy the
+greatest part of an hour, with those who are devout in their religious
+exercises; many extend the service by readings from an excellent
+collection, very similar to our Psalms, called 'The Vazefah'.[3]
+
+'The Zohur Namaaz', an equally essential duty, commences at mid-day, and
+occupies about the same time as 'The Soobhoo'.
+
+'The Ausur Namaaz' commences at the third day watch. The religious men are
+not tempted to excuse themselves from the due observance of this hour; but
+the mere people of the world, or those whose business requires their time,
+attach this service to the next, and satisfy their conscience with
+thinking that the prayer-hours combined, answers the same purpose as when
+separately performed.
+
+'The Muggrib Namaaz'. This is rigidly observed at sunset; even those who
+cannot make it convenient at other hours, will leave their most urgent
+employment to perform this duty at sunset. Who that has lived any time in
+India, cannot call to mind the interesting sight of the labouring classes,
+returning to their home after the business of the day is over? The sun
+sinking below the Western horizon, the poor man unbinds his waist, and
+spreads his cummerbund on the side of the road; he performs his ablutions
+from his brass lota of water, and facing Mecca, bows himself down under
+the canopy of heaven, to fulfil what he believes to be his duty at that
+hour to his merciful God.
+
+'The Eshaa Namaaz' commences at the fourth ghurrie of the night. The form
+of prayer for this Namaaz is much longer than the rest. The devout men
+extend their prayers at this still hour of the night; they tell me that
+they feel more disposed at this time to pour out their hearts to God in
+praise and thanksgiving, than at any other period of the day or night; and
+I have known many of them to be at silent prayer for hours together.
+
+Many persons in their early life may have neglected that due obedience
+expected in the commanded daily prayers; in after life, they endeavour to
+make up the deficiency, by imposing on themselves extra services, to
+fulfil the number omitted. By the same rule, when a member of the family
+dies, and it is suspected the due performance of Namaaz had been neglected
+by him, the survivor, who loved him or her in life, is anxious for the
+soul's rest, and thus proves it by performing additional prayers for the
+benefit of the soul of that beloved individual.
+
+If a Mussulmaun falls from affluence to penury, twelve devout men of his
+faith engage to fast and pray, on a day fixed by themselves, to make
+intercession for their friend:--they believe in the efficacy of good men's
+prayers; and Meer Hadjee Shaah has often declared to me, that he has
+witnessed the benefit of this exercise by the happiest results, in many
+such cases.
+
+The Khoraun, it is commanded, shall be read. A person perhaps dies before
+he has been awakened to a love of sacred things; his friends therefore
+engage readers to attend his grave, and there to read the Khoraun for the
+benefit of the departed soul.[4]
+
+They have a firm belief in the efficacy of prayer by proxy; and the view
+they have of departed spirits is still more singular. They believe the
+soul hovers over the body in the grave for some time, and that the body is
+so far animated, as to be sensible of what is passing; as when the Maulvee
+is repeating the service, the angels visit in the grave, or when the
+Khoraun is read; hence the belief in the efficacy of prayer and reading as
+substitutes for neglected or omitted duties whilst on earth. There are in
+all the mosques men retained to do the requisite service there,[5] that is,
+to keep it clean, and to prevent any thing that could pollute the
+sanctuary from entering; to call at the stated hours for Namaaz, with a
+loud voice, so that all the neighbourhood may hear and go to prayers; he
+mounts the minaret as the hour is striking, and pronounces, 'Allah wo
+uckbaar!' 'Mahumudoon Russool Allah!'[6]--God alone is true! Mahumud is
+God's Prophet!--with a voice, the extent of which can only be imagined by
+those who have heard it; this summons is repeated many times over.
+
+The mosque is open day and night for all who choose to enter for the
+purpose of prayer. The Mussulmauns, however, in their prayer-services are
+not restricted to the mosques; all places are deemed holy where no unclean
+animal has been to defile the spot, as dogs or swine, nor any idol been
+set up for worship. The person coming to Namaaz must not have contaminated
+himself by touching the dead, or any other thing accounted unclean, until
+he has bathed his whole body and changed his clothes. This resembles the
+Mosaic law.
+
+Ablutions are regarded as essentially necessary: if any one is ill, and to
+use water would be dangerous, or if there be no water to be found where
+the Mussulmaun is about to pray, there is an allowed substitute, merely to
+rub the hands, feet, knees, and head with the dry dust of clay, and this
+is counted to them for ablutions. Thus prepared, the devotee spreads his
+prayer-carpet[7] (generally of fine matting) in the most convenient place
+to himself, if not in the mosque;--perhaps under a tree, in the verandah,
+or in a room, no matter where, taking care, under all circumstances, that
+the carpet is spread to face the Kaabah (Holy House at Mecca).
+
+At the commencement of his prayers, he stands erect, his hands lifted up,
+the palms held out towards heaven, where the eyes are also turned whilst
+expressing adoration and praise to God. This ended, he prostrates himself
+before the Almighty, his forehead touching the ground; the form of words
+here used expresses the unworthiness of the creature permitted to approach
+and worship the Creator; again he stands to repeat the glorious
+perfections of God; he then kneels in worship and prayer, after which
+prostrations are resumed, &c. In the performance of some of the services
+they prostrate five times, standing up and kneeling an equal number of
+times; the shortest services have three, and all the prayers and praises
+are arranged in Arabic,--that most expressive language,--which to
+translate, they say, is to corrupt the meaning of the prayers. For this
+reason the Khoraun is not allowed in any other than the original language;
+and for the benefit of the unlearned in Arabic, it is commented upon,
+passage by passage, in the Persian language.
+
+The mosques are all erected on one plan; the entrance to the outer court
+is secured by a gate or door always on the latch, without locks, bars, or
+bolts; in the paved yard a tank or reservoir for bathing or ablutions is
+usually provided. The mosque itself is square, with a dome and two
+minarets; the side next the court-yard is the entrance, and generally this
+front is entirely open; the back of the mosque faces Mecca, in which
+direction the prayer must be offered to be effectual. These houses of
+prayer are generally kept clean and neat, but not the slightest ornament
+allowed within the walls; the floor is matted, and a plain wooden mhembur
+(pulpit) is provided. Shoes never enter within the precincts of the mosque;
+'Put off thy shoes' is strictly observed by Mussulmauns in all sacred
+places--a man praying with shoes on his feet would be accounted mad or a
+heathen.[8]
+
+The Sabbath of the Mussulmauns is kept on Friday, commencing on the
+preceding night, after the manner of the Jews, only with the difference of
+the day.[9]
+
+As a religious rest, the Sabbath is but partially observed with
+Mussulmauns. The Soonies, I have remarked, pay much more attention to its
+institutions than the Sheahs; but with either sect, the day is less
+strictly kept, than might have been expected from people who really seem
+to make religion their study, and the great business of their lives. Both
+sects have extra prayers for the day besides the usual Namaaz, which, the
+religious people perform with, great punctuality, whether they carry their
+devotions to the mosque, or offer their prayers in due form in their own
+abode. On the Sabbath they make it a point to bathe and change their
+apparel; the public offices are closed, and the shops partially shut until
+mid-day; the rulers,--as Kings or Nuwaubs,--distinguish the day by not
+receiving their courtiers and the public visitors, as on other days.
+Charitable donations are likewise more bountifully dispensed from the rich
+to the poor on Friday.
+
+These observances serve to convince us that they believe in the
+constituted Sabbath; still there is not that strict respect for the holy
+day which could satisfy the scrupulous feelings of a Christian; the
+servants are quite as much employed on Friday as on any other day;--the
+dhurzie[10] (tailor), dhobhie[11] (washerman), and indeed the whole
+establishment of servants and slaves, male and female, find their work
+undiminished on the Sabbath. The ladies amuse themselves with cards or
+dice, the singing women even are quite as much in request as on other days;
+and all the amusements of life are indulged in without once seeming to
+suspect that they are disobeying the law of God, or infringing on their
+actual duties. Indeed, I believe they would keep the day strictly, if they
+thought doing so was a necessary duty: but I have often observed, that as
+Friday is one of their 'fortunate days', works of any importance are
+commenced on this day;--whether it be building a house,--planting a garden
+or field,--writing a book,--negotiating a marriage,--going a
+journey,--making a garment, or any other business of this life which they
+wish should prosper. With them, therefore, the day of rest is made one of
+the busiest in the calendar; but I must do them the justice to say, that
+they believe their hearts are more pure after the ablutions and prayers
+have been performed. And that as nothing, however trifling or important,
+according to their praiseworthy ideas, should ever be commenced without
+being first dedicated to God,--from whose mercy they implore aid and
+blessings on the labour of their hands,--they set apart Friday for
+commencing whatever business they are anxious should prosper. This was the
+excuse made by the pious Meer Hadjee Shaah.
+
+Mahumud's biographers notice in many instances the strict observance of
+the Sabbath, at the period in which he flourished; they also say he
+selected Friday to be observed as the Mussulmaun Sabbath in distinction
+from the Jews, who it would seem were jealous of Mahumud's teaching, and
+annoyed both him and his followers in every way they could possibly devise.
+And the Khoraun commentators, on the subject of Mahumud's mission, declare,
+when speaking of the place to which the Mussulmaun bow in prayer, 'That
+when Mahumud first commenced his task of teaching the ignorant Arabians to
+forsake their idol worship, and to turn to the only true God, he was often
+reviled and insulted by the Jews; who even ridiculed the presumption of
+the Mussulmauns in daring to bow down, in their worship, towards Jerusalem,
+in the same direction with them. Mahumud was sadly perplexed whether to
+abstain or continue the practice, as he was unwilling to offend the Jews:
+in this trial he was visited by the angel Gabriel, who brought the
+following command to him from God:--
+
+'Turn from Jerusalem; and when thou bowest down to Me, face that Holy
+House of Abraham, the place of sacrifice: that shall be thy Kiblaah, O
+Mahumud.'
+
+Kiblaah is the point to which men bow in worship.[12] Kaabah is the 'Holy
+House' where Abraham's sacrifice was offered. Mecca is the city or tract
+of country surrounding the house.
+
+Thus they will say: 'I am making my pilgrimage to Mecca, to visit the
+Kaabah, which in my Namaaz, has been my Kiblaah when worshipping my God.'
+
+A Commentator on the Khoraun writes, in allusion to the prevailing
+worldly-minded men of his day, the following expressive definition of the
+objects most worshipped by them, and concludes with the one only Kiblaah
+deserving men's attention.
+
+'The Sovereign's Kiblaah is His well-ornamented crown.'
+
+'The Sensualist's Kiblaah, The gratification of his appetites.'
+
+'The Lover's Kiblaah, The mistress of his heart.'
+
+'The Miser's Kiblaah, His hoards of gold and silver.'
+
+'The Ambitious Man's Kiblaah, This world's honours and possessions.'
+
+'The mere Professor's Kiblaah, The arch of the Holy House.'
+
+And
+
+'The Righteous Man's Kiblaah, The pure love of God,--which may all men
+learn and practise.'
+
+The Mussulmaun Faith directs them to believe, not only in the prophets and
+their writings, but also that they are intercessors at the throne of grace;
+for this reason Mahumud taught his followers to call on God to hear them
+for the sake of,--
+
+'1st. Adam, Suffee Ali ("the Pure" is the nearest possible translation).'
+
+'2nd. Noah, the Prophet of God.'
+
+'3rd. Abraham, the Friend of God.'
+
+'4th. Moses, who Conversed with God.'
+
+'5th. Jesus, the Soul of God.'
+
+'6th. Mahumud, the Prophet of God.'[13]
+
+Those persons who are devout in the exercise of their religious duties day
+by day, in the concluding part of the morning Namaaz strictly observe the
+practice of Mahumud and the Emaums, in the prayers of intercession; and
+the 'Salaam-oon-ali Khoom',[14] (peace or rest be with thee) O Adam Suffee
+Ali! and to thee, O Noah, the Prophet of God! and to thee, O Abraham! &c.
+&c. going through the line in the manner and rotation above-described,
+concluding with the several Emaums, twelve in number (as in their Creed).
+
+It will be seen by this, that they have reverence for all who came from
+God, to teach mankind His will. They believe also, that the Holy Prophets
+are sensible of the respect paid to them by existing mortals, as also when
+on earth they knew what was in the hearts of those men they conversed with.
+I have the honour to be acquainted with a lady of the Mussulmaun Religion,
+who lives in accordance with the Faith she professes. There was a period
+in her life, within my recollection, when she had very severe trials of a
+domestic nature. She trusted in God for relief, and followed in the way
+she had been instructed, keeping fasts and holy days; testifying her
+respect for the prophets, by observing those days for extra prayer and
+giving alms, which the Khoraun and commentaries represent as worthy to be
+done, by the devout Mussulmauns.
+
+Amongst the number of days strictly observed by this pious lady during her
+troubles, was the Nativity of Jesus Christ, for whose sake she fed the
+hungry, clothed the naked, and gave alms to the necessitous. I was the
+more delighted when first hearing of this circumstance, because I had
+judged of the Mussulmaun faith by common report, and fancied they rejected,
+with the Jews, our Redeemer having come. They, on the contrary, believe,
+according to their Prophet's words, 'that He was born of the Virgin Mary;
+that He worked miracles; that He ascended after His earthly commission had
+ceased, to the seventh heaven; that He will again visit the earth (when
+their Emaum Mhidhie will also appear), to cleanse the world of its corrupt
+wickedness, when all men shall live in peace, and but one faith shall
+prevail, in the worship of the true God'.
+
+The Mussulmaun work, 'Hyaatool Kaloob' (which I have so often referred to),
+contains, with the lives of all the prophets, the Life of Jesus Christ,
+His acts, and the Ungeel[15] (Gospel). The Gospel they have is in many
+things different from ours; it is not formed into books by the apostles,
+neither are the miracles united with the Gospel, but are detailed as the
+acts of Christ Jesus. What they understand by the Ungeel, is, 'the Word of
+God by the mouth of Jesus';--for instance, the Sermon on the Mount, or, in
+other words, the precepts of Jesus. I am indebted to the Meer for this
+information.
+
+The Mussulmauns say, 'All power belongs to God.--Who would dare dispute
+the miracle of Christ's birth? Is there any thing difficult with God? God
+first formed Adam from the dust; and by His word all things were created.
+Is there any thing too great for His power? Let no man, then, dispute the
+birth of Christ by a pure Virgin.' They believe that Jesus Christ was the
+Prophet of God, but they believe not that He is God; and they deem all who
+thus declare Christ to be God, as unfaithful both to God and to Christ.
+
+I have said the Mussulmauns of each sect have extra prayers, beside the
+Namaaz, or daily services of prayer. I suppose there are a greater variety
+of prayers amongst these people than with those of any other religion.
+Very few, if any, of the devout men, in the early ages of their religion,
+have omitted to leave behind them some testimony of their regard for
+posterity in the form of 'prayers', dictating the words most likely to
+lead the heart of the creature to the worship of the Creator; and also
+directions how to pray for any particular object they may desire to
+accomplish by the aid of God, in whom they are instructed and believe the
+fulness of power, as of glory, ever was, is, and will be to all eternity.
+
+If the Mussulmaun suffers by persecution, by sickness, by loss of property,
+or any other distress of mind or body, he applies himself to the
+particular prayer of a favourite Emaum, or holy scribe, suited to his
+exact case. I cannot do better here than copy the translation my husband
+has made of the leading causes for the use of that prayer called
+'Daaood's[16] (David's) Mother's Prayer', in which I have known so many
+people to be engaged, when under difficulties, at the appointed period,
+viz. the fifteenth day of the month Rujub. The prayer itself occupies
+about sixteen closely written pages, and the person intending to make use
+of it, is expected to bathe and fast, as commanded by Mahumud, who
+instructed his followers in this prayer, which was then called 'The
+Opening of Difficulties',[17] afterwards, and to the present day 'David's
+Mother's Prayer', by reason of a miraculous occurrence which followed her
+having fulfilled the task of fasting, preparation, and the prayer alluded
+to.
+
+'A very poor woman had been engaged in the family of the Emaum Jaffur
+Saadick,[18] as wet-nurse to his son; she was much respected in the family,
+who wished to have retained her with them, when the child was weaned; but
+she would return to her own village, where her son was living, at some
+distance from the city of Koofah.
+
+'Her son, named Daaood, grew up under her maternal care, and proved the
+great comfort and solace of her life, by his dutiful and affectionate
+bearing towards her. At that period the reigning King of Arabia was a most
+cruel man, and an idolater; he persecuted all the professors of the "True
+Faith" whenever they came within his reach, with the most barbarous
+brutality.
+
+'One day, at an early hour, Daaood's mother presented herself at the house
+of the Emaum, in great distress of mind, and related the heavy affliction
+which had befallen her, in the loss of her dearly loved son (then a fine
+youth), who had been decoyed by the wicked emissaries of the King, for the
+purpose, it was feared, of immolation--as it was known to be his custom,
+when, laying the foundation of a building, to deposit living victims of
+the Mussulmaun faith beneath it. The poor woman had no hope her eyes would
+ever again be blessed with the sight of her fondly-loved son, and still
+more agonizing were her fears, that his protracted sufferings would be of
+the same terrible description with numbers of the faithful who had fallen
+into the hands of that wretched heathen King.
+
+'Her friends in the Emaum's family grieved over the sad affliction with
+which their favourite had been visited. The Emaum strove to comfort her,
+and proposed that she should perform the prayer in which Mahumud had
+instructed his followers for "The Opening of Difficulties". "Alas!"
+replied the woman, "poor ignorant that I am, how shall I repeat that
+prayer; I cannot read: knowest thou not, my Emaum, that I am not
+acquainted with letters?" "But I will teach you the prayer," answered the
+Emaum; "you shall repeat it after me, and by diligence you will acquire it
+perfectly by that day, on which our Prophet commanded his followers to
+perform the fast and offer this prayer, that God might be pleased to
+remove their calamities."
+
+'The poor woman obeyed all the injunctions and advice of the Emaum Jaffur
+Saadick punctually; acquired, by her diligence, the words of the prayer;
+strictly observed the preparation by fast; and, on the fifteenth "day of
+Rujub", the prayer was duly performed, with sincere devotion and perfect
+faith in God's power, and His infinite mercy.
+
+'In the mean time, it appears, the King having been much troubled in a
+dream, he was warned to release his prisoner from captivity without delay,
+at the peril of destruction to himself and all he possessed. The warning
+dream presented him with a view of the gulf to which he was condemned, if
+he delayed the release of Daaood from his confinement. The person of the
+youth was so clearly represented to the King in his dream, that there
+could be no possible mistake in the particular captive to be freed, out of
+the many he held in bondage. The King awakening from his troubled sleep,
+demanded of his attendants where the young man was confined; and learning
+from the chief officer of his court that Daaood was sent to a distant
+place, to be the offering buried under the foundation of a house, erecting
+by his command: the swiftest camels were ordered immediately, to convey
+messengers with two bags of gold, and the King's mandate, peremptorily
+ordering the release of the youth, if happily he yet existed; and if the
+building was proceeding with, the superintendent was cautioned to pull it
+down with the utmost care and dispatch, so that nothing should be omitted
+which could be done to preserve that life now so dear to the hopes of the
+King.
+
+'The messengers reached the place on the third day after Daaood had been
+immured in the foundation of the building. Small, indeed, were the hopes
+that the King's desires would be gratified. The builder, however, more
+humane than his employer, had so raised the work round the person of
+Daaood, as to leave him unhurt by its pressure, and having left a small
+aperture for air, his life was preserved;--the masonry being removed
+promptly, and with caution, the youth was discovered not only alive, but
+even uninjured by the confinement. The courier mounted the boy on the
+camel, with the present of gold contained in two bags, and conveyed Daaood,
+without loss of time, to his mother's abode.
+
+'All the particulars having undergone due investigation, it was clearly
+proved that it was on that very day when the poor woman was occupied in
+her fast and prayer, that her son Daaood was released from the foundation
+of the King's house and restored to his home. From this time forward the
+prayer of "Opening Difficulties" was denominated "Or of Daaood's Mother".'
+
+Turning over my collection of curiosities for the story of Daaood's Mother,
+which the Meer translated for me many years since, I met with an ancient
+anecdote which. I received from the same dear revered friend I must often
+quote as my author when I am detailing the particulars of things which I
+have heard and not seen,--Meer Hadjee Shaah,--who tells me he has found
+the following anecdote in the 'Commentary on The History of Moses'.--It is
+translated by my husband.
+
+'When Huzerut[19] Moosa (Moses), "to whose spirit be peace!" was on earth,
+there lived near him a poor yet remarkably religious man, who had for many
+years supported himself and his wife by the daily occupation of cutting
+wood for his richer neighbours; four small copper coins (equivalent to our
+halfpence) proved the reward of his toil, which at best afforded the poor
+couple but a scanty meal after his day's exertions.
+
+'The prophet Moosa passed the Woodcutter one morning, who accosted him
+with "O Moosa! Prophet of the Most High; behold I labour each day for my
+coarse and scanty meal; may it please thee, O Huzerut! to make a petition
+for me to our gracious God, that He may in His mercy grant me at once the
+whole supply for my remaining years, so that I shall enjoy one day of
+earthly happiness, and then, with my wife, be transferred to the place of
+eternal rest". Moosa promised and made the required petition; his prayer
+was answered from Mount Tor, thus:--
+
+'"This man's life is long, O Moses! nevertheless, if he be willing to
+surrender life when his supply is exhausted, tell him thy prayer is heard,
+the petition accepted, and the whole amount shall be found beneath his
+jhaawn namaaz[20] (prayer-carpet) after his early prayers."
+
+'The Woodcutter was satisfied when Moosa told him the result of his
+petition, and when the first duties of the morning were concluded, he
+failed not in looking for the promised remittance, where, to his surprise,
+he found a heap of silver coins. Calling his wife, the Woodcutter told her
+what he had required of the Lord through his Holy Prophet Moosa; pointing
+to the result, they both agreed it was very good to enjoy a short life of
+happiness on earth and depart in peace; although they could not help again
+and again recurring to the number of years on earth they had thus
+sacrificed. "We will make as many hearts rejoice as this the Lord's gift
+will admit," they both agreed, "and thus we shall secure in our future
+state the blessed abode promised to those who fulfil the commands of God
+in this, since to-morrow our term of life must close."
+
+'The day was spent in providing and preparing provisions for the meal. The
+whole sum was expended on the best sorts of food, and the poor made
+acquainted with the rich treat the Woodcutter and his wife were cooking
+for their benefit. The food was cooked for the indigent, and allotments
+made to each hungry applicant, reserving for themselves one good
+substantial meal, to be eaten only when the poor were all served and
+satisfied. It happened at the very moment they were seated to enjoy this
+their last meal, as they believed, a voice was heard, "O friend! I have
+heard of your feast,--I am late, yet may it be that you have a little to
+spare, for I am hungry to my very heart. The blessing of God be on him who
+relieves my present sufferings from hunger!" The Woodcutter and his wife
+agreed that it would be much, better for them to go to heaven with half a
+bellyful, than leave one fellow-creature on earth famishing for a meal;
+they, therefore, determined on sharing their own portion with him who had
+none, and he went away from them rejoicing. "Now," said the happy pair,
+"we shall eat our half-share with unmixed delight, and with thankful
+hearts. By to-morrow eve we shall be transferred to paradise."
+
+'They had scarcely raised the savoury food to their opening mouths, when a
+voice of melancholy bewailing arrested their attention, and stayed the
+hands already charged with food;--a poor wretched creature, who had not
+tasted food for two whole days, moaned his piteous tale in accents that
+drew tears from the Woodcutter and his wife--their eyes met and the
+sympathy was mutual; they were more willing to depart for heaven without
+the promised benefit of one earthly enjoyment, than suffer the hungry
+creature to die from want of that meal they had before them. The dish was
+promptly tendered to the bewailing subject, and the Woodcutter and his
+wife consoled each other by thinking that, as their time of departure was
+now so near at hand, the temporary enjoyment of a meal was not worth one
+moment's consideration. "To-morrow we die, then of what consequence to us
+whether we depart with full or empty stomachs!" And now their thoughts
+were set on the place of eternal rest. They slept, and arose to their
+morning orisons with hearts resting humbly on their God, in the fullest
+expectation that this was their last day on earth: the prayer was
+concluded, and the Woodcutter in the act of rolling up his carpet, on
+which he had bowed with gratitude, reverence, and love to his Creator,
+when he perceived a fresh heap of silver on the floor;--he could scarcely
+believe it was not a dream. "How wonderful art Thou, O God!" cried the
+poor Woodcutter; "this is Thy bounteous gift that I may indeed enjoy one
+day before I quit this earth." And when Moosa came to him, he (Moosa) was
+satisfied with the goodness and power of God; but he retired again to the
+Mount to inquire of God the cause of the Woodcutter's respite. The reply
+given to Moosa was, "That man has faithfully applied the wealth given in
+answer to his petition. He is worthy to live out his numbered years on
+earth, who, receiving My bounty, thought not of his own enjoyments whilst
+his fellow men had wants he could supply." And to the end of the
+Woodcutter's long life, God's bounty lessened not in substance; neither
+did the pious man relax in his charitable duties of sharing with the
+indigent all that he had, and with the same disregard to his own
+enjoyments.'
+
+I have but little to add, as regards the manner of worship amongst my
+Mussulmaun acquaintance; but here I cannot omit remarking, that the women
+are devout in their prayers and strict in their observance of ordinances.
+That they are not more generally educated is much to be regretted; this,
+however, is their misfortune, not their fault. The Mussulmaun faith does
+not exclude the females from a participation in the Eternal world,[21]--as
+has so often been assorted by people who could not have known them,--and
+the good Mussulmaun proves it by his instruction of the females under his
+control in the doctrines of Mahumud, and who he believes to be as much
+dependent on him for guidance on the road to heaven, as for personal
+protection from want or worldly dangers.
+
+The pure life of Fatima, Mahumud's only daughter, is greatly esteemed as
+an example of female excellence, whom they strive to imitate as much as
+possible, as well in religious as in moral or domestic duties. They are
+zealous to fulfil all the ordinances of their particular faith,--and I
+have had the best possible opportunity of studying their
+character,--devotion to God being the foundation on which every principal
+action of their lives seems to rest.
+
+In my delineation of character, whether male or female, I must not be
+supposed to mean the whole mass of the Mussulmaun population. There are
+good and bad of every class or profession of people; it has been my good
+fortune to be an inmate with the pious of that faith, and from their
+practice I have been aided in acquiring a knowledge of what constitutes a
+true disciple of Mahumud.
+
+
+[1] The writer mixes up the Persian and Arabic names of the hours of
+    prayer. The proper names, according to this list, are: i,
+    Namaz-i-Subh, from dawn to sunrise; ii, Salatu'l-Zuhr, when the
+    sun has begun to decline; iii, Salatu'l 'Asr, midway between
+    Nos. ii and iv; iv, Sala tu'l-Maghrib, a few minutes after sunset;
+    v, Salatu'l 'Isha, when night has closed in.
+
+[2] _Namaz-i-Tahajjid_, the prayer after midnight.
+
+
+[3] _Wazifah_, 'a daily ration of food', a term used for the daily
+    lesson or portion of the _Koran_ read by devout Musalmans. The
+    _Koran_ is divided into thirty lessons (_siparah_) for use
+    during the month Ramazan.
+
+[4] Special readers (_muqri_) of the _Koran_ are needed, owing to
+    the want of vowels in the Arabic character (Sale, _Preliminary
+    Discourse_, 47). Readers are often employed to recite the _Koran_
+    over a corpse on the way to Karbala.
+
+[5] Known as Khadim.
+
+[6] _Allahu akbar ... Muhammadan rasulu'llah._ In English the
+    entire call runs: 'Allah is most great (four times), I testify that
+    there is no God but Allah (twice), I testify that Muhammad is the
+    Apostle of Allah (twice), Come to prayer (twice), Come to salvation
+    (twice), Allah is most great (twice), There is no God but Allah!'
+
+[7] Known as _Ja'e-namaz,_ 'place of prayer'.
+
+[8] See p. 27.
+
+[9] The _Salatu'l-Juma'_, the Friday prayer, is obligatory. Friday was
+    appointed a Sabbath to distinguish Musalmans from Jews and
+    Christians.
+
+[10] _Darzi_.
+
+[11] _Dhobi_.
+
+[12] See p. 74.
+
+[13] The correct titles are as follows: Adam, _Safiyu'llah,_ 'The
+    Chosen One of God'; Noah, _Nabiyu'llah_, 'The Prophet of God';
+    Abraham, _Khalilu'llah_, 'The Friend of God'; Moses,
+    _Kalimu'llah_, 'He that spoke with God'; Jesus, _Ruhu'llah_,
+    'A Spirit from God'; Muhammad, _Rasulu 'Illah,_ 'The Prophet of
+    God'.
+
+[14] _Salam-'alai-kum._
+
+
+[15] _Injil, [Greek: e'uaggélion]_, the Gospel, as opposed to
+    _taurat_, the Pentateuch.
+
+[16] Daud.
+
+[17] The Fatiha, or opening chapter of the _Koran_, used like the
+    Pator-noster.
+
+[18] Ja'afar as-Sadiq.
+
+[19] _Hazrat_, 'Reverend', or 'Superior'.
+
+[20] _Ja'e-namaz_, known also as _sajjadah_, or _musalla_.
+
+[21] The assertion that the Koran teaches that women have no souls is
+    incorrect. See the texts collected by Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_,
+    pp. 677 ff.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VIII
+
+  The Fast of Rumzaun.--Motives for its strict observance.--Its
+  commencement and duration.--Sentiments of Meer Hadjee Shaah on the
+  duty of fasting.--Adherence of the females to the observing this
+  fast.--How first broken.--Devout persons extend the term to forty
+  days.--Children permitted to try their zeal.--Calamitous effects of the
+  experiment.--Exemptions from this duty.--Joyful termination of the
+  fast.--Celebration of Eade on the last day.--The Nuzza.--Nautchwomen
+  and Domenie.--Surprise of the Natives at European dancing.--Remarks on
+  their Music.--Anecdotes of Fatima.--The Chuckee.
+
+
+  'The poor man fasts, because he wanteth meat;
+  The sick man fasts, because he cannot eat.
+  The miser fasts, with greedy mind, to spare;
+  The glutton fasts, to eat a greater share.
+  The hypocrite, he fasts to seem more holy;
+  The righteous man, to punish sinful folly.'
+
+The secret motive of the heart, man cannot fathom in his neighbour's deeds.
+There are some actions so praiseworthy in themselves, that the charitably
+disposed will pass over the probable actuating motive, when looking only
+to the fair example. I have, however, reason to think that the Mussulmauns
+generally, in fulfilling the commanded fast of Rumzaun, have an
+unexceptionable motive. They are taught by their Lawgiver, that the due
+performance of this rigid fast is an acceptable service to God the Creator,
+from man the creature: they believe this, and therefore they fast?
+
+Amongst the well-informed it is persevered in as a duty delightful to be
+permitted to perform; the ignorant take some merit to themselves in having
+faithfully observed the command; yet all the fasting population are
+actuated more or less by the same motive,---the desire to please God by
+fulfilling His commands, delivered to them by their acknowledged Prophet.
+
+The severity of a Mussulmaun's fast can alone be understood by those who
+have made the trial, as I frequently have, of the strict rules of
+abstinence which they observe; and with the additional privations to be
+endured at the period of the hottest months and the longest days in the
+same climate, as will sometimes be the case with all their movable fasts.
+
+The Mussulmaun fast commences when the first streak of light borders the
+Eastern horizon, and continues until the stars are clearly discerned in
+the heavens. During this period not the slightest particle of food, not
+one single drop of water, or any other liquid, passes the lips; the hookha,
+even, is disallowed during the continuance of the fast, which of itself
+forms not only a luxury of great value, but an excellent antidote to
+hunger.
+
+Amongst the really religious Mussulmauns the day is passed in occasional
+prayer, besides the usual Namaaz, reading the Khoraun, or the Lives of the
+Prophets. I have witnessed some, in their happy employment of these
+fatiguing days, who evinced even greater animation in their conversation
+than at other times; towards the decline of a day, when the thermometer
+has stood at eighty-nine in the shade of a closed house, they have looked
+a little anxious for the stars appearing, but,--to their credit be it
+told,--without the slightest symptom of impatience or fretfulness at the
+tardy approach of evening.
+
+My revered friend, Meer Hadjee Shaah, always told me that the great secret
+of a fast, to be beneficial, was to employ time well, which benefited both
+soul and body; employment suited to the object of the fast being the best
+possible alleviation to the fatigue of fasting. He adds, if the temper be
+soured either by the abstinence or the petty ills of life, the good
+effects of the fast are gone with the ruffled spirit, and that the person
+thus disturbed had much better break his fast, since it ceases to be of
+any value in the sight of Him to whom the service is dedicated; the
+institution of the fast having for its object to render men more humble,
+more obedient to their God; all dissensions must be forgotten; all vicious
+pursuits abandoned, to render the service of a fast an acceptable offering
+to God.
+
+In the zeenahnah, the females fast with zealous rigidness; and those who
+have not the happiness to possess a knowledge of books, or a husband or
+father disposed to read to them, will still find the benefit of employment
+in their gold embroidery of bags and trimmings, or other ornamental
+needle-work; some will listen to the Khaaunie[1] (tales), related by their
+attendants; others will overlook, and even assist in the preparations
+going forward for opening the fast. Ladies of the first quality do not
+think it a degradation to assist in the cooking of choice dishes. It is
+one of the highest favours a lady can confer on her friends, when she
+sends a tray of delicate viands cooked by her own hands. So that with the
+prayers, usual and occasional, the daily nap of two hours, indulged in
+throughout the year, occupation is made to fill up the day between dawn
+and evening; and they bear the fatigue with praiseworthy fortitude. Those
+who are acquainted with letters, or can afford to maintain hired readers,
+pass this month of trials in the happiest manner.
+
+The fast is first broken by a cooling draught called tundhie[2]; the same
+draught is usually resorted to in attacks of fever. The tundhie is
+composed of the seeds of lettuce, cucumber, and melon, with coriander, all
+well pounded and diluted with cold water, and then strained through muslin,
+to which is added rose-water, sugar, syrup of pomegranate, and kurah[3] (a
+pleasant-flavoured distilled water from the blossom of a species of aloe).
+This cooling draught is drank by basins' full amongst the Rozedhaars[4]
+(fasters), and it is generally prepared in the zeenahnah apartments for
+the whole establishment, male and female. Some of the aged and more
+delicate people break their fast with the juice of spinach[5] only, others
+choose a cup of boiling water to sip from. My aged friend, Meer Hadjee
+Shaah, has acquired a taste for tea, by partaking of it so often with me;
+and with this he has broken his fast for several years, as he says, with
+the most comforting sensations to himself. I have seen some people take a
+small quantity of salt in the first instance, preparatory to a draught of
+any kind of liquid. Without some such prelude to a meal, after the day's
+fast, the most serious consequences are to be apprehended.
+
+After indulging freely in the simple liquids, and deriving great benefit
+and comfort from a hookha, the appetite for food is generally stayed for
+some time: many persons prefer a rest of two hours before they can
+conveniently touch the food prepared for them, and even then, seldom eat
+in the same proportion as they do at other meals. Many suffice themselves
+with the one meal, and indulge in that very sparingly. The servants and
+labouring classes, however, find a second meal urgently necessary, which
+they are careful to take before the dawning day advances. In most families,
+cold rice-milk is eaten at that early hour. Meer Hadjee Shaah, I have
+before noticed, found tea to be the best antidote to extreme thirst, and
+many are the times I have had the honour to present him with this beverage
+at the third watch of the night, which he could enjoy without fear of the
+first streaks of light on the horizon arriving before he had benefited by
+this luxury.
+
+The good things provided for dinner after the fast are (according to the
+means of the party) of the best, and in all varieties; and from the
+abundance prepared, a looker-on would pronounce a feast at hand; and so it
+is, if to feed the hungry be a feast to the liberal-hearted bestower,
+which with these people I have found to be a part and parcel of their
+nature. They are instructed from their infancy to know all men as brothers
+who are in any strait for food; and they are taught by the same code, that
+for every gift of charity they dispense with a free good will, they shall
+have the blessing and favour of their Creator abundantly in return. On the
+present occasion, they cook choice viands to be distributed to the poor,
+their fellow-labourers in the harvest; and in proportion to the number fed,
+so are their expectations of blessings from the great Giver of all good,
+in whose service it is performed. In my postscript you will find several
+anecdotes of the daughter of Mahumud on the subject of charity.
+
+When any one is prevented fulfilling the fast of Rumzaun in his own person
+he is instructed to consider himself bound to provide food for opening the
+fast of a certain number of poor men who are Rozedhaars. The general food
+of the peasantry and lower orders of the people--bread and dhall[6]--is
+deemed sufficient, if unable to afford anything better.
+
+When any one dies without having duly observed the fast, pious relatives
+engage some devout person to perform a month's fast, which they believe
+will be accepted for the neglectful person. Many devout Mussulmauns extend
+the fast from thirty to full forty days, by the example of Mahumud and his
+family; and it is no unusual thing to meet with others who, in addition to
+this month, fast every Thursday through the year; some very rigid persons
+even fast the month preceding and the following month, as well as the
+month of Rumzaun.
+
+Some very young people (children we should call them in happy England) are
+permitted to try their fasting powers, perhaps for a day or two during the
+month of Rumzaun. The first fast of the noviciate is an event of no small
+moment to the mother, and gives rise to a little festival in the zeenahnah;
+the females of the family use every sort of encouragement to induce the
+young zealot to persevere in the trial when once commenced, and many are
+the preparations for the opening last with due éclat in their
+circle--sending trays of the young person's good things to intimate
+friends, in remembrance of the interesting event; and generally with a
+parade of servants and music, when the child (I must have it so) belongs
+to the nobility, or persons of consequence, who at the same time
+distribute money and food to the poor.
+
+These first fasts of the young must be severe trials, particularly in the
+hot season. I have heard, it is no uncommon thing for the young sufferers
+to sink under the fatigue, rather than break the fast they have had
+courage to commence. The consolation to the parents in such a case would
+be, that their child was the willing sacrifice, and had died 'in the road
+of God', as all deaths occurring under performances of a known duty are
+termed.
+
+Within my recollection a distressing calamity of this nature occurred at
+Lucknow, in a very respectable family. I did not know the party personally,
+but it was the topic in all the houses I visited at that period. I made a
+memorandum of the circumstance at the time, from which the following is
+copied:
+
+'Two children, a son and daughter of respectable parents, the eldest
+thirteen and the youngest eleven years of age, were permitted to prove
+their faith by the fast, on one of the days of Rumzaun; the parents,
+anxious to honour their fidelity, expended a considerable sum of money in
+the preparations for celebrating the event amongst their circle of friends.
+Every delicacy was provided for opening their fast, and all sorts of
+dainties prepared to suit the Epicurean palates of the Asiatics, who when
+receiving the trays at night would know that this was the testimony of the
+children's perseverance in that duty they all hold sacred.
+
+'The children bore the trial well throughout the morning, and even until
+the third watch of the day had passed, their firmness would have reflected
+credit on people twice their age, making their first fast. After the third
+watch, the day was oppressively hot, and the children evinced symptoms of
+weariness and fatigue; they were advised to try and compose themselves to
+sleep; this lulled them for a short time, but their thirst was more acute
+when they awoke than before. The mother and her friends endeavoured to
+divert their attention by amusing stories, praising their perseverance, &c.
+The poor weak lady was anxious that they should persevere; as the day was
+now so far gone, she did not like her children to lose the benefit of
+their fast, nor the credit due to them for their forbearance. The children
+endeavoured to support with patience the agony that bowed them down--they
+fainted, and then the mother was almost frantic, blaming herself for
+having encouraged them to prolong their fast against their strength. Cold
+water was thrown over them; attempts were made to force water into their
+mouths; but, alas! their tender throats were so swollen, that not a drop
+passed beyond their mouths. They died within a few minutes of each other;
+and the poor wretched parents were left childless through their own
+weakness and mistaken zeal. The costly viands destined for the testimony
+of these children's faith, it may be supposed, were served out to the
+hungry mendicants as the first offerings dedicated to the now happy
+spirits of immortality.'
+
+This is a sad picture of the distressing event, but I have not clothed it
+in the exaggerated garb some versions bore at the time the circumstance
+happened.
+
+There are some few who are exempt from the actual necessity of fasting
+during Rumzaun; the sick, the aged, women giving nourishment to infants,
+and those in expectation of adding to the members of the family, and very
+young children, these are all commanded not to fast.[7] There is a
+latitude granted to travellers also; but many a weary pilgrim whose heart
+is bent heavenward will be found taking his rank amongst the Rozedhaars of
+the time, without deeming he has any merit in refraining from the
+privileges his code has conferred upon him; such men will fast whilst
+their strength permits them to pursue their way.
+
+Towards the last week of Rumzaun the haggard countenances and less
+cheerful manners of the fasting multitude seem to increase, but they
+seldom relax unless their health is likely to be much endangered by its
+continuance.
+
+The conclusion of the month Rumzaun is celebrated as an Eade[8] (festival),
+and, if not more splendid than any other in the Mussulmaun calendar, it is
+one of the greatest heart-rejoicing days. It is a sort of thanksgiving day
+amongst the devout people who have been permitted to accomplish the task;
+and with the vulgar and ignorant, it is hailed with delight as the season
+of merriment and good living--a sort of reward for their month's severe
+abstinence.
+
+The namaaz of the morning, and the prayer for Eade, commence with the dawn;
+after which the early meal of Eade is looked forward to with some anxiety.
+In every house the same dainties are provided with great exactness (for
+they adhere to custom as to a law): plain boiled rice, with dhie[9] (sour
+curd) and sugar, forms the first morning repast of this Eade; dried dates
+are eaten with it (in remembrance of the Prophet's family, whose greatest
+luxury was supposed to be the dates of Arabia).[10] A preparation of flour
+(similar to our vermicelli)[11] eaten with cold milk and sugar, is amongst
+the good things of this day, and trifling as it may appear, the indulgence
+is so great to the native population, that they would consider themselves
+unfortunate Rozedhaars, if they were not gratified, on this occasion, with
+these simple emblems of long-used custom. The very same articles are in
+request in Mussulmaun society, by this custom, from the King to the
+meanest of his subjects.
+
+The ladies' assemblies, on this Eade, are marked by all the amusements and
+indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy, in their secluded state.
+Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing
+honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dresses.
+The zeenahnah rings with the festive songs and loud music, the cheerful
+meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependants, and
+remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and
+amusement, on this happy day of Eade, when the good lady of the mansion
+sits in state to receive nuzzas from inferiors, and granting proofs of her
+favour to others.
+
+Nuzza[12] is an offering of money from inferiors to those who rank in
+society above the person presenting; there is so much of etiquette
+observed in Native manners, that a first visit to a superior is never made
+without presenting a nuzza. When we arrived in India, an old servant of my
+husband's family, named Muckabeg, was sent to meet us at Patna to escort
+us to Lucknow; on entering our budgerow[13] he presented fourteen rupees
+to me, which were laid on a folded handkerchief. I did not then understand
+what was intended, and looked to the Meer for explanation; he told me to
+accept Muckabeg's 'Nuzza'. I hesitated, remarking that it seemed a great
+deal more than a man in his situation could afford to give away. My
+husband silenced my scruples by observing, 'You will learn in good time
+that these offerings are made to do you honour, together with the certain
+anticipation of greater benefits in return; Muckabeg tenders this nuzza to
+you, perhaps it is all the money he possesses, but he feels assured it
+will be more than doubly repaid to him in the value of a khillaut[14]
+(dress of honour) he expects from your hands to-day. He would have behaved
+himself disrespectfully in appearing before you without a nuzza, and had
+you declined accepting it, he would have thought that you were either
+displeased with him, or did not approve of his coming.' This little
+incident will perhaps explain the general nature of all the nuzzas better
+than any other description I could offer.
+
+Kings and Nuwaubs keep the festival in due form, seated on the throne or
+musnud, to receive the congratulations and nuzzas of courtiers and
+dependants, and presenting khillauts to ministers, officers of state, and
+favourites. The gentlemen manage to pass the day in receiving and paying
+visits, all in their several grades having some inferiors to honour them
+in the presentation of offerings, and on whom they can confer favours and
+benefits; feasting, music, and dancing-women, filling up the measure of
+their enjoyments without even thinking of wine, or any substitute stronger
+than such pure liquids as graced the feasts of the first inhabitants of
+the world.
+
+The Nautchwomen in the apartments of the gentlemen, and the Domenie[15] in
+the zeenahnahs are in great request on this day of festivity, in every
+house where the pleasures and the follies of this world are not banished
+by hearts devoted solely to the service of God. 'The Nautch' has been, so
+often described that it would here be superfluous to add to the
+description, feeling as I do an utter dislike both to the amusement and
+the performers. The nautchunies are entirely excluded from the female
+apartments of the better sort of people; no respectable Mussulmaun would
+allow these impudent women to perform before their wives and daughters.
+
+But I must speak of the Domenie, who are the singers and dancers admitted
+within the pale of zeenahnah life; these, on the contrary, are women of
+good character, and their songs are of the most chaste description,
+chiefly in the Hindoostaunie tongue. They are instructed in Native music
+and play on the instruments in common use with some taste,--as the
+saattarah[16] (guitar), with three wire strings; the surringhee[17]
+(rude-shaped violin); the dhome or dholle[18] (drum), in many varieties,
+beaten with the fingers, never with sticks. The harmony produced is
+melancholy and not unpleasing, but at best all who form the several
+classes of professors in Native societies are indifferent musicians.
+
+Amateur performers are very rare amongst the Mussulmauns; indeed, it is
+considered indecorous in either sex to practise music, singing, or dancing;
+and such is the prejudice on their minds against this happy resource
+amongst genteel people of other climates, that they never can reconcile
+themselves to the propriety of 'The Sahib Logue',--a term in general use
+for the English people visiting India,--figuring away in a quadrille or
+country dance. The nobles and gentlemen are frequently invited to witness
+a 'station-ball'; they look with surprise at the dancers, and I have often
+been asked why I did not persuade my countrywomen that they were doing
+wrong. 'Why do the people fatigue themselves, who can so well afford to
+hire dancers for their amusement?' Such is the difference between people
+of opposite views in their modes of pleasing themselves: a Native
+gentleman would consider himself disgraced or insulted by the simple
+inquiry, 'Can you dance, sing, or play?'
+
+The female slaves are sometimes taught to sing for their ladies' amusement,
+and amongst the many Hindoostanie airs there are some that would please
+even the most scientific ear; although, perhaps, they are as old as the
+country in which they were invented, since here there are neither
+composers of modern music, nor competitors for fame to bring the amusement
+to a science. Prejudice will be a continual barrier to improvement in
+music with the natives of India; the most homely of their national airs
+are preferred at the present day to the finest composition of modern
+Europe.
+
+My promised postscript is a translation from the Persian, extracted from
+'The Hyaatool Kaaloob'. The author is detailing the manner of living
+habitual to Mahumud and his family, and gives the following anecdotes
+'hudeeth' [19] (to be relied on), which occurred at the season of Rumzaun;
+the writer says:--
+
+'It is well known that they (Mahumud's family) were poor in worldly wealth;
+that they set no other value on temporal riches (which occasionally passed
+through their hands) but as loans from the great Giver of all good, to be
+by them distributed amongst the poor, and this was done faithfully; they
+kept not in their hands the gifts due to the necessitous. The members of
+Mahumud's family invariably lived on the most simple diet, even when they
+could have commanded luxuries.
+
+'At one season of Rumzaun,--it was in the lifetime of Mahumud,--Fatima,
+her husband Ali, and their two sons, Hasan and Hosein, had fasted two days
+and nights, not having, at that period, the means of procuring the
+smallest quantity of food to break their fast with. Habitually and from,
+principle, they disguised from the world or their friends all such
+temporal trials as it seemed good in the wisdom of Divine Providence to
+place in their chequered path; preferring under any circumstances of need,
+to fix their sole trust in the mercy and goodness of God for relief,
+rather than by seeking aid from their fellow-creatures lessening their
+dependence on Him.
+
+'On the evening above mentioned, Mahumud went to the cottage of Fatima,
+and said, "Daughter, I am come to open my fast with thee."--"In the name
+of the most merciful God, be it so," was the reply of Fatima; yet secretly
+she sorrowed, that the poverty of her house must now be exposed to her
+beloved father.
+
+'Fatima spread the dustha-khawn[20] (a large square of calico) on the
+floor of the room near her father, placed empty plates before him, then
+retired to her station for prayers; spreading her mat in the direction of
+Kaabah, she prostrated herself to the earth before God in the humblest
+attitude, imploring His merciful aid, in this her moment of trial.
+Fatima's fervent prayer was scarcely finished, when a savoury smell of
+food attracted her attention; raising her head from the earth, her anxious
+eye was greeted with the view of a large bowl or basin filled with
+sulleed[21] (the Arabian food of that period). Fatima again bowed down her
+head, and poured out in humble strains that gratitude to God with which
+her heart overflowed. Then rising from her devotions, she took up the
+savoury food and hurried with it to her father's presence, and summoned
+her husband and the children to partake of this joyous meal, without even
+hinting her thoughts that it was the gift of Heaven.
+
+'Ali had been some time seated at the meal, when he, knowing they had no
+means of procuring it, looked steadily on Fatima, and inquired where she
+had secreted this delicious food; at the same time recurring to the two
+days' fast they had endured. "Rebuke her not, my son," said Mahumud;
+"Fatima is the favoured of Heaven, as was Myriam[22] (Mary), the mother of
+Esaee[23] (Jesus), who, living in her uncle Zechareah's[24] (Zachariah's)
+house, was provided by God with the choicest of fruits. Zechareah was poor,
+and oft he hungered for a meal; but when he entered Myriam's apartment, a
+fresh supply of rare fruits was wont to greet his eye. Zechareah asked,
+Whence had ye these precious gifts? Myriam answered, An angel from God
+places the fruit before me; eat, my uncle, and be satisfied."'
+
+The writer thus leaves the story of the miraculous food to Fatima's prayer,
+and goes on as follows:--
+
+'At another season of the fast, this family of charity endured a severe
+trial, which was miraculously and graciously rewarded. Fatima had a female
+slave, who shared with her equally the comforts and the toils of life.
+
+'The food allotted to every member of Ali's family was two small barley
+cakes for each day; none had more or less throughout the family. The
+labour of domestic affairs was shared by Fatima with her female slave, and
+each took their day for grinding the barley at the chuckee,[25] with which
+the cakes were made.
+
+'On the--day of Rumzaun, the corn was ground as usual, the cakes made, and
+the moment for opening the fast anxiously anticipated, by this abstemious
+family. The evening arrived, and when the family had fulfilled their
+prayer-duty, the party assembled round the homely dustha-khawn with
+thankful hearts, and countenances beaming with perfect content. All had
+their allotted portions, but none had yet tasted of their cakes, when the
+voice of distress caught their ears. "Give me, oh, give me, for the love
+of God! something to relieve my hunger and save my famishing family from
+perishing." Fatima caught up her barley cakes, and ran out to the
+supplicant, followed by her husband, the two children, and the slave. The
+cakes were given to the distressed creature, and as they comprised their
+whole stock, no further supply awaited their returning steps, nor even a
+substitute within the bare walls of their cottage; a few grains of salt
+had been left from cooking the barley cakes, and each took a little of the
+small quantity, to give a relish to the water they now partook of freely;
+and then retired to sleep away the remembrance of hunger.
+
+'The next day found them all in health, and with hearts at peace; the day
+was passed in useful occupation, and when evening drew nigh, the same
+humble fare was ready for the fasting family, whose appetites were doubly
+keen by the lengthened abstinence. Again they meet to partake in gratitude
+the great gift of Divine goodness, wholesome sustenance; when, lo! the
+sound of sorrowing distress, petitioning in the holy name adored by these
+pious souls,--"For the Love of God!"--arrested their attention. An appeal
+so urgently made carried with it a command to their devout hearts, and the
+meal so long delayed to their own necessities was again surrendered to the
+beggar's prayers.
+
+'This family of charity had returned to their empty hut, and were seated
+in pious conversation to beguile their sufferings; not a murmuring word or
+sigh escaped their sanctified mouths. As the evening advanced thus
+occupied, a pleasing joy seemed to fill the heart of Fatima, who secretly
+had sorrowed for her good dear children's privations; presently a bright
+and powerful light filled the room, an angel stood before them; his
+appearance gave them no alarm;--they beheld his presence with humility.
+"Thy good deeds", said the angel (Gabriel), "are acceptable to God, the
+All Merciful! by whose command I come to satisfy the demands of mortal
+nature; this fruit (dates) is the gift of Him you serve; eat and be at
+peace." The meal was ample which the angel brought to this virtuous family,
+and having placed it before them, he vanished from their sight.'
+
+The Chuckee, before mentioned, is two flat circular stones (resembling
+grindstones in England), the upper stone has a peg or handle fixed in it,
+near the edge, with which it is forced round, by the person grinding, who
+is seated on the floor; the corn is thrown in through a circular hole on
+the upper stone, and the flour works out at the edges between the two
+stones. This is the only method of grinding corn for the immense
+population throughout Oude, and most other parts of Hindoostaun even to
+the present day. The late King of Oude, Ghauzieood deen Hyder, was at one
+time much pressed by some English friends of his, to introduce water-mills,
+for the purpose of grinding corn; he often spoke of the proposed plan to
+the Meer, and declared his sole motive for declining the improvement was
+the consideration he had for the poor women, who by this employment made
+an excellent living in every town and village, and who must, by the
+introduction of mills, be distressed for the means of support. 'My poor
+women', he would often say, 'shall never have cause to reproach me, for
+depriving them of the use and benefit of their chuckee.'
+
+I have before said it is not my intention to offer opinions on the
+character of the Mussulmaun people, my business being merely to relate
+such things as I have heard and seen amongst them. The several
+translations and anecdotes I take the opportunity of placing in these
+letters, are from authorities the Mussulmauns style, hudeeth
+(authentic),--that are not, cannot, be doubted, as they have been handed
+down either by Mahumud or by the Emaums, whose words are equally to be
+relied on. When any passages in their sacred writings are commented on by
+different authors, they give their authority for the opinion offered, as
+Emaum Such-a-one explains it thus. You understand, therefore, that the
+Mussulmauns believe these miracles to have occurred to the members of
+their Prophet's family as firmly as we believe in the truth of our Holy
+Scripture.
+
+
+[1] _Kahani_.
+
+[2] _Thandi_.
+
+[3] See p. 13.
+
+[4] _Rozadar_, 'one who keeps fast' (_roza_).
+
+[5] _Spinacea oleracea_, or _Basella alba_.
+
+[6] Dhall [_dal_] is a sort of pea, sometimes cooked in a savoury way
+    with garlic, salt, ghee, pepper and herbs. It is about the consistence
+    of thick pea-soup--but without meat. [_Author_.]
+
+[7] But it is directed that infirm people, unable to fast, should feed a
+    poor person when the fast is over. Women in child and those suckling
+    children are advised to fast at some other more convenient season.
+
+[8] 'Idu'l-fitr, 'the Festival of the Breaking of the Fast'.
+
+[9] _Dahi_.
+
+[10] The Ajwah date is never sold in Arabia, because the Prophet advised
+    that whosoever break the fast every day with, six or seven of those
+    fruits need fear neither poison nor magic.--Burton, _Pilgrimage_,
+    i. 401 f.
+
+[11] Known as _siwayan_, which Musalman servants present on this day
+    to their European masters in India.
+
+[12] _Nazr, nazar_.
+
+[13] A lumbering, keelless barge, formerly much used by Europeans
+    travelling on the Ganges and its tributaries: _bajra_ meaning
+    'heavy'.
+
+[14] _Khil'at._
+
+[15] _Domni_, a woman of the Dom or singer class.
+
+[16] _Sitara_, 'three-stringed', but often possessing four or more
+    strings of steel and brass wire, played with a steel wire frame.
+
+[17] _Saranyi_.
+
+[18] _Dhol_: 'dhome' is a mistake.
+
+[19] _Hadis_, the sayings of the Prophet, not of an uninspired divine or
+    teacher.
+
+[20] _Dastarkhwan_, a modification of the Arab leathern table-spread
+    (_sufra_).
+
+
+[21] _Tharid_, bread moistened with broth and mixed with scraps of meat.
+
+[22] Maryam.
+
+[23] 'Isa'l-Masih.
+
+[24] Zakariya (_Koran_, iii. 32, vi. 85, xix. 1-12, xxi. 89).
+
+[25] _Chakki_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER IX
+
+  The Hadje (Pilgrimage to Mecca).--Commanded to be performed by
+  Mahumud.--Eagerness of both sexes to visit the Prophet's
+  tomb.--Qualifications requisite for the undertaking.--Different
+  routes from India to Mecca.--Duties of the pilgrims at the Holy
+  House.--Mecca and its environs.--Place of Abraham.--The
+  Bedouins.--Anecdote of a devotee and two pilgrims.--A Bedouin Arab,
+  and the travellers to Mecca.--The Kaabah (Holy House).--Superstitious
+  regard to a chain suspended there.--Account of the gold
+  water-spout.--Tax levied on pilgrims visiting the tomb of Mahumud by
+  the Sheruff of Mecca.--Sacred visit to the tombs of Ali, Hasan, and
+  Hosein.--The importance attached to this duty.--Travellers annoyed by
+  the Arabs.--An instance recorded.--The Nudghiff Usheruff.--Anecdotes
+  of Syaad Harshim.
+
+
+'The Pilgrimage to Mecca' is commanded by Mahumud to his followers at
+least once during their lifetime, provided the obstacles are not
+insurmountable. Indulgences are made for the sick, or individual poverty.
+All who have the means at command, whatever may be their distance from the
+place, are expected to perform the Hadje themselves if possible; or, if
+prevented by any circumstances they cannot control, they are required to
+pay the expenses of other persons willing to be their proxies.
+
+Whatever information I have acquired on the subject of this pilgrimage has
+been gleaned from frequent conversations with Meer Hadjee Shaah, who, as I
+have before remarked, performed the Hadje from Hindoostaun to Mecca, at
+three different periods of his eventful life.
+
+If the fatigues, privations, and difficulties of the pilgrimage to Mecca
+be considered, the distance from Hindoostaun must indeed render the Hadje
+a formidable undertaking; yet, the piously disposed of both sexes yearn
+for the opportunity of fulfilling the injunctions of their Lawgiver, and
+at the same time, gratifying their laudable feelings of sympathy and
+curiosity--their sympathy, as regards the religious veneration for the
+place and its purposes; their curiosity, to witness with their own eyes
+those places rendered sacred by the words of the Khoraun in one instance,
+and also for the deposits contained in the several tombs of prophets, whom
+they have been taught to reverence and respect as the servants of God.
+
+Every year may be witnessed in India the Mussulmauns of both sexes forming
+themselves into Kauflaahs[1] (parties of pilgrims) to pursue their march
+on this joyous expedition, believing, as they do, that they are fulfilling
+a sacred duty. The number of women is comparatively few, and those chiefly
+from the middling and lower classes of the people, whose expenses are
+generally paid by the rich females. The great obstacle to the higher
+classes performing the pilgrimage themselves is, that the person must at
+times be necessarily exposed to the view of the males. The lower orders
+are less scrupulous in this respect, who, whilst on the pilgrimage, wear a
+hooded cloak[2] of white calico, by which the person is tolerably well
+secreted, so that the aged and youthful have but one appearance; the
+better sort of people, however, cannot reconcile themselves to go abroad,
+unless they could be permitted to have their covered conveyances, which in
+this case is impossible.
+
+The qualifications necessary for all to possess, ere they can be deemed
+fit subjects for the Hadje, are, as I learn, the following:
+
+'They must be true Mussulmauns in their faith; that is, believe in one
+only true God, and that Mahumud is His Prophet.
+
+'They must strictly obey the duties commanded by Mahumud; that is, prayer
+five times daily, the fast of Rumzaun, &c.
+
+'They must be free from the world; that is, all their debts must be paid,
+and their family so well provided for, according to their station, that no
+one dependent on them may be in want of the necessaries of life during the
+absence of the pilgrim from his home and country.
+
+'They must abstain from all fermented or intoxicating liquors, and also
+from all things forbidden to be eaten by the law (which is strictly on the
+Mosaic principle).
+
+'They must freely forgive their enemies; and if they have given any one
+cause of offence, they must humble themselves, and seek to be forgiven.
+
+'They must repent of every evil they have committed, either in thought,
+word, or deed, against God or their neighbour.'
+
+Thus prepared, the pious Mussulmaun sets out on his supposed duty, with
+faith in its efficacy, and reliance on the goodness of Divine Providence
+to prosper him in the arduous undertaking.
+
+Many Kauflaahs from the Upper Provinces of India, travel overland to
+Bombay; others make Calcutta their place of embarkation, in the Arab ships,
+which visit those ports annually with returning pilgrims from Arabia,
+cargoes of coffee, Arabian fruits, and drugs. Some few enterprising people
+make the whole pilgrimage by land; this is, however, attended with so many
+and severe difficulties, that but few of the present day have courage to
+attempt it. In those cases their road would be from Delhie to Cashmire,
+through Buckaria,[3] making a wide circuit to get into Persia. This is the
+most tedious route, but possesses the advantages of more inhabited places
+on the line of march, and therefore provisions are the more readily
+procured. There is one route from the Lahore Province,--the English
+territory here is bounded by the river Suttledge, which the traveller
+crosses into the Sikh country,--through Afghastaan and Persia. I have not
+heard of the Kauflaahs making this their road of late; there seems to be
+always a disposition to fear the Sikhs,[4] who are become a powerful
+nation under Runjeet Singh; but I am not aware what ground the pilgrims
+have for their distrust, except that they can scarcely expect the same
+courtesy from these people as from the Mussulmauns, who would naturally
+aid and assist the pilgrims, and respect the persons thus labouring to
+accomplish the command of their Prophet.
+
+Whatever may be the chosen route, the pilgrims must make up their minds to
+many trials necessarily incident to the undertaking; and to the habits of
+the Mussulmauns of India, I cannot suppose any fatigue or trial greater
+than the voyage by sea, in an Arab vessel. It is well for those persons
+whose hearts have undergone that thorough change, which by the law fits
+them for the Hadje; with such men, earthly calamities, privations, or any
+other mere mortal annoyances, are met with pious fortitude, having
+consolations within which strengthen the outward man: in all their trials
+they will say, 'It is in the road of God, by Him cometh our reward'.
+
+The duty of the pilgrims, on their arrival at the Holy Place, is to
+worship God, and visit the tombs of the Prophets. There are forms and
+regulations to be observed in the manner of worship; certain circuits to
+be made round the Kaabah; saluting with the lips the sacred stone therein
+deposited; and calling to remembrance the past wonders of God, with
+reverence and piety of heart. I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah speak
+of the comfort a humble-minded pilgrim enjoys at the time he is making his
+visit to the Holy House; he says, 'There the heart of the faithful servant
+of God is enlightened and comforted; but the wicked finds no rest near
+Kaabah'.
+
+The pilgrims visit the tombs of every prophet of their faith within their
+reach; as the mausoleum of Hasan and Hosein, the Nudghiff Usheruff of Ali,
+and, if it be possible, Jerusalem also. At Dimishk (Damascus) they pay
+respect to the burying-place of Yieyah[5] (St. John), over whose earthly
+remains is erected, they say, the Jumna Musjud[6] (mosque), to which the
+faithful resort on Fridays (their Sabbath) to prayer.
+
+Within the confines of the Holy House, life is held so sacred that not the
+meanest living thing is allowed to be destroyed; and if even by accident
+the smallest insect is killed, the person who has caused the death is
+obliged to offer in atonement, at the appointed place for sacrificing to
+God, sheep or goats according to his means.[7]
+
+According to the description of Meer Hadjee Shaah the city of Mecca is
+situated in the midst of a partially barren country; but at the spot
+called Taaif,[8]--only one day's journey from Mecca,--the soil is
+particularly fertile, producing all kinds of fruit and vegetables in great
+abundance, and the air remarkably pure and healthy. The word Taaif implies
+in the Arabic 'the circuits completed'. It is recorded 'that the angel
+Gabriel brought this productive soil, by God's command, and placed it at a
+convenient distance from Mecca, in order that the pilgrims and sojourners
+at the Holy House might be benefited by the produce of the earth, without
+having them sufficiently near to call off their attention from the solemn
+duty of worshipping their God, which they are expressly called upon to
+perform at Mecca'.
+
+My informant tells me that there is a stone at Mecca known by the
+appellation of 'Ibraahim Mukhaun' (Place of Abraham):[9] on this is seen
+the mark of a human foot, and believed by pilgrims, on good authority, to
+be the very stone on which Abraham rested his foot when making occasional
+visits to his son Ishmael: at the performance of this duty he never
+dismounted from his camel, in compliance with his sacred promise made to
+Sarah the mother of Isaac.
+
+The pilgrimage to Mecca is most securely performed by those persons who
+travel in a humble way; riches are sure to attract the cupidity of the
+Bedouins. A poor pilgrim they respect, and with him they will share their
+last meal or coin. The Bedouin Arab delights in hospitably entertaining
+men of his own faith, provided they are really distressed; but the
+consequence of deception would be a severe visitation on the delinquent.
+The two following stories I have received from Meer Hadjee Shaah,
+descriptive of some of the incidents that occur to pilgrims, and therefore
+may be acceptable here.
+
+'A good Mussulmaun of Hindoostaun resolved on undertaking the Hadje, being
+under the strong impression of a warning dream that his earthly career
+would speedily terminate. He travelled on foot, with one companion only,
+who was a faithfully-attached friend; they had no worldly wealth, and
+journeyed on their way as mendicants, trusting for each day's food to the
+bountiful care of Divine Providence: nor was their trust in vain, since
+the hearts of all who saw these pious travellers were moved by the power
+of God to yield them present relief.
+
+'On a certain day these pilgrims had journeyed from the dawn until eve
+without a meal, or meeting any one to assist them, when they were at last
+encountered by a religious devotee of another nation, with whom they
+conversed for some time. Their new acquaintance having found they were
+indeed poor, not even possessed of a single coin to purchase corn or food
+of any kind, expressed his hearty sympathy, and desired to be of service
+to the pilgrims; he therefore disclosed to them that he was in possession
+of a secret for the transmutation of metals,[10] and offered some of his
+prepared powder to the elder Hadjee, by which he would have persuaded him
+want should never again intrude; adding, "You will with this be
+independent of all future care about subsistence on your pilgrimage."
+
+'The pious Hadjee, however, was of a different mind from the devotee, and
+politely rejected the offer of the powder by which he was to acquire
+riches, declaring that the possession of such an article would rob him of
+the best treasure he enjoyed, namely, the most perfect reliance on Him, by
+whom the birds of the air are fed from day to day without labour or care,
+and who had hitherto fed him both in the city and in the desert; and that
+in this trust he had comforts and consolations which the whole world could
+not grant him: "My God, in whom I trust, will never desert me whilst I
+rely on Him alone for succour and support."'
+
+My excellent friend says, such pilgrims as the one described may pass
+through the haunts of the Bedouins without fear or sorrow, and they are
+always respected. The next anecdote I am about to relate will develop more
+particularly the Arab's natural disposition, and how necessary it is for
+men really to be that they would seem, when placed by circumstances within
+their reach. Some of the parties were known to my venerable relative.
+
+'Six Mussulmauns from India were travelling on foot in Arabia; they
+assumed the title of pilgrim mendicants. On a certain day they drew nigh
+to the tent of a Bedouin Arab, who went out to meet them, and entering
+into conversation, soon discovered by their talk that they were poor
+pilgrims from India, who depended on casual bounties from men of their
+faith for their daily meal. The Bedouin, though a robber, had respect for
+the commands of his religion; and with that respect he boasted a due share
+of hospitable feeling towards all who were of his own faith; he
+accordingly told them they were welcome to his home, and the best meal he
+could provide for them, which offers they very gladly accepted, and
+followed him to the tent.
+
+'The Arab desired his wife to take water to his guests and wash their feet
+after the fatigue of their day's march, and told her in secret to divert
+their attention whilst he went out in search of plunder, that the
+hospitality of an Arab might be shown to the strangers. Then mounting his
+fleet-camel, he was quickly out of sight. Many a weary circuit the Arab
+made, his ill stars prevailed; not a Kauflaah nor a traveller could he
+meet, whence a supply might be extracted, to be the means of providing for
+his guests; his home was penniless, and with the Bedouins, none give
+credit. His bad success dispirited him, and he returned to the back of his
+tent, to consult what was best to be done in this emergency. The only
+thing he possessed in the world fit for food was the animal on which he
+rode, from day to day, to levy contributions upon the passing traveller.
+
+'His only immediate resource was to kill his favourite camel. His honour
+was at stake; the sacrifice would be great; he was attached to the beast;
+the loss would be irreparable, he thought:--yet every weighty argument on
+one side to preserve the camel's life, was as quickly overturned in the
+reflection of his Arabian honour;--his visitors must be fed, and this was
+the only way he could contrive the meal. With trembling hands and
+half-averted eyes, the camel's blood was shed; with one plunge his
+favourite ceased to breathe. For some minutes, the Arab could not look on
+his poor faithful servant; but pride drove pity from her haunt, and the
+animal was quickly skinned and dressed in savoury dishes, with his wife's
+assistance. At length, the food prepared, the Arab and his wife placed the
+most choice portions before their guests, and whilst they dined attended
+them with respectful assiduity; selecting for each the most delicate
+pieces, to induce the travellers to eat, and evince the cordial welcome
+tendered by the host.[11]
+
+'The travellers having dined; the Arab and his wife took their turn at the
+feast with appetites most keen,--forgetful even, for the time, whence the
+savoury dishes were procured; and if an intruding thought of his favourite
+camel shot across the mind of the Arab, it was quickly chased in the
+reflection that his prided honour was secured by the sacrifice, and that
+reflection was to him a sufficient compensation.
+
+'The pilgrims, refreshed by food, were not inclined to depart, and as they
+were urged to stay by their friendly host, they slept comfortably in the
+Arab's tent, on coarse mats, the only bed known to the wandering Bedouins.
+The morning found them preparing to pursue their march; but the Arab
+pressed their continuance another day, to share with him in the abundance
+his camel afforded for the whole of the party. The travellers were not
+unwilling to delay their departure, for they had journeyed many days
+without much ease, and with very little food; their host's conversation
+also was amusing, and this second day of hospitality by the Arab was an
+addition to the comfort and convenience of the weary pilgrims.
+
+'The following morning, as was fixed, the travellers rose to take leave of
+their benevolent host and his attentive wife; each as he embraced the Arab,
+had some grateful word to add, for the good they had received at his hands.
+The last of the pilgrims, having embraced the Arab, was walking from the
+tent, when the dog belonging to the host seized the man by his garment and
+held him fast. "What is this?" inquired the Arab, "surely you must have
+deceived me; my dog is wise as he is trusty,--he never yet lied to his
+master. This labaadhar of yours he has taken a fancy to it seems; but you
+shall have my coat of better-looking stuff for your old chintz garment. We
+will exchange labaadhars,[12] my friend," said the Arab, throwing his own
+towards the hesitating traveller. His fellow-pilgrims, hearing altercation,
+advanced, and with surprise listened to the parley going on between the
+host and guest.--"I have a veneration for my chintz, old as it is," said
+the pilgrim; "it has been my companion for many years, brother; indeed I
+cannot part with it." The dog held fast the garment, and the Arab, finding
+persuasion was but loss of words, cast a frown of deep meaning on the
+travellers, and addressed them:--"Ye came to me beggars, hungry and
+fatigued; I believed ye were poor, and I sheltered ye these two days, and
+fed ye with my best; nay, more, I even killed my useful camel, that your
+hunger might be appeased. Had I known there was money with any of ye, my
+poor beast's life might yet have been spared; but it is too late to repent
+the sacrifice I made to serve you," Then, looking steadfastly at the
+chintz-robed traveller, he added, in a tone of sharp authority, "Come,
+change garments!--here, no one disputes my commands!"
+
+'The trembling pilgrim reluctantly obeyed. The Arab took up the garment
+and proceeded with it to where the fire was kindled. "Now we shall see
+what my trusty dog discovered in your tattered chintz," said the Arab, as
+he threw it on the fire. All the pilgrims hovered round the flames to
+watch what would result from the consuming garment, with intense anxiety.
+The Arab drew from the embers one hundred gold mohurs, to the surprise and
+wonder of all the travellers, save him who owned the chintz garment; he
+had kept his treasures so secretly, that even in their greatest distress
+he allowed his brother pilgrims to suffer, with himself, want and
+privations which, owing to his lust for gold, he had no heart to relieve.
+
+'The Arab selected from the prize he had obtained, by the exchange of
+garments, ten gold mohurs, and presented them to the owner with a sharp
+rebuke for his duplicity, alluding to the meanness he had been guilty of
+in seeking and accepting a meal from a Bedouin, whilst he possessed so
+much wealth about his person; then adding,--"There is nothing hidden from
+God; I killed my sole treasure to give food to the poor hungry travellers;
+my deed of charity is rewarded; deceit in you is punished by the loss of
+that wealth you deserved not to possess.--Depart, and be thankful that
+your life is spared; there are some of my tribe who would not have
+permitted you to go so easily: you have enough spared to you for your
+journey; in future, avoid base deceptions."'
+
+Of the Kaabah (Holy House) many wonderful things are recorded in the
+several commentaries on the Khoraun, and other ancient authorities, which
+it would fill my letter to detail. I will, however, make mention of the
+mystic chain as a sample of the many superstitious habits of that age.
+
+It is said, 'A chain was suspended from the roof of Kaabah, whither the
+people assembled to settle (by the touch) disputed rights in any case of
+doubt between contending parties.'
+
+Many curious things are related as having been decided by this mystic
+chain,[13] which it should seem, by their description, could only be
+reached by the just person in the cause to be decided, since, however long
+the arm of the faulty person, he could never reach the chain; and however
+short the person's arm who was in the right, he always touched the chain
+without difficulty. I will here relate one of the anecdotes on this
+subject.
+
+'Two pilgrims travelled together in Arabia; on the way one robbed the
+other of his gold coins, and secreted them carefully in the hollow of his
+cane or staff. His companion missing his cash, accused him of the theft,
+and when disputes had risen high between them, they agreed to visit the
+mystic chain to settle their difference. Arriving at Kaabah, their
+intentions being disclosed to the keepers of the place, the thief claimed
+the privilege, being the accused, of first reaching to touch the chain; he
+then gave the staff in which he had deposited the money into his
+fellow-pilgrim's hands, saying, "Keep this, whilst I go to prove my
+innocence." He next advanced and made the usual prayer, adding to which,
+"Lord, whatever I have done amiss I strive to remedy; I repent, and I
+restore"; then raising his arm, he touched the chain without difficulty.
+The spectators were much surprised, because all believed he was actually
+the thief. The man who lost his gold, freely forgave his fellow-traveller,
+and expressed sorrow that he had accused him wrongfully; yet he wished to
+prove that he was not guilty of falsehood--having really lost his
+gold,--and declared he also would approach the chain to clear himself from
+such a suspicion. "Here," said he to the criminal, "take back your staff;"
+and he advanced within the Kaabah, making the required prayer, and adding,
+"Now my Creator will grant me mercy and favour, for He knoweth my gold was
+stolen, and I have not spoken falsely in that, yet I know not who is the
+thief." He raised his hand and grasped the chain, at which the people were
+much amazed.'
+
+It is presumed, by writers of a later period, that this circumstance threw
+the mystic properties of the chain out of favour; for it was soon after
+removed secretly, these writers add, and its disappearance made the
+subject of much conjecture; no one could ever ascertain by whom it was
+taken, but the general belief is, that it was conveyed away by
+supernatural agency. Another marvellous story is recorded of the Kaabah,
+as follows:
+
+'A poor pilgrim, nearly famishing with hunger, while encircling the Holy
+House, on looking up towards the building observed the water-spout of
+gold[14] hanging over his head. He prayed that his wants might be relieved,
+adding, "To Thee, O God, nothing is difficult. At thy command, that spout
+of gold may descend to my relief;" holding the skirt of his garment to
+receive it, in answer to his faithful address. The spout had been firmly
+fixed for ages, yet it fell as the pilgrim finished his prayer. He lost no
+time in walking away with his valuable gift, and offered it to a merchant
+for sale, who immediately recognizing the gold spout of Kaabah, accused
+the pilgrim of sacrilege, and without delay handed him over to the
+Sheruff[15] of Mecca, to answer for his crime. He declared his innocence
+to the Sheruff, and told him how he became possessed of the treasure. The
+Sheruff had some difficulty in believing his confession, yet perceiving he
+had not the appearance of a common thief, he told him, if what he had
+declared was true, the goodness of God would again be extended towards him
+on the trial he proposed to institute. The spout was restored to its
+original position on the Kaabah, and made secure. This done, the pilgrim
+was required to repeat his faithful address to God, in the presence of the
+assembled multitude; when, to their astonishment, it again descended at
+the instant his prayer was finished. Taking up the spout without
+hesitation, he was walking away with it very quietly, when the people
+flocked round him, believing him to be some sainted person, and earnestly
+requested him to bestow on them small portions of his raiment as relics of
+his holy person. The Sheruff then clothed him in rich garments, and in
+lieu of the gold spout--which none could now dispute his right to,--the
+same weight of gold in the current coin of Arabia was given to him, thus
+raising him from beggary to affluence.'
+
+I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah speak of this gold spout which adorns
+the Kaabah, being held in great veneration by the pilgrims who make the
+Hadje to that place.
+
+All Mussulmauns performing the pilgrimage pay a kind of tax to the Sheruff
+of Mecca. The present possessors of power in Mecca are of the Soonie sect.
+The admission money, in consequence, falls heavy on the Sheahs, from whom
+they exact heavy sums, out of jealousy and prejudice. This renders it
+difficult for the poor Sheah pilgrim to gain admittance, and it is even
+suspected that in many cases they are induced to falsify themselves, when
+it is demanded of them what sect they belong to, rather than be denied
+entrance after their severe trial to reach the confines of Mecca. The tax
+levied on the Soonies is said to be trifling in proportion to that of the
+Sheahs.
+
+Amongst the different places visited by each Hadjee,--after the circuit is
+made,--a zeearut to the tomb of Ali at Nudghiff Usheruff, and the
+far-famed Kraabaallah of Hasan and Hosein are esteemed indispensable
+engagements, if it be possible; there is not, however, any command to this
+effect in the Mussulmaun law, but the Sheahs, zealous for their leaders,
+are willing to think they do honour to their memory, by visiting those
+tombs which contain the mortal remains of their respected Emaums.
+
+Travelling through this part of Arabia, Meer Hadjee Shaah says, is
+attended with much inconvenience and fatigue; but he failed not at each
+pilgrimage he made, to pay a visit to the mausoleums of his forefathers.
+He tells me that Kraabaallah was for a long time almost an interdicted
+visit, through the power of the Soonies, who were so jealous of the
+respect paid to the Emaums, that the Turks (who are Soonies) raised the
+price of admission within the gates to one hundred gold pieces. At that
+time very few people could gratify their yearnings beyond the outside view
+of the mausoleum; and even now that the entrance-money is much reduced the
+sums so collected yield a handsome revenue to the Turks.
+
+I will here introduce an anecdote which proves the value certain
+individuals set on the zeearut (sacred visit) to Kraabaallah, which I have
+received from my revered pilgrim-friend and relative.
+
+'Amongst the applicants for admission at the gates of Kraabaallah was an
+aged woman clothed in ragged garments. The gate-keeper, judging from her
+appearance, that she was destitute of money, scoffed at her presumption;
+she, however, produced the price of admission with much confidence of
+manner, and demanded entrance without further delay. The keepers now
+suspected the old woman to be a thief, and commenced interrogating her how
+she became possessed of so large a sum. The poor old woman answered them,
+"I have laboured hard for thirty years at my spinning-wheel, and have
+debarred myself during those years of all superfluities, contenting myself
+with a bare subsistence; I have done this that the dearest wish of my
+heart might once in my lifetime be gratified, to visit and weep over the
+tomb of my Emaums. Here, take the fruits of my labour, and let me have my
+reward; every moment delayed is agony to me."'
+
+In journeying through Arabia, pilgrims are much annoyed with the intrusion
+they so frequently meet with from the idle Arabs, who force their way into
+every stranger's place of sojourn without ceremony, to strain the nerves
+of charity from 'brethren of the faith'.
+
+There is a maxim well known amongst Mussulmauns,--the words of
+Mahumud,--'With the faithful, all are brothers'; and this is the pass-word
+with those idle men who pretend to have too much pride to beg, and are yet
+too indolent to labour for their support.
+
+A Mussulmaun,--however great his rank,--is seated with his friends and
+attendants; an Arab, who lives by this method, stalks into the tent or
+apartment, salutes the master with, 'Salaam-oon-ali Koom!' (health or
+peace be with you!) and unbidden takes his seat on the nearest vacant spot
+to the head person of the assembly. After the first surprise excited by
+the stranger's intrusion, he looks at the master and says, 'I claim the
+privilege of a brother'; by which it is to be understood the Arab requires
+money from the richer man of his faith. A small sum is tendered, he
+receives it without indicating any sense of obligation, rises from his
+seat, and moves off with no other than the familiar salute which marked
+his entrance, 'Salaam-oon-ali Koom!'[16]
+
+A rich Eunuch, of Lucknow, accompanied Meer Hadjee Shaah on one of his
+pilgrimages, with a large Kauflaah. Upon one occasion, when the whole
+party were seated in friendly conclave, some of these idle Arabs entered
+in the way described; the Eunuch was unacquainted with the language, or
+the manners of Arabia, and expressed his dislike to their freedom in warm
+language, and evident anger in his countenance; many had claimed the
+tribute of brotherhood, when the Eunuch, who was accustomed in his own
+country to receive respect and deference from inferiors, lost all patience
+with the uncourtly intrusion of the Arabs, and evinced his wrath to the
+proud Arab then present, who understood by his violent manners, if not by
+his language, that he was offended with him. The good sense and kindly
+manner of Meer Hadjee Shaah restored tranquillity in the assembly; he gave
+money to the man, and apologized for his friend's ignorance of the customs
+of Arabia: thus preventing the enraged Arab from fulfilling his threat of
+forcing the Eunuch to appear before the Sheruff of Mecca.
+
+Nudghiff Usheruff, the burying-place of Ali, is the resort of many pious
+men of the Mussulmaun persuasion, as well as the shrine to be visited by
+'the faithful' of the Sheah sect. Amongst the many singular stories I have
+heard of the devout men of that religion, I select one from the number
+relating to a man whose abode was--through choice--near the shrine of
+their beloved Emaum Ali. I shall give it in exactly the style I have
+received it, through my husband's translation, from an old work in the
+Persian language.
+
+'In the reign of Nadir Shaah,[17] a devout man of the faith took up his
+abode in the vicinity of Nudghiff Usheruff in Arabia. He was a Syaad,
+named Harshim;[18] a man of great learning, whose heart was set on seeking
+with love the most merciful God, whom he served faithfully. Syaad Harshim,
+conscious that the riches and honours of this world are inadequate to
+procure eternal happiness, and feeling convinced that the more humble a
+man's mode of living is, the greater are the prospects of escaping
+temptations in this life of probation, resolved on labouring for his daily
+bread, and relinquished with his paternal home, the abundance and riches
+which his ancient house had long boasted.
+
+'Syaad Harshim selected Nudghiff Usheruff for his sojourn, and the
+business of a woodman for a calling. The piety of his life, and the
+goodness of his heart, drew upon him the respect of the inhabitants of the
+city. It was his practice to spend every day in the jungle (wilderness)
+cutting fire-wood, of which he gave a light burthen to his ass; and
+returning towards evening to the populated city, he found ready customers
+for the load which his day's labour produced. His honesty and love of
+truth were proverbial: he asked the price for his wood which he intended
+to take; if more was offered, it was rejected,--if less, he would not
+accept it.
+
+'One evening, a man of superior address to his usual customers, but poorly
+clad, met him at the entrance of the street, and bargained for the load of
+wood. Syaad Harshim was penetrating, and could not help expressing his
+surprise at the circumstance of one, evidently moving in a higher sphere,
+being there to purchase wood. "I see," said the Syaad to the purchaser,
+"that your station is superior to your circumstances!--How is this?"--"My
+story," replied the stranger, "is not, I fear, uncommon in this age of the
+world. I will relate it briefly:--I was once a rich man, and my mind was
+set on making the pilgrimage. Aware that valuables and money would be an
+incumbrance to me on my journey, I applied to the Kauzy of this city to
+take charge of all my worldly riches during my absence, to which he
+readily consented, and having packed my jewels, money, and valuables in a
+strong chest with a good lock, I gave it into his charge and departed.
+
+'"My pilgrimage accomplished, and tired of a wandering life, I returned
+home after a few years' absence, waited on the Kauzy, and applied for the
+treasure I had deposited in his care; he denied all knowledge of me or my
+valuables, pretended not to understand me, called me an impostor, and
+eventually drove me from his house with violence. I again tried the Kauzy
+by expostulation, and sent my friends to him, but all without benefit; for
+here I am as you see me, Syaad Harshim, reduced to penury by the Kauzy's
+injustice. The world esteems him a person of great character, and condemns
+me as the unjust one. Well! I can say no more; I know that God is merciful,
+I put my trust in Him!" "Ameen," responded the Syaad, "do you so, and it
+will yet be well with you."
+
+'The stranger lingered with the sympathizing Woodman, and after some time
+had elapsed he asked him if he would interest himself with the Kauzy to
+effect a restitution of his rights, adding, "All are willing to give you,
+O Syaad, great credit for superior virtues." Harshim replied he had no
+merit to call for his fellow-mortals' good opinion, but as he felt
+interested in the affair he would certainly visit the unjust man, and
+requested the stranger to meet him at the Kauzy's door on the following
+morning.
+
+'Arrived at the Kauzy's residence, Harshim was received with evident
+pleasure, for though but a woodman, he yet was known to be a person of
+superior rank, and a man universally respected for his great piety. After
+the common salutations, the Syaad stated the object of his visit, assuring
+the Kauzy he was actuated purely by good feelings towards him in the part
+he had undertaken;--being desirous only of preserving his soul from the
+evil that attended the unjust men of this world, who die without
+repentance and restitution to those whom they have injured. Then calling
+the stranger forward, he said with firmness of voice and manner, "Behold
+this man! he left money and jewels in your charge whilst he went on his
+duty to the pilgrimage; he comes now to demand his property, give back his
+chest of treasures without delay, honestly and justly, as you hope for
+mercy in a future state!"
+
+'The Kauzy answered, "I have it not, Syaad Harshim, you may believe me;
+this fellow wickedly raises the falsehood to injure me, and it is as much
+to his own dishonour as to my discredit. I beg, therefore, you will
+neither give credit to his base assertions, nor think so meanly of me; my
+station as Kauzy of this district should, methinks, screen me from such
+imputations."--"True," said Harshim, "the station you occupy in the world,
+and the place you hold as Kauzy, prevent suspicion from attaching to you;
+hence this poor man has not yet found redress to the justice of his claims.
+I would have you believe me sincerely your friend, in desiring to bring
+your heart to repentance, and thus only can your soul's safety be secured.
+I know you to have this man's property, and your own heart even now
+convicts you of the injustice you practise. Nothing is hidden from
+God;--reflect on the punishment prepared for the unrepenting hypocrite.
+Listen, whilst I relate to you my own convictions, or rather experience,
+of that terrible punishment which is prepared for the impenitent hardened
+sinner beyond the grave.
+
+'"I have been a woodman for several years, and by my daily labour have
+earned my coarse food. Some years since, I was sick and unable to pursue
+my usual occupation; my supply was thus cut off. Requiring temporary
+relief, I applied to a rich Banker of this city for a trifling loan; my
+request was promptly complied with, and I engaged to repay the sum by two
+pice each day upon again resuming my employment. By the mercy of God I
+recovered; and on the evening of each day, as I sold the wood my day's
+labour produced in the market, I paid the Banker two pice. On the very day,
+however, that the last two were to have been paid, the Banker died. Thus I
+remained his debtor still. Often had I thought of the circumstance that I
+was his debtor, and with real regret; yet the sum was small, and with this
+I became reconciled.
+
+'"Not long after his decease I was visited with a dream, important to all
+the world to know, and I therefore desire to make it public. Judgement was
+opened to my view; the beauty of heaven was displayed on one side, and the
+torments of hell on the other. My dream presented many people waiting
+their award, whom I had known in life, and amongst the number my creditor
+the Banker; he was standing on the brink of that fiery yawning gulf which
+is prepared for the wicked and unjust. His attendant angels produced the
+documents of their faithful keeping,--good and evil actions of every
+mortal are thus registered,--one exhibited a small blank book in which not
+one good deed had been recorded, and that presented by the other,
+containing the evils of his ways on earth, appeared to me an immense
+volume filled throughout.
+
+'"'Take him to his merited torments!' was pronounced in an awful tone of
+command.--'Have mercy! have pity!' cried the Banker, in a supplicating
+voice.--'Produce one claim for pity,' was heard.--The Banker in agony
+looked wildly round, as if in search of something he might urge in
+extenuation, when casting his eyes on me he exclaimed, 'There! oh, there
+is one! who when in trouble I relieved, and he is still my debtor!'
+
+'"In my dream this appeared too slender a benefit to draw forth the
+slightest remission of the punishments awarded to his deserts. 'Away with
+him!' was heard.--'Oh!' cried the Banker's soul, 'draw near to me, thou
+good, virtuous, and humble Woodman, that the reflected light of thy
+virtues may give one instant's ease to my present torture. Let me but
+touch the righteous Harshim, and I will depart to my just punishment with
+submission!'
+
+'"I was permitted to gratify the unhappy spirit, wondering at the same
+time what benefit he could derive from touching me. Advancing near the
+tortured soul he stretched forth his hand and touched me on the knee; it
+was like a firebrand; I drew back hastily and found my knee was scorched.
+'Return to men with warnings,' said the wretched spirit. 'Tell them of my
+unhappy state; tell them what are the tortures of the wicked; that touch
+you have received on your knee, is of the same nature my whole body
+suffers in eternal flames.'--The pain I suffered in my knee disordered my
+sleep; I awoke in agony, and here it is to this day," said the Woodman,
+untying a bandage from his knee. "Examine the place, and be warned, O
+Kauzy, by the terrible certainty I have brought from that Banker whom you
+knew, and who is now suffering for his injustice on earth. I have been
+lame from that night of my dream," continued Syaad Harshim, "but I shall
+rejoice in the pain, if the example influence one hardened sinner to
+repent, whilst repentance may avail."
+
+'During the recital of the dream, Syaad Harshim watched the countenance of
+the Kauzy, who tried in vain to hide the guilty changes of his face. The
+Syaad at last fixed his keen eyes on him, "Now, friend," said he, "it
+would be great folly to add guilt to guilt by farther subterfuge. I know
+the day, the hour, you ingeniously substituted a false key to this man's
+chest; I could tell you what you wickedly took out; the place where it is
+secreted, even, is not hidden from my knowledge; go, bring it from your
+wife's apartment; a little labour will remove it from the corner near the
+bedstead."
+
+'The Kauzy was now subdued by the commanding truths of the Syaad, and his
+heart being softened by the fearful relation of the Banker's torment, he
+sank to the earth with shame and remorse,--"I acknowledge my sin, thou
+holy man of truth;--forgive me!" he cried, "forgive me, oh my God! I am
+indeed repentant, and by this holy man's means I am brought to a sense of
+my guilt!" He then went to the women's apartment, brought out the chest
+and delivered it to the owner, entreating Syaad Harshim to forgive him.
+
+'The Syaad replied, "I have nothing to forgive, nor power to remit; my
+advice you have freely, and may it serve you! Seek pardon from God who
+loves to be sought, and whose mercy never faileth. He is not the God of
+revenge, where repentance is sincere; but He is the God of mercy to all
+who seek Him faithfully. His mercy is already extended to you, for He has
+given you time to repent:--but for His mercy, you had been taken to your
+punishment, whilst you had no thoughts of repentance in your guilty heart.
+Farewell! let me know by your future life, that Syaad Harshim's lost
+labour in the jungle of this day, has produced something to the better
+harvest--awakening one sinner to a sense of his danger."'
+
+Meer Hadjee Shaah has related to me many singular anecdotes of this Syaad
+Harshim, which are generally spoken of, and believed to be true by the
+sojourners at Nudghiff Usheruff. His memory is much respected by the
+Mussulmauns, and the acts of his life are registered with the veneration
+paid to saints, amongst people of more enlightened nations. They
+confidently assert, that whenever Syaad Harshim presented himself at the
+entrance to Nudghiff Usheruff, the gates, which are always kept locked,
+flew open to receive him.
+
+In proof that he disregarded worldly possessions, the following is related
+of him in the ancient works both of Arabia and Persia:--
+
+'The great conqueror, Nadir Shaah, on one occasion visited the shrine of
+Ali, with a vast retinue of his chiefs, courtiers, and followers. The King
+heard, whilst at Nudghiff Usheruff, of the sainted life led by the Woodman,
+Syaad Harshim, in that neighbourhood, and he felt disposed to tender a
+present of money and valuables, to induce the Syaad's prayer for his
+future prosperity. Accordingly, the King commanded trays to be filled from
+his Indian spoils, which were sent with a message, humbly couched,
+entreating the good Syaad would accept his offering of respect, and make
+prayers to God for him.
+
+'The trays were conveyed by servants of the King, who arrived at the
+Syaad's hut at the moment he was satisfying the demands of nature with a
+meal of coarse barley bread and pure water. "What is all this?" inquired
+the Syaad, on seeing the valuables before him. "An humble offering from
+the great Nadir Shaah," replied the messenger, "who entreats you will
+honour him by the acceptance of his presents, and offer your pious prayer
+for God's mercy in his behalf." "My prayers", said the Syaad, "I can
+promise shall be made duly and truly, but not my acceptance of his gifts.
+Take back these hateful, useless things! Tell Nadir Shaah, Syaad Harshim
+will not even touch them." The messenger tried persuasions without avail;
+he was constrained to return to his royal master, with his loaded trays.
+
+'No sooner were the King's servants out of sight, than the wife of Syaad
+Harshim vented her disappointment in no measured strain of anger towards
+her husband. "Here am I," said the old lady, "a very slave in consequence
+of our poverty, a very beggar in appearance, and my scanty meal of coarse
+bread is scarce sufficient to keep me in bodily strength; surely you ought
+to have remembered me, when the King's offering was before you--even if
+you liked not to accept it for yourself."--"I might indeed", he replied,
+"have done as you say, wife, had I known your sentiments sooner; but I
+believed you were as contented as myself with homely fare and honest
+labour; but be comforted, you shall have a share of the next offering made
+by the King to Syaad Harshim, provided your present inclination remains
+unchanged by time." This promise quieted the wife's angry humour, and
+peace was again restored between them.
+
+'"Wife," said the Syaad, "this al-kaulock[19] (Arab's coat of calico) of
+mine requires a little of thy labour: as I have now no other garment to
+change with, I trust you may please to wash it whilst I take my
+sleep;--one caution you must observe,--I have occasion for the water in
+which this dress is to be washed; preserve it carefully for me, my good
+wife;" and he laid him down on his mat to sleep. The wife, obedient to her
+husband's wishes, washed his dress, and took care to preserve the dirty
+water; when he awoke, she brought him the clean garment, and received his
+warm commendations for her diligence. She then produced the pan of dirty
+water, in which she had cleansed the garment, saying, "There, Syaad
+Harshim, I have done as you desired."--"Very good," replied her husband,
+"now you must farther oblige me by drinking it--you know there is nothing
+in this water but the sweat of my body produced by my daily labour." The
+wife, disgusted at the strange request of her husband, looked with
+amazement, and fancied he must have lost his senses. "What is this you
+require of me? would you poison your wife, O Syaad Harshim, with the filth
+from your skin, the accumulation of many days' labour in the jungles? art
+thou mad, to ask thy wife a request so unheard of?"
+
+'"Listen to me, wife," said the Syaad, in gentle terms; "you profess to
+love, honour, and respect me, as your faithful, lawful husband; pray can
+the dirt from my body be more offensive to your palate than the scum of
+Nadir Shaah, whom you only know by name? You would have accepted the
+filthy offerings of a cruel man, who plundered and sacrificed his victims
+to obtain the treasures he possesses;--you would not have scrupled to
+obtain your future sustenance by the coins of Nadir Shaah, gained as they
+were by the spilling of human blood? Is this your love for Syaad Harshim?"
+The wife threw herself at her husband's feet, when his speech was finished:
+"Pardon me, my dear husband! pardon my ignorance and self-love; I see
+myself disgraced by harbouring one wish for more than is gained by honest
+industry. No longer have I any desire for the gold of Nadir Shaah.
+Contented as yourself, my dear, good husband! I will continue to labour
+for the honest bread that sustains, nor ever again desire my condition to
+be changed."'
+
+The Woodman, Syaad Harshim, lived to a great age; many a tear hath fallen
+on his grave from the good pilgrims visiting the shrine of Ali, near which
+he was buried; and his resting place is reverenced to this day by the
+passing traveller of his own faith.
+
+
+[1] _Kafilah_.
+
+[2] The _burqa'_: see drawing in Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, p. 95.
+
+[3] Bokhara.
+
+[4] _The Origin of the Sikhs_, by H. Colebrooke, Esq., gives a faithful
+    picture of those warlike people. [The best account of their beliefs
+    is by M. Macauliffe, _The Sikh Religion_, Oxford, 1909.]
+
+
+[5]  Yahya. On the capture of Damascus by the Muhammadans, the
+    churches were equally divided between the Christians and their
+    conquerors. The great Cathedral of St. John was similarly divided,
+    and for eighty years the two religions worshipped under the same
+    roof.--Arnold, _The Preaching of Islam_, p. 50.
+
+[6] A vulgar corruption of Jame' Masjid, the Cathedral Mosque.
+
+[7] On the taboos attached to the sanctuary, see Burton, _Pilgrimage_,
+    i. 379 f.
+
+[8] At-Ta'if, meaning 'circumambulation'. When Adam settled at Mecca,
+    finding the country barren, he prayed to Allah to supply him with a
+    piece of fertile land. Immediately a mountain appeared, which, having
+    circumambulated the Ka'aba, settled itself down eastward of Mecca.
+    Hence it was called Kita min Sham, 'a piece of Syria,' whence it
+    came. (Burton, ii. 336.) 'Its fertile lands produce the fruits of
+    Syria in the midst of the Arabian desert' ( Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_,
+    vi. 255).
+
+[9] At Mecca are 'evident signs, with the standing place of Abraham; and
+    he who enters it is safe' _(Koran_, iii. 90). On the north side of
+    the Ka'aba, just by its door, is a slight hollow in the ground, lined
+    with marble. The spot is called Mi'jan, and it is supposed to be the
+    place where Abraham and Ishmael kneaded the chalk which they used in
+    building the Ka'aba: the stone, with the mark of Abraham's feet, is
+    shown.--Burckhardt, quoted by Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, p. 337;
+    Burton, ii. 311; Sale, _Preliminary Discourse_, p. 84.
+
+[10] The Asiatics, generally, have faith in certain properties of chemical
+    productions to alter the nature of the common to the precious metals.
+    I have often witnessed the anxious exertions of Natives in India, who
+    try all sorts of experiments in alchemy, expecting to succeed; but I
+    have never known any other issue from the many laborious efforts of
+    individuals than waste of time and property in these absurd schemes.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[11] One of the best-known versions of this famous tale is found in _The
+    Decameron_ of Boccaccio, Day 5, novel 9. It goes back to Buddhist
+    times, and is told of Hatim Tai, the model of Oriental
+    liberality. For numerous parallels, see A.C. Lee, _The Decameron of
+    Boccaccio, its Sources and Analogues_, 1909, pp. 170 ff.
+
+[12] _Labada_, 'a rain coat, wrapper'.
+
+
+[13] This is probably some local tradition, of which no record appears in
+    travellers' accounts of the Ka'aba.
+
+[14] On the north-west side of the Ka'aba is a water-spout, called
+    Mi'zabu'r-Rahmah, 'the spout of Mercy'. It is made of gold, and was
+    sent from Constantinople in A.D. 1573. It carries the rain-water from
+    the roof, and discharges it on the grave of Ishmael.--Hughes,
+    _Dictionary of Islam_, pp. 257, 337.
+
+[15] The Sharif, 'honourable,' is the local ruler of Mecca and the
+    Hajaz: see _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, xvii. 952; Burton,
+    _Pilgrimage_, ii. 3.
+
+[16] _As-Salamu-'alai-kum_, 'Peace be with you!'
+
+[17] Nadir Shah, born a shepherd, A.D. 1687, aided Shah Tahmasp
+    against Ashraf, leader of the Afghans, defeated him, and restored
+    his master in 1730. Afterwards he deposed Tahmasp, and raised his
+    infant son to the throne of Persia, under the title of 'Abbas III.
+    But he continued to rule the country, and on the death of 'Abbas in
+    1736 he became king. He marched on India in 1739, defeated the Emperor
+    Muhammad on the historic field of Panipat, sacked Delhi, and
+    perpetrated a horrible massacre. He returned to Persia laden with
+    spoil, but his tyranny excited the hostility of the nobles, and he was
+    assassinated in 1747, and buried at Mashhad.
+
+[18] Sayyid Hashim.
+
+[19] _Alkhalaq_, Turkish, 'a coat with sleeves'.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER X
+
+  The Zuckhaut (God's portion).--Syaads restricted the benefit of this
+  charity.--The Sutkah.--The Emaum's Zaumunee (protection).--The Tenths,
+  or Syaads' Due.--Mussulmauns attribute thanks to God only, for all
+  benefits conferred.--Extracts from the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'.--Mahumud's
+  advice.--His precepts tend to inculcate and encourage
+  charity.--Remarks on the benevolence of Mussulmauns.
+
+
+On the subject of Zuckhaut, commanded by Mahumud to his followers, I shall
+have little to remark;--the nature of the institute is intended to oblige
+mankind to share with the poor a due portion of those benefits they have
+received through the bounty of Divine Providence. Every Mussulmaun is
+expected by this law to set apart from his annual income one-fortieth part,
+denominated Zuckhaut (God's portion), for the sole benefit of the poor. I
+believe there are not many,--judging by what I have witnessed among the
+Mussulmaun population of Hindoostaun,--who do not expend a much larger
+portion of their yearly income in charitable donations, than the enjoined
+fortieth part.
+
+The poor Syaads are not allowed to receive any relief from 'the
+Zuckhaut'[1]; they being of the Prophet's blood, are not to be included
+with the indigent for whom these donations are generally set apart. The
+strict Mussulmaun of the Sheah sect usually deducts one-tenth[2] from
+whatever money comes into his possession as 'the Syaads' due', to whom it
+is distributed, as proper objects present themselves to his knowledge;
+much in the same way as the tribe of Levi are entitled to the tenth of the
+produce from their brethren of Israel by the Mosaic law.
+
+The Syaads are likewise restricted from accepting many other charitable
+offerings,--sutkah for instance--by which is meant the several things
+composing peace-offerings, offerings in atonement, &c. The better to
+explain this I must here describe some of the habits of the Mussulmaun
+population:--When any person escapes from a threatened danger, or accident,
+their friends send offerings of corn, oil, and money; all that is thus
+sent to the person preserved, must be touched by his hand and then
+distributed amongst the poor and needy.
+
+If any member of a family be ill, a tray is filled with corn, and some
+money laid on it: it is then placed under the bed of the sick person for
+the night; in the morning this is to be distributed amongst the poor. Some
+people cook bread, and place it in the same way with money under the bed
+of the sick. All these things are called Sutkah[3] in whatever form they
+are planned, which is done in a variety of ways; and, when distributed to
+the poor, are never to be offered to, nor allowed to be accepted by, the
+Syaad race. The scapegoat, an animal in good health and without blemish,
+is another offering of the Sutkah denomination: a Syaad is not allowed to
+be one of the number to run after the goat released from the sick chamber.
+
+When any one is going a journey, the friends send bands of silk or riband,
+in the folds of which are secured silver or gold coins; these are to be
+tied on the arm of the person projecting the journey, and such offerings
+are called 'Emaum Zaumunee',[4] or the Emaum's protection. Should the
+traveller be distressed on his journey, he may, without blame, make use of
+any such deposits tied on his arm, but only in emergencies; none such
+occurring, he is expected, when his journey is accomplished in safety, to
+divide all these offerings of his friends amongst righteous people. The
+Syaads may accept these gifts, such being considered holy,--paak[5] is the
+original word used, literally clean.
+
+They believe the Emaums have knowledge of such things as pertain to the
+followers of Mahumud and his descendants. Thus they will say, when
+desiring blessings and comforts for another person, 'Emaum Zaumunee,
+Zaumunee toom kero!'[6] may the Emaums protect you, and give you their
+safe support!
+
+The tenths, or Syaads' dues, are never appropriated to any other use than
+the one designed. Thus they evince their respect to the descendants of
+Mahumud; by these tenths the poorer race of Syaads are mainly supported;
+they rarely embark in trade, and never can have any share in banking, or
+such professions as would draw them into dealings of usury. They are
+chiefly employed as writers, moonshies,[7] maulvees, and moollahs, doctors
+of law, and readers of the Khoraun; they are allowed to enter the army, to
+accept offices of state; and if they possess any employment sufficient to
+support themselves and family, the true Syaad will not accept from his
+neighbours such charitable donations as may be of service to the poor
+brethren of his race. The Syaads, however poor, are seldom known to
+intrude their distresses, patiently abiding until relief be sent through
+the interposing power of divine goodness.
+
+Such is the way in which they receive the blessings showered by the
+orderings of the Almighty, that one never hears a Mussulmaun offer thanks
+to his earthly benefactor, in return for present benefits; but 'Shooghur
+Allah!'[8] all thanks to God! I was somewhat surprised when first
+acquainted with these people, that they accepted any kind of service done
+them with the same salutation as when first meeting in the morning, viz.
+salaam, and a bow. I inquired of the Meer if there was no word in
+Hindoostaunie that could express the 'Thank you!' so common to us in
+England? He bade me remark that the Mussulmauns return thanks to God
+whenever they receive a benefit from mortals, whom they consider but as
+the agents appointed by God to distribute His gifts. 'All thanks to God!'
+is repeated with every benefit received; and this follows every meal or
+cup of water as naturally, as to eat or to drink is preceded by 'Bis ma
+Allah!'[9]--In the name, or to the praise of God!
+
+Amongst the many choice things I have gleaned from the work so often
+quoted in my Letters, viz. 'Hyaatool Kaaloob', the following, through my
+Meer's aid in translation, may here be inserted.
+
+MAHUMUD'S ADVICE
+
+'Observe, ye faithful, there are five things most acceptable to God the
+Creator, from man, His creature:--
+
+1st. 'A generous gift, made when you have the greatest necessity yourself
+for that which you give away.
+
+2nd. 'All gifts that are free-will offerings of the heart, neither
+expecting nor desiring your bounty, should be rewarded, either by returns
+or acknowledgements.
+
+3rd. 'To be most humble, when in the enjoyment of the greatest prosperity.
+
+4th. 'To promote peace, when the reason for indulging your anger is most
+enticing.
+
+5th. 'To forgive freely from the heart, when the power to revenge is
+present with you.'
+
+You perceive a system of charitable feeling is inculcated by the laws of
+Mahumud; and in every-day practice it is found to be the prominent feature
+in their general habits. It is common with the meanest of the people to
+offer a share of their food to any one calling upon them at meal-time. I
+have seen this amiable trait of character in all classes of the people;
+and often on a river voyage, or a land journey, when the servants cook
+their dinner under a tree or by the bank of the river, if a dog, which
+they consider an unclean animal, advances within their reach, a portion of
+their food is thrown to him with that kindliness of feeling which induces
+them to share with the hungry, whatever gifts they receive from the Author
+of all good.[10] Except in seasons of famine, no one need despair of
+having sufficient to support nature, wherever the Mussulmauns congregate.
+I speak it to their credit, and in justice to their character.
+
+
+[1] See p. 67.
+
+[2] Known among Indian Musalmans as _dasaundh_, 'tithes'.
+
+[3] _Sadaqah_, used in the Koran (ii. 265) for almsgiving. In India the
+    term is applied to the custom by which money, clothes, grain, &c., are
+    waved over a patient, or only shown to him, and then given away to
+    beggars; or they are placed near the foot of a tree, on the bank of a
+    river, or where four roads meet, and are then supposed to carry away
+    the disease with them.--Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, p. 252.
+
+[4] _Imam zamini_, 'a gift to the guardian saint'. When about to
+    go on a journey, or when any misfortune befalls a person, a coin or
+    metal ring is tied up in a cloth coloured with turmeric, in the name
+    of the Imam Zamin, and worn on his left arm. When the traveller
+    reaches his destination, or gets rid of his affliction, it is taken
+    off, and its value, with some money in addition, is spent in food or
+    sweetmeats, which are offered in the name of the saint.--Jaffur
+    Shurreef, p. 182.
+
+[5] _Pak_.
+
+[6] _Imam Zamani, Zamani tum karo_.
+
+[7] _Munshi_, 'a writer, secretary'.
+
+[8] _Shukr Allah_.
+
+[9] _Bi'smi'llah_: the full form is
+    _bi'smi'llah'r-rahmani'r-rahim_, 'In the name of Allah,
+    the Compassionate, the Merciful!' These latter titles are omitted when
+    going into battle, or when slaughtering animals.
+
+[10] The Prophet ordered that when a dog drinks from a vessel, it must be
+    washed seven times, the first cleansing being with earth. But the dog
+    of the Seven Sleepers will be admitted into Heaven.--_Koran_,
+    xviii. 17.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XI
+
+  Mussulmaun festivals.--Buckrah Eade.--Ishmael believed to have been
+  offered in sacrifice by Abraham and not Isaac.--Descent of the
+  Mussulmauns from Abraham.--The Eade-gaarh.--Presentation of
+  Nuzzas.--Elephants.--Description of the Khillaut (robe of
+  honour).--Customs on the day of Buckrah Eade.--Nou-Roze (New Year's
+  Day).--Manner of its celebration.--The Bussund (Spring-colour).--The
+  Sah-bund.--Observances during this month.--Festival of the New
+  Moon.--Superstition of the Natives respecting the influence of the
+  Moon.--Their practices during an eclipse.--Supposed effects of the
+  Moon on a wound.--Medicinal application of lime in
+  Hindoostaun.--Observance of Shubh-burraat.
+
+
+An account of the Mussulmaun festivals, I imagine, deserves a Letter; for
+in many of them I have been able to trace, not only the habits and manners
+of the people with whom I was sojourning, but occasionally marks of their
+particular faith have been strongly developed in these observances, to
+most of which they attach considerable importance. Buckrah Eade, for
+instance, is a festival about as interesting to the Natives, as
+Christmas-day is to the good people of England; and the day is celebrated
+amongst all classes and denominations of Mussulmauns with remarkable zeal
+and energy.
+
+The particular event which gives rise to Buckrah Eade[1] is the well-known
+circumstance of Abraham offering his son in sacrifice to God. The
+Mussulmauns, however, insist that the son so offered was Ishmael, and not
+Isaac, as our Scriptures declare. I have before remarked that I had
+frequent arguments with the learned men of that persuasion on this subject,
+which provoked a minute investigation of their most esteemed authors, to
+decide between our opinions. The author of 'The Hyaatool Kaaloob' advances
+many authorities, which the Mussulmauns deem conclusive, all of whom
+declare that Ishmael was the son demanded and offered in sacrifice; and
+two only, I think, of the many names that author quotes, were disposed to
+doubt whether it was Isaac or Ishmael. An evident proof, I think, that on
+some former occasion there had existed a difference of opinion on this
+subject among men of their persuasion. The result of the present inquiry,
+however, is that they believe Ishmael was the offering and not Isaac;
+whilst I remain equally convinced of the correctness of our sacred book.
+
+The Mussulmauns, I should remark, as well as the Jews, trace their origin
+to Abraham, the former through Ishmael, and the latter through Isaac; and
+it is more than probable that to this circumstance may be attributed the
+decided prejudice of opinion, in favour of Ishmael being the person
+offered in sacrifice. Whether this be the case or not, these children of
+Abraham annually testify their reverence for their progenitor, and respect
+for his faith towards God, in the way most congenial to their particular
+ideas of honouring the memory of their forefathers.
+
+I have thus attempted to sketch the origin of the festival, it shall now
+be my task to describe the way in which the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun
+celebrate Buckrah Eade.
+
+On this day all classes of people, professing 'the faith' sacrifice
+animals, according to their circumstances; some offer up camels, others
+sheep and goats, lambs or kids. It is a day of religious veneration, and
+therefore by the pious prayers are added to sacrifice;--it is also a day
+of joyful remembrances, consequently one of festivity amongst all ranks of
+the Mussulmaun population.
+
+Kings, Princes, or Nuwaubs, with the whole strength of their
+establishments, celebrate the event, by going in great state to an
+appointed place, which is designated 'The Eade-Gaarh'[2] where the animals
+designed for immediate sacrifice are previously conveyed. On the arrival
+of the cavalcade at the Eade-gaarh, the head Moollah reads the form of
+prayer appointed for the occasion, and then presents the knife to the
+royal personage, who with his own hand sheds the blood of the camel he
+offers in sacrifice, repeating an impressive prayer as he presents the
+steel to the throat of the animal. The exact moment of the King's
+sacrifice is announced by signal, when a grand salute from the artillery
+and infantry commences the day's rejoicing.
+
+An account of the procession on these occasions may be interesting to my
+readers, though no description can give an adequate idea of its imposing
+appearance. I have witnessed the Buckrah Eade celebrations at Lucknow,
+where expense and good taste are neither wanted nor spared, to do honour
+to the great occasion.
+
+The several persons forming the King's suite, whether nobles or menials,
+together with the military, both horse and foot, are all dressed in their
+best apparel. The elephants have undergone a thorough cleansing in the
+river, their hides have been well oiled, which gives a jetty hue to the
+surface, and their heads painted with bright colours, according to the
+fancy of their keepers; their housings and trappings are the most costly
+and brilliant the possessors can procure, some with gold, others with
+silver howdahs (seats), and draperies of velvet or fine cloth embroidered
+and fringed with gold.
+
+The horses of individuals, and those of the irregular troops, are, on this
+occasion, caparisoned with embroidered horsecloths and silver ornaments,
+necklaces of silver or gold; or in the absence of these costly adornings,
+the less affluent substitute large coloured beads and tufts of variegated
+silk on their horses' necks. Many of the horses have stars and crescents
+painted upon the chest and haunches: the tail and mane are dyed red with
+mayndhie.[3]
+
+The procession is formed in the following order: Fifty camels, in pairs,
+carrying swivels, and each attended by two gunners and a camel-driver; the
+men dressed in clean white dresses, with turbans and sashes of red and
+green: the trappings of the camel are composed of broadcloth of the same
+colours. Next to these is a park of artillery, the men in new regimentals
+of blue, faced with red and yellow lace. Two troops of horse soldiers, in
+new regimentals, scarlet cloth unrurkas[4] (coats) and white trousers,
+with high-crowned caps of lambskin, similar to the Persian caps: these
+horsemen have black belts, and are armed with pistols in the holsters, a
+sabre and lance.
+
+Then follows a regiment of nujeebs[5] (foot soldiers), their jackets red,
+with small cap turban of black leather ornamented with the kirrich[6] or
+dirk (part of the armorial bearings of the House of Oude): their trousers
+reach no lower than the hams, where they are ornamented with black points
+turning upwards on the white, leaving the thighs and legs perfectly bare.
+The dunkah[7] (kettle drums) on a horse, richly ornamented with scarlet
+cloth drapery, embroidered and fringed with gold, the rider dressed in
+scarlet and gold, with a turban to correspond, both being ornamented with
+the royal insignia,--a fish.[8]
+
+The elephant carriages, containing first his Majesty and the Resident, the
+others conveying the Prime Minister and the favoured nobles of his
+Majesty's suite, form an impressive feature in the cortège, from their
+splendour and novelty. The King's carriage is composed chiefly of silver,
+open on every side, with a canopy of crimson velvet, embroidered and
+fringed with gold, the curtains and lining to correspond; this carriage is
+drawn by four elephants, exactly of one size (the rest have but two), each
+very richly attired in velvet and gold coverings. The King and his suite
+are very splendidly dressed in the Native costume. The chowries and
+afthaadah are flourished before him, and on each side; the royal carriage
+is guarded by the irregular horse in great numbers, and immediately
+followed by led horses, very richly caparisoned, their grooms neatly
+dressed in white, with turbans of red and green. To these succeed the
+royal naalkie,[9] a species of conveyance supported by bearers,
+constructed of beautifully wrought gold; the bearers in loose scarlet
+coats, embroidered with gold, bearing the royal insignia on their coats
+and turbans. A gold palkie, supported in the same style; an elegant state
+carriage, with eight black horses in hand, the coachman (a European)
+dressed in scarlet, with a cocked-hat and staff feather.
+
+
+Hurkaarahs (running messengers), chobdhaahs with gold and silver staffs,
+are seen on either side and in front of the King's carriage, reiterating
+the King's titles and honours as they proceed. Then follow the English
+gentlemen composing the King's suite, in their court dresses, on elephants.
+To them succeed the Native nobility, great officers of state, &c., on many
+elephants,--I should think more than fifty,--and the whole followed by
+military, both horse and foot. The procession has an imposing effect,
+particularly when viewed from an open space. The regiments have each their
+colours unfurled, and their bands of music playing English pieces. I have
+often thought if our theatrical managers could witness some of these
+splendid processions, they might profit by representing on the stage the
+grand exhibition of an Eastern monarch, which loses much of its splendour
+by my indifferent powers of description.
+
+After the ceremony at the Eade-gaarh has concluded, the King and his suite
+return in the same well-arranged order, and arriving at his palace, enters
+the throne-room, where being seated, he receives nuzzas in due form,
+presented in turn by every person belonging to the court, whether
+relations, nobles, courtiers, dependants, servants, or slaves; every
+person observing a proper etiquette in their approach to the throne, the
+inferiors keeping back until their superiors retire,--which each one does
+immediately after presenting his nuzza; thus confusion is prevented in the
+hall of audience.
+
+As a description of the ceremony of presenting nuzzas, on such occasions,
+may be acceptable to some of my friends, I will describe that which I
+witnessed at the Court of Oude.
+
+The King was seated on his throne of pure gold, dressed in a very costly
+habit of Persian velvet, embroidered with gold; on his neck, valuable
+haarhs (necklaces) of diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds, were
+suspended in many rows, reaching from the neck nearly to the waist.
+
+The throne is a flat surface, about two yards square, raised about two
+feet from the floor, upon three sides of it is a railing; a square canopy,
+supported by poles, is attached to the four corners of the throne, which,
+together with the poles, are formed of wood, and cased over with pure gold,
+into which are set precious stones of great value. The canopy and cushions,
+on which the King takes his seat, are of crimson velvet, very richly
+embroidered with gold and pearls; a deep fringe of pearls of a good size
+finishes the border of the canopy. The chattah is of corresponding costly
+materials (crimson velvet and gold), fringed also with red pearls.
+
+The King's crown is elegantly formed, richly studded with diamonds, and
+ornamented with handsome plumes of the birds of Paradise. Over his head
+was supported the velvet chattah. On either side of the throne stood a
+nobleman with chowries of peacock's-feathers in gold handles, which they
+kept waving continually over the King's person.
+
+To the right of the throne were gilt chairs with velvet seats placed for
+the accommodation of the Resident and his lady, who were accompanied by
+many English ladies and gentlemen standing, as also by the European
+gentlemen attached to the King's suite: the latter, in their court dresses
+of puce cloth, richly embroidered with gold, had a very good effect,
+mingled with the well-dressed lady-visitors of the Resident.
+
+To the left of the throne stood the Native gentlemen holding high offices
+in the Court of Oude, each richly dressed in the Asiatic costume.
+
+At the King's feet stood the Vizier (Prime Minister), whose business it is,
+on such occasions, to deposit the nuzzas on the throne after they have
+been accepted by his Majesty.
+
+As the company advanced the head Chamberlain announced the name and rank
+of each person in the presence of the King. The second Chamberlain
+directed such persons, after presenting the nuzza, the way they must
+retire from the hall.
+
+The nuzzas of the first nobility consisted of twenty-one gold mohurs[10];
+those of less exalted persons were proportioned to their rank and
+circumstances; whilst servants and slaves, with inferior dependants of the
+Court, tendered their humble tribute of respect in rupees of silver.
+
+The person presenting has the offering placed on a clean white folded
+kerchief; he advances with his head bowed low, until within ten paces of
+the throne; he then stands erect for a few seconds, with his hands folded
+and held forward, after which he bows his head very low three times, and
+each time places his open hand to his forehead,--this is called
+'salaaming'; this done, he advances to the foot of the throne, repeats the
+three salaams, then presents with both hands the nuzza on the kerchief,
+which the King touches with, his hand, and the Vizier receives and
+deposits with the collected heap by the side of his Majesty.
+
+When the ceremony of presenting nuzzas has concluded, the King rises and
+advances with the Resident to the centre of the audience hall, where the
+person in charge of the haarhs[11] is in attendance with several of these
+marks of distinction, one of which the King selects and places with his
+own hands over the head of the Resident; the Resident then takes one and
+places it on the King in a similar way. Should the Vizier be in favour at
+this time, he is invested with the haarh, both by his Majesty and the
+Resident; but if, unfortunately for him, he does not enjoy his royal
+master's confidence, he takes this opportunity of testifying his
+dissatisfaction by omitting the favour to his Vizier. The haarh is
+actually of very little value but as a badge of distinction peculiar to
+Native courts, to which the Natives attach so much importance, that I
+wonder not at their anxiety to be honoured with this distinguishing mark
+of the King's satisfaction.
+
+European visitors, both male and female, are generally adorned with haarhs
+on these occasions. The King then conducts the Resident to the
+entrance,--when taking leave, he pours otta[12] on his hands, with the
+'Khodah Afiz!'[13] (God be with you!) and sometimes out of compliment to
+the Resident, his Majesty offers otta also to each of the English visitors,
+as they pass him at the door.
+
+On these great court days, the Vizier's nuzza is usually of great
+value,--sometimes a lac of rupees has been presented, when the Vizier is
+much in favour, who is sure to receive ten times the value of his nuzza
+ere the day is passed. When this large sum is presented, the Minister has
+his one hundred bags (each containing a thousand rupees), covered with
+crimson silk, and tied with silver ribands, placed on each side the throne
+prior to the King's arrival; who, on seeing this proof of his faithful
+servant's attachment, condescends to embrace him in the presence of the
+assembled court--an honour of vast magnitude in the estimation of Natives.
+
+The King confers favour on, as well as receives homage from, his subjects,
+on the day of Buckrah Eade. On some, titles or other distinctions are
+conferred; to others presents, according to his good will and pleasure:
+many receive khillauts; and should there be an unfortunate omission, in
+the distribution of princely munificence, that person understands to his
+sorrow, that he is out of favour, without needing to be told so by word of
+mouth.
+
+The title of Khaun, Nuwaub, Rajah, or any other distinction conferred by
+the King, is accompanied by the dress of honour, and often by elephants,
+horses, or the particular kind of Native palkie which are alone used by
+princes and the nobility. The elephant is always given ready furnished
+with the several necessary appendages, as silver howdah, embroidered
+jhewls[14] (draperies), &c.; and the horse richly caparisoned for riding.
+
+The naalkie and palkie are vehicles conferred on Native gentlemen with
+their titles, which cannot be used by any persons than those who have
+received the grant from their Sovereign; and there is quite as much
+ambition to be thus distinguished in a Native Court, as may be traced
+amongst the aspirants for 'the orders' in the several European states.
+
+Though the naalkie and palkie are restricted to the use of privileged
+persons, all are allowed the services of the elephant. I knew a professed
+beggar, who made his diurnal tour through the city of Lucknow on one. A
+beggar, however, in Native estimation, is not the despicable creature he
+is in European opinion; a degree of veneration is always evinced towards
+men, who live on the casual bounty of their fellow mortals, and profess
+not to have either a worldly calling or other means of support. The beggar,
+I allude to, was called Shaah Jhee[15]; he had originally been a
+travelling mendicant, and made a visit to Lucknow, when the late King was
+a young man, whom he met by accident outside the town; and, I believe,
+without knowing to whom he was speaking, predicted some favourable
+circumstances which should attend him eventually; the young prince then
+disclosed himself to the beggar, and promised him if his predictions were
+verified, he would reward him in the way he wished. Shaah Jhee left the
+Oude district, and travelled over most parts of Hindoostaun. Returning
+after many years' absence to Lucknow, he found the prince seated on the
+throne of his ancestors, and watching for a favourable opportunity to
+present himself, made his claims to the sovereign, who, remembering the
+circumstance and his promise, conferred the required reward--to be allowed
+to demand five cowries daily from every shopkeeper in the city of Lucknow.
+The King added to this humble demand a house to reside in, and the
+elephant on which he went to collect his revenue. Eighty-five cowries
+(shells) are valued at one pice, or a halfpenny; yet so vast is this
+capital of Oude, that Shaah Jhee was in the receipt of a handsome daily
+allowance, by this apparently trifling collection.
+
+Most of the respectable gentlemen in Lucknow maintain an elephant for
+their own use, where it is almost as common to meet them as horses. Though
+most persons, I observe, avoid falling in with, the royal cortège, (which
+is always announced by the sound of the dunkah), unless they are disposed
+to court the King's observation; then they draw up their elephant, and
+oblige the animal to kneel down whilst the King passes on, the owner
+standing in his howdah to make salaams; others, I have seen, dismount in
+time, and stand in a humble posture, with the hands folded and the head
+bowed low, doing reverence and attracting his Majesty's notice as he
+passes on. These little acts of ceremonious respect are gratifying to the
+King, and are frequently the means of advancing the views of the subject
+to his favour.
+
+The khillauts, presented by the King, vary in the number of the articles
+composing the gift, as well as in the quality. The personal rank, and
+sometimes the degree of estimation in which the receiver is held, is
+defined by the value and number of an individual's khillaut. I have known
+some gentlemen tenacious to a foible, about the nature of the khillaut
+that could consistently be accepted; I have heard it even expressed, 'I
+shall be disgraced in the eyes of the world, if my khillaut has not the
+full complement usually conferred on men of my rank'. It is the honour
+they value, not the intrinsic worth of the articles, for it is no uncommon
+thing to find them distributing the dress of honour amongst their
+dependants, on the same day they have received it.
+
+The splendid articles composing khillauts are as follows: swords with
+embroidered belts, the handle and scabbard either enamelled or embossed
+silver, often set with precious stones; the most inferior have silver
+mountings and velvet scabbards; shields studded with silver; kirrich
+(dirk), the handle and sheath equally as rich as the swords; embroidered
+or gold cloth chupkunds[16] (coats); shawl-stuff labaadahs[17] (pelisses),
+trimmed with sable; turbans of shawl or muslin; ornaments for the turban
+of diamonds and emeralds, the inferior of paste; strings of pearls and
+emeralds for the neck; shawls, always in pairs, of more or less value;
+shawl-kerchiefs; shawl cummerbunds[18] (girdles); shawl lahaafs[19]
+(counterpanes); gold cloth, gold and silver muslins, and shawl stuff, in
+pieces, each being sufficient to form a dress; Benares silks, or rich
+satin for trousers; pieces of fine embroidered muslin for shirts. These
+are the usual articles of value given in khillauts to the most exalted
+favourites. In some instances the King confers one hundred and one pieces
+in a khillaut; in others seventy-five, and down to five articles, which is
+the lowest number given in this much-prized dress of honour. In a khillaut
+of five pieces, I have observed, generally, a coarser kind of gold cloth
+dress, a coloured muslin turban, a pair of coarse shawls, a coarse shawl
+romall[20] (kerchief), and a girdle. I have also observed, that the higher
+the numbers rise, the quality of the articles increased in value;
+consequently, when we hear of any one being invested with the highest
+number, we calculate that each piece is of the very best quality and
+fabric.
+
+When khillauts are conferred, the investiture usually takes place in the
+King's presence, who sometimes condescends to place one of the articles on
+the receiver with his own hands; at other times he merely touches the
+turban with his hand, and the individuals are clothed by the Prime
+Minister. After receiving the khillaut, each person approaches the throne
+and does homage to the King, presenting a nuzza in accordance with his
+rank, and the value of the khillaut.
+
+The Revenue Collectors and Zemindhaars[21] (landlords of farms) crowd to
+the Court on these days, to testify their respect and share in the honours
+distributed with a liberal hand. These persons may well be solicitous to
+receive this badge of distinction, which they find increases their
+influence over the Ryotts[22] (cultivators).
+
+On the morning of Buckrah Eade, the King gives a public breakfast at
+Lucknow, to the Resident and his suite, and to such of the Native nobility
+as are privileged to 'the chair'[23] at the royal banquets. The breakfast
+concluded, many varieties of sports commence, as elephant-fighting, tiger
+sports, &c.[24] The entertainment is got up with great magnificence,
+neither expense nor trouble being spared to render the festivities of the
+day conspicuous.
+
+After the Resident and his party have retired, the King returns to his
+private apartments, where the forms of state are thrown aside with the
+splendid robes; and the ease and comfort of real Asiatic life is again
+indulged in, without the parade so studiously observed in public, as being
+essential to the sovereign's dignity. The trammels of state must indeed be
+irksome to those who indulge in that sort of luxurious ease which forms
+the chief comfort of Native life.
+
+The evening at Court is passed by the King and his favourite courtiers,
+with music and the performances of dancing-girls; a variety of fire-work
+exhibitions; the witticisms of the Court-jesters, and such other
+amusements as are suited to Asiatic taste.
+
+The magnificent style of celebrating Buckrah Eade at Lucknow is perhaps
+unequalled by any other Native Court now existing in Hindoostaun. The
+rejoicings on this festival are not confined to the higher classes alone;
+but it is a period of equal interest to every individual of the Mussulmaun
+community. The custom of the Court is imitated by the subjects in their
+several grades, each striving to do honour to the day according to their
+ability. The religious classes add, to their usual Namaaz, the appointed
+prayer for the occasion of Buckrah Eade.
+
+The rich send presents of goats and sheep to their neighbours and to the
+poor, so that the meanest of the people are enabled to offer sacrifice and
+rejoice in the good things of which they partake: new suits of clothes are
+also distributed to the dependants of the family and to the poor. In short,
+on this day, there seems a spirit of benevolence abroad, that is even
+remarkable beyond the general generosity of their natural character, as
+all who have any thing to share will assuredly, on this occasion, impart a
+blessing to the needy, and gratify their friends and acquaintances.
+
+The bride and bridegroom elect exchange presents of goats, &c.; the tutor
+writes a copy of verses on the day, and presents it to his pupil; the
+pupil in return sends his tutor a dress and money to enable him to keep
+Eade with his family.
+
+The ladies dress in their most costly jewels and apparel to receive or pay
+visits. The children have their sports and amusements. Whenever I have
+entered a Native house on these days, all seemed cheerful and happy, and
+enjoying themselves in whatever way was most congenial to their particular
+tastes; 'every one must be cheerful (they say) on Buckrah Eade'.
+
+On this day, millions of animals are sacrificed in remembrance of
+Abraham's faith. I have often thought how striking is the similarity
+between the Mosaic and Mussulmaun institutes,--indeed my recollections of
+Scripture history have frequently been realized in the views I have had of
+the domestic habits of the Mussulmauns. They are forbidden the use of
+unclean animals; the swine is equally abominable to Mussulmauns as to the
+Jews; neither are they less scrupulous in discarding from their kitchen
+any kind of animal food prohibited by their laws, or which has not been
+killed by one of their faith. In this process the person, who is to slay,
+turns the animal's head towards Mecca, repeats the short appointed prayer,
+and with one plunge the animal has ceased to feel: they are expert in the
+art of despatching life, so that the animal's sufferings may not be
+protracted unnecessarily;--an amiable trait of character and worthy of
+imitation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+'Nou-Roze'[25] (New Year's Day) is a Festival of Eade of no mean
+importance in the estimation of Mussulmaun society.
+
+The exact period of commencing the Mussulmaun new year is the very moment
+of the sun's entering the sign Aries. This is calculated by those
+practical astronomers, who are in the service of most great men in Native
+cities;--I should tell you they have not the benefit of published
+almanacks as in England,--and according to the hour of the day or night
+when the sun passes into that particular sign, so are they directed in the
+choice of a colour to be worn in their garments on this Eade: if at
+midnight, the colour would be dark puce, almost a black; if at mid-day,
+the colour would be the brightest crimson. Thus to the intermediate hours
+are given a shade of either colour applicable to the time of the night or
+the day when the sun enters the sign Aries; and whatever be the colour to
+suit the hour of Nou-Roze, all classes wear the day's livery, from the
+King to the meanest subject in the city. The King, on his throne, sits in
+state to receive congratulations and nuzzas from his nobles, courtiers and
+dependants. 'Mabaarukh Nou-Roze!'[26] (May the New Year be fortunate!) are
+the terms of salutation exchanged by all classes of society, the King
+himself setting the example. The day is devoted to amusements, a public
+breakfast at the palace, sending presents, exchanging visits, &c.
+
+The trays of presents prepared by the ladies for their friends are
+tastefully set out, and the work of many days' previous arrangement. Eggs
+are boiled hard, some of these are stained in colours resembling our
+mottled papers; others are neatly painted in figures and devices; many are
+ornamented with gilding; every lady evincing her own peculiar taste in the
+prepared eggs for 'Nou-Roze'. All kinds of dried fruits and nuts,
+confectionary and cakes, are numbered amongst the necessary articles for
+this day's offering: they are set out in small earthen plates, lacquered
+over to resemble silver, on which is placed coloured paper, cut out in
+curious devices (an excellent substitute for vine leaves) laid on the
+plate to receive the several articles forming 'Nou-Roze' presents.
+
+Amongst the young people these trays are looked forward to with child-like
+anxiety. The ladies rival each other in their display of novelty and good
+taste, both in the eatables and the manner of setting them off with effect.
+
+The religious community have prayers read in their family, and by them it
+is considered both a necessary duty and a propitious commencement to bring
+in the new year by 'prayer and praises'.
+
+When it is known that the Nou-Roze will occur by daylight, the ladies have
+a custom of watching for the moment the year shall commence by a fresh
+rose, which being plucked from the stalk is thrown into a basin of water,
+the eye downwards. They say, this rose turns over of itself towards the
+sun at the very moment of that luminary passing into the sign Aries. I
+have often found them thus engaged; but I never could say I witnessed the
+actual accomplishment of their prediction.
+
+The Nou-Roze teems with friendly tokens between the two families of a
+bride and bridegroom elect, whose interchange of presents are also
+strictly observed. The children receive gifts from their elders; their
+nurses reap a harvest from the day; the tutor writes an ode in praise of
+his pupil, and receives gifts from the child's parents; the servants and
+slaves are regaled with dainties and with presents from the superiors of
+the establishment; the poor are remembered with clothes, money and food;
+the ladies make and receive visits; and the domenie attend to play and
+sing in the zeenahnah. In short, the whole day is passed in cheerful
+amusements, suited to the retirement of a zeenahnah and the habits of the
+people.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is a festival observed at Lucknow called Bussund[27] (spring-colour).
+I should remark here, that almost all the trees of India have perpetual
+foliage; as the season approaches for the new leaves to sprout, the young
+buds force off the old leaves; and when the trees are thus clothed in
+their first delicate foliage, there is a yellow tinge in the colour which
+is denominated Bussund (Spring). A day is appointed to be kept under this
+title, and then every one wears the Bussund colour: no one would be
+admitted at Court without this badge of the day. The elephants, horses and
+camels of the King, or of his nobles, are all ornamented with the same
+colour on their trappings.
+
+The King holds a Court, gives a public breakfast, and exhibits sports with
+ferocious animals. The amusements of this day are chiefly confined to the
+Court: I have not observed much notice taken of it in private life.
+
+The last month of the periodical rains is called Sahbaund.[28] There is a
+custom observed by the Mussulmaun population, the origin of which has
+never been clearly explained to me; some say it is in remembrance of the
+Prophet Elisha or Elijah, and commences the first Friday of Sahbaund, and
+is followed up every succeeding Friday through this concluding month of
+the rainy season.[29]
+
+This ceremony may have had its origin with devout persons willing to
+honour or to invoke the Prophet Elijah, who, as our Scripture informs us,
+'prayed, and the clouds gave no rain for the space of three years; and
+again he prayed and the heavens were opened to his prayer'. Or in that of
+Elisha parting the waters with the mantle of Elijah, after succeeding him
+in the Prophetic office, 2 Kings ii. 14; or a still more probable event,
+calculated to excite the pious to some such annual notice as is observed
+with these people, in the same chapter, the twentieth and following verses,
+where we find it said of Elisha, 'And he said, Bring me a new cruse, and
+put salt therein. And they brought it to him. And he went forth unto the
+spring of the waters, and cast the salt in there, and said, Thus saith the
+Lord, I have healed these waters; there shall not be from thence any more
+dearth or barren land. So the waters were healed unto this day, according
+to the saying of Elisha which he spake.'
+
+The learned men call it a zeenahnah, or children's custom; but it is
+common to see children of all ages amongst the males, partake of, and
+enjoy the festival with as much glee as the females or their juniors.
+
+A bamboo frame is formed to the shape of a Chinese boat: this frame-work
+is hidden by a covering of gold and silver tissue, silk, or coloured
+muslin, bordered and neatly ornamented with silver paper. In this light
+bark many lamps are secreted, of common earthenware. A procession is
+formed to convey the tribute, called 'Elias ky Kishtee[30]', to the river.
+The servants of the family, soldiers, and a band of Native music attend in
+due order of march: the crowd attracted by this childish play is immense,
+increasing as they advance through the several streets on the way to the
+river, by all the idlers of the place.
+
+The kishtee (boat) is launched amidst a flourish of trumpets and drums,
+and the shouts of the populace; the small vessel, being first well lighted,
+by means of the secreted lamps, moves down gently with the stream. When at
+a little distance, on a broad river, in the stillness of evening, any
+one--who did not previously know how these little moving bodies of light
+were produced--might fancy such fairy scenes as are to be met with in the
+well-told fables of children's books in happy England.
+
+This custom, though strongly partaking of the superstitious, is not so
+blameable as that which I have known practised by some men of esteemed
+good understanding, who having a particular object in view, which they
+cannot attain by any human stratagem or contrivance, write petitions to
+the Emaum Mhidhie on Fridays, and by their own hands commit the paper to
+the river, with as much reverence as if they thought him present in the
+water to receive it. The petition is always written in the same respectful
+terms, as inferiors here well know how to address their superiors; and
+every succeeding Friday the petition is repeated until the object is
+accomplished, or the petitioner has no further inducement to offer one.
+
+I have made particular inquiries whether such sensible people (as I have
+seen thus engaged) placed any dependence on this mode of petitioning. The
+only answer I have received, is, 'Those who think proper thus to petition,
+certainly believe that it will be effectual, if they persevere in it.'
+
+The New Moon is a festival in the family of every good Mussulmaun.[31]
+They date the new moon from the evening it first become visible, and not
+as we do--from the moment it changes. The event is announced in Native
+cities by firing salutes from the field-pieces of Kings, Nuwaubs, &c.
+
+Amongst the religious people there is much preparation in bathing and
+changing the dress against the evening the moon is expected to be visible,
+and when the guns have announced that it is visible, they have the Khoraun
+brought, which they open at the passage where Mahumud praises God for this
+particular blessing. A small looking glass is then brought, on which
+passage it is placed, and the book held in such a position that the moon
+may be first seen by the person reflected in the glass. They then repeat
+the prayer, expressly appointed for this occasion, and that done, the
+whole family rise and embrace each other, making salaams and reverence to
+their superiors and elders. The servants and slaves advance for the same
+purpose, and nothing is heard for some minutes, but 'May the new moon be
+fortunate!' reiterated from every mouth of the assembled family.
+
+I cannot answer for the motives which actuate the ignorant people to bow
+when they first see the new moon; but the pious Mussulmaun, I am assured,
+bows to the Creator for the visible blessing, and not to the object.
+
+The first eatables handed round to secure good luck and health throughout
+the month are sugar-candy and cheese. I fancy this is a mere zeenahnah
+custom, for I do not find the males so particular about eating this most
+extraordinary mixture as the females.
+
+The servants' wages are paid by the month, and in well-regulated families
+the first day of the moon is hailed by dependants and domestics with no
+small share of anxiety. Indeed, these people make the moon of much more
+importance in the regulation of domestic affairs than the inhabitants of
+more polished countries, for they attribute the influence of that planet
+over the inhabitants of the earth in many extraordinary ways. It may be
+deemed superstitious, but as my business is to relate the most material
+ceremonies among this people, I cannot well omit noticing some of their
+observances at this time.
+
+If any person is ill, and bleeding is the only good remedy to be pursued,
+the age of the moon is first discussed, and if it happens to be near the
+full, they are inflexibly resolute that the patient shall not lose blood
+until her influence is lessened. And should it happen at the commencement
+of the second quarter, or a few days after the full, the difficulty is to
+be overcome by deprecating the evil influence of the moon over the patient,
+by burning a brand of straw which is flourished about the sick person's
+head, who is brought out into the moon's presence for this important
+operation.[32] Many equally extraordinary things of this sort I have been
+obliged to witness in the zeenahnah.
+
+The full moon is deemed propitious for celebrating the marriage festivals.
+If this be not possible, care is always to be taken that the ceremony does
+not fall at the period when she is in the unfavourable sign; they say the
+happiness of the young couple depends on this being carefully avoided, as
+in the opinion of every Mussulmaun 'the moon in Scorpio' is unpropitious
+for any business of moment.[33]
+
+When a journey is contemplated the moon's age is the first consideration;
+indeed, the favourable signs of Madam Luna's movements are not only
+selected for commencing a journey, but for all undertakings of like
+importance;--whether to build, to write, to plant, to take medicine, &c.
+
+What will be said of the singular custom, 'drinking the moon at a
+draught'? A silver basin being filled with water is held in such a
+situation that the full moon may be reflected in it; the person to be
+benefited by this draught is required to look steadfastly at the moon in
+the basin, then shut his eyes and quaff the liquid at one draught.[34]
+This remedy is advised by medical professors in nervous cases, and also
+for palpitations of the heart. I have seen this practised, but I am not
+aware of any real benefit derived by the patient from the prescription.
+
+When the planet Venus is in conjunction with the moon, they say the time
+is most favourable to offer prayers to God for any particular object they
+may have in view. At this time they write charms or talismans to be worn
+by children. I remember having witnessed a gentleman thus occupied, who
+wrote little scraps in the Arabic character to distribute amongst the
+children of his friends, who wore them enclosed in silver cases on their
+arms.
+
+An eclipse of the moon is an event of great interest, both with the
+Mussulmaun and the Hindoo population, although they have very opposite
+ideas of the causes of an eclipse.
+
+Many of the notions entertained by the lower classes of Mussulmauns upon
+the nature of an eclipse are borrowed from the Hindoos.[34] Some think
+that it is caused by the anger of God towards the people of the earth;
+others say the moon is in debt, and many other equally odd conceits exist
+amongst the ignorant people, and among them only. Yet a sensation of awe
+is felt by most; and where is the intelligent creature who can view an
+eclipse or any other phenomenon of Nature without the same feeling of awe,
+although all are not equally ready to express the sensation?
+
+Loud cries from the mixed population, Mussulmauns and Hindoos, announce
+the commencement of an eclipse, whether it be of the sun or the moon. The
+voice of the Mussulmaun is distinguished by the Namaazies'[35] call to
+prayers--'Allah wo uckbaar![36] (God alone is great!) To this summons the
+faithful attend diligently, and they are generally occupied in the form of
+prayer appointed by Mahumud until the shadow has passed over the sun or
+moon eclipsed.
+
+The ladies prepare offerings of corn, oil, and money to be distributed
+amongst the poor. The gentlemen give presents to the needy. The astronomer
+who predicts to his royal or noble master the exact period of an eclipse,
+is rewarded, when it is over, with money, a dress, and a crescent of pure
+gold in some instances. A bride elect sends sutkah[38] to her intended
+husband, accompanied by a goat or kid, which must be tied to the leg of
+his bedstead during the continuance of an eclipse: these offerings are
+afterwards distributed in charity. Women expecting to become mothers are
+carefully kept awake during an eclipse, as they declare the infant's
+security depends on the mother being kept from sleep; they are not allowed
+to use a needle, scissors, knife, or any other instrument during an
+eclipse, for fear of drawing blood, which would be injurious at that
+period, both to the mother and child; neither are the animals in a similar
+state neglected; a mixture of cow-dung and drugs is rubbed over the belly
+of such animals, whether cows, sheep, goats, &c., and all these are
+securely housed until the planet is again resplendent: they fancy that
+both the animal and its young would be endangered by exposure during the
+time of the eclipse.
+
+The power of the moon on wounded persons is believed universally to be of
+dangerous tendency. I have heard many extraordinary relations by people
+who, as they tell me, have suffered from exposure to the moon whilst a
+wound was fresh. One person had received a severe sabre-cut on his arm;
+the place was sewed up by the barber (the only surgeon amongst the
+Natives), and being much exhausted he laid down to sleep in the open air.
+The moon was near the full, and after some hours' exposure to her
+influence he awoke in great agony; the barber examined the arm early in
+the morning and found the cut in a state of corruption, the sewing having
+burst; the wound was cleansed, and dressed with pounded camphor; the place
+eventually healed, and the man lived many years to tell his story, always
+declaring his belief that the moon had been the cause of his sufferings;
+he was the more certain of this as he dreamed whilst exposed to her
+influence, that a large black woman (an inhabitant of the moon) had
+wrestled with him, and hurt his wound.
+
+The usual application in India to a fresh wound is that of slacked lime. A
+man in our employ was breaking wood, the head of the hatchet came off, and
+the sharp edge fell with considerable force on the poor creature's foot;
+he bled profusely and fainted, lime was unsparingly applied, to the wound,
+the foot carefully wrapped up, and the man conveyed to his hut on a
+charpoy (bedstead), where he was kept quiet without disturbing the wound;
+at the end of a fortnight he walked about, and in another week returned to
+his labour.[39]
+
+Lime is an article of great service in the domestic economy of the Natives.
+I have experienced the good effects of this simple remedy for burns or
+scalds: equal proportions of lime, water, and any kind of oil, made into a
+thin paste, and immediately applied and repeatedly moistened, will
+speedily remove the effects of a burn; and if applied later, even when a
+blister has risen, the remedy never fails: I cannot say how it might act
+on a wound, the consequence of a neglected burn.
+
+The lime used with pawn by the natives of India is considered very
+beneficial to health; and they use it in great quantities, considering
+that they never eat pawn without lime, and the most moderate pawn eaters
+indulge in the luxury at least eight times in the course of the day. The
+benefit of lime is worth the consideration of the medical world--as a
+preventive in some climates, as a renovater in others.
+
+Shubh-burraat,[40] is the designation of one of the months of the
+Mussulmauns (you are aware their month is the duration of the moon). The
+night of the full moon Shubh-burraat is a period of great and interesting
+importance to the Mussulmaun people of every degree; for on this night
+they are persuaded the fate of every human being is fixed in heaven; and
+that whatever is to be their doom is then registered in the Book of Life.
+Those who are to retain health, life, prosperity, or any other blessing,
+and those who are to be visited by sickness, sorrows, adversity or death;
+in short, whatever is to occur throughout the year is on this night
+assuredly noted in heaven for each individual on earth.
+
+On this night they are instructed also to remember their friends and
+relatives who have been separated from them by death, and the injunction
+is followed up with much pious respect and marked veneration. Food is
+cooked and portioned out in the name of each departed object of their
+regard, over which the elder of the family,--if a Maulvee is not
+available,--reads a certain form of prayer called Fahteeah[41]; this done,
+each portion (if convenient) is conveyed to the several tombs wherein
+those friends are deposited; or if not convenient to send the food to the
+burying ground, it is distributed amongst the poor of the city and the
+suburbs; the beggars congregating in those places to indulge in the
+luxuries prepared to the memory of the dead. The food prepared on this
+occasion must not contain any animal food. Bread of various kinds, sweet
+rice, and meetah[42] (a mixture of sugar, ghee, and flour), are the usual
+dainties I have observed in these offerings. Fireworks are in universal
+request on the night of Shubh-burraat, which is required to be passed in
+wakefulness; and to this may be ascribed the never-varying custom of
+letting them off: it is an amusement these people take delight in at all
+times, and on this occasion most usefully, to keep them awake. The younger
+branches, at all events, derive this benefit from the pastime.
+
+The religious community make it a night of strict devotion; they offer
+prayers and intercessions for the souls of their departed friends, since
+they imagine that this period, of all others, is most favourable to prayer,
+as they believe the heart is more open to the throne of mercy, the prayer
+more effectual, and that the real penitent suing for pardon on the night
+of Shubh-burraat, is certainly heard and his sins forgiven.
+
+The Sheah sect attach still greater importance to this night, as the
+anniversary of the birth of Emaum Mhidhie.[43] They also remember Hasan
+and Hosein as martyrs; and in memory of their sufferings the zeearut[44]
+(circuit as at Mahurrum), is performed by walking round the ground in front
+of their apartments, repeating the burial service, with some trifling
+alterations; likewise the salaams to the Prophets and Emaums are duly
+performed during this night of fate.
+
+There is a singular opinion current amongst the Mussulmauns, that the
+trees hold converse at this momentous period.[45] The really pious
+characters amongst the Mussulmauns declare that they discountenance
+superstition in every way; but they strictly adhere to every habit or
+custom on record which was the practice of Mahumud and his family, the
+Emaums. Of course, they do not think the observances of Shubh-burraat are
+at all bordering on superstition, whatever may be thought of the practice
+by others.
+
+
+[1] See p. 78.
+
+[2] 'Idgah, the place where the rites of the 'Id festival are
+    conducted. It generally consists of a pavement, with a wall to the
+    west, facing east.
+
+[3] See p. 42.
+
+[4] _Angarkha_.
+
+[5] _Najib_, 'noble'; the half-disciplined militia of Native States.
+
+[6] _Kirch_, a straight thrusting sword.
+
+[7] See p. 48.
+
+[8] See p. 43.
+
+[9] _Nalki_, a kind of litter, the use of which was regarded as a
+    mark of dignity: see Sleeman, _Rambles_, p. 135.
+
+[10] A coin worth, about Rs. 16.
+
+[11] Haarh is a name given to any sort of ornament which we should
+    designate a necklace. The haarhs presented on these occasions at the
+    Oude court are composed of silver ribands very prettily platted and
+    confined at each division of plats by knobs covered with silver riband.
+    The prices of these haarhs are from five to twenty-five rupees each,
+    depending on the size. [_Author_.] See p. 62.
+
+[12] _'Itr_, essence of roses.
+
+[13]_Khuda hafiz_.
+
+[14] _Jhul_.
+
+[15] _Shahji_, 'my lord'.
+
+[16] _Chapkan_, the cassock-like frock, which is the usual dress of
+    respectable natives.
+
+[17] _Labada_, a sort of overcoat.
+
+[18] _Kamarband_, 'loin-band'.
+
+[19] _Lahaf_, a corruption of _ghilaf_, 'a wrapper'.
+
+[20] _Rumal_, 'face-wiper'.
+
+[21] _Zamindar_, 'a landowner'.
+
+[22] _Ra'iyat_.
+
+[23] Many native gentlemen are allowed to be seated in the king's presence
+    at court daily, but not at the banquet, which is a distinction
+    reserved only for the nobility and favourites. [_Author_.]
+
+[24] For an account of the animal fights before Lord W. Bentinck in 1831
+    see Mrs. F. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 176 ff.; W. Knighton,
+    _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 147 ff.
+
+[25] _Nauroz_. Specially a Persian feast: see Sir J. Malcolm, _History of
+    Persia_,[2] ii. 341 _n_., 404; S.G.W. Benjamin, _Persia and the
+    Persians_, p. 198; O.J. Wills, _The Land of the Lion and the Sun_, ed.
+    1891, p. 48.
+
+[26] _Nauroz mubarak_.
+
+[27] Basant or spring feast, held at the vernal equinox.
+
+[28] Sawan, the fourth month of the Hindu year, July-August.
+
+[29] The feast is held in honour of the mythical Khwaja Khizr, 'the
+    green one', a water spirit identified with the Prophet Elisha (see
+    Sale on _Koran_, xviii. 63). The launching of the little boats is,
+    in essence, a form of magic intended to carry away the evils which
+    menace the community, and to secure abundant rainfall.
+
+[30] _Ilyas ki kishti_.
+
+[31] This is known as Hilal.
+
+[32] The Semites, like other races, believed in the influence of the moon.
+    'The sun shall not strike thee by day, nor the moon by night' (Ps.
+    cxxi. 6). It was believed to cause blindness and epilepsy. Sir J.G.
+    Frazer has exhaustively discussed the question of the influence of the
+    moon. The harvest moon, in particular, brings fertility, and hears the
+    prayers of women in travail: the moon causes growth and decay, and she
+    is dangerous to children. Many practical rules are based on her
+    influence at the various phases (_The Golden Bough_[3] Part I, vol. ii,
+    p. 128; Part IV, vol. ii, p. 132 ff.).
+
+[33] 'The sixth house is Scorpio, which is that of slaves and servants,
+    and of diseases' (Abul Fazl, _Akbarnama_, tr. H. Beveridge, ii. 12).
+
+[34] Here the moon is supposed to exert a curative influence.
+
+[35] Hindus believe that during an eclipse the moon is being strangled by
+    a demon, Rahu. Cries are raised, drums and brazen pans are beaten
+    to scare him.
+
+[36] Properly the Mu'azzin or official summoner to prayer.
+
+[37] _Allahu akbar_.
+
+[38] All offerings of intercession or thanksgivings are denominated sutkah
+    [_Author_] (_sadaqah_, see p. 136).
+
+[39] Lime liniment, composed of equal parts of lime-water and a bland oil,
+    is recognized in surgical practice.
+
+[40] _Shab-i-bara'at_, 'the night of record', is a feast held on the
+    15th of the month Sha'ban, when a vigil is kept, with prayers and
+    illuminations. On this occasion service in memory of the deceased
+    ancestors of the family is performed. On this night the fortunes of
+    mortals during the coming year are said to be recorded in Heaven. See
+    p. 51.
+
+[41] Al-Fatihah, 'the opening one', the first chapter of the Koran.
+
+[42] _Mitha, mithai_, 'sweetmeats'.
+
+[43] Imam Mahdi, see pp. 72, 76.
+
+[44] _Ziyarat_, see p. 15.
+
+[45] Compare the oracular trees of the Greeks (Sir J.G. Frazer,
+    _Pausanias_, ii. 160). For legends of speaking trees in India,
+    W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India_,[2] ii. 89.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XII
+
+  The Zeenahnah.--Its interior described.--Furniture, decorations,
+  &c.--The Purdah (curtains).--Bedstead.--The Musnud (seat of
+  honour).--Mirrors and ornamental furniture disused.--Display on
+  occasions of festivity.--Observations on the Mussulmaun
+  Ladies.--Happiness in their state of seclusion.--Origin of secluding
+  females by Mahumud.--Anecdote.--Tamerlane's command prohibiting
+  females being seen in public.--The Palankeen.--Bearers.--Their
+  general utility and contentedness of disposition.--Habits peculiar
+  to Mussulmaun Ladies.--Domestic arrangements of a Zeenahnah.--Dinner
+  and its accompanying observances.--The Lota and Lugguns.--The
+  Hookha.--Further investigation of the customs adopted in Zeenahnahs.
+
+
+Before I introduce the ladies of a Mussulmaun zeenahnah to your notice, I
+propose giving you a description of their apartments.
+
+Imagine to yourself a tolerably sized quadrangle, three sides of which is
+occupied by habitable buildings, and the fourth by kitchens, offices,
+lumber rooms, &c.; leaving in the centre an open court-yard. The habitable
+buildings are raised a few steps from the court; a line of pillars forms
+the front of the building, which has no upper rooms; the roof is flat, and
+the sides and back without windows, or any aperture through which air can
+be received. The sides and back are merely high walls forming an enclosure,
+and the only air is admitted from the fronts of the dwelling-place facing
+the court-yard. The apartments are divided into long halls, the extreme
+corners having small rooms or dark closets purposely built for the
+repository of valuables or stores; doors are fixed to these closets, which
+are the only places I have seen with them in a zeenahnah or mahul[1]
+(house or palace occupied by females); the floor is either of beaten earth,
+bricks, or stones; boarded floors are not yet introduced.
+
+As they have neither doors nor windows to the halls, warmth or privacy is
+secured by means of thick wadded curtains, made to fit each opening
+between the pillars. Some zeenahnahs have two rows of pillars in the halls
+with wadded curtains to each, thus forming two distinct halls, as occasion
+may serve, or greater warmth be required: this is a convenient arrangement
+where the establishment of servants, slaves, &c., is extensive.
+
+The wadded curtains are called purdahs[2]; these are sometimes made of
+woollen cloth, but more generally of coarse calico, of two colours, in
+patchwork style, striped, vandyked, or in some other ingeniously contrived
+and ornamented way, according to their individual taste.
+
+Besides the purdahs, the openings between the pillars have blinds neatly
+made of bamboo strips, wove together with coloured cords: these are called
+jhillmuns or cheeks.[3] Many of them are painted green; others are more
+gaudy both in colour and variety of patterns. These blinds constitute a
+real comfort to every one in India, as they admit air when let down, and
+at the same time shut out flies and other annoying insects; besides which
+the extreme glare is shaded by them,--a desirable object to foreigners in
+particular.
+
+The floors of the halls are first matted with the coarse date-leaf matting
+of the country, over which is spread shutteringhies[4] (thick cotton
+carpets, peculiarly the manufacture of the Upper Provinces of India, wove
+in stripes of blue and white, or shades of blue); a white calico carpet
+covers the shutteringhie, on which the females take their seat.
+
+The bedsteads of the family are placed, during the day, in lines at the
+back of the halls, to be moved at pleasure to any chosen spot for the
+night's repose; often into the open courtyard, for the benefit of the pure
+air. They are all formed on one principle, differing only in size and
+quality; they stand about half-a-yard from the floor, the legs round and
+broad at bottom, narrowing as they rise towards the frame, which is laced
+over with a thick cotton tape, made for the purpose, and platted in
+checquers, and thus rendered soft, or rather elastic, and very pleasant to
+recline upon. The legs of these bedsteads are in some instances gold,
+silver gilt, or pure silver; others have enamel paintings on fine wood;
+the inferior grades have them merely of wood painted plain and varnished;
+the servants' bedsteads are of the common mango-wood without ornament, the
+lacing of these for the sacking being of elastic string manufactured from
+the fibre of the cocoa-nut.
+
+Such are the bedsteads of every class of people. They seldom have
+mattresses; a soojinee[5] (white quilt) is spread on the lacing, over
+which a calico sheet, tied at each corner of the bedstead with cords and
+tassels; several thin flat pillows of beaten cotton for the head,--a
+muslin sheet for warm weather, and a well wadded ruzzie[6] (coverlid) for
+winter, is all these children of Nature deem essential to their comfort in
+the way of sleeping. They have no idea of night dresses; the same suit
+that adorns a lady, is retained both night and day, until a change be
+needed. The single article exchanged at night is the deputtah,[7] and that
+only when it happens to be of silver tissue or embroidery, for which a
+muslin or calico sheet is substituted.
+
+The very highest circles have the same habits in common with the meanest,
+but those who can afford shawls of cashmere prefer them for sleeping in,
+when the cold weather renders them bearable. Blankets are never used
+except by the poorest peasantry, who wear them in lieu of better garments
+night and day in the winter season: they are always black, the natural
+colour of the wool. The ruzzies of the higher orders are generally made of
+silk of the brightest hues, well wadded, and lined with dyed muslin of
+assimilating colour; they are usually bound with broad silver ribands, and
+sometimes bordered with gold brocaded trimmings. The middling classes have
+fine chintz ruzzies, and the servants and slaves coarse ones of the same
+material; but all are on the same plan, whether for a queen or the meanest
+of her slaves, differing only in the quality of the material.
+
+The mistress of the house is easily distinguished by her seat of honour in
+the hall of a zeenahnah; a musnud[8] not being allowed to any other person
+but the lady of the mansion.
+
+The musnud carpet is spread on the floor if possible near to a pillar
+about the centre of the hall, and is made of many varieties of
+fabric,--gold cloth, quilted silk, brocaded silk, velvet, fine chintz, or
+whatever may suit the lady's taste, circumstances, or convenience. It is
+about two yards square, and generally bordered or fringed, on which is
+placed the all-important musnud. This article may be understood by those
+who have seen a lace-maker's pillow in England, excepting only that the
+musnud is about twenty times the size of that useful little article in the
+hands of our industrious villagers. The musnud is covered with gold cloth,
+silk, velvet, or calico, with square pillows to correspond, for the elbows,
+the knees, &c. This is the seat of honour, to be invited to share which,
+with the lady-owner, is a mark of favour to an equal or inferior: when a
+superior pays a visit of honour, the prided seat is usually surrendered to
+her, and the lady of the house takes her place most humbly on the very
+edge of her own carpet.
+
+Looking-glasses or ornamental furniture are very rarely to be seen in the
+zeenahnahs, even of the very richest females. Chairs and sofas are
+produced when English visitors are expected; but the ladies of Hindoostaun
+prefer the usual mode of sitting and lounging on the carpet; and as for
+tables, I suppose not one gentlewoman of the whole country has ever been
+seated at one; and very few, perhaps, have any idea of their useful
+purposes, all their meals being served on the floor, where dusthakhawns[9]
+(table-cloths we should call them) are spread, but neither knives, forks,
+spoons, glasses, or napkins, so essential to the comfortable enjoyment of
+a meal amongst Europeans. But those who never knew such comforts have no
+desire for the indulgence, nor taste to appreciate them.
+
+On the several occasions, amongst Native society, of assembling in large
+parties, as at births and marriages, the halls, although extensive, would
+be inadequate to accommodate the whole party. They then have awnings of
+white calico, neatly flounced with muslin, supported on poles fixed in the
+courtyard, and connecting the open space with the great hall, by wooden
+platforms which are brought to a line with the building, and covered with
+shutteringhie and white carpets to correspond with the floor-furniture of
+the hall; and here the ladies sit by day and sleep by night very
+comfortably, without feeling any great inconvenience from the absence of
+their bedsteads, which could never be arranged for the accommodation of so
+large an assemblage--nor is it ever expected.
+
+The usually barren look of these almost unfurnished halls is on such
+occasions quite changed, when the ladies are assembled in their various
+dresses; the brilliant display of jewels, the glittering drapery of their
+dress, the various expressions of countenance, and different figures, the
+multitude of female attendants and slaves, the children of all ages and
+sizes in their variously ornamented dresses, are subjects to attract both
+the eye and the mind of an observing visitor; and the hall, which when
+empty appeared desolate and comfortless, thus filled, leaves nothing
+wanting to render the scene attractive.
+
+The buzz of human voices, the happy playfulness of the children, the
+chaste singing of the domenies fill up the animated picture. I have
+sometimes passed an hour or two in witnessing their innocent amusements,
+without any feeling of regret for the brief sacrifice of time I had made. I
+am free to confess, however, that I have returned to my tranquil home with
+increased delight after having witnessed the bustle of a zeenahnah
+assembly. At first I pitied the apparent monotony of their lives; but this
+feeling has worn away by intimacy with the people, who are thus precluded
+from mixing generally with the world. They are happy in their confinement;
+and never having felt the sweets of liberty, would not know how to use the
+boon if it were to be granted them. As the bird from the nest immured in a
+cage is both cheerful and contented, so are these females. They have not,
+it is true, many intellectual resources, but they have naturally good
+understandings, and having learned their duty they strive to fulfil it. So
+far as I have had any opportunity of making personal observations on their
+general character they appear to me obedient wives, dutiful daughters,
+affectionate mothers, kind mistresses, sincere friends, and liberal
+benefactresses to the distressed poor. These are their moral
+qualifications, and in their religious duties they are zealous in
+performing the several ordinances which they have been instructed by their
+parents or husbands to observe. If there be any merit in obeying the
+injunctions of their Lawgiver, those whom I have known most intimately
+deserve praise, since 'they are faithful in that they profess'.
+
+To ladies accustomed from infancy to confinement this is by no means
+irksome; they have their employments and their amusements, and though
+these are not exactly to our taste, nor suited to our mode of education,
+they are not the less relished by those for whom they were invented. They
+perhaps wonder equally at some of our modes of dissipating time, and fancy
+we might spend it more profitably. Be that as it may, the Mussulmaun
+ladies, with whom I have been long intimate, appear to me always happy,
+contented, and satisfied with the seclusion to which they were born; they
+desire no other, and I have ceased to regret they cannot be made partakers
+of that freedom of intercourse with the world we deem so essential to our
+happiness, since their health suffers nothing from that confinement, by
+which they are preserved from a variety of snares and temptations; besides
+which, they would deem it disgraceful in the highest degree to mix
+indiscriminately with men who are not relations. They are educated from
+infancy for retirement, and they can have no wish that the custom should
+be changed, which keeps them apart from the society of men who are not
+very nearly related to them. Female society is unlimited, and that they
+enjoy without restraint.
+
+A lady whose friendship I have enjoyed from my first arrival in India,
+heard me very often speak of the different places I had visited, and she
+fancied her happiness very much depended on seeing a river and a bridge. I
+undertook to gain permission from her husband and father, that the treat
+might be permitted; they, however, did not approve of the lady being
+gratified, and I was vexed to be obliged to convey the disappointment to
+my friend. She very mildly answered me, 'I was much to blame to request
+what I knew was improper for me to be indulged in; I hope my husband and
+family will not be displeased with me for my childish wish; pray make them
+understand how much I repent of my folly. I shall be ashamed to speak on
+the subject when we meet.'
+
+I was anxious to find out the origin of secluding females in the
+Mussulmaun societies of Hindoostaun, as I could find no example in the
+Mosaic law, which appears to have been the pattern Muhumud followed
+generally in domestic habits. I am told by the best possible authority,
+that the first step towards the seclusion of females occurred in the life
+of Mahumud, by whose command the face and figure of women were veiled on
+their going from home, in consequence of some departure from strict
+propriety in one of his wives (Ayashur,[10] the daughter of Omir); she is
+represented to have been a very beautiful woman, and was travelling with
+Mahumud on a journey in Arabia.
+
+'The beautiful Ayashur, on her camel, was separated from the party; she
+arrived at the serai (inn, or halting-place) several hours after they had
+encamped, and declared that her delay was occasioned by the loss of a
+silver bangle from her ankle, which after some trouble she had discovered,
+and which she produced in a bruised state in testimony of her assertion.
+Mahumud was displeased, and her father enraged beyond measure at his
+daughter's exposing herself to the censure of the public, by allowing any
+thing to detach her from the party.' Mahumud assuaged Omir's anger by a
+command then first issued, 'That all females, belonging to the faithful,
+should be compelled to wear a close veil over their face and figure
+whenever they went abroad.'
+
+In Arabia and Persia the females are allowed to walk or ride out with a
+sort of hooded cloak, which falls over the face, and has two eye-holes for
+the purpose of seeing their way.[11] They are to be met with in the streets
+of those countries without a suspicion of impropriety when thus habited.
+
+The habit of strict seclusion, however, originated in Hindoostaun with
+Tamerlane the conqueror of India.
+
+When Tamerlane[12] with his powerful army entered India, he issued a
+proclamation to all his followers to the following purport, 'As they were
+now in the land of idolatry and amongst a strange people, the females of
+their families should be strictly concealed from the view of strangers';
+and Tamerlane himself invented the several covered conveyances which are
+to the present period of the Mussulmaun history in use, suited to each
+grade of female rank in society. And the better to secure them from all
+possibility of contamination by their new neighbours, he commanded that
+they should be confined to their own apartments and behind the purdah,
+disallowing any intercourse with males of their own persuasion even, who
+were not related by the nearest ties, and making it a crime in any female
+who should willingly suffer her person to be seen by men out of the
+prescribed limits of consanguinity.
+
+Tamerlane, it may be presumed, was then ignorant of the religious
+principles of the Hindoos. They are strictly forbidden to have intercourse
+or intermarry with females who are not strictly of their own caste or
+tribe, under the severe penalty of losing that caste which they value as
+their life. To this may be attributed, in a great degree, the safety with
+which female foreigners travel daak[13] (post) in their palankeens, from
+one point of the Indian continent to another, without the knowledge of
+five words of the Hindoostaunie tongue, and with no other servant or
+guardian but the daak-bearers, who carry them at the rate of four miles an
+hour, travelling day and night successively.
+
+The palankeen is supported on the shoulders of four bearers at once,--two
+having the front pole attached to the vehicle, and two supporting the pole
+behind. The four bearers are relieved every five or six minutes by other
+four, making the set of eight to each palankeen,--this set conveys their
+burden from eight to ten miles, where a fresh party are in waiting to
+relieve them, and so on to the extent of the projected journey; much in
+the same way as relays of horses are stationed for post-travelling in
+England. Perhaps the tract of country passed through may not present a
+single hut or habitation for miles together, often through jungles of
+gloomy aspect; yet with all these obstacles, which would excite fear or
+distrust in more civilized parts of the world, females travel in India
+with as perfect security from insult as if they were guarded by a company
+of sepoys, or a troop of cavalry.
+
+I am disposed to think that the invention of covered conveyances by
+Tamerlane first gave rise to the bearers. It seems so probable that the
+conqueror of the Hindoos should have been the first to degrade human
+nature, by compelling them to bear the burden of their fellow-creatures. I
+can never forget the first impression, on my mind, when witnessing this
+mode of conveyance on my landing at Calcutta; and although I am willing to
+agree that the measure is one of vast utility in this climate, and to
+acknowledge with gratitude the benefit I have derived by this personal
+convenience, yet I never seat myself in the palankeen or thonjaun[14]
+without a feeling bordering on self-reproach, as being one amongst the
+number to perpetuate the degradation of my fellow-mortals. They, however,
+feel nothing of this sentiment themselves, for they are trained from
+boyhood to the toil, as the young ox to the yoke. It is their business;
+the means of comfort is derived to them by this service; they are happy in
+the employment, and generally cheerful, and form a class of people in
+themselves respected by every other both for their services and for their
+general good behaviour. In the houses of foreigners they are the most
+useful amongst the whole establishment; they have charge of property, keep
+the furniture in exact order, prepare the beds, the lamps, and the candles,
+where wax is used. Tallow having beef-fat in its manufacture is an
+abomination, to the Hindoos, by whom it is considered unholy to slay, or
+even to touch any portion of the slaughtered cattle of their respect: for
+believing in transmigration, they affirm that these animals receive the
+souls of their departed relations. The bearers make the best of nurses to
+children, and contribute to the comfort of their employer by pulling the
+punkah night and day: in short, so necessary are these servants to the
+domestic economy of sojourners in the East, that their merits as a people
+must be a continual theme of praise; for I know not how an English
+establishment could be concluded with any degree of comfort without these
+most useful domestics. But I have allowed my pen to stray from the subject
+of female seclusion, and will here bring that part of my history to a
+close in very few words.
+
+Those females who rank above peasants or inferior servants, are disposed
+from principle to keep themselves strictly from observation; all who have
+any regard for the character or the honour of their house, seclude
+themselves from the eye of strangers, carefully instructing their young
+daughters to a rigid observance of their own prudent example. Little girls,
+when four years old, are kept strictly behind the purdah, and when they
+move abroad it is always in covered conveyances, and under the
+guardianship of a faithful female domestic, who is equally tenacious us
+the mother to preserve the young lady's reputation unblemished by
+concealing her from the gaze of men.
+
+The ladies of zeenahnah life are not restricted from the society of their
+own sex; they are, as I have before remarked, extravagantly fond of
+company, and equally as hospitable when entertainers. To be alone is a
+trial to which they are seldom exposed, every lady having companions
+amongst her dependants; and according to her means the number in her
+establishment is regulated. Some ladies of rank have from two to ten
+companions, independent of slaves and domestics; and there are some of the
+Royal family at Lucknow who entertain in their service two or three
+hundred female dependants, of all classes. A well-filled zeenahnah is a
+mark of gentility; and even the poorest lady in the country will retain a
+number of slaves and domestics, if she cannot afford companions; besides
+which they are miserable without society, the habit of associating with
+numbers having grown up with infancy to maturity: 'to be alone' is
+considered, with women thus situated, a real calamity.
+
+On occasions of assembling in large parties, each lady takes with her a
+companion besides two or three slaves to attend upon her, no one expecting
+to be served by the servants of the house at which they are visiting. This
+swells the numbers to be provided for; and as the visit is always for
+three days and three nights (except on Eades, when the visit is confined
+to one day), some forethought must be exercised by the lady of the house,
+that all may be accommodated in such a manner as may secure to her the
+reputation of hospitality.
+
+The kitchen and offices to the zeenahnah, I have remarked, occupy one side
+of the quadrangle; they face the great or centre hall appropriated to the
+assembly. These kitchens, however, are sufficiently distant to prevent any
+great annoyance from the smoke;--I say smoke, because chimneys have not
+yet been introduced into the kitchens of the Natives. The fire-places are
+all on the ground, something resembling stoves, each admitting one
+saucepan, the Asiastic style of cooking requiring no other contrivance.
+Roast or boiled joints are never seen at the dinner of a Native: a leg of
+mutton or sirloin of beef would place the hostess under all sorts of
+difficulties, where knives and forks are not understood to be amongst the
+useful appendages of a meal. The variety of their dishes are countless,
+but stews and curries are the chief; all the others are mere varieties.
+The only thing in the shape of roast meats, are small lean cutlets bruised,
+seasoned and cemented with pounded poppy-seed, several being fastened
+together on skewers: they are grilled or roasted over a charcoal fire
+spread on the ground, and then called keebaab,[15] which word implies,
+roast meat.
+
+The kitchen of a zeenahnah would be inadequate to the business of cooking
+for a large assembly; the most choice dishes only (for the highly favoured
+guests), are cooked by the servants of the establishment. The needed
+abundance required on entertaining a large party is provided by a regular
+bazaar cook, several of whom establish themselves in Native cities, or
+wherever there is a Mussulmaun population. Orders being previously given,
+the morning and evening dinners are punctually forwarded at the appointed
+hours in covered trays, each tray having portions of the several good
+things ordered, so that there is no confusion in serving out the feast on
+its arrival at the mansion. The food thus prepared by the bazaar cook
+(naunbye,[16] he is called), is plain boiled-rice, sweet-rice, kheer[17]
+(rice-milk), mautungun[18] (rice sweetened with the addition of preserved
+fruits, raisins, &c., coloured with saffron), sallons[19] (curries) of
+many varieties, some cooked with vegetables, others with unripe fruits
+with or without meat; pillaus of many sorts, keebaabs, preserves, pickles,
+chatnees, and many other things too tedious to admit of detail.
+
+The bread in general use amongst Natives is chiefly unleavened; nothing in
+the likeness of English bread is to be seen at their meals; and many
+object to its being fermented with the intoxicating toddy (extracted from
+a tree). Most of the Native bread is baked on iron plates over a charcoal
+fire. They have many varieties, both plain and rich, and some of the
+latter resembles our pastry, both in quality and flavour.
+
+The dinners, I have said, are brought into the zeenahnah ready dished in
+the Native earthenware, on trays; and as they neither use spoons or forks,
+there is no great delay in setting out the meal where nothing is required
+for display or effect, beyond the excellent quality of the food and its
+being well cooked. In a large assembly all cannot dine at the dustha-khawn
+of the lady-hostess, even if privileged by their rank; they are, therefore,
+accommodated in groups of ten, fifteen, or more, as may be convenient;
+each lady having her companion at the meal, and her slaves to brush off
+the intruding flies with a chowrie, to hand water, or to fetch or carry
+any article of delicacy from or to a neighbouring group. The slaves and
+servants dine in parties after their ladies have finished, in any retired
+corner of the court-yard--always avoiding as much as possible the presence
+of their superiors.
+
+Before any one touches the meal, water is carried round for each lady to
+wash the hand and rinse the mouth. It is deemed unclean to eat without
+this form of ablution, and the person neglecting it would he held unholy;
+this done, the lady turns to her meal, saying, 'Bis ma Allah!'--(In the
+name or to the praise of God!) and with the right hand conveys the food to
+her mouth, (the left is never used at meals)[20]; and although they
+partake of every variety of food placed before them with no other aid than
+their fingers, yet the mechanical habit is so perfect, that they neither
+drop a grain of rice, soil the dress, nor retain any of the food on their
+fingers. The custom must always be offensive to a foreign eye, and the
+habit none would wish to copy; yet every one who witnesses must admire the
+neat way in which eating is accomplished by these really 'children of
+Nature'.
+
+The repast concluded, the lota[21] (vessel with water), and the luggun[22]
+(to receive the water in after rinsing the hands and mouth), are passed
+round to every person, who having announced by the 'Shuggur Allah!'--All
+thanks to God!--that she has finished, the attendants present first the
+powdered peas, culled basun,[23]--which answers the purpose of soap in
+removing grease, &c., from the fingers,--and then the water in due course.
+Soap has not even yet been brought into fashion by the Natives, except by
+the washermen; I have often been surprised that they have not found the
+use of soap a necessary article in the nursery, where the only substitute
+I have seen is the powdered pea.
+
+Lotas and lugguns are articles in use with all classes of people; they
+must be poor indeed who do not boast of one, at least, in their family.
+They are always of metal, either brass, or copper lacquered over, or zinc;
+in some cases, as with the nobility, silver and even gold are converted
+into these useful articles of Native comfort.
+
+China or glass is comparatively but little used; water is their only
+beverage, and this is preferred, in the absence of metal basins, out of
+the common red earthen katorah[24] (cup shaped like a vase).
+
+China dishes, bowls, and basins, are used for serving many of the savoury
+articles of food in; but it is as common in the privacy of the palace, as
+well as in the huts of the peasantry, to see many choice things introduced
+at meals served up in the rude red earthen platter; many of the delicacies
+of Asiatic cookery being esteemed more palatable from the earthen flavour
+of the new vessel in which it is served.
+
+I very well remember the first few days of my sojourn at Lucknow, feeling
+something bordering on dissatisfaction, at the rude appearance of the
+dishes containing choice specimens of Indian cookery, which poured in (as
+is customary upon fresh arrivals) from the friends of the family I had
+become a member of. I fancied, in my ignorance, that the Mussulmaun people
+perpetuated their prejudices even to me, and that they must fear I should
+contaminate their china dishes; but I was soon satisfied on this point: I
+found, by experience, that brown earthen platters were used by the
+nobility from choice; and in some instances, the viand would have wanted
+its greatest relish if served in China or silver vessels. Custom
+reconciles every thing: I can drink a draught of pure water now from the
+earthen katorah of the Natives with as much pleasure as from a glass or a
+silver cup, and feel as well satisfied with their dainties out of an
+earthen platter, as when conveyed in silver or China dishes.
+
+China tea sets are very rarely found in the zeenahnah; tea being used by
+the Natives more as a medicine than a refreshment, except by such
+gentlemen as have frequent intercourse with the 'Sahib Logue' (English
+gentry), among whom they acquire a taste for this delightful beverage. The
+ladies, however, must have a severe cold to induce them to partake of the
+beverage even as a remedy, but by no means as a luxury.[25] I imagined
+that the inhabitants of a zeenahnah were sadly deficient in actual
+comforts, when I found, upon my first arrival in India, that there were no
+preparations for breakfast going forward: every one seemed engaged in pawn
+eating, and smoking the hookha, but no breakfast after the morning Namaaz.
+I was, however, soon satisfied that they felt no sort of privation, as the
+early meal so common in Europe has never been introduced in Eastern
+circles. Their first meal is a good substantial dinner, at ten, eleven, or
+twelve o'clock, after which follow pawn and the hookha; to this succeeds a
+sleep of two or three hours, providing it does not impede the duty of
+prayer;--the pious, I ought to remark, would give up every indulgence
+which would prevent the discharge of this duty. The second meal follows in
+twelve hours from the first, and consists of the same substantial fare;
+after which they usually sleep again until the dawn of day is near at hand.
+
+It is the custom amongst Natives to eat fruit after the morning sleep,
+when dried fruits, confectionery, radishes, carrots, sugar-cane, green
+peas, and other such delicacies, are likewise considered wholesome
+luxuries, both with the ladies and the children. A dessert immediately
+after dinner is considered so unwholesome, that they deem our practice
+extremely injudicious. Such is the difference of custom; and I am disposed
+to think their fashion, in this instance, would be worth imitating by
+Europeans whilst residing in India.
+
+I have been much amused with the curious inquiries of a zeenahnah family
+when the gardener's dhaullie is introduced. A dhaullie,[26] I must first
+tell you, is a flat basket, on which is arranged, in neat order, whatever
+fruit, vegetables, or herbs are at the time in season, with a nosegay of
+flowers placed in the centre. They will often ask with wonder--'How do
+these things grow?'--'How do they look in the ground?'--and many such
+child-like remarks have I listened to with pity, whilst I have relieved my
+heart by explaining the operations of Nature in the vegetable kingdom, a
+subject on which they are perfectly ignorant, and, from the habits of
+seclusion in which they live, can never properly be made to understand or
+enjoy.
+
+I have said water is the only beverage in general use amongst the
+Mussulmaun Natives. They have sherbet, however, as a luxury on occasions
+of festivals, marriages, &c. This sherbet is simply sugar and water, with
+a flavour of rose-water, or kurah[27] added to it.
+
+The hookha is almost in general use with females. It is a common practice
+with the lady of the house to present the hookha she is smoking to her
+favoured guest. This mark of attention is always to be duly appreciated;
+but such is the deference paid to parents, that a son can rarely be
+persuaded by an indulgent father or mother to smoke a hookha in their
+revered presence;--this praiseworthy feeling originates not in fear, but
+real genuine respect. The parents entertain for their son the most tender
+regard; and the father makes him both his companion and his friend; yet
+the most familiar endearments do not lessen the feeling of reverence a
+good son entertains for his father. This is one among the many samples of
+patriarchal life, my first Letter alluded to, and which I can never
+witness in real life, without feeling respect for the persons who follow
+up the patterns I have been taught to venerate in our Holy Scripture.
+
+The hookha, as an indulgence of a privilege, is a great definer of
+etiquette. In the presence of the King or reigning Nuwaub, no subject,
+however high he may rank in blood or royal favour, can presume to smoke.
+In Native courts, on state occasions, hookhas are presented only to the
+Governor-General, the Commander-in-Chief, or the Resident at his Court,
+who are considered equals in rank, and therefore entitled to the privilege
+of smoking with him; and they cannot consistently resist the intended
+honour. Should they dislike smoking, a hint is readily understood by the
+hookha-bahdhaar[28] to bring the hookha, charged with the materials,
+without the addition of fire. Application of the munall[29] (mouth-piece)
+to the month indicates a sense of the honour conferred.
+
+
+[1] _Mahall._
+
+[2] _Parda._
+
+[3] _Jhilmil, chiq,_ the Anglo-Indian 'chick'.
+
+[4] _Shatranji_, see p. 19.
+
+[5] _Sozani_ (_sozan_, 'a needle'), an embroidered quilt.
+
+[6] _Razai_, a counterpane padded with cotton.
+
+[7] _Dopatta_, a double sheet: see p. 26.
+
+[8] See p. 24.
+
+[9] _Dastarkhwan_, see p. 108.
+
+[10] 'Ayishah, daughter of Abubakr, third and best loved wife of the
+    Prophet, though she bore him no child. The tale of the scandal about
+    her is historical, but it is treated as a calumny (_Koran_, xxiv.
+    II, 22, with Sale's note).
+
+[11] Known as the _burqa_.
+
+[12] Amir Taimur, known as Taimur Lang, 'the lame', was born A.D.
+    1336; ascended the throne at Balkh, 1370; invaded India and captured
+    Delhi, 1398; died 1405, and was buried at Samarkand. There seems to be
+    no evidence that he introduced the practice of the seclusion of women,
+    an ancient Semitic custom, which, however, was probably enforced on
+    the people of India by the brutality of foreign invaders.
+
+[13] _Dak_.
+
+[14] See p. 32.
+
+[15] _Kabab_, properly, small pieces of meat roasted on skewers.
+
+
+[16] _Nanbai_, a baker of bread _(nan)_.
+
+[17] _Khir_, milk boiled with rice, sugar, and spices.
+
+[18] _Mutanjan_, a corruption of _muttajjan_, 'fried in a pan'; usually in
+    the form _mutanjan pulao_, meat boiled with rice, sugar, butter,
+    and sometimes pine-apples or nuts.
+
+[19] _Salan_, a curry of meat, fish, or vegetables.
+
+[20] The left hand is used for purposes of ablution.
+
+[21] The Musalman _lota_, properly called _badhna_, differs from
+    that used by Hindus in having a spout like that of a teapot.
+
+[22] _Lagan_, a brass or copper pan in which the hands are washed: also
+    used for kneading dough.
+
+[23] _Besan_, flour, properly that of gram (_chana_). The prejudice
+    against soap is largely due to imitation of Hindus, who believe
+    themselves to be polluted by fat. Arabs, after a meal, wash their
+    hands and mouths with soap (Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 257). Sir G.
+    Watt (_Economic Dictionary_, iii. 84 ff.) gives a long list of other
+    detergents and substitutes for soap.
+
+[24] _Katora_.
+
+[25] The prejudice against the use of tea has much decreased since this
+    book was written, owing to its cultivation in India. Musalmans and
+    many Hindus now drink it freely.
+
+[26] _Dali_, the 'dolly' of Anglo-Indians.
+
+[27] See p. 13.
+
+[28] _Huqqahbardar_.
+
+[29] _Munhnal_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIII
+
+  Plurality of wives.--Mahumud's motive for permitting this
+  privilege.--State of society at the commencement of the Prophet's
+  mission.--His injunctions respecting marriage.--Parents invariably
+  determine on the selection of a husband.--First marriages attended by
+  a public ceremony.--The first wife takes precedence of all
+  others.--Generosity of deposition evinced by the Mussulmaun
+  ladies.--Divorces obtained under certain restrictions.--Period of
+  solemnizing marriage.--Method adopted in choosing a husband or
+  wife.--Overtures and contracts of marriage, how regulated.--Mugganee,
+  the first contract.--Dress of the bride elect on this occasion.--The
+  ceremonies described as witnessed.--Remarks on the bride.--Present
+  from the bridegroom on Buckrah Eade.
+
+
+The Mussulmauns have permission from their Lawgiver to be pluralists in
+wives, as well as the Israelites of old.[1] Mahumud's motive for
+restricting the number of wives each man might lawfully marry, was, say
+his biographers, for the purpose of reforming the then existing state of
+society, and correcting abuses of long standing amongst the Arabians.
+
+My authority tells me, that at the period of Mahumud's commencing his
+mission, the Arabians were a most abandoned and dissolute people, guilty
+of every excess that can debase the character of man: drunkards,
+profligate, and overbearing barbarians, both in principle and action.
+Mahumud is said unvariedly to have manifested kindly feelings towards the
+weaker sex, who, he considered, were intended to be the companion and
+solace of man, and not the slave of his ungovernable sensuality or caprice;
+he set the best possible example in his own domestic circle, and
+instituted such laws as were then needed to restrain vice and promote the
+happiness of those Arabians who had received him as a Prophet. He forbade
+all kinds of fermented liquors, which were then in common use; and to the
+frequent intoxication of the men, were attributed their vicious habits,
+base pursuits, and unmanly cruelty to the poor females. Mahumud's code of
+laws relating to marriage restricted them to a limited number of wives;
+for at that period they all possessed crowded harems, many of the
+inhabitants of which were the victims of their reckless persecution; young
+females torn from the bosom of their families and immured in the vilest
+state of bondage, to be cast out upon the wide world to starvation and
+misery, whenever the base master of the house or tent desired to make room
+for a fresh supply, often the spoils of his predatory excursions.
+
+By the laws of Mahumud his followers are restrained from concubinage; they
+are equally restricted from forced marriages. The number of their wives
+must be regulated by their means of supporting them, the law strictly
+forbidding neglect, or unkind treatment of any one of the number his
+followers may deem it convenient to marry.
+
+At the period when Mahumud issued these necessary laws for the security of
+female comfort and the moral habits of the males, there existed a practice
+with the Arabs of forcing young women to marry against their inclination,
+adding, year by year, to the many wretched creatures doomed, for a time,
+to all the miseries of a crowded hut; and at last, when tired of their
+persons or unable to provide them with sustenance, turning them adrift
+without a home, a friend, or a meal. To the present day the law against
+forced marriages is revered, and no marriage contract can be deemed lawful
+without the necessary form of inquiry by the Maulvee, who, in the presence
+of witnesses, demands of the young lady, 'whether the contract is by her
+own free will and consent?' This, however, I am disposed to think, in the
+present age, is little else than a mere form of 'fulfilling the law' since
+the engagement is made by the parents of both parties, the young couple
+being passive subjects to the parental arrangement, for their benefit as
+they are assured. The young lady, from her rigid seclusion, has no prior
+attachment, and she is educated to be 'obedient to her husband'. She is
+taught from her earliest youth to look forward to such match as her kind
+parents may think proper to provide for her; and, therefore, can have no
+objection to accepting the husband selected for her by them. The parents,
+loving their daughter, and aware of the responsibility resting on them,
+are cautious in selecting for their girls suitable husbands, according to
+their particular view of the eligibility of the suitor.
+
+The first marriage of a Mussulmaun is the only one where a public display
+of the ceremony is deemed necessary, and the first wife is always
+considered the head of his female establishment. Although he may be the
+husband of many wives in the course of time, and some of them prove
+greater favourites, yet the first wife takes precedence in all matters
+where dignity is to be preserved. And when the several wives meet--each
+have separate habitations if possible--all the rest pay to the first wife
+that deference which superiority exacts from inferiors; not only do the
+secondary wives pay this respect to the first, but the whole circle of
+relations and friends make the same distinction, as a matter of course;
+for the first wife takes precedence in every way.
+
+Should the first wife fortunately present her husband with a son, he is
+the undisputed heir; but the children of every subsequent wife are equals
+in the father's estimation. Should the husband be dissolute and have
+offspring by concubines--which is not very common,--those children are
+remembered and provided for in the distribution of his property; and, as
+very often occurs, they are cherished by the wives with nearly as much
+care as their own children; but illegitimate offspring very seldom marry
+in the same rank their father held in society.
+
+The latitude allowed by 'the law' preserves the many-wived Mussulmaun from
+the world's censure; and his conscience rests unaccused when he adds to
+his numbers, if he cannot reproach himself with having neglected or
+unkindly treated any of the number bound to him, or their children. But
+the privilege is not always indulged in by the Mussulmauns; much depends
+on circumstances, and more on the man's disposition. If it be the happy
+lot of a kind-hearted, good man to be married to a woman of assimilating
+mind, possessing the needful requisites to render home agreeable, and a
+prospect of an increasing family, then the husband has no motive to draw
+him into further engagements, and he is satisfied with one wife. Many such
+men I have known in Hindoostaun, particularly among the Syaads and
+religious characters, who deem a plurality of wives a plague to the
+possessors in proportion to their numbers.
+
+The affluent, the sensualist, and the ambitious, are most prone to swell
+the numbers in their harem. With some men, who are not highly gifted
+intellectually, it is esteemed a mark of gentility to have several wives.
+
+There are some instances of remarkable generosity in the conduct of good
+wives (which would hardly gain credit with females differently educated),
+not necessary to the subject before me; but I may here add to the praise
+of a good wife among these people, that she never utters a reproach, nor
+gives evidence by word or manner in her husband's presence that she has
+any cause for regret; she receives him with undisguised pleasure, although
+she has just before learned that another member has been added to his
+well-peopled harem. The good and forbearing wife, by this line of conduct,
+secures to herself the confidence of her husband; who, feeling assured
+that the amiable woman has an interest in his happiness, will consult her
+and take her advice in the domestic affairs of his children by other wives,
+and even arrange by her judgment all the settlements for their marriages,
+&c. He can speak of other wives without restraint,--for she knows he has
+others,--and her education has taught her, that they deserve her respect
+in proportion as they contribute to her husband's happiness. The children
+of her husband are admitted at all times and seasons, without restraint or
+prejudice; she loves them next to her own, because they are her husband's.
+She receives the mothers of such children without a shade of jealousy in
+her manner, and delights in distinguishing them by favours and presents
+according to their several merits. From this picture of many living wives
+in Mussulmaun society, it must not be supposed I am speaking of women
+without attachment to their husbands; on the contrary, they are persons
+who are really susceptible of pure love, and the generosity of their
+conduct is one of the ways in which they prove themselves devoted to their
+husband's happiness. This, they say, was the lesson taught them by their
+amiable mother, and this is the example they would set for the imitation
+of their daughters.
+
+I do not mean to say this is a faithful picture of all the females of
+zeenahnah life. The mixture of good and bad tempers or dispositions is not
+confined to any class or complexion of people, but is to be met with in
+every quarter of the globe. In general, I have observed those females of
+the Mussulmaun population who have any claim to genteel life, and whose
+habits are guided by religious principles, evince such traits of character
+as would constitute the virtuous and thoroughly obedient wife in any
+country; and many, whom I have had the honour to know personally, would do
+credit to the most enlightened people in the world.
+
+Should the first wife prove a termagant or unfaithful--rare occurrences
+amongst the inmates of the harem,--the husband has the liberty of
+divorcing her by paying down her stipulated dowry. This dowry is an
+engagement made by the husband on the night of Baarraat[2] (when the
+bridegroom is about to take his bride from her parents to his own home).
+On which occasion the Maulvee asks the bridegroom to name the amount of
+his wife's dowry, in the event of separation; the young man is at liberty
+to name any sum he pleases. It would not prevent the marriage if the
+smallest amount were promised; but he is in the presence of his bride's
+family, and within her hearing also, though he has not yet seen her;--it
+is a critical moment for him, thus surrounded. Besides, as he never
+intends to separate from the lady, in the strict letter of the law, he
+cannot refrain from gratifying those interested in the honour he is about
+to confer by the value of the promised dowry, and, therefore, he names a
+very heavy sum, which perhaps his whole generation never could have
+collected in their joint lives. This sum would of itself be a barrier to
+divorce; but that is not the only object which influences the Mussulmaun
+generally to waive the divorce; it is because they would not publish their
+own disgrace, by divorcing an unfaithful or undutiful wife.
+
+If the first wife dies, a second is sought after on the same principle
+which guided the first--'a superior to head his house'. In this case there
+would be the same public display which marked the first wife's marriage;
+all the minor or secondary wives being introduced to the zeenahnah
+privately; they are in consequence termed Dhollie[3] wives, or brought
+home under cover.
+
+Many great men appear to be close imitators of King Solomon, with whose
+history they are perfectly conversant, for I have heard of the sovereign
+princes in Hindoostaun having seven or eight hundred wives at one time in
+their palaces. This is hearsay report only, and I should hope an
+exaggeration.[4]
+
+The first marriage is usually solemnized when the youth is eighteen, and
+the young lady thirteen, or fourteen at the most; many are married at an
+earlier age, when, in the opinion of the parents, an eligible match is to
+be secured. And in some cases, where the parents on both sides have the
+union of their children at heart, they contract them at six or seven years
+old, which marriage they solemnly bind themselves to fulfil when the
+children have reached a proper age; under these circumstances the children
+are allowed to live in the same house, and often form an attachment for
+each other, which renders their union a life of real happiness.
+
+There are to be found in Mussulmaun society parents of mercenary minds,
+who prefer giving their daughters in marriage as dhollie wives to noblemen
+or men of property, to the preferable plan of uniting them with a husband
+of their own grade, with whom the girl would most likely live without a
+rival in the mud-walled tenement; this will explain the facilities offered
+to a sovereign or nobleman in extending the numbers of his harem.
+
+Some parents excuse themselves in thus disposing of their daughters on the
+score of poverty, and the difficulty they find in defraying the expenses
+of a wedding: this I conceive to be one great error in the economy of the
+Mussulmaun people,--unnecessary expense incurred in their marriage
+ceremonies, which hampers them through life in their circumstances.
+Parents, however poor, will not allow their daughter to be conveyed from
+their home, where the projected union is with an equal, without a
+seemingly needless parade of music, and a marriage-portion in goods and
+chattels, if they have no fortune to give beside; then the expense of
+providing dinners for friends to make the event conspicuous, and the
+useless articles of finery for the girl's person, with many other ways of
+expending money, to the detriment of the parents' finances, without any
+very substantial benefit to the young couple. But this dearly-loved custom
+cannot be passed over; and if the parents find it impossible to meet the
+pecuniary demands of these ceremonies, the girl has no alternative but to
+live out her days singly, unless by an agent's influence she is accepted
+as a dhollie wife to some man of wealth.
+
+Girls are considered to have passed their prime when they number from
+sixteen to eighteen years; even the poorest peasant would object to a wife
+of eighteen.
+
+There has been the same difficulty to encounter in every age of Mussulmaun
+history in Hindoostaun; and in the darker periods of civilization, the
+obstacles to settling their daughters to advantage induced the villagers
+and the uneducated to follow the example of the Rajpoots, viz., to destroy
+the greater proportion of females at their birth. In the present age, this
+horrid custom is never heard of amongst any classes of the Mussulmaun
+population[5]; but by the Rajpoot Hindoos it is still practised, as one of
+their chiefs very lately acknowledged in the presence of a friend of mine.
+I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah declare that it was a common
+occurrence within his recollection, among the lower classes of the people
+in the immediate vicinity of Loodeeanah,[6] where he lived when a boy; and
+that the same practice existed in the Oude territory, amongst the
+peasantry even at a much later date. One of the Nuwaubs of Oude,--I think
+Asoof ood Dowlah,--hearing with horror of the frequent recurrence of this
+atrocity in the remote parts of his province, issued a proclamation to his
+subjects, commanding them to desist from the barbarous custom[7]; and, as
+an inducement to the wicked parents to preserve their female offspring
+alive, grants of land were to be awarded to every female as a
+marriage-portion on her arriving at a proper age.
+
+It is generally to be observed in a Mussulmaun's family, even at this day,
+that the birth of a girl produces a temporary gloom, whilst the birth of a
+boy gives rise to a festival in the zeenahnah. Some are wicked enough to
+say, 'It is more honourable to have sons than daughters', but I believe
+the real cause is the difficulty to be encountered in settling the latter
+suitably.
+
+The important affair of fixing upon a desirable match for their sons and
+daughters is the source of constant anxiety in the family of every
+Mussulmaun, from the children's earliest years to the period of its
+accomplishment.
+
+There is a class of people who make it the business of their lives to
+negotiate marriages. Both men and women of this description are of course
+ingeniously expert in the art of talking, and able to put the best
+colouring on the affair they undertake; they occupy every day of their
+lives in roving about from house to house, and, as they have always
+something entertaining to say, they generally gain easy admittance; they
+make themselves acquainted with the domestic affairs of one family in
+order to convey them to another, and so continue in their line of
+gossiping, until the economy of every person's house is familiar to all.
+The female gossip in her researches in zeenahnahs, finds out all the
+expectations a mother entertains for her marriageable sons or daughters,
+and details whatever she learns in such or such a zeenahnah, as likely to
+meet the views of her present hostess. Every one knows the object of these
+visits, and if they have any secret that the world may not participate in,
+there is due caution observed that it may not transpire before this Mrs.
+Gad-about.
+
+When intelligence is brought, by means of such agency, to the mother of a
+son who happens to be marriageable, that a lady of proper rank has a
+daughter to be sought, she consults with her husband, and further
+inquiries are instituted amongst their several friends, male and female;
+after due deliberation, the connexion being found desirable, the father
+will consult an omen before negotiations are commenced. The omen to decide
+the important step is as follows:--Several slips of paper are cut up, on
+half the number is written 'to be', on the other half, 'not to be'; these
+papers are mixed together and placed under the prayer-carpet. When the
+good Mussulmaun is preparing for his evening Namaaz he fails not in his
+devotions to ask for help and guidance in an affair of so much importance
+to the father as the happiness and well-being of his son. At the portion
+of the service when he bows down his head to God, he beseeches with much
+humility, calling on the great power and goodness of God to instruct and
+guide him for the best interest of his child; and then he repeats a short
+prayer expressive of his reliance on the wisdom of God, and his perfect
+submission to whatever may be His wise decree in this important business.
+The prayer concluded, he seats himself with solemn gravity on the
+prayer-carpet, again and again imploring Divine guidance, without which he
+is sure nothing good can accrue: he then draws one slip from under his
+carpet; if 'to be' is produced, he places it by his left side;--a second
+slip is drawn out, should that also bear the words 'to be' the business is
+so far decided. He then offers thanks and praises to God, congratulates
+his wife on the successful issue of the omen, and discusses those plans
+which appear most likely to further the prospects of their dearly-loved
+son. But should the second and third papers say 'not to be' he is assured
+in his heart it was so decided by 'that Wisdom which cannot err:' to whom
+he gives praise and glory for all mercies received at His hand: after this
+no overture or negotiation would be listened to by the pious father from
+the same quarter.[8]
+
+The omen, however, proving favourable, the affair is decided; and in order
+to gain the best possible information of the real disposition of all
+parties concerned, a confidential friend is sent to the zeenahnah of the
+young lady's mother to make her own observations on what passes within;
+and to ascertain, if possible, whether the report brought by the female
+agent was true or exaggerated; and finally, to learn if their son would be
+received or rejected as a suitor, provided advances were made.
+
+The female friend returns, after a day or two's absence, to the anxious
+parents of the youth, and details all she has seen or heard during her
+visit. The young lady may, perhaps, have been seen (this is not always
+conceded to such visitors), in which case her person, her manners, her
+apparent disposition, the hospitality and good breeding of the mother and
+other members of the zeenahnah, are described; and lastly, it is hinted
+that, all other things suiting, the young lady being yet disengaged, the
+projected offer would not be disagreeable to her parents.
+
+The father of the youth then resolves on sending a male agent in due form
+to negotiate a marriage, unless he happens to be personally acquainted
+with the girl's father; in which case the lady is desired to send her
+female agent on the embassy, and the father of the youth speaks on the
+subject in the meantime to the girl's father.
+
+A very intimate friend of mine was seeking for a suitable match for her
+son, and being much in her confidence, I was initiated in all the
+mysteries and arrangements (according to Mussulmaun rule) of the affair
+pending the marriage of her son.
+
+The young lady to be sought (wooed we should have it), had been described
+as amiable and pretty--advantages as much esteemed as her rank;--fortune
+she had none worth mentioning, but it was what is termed in Indian society
+a good and equal match. The overture was, therefore, to be made from the
+youth's family in the following manner:
+
+On a silver tray covered with gold brocade and fringed with silver, was
+laid the youth's pedigree, traced by a neat writer in the Persian
+character, on richly embossed paper ornamented and emblazoned with gold
+figures. The youth being a Syaad, his pedigree was traced up to Mahumud,
+in both paternal and maternal lines, and many a hero and Begum of their
+noble blood filled up the space from the Prophet down to the youthful Meer
+Mahumud, my friend's son.
+
+On the tray, with the pedigree, was laid a nuzza, or offering of five gold
+mohurs, and twenty-one (the lucky number) rupees; a brocaded cover,
+fringed with silver, was spread over the whole, and this was conveyed by
+the male agent to the young Begum's father. The tray and its contents are
+retained for ever, if the proposal is accepted: if rejected, the parties
+return the whole without delay, which is received as a tacit proof that
+the suitor is rejected: no further explanation is ever given or required.
+
+In the present instance the tray was detained, and in a few days after a
+female from their family was sent to my friend's house to make a general
+scrutiny of the zeenahnah and its inmates. This female was pressed to stay
+a day or two, and in that time many important subjects underwent
+discussion. The youth was introduced, and everything according with the
+views entertained by both parties, the fathers met, and the marriage, it
+was decided, should take place within a twelvemonth, when the young lady
+would have accomplished her thirteenth year.
+
+'Do you decide on having Mugganee[9] performed?' is the question proposed
+by the father of the youth to the father of the young maiden. In the
+present case it was chosen, and great were the preparations of my friend
+to do all possible honour to the future bride of her son.
+
+Mugganee is the first contract, by which the parties are bound to fulfil
+their engagement at an appointed time.
+
+The dress for a bride[10] differs in one material point from the general
+style of Hindoostaunie costume: a sort of gown is worn, made of silver
+tissue, or some equally expensive article, about the walking length of an
+English dress; the skirt is open in front, and contains about twenty
+breadths of the material, a tight body and long sleeves. The whole dress
+is trimmed very richly with embroidered trimming and silver riband; the
+deputtah (drapery) is made to correspond. This style of dress is the
+original Hindoo fashion, and was worn at the Court of Delhi for many
+centuries; but of late years it has been used only on marriage festivals
+amongst the better sort of people in Hindoostaun, except Kings or Nuwaubs
+sending khillauts to females, when this dress, called a jhammah,[11] is
+invariably one of the articles.
+
+The costly dresses for the present Mugganee my friend prepared at a great
+expense, and with much good taste; to which were added a ruby ring of
+great value, large gold ear-rings, offerings of money, the flower-garlands
+for the head, neck, wrists, and ankles, formed of the sweet-scented
+jessamine; choice confectionery set out in trays with the pawns and fruits;
+the whole conveyed under an escort of soldiers and servants with a band of
+music, from the residence of Meer Mahumud to that of his bride elect,
+accompanied by many friends of the family. These offerings from the youth
+bind the contract with the young lady, who wears his ring from that day to
+the end of her life.
+
+The poorer sort of people perform Mugganee by the youth simply sending a
+rupee in a silk band, to be tied on the girl's arm.
+
+Being curious to know the whole business of a wedding ceremony amongst the
+Mussulmaun people, I was allowed to perform the part of 'officiating
+friend' on this occasion of celebrating the Mugganee. The parents of the
+young lady having been consulted, my visit was a source of solicitude to
+the whole family, who made every possible preparation to receive me with
+becoming respect; I went just in time to reach the gate at the moment the
+parade arrived. I was handed to the door of the zeenahnah by the girl's
+father, and was soon surrounded by the young members of the family,
+together with many lady-visitors, slaves, and women-servants of the
+establishment. They had never before seen an English-woman, and the
+novelty, I fancy, surprised the whole group; they examined my dress,
+my complexion, hair, hands, &c., and looked the wonder they could not
+express in words. The young Begum was not amongst the gazing throng;
+some preliminary customs detained her behind the purdah, where it may
+be supposed she endured all the agony of suspense and curiosity by her
+compliance with the prescribed forms.
+
+The lady of the mansion waited my approach to the dulhaun[12] (great hall)
+with all due etiquette, standing to receive and embrace me on my advancing
+towards her. This ceremony performed, I was invited to take a seat on the
+musnud-carpet with her on the ground; a chair had been provided for me,
+but I chose to respect the lady's preference, and the seat on the floor
+suited me for the time without much inconvenience.
+
+After some time had been passed in conversation on such subjects as suited
+the taste of the lady of the house, I was surprised at the servants
+entering with trays, which they placed immediately before me, containing a
+full-dress suit in the costume of Hindoostaun. The hostess told me she had
+prepared this dress for me, and I must condescend to wear it. I would have
+declined the gaudy array, but one of her friends whispered me, 'The custom
+is of long standing; when the face of a stranger is first seen a dress is
+always presented; I should displease Sumdun Begum by my refusal;--besides,
+it would be deemed an ill omen at the Mugganee of the young Bohue[13] Begum
+if I did not put on the Native dress before I saw the face of the bride
+elect.' These I found to be weighty arguments, and felt constrained to
+quiet their apprehensions of ill-luck by compliance; I therefore forced
+the gold dress and the glittering drapery over my other clothes, at the
+expense of some suffering from the heat, for it was at the very hottest
+season of the year, and the dulhaun was crowded with visitors.
+
+This important point conceded to them, I was led to a side hall, where the
+little girl was seated on her carpet of rich embroidery, her face resting
+on her knees in apparent bashfulness. I could not directly ascertain
+whether she was plain, or pretty as the female agent had represented. I
+was allowed the privilege of decorating the young lady with the sweet
+jessamine guinahs,[14] and placing the ring on the forefinger of the right
+hand; after which, the ear-rings, the gold-tissue dress, the deputtah were
+all in their turn put on, the offering of money presented, and then I had
+the first embrace before her mother. She looked very pretty, just turned
+twelve. If I could have prevailed on her to be cheerful, I should have
+been much gratified to have extended my visit in her apartment, but the
+poor child seemed ready to sink with timidity; and out of compassion to
+the dear girl, I hurried away from the hall, to relieve her from the
+burden my presence seemed to inflict, the moment I had accomplished my
+last duty, which was to feed her with my own hand, giving her seven pieces
+of sugar-candy; seven, on this occasion, is the lucky number, I presume,
+as I was particularly cautioned to feed her with exactly that number of
+pieces.
+
+Returning to the assembly in the dulhaun, I would have gladly taken leave;
+but there was yet one other custom to be observed to secure a happy omen
+to the young people's union. Once again seated on the musnud with Sumdun
+Begum,[15] the female slaves entered with sherbet in silver basins. Each
+person taking sherbet is expected to deposit gold or silver coins in the
+tray; the sherbet-money at this house is collected for the bride; and when
+during the three days' performance of the marriage ceremony at the
+bridegroom's house sherbet is presented to the guests, the money collected
+there is reserved for him. The produce of the two houses is afterwards
+compared, and conclusions drawn as to the greatest portion of respect paid
+by the friends on either side. The poor people find the sherbet-money a
+useful fund to help them to keep house; but with the rich it is a mere
+matter to boast of, that so much money was collected in consequence of the
+number of visitors who attended the nuptials.
+
+After the Mugganee ceremony had been performed, and before the marriage
+was solemnized, the festival of Buckrah Eade occurred;--in the eleventh
+Letter you will find it remarked, the bride and bridegroom elect then
+exchange presents;--my friend was resolved her son's presents should do
+honour to both houses, and the following may give you an idea of an
+Eade-gift.
+
+Thirty-five goats and sheep of the finest breed procurable, which I
+succeeded in having sent in their natural dress, instead of being adorned
+with gold-cloth and painted horns: it was, however, with some persuasion
+the folly of this general practice was omitted in this instance.
+
+The guinah or garland, of flowers on a tray covered with brocade. The
+guinah are sweet-scented flowers without stalks, threaded into garlands in
+many pretty ways, with great taste and ingenuity, intermixed with silver
+ribands; they are formed into bracelets, necklaces, armlets, chaplets for
+the head, and bangles for the legs. There are people in Lucknow who make
+the preparing of guinahs a profitable business, as the population is so
+extensive as to render these flower-ornaments articles of great request.
+
+A tray filled with pawns, prepared with the usual ingredients, as lime,
+cuttie[16] (a bitter gum), betel-nut, tobacco, spices, &c.; these pawns
+are tied up in packets of a triangular form and covered with enamelled
+foil of many bright colours. Several trays of ripe fruits of the season,
+viz., kurbootahs[17] (shaddock), kabooza[18] (melons), ununas[19] (pine
+apple), guavers,[20] sherreefha[21] (custard-apple), kummeruck,[22]
+jarmun[23] (purple olives), orme[24] (mango), falsah,[25] kirhnee,[26]
+baer,[27] leechie,[28] ormpeach,[29] carounder,[30] and many other kinds
+of less repute.
+
+Confectionery and sweetmeats, on trays, in all the varieties of Indian
+invention; a full-dress suit for the young lady; and on a silver tray the
+youth's nuzza of five gold mohurs, and twenty-one rupees.
+
+The Eade offering of Meer Mahumud was escorted by servants, soldiers, and
+a band of music; and the young lady returned a present to the bridegroom
+elect of thirty-five goats and sheep, and a variety of undress skull-caps,
+supposed to be her own work, in spangles and embroidery. I may state here,
+that the Natives of India never go bare-headed in the house. The turban is
+always worn in company, whatever may be the inconvenience from heat; and
+in private life, a small skull-cap, often of plain white muslin, just
+covers the head. It is considered disgraceful in men to expose the head
+bare; removing the turban from the head of an individual would be deemed
+as insulting as pulling a nose in Europe.
+
+Whatever Eade or festival may occur between the Mugganee and the final
+celebration of nuptials, presents are always interchanged by the young
+bride and bridegroom; and with all such observances there is one
+prevailing custom, which is, that though there should be nothing at hand
+but part of their own gifts, the trays are not allowed to go back without
+some trifling things to keep the custom in full force.
+
+
+[1] The _Koran_ (iv. 3) allows Musalmans to marry 'by twos, or
+    threes, or fours'; but the passage has been interpreted in various
+    ways.
+
+[2] _Barat_.
+
+[3] _Duli_, 'the Anglo-Indian 'dhooly'. Such wives are so called
+    because they are brought to the houses of their husbands in an
+    informal way, without a regular marriage procession.
+
+[4] The King of Vijayanagar had twelve thousand wives: four thousand
+    followed him on foot and served in the kitchen; the same number
+    marched with him on horseback; the remainder in litters, and two or
+    three thousand of them were bound to burn themselves with his corpse
+    (Nicolo Conti, _India in the Fifteenth Century_, part iii, p. 6). In
+    Orissa a palm-leaf record states that one monarch died prematurely
+    just as he had married his sixty-thousandth wife, and a European
+    traveller speaks of a later prince who had four thousand ladies (Sir
+    W. Hunter, _Orissa_. ii, 132 f.). Manucci states that there were more
+    than thirty thousand women in the palace of Shah Jahan at Dheli,
+    and that he usually had two thousand women of different races in his
+    zenana (_Storia de Major_, i. 195, ii. 330). Tippoo Sultan of
+    Mysore married nine hundred women (Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_,
+    93).
+
+[5] There in evidence that infanticide did prevail among some Musalman
+    tribes. Where actual infanticide has disappeared, it has often been
+    replaced by neglect of female infants, except in those castes where,
+    owing to a scarcity of girls, they command a high price.--_Reports
+    Census of India_, 1911, i. 216 ff; _Panjab_, 1911, i. 231.
+
+[6] Ludhiana.
+
+[7] No record of this proclamation has been traced in the histories of the
+    time.
+
+[8] The bride is often selected by praying for a dream in sleep, by
+    manipulating the rosary, or by opening the _Koran_ at random, and
+    reading the first verse which comes under the eye. Another method is
+    to ascertain to which of the elements--fire, air, earth, water--the
+    initials of the names of the pair correspond. If these agree, it is
+    believed that the engagement will be prosperous.--Jaffur Shurreef,
+    _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 37.
+
+[9] _Mangni_, 'the asking'.
+
+[10] Compare the full account of brides' dress in Mrs. F. Parks,
+    _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 425.
+
+[11] _Jama_.
+
+[12] _Dalan_.
+
+[13] _Bahu_, properly a son's wife or daughter-in-law: commonly applied
+    to a bride or young wife.
+
+[14] Probably the _genda_ or French marigold (_Tagetes erecta_).
+
+[15] Sumdun is always the title of the bride's mamma; Bohue, that of the
+    young wife, and, therefore, my thus designating her here is premature.
+    [_Samdhan_ means a connexion by marriage. The mothers of bride and
+    bridegroom are _samdhan_ to each other.]
+
+[16] _Kuth, kuttha_, the gum of _Acacia catechu_.
+
+[17] The shaddock (_Citrus decumana_) is called _chakoira_; possibly
+    confused with the next.
+
+[18] _Kharbuzah, Cucumis melo_.
+
+[19] _Ananas, Ananassa saliva_.
+
+[20] Guava.
+
+[21] _Sharifah, Anona squamosa_.
+
+[22] _Kamrak, Averrhoa Carambola_.
+
+[23] _Jamun, jaman, Eugenia Jambolana_.
+
+[24] _Am, Mangifera indica_.
+
+[25] _Falsa, phalsa, Greuria asiatica_.
+
+[26] _Kirni, Canthium parviflorum_.
+
+[27] _Ber, Zizyphus Jujuba_.
+
+[28] _Lichi, Nephelium Lichi_.
+
+[29] Possibly some confusion between _um_, the mango, and _alu,
+    aru_, the peach.
+
+[30] _Karaunda, Carissa Carandas_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIV
+
+  Wedding ceremonies of the Mussulmauns.--The new or full moon
+  propitious to the rites being concluded.--Marriage settlements
+  unknown.--Control of the wife over her own property.--Three days and
+  nights occupied in celebrating the wedding.--Preparations previously
+  made by both families.--Ostentatious display on those occasions.--Day
+  of Sarchuck.--Customs on the day of Mayndhie.--Sending presents.--Day
+  of Baarraat.--Procession of the bridegroom to fetch the bride.--The
+  bride's departure to her new home.--Attendant ceremonies
+  explained.--Similarity of the Mussulmaun and Hindu
+  ceremonies.--Anecdote of a Moollah.--Tying the Narrah to the Moosul.
+
+
+When the young lady's family have made all the necessary arrangements for
+that important event (their daughter's nuptials), notice is sent to the
+friends of the intended bridegroom, and the gentlemen of both families
+meet to settle on what day the celebration is to take place. They are
+guided in the final arrangement by the state of the moon--the new or full
+moon has the preference; she must, however, be clear of Scorpio, which, as
+I have before stated, they consider the unfortunate sign.[1] There are
+some moons in the year considered very unpropitious to marry in. At
+Mahurrum, for instance, no emergency as to time or circumstance would
+induce the female party to consent to the marriage solemnities taking
+place. In Rumzaun they have scruples, though not equal to those which they
+entertain against fulfilling the contract in Mahurrum, the month of
+mourning.
+
+Marriage settlements are not known in Mussulmaun society. All contracts
+are made by word of mouth; and to their credit, honourable reliance is
+usually followed by honourable fulfilment of agreements. The husband is
+expected to be satisfied with whatever portion of his wife's fortune the
+friends may deem consistent or prudent to grant with their daughter. The
+wife is at liberty to keep under her own control any separate sum or
+allowance her parents may be pleased to give her, over and above the
+marriage portion granted to the husband with his wife.[2]
+
+The husband rarely knows the value of his wife's private property unless,
+as sometimes happens, the couple in after years have perfect confidence in
+each other, and make no separate interests in worldly matters.
+Occasionally, when the married couple have not lived happily together, the
+wife has been known to bury her cash secretly; and perhaps she may die
+without disclosing the secret of her treasure to any one.
+
+In India the practice of burying treasure is very common with females,
+particularly in villages, or where there are fears entertained of robbers.
+There is no difficulty in burying cash or other treasure, where the ground
+floors of the houses are merely beaten earth--boarded floors, indeed, are
+never seen in Hindoostaun--in the houses of the first classes of Natives
+they sometimes have them bricked and plastered, or paved with marble.
+During the rainy season I have sometimes observed the wooden tuckht[3] (a
+portable platform) in use with aged or delicate females, on which they
+make their seats from fear of the damp from the mud floor; but they
+complain that these accommodations are not half so comfortable as their
+ordinary seat.
+
+The division of personal property between married people has the effect of
+rendering the wife much more independent than the married lady of other
+countries. The plan is a judicious one in the existing state of Mussulmaun
+society, for since the husband could at his pleasure add other wives, the
+whole property of the first wife might be squandered on these additions.
+In the middling classes of society, and where the husband is a religious
+person, this division of property is not so strictly maintained; yet every
+wife has the privilege, if she chooses to exercise it, of keeping a
+private purse, which the good wife will produce unasked to meet her
+husband's emergencies; and which the good husband is never known to demand,
+however great may be his necessities. There are many traits of character
+in the Mussulmaun world that render them both amiable and happy, wherever
+politeness of behaviour is brought to bear. I have seen some bright
+examples of forbearance and affectionate solicitude in both sexes, which
+would do honour to the most refined societies of the civilized world.
+
+The marriage ceremony occupies three days and nights:--The first is called,
+Sarchuck;[4] the second, Mayndhie;[5] and the third, Baarraat,[6] (fate or
+destiny is the meaning of this word).
+
+I am not aware that three days are required to accomplish the nuptials of
+the young couple in any other society of Mussulmauns distinct from those
+of Hindoostaun. Judging by similar usages among the Hindoo population, I
+am rather disposed to conjecture that this is one of the customs of the
+aborigines, imitated by the invaders, as the outward parade and publicity
+given to the event by the Mussulmauns greatly resemble those of the
+surrounding Hindoos.
+
+There are no licences granted, nor any form of registry kept of marriages.
+Any person who is acquainted with the Khoraun may read the marriage
+ceremony, in the presence of witnesses if it be possible; but they usually
+employ a professed Moollah or Maulvee, in consideration of such persons
+being the most righteous in their lives; for they make this engagement a
+religious, as well as a civil contract.[7]
+
+The day being fixed, the elders, male and female, of the two families,
+invite their several relatives, friends, and acquaintances to assemble,
+according to their means and convenience for entertaining visitors. The
+invitations are written in the Persian character on red paper, describing
+the particular event which they are expected to honour. During the week
+previous to Sarchuck, both families are busily engaged in sending round to
+their several friends trays of ready-cooked dinners. Rich and poor share
+equally on these occasions; the reason assigned for which is, that the
+persons' nuptials may be registered in the minds of those who partake of
+the food, who in the course of time, might otherwise forget that they had
+ever heard of the young couple's nuptials.
+
+The mother of Bohue Begum actively employed the intervening time, in
+finishing her preparations for the young lady's departure from the
+parental roof with suitable articles, which might prove the bride was not
+sent forth to her new family without a proper provision. There is
+certainly too much ostentation evinced on these occasions; but custom,
+prided custom, bids defiance to every better argument; and thus the mother,
+full of solicitude that her daughter should carry with her evident marks
+of parental affection, and be able to sustain her rank in life, loads her
+child with a profusion of worldly goods. The poorest people, in this
+instance, imitate their superiors with a blameable disregard to
+consequences. Many parents among the lower orders incur heavy debts to
+enable them to make a parade at their children's wedding, which proves a
+source of misery to themselves as long as they live.
+
+It may be presumed the Sumdun Begum prepared more suits of finery than her
+daughter could wear out for years. A silver bedstead with the necessary
+furniture, as before described; a silver pawn-dawn,[8] round, and shaped
+very like a modern spice-box in England; a silver chillumchee[9]
+(wash-hand basin), and lota (water-jug with a spout, nearly resembling an
+old-fashioned coffee-pot); a silver luggun[10] (spittoon); silver
+surraie[11] (water-bottle); silver basins for water; several dozens of
+copper saucepans, plates and spoons for cooking; dishes, plates, and
+platters in all variety needful for the house, of metal or of stone. China
+or glass is rarely amongst the bride's portion, the only articles of glass
+I remember to have seen was the looking-glass for the bride's toilette,
+and that was framed and cased in pure silver. Stone dishes are a curious
+and expensive article, brought from Persia and Arabia, of a greenish
+colour, highly polished; the Natives call them racaab-puttie,[12] and
+prefer them to silver at their meals, having an idea that poisoned food
+would break them; and he who should live in fear of such a calamity, feels
+secure that the food is pure when the dish of this rare stone is placed
+before him perfect.
+
+Amongst the various articles sent with the bride to her new home is the
+much prized musnud, cushions and carpet to correspond; shutteringhies, and
+calico carpets, together with the most minute article used in Native
+houses, whether for the kitchen, or for the accommodation of the young
+lady in her apartments; all these are conveyed in the lady's train when
+she leaves her father's house to enter that of her husband. I am afraid my
+descriptions will be deemed tediously particular, so apt are we to take
+the contagion of example from those we associate with; and as things
+unimportant in other societies are made of so much consequence to these
+people, I am in danger of giving to trifles more importance than may be
+agreeable to my readers.
+
+On the day of Sarchuck the zeenahnahs of both houses are completely filled
+with visitors of all grades, from the wives and mothers of noblemen, down
+to the humblest acquaintance of the family. To do honour to the hostess,
+the guests appear in their best attire and most valuable ornaments.
+
+A wedding in the family of a respectable Mussulmaun is very often the
+medium of reconciling long standing estrangements between friends. Human
+nature has the same failings in every climate; there will be some who
+entertain jealousies and envyings in all societies, but a wedding with
+these people is a perfect peace-maker, since none of the invited can
+consistently stay away; and in such an assembly, where is the evil mind to
+disturb harmony, or recur to past grievances?
+
+The day of Sarchuck is the first time the young lady receives the
+appellation of Dullun,[13] at which time also the bridegroom is designated
+Dullha.[14] Dullun is kept in strict confinement, in a dark room or closet,
+during the whole three days' merriment going forward under the parental
+roof; whilst the bridegroom is the most prominent person in the assembly
+of the males, where amusements are contrived to please and divert him, the
+whole party vieing in personal attentions to him. The ladies are occupied
+in conversation and merriment, and amused with the native songs and music
+of the dominie, smoking the hookha, eating pawn, dinner, &c. Company is
+their delight, and time passes pleasantly with them in such an assembly.
+
+The second day, Mayndhie, is one of bustle and preparation in the Sumdun
+Begum's department; it is spent in arranging the various articles that are
+to accompany the bride's Mayndhie, which is forwarded in the evening to
+the bridegroom with great parade.
+
+It is so well known that I need hardly mention the fact, that the herb
+mayndhie[15] is in general request amongst the natives of India, for the
+purpose of dyeing the hands and feet; it is considered by them an
+indispensable article to their comfort, keeping those members cool and a
+great ornament to the person.
+
+Long established custom obliges the bride to send mayndhie on the second
+night of the nuptials to the bridegroom; and, to make the event more
+conspicuous, presents proportioned to the means of the party accompany the
+trays of prepared mayndhie.
+
+The female friends of the bride's family attend the Mayndhie procession in
+covered conveyances, and the male guests on horses, elephants, and in
+palkies; trains of soldiers, servants, and bands of music swell the
+procession (among people of distinction) to a magnitude inconceivable to
+those who have not visited the Native cities of Hindoostaun, or witnessed
+the parade of a marriage ceremony.
+
+Amongst the bride's presents with mayndhie, may be noticed every thing
+requisite for a full-dress suit for the bridegroom, and the etceteras of
+his toilette; confectionery, dried fruits, preserves, the prepared pawns,
+and a multitude of trifles too tedious to enumerate, but which are
+nevertheless esteemed luxuries with the Native young people, and are
+considered essential to the occasion. One thing I must not omit, the
+sugar-candy, which forms the source of amusement when the bridegroom is
+under the dominion of the females in his mother's zeenahnah. The artush
+bajie,[16] (fireworks) sent with the presents, are concealed in flowers
+formed of the transparent uberuck:[17] these flowers are set out in frames,
+called chumund,[18] and represent beds of flowers in their varied forms
+and colours; these in their number and gay appearance have a pretty effect
+in the procession, interspersed with the trays containing the dresses, &c.
+All the trays are first covered with basket-work raised in domes, and over
+these are thrown draperies of broadcloth, gold-cloth, and brocade, neatly
+fringed in bright colours.
+
+The Mayndhie procession having reached the bridegroom's house, bustle and
+excitement pervade through every department of the mansion. The gentlemen
+are introduced to the father's hall; the ladies to the youth's mother, who
+in all possible state is prepared to receive the bride's friends.
+
+The interior of a zeenahnah has been already described; the ladies crowd
+into the centre hall to witness, through the blinds of bamboo, the
+important process of dressing the young bridegroom in his bride's presents.
+The centre purdah is let down, in which are openings to admit the hands
+and feet; and close to this purdah a low stool is placed. When all these
+preliminary preparations are made, and the ladies securely under cover,
+notice is sent to the male assembly that, 'Dullha is wanted'; and he then
+enters the zeenahnah court-yard, amidst the deafening sounds of trumpets
+and drums from without, and a serenade from the female singers within. He
+seats himself on the stool placed for him close to the purdah, and obeys
+the several commands he receives from the hidden females, with childlike
+docility. The moist mayndhie is then tied on with bandages by hands he
+cannot see, and, if time admits, one hour is requisite to fix the dye
+bright and permanent on the hands and feet. During this delay, the hour is
+passed in lively dialogues with the several purdahed dames, who have all
+the advantage of seeing though themselves unseen; the singers occasionally
+lauding his praise in extempore strains, after describing the loveliness
+of his bride, (whom they know nothing about), and foretelling the
+happiness which awaits him in his marriage, but which, in the lottery, may
+perhaps prove a blank. The sugar-candy, broken into small lumps, is
+presented by the ladies whilst his hands and feet are fast bound in the
+bandages of mayndhie; but as he cannot help himself, and it is an omen of
+good to eat the bride's sweets at this ceremony, they are sure he will try
+to catch the morsels which they present to his mouth and then draw back,
+teasing the youth with their banterings, until at last he may successfully
+snap at the candy, and seize the fingers also with the dainty, to the
+general amusement of the whole party and the youth's entire satisfaction.
+
+The mayndhie supposed to have done its duty, the bandages are removed; his
+old unnah,[19] the nurse of his infancy (always retained for life),
+assists him with water to wash off the leaves, dries his feet and hands,
+rubs him with otta,[20] robes him in his bride's presents, and ornaments
+him with the guinah. Thus attired he takes leave of his tormentors, sends
+respectful messages to his bride's family, and bows his way from their
+guardianship to the male apartment, where he is greeted by a flourish of
+trumpets and the congratulations of the guests, many of whom present
+nuzzas and embrace him cordially.
+
+The dinner is introduced at twelve amongst the bridegroom's guests, and
+the night passed in good-humoured conviviality, although the strongest
+beverage at the feast consists of sugar and water sherbet. The
+dancing-women's performances, the display of fireworks, the dinner, pawn,
+and hookha, form the chief amusements of the night, and they break up only
+when the dawn of morning approaches.
+
+The bride's female friends take sherbet and pawn after the bridegroom's
+departure from the zeenahnah, after which they hasten away to the bride's
+assembly, to detail the whole business of their mission.
+
+I have often heard the ladies complain, that the time hangs very heavy on
+their hands whilst the party have gone to perform Mayndhie, until the
+good ladies return with their budget of particulars. Hundreds of questions
+are then put to them by the inquisitive dames, how the procession passed
+off?--whether accident or adventure befel them on the march?--what remarks
+were made on the bride's gifts?---but most of all they want to know, how
+the bridegroom looked, and how he behaved under their hands? The events of
+the evening take up the night in detailing, with the occasional
+interruptions of dinner, pawn, and sherbet; and so well are they amused,
+that they seldom feel disposed to sleep until the crowing of the cock
+warns them that the night has escaped with their diversified amusements.
+
+The eventful Baarraat arrives to awaken in the heart of a tender mother
+all the good feelings of fond affection; she is, perhaps, about to part
+with the great solace of her life under many domestic trials; at any rate,
+she transfers her beloved child to another protection. All marriages are
+not equally happy in their termination; it is a lottery, a fate, in the
+good mother's calculation. Her darling child may be the favoured of Heaven
+for which she prays; she may be, however, the miserable first wife of a
+licentious pluralist; nothing is certain, but she will strive to trust in
+God's mercy, that the event prove a happy one to her dearly-loved girl.
+
+I have said the young bride is in close confinement during the days of
+celebrating her nuptials; on the third she is tormented with the
+preparations for her departure. The mayndhie must be applied to her hands
+and feet, the formidable operations of bathing, drying her hair, oiling
+and dressing her head, dyeing her lips, gums, and teeth with antimony,
+fixing on her the wedding ornaments, the nut (nose-ring) presented by her
+husband's family: the many rings to be placed on her fingers and toes, the
+rings fixed in her ears, are all so many new trials to her, which though a
+complication of inconveniences, she cannot venture to murmur at, and
+therefore submits to with the passive meekness of a lamb.
+
+Towards the close of the evening, all this preparation being fulfilled,
+the marriage portion is set in order to accompany the bride. The guests
+make their own amusements for the day; the mother is too much occupied
+with her daughter's affairs to give much of her time or attention to them;
+nor do they expect it, for they all know by experience the nature of a
+mother's duties at such an interesting period.
+
+The bridegroom's house is nearly in the same state of bustle as the
+bride's, though of a very different, description, as the preparing for the
+reception of a bride is an event of vast importance in the opinion of a
+Mussulmaun. The gentlemen assemble in the evening, and are regaled with
+sherbet and the hookha, and entertained with the nuutch-singing and
+fireworks until the appointed hour for setting out in the procession to
+fetch the bride to her new home.
+
+The procession is on a grand scale; every friend or acquaintance, together
+with their elephants, are pressed into the service of the bridegroom on
+this night of Baarraat. The young man himself is mounted on a handsome
+charger, the legs, tail, and mane of which are dyed with mayndhie, whilst
+the ornamental furniture of the horse is splendid with spangles and
+embroidery. The dress of the bridegroom is of gold-cloth, richly trimmed
+with a turban to correspond, to the top of which is fastened an immense
+bunch of silver trimming, that falls over his face to his waist, and
+answers the purpose of a veil,[21] (this is in strict keeping with the
+Hindoo custom at their marriage processions). A select few of the females
+from the bridegroom's house attend in his train to bring home the bride,
+accompanied by innumerable torches, with bands of music, soldiers, and
+servants, to give effect to the procession. On their arrival at the gate
+of the bride's residence, the gentlemen are introduced to the father's
+apartments, where fireworks, music, and singing, occupy their time and
+attention until the hour for departure arrives.
+
+The marriage ceremony is performed in the presence of witnesses, although
+the bride is not seen by any of the males at the time, not even by her
+husband, until they have been lawfully united according to the common form.
+
+In the centre of the hall, in the zeenahnah, a tuckht (platform) six feet
+square is placed, on which the musnud of gold brocade is set. This is the
+bride's seat when dressed for her nuptials; she is surrounded by ladies
+who bear witness to the marriage ceremony. The purdahs are let down, and
+the Maulvee, the bridegroom, the two fathers, and a few male friends are
+introduced to the zeenahnah court-yard, with a flourish of trumpets and
+deafening sounds of drums. They advance with much gravity towards the
+purdahs, and arrange themselves close to this slender partition between
+the two sexes.
+
+The Maulvee commences by calling on the young maiden by name, to answer to
+his demand, 'Is it by your own consent this marriage takes place
+with ----?' naming the person who is the bridegroom; the bride answers,
+'It is by my consent.' The Maulvee then explains the law of Mahumud, and
+reads a certain chapter from that portion of the Khoraun which binds the
+parties in holy wedlock.[22] He then turns to the young man, and asks him
+to name the sum he proposes as his wife's dowry. The bridegroom thus
+called upon, names ten, twenty, or perhaps a hundred lacs of rupees; the
+Maulvee repeats to all present the amount proposed, and then prays that
+the young couple thus united may be blessed in this world and in eternity.
+All the gentlemen then retire, except the bridegroom, who is delayed, as
+soon as this is accomplished, entering the hall until the bride's guests
+have retreated into the side rooms: as soon as this is accomplished he is
+introduced into the presence of his mother-in-law and her daughter by the
+women servants. He studiously avoids looking up as he enters the hall,
+because, according to the custom of this people, he must first see his
+wife's face in a looking-glass, which is placed before the young couple,
+when he is seated on the musnud by his bride. Happy for him if he then
+beholds a face that bespeaks the gentle being he hopes Fate has destined
+to make him happy; if otherwise he must submit; there is no untying the
+sacred contract.
+
+Many absurd customs follow this first introduction of the bride and
+bridegroom. When the procession is all formed, the goods and chattels of
+the bride are loaded on the heads of the carriers; the bridegroom conveys
+his young wife in his arms to the chundole (covered palankeen), which is
+in readiness within the court, and the procession moves off in grand style,
+with a perpetual din of noisy music until they arrive at the bridegroom's
+mansion.
+
+The poor mother has perhaps had many struggles with her own heart to save
+her daughter's feelings during the preparation for departure; but when the
+separation takes place the scene is affecting beyond description. I never
+witnessed anything to equal it in other societies: indeed, so powerfully
+are the feelings of the mother excited, that she rarely acquires her usual
+composure until her daughter is allowed to revisit her, which is generally
+within a week after her marriage.
+
+P.S.--I have remarked that, in important things which have nothing to do
+with the religion of the Mussulmauns, they are disposed to imitate the
+habits of the Hindoos; this is more particularly to be traced in many of
+their wedding customs.
+
+In villages where there are a greater proportion of Hindoos than
+Mussulmauns the females of the two people mix more generally than is
+usually allowed in cities or large towns; and it is among this mingled
+population that we find the spirit of superstition influencing the female
+character in more marked manner than it does in more populous places,
+which the following anecdote, will illustrate. The parties were known to
+the person who related the circumstance to me.
+
+'A learned man, a moollah[23] or head-teacher and expounder of the
+Mahumudan law, resided in a village six koss (twelve miles English)
+distant from Lucknow, the capital of Oude. This moollah was married to a
+woman of good family, by whom he had a large progeny of daughters. He
+lived in great respect, and cultivated his land with success, the produce
+of his farm not only supporting his own family, but enabling the good
+moollah to distribute largely amongst the poor, his neighbours, and the
+passing traveller. A hungry applicant never left his door without a meal
+of the same wholesome, yet humble fare, which formed his own daily
+sustenance. Bread and dhall he preferred to the most choice delicacies, as
+by this abstemious mode of living, he was enabled to feed and comfort the
+afflicted with the residue of his income.
+
+'This moollah was one of the most pious men of the age, and alive to the
+interests of his fellow-mortals, both temporal and eternal. He gave
+instruction gratis to as many pupils as chose to attend his lectures, and
+desired to acquire from his matured knowledge an introduction to the
+points of faith, and instruction in the Mussulmaun laws. Numbers of young
+students attended his hall daily, to listen to the expounding of the rules
+and maxims he had acquired by a long life devoted to the service of God,
+and his duty to mankind. In him, many young men found a benefactor who
+blended instruction with temporal benefits; so mild and persuasive were
+this good moollah's monitions, that he lived in the affection, venerations
+and respect of his pupils, as a fond father in the love of his children.
+
+'The wife of this good man managed the domestic affairs of the family,
+which were very little controlled by her husband's interference. On an
+occasion of solemnizing the nuptials of one of their daughters, the wife
+sent a message to the moollah, by a female slave, requiring his immediate
+presence in the zeenahnah, that he might perform his allotted part in the
+ceremony, which, as elder of the house, could not be confided to any other
+hands but his. This was to "tie the naarah to the moosul".[24]
+
+'The moollah was deeply engaged in expounding to his pupils a difficult
+passage of the Khoraun when the slave entered and delivered her message.
+"Coming", he answered, without looking at the messenger, and continued his
+exposition.
+
+'The good woman of the house was in momentary expectation of her husband's
+arrival, but when one hour had elapsed, her impatience overcame her
+discretion, and she dispatched the slave a second time to summon the
+moollah, who, in his anxiety to promote a better work, had forgotten the
+subject of tying the naarah to the moosul. The slave again entered the
+hall, and delivered her lady's message; he was then engaged in a fresh
+exposition, and, as before, replied "coming", but still proceeding with
+his subject as if he heard not the summons.
+
+'Another hour elapsed, and the wife's ordinary patience was exhausted; "Go
+to your master, slave!" she said with authority in her voice and manner;
+"go ask your master from me, whether it is his intention to destroy the
+peace of his house, and the happiness of his family. Ask him, why he
+should delay performing so important a duty at this ceremony, when his own
+daughter's interest and welfare are at stake?"
+
+'The slave faithfully conveyed the message, and the moollah, finding that
+his domestic peace depended on submitting to the superstitious notions of
+his wife, accompanied the slave to the zeenahnah without further delay.
+
+'The moollah's compliance with the absurd desires of his wife surprised
+the students, who discussed the subject freely in his absence. He having
+always taught them the folly of prejudice and the absurdity of
+superstition, they could not, comprehend how it was the moollah had been
+led to comply with a request so much at variance with the principles he
+endeavoured to impress upon them.
+
+'On his return, after a short absence, to his pupils, he was about to
+re-commence the passage at which he had left off to attend his wife's
+summons; one of the young men, however, interrupted him by the inquiry,
+"Whether he had performed the important business of tying the naarah to the
+moosul?"--"Yes," answered the moollah, very mildly, "and by so doing I
+have secured peace to my wife's disturbed mind."--"But how is it, reverend
+Sir," rejoined the student, "that your actions and your precepts are at
+variance? You caution us against every species of superstition, and yet
+that you have in this instance complied with one, is very evident."--"I
+grant you, my young friend," said the moollah, "that I have indeed done so,
+but my motive for this deviation is, I trust, correct. I could have argued
+with you on the folly of tying the naarah to the moosul, and you would
+have been convinced by my arguments; but my wife, alas! would not listen
+to anything but the custom--the custom of the whole village. I went with
+reluctance, I performed the ceremony with still greater; yet I had no
+alternative if I valued harmony in my household: this I have now secured
+by my acquiescence in the simple desire of my wife. Should any evil
+accident befall my daughter or her husband, I am spared the reproaches
+that would have been heaped upon me, as being the cause of the evil, from
+my refusal to tie the naarah to the moosul. The mere compliance with this
+absurd custom, to secure peace and harmony, does not alter my faith; I
+have saved others from greater offences, by my passive obedience to the
+wishes of my wife, who ignorantly places dependance on the act, as
+necessary to her daughter's welfare."
+
+'The students were satisfied with his explanation, and their respect was
+increased for the good man who had thus taught them to see and to cherish
+the means of living peaceably with all mankind, whenever their actions do
+not tend to injure their religious faith, or infringe on the principles of
+morality and virtue.'
+
+
+[1] See p. 158.
+
+[2] For the right of the bride to her private property, see N.E.B. Baillie,
+    _Digest of Moohummudan Law_ (1875), 146 ff.
+
+[3] _Takht._
+
+[4] _Sachaq_, the fruits and other gifts carried in procession in
+  earthen pots ornamented with various devices.--Jaffur Shurreef,
+  _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 73.
+
+[5] _Menhdi_.
+
+[6] _Barat, barat_: meaning 'bridegroom's procession'.
+
+[7] Among the Khojas of West India a person from the lodge to which the
+    parties belong recites the names of the Panjtan-i-pak, the five
+    holy ones--Muhammad, 'Ali, Fatimah, Hasan, Husain--with the
+    invocation: 'I begin the wedding of ---- with ----, to wed as did
+    Fatimah, the bright-faced Lady (on whom be peace!) with the Lord and
+    Leader, the Receiver of the Testament of the Chosen and Pure, the Lord
+    'Ali, the son of Abu-Talib.'--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii,
+    45.
+
+[8] _Pandan_.
+
+[9] _Chilamchi_.
+
+[10] _Lagan_.
+
+[11] _Surahi_.
+
+[12] _Rikab_, 'a cup'; _patthari_, 'made of stone'. China dishes are
+    also supposed to betray poison: see J. Fryer, _A New Account of East
+    India and Persia_ (Hakluyt Society's edition), i. 87.
+
+[13] _Dulhin_.
+
+[14] _Dulha_.
+
+[15] _Menhdi_: the henna plant, _Lawsonia alba_.
+
+[16] _Atishbazi_, fire-play.
+
+[17] _Abrak_, talc.
+
+[18] _Chaman_, a flower-bed.
+
+[19] _Anna_.
+
+[20] Otto, _'itr_ of roses.
+
+[21] 'The dress of the bridegroom consisted entirely of cloth of gold;
+    and across his forehead was bound a sort of fillet made of an
+    embroidery of pearls, from which, long strings of gold hung down all
+    over his face to his saddle-bow; and to his mouth he kept a red silk
+    handkerchief closely pressed to prevent devils entering his
+    mouth.'--Mrs. F. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 438 f. This
+    fillet is called _sihra_, and it is intended to avert the influence
+    of the Evil Eye and of demons.
+
+
+[22] The officiating Mulla or Qazi lifts the bridegroom's veil,
+    makes him gargle his throat three times with water, and seating him
+    facing Mecca, requires him to repeat a prayer to Allah for forgiveness
+    (_istighfarullah_); the four Qul, or chapters of the _Koran_
+    commencing with the word _qul_, 'say' (cix, cxii, cxiii, cxiv); the
+    Kalima or Creed: 'There is no deity but Allah: Muhammad is the
+    Apostle of Allah'; the Articles of Belief (_Sifat-i-iman_) in
+    Allah, his Angels, the Scriptures, the Prophets, the Resurrection,
+    and Day of Judgement. His absolute decree and predestination of Good
+    and Evil; the Prayer of Obedience, said standing
+    (_du'a'l-qunut_). If he be illiterate, the meaning of all these
+    should be explained to him.--Jafnir Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 86.
+
+[23] Mulla.
+
+[24] The naarah is a cord of many threads dyed red and yellow; the moosul
+    the heavy beam in use where rice is to be cleansed from the husks. The
+    custom is altogether of Hindoo origin. [_Author_.] [When the condiment
+    (_ubtan_), made of the flour of gram, mixed with oil and perfumes,
+    which is rubbed on the bride and bridegroom, is being ground, the
+    handle of the hand-mill is smeared with sandalwood paste, powder of a
+    kind of nut ( _Vangueira spinosa_), and some betel leaves; betel-nuts
+    wrapped in a piece of new red cloth are tied to it. Then seven women,
+    whose husbands are living, sit down to grind the condiment. Some raw
+    rice is put in a red cloth, and with a parcel of betel-leaf is tied to
+    the mill-handle with a thread (_nara_). Women pretend to beat it,
+    and sing a marriage song. The rite is a form of fertility magic. The
+    handle of the mill here represents the rice-pounder (_musal_) in
+    the rite described in the text.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part i, 101;
+    part ii, 163 f.[7]]
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XV
+
+  On the birth and management of children in Hindoostaun.--Increase of
+  joy on the birth of a Son.--Preference generally shown to male
+  children.--Treatment of Infants.--Day of Purification.--Offerings
+  presented on this occasion to the child.--The anniversary of the
+  birthday celebrated.--Visit of the father to the Durgah.--Pastimes of
+  boys.--Kites.--Pigeons.--The Mhogdhur.--Sword-exercise.--The Bow and
+  Arrows.--The Pellet-bow.--Crows.--Sports of Native
+  gentlemen.--Cock-fighting.--Remarks upon horses, elephants, tigers,
+  and leopards.--Pigeon-shooting.--Birds released from captivity on
+  particular occasions.--Reasons for the extension of the royal
+  clemency in Native Courts.--Influence of the Prime Minister in the
+  administration of justice.
+
+
+The bustle of a wedding in the family of a Mussulmaun having subsided, and
+the bride become familiar with her new relatives, the mother also
+reconciled to the separation from her child by the knowledge of her
+happiness,--for they are allowed frequent intercourse,--the next important
+subject which fills their whole hearts with hope and anxiety, is the
+expected addition to the living members of the family. Should this occur
+within the first year of their union, it is included in the catalogue of
+'Fortune's favours', as an event of no small magnitude to call forth their
+joy and gratitude. Many are the trifling ceremonies observed by the
+females of this uneducated people, important in their view to the
+well-being of both mother and infant, but so strongly partaking of
+superstition that time would be wasted in speaking of them; I will
+therefore hasten to the period of the infant's birth, which, if a boy, is
+greeted by the warmest demonstrations of unaffected joy in the houses both
+of the parents of the bride and bridegroom. When a female child is born,
+there is much less clamourous rejoicing at its birth than when a son is
+added to honour the family;[1] but the good mother will never be
+dissatisfied with the nature of the gift, who can appreciate the source
+whence she receives the blessing. She rests satisfied that unerring Wisdom
+hath thus ordained, and bows with submission to His decree. She desires
+sons only as they are coveted by the father, and procure for the mother
+increased respect from the world, but she cannot actually love her infant
+less because it is a female.
+
+The birth of a son is immediately announced by a discharge of artillery,
+where cannon are kept; or by musketry in the lower grades of the Native
+population, even to the meanest peasant, with whom a single match-lock
+proclaims the honour as effectually as the volley of his superiors. The
+women say the object in firing at the moment the child is born, is to
+prevent his being startled at sounds by giving him so early an
+introduction to the report of muskets; but in this they are evidently
+mistaken, since we never find a musket announcing the birth of a female
+child.[2] They fancy there is more honour attached to a house where are
+many sons. The men make them their companions, which in the present state
+of Mussulmaun society, girls cannot be at any age. Besides which, so great
+is the trouble and anxiety in getting suitable matches for their daughters,
+that they are disposed to be more solicitous for male than female children.
+
+Amongst the better sort of people the mother very rarely nourishes her own
+infant; and I have known instances, when a wet-nurse could not be procured,
+where the infant has been reared by goals' milk, rather than the good lady
+should be obliged to fatigue herself with her infant. The great objection
+is, that in Mussulmaun families nurses are required to be abstemious in
+their diet, by no means an object of choice amongst so luxurious a people.
+A nurse is not allowed for the first month or more to taste animal food,
+and even during the two years--the usual period of supporting infancy by
+this nourishment--the nurse lives by rule both in quality and quantity of
+such food only as may be deemed essential to the well-being of the child.
+
+The lower orders of the people benefit by their superiors' prejudices
+against nursing, and a wet-nurse once engaged in a family becomes a member
+of that house to the end of her days, unless she chooses to quit it
+herself.
+
+On the fourth day after the birth of a son, the friends of both families
+are invited to share in the general joy testified by a noisy assembly of
+singing-women, people chattering, smell of savoury dishes, and constant
+bustle; which, to any other females in the world would be considered
+annoyances, but in their estimation are agreeable additions to the
+happiness of the mother, who is in most cases screened only by a curtain
+from the multitude of noisy visitors assembled to rejoice on the important
+event. I could not refrain, on one of these occasions, remarking on the
+injudicious arrangement at such a time, when I thought quiet was really
+needed to the invalid's comfort. The lady thought otherwise; she was too
+much rejoiced at this moment of her exaltation to think of quiet; all the
+world would know she was the mother of a son; this satisfied her for all
+that she suffered from the noisy mirth and increased heat arising from the
+multitude of her visitors, who stayed the usual time, three days and
+nights. The ladies, however, recover their strength rapidly. They are
+attended by females in their time of peril, and with scarcely an instance
+of failure. Nature is kind. Science has not yet stepped within the
+confines of the zeenahnah. All is Nature with these uneducated females,
+and as they are under no apprehension, the hour arrives without terror,
+and passes over without weakening fears. They trust in God, and suffer
+patiently. It may be questioned, however, whether their pains at that
+juncture equal those of females in Europe. Their figure has never been
+tortured by stays and whalebone; indeed, I do not recollect having met
+with an instance of deformity in the shape of any inhabitant of a
+zeenahnah.
+
+On the ninth day the infant is well bathed,--I cannot call any of its
+previous ablutions a bath,[3]--then its little head is well oiled, and the
+fillet thrown aside, which is deemed necessary from the first to the ninth
+day. The infant from its birth is laid in soft beaten cotton, with but
+little clothing until it has been well bathed, and even then the dress
+would deserve to be considered more as ornamental covering than useful
+clothing; a thin muslin loose shirt, edged and bordered with silver
+ribands, and a small skull-cap to correspond, comprises their dress.
+Blankets, robes, and sleeping-dresses, are things unknown in the nursery
+of a zeenahnah. The baby is kept during the month in a reclining position,
+except when the nurse receives it in her arms to nourish it; indeed for
+many months the infant is but sparingly removed from its reclining
+position. They would consider it a most cruel disturbance of a baby's
+tranquillity, to set it up or hold it in the arms, except for the purpose
+of giving it nourishment.
+
+The infant's first nourishment is of a medicinal kind, composed of
+umultass[4](cassia), a vegetable aperient, with sugar, and distilled water
+of aniseed; this is called gootlie,[5] and the baby has no other food for
+the first three days, after which it receives the nurse's aid. After the
+third day a small proportion of opium is administered, which practice is
+continued daily until the child is three or four years old.
+
+The very little clothing on infants in India would of itself teach the
+propriety of keeping them in a reclining position, as the mere natural
+strength of the poor baby has nothing to support it by the aid of bandages
+or clothing. The nurse receives the baby on a thin pillow of calico
+quilted together, called gooderie;[6] it is changed us often us required,
+and is the only method as yet introduced amongst the Natives to secure
+cleanliness and comfort to their infants. In the cold season, when the
+thermometer may range from forty-five to fifty, the method of inducing
+warmth is by means of cotton or wadded quilts; flannel, as I have said
+before, they know not the use of. The children, however, thrive without
+any of those things we deem essential to the comfort of infancy, and the
+mamma is satisfied with the original customs, which, it may be supposed,
+are (without a single innovation) unchanged since the period of Abraham,
+their boasted forefather.
+
+On the fortieth day after the infant's birth, the same rites are observed
+as by the Jews (with the exception of circumcision), and denominated, as
+with them, the Day of Purification. On this day the infant is submitted to
+the hands of the barber, who shaves the head, as commanded by their law.
+The mother bathes and dresses in her most costly attire. Dinner is cooked
+for the poor in abundance. Friends and relatives call on the mother to
+present nuzzas and offerings, and to bring presents to the child, after
+the manner of the wise men's offerings, so familiar to us in our
+Scriptures. The offerings to the child are often costly and pretty;
+bangles and various ornaments of the precious metals. The taawees[7] of
+gold and silver are tablets on which engraved verses from the Khoraun are
+inscribed in Arabic characters; these are strung on cords of gold thread,
+and suspended, when the child is old enough to bear their weight, over one
+shoulder, crossing the back and chest, and reaching below the hip on the
+opposite side; they have a remarkably good effect with the rich style of
+dressing Native children. In some of the offerings from the great people
+are to be observed precious stones set in necklaces, and bangles for the
+arms and ankles. All who visit at these times take something for the baby;
+it would be deemed an omen of evil in any one neglecting to follow this
+immemorial custom; not that they are avaricious, but that they are anxious
+for their infant's prosperity, which these tributes are supposed to
+indicate.[8]
+
+The mother thus blessed with a darling son is almost the idol of the new
+family she has honoured; and when such a person happens to be an agreeable,
+prudent woman, she is likely to remain without a rival in her husband's
+heart, who has no inducement to add dhollie[9] wives to his establishment
+when his home is made happy to him by the only wife who can do him honour
+by the alliance.
+
+The birthday of each son in a family is regularly kept. The term used for
+the occasion is Saul-girrah[10]--derived, from saul, a year, girrah, to
+tie a knot. The custom is duly maintained by tying a knot on a string kept
+for the purpose by the mother, on the return of her boy's birthday. The
+girls' years are numbered by a silver loop or ring being added yearly to
+the gurdonie,[11] or silver neck-ring. These are the only methods of
+registering the ages of Mussulmaun children.
+
+The Saul-girrah is a day of annual rejoicing through the whole house of
+which the boy is a member; music, fireworks, toys, and whatever amusement
+suits his age and taste, are liberally granted to fill up the measure of
+his happiness; whilst his father and mother have each their assemblies to
+the fullest extent of their means. Dinner is provided liberally for the
+guests, and the poor are not neglected, whose prayers and blessings are
+coveted by the parents for their offspring's benefit; and they believe the
+blessings of the poor are certain mediations at the throne of mercy which
+cannot fail to produce benefits on the person in whose favour they are
+invoked.
+
+The boy's nurse is on all occasions of rejoicing the first person to be
+considered in the distribution of gifts; she is, indeed, only second in
+the estimation of the parents to the child she has reared and nourished;
+and with the child, she is of more consequence even than his natural
+parents. The wet-nurse, I have said, is retained in the family to the end
+of her days, and whatever children she may have of her own, they are
+received into the family of her employer without reserve, either as
+servants or companions, and their interest in life regarded and watched
+over with the solicitude of relations, by the parents of the boy she has
+nursed.
+
+At seven years old the boys are circumcised, as by their law directed. The
+thanksgiving when the child is allowed to emerge from confinement, gives
+rise to another jubilee in the family.
+
+At Lucknow we see, almost daily, processions on their way to the Durgah
+(before described),[12] where the father conveys the young Mussulmaun to
+return thanks and public acknowledgements at the sainted shrine. The
+procession is planned on a grand scale, and all the male friends that can
+be collected attend in the cavalcade to do honour to so interesting an
+occasion.
+
+When the prayer and thanksgiving have been duly offered in the boy's name
+at the Durgah, money is distributed amongst the assembled poor; and on the
+way home, silver and copper coins are thrown to the multitude who crowd
+around the procession. The scrambling and tumult on these occasions can
+only be relished by the Natives, who thus court popularity; but they
+rarely move in state without these scenes of confusion following in their
+train. I have witnessed thousands of people following the King's train, on
+his visiting the Durgah at Lucknow, when his Majesty and his Prime
+Minister scattered several thousands of rupees amongst the populace. The
+noise was deafening, some calling blessings on the King, others
+quarrelling and struggling to force away the prize from the happy one who
+had caught, in the passing shower, a rupee or two in his drapery. Some of
+the most cunning secure the prize in their mouths to save themselves from
+the plunderer; some are thrown down and trampled under foot; the sandy
+soil, however, renders their situation less alarming than such a calamity
+would be in London, but it is altogether a scene of confusion sufficient
+to terrify any one, except those who delight in their ancient customs
+without regarding consequences to individuals.
+
+The amusements of boys in India differ widely from the juvenile sports of
+the English youth; here there are neither matches at cricket nor races;
+neither hoops nor any other game which requires exercise on foot. Marbles
+they have, and such other sports as suit their habits and climate, and can
+be indulged in without too much bodily exertion. They fly kites at all
+ages. I have seen men in years, even, engaged in this amusement, alike
+unconscious that they were wasting time, or employing it in pursuits
+fitted only for children. They are flown from the flat roofs of the houses,
+where it is common with the men to take their seat at sunset. They are
+much amused by a kind of contest with kites, which is carried on in the
+following manner. The neighbouring gentlemen, having provided themselves
+with lines, previously rubbed with paste and covered with pounded glass,
+raise their kites, which, when brought in contact with each other by a
+current of air, the topmost string cuts through the under one, when down
+falls the kite, to the evident amusement of the idlers in the streets or
+roadway, who with shouts and hurrahs seek to gain possession of the toy,
+with as much avidity as if it were a prize of the greatest value: however,
+from the numerous competitors, and their great zeal to obtain possession
+of it, it is usually torn to pieces. Much skill is shown in the endeavours
+of each party to keep his string uppermost, by which he is enabled to cut
+that of his adversary's kite.
+
+The male population are great pigeon-fanciers, and are very choice in
+their breed, having every variety of the species they can possibly procure;
+some are brought from different parts of the world at an enormous expense.
+Each proprietor of a flock of pigeons knows his own birds from every other.
+They are generally confined in bamboo houses erected on the flat roofs of
+the mansions, where at early dawn and at sunset the owner takes his
+station to feed his pets and give them a short airing. Perhaps a
+neighbour's flock have also emerged from their cages at the same time,
+when mingling in the circuit round and round the buildings (as often
+happens), one or more from one person's flock will return home with those
+of another; in which case, they are his lawful prize for ever, unless his
+neighbour wishes to redeem the captives by a price, or by an exchange of
+prisoners. The fortunate holder, however, of such prize makes his own
+terms, which are perhaps exorbitant, particularly if he have any ill-will
+against the proprietor, or the stray pigeon happen to be of a peculiarly
+rare kind.[13] Many are the proofs of good breeding and civility, elicited
+on such occasions between gentlemen; and many, also, are the perpetuated
+quarrels where such a collision of interests happens between young men of
+bad feelings, or with persons having any previous dislike to each other.
+
+The chief out-door exercise taken by the youth of India, is an occasional
+ride on horseback or the elephant. They do not consider walking necessary
+to health; besides which, it is plebeian, and few ever walk who can
+maintain a conveyance. They exercise the moghdhur[14] (dumb-bell) as the
+means of strengthening the muscles and opening the chest. These moghdhurs,
+much resembling the club of Hercules, are used in pairs, each weighing
+from eight to twenty pounds; they are brandished in various ways over the
+head, crossed behind, and back again, with great ease and rapidity by
+those with whom the art has become familiar by long use. Those who would
+excel in the use of the moghdhurs practise every evening regularly; when,
+after the exercise, they have their arms and shoulders plastered with a
+moist clay, which they suppose strengthens the muscles and prevents them
+from taking cold after so violent an exercise. The young men who are
+solicitous to wield the sabre with effect and grace, declare this practice
+to be of the greatest service to them in their sword exercise: they go so
+far as to say, that they only use the sword well who have practised the
+moghdhur for several years.
+
+At their sword exercise, they practise 'the stroke' on the hide of a
+buffalo, or on a fish called rooey,[15] the scales of which form an
+excellent coat of mail, each being the size of a crown-piece, and the
+substance sufficient to turn the edge of a good sabre. The fish is
+produced alive from the river for this purpose; however revolting as the
+practice may appear to the European, it does not offend the feelings of
+the Natives, who consider the fish incapable of feeling after the first
+stroke; but, as regards the buffalo, I am told the most cruel inflictions
+have been made, by men who would try their blade and their skill on the
+staked animal without mercy.
+
+The lance is practised by young men of good family as an exercise; and by
+the common people, as the means of rendering them eligible to the Native
+military service of India. It is surprising to witness the agility of some
+of the Natives in the exercise of the lance; they are generally good
+horsemen, and at full speed will throw the lance, dismount to recover it,
+and remount, often without stirrups, with a celerity inconceivable. I have
+seen them at these exercises with surprise, remembering the little
+activity they exhibit in their ordinary habits.
+
+The Indian bow and arrow has greatly diminished as a weapon of defence in
+modern times; but all practise the use of the bow, as they fancy it opens
+the chest and gives ease and grace to the figure; things of no trifling
+importance with the Mussulmaun youth. I have seen some persons seated
+practising the bow, who were unable to bear the fatigue of standing; in
+those cases, a heavy weight and pulley are attached to the bow, which
+requires as much force in pulling as it would require to send an arrow
+from sixty to a hundred yards from the place they occupy.[16]
+
+The pellet-bow is in daily use to frighten away the crows from the
+vicinity of man's abode; the pellets are made of clay baked in the sun,
+and although they do not wound they bruise most desperately. Were it not
+for this means of annoying these winged pests, they would prove a perfect
+nuisance to the inhabitants, particularly within the confines of a
+zeenahnah, where these impudent birds assemble at cooking-time, to the
+great annoyance of the cooks, watching their opportunity to pounce upon
+anything they may incautiously leave uncovered. I have often seen women
+placed as watchers with the pellet-bow, to deter the marauders the whole
+time dinner was preparing in the kitchen. The front of these cooking-rooms
+are open to the zeenahnah court-yard, neither doors, windows, nor curtains
+being deemed necessary, where the smoke has no other vent than through the
+open front into the court-yard.
+
+The crows are so daring that they will enter the yard, where any of the
+children may be taking their meals (which they often do in preference to
+eating them under the confinement of the hall), and frequently seize the
+bread from the hands of the children, unless narrowly watched by the
+servants, or deterred by the pellet-bow. And at the season of building
+their nests, these birds will plunder from the habitations of man,
+whatever may be met with likely to make a soft lining for their nests;
+often, I am told, carrying off the skull-cap from the children's heads,
+and the women's pieces of calico or muslin from their laps when seated in
+the open air at work.
+
+Many of the Natives are strongly attached to the brutal practice of
+cock-fighting; they are very choice in their breed of that gallant bird,
+and pride themselves on possessing the finest specimens in the world. The
+gay young men expend much money in these low contests: the birds are
+fought with or without artificial spurs, according to the views of the
+contending parties.[17] They have also a small bird which they call 'the
+buttaire',[18] a species of quail, which I hear are most valiant
+combatants; they are fed and trained for sport with much care and
+attention. I am told these poor little birds, when once brought to the
+contest, fight until they die. Many are the victims sacrificed to one
+mornings amusement of their cruel owners, who wager upon the favourite
+bird with a spirit and interest equal to that which may be found in more
+polished countries among the gentlemen of the turf.
+
+Horse-racing has very lately been introduced at Lucknow, but I fancy the
+Natives have not yet acquired sufficient taste for the sport to take any
+great delight in it. As long as it is fashionable with European society,
+so long it may be viewed with comparative interest by the few. But their
+views of the breed and utility of a stud differ so much from those of a
+European, that there is but little probability of the sport of
+horse-racing ever becoming a favourite amusement with them,[19] When they
+are disposed to hunt, it is always on elephants, both for security and to
+save fatigue.
+
+A horse of the finest temper, form, or breed, one that would be counted
+the most perfect animal by an English connoisseur, would be rejected by a
+Native if it possessed the slightest mark by them deemed 'unfortunate'. If
+the legs are not all of a colour, the horse is not worthy; if an unlucky
+turn of the hair, or a serpentine wave of another colour appears on any
+part of the animal, it is an 'omen of ill-luck' to the possessor, and must
+not be retained on the premises. A single blemish of the sort would be
+deemed by a Native gentleman as great a fault in an otherwise perfect
+animal, as if it could only move on three legs. The prejudice is so
+strongly grounded in their minds to these trifling marks, that they would
+not keep such horses in their stables one hour, even if it belonged to
+their dearest friend, fearing the evil consequences that might befall
+their house.[20]
+
+The swiftness of a good English hunter would be no recommendation to a
+Native gentleman; he rides for pleasant exercise and amusement, and the
+pace therefore never exceeds the gentlest canter of an English lady's
+jennet. Many of their horses are trained to a pace I have never remarked
+in other countries; it is more than a walk but not quite a canter, the
+steps are taken very short, and is, I am assured, an agreeable exercise to
+the rider. I was once in possession of a strong hill pony, whose walk was
+as quick as the swiftest elephant; very few horses could keep up with him
+at a trot. The motion was very easy and agreeable, particularly suited to
+invalids in that trying climate.
+
+The Native method of confining horses in their sheds or stables appears
+somewhat remarkable to a European. The halter is staked in the ground, and
+the two hind legs have a rope fastened to each; this is also staked in the
+ground behind. The ropes are left sufficiently long to allow of the animal
+lying down at his pleasure.
+
+The food of horses is fresh grass, brought from the jungles daily, by the
+grass-cutters, who are kept solely for this purpose. In consequence of
+these men having to walk a distance of four or more miles before they
+reach the jungles, and the difficulty of finding sufficient grass when
+there, one man cannot procure more grass in a day than will suffice for
+one horse; the consequence is, that if a gentleman keep twenty horses,
+there are forty men to attend them; viz., twenty grooms, and as many
+grass-cutters. The grass of India, excepting only during the rainy season,
+is burnt up by the heat of the sun, in all exposed situations. In the
+jungles and forests of mango-trees, wherever there is any shade, the men
+search for grass, which is of a different species to any I have seen in
+Europe, called doob-grass,[21] a dwarf creeper, common throughout India;
+every other kind of grass is rejected by the horse; they would rather eat
+chaff in the absence of the doob-grass. The refuse of the grass given for
+food, answers the purpose of bedding; for in India straw is never brought
+into use, but as food for the cows, buffaloes, and oxen. The nature of
+straw is friable in India, perhaps induced by climate by the wise ordering
+of Divine Providence, of which indeed a reflecting mind must be convinced,
+since it is so essential an article for food to the cattle where grass is
+very scarce, excepting only during the season of rain.
+
+When the corn is cut, the whole produce of a field is brought to one open
+spot, where the surface of the ground is hard and smooth; the oxen and
+their drivers trample in a continued circuit over the whole mass, until
+the corn is not only threshed from the husks, but the straw broken into
+fine chaff. They winnow it with their coarse blankets, or chuddahs[22]
+(the usual wrapper of a Native, resembling a coarse sheet), and house the
+separate articles in pits, dug in the earth, close to their habitations.
+Such things as barns, granaries, or stacks, are never seen to mark the
+abode of the Native farmers as in Europe.
+
+An invading party could never discover the deposits of corn, whilst the
+Natives chose to keep their own secret. This method of depositing the corn
+and chaff in the earth, is the only secure way of preserving these
+valuable articles from the encroachment of white ants, whose visits to the
+grain are nearly as destructive, and quite as much dreaded, as the flights
+of locusts to the green blades.
+
+The corn in general use for horses, sheep, and cattle, in called gram;[23]
+the flavour resembles our field pea much more than grain. It is produced
+on creepers, with pods; and bears a pretty lilac blossom, not unlike peas,
+or rather vetches, but smaller; the grain, however, is as large as a pea,
+irregularly shaped, of a dark brown skin, and pale yellow within. There
+are several other kinds of grain in use amongst the Natives for the use of
+cattle; one called moat,[24] of an olive green colour. It is considered
+very cooling in its nature, at certain seasons of the year, and is greatly
+preferred both for young horses and for cows giving milk.
+
+Horses are subject to an infectious disease, which generally makes its
+appearance in the rainy season, and therefore called burrhsaatie.[25] Once
+in the stable, the disorder prevails through the stud, unless timely
+precautions are taken to prevent them being infected--removal from the
+stable is the most usual mode adopted--so easy is the infection conveyed
+from one animal to the other, that if the groom of the sick horse enters
+the stable of the healthy they rarely escape contagion. It is a tedious
+and painful disorder and in nine cases out of ten the infected animal
+either dies, or is rendered useless for the saddle. The legs break out in
+ulcers, and, I am informed, without the greatest care on the part of the
+groom, he is also liable to imbibe the corruption; if he has any cut or
+scratch on his hands, the disease may be received as by inoculation.
+
+The Natives have the greatest aversion to docked-tailed horses, and will
+never permit the animals to be shorn of the beauty with which Nature has
+adorned them, either in length or fulness; besides which, they think it a
+barbarous want of taste in those who differ from them, though they fancy
+Nature is improved when the long tail and mane of a beautiful white Arab
+are dyed with mayndhie; his legs, up to the knees, stained with the same
+colour, and divers stars, crescents, &c., painted on the haunches, chest,
+and throat of the pretty gentle creature.[26]
+
+When the horses are looking rough, the Natives feed them with a mixture of
+coarse brown sugar and ghee, which they say gives sleekness to the skin,
+and improves the constitution of the horse. When their horses grow old,
+they boil the gram with which they feed them, to make it easy of digestion;
+very few people, indeed, give corn at any age to the animal unsoaked, as
+they consider it injudicious to give dry corn to horses, which swells in
+the stomach of the animal and cannot digest: the grain swells exceedingly
+by soaking, and thus moistened, the horse requires less water than would
+be necessary with dry corn.
+
+The numberless Native sports I have heard related in this country would
+take me too long to repeat at present; describe them I could not, for my
+feelings and views are at variance with the painful tortures inflicted on
+the brute creation for the perverted amusements of man, consisting of many
+unequal contests, which have sickened me to think they were viewed by
+mortals with pleasure or satisfaction. A poor unoffending antelope or stag,
+perhaps confined from the hour of its quitting its dam in a paddock,
+turned out in a confined space to the fury of a cheetah[27] (leopard) to
+make his morning's repast. Tigers and elephants are often made to combat
+for the amusement of spectators; also, tigers and buffaloes, or alligators.
+The battle between intoxicated elephants is a sport suited only for the
+cruel-hearted, and too often indulged. The mahouts[28] (the men who sit as
+drivers on the neck of the elephant) have frequently been the victims of
+the ignoble amusement of their noble masters; indeed, the danger they are
+exposed to is so great, that to escape is deemed a miracle. The
+fighting-elephants are males, and they are prepared for the sport by
+certain drugs mixed up with the wax from the human ear. The method of
+training elephants for fighting must be left to abler hands to describe. I
+have passed by places where the animal was firmly chained to a tree, in
+situations remote from the population of a city, as danger is always
+anticipated from their vicinity; and when one of these infuriated beasts
+break from their bonds, serious accidents often occur to individuals
+before they can again be secured.
+
+Amongst the higher classes tigers and leopards are retained for field
+sports, under the charge of regular keepers. In many instances these wild
+inhabitants of the jungle are tamed to the obedience of dogs, or other
+domestic animals. I have often seen the young cubs sucking the teats of a
+goat, with which they play as familiarly as a kitten with its mother. A
+very intimate acquaintance of ours has several tigers and leopards, which
+are perfectly obedient to his command; they are led out by their keepers
+night and morning, but he always feeds them with his own hands, that he
+may thereby make them obedient to himself, when he sports in the jungles,
+which he often does with success, bringing home stags and antelopes to
+grace the board, and distribute amongst his English friends.
+
+The tigers and cheetahs are very generally introduced after breakfast,
+when Native noblemen have European visitors. I remember on one of these
+occasions, these animals were brought into the banqueting-room, just as
+the self-performing cabinet organ had commenced a grand overture. The
+creatures' countenances were terrifying to the beholder, and one in
+particular could with great difficulty be reined in by his keepers. The
+Natives are, however, so accustomed to the society of tigers, that they
+smiled at my apprehension of mischief. I was only satisfied when they were
+forced away from the sounds that seemed to fill them with wonder, and
+perhaps with rage.
+
+Pigeon-shooting is another amusement practised among the sporting men of
+Hindoostaun. I, of course, allude to the Mussulmauns, for most Hindoos
+hold it criminal to kill a crow, or even the meanest insect; and I have
+known them carry the principle of preserving life to the minutest insects,
+wearing crape or muslin over their mouths and noses in the open air,
+fearing a single animalcule that floats in the air should be destroyed by
+their breath. For the same reason, these men have every drop of water
+strained through muslin before it is used either for drinking or for
+cooking.[29]
+
+There are people who make it a profitable means of subsistence to visit
+the jungles with nets, in order to collect birds, as pigeons, parrots,
+minas, &c.; these are brought in covered baskets to the towns, where they
+meet with a ready sale.
+
+Many a basket have I delighted in purchasing, designing to rescue the
+pretty creatures from present danger. I am annoyed whenever I see birds
+immured in cages. If they could be trained to live with us, enjoying the
+same liberty, I should gladly court society with these innocent creatures;
+but a bird confined vexes me, my fingers itch to open the wicket and give
+the prisoner liberty. How have I delighted in seeing the pretty variegated
+parrots, minas, and pigeons fly from the basket when opened in my verandah!
+I have sometimes fancied in my evening walk that I could recognize the
+birds again in the gardens and grounds, which had been set at liberty in
+the morning by my hand.
+
+The good ladies of India, from whom I have copied the practice of giving
+liberty to the captive birds, although different motives direct the action,
+believe, that if a member of their family is ill, such a release
+propitiates the favour of Heavenly mercy towards them.[30] A sovereign
+(amongst the Mussulmauns) will give liberty to a certain number of
+prisoners, confined in the common gaol, when he is anxious for the
+recovery of a sick member of his family; and so great is the merit of
+mercy esteemed in the creature to his fellow-mortal, that the birth of a
+son, a recovery from severe illness, accession to the throne, &c., are the
+precursors to royal clemency, when all prisoners are set at liberty whose
+return to society may not be deemed cruelty to the individual, or a
+calamity to his neighbours. I may here remark, the Mussulmaun laws do not
+allow of men being confined in prison for debt.[31] The government of Oude
+is absolute, yet to its praise be it said, during the first eight years of
+my sojourn I never heard of but one execution by the King's command; and
+that was for crimes of the greatest enormity, where to have been sparing
+would have been unjust.[32] In cases of crime such as murder, the nearest
+relative surviving is appealed to by the court of justice; if he demand
+the culprit's life, the court cannot save him from execution. But it is
+rarely demanded; they are by no means a revengeful people generally; there
+are ambitious, cruel tyrants to be found, but these individuals are
+exceptions to the mass of the people. Examples of mercy set by the King in
+all countries have an influence upon his subjects; and here the family of
+a murdered man, if poor, is maintained by the guilty party or else
+relieved by royal munificence, as the case may require. Acts of oppression
+may sometimes occur in Native States without the knowledge even, and much
+less by the command, of the Sovereign ruler, since the good order of the
+government mainly depends on the disposition of the Prime Minister for the
+time being. There is no check placed in the constitution of a Native
+government between the Prime Minister and his natural passions. If cruel,
+ambitious, or crafty, he practises all his art to keep his master in
+ignorance of his daily enormities; if the Prime Minister be a
+virtuous-minded person, he is subjected to innumerable trials, from the
+wiles of the designing and the ambitious, who strive by intrigue to root
+him from the favour and confidence of his sovereign, under the hope of
+acquiring for themselves the power they covet by his removal from office.
+
+
+[1] When, a boy is born, the midwife, in order to avert the Evil Eye and
+    evil spirits, says: 'It is only a girl blind of one eye!' If a girl is
+    born, the fact is stated, because she excites no jealousy, and is thus
+    protected from spirit attacks.
+
+[2] This is intended to scare evil spirits, but has become a mere form of
+    announcing the joyful event.
+
+[3] After the first bath pieces of black thread are tied round the child's
+    wrist and ankle as protection.
+
+[4] _Amaltas, Cassia fistula_
+
+[5] The purgative draught (_guthl_) is usually made of aniseed,
+    myro-bolans, dried red rose leaves, senna, and the droppings of mice
+    or goats.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii, 153.
+
+[6] _Gudri_.
+
+[7] _Ta'awiz_.
+
+[8] Among the Khojahs of Bombay a stool is placed near the mother's bed,
+    and as each, of the female relatives comes in she strews a little rice
+    on the stool, lays on the ground a gold or silver anklet as a gift for
+    the child, and bending over mother and baby, passes her hands over
+    them, and cracks her finger-joints against her own temples, in order
+    to take all their ill luck upon herself.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part
+    ii, 45.
+
+[9] _Duli_: see p. 184.
+
+[10] _Salgirah_ or _barasganth_, 'year-knot'.
+
+[11] _Gardani_.
+
+[12] P. 36.
+
+[13] The Mahomedans are very keen on breeding pigeons in large numbers;
+    they make them fly all together, calling out, whistling, and waving
+    with a cloth fastened to the end of a stick, running and making
+    signals from the terraced roofs, with a view of encouraging the
+    pigeons to attack the flock of some one else.... Every owner is
+    overjoyed in seeing his own pigeons the most dexterous in misleading
+    their opponents.'--Manucci, _Storia do Mogor_, i. 107 f.
+
+[14] _Mugdar_.
+
+[15] _Rohu_, a kind of carp, _Labeo rohita_.
+
+[16] The use of the bow and arrow has now disappeared in northern India,
+    and survives only among some of the jungle tribes.
+
+[17] A curious relic of the custom of cock-fighting at Lucknow survives in
+    the picture by Zoffany of the famous match between the Nawab
+    Asaf-ud-daula and Col. Mordaunt in 1786. The figures in the picture are
+    portraits of the celebrities at the Court of Oudh, whose names are
+    given by Smith, _Catalogue of British Mezzotint Portrait_, i. 273.
+
+[18] _Bater, Coturnix communis_.
+
+[19] Lucknow is now an important racing centre, and the Civil Service Cup
+    for ponies has been won several times by native gentlemen.
+
+[20] The feather or curl is one of the most important marks. If it faces
+    towards the head, this is a horse to buy; if it points towards the
+    tail, it is a 'female snake' (_sampan_), a bad blemish, as is a
+    small star on the forehead. A curl at the bottom of the throat is very
+    lucky, and cancels other blemishes. A piebald horse or one with five
+    white points, a white face and four white stockings, is highly valued.
+    The European who understands the rules can often buy an 'unlucky'
+    horse at a bargain.
+
+[21] _Dub, Cynodon Dactylon_.
+
+[22] _Chadar._
+
+[23] _Cicer arietinum_: the word comes from Port, _grão_, a grain.
+
+[24] _Moth_, the aconite-leaved kidney-bean, _Phaseolus aconitifolius_.
+
+[25] _Barsati_ from _barsat_, the rainy season; a pustular
+    eruption breaking out on the head and fore parts of the body.
+
+[26] The Native gentleman's charger, with his trained paces, his
+    henna-stained crimson mane, tail, and fetlocks, is a picturesque sight
+    now less common than it used to be.
+
+[27] _Chita_, the hunting leopard. _Felis jubata_.
+
+[28] _Mahawat_, originally meaning 'a high officer'.
+
+[29] This specially applies to the Jain ascetics, who keep a brush to
+    remove insects from their path, and cover their mouths with linen.
+
+[30]  A common piece of imitative magic: as the bird flies away it carries
+    the disease with it. The practice of releasing prisoners when the King
+    or a member of his family was sick, or as a thanksgiving on recovery,
+    was common.--Sleeman, _Journey_, ii. 41.
+
+[31] This is incorrect. Imprisonment for debt is allowed by Muhammadan
+    Law.--Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 82.
+
+[32] This gives a too favourable account of the administration of justice
+    in Oudh. 'A powerful landlord during the Nawabi could evict a
+    tenant, or enhance his rent, or take away his wife from him, or cut
+    his head off, with as much, or as little, likelihood of being called
+    to account by Na zim or Chakladar for one act as for another'
+    (H.C. Irwin, _The Garden of India_, 258). Gen. Sleeman points out that
+    Musalmans wore practically immune from the death penalty,
+    particularly if they happened to kill a Sunni. A Hindu, consenting
+    after conviction to become a Musalman, was also immune (_Journey
+    Through Oudh_, i. 135). Executions used constantly to occur in Lucknow
+    under Nasir-ud-din (W. Knighton, _Private Life of an Eastern
+    King_, 104).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVI
+
+  Remarks on the trades and professions of Hindoostaun.--The
+  Bazaars.--Naunbye (Bazaar cook).--The Butcher, and other
+  trades.--Shroffs (Money-changers).--Popular cries in Native
+  cities.--The articles enumerated and the venders of them
+  described.--The Cuppers.--Leechwomen.--Ear-cleaners.--Old
+  silver.--Pickles.--Confectionery.--Toys.--Fans.--Vegetables and
+  fruit.--Mangoes.--Melons.--Melon-cyder.--Fish.--Bird-catcher.--The
+  Butcher-bird, the Coel, and Lollah.--Fireworks.--Parched
+  corn.--Wonder-workers.--Snakes.--Anecdote of the Moonshie and the
+  Snake-catcher.--The Cutler.--Sour curds.--Clotted
+  cream.--Butter.--Singular process of the Natives in making
+  butter.--Ice.--How procured in India.--Ink.--All writing dedicated to
+  God by the Mussulmauns.--The reverence for the name of God.--The
+  Mayndhie and Sulmah.
+
+
+The various trades of a Native city in Hindoostaun are almost generally
+carried on in the open air. The streets are narrow, and usually unpaved;
+the dukhauns[1] (shops) small, with the whole front open towards the
+street; a tattie[2] of coarse grass forming an awning to shelter the
+shopkeeper and his goods from the weather. In the long lines of dukhauns
+the open fronts exhibit to the view the manufacturer, the artisan, the
+vender, in every variety of useful and ornamental articles for general use
+and consumption. In one may be seen the naunbye[3] (bazaar cook) basting
+keebaubs[3] over a charcoal fire on the ground with one hand, and beating
+off the flies with a bunch of date-leaves in the other; beside him may be
+seen assistant cooks kneading dough for sheermaul[3] or other bread, or
+superintending sundry kettles and cauldrons of currie, pillau, matunjun,[3]
+&c., whilst others are equally active in preparing platters and trays, in
+order to forward the delicacies at the appointed hour to some great
+assembly.
+
+The shop adjoining may probably be occupied by a butcher, his meat exposed
+for sale in little lean morsels carefully separated from every vestige of
+fat[4] or skin; the butcher's assistant is occupied in chopping up the
+coarser pieces of lean meat into mince meat.[5] Such shops as these are
+actually in a state of siege by the flies; there is, however, no remedy
+for the butcher but patience; his customers always wash their meat before
+it is cooked, so he never fails to sell even with all these disadvantages.
+But it is well for the venders of more delicate articles when neither of
+these fly-attracting emporiums are next door neighbours, or immediately
+opposite; yet if it even should be so, the merchant will bear with
+equanimity an evil he cannot control, and persuade his customers for
+silver shoes or other ornamental articles, that if they are not tarnished
+a fly spit or two cannot lessen their value.
+
+The very next door to a working goldsmith may be occupied by a weaver of
+muslin; the first with his furnace and crucible, the latter with his loom,
+in constant employ. Then the snake-hookha manufacturer,[6] opposed to a
+mixer of tobacco, aiding each other's trade in their separate articles.
+The makers and venders of punkahs of all sorts and sizes, children's toys,
+of earth, wood, or lakh; milk and cream shops; jewellers, mercers,
+druggists selling tea, with other medicinal herbs. The bunyah[7]
+(corn-dealer) with large open baskets of sugar and flour, whose whiteness
+resembles each other so narrowly, that he is sometimes suspected of mixing
+the two articles by mistake, when certain sediments in sherbet indicate
+adulterated sugar.
+
+It would take me too long were I to attempt enumerating all the varieties
+exposed in a Native street of shops. It may be presumed these people make
+no mystery of their several arts in manufacturing, by their choice of
+situation for carrying on their trades. The confectioner, for instance,
+prepares his dainties in despite of dust and flies, and pass by at what
+hour of the day you please, his stoves are hot, and the sugar simmering
+with ghee sends forth a savour to the air, inviting only to those who
+delight in the delicacies he prepares in countless varieties.
+
+
+The most singular exhibitions in these cities are the several shroffs[8]
+(money-changers, or bankers), dispersed in every public bazaar, or line of
+shops. These men, who are chiefly Hindoos, and whose credit may perhaps
+extend throughout the continent of Asia for any reasonable amount, take
+their station in this humble line of buildings, having on their right and
+left, piles of copper coins and cowries.[9] These shroffs are occupied the
+whole day in exchanging pice for rupees or rupees for pice, selling or
+buying gold mohurs, and examining rupees; and to all such demands upon him
+he is entitled to exact a regulated per centage, about half a pice in a
+rupee. Small as this sum may seem yet the profits produce a handsome
+remuneration for his day's attention, as many thousands of rupees may have
+passed under his critical eye for examination, it being a common practice,
+both with shopkeepers and individuals, to send their rupees to the shroff
+for his inspection, always fearing imposition from the passers of base
+coin. These shroffs transact remittances to any part of India by
+hoondies,[10] which are equivalent to our bills of exchange, and on which
+the usual demand is two and a half per cent at ninety days, if required
+for any distant station.
+
+The European order is here completely reversed, for the shopkeeper sits
+whilst the purchasers are compelled to stand. The bazaar merchant is
+seated on the floor of his dukhaun, near enough to the open front to
+enable him to transact business with his customers, who, one and all,
+stand in the street to examine the goods and to be served; let the weather
+be bad or good, none are admitted within the threshold of the dukhaun. In
+most places the shops are small, and look crowded with the articles for
+sale, and those where manufactories are carried on have not space to spare
+to their customers.
+
+Very few gentlemen condescend to make their own purchases; they generally
+employ their confidential domestic to go to market for them; and with the
+ladies their women servants are deputed. In rich families it is an office
+of great trust, as they expend large sums and might be much imposed upon
+were their servants faithless. The servants always claim dustoor[11]
+(custom) from the shopkeepers, of one pice for every rupee they lay out;
+and when the merchants are sent for to the houses with their goods, the
+principal servant in the family is sure to exact his dustoor from the
+merchant; and this is often produced only after a war of words between the
+crafty and the thrifty.
+
+The diversity of cries from those who hawk about their goods and wares in
+streets and roadways, is a feature in the general economy of the Natives
+not to be overlooked in my brief description of their habits. The
+following list of daily announcements by the several sonorous claimants on
+the public attention, may not be unacceptable with their translated
+accompaniments.
+
+'Seepie wallah deelie sukha'[12] (Moist or dry cuppers).--Moist and dry
+cupping is performed both by men and women; the latter are most in request.
+They carry their instruments about with them, and traverse all parts of
+the city. The dry cupping is effected by a buffalo's horn and resorted to
+by patients suffering under rheumatic pains, and often in cases of fever,
+when to lose blood is either inconvenient on account of the moon's age, or
+not desirable by reason of the complaint or constitution of the patient.
+
+'Jonk, or keerah luggarny wallie'[13] (The woman with leeches).--Women
+with leeches attend to apply the required remedy, and are allowed to take
+away the leeches after they have done their office. These women by a
+particular pressure on the leech oblige it to disgorge the blood, when
+they immediately place it in fresh water; by this practice the leeches
+continue healthy, and may be brought to use again the following day if
+required.
+
+'Kaan sarf kerna wallah'[14] (Ear-cleaner).--The cleansing of ears is
+chiefly performed by men, who collecting this article make great profits
+from the sale of it, independent of the sums obtained from their employers.
+It is the chief ingredient in use for intoxicating elephants previous to
+the furious contests so often described as the amusement of Native Courts.
+
+'Goatah chandnie bickhow'[15] (Sell your old silver trimmings).--The
+several articles of silver trimmings are invariably manufactured of the
+purest metal without any alloy, and when they have served their first
+purposes the old silver procures its weight in current rupees.
+
+'Tale kee archah wallah'[16] (Oil pickles).--The method of pickling in oil
+is of all others in most request with the common people, who eat the
+greasy substance as a relish to their bread and dhall. The mustard-oil
+used in the preparation of this dainty is often preferred to ghee in
+curries.
+
+The better sort of people prefer water pickle, which is made in most
+families during the hot and dry weather by a simple method; exposure to
+the sun being the chemical process to the parboiled carrots, turnips,
+radishes, &c., immersed in boiling water, with red pepper, green ginger,
+mustard-seed, and garlic. The flavour of this water pickle is superior to
+any other acid, and possesses the property of purifying the blood.
+
+'Mittie wallah'[17] (Man with sweetmeats).--The many varieties of
+sweetmeats, or rather confectionery, in general estimation with the
+natives, are chiefly composed of sugar and ghee, prepared in countless
+ways, with occasional additions of cocoa-nut, pistachias, cardimuns,
+rose-water, &c., and constantly hawked about the streets on trays by men.
+
+'Kallonie wallah'[18] (Man with toys).--Toys of every kind, of which no
+country in the world I suppose exhibits greater variety, in wood, lakh,
+uberuck[19] (tulk), paper, bamboo, clay, &c., are constantly cried in the
+streets and roadways of a Native city.
+
+'Punkah wallah'[20] (Vender of fans).--The punkahs are of all descriptions
+in general use, their shape and material varying with taste and
+circumstances, the general form resembling hand-screens: they are made for
+common use of date-leaf, platted as the common mats are; some are formed
+of a single leaf from the tor[21]-tree, large or small, the largest would
+cover a tolerable sized round table; many have painted figures and devices,
+and from their lightness may be waved by children without much labour. I
+have seen very pretty punkahs made of sweet-scented flowers over a frame
+of bamboo. This, however, is a temporary indulgence, as the flowers soon
+lose their fragrance.
+
+'Turkaaree', 'Mayvour'[22] (The first is vegetables; the last,
+fruit).--Vegetables of every kind and many sorts of fruits are carried
+about by men and women, who describe the name and quality of the articles
+they have to sell. It would occupy too large a space to enumerate here the
+several productions, indigenous and foreign, of the vegetable world in
+India. The Natives in their cookery, use every kind of vegetable and fruit
+in its unripe state. Two pounds of meat is in general all that is required
+to form a meal for twenty people, and with this they will cook several
+dishes by addition of as many different sorts of vegetables.
+
+Herbs, or green leaves, are always denominated saag,[23] these are
+produced at all seasons of the year, in many varieties; the more
+substantial vegetables, as potatoes, turnips, carrots, &c., are called
+turkaaree.
+
+The red and green spinach is brought to the market throughout the year,
+and a rich-flavoured sorrel, so delicious in curries, is cultivated in
+most months. Green peas, or, indeed, vegetables in general, are never
+served in the plain way in which we see them at our tables, but always in
+stews or curries. The green mango is used invariably to flavour their
+several dishes, and, at the proper season, they are peeled, cut, and dried
+for the year's consumption. They dislike the acid of the lemon in their
+stews, which is never resorted to when the green mango or tamarind can be
+procured.
+
+The fruits of India in general estimation with the Natives are the mango
+and the melon. Mangoes are luscious and enticing fruit; the Natives eat
+them to an excess when they have been some hours soaked in water, which,
+they say, takes away from the fruit its detrimental quality; without this
+preparatory precaution those who indulge in a feast of mango are subject
+to fevers, and an increase of prickly heat, (a fiery irritable rash, which
+few persons are exempt from, more or less, in the hot weather); even biles,
+which equally prevail, are less troublesome to those persons who are
+careful only to eat mangoes that have been well soaked in water. The
+Natives have a practice, which is common among all classes, and therefore
+worthy the notice of foreigners, of drinking milk immediately after eating
+mangoes. It should be remembered that they never eat their fruit after
+dinner, nor do they at any time indulge in wine, spirits, or beer.
+
+The mango in appearance and flavour has no resemblance to any of the
+fruits of England; they vary in weight from half an ounce to half a seer,
+nearly a pound; the skin is smooth, tough, and of the thickness of leather,
+strongly impregnated with a flavour of turpentine; the colour, when ripe,
+is grass green, or yellow in many shades, with occasional tinges and
+streaks of bright red; the pulp is as juicy as our wall-fruit, and the
+kernel protected by a hard shell, to which fine strong silky fibres are
+firmly attached. The kernel of the mango is of a hot and rather offensive
+flavour; the poor people, however, collect it, and when dried grind it
+into flour for bread, which is more wholesome than agreeable; in seasons
+of scarcity, however, it is a useful addition to the then scanty means of
+the lower orders of the people. The flavour of the fruit itself differs so
+much, that no description can be given of the taste of a mango--even the
+fruit of one tree vary in their flavour. A tope (orchard) of mango-trees
+is a little fortune to the possessor, and when in bloom a luxurious resort
+to the lovers of Nature.
+
+The melon is cultivated in fields with great ease and little labour, due
+care always being taken to water the plants in their early growth. The
+varieties are countless, but the kind most esteemed, and known only in the
+Upper Provinces, are called chitlahs,[24] from their being spotted green
+on a surface of bright yellow; the skin is smooth and of the thickness of
+that of an apple; the fruit weighing from half-a-pound to three pounds.
+The flavour may be compared to our finest peaches, partaking of the same
+moist quality, and literally melting in the mouth.
+
+The juice of the melon makes a delicious cider; I once tried the
+experiment with success. The Natives being prohibited from the use of all
+fermented liquors, I was induced by that consideration to be satisfied
+with the one experiment; but with persons who are differently situated the
+practice might be pursued with very little trouble, and a rich beverage
+produced, much more healthy than the usual arrack that is now distilled,
+to the deterioration of the health and morals of the several classes under
+the British rule, who are prone to indulge in the exhilarating draughts of
+fermented liquors.
+
+At present my list of the indigenous vegetables of India must be short; so
+great, however, is the variety in Hindoostaun, both in their quality and
+properties, and so many are the benefits derived from their several uses
+in this wonderful country, that at some future time I may be induced to
+follow, with humility, in the path trodden by the more scientific
+naturalists who have laboured to enrich the minds of mankind by their
+researches.
+
+The natives are herbalists in their medical practice. The properties of
+minerals are chiefly studied with the view to become the lucky discoverer
+of the means of transmuting metals; seldom with reference to their
+medicinal qualities. Quicksilver, however, in its unchanged state, is
+sometimes taken to renew the constitution.[25] One gentleman, whom I well
+knew, commenced with a single grain, increasing the number progressively,
+until his daily close was the contents of a large table-spoon; he
+certainly appeared to have benefited by the practice, for his appetite and
+spirits were those of a man at thirty, when he had counted eighty years.
+
+'Muchullee'[26] (Fish).--Fish of several kinds are caught in the rivers
+and tanks; the flavour I can hardly describe, for, since I knew the
+practice of the Hindoos of throwing their dead bodies into the rivers the
+idea of fish as an article of food was too revolting to my taste. The
+Natives, however, have none of these qualms; even the Hindoos enjoy a
+currie of fish as a real delicacy, although it may be presumed some of
+their friends or neighbours have aided that identical fish in becoming a
+delicacy for the table.
+
+There are some kinds of fish forbidden by the Mussulmaun law, which are,
+of course, never brought to their kitchens, as the eel, or any other fish
+having a smooth skin;[27] all sorts of shell-fish are likewise prohibited
+by their code. Those fish which have scales are the only sort allowable to
+them for food.
+
+The rooey[28] is a large fish, and in Native families is much admired for
+its rich flavour; the size is about that of a salmon, the shape that of a
+carp; the flesh is white, and not unlike the silver mullet. The scales of
+this fish are extremely useful; which, on a tolerable sized fish, are in
+many parts as large as a crown-piece, and of a substance firmer than horn.
+It is not uncommon to see a suit of armour formed of these scales, which,
+they affirm, will turn the edge of the best metal, and from its lightness,
+compared with the chain armour, more advantageous to the wearer, though
+the appearance is not so agreeable to the eye.
+
+'Chirryah wallah'[29] (Bird-man).--The bird-catcher cries his live birds
+fresh caught from the jungles: they seldom remain long on hand. I have
+before described the practice of letting off the birds, in cases of
+illness, as propitiatory sacrifices. The Natives take delight in petting
+talking-birds, minas and parrots particularly; and the bull-bull,[30] the
+subzah,[31] and many others for their sweet songs.
+
+The numberless varieties of birds I have seen in India, together with
+their qualities, plumage, and habits, would occupy too much of my time at
+present to describe. I will here only remark a few of the most singular as
+they appeared to me. The butcher-bird,[32] so called from its habit, is
+known to live on seeds; yet it caters for the mina and others of the
+carnivorous feathered family, by collecting grasshoppers, which they
+convey in the beak to the thorny bushes, and there fix them on sharp
+thorns, (some of which are nearly two inches in length), and would almost
+seem to have been formed by Nature for this use only. The mina[33] follows
+his little friend's flight as if in the full assurance of the feast
+prepared for him.
+
+The coel[34] is a small black bird, of extreme beauty in make and plumage;
+this bird's note is the harbinger of rain, and although one of the
+smallest of the feathered race, it is heard at a considerable distance.[35]
+The coel's food is simply the suction from the petals of sweet-scented
+flowers.
+
+The lollah,[36] known to many by the name of haverdewatt, is a beautiful
+little creature, about one-third the size of a hedge sparrow. The great
+novelty in this pretty bird is, that the spots of white on its brown
+plumage change to a deep red at the approach of the rainy season; the
+Natives keep them by dozens in cages with a religious veneration, as their
+single note describes one of the terms in use to express an attribute of
+the Almighty.
+
+But enough--I must hasten to finish my list of popular cries by the Indian
+pedlars, who roar out their merchandize and their calling to the inmates
+of dwellings bounded by high walls, whose principal views of the works of
+Nature and art are thus aided by those casual criers of the day.
+
+'Artush-baajie'[37] (Fireworks).--Fireworks are considered here to be very
+well made, and the Native style much extolled by foreigners; every year
+they add some fresh novelty to their amusing pastime. They are hawked
+about at certain seasons, particularly at the Holie[38] (a festival of the
+Hindoos,) and the Shubh-burraat[39] of the Mussulmauns. Saltpetre being
+very reasonable, fireworks are sold for a small price. Most of the
+ingenious young men exercise their inventive powers to produce novelties
+in fireworks for any great season of rejoicing in their families.
+
+'Chubbaynee'[40] (Parched corn).--The corn of which we have occasionally
+specimens in English gardens, known by the name of Indian corn, is here
+used as a sort of intermediate meal, particularly amongst the labouring
+classes, who cook but once a day, and that when the day's toil is over.
+This corn is placed in a sort of furnace with sand, and kept constantly
+moved about. By this process it is rendered as white as magnesia, crisp,
+and of a sweet flavour; a hungry man could not eat more than half-a-pound
+of this corn at once, yet it is not as nutritious as barley or wheat. I
+have never heard that the Natives use this corn for making bread.
+
+'Tumaushbeen'[41] (Wonder-workers).--This call announces the rope-dancers
+and sleight-of-hand company; eating fire, swallowing pen-knives, spinning
+coloured yarn through the nose, tricks with cups and balls, and all the
+arts of the well-known jugglers. I have seen both men and women attached
+to these travelling companies perform extraordinary feats of agility and
+skill, also most surprising vaultings, by the aid of bamboos, and a
+frightful method of whirling round on the top of a pole or mast. This pole
+is from twenty to thirty feet high; on the top is a swivel hook, which
+fastens to a loop in a small piece of wood tied fast to the middle of the
+performer, who climbs the pole without any assistance, and catches the
+hook to the loop; at first he swings himself round very gently, but
+increasing gradually in swiftness, until the velocity is equal to that of
+a wheel set in motion by steam. This feat is sometimes continued for ten
+or fifteen minutes together, when his strength does not fail him; but it
+is too frightful a performance to give pleasure to a feeling audience.
+
+'Samp-wallah'[42] (Snake-catchers).--These men blow a shrill pipe in
+addition to calling out the honourable profession of snake-catcher. I
+fancy it is all pretence with these fellows; if they catch a snake on the
+premises, it is probably one they have let loose secretly, and which they
+have tutored to come and go at the signal given: they profess to draw
+snakes from their hiding-place, and make a good living by duping the
+credulous.
+
+The best proof I can offer of the impositions practised by these men on
+the weakness and credulity of their neighbours, may be conveyed in the
+following anecdote, with which I have been favoured by a very intelligent
+Mussulmaun gentleman, on whom the cheat was attempted during my residence
+in his neighbourhood at Lucknow.
+
+'Moonshie Sahib,[43] as he is familiarly called by his friends, was absent
+from home on a certain day, during which period his wife and family
+fancied they heard the frightful sound of a snake, apparently as if it was
+very near to them in the compound (court-yard) of the zeenahnah. They were
+too much alarmed to venture from the hall to the compound to satisfy
+themselves or take steps to destroy the intruder if actually there. Whilst
+in this state of mental torture it happened (as they thought very
+fortunately) that a snake-catcher's shrill pipe was heard at no great
+distance, to whom a servant was sent; and when the ladies had shut
+themselves up securely in their purdahed apartment, the men servants were
+desired to introduce the samp-wallahs into the compound, to search for and
+secure this enemy to their repose.
+
+'The snake-catcher made, to all appearance, a very minute scrutiny into
+every corner or aperture of the compound, as if in search of the reptile's
+retreat; and at last a moderate sized snake was seen moving across the
+open space in an opposite direction to the spot they were intent on
+examining. The greatest possible satisfaction was of course expressed by
+the whole of the servants and slaves assembled; the lady of the house was
+more than gratified at the reported success of "the charmers" and sent
+proofs of her gratitude to the men in a sum of money, proportioned to her
+sense of the service rendered on the occasion; the head samp-wallah placed
+the snake in his basket, (they always carry a covered basket about with
+them) and they departed well satisfied with the profits of this day's
+employment.
+
+'The Moonshie says, he returned home soon after, and listened to his
+wife's account of the event of the morning, and her warm commendation of
+the skilful samp-wallahs; but although the servants confirmed all the lady
+had told her husband of the snake-charmers' diligence, still he could not
+but believe that these idle fellows had practised an imposition on his
+unwary lady by their pretended powers in charming the snake. But here it
+rested for the time; he could not decide without an opportunity of
+witnessing the samp-wallahs at their employment, which he resolved to do
+the next convenient opportunity.
+
+'As might have been anticipated, the very same snake-catcher and his
+attendant returned to the Moonshie's gateway a very few days after their
+former success; Moonshie Sahib was at home, and, concealing his real
+intentions, he gave orders that the two men should be admitted; on their
+entrance, he said to them, "You say you can catch snakes; now, friends, if
+any of the same family remain of which you caught one the other day in
+this compound, I beg you will have the civility to draw them out from
+their hiding-places."[44]
+
+'The Moonshie watched the fellows narrowly, that they might not have a
+chance of escaping detection, if it was, as he had always suspected, that
+the snakes are first let loose by the men, who pretend to attract them
+from their hiding-places. The two men being bare-headed, and in a state of
+almost perfect nudity (the common usage of the very lowest class of Hindoo
+labourers), wearing only a small wrapper which could not contain, he
+thought, the least of this class of reptiles, he felt certain there could
+not now be any deception.
+
+'The samp-wallah and his assistant, pretending to search every hole and
+crevice of the compound, seemed busy and anxious in their employment,
+which occupied them for a long time without success. Tired at last with
+the labour, the men sat down on the ground to rest; the pipe was resorted
+to, with which they pretend to attract the snake; this was, however,
+sounded again and again, without the desired effect.
+
+'From the apparent impossibility of any cheat being practised on him, the
+Moonshie rather relaxed in his strict observance of the men: he had turned
+his back but for an instant only, when the two fellows burst out in an
+ecstasy of delight, exclaiming, "They are come! they are come!"--and on
+the Moonshie turning quickly round, he was not a little staggered to find
+three small snakes on the ground, at no great distance from the men, who,
+he was convinced, had not moved from the place. They seemed to have no
+dread of the reptiles, and accounted for it by saying they were
+invulnerable to the snakes' venom; the creatures were then fearlessly
+seized one by one by the men, and finally deposited in their basket.
+
+'"They appear very tame," thought the Moonshie, as he observed the men's
+actions: "I am outwitted at last, I believe, with all my boasted vigilance;
+but I will yet endeavour to find them out.--Friend," said he aloud, "here
+is your reward," holding the promised money towards the principal; "take
+it, and away with you both; the snakes are mine, and I shall not allow you
+to remove them hence."
+
+'"Why, Sahib," replied the man, "what will you do with the creatures? they
+cannot be worth your keeping; besides, it is the dustoor[45] (custom); we
+always have the snakes we catch for our perquisite."--"It is of no
+consequence to you, friend, how I may dispose of the snakes," said the
+Moonshie; "I am to suppose they have been bred in my house, and having
+done no injury to my people, I may be allowed to have respect for their
+forbearance; at any rate, I am not disposed to part with these guests, who
+could have injured me if they would."
+
+'The principal samp-wallah, perceiving it was the Moonshie's intention to
+detain the snakes, in a perfect agony of distress for the loss he was
+likely to sustain, then commenced by expostulation, ending with threats
+and abuse, to induce the Moonshie to give them up; who, for his part, kept
+his temper within bounds, having resolved in his own mind not to be
+outwitted a second time; the fellow's insolence and impertinent speeches
+were, therefore, neither chastised nor resented. The samp-wallah strove to
+wrest the basket from the Moonshie's strong grasp, without succeeding; and
+when he found his duplicity was so completely exposed, he altered his
+course, and commenced by entreaties and supplications, confessing at last,
+with all humility, that the reptiles were his own well-instructed snakes
+that he had let loose to catch again at pleasure. Then appealing to the
+Moonshie's well-known charitable temper, besought him that the snakes
+might be restored, as by their aid he earned his precarious livelihood.
+
+'"That they are yours, I cannot doubt," replied the Moonshie, "and,
+therefore, my conscience will not allow me to detain them from you; but
+the promised reward I of course keep back. Your insolence and duplicity
+deserve chastisement, nevertheless I promise to forgive you, if you will
+explain to me how you managed to introduce these snakes."
+
+'The man, thankful that he should escape without further loss or
+punishment, showed the harmless snakes, which, it appears, had been
+deprived of their fangs and poison, and were so well instructed and docile,
+that they obeyed their keeper as readily as the best-tutored domestic
+animal. They coiled up their supple bodies into the smallest compass
+possible, and allowed their keeper to deposit them each in a separate bag
+of calico, which was fastened under his wrapper, where it would have been
+impossible, the Moonshie declares, for the quickest eye to discover that
+anything was secreted.'
+
+'Sickley ghur'[46] (Cutler and knife-grinder).--These most useful artisans
+are in great request, polishing articles of rusty steel, giving a new edge
+to the knives, scissors, razors, or swords of their employer, in a
+masterly manner, for a very small price.
+
+'Dhie cuttie'[47] (Sour curds).--This article is in great request by
+scientific cooks, who use it in many of their dainty dishes. The method of
+making sour curd is peculiarly Indian: it is made of good sweet milk, by
+some secret process which I could never acquire, and in a few hours the
+whole is coagulated to a curd of a sharp acidity, that renders it equally
+useful with other acids in flavouring their curries. The Natives use it
+with pepper, pounded green ginger, and the shreds of pumpkins or radishes,
+as a relish to their savoury dishes, in lieu of chatnee; it is considered
+cooling in its quality, and delicious as an accompaniment to their
+favourite viands.
+
+'Mullie'[48] (Clotted cream).---This article is much esteemed by the
+Natives. I was anxious to know how clotted cream could be procured at
+seasons when milk from the cow would be sour in a few hours, and am told
+that the milk when brought in fresh from the dairy is placed over the fire
+in large iron skillets; the skin (as we call it on boiled milk) is taken
+off with a skimmer, and placed in a basket, which allows all the milk to
+be drained from it; the skin again engendered on the surface is taken off
+in the same way, and so they continue, watching and skimming until the
+milk has nearly boiled away. This collection of skin is the clotted cream
+of Hindoostaun.
+
+'Mukhun'[49] (Butter).--Butter is very partially used by the Natives; they
+use ghee, which is a sort of clarified butter, chiefly produced from the
+buffalo's milk. The method of obtaining butter in India is singular to a
+European. The milk is made warm over the fire, then poured into a large
+earthen jar, and allowed to stand for a few hours. A piece of bamboo is
+split at the bottom, and four small pieces of wood inserted as stretchers
+to these splits. A leather strap is twisted over the middle of the bamboo,
+and the butter-maker with this keeps the bamboo in constant motion; the
+particles of butter swimming at the top are taken off and thrown into
+water, and the process of churning is resumed; this method continues until
+by the quantity collected, these nice judges have ascertained there is no
+more butter remaining in the milk. When the butter is to be sold, it is
+beaten up into round balls out of the water. When ghee is intended to be
+made, the butter is simmered over a slow fire for a given time, and poured
+into the ghee pot, which perhaps may contain the produce of the week
+before they convey it to the market for sale; in this state the greasy
+substance will keep good for months, but in its natural state, as butter,
+the second day it is offensive to have it in the room, much less to be
+used as an article of food.
+
+'Burruff wallah'[50] (The man with ice).--The ice is usually carried about
+in the evening, and considered a great indulgence by the Natives. The
+ice-men bring round both iced creams, and sherbet ices, in many varieties;
+some flavoured with oranges, pomegranates, pine-apple, rose-water, &c.
+
+They can produce ices at any season, by saltpetre, which is here abundant
+and procured at a small price; but strange as it may appear, considering
+the climate, we have regular collections of ice made in January, in most
+of the stations in the Upper Provinces, generally under the
+superintendence of an English gentleman, who condescends to be the
+comptroller. The expenses are paid by subscribers, who, according to the
+value of their subscription, are entitled to a given quantity of ice, to
+be conveyed by each person's servant from the deposit an hour before
+day-break, in baskets made for the purpose well wadded with cotton and
+woollen blankets; conveyed home, the basket is placed where neither air
+nor light can intrude. Zinc bottles, filled with pure water, are placed
+round the ice in the basket, and the water is thus cooled for the day's
+supply, an indulgence of great value to the sojourners in the East.
+
+The method of collecting ice is tedious and laborious, but where labour is
+cheap and the hands plenty the attempt has always been repaid by the
+advantages. As the sun declines, the labourers commence their work; flat
+earthen platters are laid out, in exposed situations, in square
+departments, upon dried sugar-cane leaves very lightly spread, that the
+frosty air may pass inside the platters. A small quantity of water is
+poured into the platter; as fast as they freeze their contents are
+collected and conveyed, during the night, to the pit prepared for the
+reception of ice. The rising sun disperses the labourers with the ice, and
+they seek their rest by day, and return again to their employ; as the lion,
+when the sun disappears, prowls out to seek his food from the bounty of
+his Creator. The hoar frost seldom commences until the first of January,
+and lasts throughout that month.
+
+'Roshunie'[51] (Ink).---Ink, that most useful auxiliary in rendering the
+thoughts of one mortal serviceable to his fellow-creatures through many
+ages, is here an article of very simple manufacture. The composition is
+prepared from lampblack and gum-arabic; how it is made, I have yet to
+learn.
+
+The ink of the Natives is not durable; with a wet sponge may be erased the
+labour of a man's life. They have not yet acquired the art of printing,[52]
+and as they still write with reeds instead of feathers, an ink, permanent
+as our own, is neither agreeable nor desirable.
+
+There is one beautiful trait in the habits of the Mussulmauns: when about
+to write they not only make the prayer which precedes every important
+action of their lives, but they dedicate the writing to God, by a
+character on the first page, which, as in short-hand writing, implies the
+whole sentence.[53] A man would be deemed heathenish amongst Mussulmauns,
+who by neglect or accident omitted this mark on whatever subject he is
+about to write.
+
+Another of their habits is equally praiseworthy:--out of reverence for
+God's holy name (always expressed in their letters) written paper to be
+destroyed is first torn and then washed in water before the whole is
+scattered abroad; they would think it a sinful act to burn a piece of
+paper on which that Holy name has been inscribed. How often have I
+reflected whilst observing this praiseworthy feature in the character of a
+comparatively unenlightened people, on the little respect paid to the
+sacred writings amongst a population who have had greater opportunities of
+acquiring wisdom and knowledge.[54]
+
+The culpable habit of chandlers in England is fresh in my memory, who
+without a scruple tear up Bibles and religious works to parcel out their
+pounds of butter and bacon, without a feeling of remorse on the sacrilege
+they have committed.
+
+How careless are children in their school-days of the sacred volume which
+contains the word of God to His creatures. Such improper uses, I might say
+abuses, of that Holy Book, would draw upon them the censure of a people
+who have not benefited by the contents, but who nevertheless respect the
+volume purely because it speaks the word 'of that God whom they worship'.
+
+'Mayndhie' (A shrub).--The mayndhie and its uses have been so fully
+explained in the letters on Mahurrum, that I shall here merely remark,
+that the shrub is of quick growth, nearly resembling the small-leafed
+myrtle; the Natives make hedge-rows of it in their grounds, the blossom is
+very simple, and the shrub itself hardy: the dye is permanent.
+
+'Sulmah.'[55]--A prepared permanent black dye, from antimony. This is used
+with hair-pencils to the circle of the eye at the root of the eye-lashes
+by the Native ladies and often by gentlemen, and is deemed both of service
+to the sight and an ornament to the person. It certainly gives the
+appearance of large eyes, if there can be any beauty in altering the
+natural countenance, which is an absurd idea, in my opinion. Nature is
+perfect in all her works; and whatever best accords with each feature of a
+countenance I think she best determines; I am sure that no attempt to
+disguise or alter Nature in the human face ever yet succeeded, independent
+of the presumption in venturing to improve that which in His wisdom, the
+Creator has deemed sufficient.
+
+It would occupy my pages beyond the limits I can conveniently spare to the
+subject, were I to pursue remarks on the popular cries of a Native city to
+their fullest extent; scarcely any article that is vended at the bazaars,
+but is also hawked about the streets. This is a measure of necessity
+growing out of the state of Mussulmaun society, by which the females are
+enabled to purchase at their own doors all that can be absolutely
+requisite for domestic purposes, without the obligation of sending to the
+markets or the shops, when either not convenient, or not agreeable. And
+the better to aid both purchasers and venders, these hawkers pronounce
+their several articles for sale, with voices that cannot fail to impress
+the inhabitants enclosed within high walls, with a full knowledge of the
+articles proclaimed without need of interpreters.
+
+
+[1] _Dukan_.
+
+[2] _Tatti_.
+
+[3] See pp. 57, 173, 174.
+
+[4] The fat of meat is never eaten by the Natives, who view our joints
+of meat with astonishment, bordering on disgust. [_Author_.]
+
+[5] Many Hindoostaunie dishes require the meat to be finely minced.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[6] Known as _gargarasaz_.
+
+[7] Baniya.
+
+[8] _Sarraf_.
+
+[9]: Cowries are small shells imported from the Eastern isles, which pass
+    in India as current coin, their value fluctuating with the price of
+    corn, from, sixty to ninety for one pice. [_Author_.]
+
+[10] _Hundi_.
+
+[11] _Dasturi_.
+
+[12] _Sipiwala gila sukha_.
+
+[13] _Jonk_, a leech; _kira_, a worm, _laganewali_.
+
+[14] _Kan saf karnewala_: more usually _Kanmailiya,
+    kan_, the ear; _maila_, dirt.
+
+[15] _Gota, chandni bikau_, silver lace to sell! The dealer is
+    _Gota, kinari farosh_.
+
+[16] _Tel ka acharwala_.
+
+[17] _Mithaiwala_.
+
+[18] _Khilaunewala_.
+
+[19] _Abrak_, talc.
+
+[20] _Pankahwala_.
+
+[21] _Tar_, the palmyra palm.
+
+[22] _Tarkari, mewa_.
+
+[23] _Sag_.
+
+[24] _Chitra_, spotted, speckled.
+
+[25] Quicksilver is used by Native physicians as the first of alternative
+    tonics.
+
+[26] _Machhli_.
+
+[27] Being considered to be like snakes.
+
+[28] _Rohu_, a kind of carp, _Labeo rohita_.
+
+[29] _Chiryawala_.
+
+[30] _Bulbul, Daulias hafizi_, the true Persian nightingale.
+
+[31] _Sabza, sabzak_, green bird, usually a jay, _coracias_.
+
+[32] A shrike, one of the _laniadae_.
+
+[33] _Maina_, a starling, _Aeridotheres tristis_.
+
+[34] The black cuckoo, _Eudynamys orientalis_.
+
+[35] The note of the bird at night, detested by Anglo-Indians, gives it
+    the name of the brain-fever bird.
+
+[36] _Lal, Estrelda amandava_, the avadavat, is so called because it
+    was brought to Europe from Ahmadabad.
+
+[37] _Atishbazi_, fire-play.
+
+[38] Holi, the spring festival of the Hindus, at which bonfires are
+    lighted, coloured water thrown about, and much obscenity is practiced.
+
+[39] See p. 161.
+
+[40] _Chabena, chabeni_, what is munched or chewed (_chabna_).
+
+[41] _Tamashawala: tamashabin_, a spectator of wonders.
+
+[42] _Sampwala_.
+
+[43] 'Mr. Secretary.'
+
+[44] It is generally believed snakes do not live apart from their species;
+    if one is destroyed in a house, a second is anticipated and generally
+    discovered. [_Author_.]
+
+[45] _Dastur, dasturi_, the percentage appropriated on purchase
+    by servants.
+
+[46] _Saiqalgar_, corrupted into _sikligar_, a polisher.
+
+[47] _Dahi khatai_. There is no mystery about the preparation.
+    Milk is boiled and soured by being poured into an earthen vessel in
+    which curds have previously been kept. Sometimes, but less frequently,
+    an acid or rennet is added to precipitate the solid ingredients of the
+    milk.
+
+[48] _Malai_.
+
+[49] _Makkhan_.
+
+[50] _Burfwala_.
+
+[51] _Roshanai_, 'brightness', made of lampblack, gum-arabic, and
+    aloe juice. Elaborate prescriptions are given by Jaffur Shurreef
+    (_Qanoon-e-Islam_ 150 f.).
+
+[52] Lithography and printing are now commonly done by natives.
+
+[53] Letters usually begin with, the invocation,
+    _Bi'-smi'illahi'r-rahmani'r-rahim_, 'In the name of Allah,
+    the Compassionate, the Merciful.' The monogram 'I' is often
+    substituted, as being the initial of Allah, and the first letter of
+    the alphabet.
+
+[54] If the Koran were wrapped in a skin and thrown into fire, it would
+    not burn, say the Traditions (Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 521).
+    Compare the care taken by the Chinese to save paper on which writing
+    appears (J.H. Gray, _China_, i. 178).
+
+[55] _Surma_, a black ore of antimony, a tersulphide found in the
+    Panjab, often confused by natives with galena, and most of that
+    sold in bazars is really galena. It is used as a tonic to the nerves
+    of the eye, and to strengthen the sight.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVII
+
+  Seclusion of Females.--Paadshah Begum.--The Suwaarree.--Female
+  Bearers.--Eunuchs.--Rutts.--Partiality of the Ladies to Large
+  retinues.--Female Companions.--Telling the Khaunie.--Games of the
+  Zeenahnah.--Shampooing.--The Punkah.--Slaves and
+  slavery.--Anecdote.--The Persian Poets.--Fierdowsee.--Saadie, his
+  'Goolistaun'.--Haafiz.--Mahumud Baarkur.--'Hyaatool
+  Kaaloob'.--Different manner of pronouncing Scripture names...Page 248
+
+
+The strict seclusion which forms so conspicuous a feature in the female
+society of the Mussulmauns in India, renders the temporary migration of
+ladies from their domicile an event of great interest to each individual
+of the zeenahnah, whether the mistress or her many dependants be
+considered.
+
+The superior classes seldom quit their habitation but on the most
+important occasions; they, therefore, make it a matter of necessity to
+move out in such style as is most likely to proclaim their exalted station
+in life. I cannot, perhaps, explain this part of my subject better than by
+giving a brief description of the suwaarree[1] (travelling retinue) of the
+Paadshah Begum[2] which passed my house at Lucknow on the occasion of her
+visit to the Durgah of Huzerut Abas Ali Kee, after several years strictly
+confining herself to the palace.
+
+By Paadshah is meant 'King';--Begum, 'Lady.' The first wife of the King is
+distinguished by this title from every other he may have married; it is
+equivalent to that of 'Queen' in other countries. With this title the
+Paadshah Begum enjoys also many other marks of royal distinction; as, for
+instance, the dunkah (kettle-drums) preceding her suwaarree; a privilege,
+I believe, never allowed by the King to any other female of his family.
+The embroidered chattah (umbrella); the afthaadah (embroidered sun); and
+chowries of the peacock's feathers, are also out-of-door distinctions
+allowed only to this lady and the members of the royal family. But to my
+description:--
+
+First, in the Paadshah Begum's suwaarree I observed a guard of cavalry
+soldiers in full dress, with their colours unfurled; these were followed
+by two battalions of infantry, with their bands of music and colours. A
+company of spearmen on foot, in neat white dresses and turbans, their
+spears of silver, rich and massive. Thirty-six men in white dresses and
+turbans, each having a small triangular flag of crimson silk, on which
+were embroidered the royal arms (two fish and a dirk of a peculiar shape).
+The staffs of these flags are of silver, about three feet long; in the
+lower part of the handle a small bayonet is secreted, which can be
+produced at will by pressure on a secret spring. Next followed a full band
+of music, drums, fifes, &c.; then the important dunkah, which announces to
+the public the lady's rank: she is enclosed within the elevated towering
+chundole, on each side of which the afthaadah and chowries are carried by
+well-dressed men, generally confidential servants, appointed to this
+service.
+
+The chundole is a conveyance resembling a palankeen, but much larger and
+more lofty; it is, in fact, a small silver room, six feet long, five broad,
+and four feet high, supported by the aid of four silver poles on the
+shoulders of twenty bearers. These bearers are relieved every quarter of a
+mile by a second set in attendance: the two sets change alternately to the
+end of the journey. The bearers are dressed in a handsome royal livery of
+white calico made to sit close to the person; over which are worn scarlet
+loose coats of fine English broad-cloth, edged and bordered with gold
+embroidery: on the back of the coat a fish is embroidered in gold. Their
+turbans correspond in colour with the coats; on the front of the turban is
+fixed diagonally a fish of wrought gold, to the tail of which a rich gold
+tassel is attached; this readies to the shoulder of the bearer, and gives
+a remarkable air of grandeur to the person.
+
+The chundole is surrounded by very powerful women bearers, whose business
+it is to convey the vehicle within the compound (court-yard) of the
+private apartments, or wherever men are not admitted at the same time with
+females. Chobdhaars and soota-badhaars walk near the chundole carrying
+gold and silver staffs or wands, and vociferating the rank and honours of
+the lady they attend with loud voices the whole way to and from the Durgah.
+These men likewise keep off the crowds of beggars attracted on such
+occasions by the known liberality of the ladies, who, according to
+established custom, make distributions to a large amount, which are
+scattered amongst the populace by several of the Queen's eunuchs, who walk
+near the chundole for that purpose.
+
+The chief of the eunuchs followed the Queen's chundole on an elephant,
+seated in a gold howdah; the trappings of which were of velvet, richly
+embroidered in gold; the eunuch very elegantly dressed in a suit of
+gold-cloth, a brilliant turban, and attired in expensive shawls. After the
+eunuch, follow the Paadshah Begum's ladies of quality, in covered
+palankeens, each taking precedence according to the station or the favour
+she may enjoy; they are well guarded by soldiers, spearmen, and chobdhaars.
+Next in the train, follow the several officers of the Queen's household,
+on elephants, richly caparisoned. And, lastly, the women of inferior rank
+and female slaves, in rutts (covered carriages) such as are in general use
+throughout India. These rutts are drawn by bullocks, having bells of a
+small size strung round their neck, which as they move have a novel and
+not unpleasing sound, from the variety of tones produced. The rutt is a
+broad-wheeled carriage, the body and roof forming two cones, one smaller
+than the other, covered with scarlet cloth, edged, fringed, and bordered
+with gold or amber silk trimmings. The persons riding in rutts are seated
+on cushions placed flat on the surface of the carriage (the Asiatic style
+of sitting at all times) and not on raised seats, the usual custom in
+Europe. The entrance to these rutts is from the front, like the tilted
+carts of England, where a thick curtain of corresponding colour and
+material conceals the inmates from the public gaze; a small space is left
+between this curtain and the driver, where one or two women servants are
+seated as guards, who are privileged by age and ugliness to indulge in the
+liberty of seeing the passing gaiety, and of enjoying, without a screen,
+the pure air; benefits which their superiors in rank are excluded from at
+all ages.
+
+In the Paadshah Begum's suwaarree, I counted fifty of these Native
+carriages, into each of which from four to six females are usually crowded,
+comprising the members of the household establishment of the great lady;
+such as companions, readers of the Khoraum, kaawauses[3] (the higher
+classes of female-slaves), muggalanie[4] (needle-women), &c. This will
+give you a tolerable idea of the number and variety of females attached to
+the suite of a lady of consequence in India. The procession, at a walking
+pace, occupied nearly half an hour in passing the road opposite to my
+house: it was well conducted, and the effect imposing, both from its
+novelty and splendour.
+
+A lady here would be the most unhappy creature existing, unless surrounded
+by a multitude of attendants suitable to her rank in life. They have often
+expressed surprise and astonishment at my want of taste in keeping only
+two women servants in my employ, and having neither a companion nor a
+slave in my whole establishment; they cannot imagine anything so stupid as
+my preference to a quiet study, rather than the constant bustle of a
+well-filled zeenahnah.
+
+Many of the Mussulmaun ladies entertain women companions, whose chief
+business is to tell stories and fables to their employer, while she is
+composing herself to sleep; many of their tales partake of the romantic
+cast which characterizes the well-remembered 'Arabian Nights'
+Entertainments', one story begetting another to the end of the collection.
+When the lady is fairly asleep the story is stayed, and the companion
+resumes her employment when the next nap is sought by her mistress.
+
+Amongst the higher classes the males also indulge in the same practice of
+being talked to sleep by their men slaves; and it is a certain
+introduction with either sex to the favour of their employer, when one of
+these dependants has acquired the happy art of 'telling the khaunie'[5]
+(fable) with an agreeable voice and manner. The more they embellish a tale
+by flights of their versatile imaginations, so much greater the merit of
+the rehearser in the opinion of the listeners.
+
+The inmates of zeenahnahs occasionally indulge in games of chance: their
+dice are called chowsah (four sides), or chuhsah[6] (six sides); these
+dice are about four inches long and half an inch thick on every side,
+numbered much in the same way as the European dice. They are thrown by the
+hand, not from boxes, and fall lengthways.
+
+They have many different games which I never learned, disliking such modes
+of trifling away valuable time; I am not, therefore, prepared to describe
+them accurately. One of their games has a resemblance to draughts, and is
+played on a chequered cloth carpet, with red and white ivory cones.[7]
+They have also circular cards, six suits to a pack, very neatly painted,
+with which they play many (to me) indescribable games; but oftener, to
+their credit be it said, for amusement than for gain. The gentlemen,
+however, are not always equally disinterested; they frequently play for
+large sums of money. I do not, however, find the habit so general with the
+Natives as it is with Europeans. The religious community deem all games of
+chance unholy, and therefore incompatible with their mode of living. I am
+not aware that gaming is prohibited by their law in a direct way,[8] but
+all practices tending to covetousness are strictly forbidden; and, surely,
+those who can touch the money called 'winnings' at any game, must be more
+or less exposed to the accusation of desiring other men's goods.
+
+Shampooing has been so often described as to leave little by way of
+novelty for me to remark on the subject; it is a general indulgence with
+all classes in India, whatever may be their age or circumstances. The
+comfort derived from the pressure of the hands on the limbs, by a clever
+shampooer, is alone to be estimated by those who have experienced the
+benefits derived from this luxurious habit, in a climate where such
+indulgences are needed to assist in creating a free circulation of the
+blood, which is very seldom induced by exercise as in more Northern
+latitudes. Persons of rank are shampooed by their slaves during the hours
+of sleep, whether it be by day or by night; if through any accidental
+circumstance the pressure is discontinued, even for a few seconds only,
+the sleep is immediately broken: such is the power of habit.
+
+The punkah (fan) is in constant use by day and night, during eight months
+of the year. In the houses of the Natives, the slaves have ample
+employment in administering to the several indulgences which their ladies
+require at their hands; for with them fixed punkahs have not been
+introduced into the zeenahnah:[9] the only punkah in their apartments is
+moved by the hand, immediately over or in front of the person for whose
+use it is designed. In the gentlemen's apartments, however, and in the
+houses of all Europeans, punkahs are suspended from the ceiling, to which
+a rope is fastened and passed through an aperture in the wall into the
+verandah, where a man is seated who keeps it constantly waving, by pulling
+the rope, so that the largest rooms, and even churches, are filled with
+wind, to the great comfort of all present.
+
+The female slaves, although constantly required about the lady's person,
+are nevertheless tenderly treated, and have every proper indulgence
+afforded them. They discharge in rotation the required duties of their
+stations, and appear as much the objects of the lady's care as any other
+people in her establishment. Slavery with them is without severity; and in
+the existing state of Mussulmaun society, they declare the women slaves to
+be necessary appendages to their rank and respectability. The liberal
+proprietors of slaves give them suitable matches in marriage when they
+have arrived at a proper age, and even foster their children with the
+greatest care; often granting them a salary, and sometimes their freedom,
+if required to make them happy. Indeed, generally speaking the slaves in a
+Mussulmaun's house must be vicious and unworthy, who are not considered
+members of the family.
+
+It is an indisputable fact that the welfare of their slaves is an object
+of unceasing interest with their owners, if they are really good
+Mussulmauns; indeed, it is second only to the regard which they manifest
+to their own children.
+
+Many persons have been known, in making their will, to decree the liberty
+of their slaves. They are not, however, always willing to accept the boon.
+'To whom shall I go?'--'Where shall I meet a home like my master's house?'
+are appeals that endear the slave to the survivors of the first proprietor,
+and prove that their bondage has not been a very painful one. It is an
+amiable trait of character amongst the Mussulmauns, with whom I have been
+intimate, and which I can never forget, that the dependence of their
+slaves is made easy; that they enjoy every comfort compatible with their
+station; and that their health, morals, clothing, and general happiness,
+are as much attended to as that of their own relatives. But slavery is a
+harsh term between man and man, and however mitigated its state, is still
+degrading to him. I heartily trust there will be a time when this badge of
+disgrace shall be wiped away from every human being. He that made man,
+designed him for higher purposes than to be the slave of his fellow-mortal;
+but I should be unjust to the people of India, if I did not remark, that
+having the uncontrolled power in their hands, they abstain from the
+exercise of any such severity as has disgraced the owners of slaves in
+other places, where even the laws have failed to protect them from cruelty
+and oppression. Indeed, wherever an instance has occurred of unfeeling
+conduct towards these helpless beings, the most marked detestation has
+invariably been evinced towards the authors by the real Mussulmaun.
+
+I have heard of a very beautiful female slave who had been fostered by a
+Native lady of high rank, from her infancy. In the course of time, this
+female had arrived to the honour of being made the companion of her young
+master, still, however, by her Begum's consent, residing with her lady,
+who was much attached to her. The freedom of intercourse, occasioned by
+the slave's exaltation, had the effect of lessening the young creature's
+former respect for her still kind mistress, to whom she evinced some
+ungrateful returns for the many indulgences she had through life received
+at her hands. The exact nature of her offences I never heard, but it was
+deemed requisite, for the sake of example in a house where some hundreds
+of female slaves were maintained, that the lady should adopt some such
+method of testifying her displeasure towards this pretty favourite, as
+would be consistent with her present elevated station. A stout silver
+chain was therefore made, by the Begum's orders, and with this the slave
+was linked to her bedstead a certain number of hours every day, in the
+view of the whole congregated family of slaves. This punishment would be
+felt as a degradation by the slave; not the confinement to her bedstead,
+where she would perhaps have seated herself from choice, had she not been
+in disgrace.
+
+'Once a slave, and always a slave,' says Fierdowsee the great poet of
+Persia; but this apophthegm was in allusion to the 'mean mind' of the King
+who treated him scurvily after his immense labour in that noble work, 'The
+Shah Namah.' I have a sketch of Fierdowsee's life, which my husband
+translated for me; but I must forbear giving it here, as I have heard the
+whole work itself is undergoing a translation by an able Oriental scholar,
+who will doubtless do justice both to 'The Shah Namah' and the character
+of Fierdowsee, who is in so great estimation with the learned Asiatics.[10]
+
+The Mussulmauns quote their favourite poets with much the same freedom
+that the more enlightened nations are wont to use with their famed authors.
+The moral precepts of Saadie[11] are often introduced with good effect,
+both in writing and speaking, as beacons to the inexperienced.
+
+Haafiz[12] has benefited the Mussulmaun world by bright effusions of
+genius, which speak to successive generations the wonders of his
+extraordinary mind. He was a poet of great merit; his style is esteemed
+superior to the writers of any other age; and, notwithstanding the world
+is rich with the beauties of his almost inspired mind, yet, strange as it
+may appear, he never compiled a single volume. Even in the age in which he
+lived his merit as a poet was in great estimation; but he never thought of
+either benefit or amusement to the world or to himself beyond the present
+time. He wrote the thoughts of his inspired moments on pieces of broken
+pitchers or pans, with charcoal; some of his admirers were sure to follow
+his footsteps narrowly, and to their vigilance in securing those scraps
+strewed about, wherever Haafiz had made his sojourn, may to this day be
+ascribed the benefit derived by the public from his superior writings.
+Saadie, however, is the standard favourite of all good Mussulmauns; his
+'Goolistaun'[13] (Garden of Roses), is placed in the hands of every youth
+when consigned to the dominion of a master, as being the most worthy book
+in the Persian language for his study, whether the beauty of his diction
+or the morality of his subjects be considered.
+
+The 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'[14] (Enlightener of the Heart), is another Persian
+work, in prose, by Mirza Mahumud Baakur, greatly esteemed by the learned
+Mussulmauns. This work contains the life and acts of every known prophet
+from the Creation, including also Mahumud and the twelve Emaums. The
+learned Maulvee, it appears, first wrote it in the Arabic language, but
+afterwards translated it into Persian, with the praiseworthy motive of
+rendering his invaluable work available to those Mussulmauns who were not
+acquainted with Arabic.
+
+I have some extracts from this voluminous work, translated for me by my
+husband, which interested me on account of the great similarity to our
+Scripture history; and if permitted at some future time, I propose
+offering them to the public in our own language, conceiving they may be as
+interesting to others as they have been to me.
+
+The Persian and Arabic authors, I have remarked, substitute Y for J in
+Scripture names; for instance, Jacob and Joseph are pronounced Yaacoob and
+Yeusuf.[15] They also differ from us in some names commencing with A, as
+in Abba, which they pronounce Ubba (Father); for Amen, they say Aameen[16]
+(the meaning strictly coinciding with ours); for Aaron, Aaroon; for Moses,
+Moosa.[17] I am told by those who are intimate with both languages, that
+there is a great similarity between the Hebrew and Arabic. The passage in
+our Scripture 'Eloi, Eloi, lama sabaethani,' was interpreted to me by an
+Arabic scholar, as it is rendered in that well-remembered verse in the
+English translation.
+
+
+[1] _Sawari_.
+
+[2] The Padshah Begam was the widow of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar,
+    King of Oudh. On his death, in 1837, she contrived a plot to place his
+    putative son, Munna Jan, on the throne. After a fierce struggle in
+    the palace, the revolt was suppressed by the Resident, Colonel Low,
+    and his assistants, Captains Paton and Shakespear. The pair were
+    confined in the Chunar Fort till their deaths. See the graphic
+    narrative by Gen. Sleeman (_Journey Through Oudh_, ii. 172 ff.); also
+    H.C. Irwin (_The Garden of India_, 127 f.); Mrs. F. Parks (_Wanderings
+    of a Pilgrim_, ii. 114).
+
+[3] _Khawass_, 'distinguished': special attendants.
+
+[4] _Mughlani_, a Moghul woman: an attendant in a zenana, a
+    sempstress.
+
+[5] _Kahani_.
+
+[6] _Chausa, chhahsa_, not to be found in Platt's _Hindustani
+    Dictionary_.
+
+[7] The game of Pachisi, played on a cloth marked in squares: see
+    _Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii, 173.
+
+[8] Gambling is one of the greater sins.--Sale, _Koran: Preliminary
+    Discourse_, 89; Sells, _Faith of Islam_, 155.
+
+[9] Fixed punkahs were introduced early in the nineteenth century.--Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_, 744.
+
+[10] Firdausi, author of the Shahnama, died A.D. 1020 or 1025,
+    aged 89 years. An abridged translation, to which reference is made, by
+    J. Atkinson, was published in 1832. It has since been translated by
+    A.G. and E. Warner (1905), and by A. Rogers (1907).
+
+[11] Shaikh Sa'di, born at Shiraz A.D. 1175, died 1292, aged 120
+    lunar years. His chief works are the _Gulistan_ and the _Bostan_.
+
+[12] Khwaja Hafiz, Shams-ud-din Muhammad, author of the
+    Diwan Hafiz, died at Shiraz A.D. 1389, where his tomb at
+    Musalla is the scene of pilgrimage; see E.G. Browne, _A Year amongst
+    the Persians_, 280 f.
+
+[13] _Gulistan_.
+
+[14] See p. 77.
+
+[15] Ya'qub, Yusuf.
+
+[16] _Amin_.
+
+[17] Harun, Musa.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVIII
+
+  Evils attending a residence in India.--Frogs.--Flies.--Blains.--
+  Musquitoes.--The White Ant.--The Red Ant.--Their destructive
+  habits.--A Tarantula.--Black Ants.--Locusts.--Superstition of the
+  Natives upon their appearance.--The Tufaun, or Haundhie
+  (tempest).--The rainy season.--Thunder and lightning.--Meteors.--
+  Earthquakes.--A city ruined by them.--Reverence of the Mussulmauns
+  for saints.--Prickly heat.--Cholera Morbus.--Mode of
+  Treatment.--Temperance the best remedy.--Recipe.
+
+
+A residence in India, productive as it may be (to many) of pecuniary
+benefits, presents, however, a few inconveniences to Europeans independent
+of climate,--which, in the absence of more severe trials, frequently
+become a source of disquiet, until habit has reconciled, or reflection
+disposed the mind to receive the mixture of evil and good which is the
+common lot of man in every situation of life. I might moralise on the duty
+of intelligent beings suffering patiently those trials which human
+ingenuity cannot avert, even if this world's happiness were the only
+advantage to be gained; but when we reflect on the account we have to give
+hereafter, for every thought, word, or action, I am induced to believe,
+the well-regulated mind must view with dismay a retrospect of the past
+murmurings of which it has been guilty. But I must bring into view the
+trials of patience which our countrymen meet while in India, to those who
+have neither witnessed nor [Transcriber's note: illegible] them; many of
+them present slight, but living, op[Transcriber's note: illegible] those
+evils with which the Egyptians were visited for their impiety to Heaven.
+
+Frogs, for instance, harmless as these creatures are in their nature,
+occasion no slight inconvenience to the inhabitants of India. They enter
+their house in great numbers and, without much care, would make their way
+to the beds, as they do to the chambers; the croaking during the rainy
+season is almost deafening, particularly towards the evening and during
+the night. Before the morning has well dawned, these creatures creep into
+every open doorway, and throughout the day secrete themselves under the
+edges of mattings and carpets, to the annoyance of those who have an
+antipathy to these unsightly looking creatures.
+
+The myriads of flies which fill the rooms, and try the patience of every
+observer of nice order in an English establishment, may bear some likeness
+to the plague which was inflicted on Pharaoh and his people, as a
+punishment for their hardness of heart. The flies of India have a property
+not common to those of Europe, but very similar to the green fly of Spain:
+when bruised, they will raise a blister on the skin, and, I am told, are
+frequently made use of by medical gentlemen as a substitute for the
+Spanish fly.[1]
+
+If but one wing or leg of a fly is by any accident dropped into the food
+of an individual, and swallowed, the consequence is an immediate
+irritation of the stomach, answering the purpose of a powerful emetic. At
+meals the flies are a pest, which most people say they abhor, knowing the
+consequences of an unlucky admission into the stomach of the smallest
+particle of the insect. Their numbers exceed all calculation; the table is
+actually darkened by the myriads, particularly in the season of the
+periodical rains. The Natives of India use muslin curtains suspended from
+the ceiling of their hall at meal times, which are made very full and long,
+so as to enclose the whole dinner party and exclude their tormentors.
+
+The biles or blains, which all classes of people in India are subject to,
+may be counted as amongst the catalogue of Pharaoh's plagues. The most
+healthy and the most delicate, whether Europeans or Natives, are equally
+liable to be visited by these eruptions, which are of a painful and
+tedious nature. The causes inducing these biles no one, as yet, I believe,
+has been able to discover, and therefore a preventive has not been found.
+I have known people who have suffered every year from these attacks, with
+scarce a day's intermission during the hot weather.[2]
+
+The musquitoes, a species of gnat, tries the patience of the public in no
+very measured degree; their malignant sting is painful, and their attacks
+incessant; against which there is no remedy but patience, and a good gauze
+curtain to the beds. Without some such barrier, foreigners could hardly
+exist; certainly they never could enjoy a night's repose. Even the mere
+buzzing of musquitoes is a source of much annoyance to Europeans: I have
+heard many declare the bite was not half so distressing as the sound. The
+Natives, both male and female, habitually wrap themselves up so entirely
+in their chuddah[3] (sheet) that they escape from these voracious insects,
+whose sounds are so familiar to them that it may be presumed they lull to,
+rather than disturb their sleep.
+
+The white ant is a cruel destroyer of goods: where it has once made its
+domicile, a real misfortune may be considered to have visited the house.
+They are the most destructive little insects in the world doing as much
+injury in one hour as a man might labour through a long life to redeem.
+These ants, it would seem, have no small share of animosity to ladies'
+finery, for many a wardrobe have they demolished, well filled with
+valuable dresses and millinery, before their vicinity has even been
+suspected, or their traces discovered. They destroy beams in the roofs of
+houses, chests of valuable papers, carpets, mats, and furniture, with a
+dispatch which renders them the most formidable of enemies, although to
+appearance but a mean little insect.
+
+There is one season of the year when they take flight, having four
+beautiful transparent wings; this occurs during the periodical rains, when
+they are attracted by the lights of the houses, which they enter in
+countless numbers, filling the tables, and whilst flitting before the
+lights disencumber themselves of their wings. They then become, to
+appearance, a fat maggot, and make their way to the floors and walls,
+where it is supposed they secrete themselves for a season, and are
+increasing in numbers whilst in this stage of existence. At the period of
+their migration in search of food, they will devour any perishable
+materials within their reach. It is probable, however, that they first
+send out scouts to discover food for the family, for the traces of white
+ants are discovered by a sort of clay-covered passage, formed as they
+proceed on their march in almost a direct line, which often extends a
+great distance from their nest.
+
+To mark the economy of ants has sometimes formed a part of my amusements
+in Hindoostaun.[4] I find they all have wings at certain seasons of the
+year; and more industrious little creatures cannot exist than the small
+red ants, which are so abundant in India. I have watched them at their
+labours for hours without tiring; they are so small that from eight to
+twelve in number labour with great difficulty to convey a grain of wheat
+or barley; yet these are not more than half the size of a grain of English
+wheat. I have known them to carry one of these grains to their nest at a
+distance of from six hundred to a thousand yards; they travel in two
+distinct lines over rough or smooth ground, as it may happen, even up and
+down steps, at one regular pace. The returning unladen ants invariably
+salute the burthened ones, who are making their way to the general
+storehouse; but it is done so promptly that the line is neither broken nor
+their progress impeded by the salutation.
+
+I was surprised one morning in my breakfast parlour to discover something
+moving slowly up the wall; on approaching near to examine what it was, I
+discovered a dead wasp, which the khidmutghar[5] (footman) had destroyed
+with his chowrie during breakfast, and which, falling on the floor, had
+become the prize of my little friends (a vast multitude), who were
+labouring with their tiny strength to convey it to their nest in the
+ceiling. The weight was either too great, or they had quarrelled over the
+burthen,--I know not which,--but the wasp fell to the ground when they had
+made more than half the journey of the wall; the courageous little
+creatures, however, were nothing daunted, they resumed their labour, and
+before evening their prize was safely housed.
+
+These ants are particularly fond of animal food. I once caught a tarantula;
+it was evening, and I wished to examine it by daylight. I placed it for
+this purpose in a recess of the wall, under a tumbler, leaving just
+breathing room. In the morning I went to examine my curiosity, when to my
+surprise it was dead and swarming with red ants, who had been its
+destroyers, and were busily engaged in making a feast on the (to them)
+huge carcass of the tarantula.
+
+These small creatures often prove a great annoyance by their nocturnal
+visits to the beds of individuals, unless the precaution be taken of
+having brass vessels, filled with water, to each of the bed-feet; the only
+method of effectually preventing their approach to the beds. I was once
+much annoyed by a visit from these bold insects, when reclining on a couch
+during the extreme heat of the day. I awoke by an uneasy sensation from
+their bite or sting about my ears and face, and found they had assembled
+by millions on my head; the bath was my immediate resource. The Natives
+tell me these little pests will feed on the human body if they are not
+disturbed: when any one is sick there is always great anxiety to keep them
+away.
+
+The large black ant is also an enemy to man; its sharp pincers inflict
+wounds of no trifling consequence; it is much larger than the common fly,
+has long legs, is swift of foot, and feeds chiefly on animal substances. I
+fancy all the ant species are more or less carnivorous, but strictly
+epicurean in their choice of food, avoiding tainted or decomposed
+substances with the nicest discrimination. Sweetmeats are alluring to them;
+there is also some difficulty in keeping them from jars of sugar or
+preserves; and when swallowed in food, are the cause of much personal
+inconvenience.
+
+I have often witnessed the Hindoos, male and female, depositing small
+portions of sugar near ants' nests, as acts of charity to commence the day
+with;[6] and it is the common opinion with the Natives generally, that
+wherever the red ants colonize prosperity attends the owners of that house.
+They destroy the white ants, though the difference in their size is as a
+grain of sand to a barley-corn; and on that account only may be viewed
+rather as friends than enemies to man, provided by the same Divine source
+from whence all other benefits proceed.
+
+The locusts, so familiar by name to the readers of Scripture, are here
+seen to advantage in their occasional visits. I had, however, been some
+years in India before I was gratified by the sight of these wonderful
+insects; not because of their rarity, as I had frequently heard of their
+appearance and ravages, but not immediately in the place where I was
+residing, until the year 1825, which the following memorandum made at the
+time will describe.
+
+On the third of July, between four and five o'clock in the afternoon, I
+observed a dusky brown cloud bordering the Eastern horizon, at the
+distance of about four miles from my house, which stands on an elevated
+situation; the colour was so unusual that I resolved on inquiring from my
+oracle, Meer Hadjee Shaah, to whom I generally applied for elucidations of
+the remarkable, what such an appearance portended. He informed me it was a
+flight of locusts.
+
+I had long felt anxious to witness those insects, that had been the food
+of St. John in the Desert, and which are so familiar by name from their
+frequent mention in Scripture; and now that I was about to be gratified, I
+am not ashamed to confess my heart bounded with delight, yet with an
+occasional feeling of sympathy for the poor people, whose property would
+probably become the prey of this devouring cloud of insects before the
+morning's dawn. Long before they had time to advance, I was seated in an
+open space in the shade of my house to watch them more minutely. The first
+sound I could distinguish was as the gentlest breeze, increasing as the
+living cloud approached; and as they moved over my head, the sound was
+like the rustling of the wind through the foliage of many pepul-trees.[7]
+
+It was with a feeling of gratitude that I mentally thanked God at the time
+that they were a stingless body of insects, and that I could look on them
+without the slightest apprehension of injury. Had this wondrous cloud of
+insects been the promised locust described in the Apocalypse, which shall
+follow the fifth angel's trumpet; had they been hornets, wasps, or even
+the little venomous musquito, I had not then dared to retain my position
+to watch with eager eyes the progress of this insect family as they
+advanced, spreading for miles on every side with something approaching the
+sublime, and presenting a most imposing spectacle. So steady and orderly
+was their pace, having neither confusion nor disorder in their line of
+march through the air, that I could not help comparing them to the
+well-trained horses of the English cavalry.[8] 'Who gave them this order
+in their flight?' was in my heart and on my tongue.
+
+I think the main body of this army of locusts must have occupied thirty
+minutes in passing over my head, but my attention was too deeply engrossed
+to afford me time to consult my time-piece. Stragglers there were many,
+separated from the flight by the noises made by the servants and people to
+deter them from settling; some were caught, and, no doubt, converted into
+currie for a Mussulmaun's meal. They say it is no common delicacy, and is
+ranked among the allowed animal food.
+
+The Natives anticipate earthquakes after the visitation or appearance of
+locusts. They are said to generate in mountains, but I cannot find any one
+here able to give me an authentic account of their natural history.
+
+On the 18th of September, 1825, another flight of these wonderful insects
+passed over my house in exactly a contrary direction from those which
+appeared in July, viz. from the West towards the East. The idea struck me
+that they might be the same swarm, returning after fulfilling the object
+of their visit to the West: but I have no authority on which to ground my
+supposition. The Natives have never made natural history even an amusement,
+much less a study, although their habits are purely those of Nature; they
+know the property of most herbs, roots, and flowers, which they cultivate,
+not for their beauty, but for the benefit they render to man and beast.[9]
+
+I could not learn that the flight had rested anywhere near Futtyghur, at
+which place I was then living. They are of all creatures the most
+destructive to vegetation, licking with their rough tongue the blades of
+grass, the leaves of trees, and green herbage of all kinds. Wherever they
+settle for the night, vegetation is completely destroyed; and a day of
+mournful consequences is sure to follow their appearance in the poor
+farmer's fields of green com.
+
+But that which bears the most awful resemblance to the visitations of God's
+wrath on Pharaoh and the Egyptians, is, I think, the frightful storm of
+wind which brings thick darkness over the earth at noonday, and which
+often occurs from the Tufaun or Haundhie,[10] as it is called by the
+Natives. Its approach is first discerned by dark columns of yellow clouds,
+bordering the horizon; the alarm is instantly given by the Natives, who
+hasten to put out the fires in the kitchens, and close the doors and
+windows in European houses, or with the Natives to let down the purdahs.
+No sound that can be conceived by persons who have not witnessed this
+phenomenon of Nature, is capable of conveying an idea of the tempest. In a
+few minutes total darkness is produced by the thick cloud of dust; and the
+tremendous rushing wind carries the fine sand, which produces the darkness,
+through every cranny and crevice to all parts of the house; so that in the
+best secured rooms every article of furniture is covered with sand, and
+the room filled as with a dense fog: the person, dresses, furniture, and
+the food (if at meal times), are all of one dusky colour; and though
+candles are lighted to lessen the horror of the darkness, they only tend
+to make the scene of confusion more visible.
+
+Fortunately the tempest is not of very long continuance. I have never
+known it to last more than half an hour; yet in that time how much might
+have been destroyed of life and property, but for the interposing care of
+Divine mercy, whose gracious Providence over the works of His hand is seen
+in such seasons as these! The sound of thunder is hailed as a messenger of
+peace; the Natives are then aware that the fury of the tempest is spent,
+as a few drops of rain indicate a speedy termination; and when it has
+subsided they run to see what damage has been done to the premises without.
+It often occurs, that trees are torn up by their roots, the thatched
+houses and huts unroofed, and, if due care has not been taken to quench
+the fires in time, huts and bungalows are frequently found burnt, by the
+sparks conveyed in the dense clouds of sand which pass with the rapidity
+of lightning.
+
+These tufauns occur generally in April, May, and June, before the
+commencement of the periodical rains. I shall never forget the awe I felt
+upon witnessing the first after my arrival, nor the gratitude which filled
+my heart when the light reappeared. The Natives on such occasions gave me
+a bright example: they ceased not in the hour of peril to call on God for
+safety and protection; and when refreshed by the return of calm, they
+forgot not that their helper was the merciful Being in whom they had
+trusted, and to whom they gave praise and thanksgiving.
+
+The rainy season is at first hailed with a delight not easily to be
+explained. The long continuance of the hot winds,--during which period
+(three months or more) the sky is of the colour of copper, without the
+shadow of a cloud to shield the earth from the fiery heat of the sun,
+which has, in that time, scorched the earth and its inhabitants, stunted
+vegetation, and even affected the very houses--renders the season when the
+clouds pour out their welcome moisture a period which is looked forward to
+with anxiety, and received with universal joy.
+
+The smell of the earth after the first shower is more dearly loved than
+the finest aromatics or the purest otta. Vegetation revives and human
+nature exults in the favourable shower. As long as the novelty lasts, and
+the benefit is sensibly felt, all seem to rejoice; but when the intervals
+of clouds without rain occur, and send forth, as they separate, the bright
+glare untempered by a passing breeze, poor weak human nature is too apt to
+revolt against the season they cannot control, and sometimes a murmuring
+voice is heard to cry out, 'Oh, when will the rainy season end!'
+
+The thunder and lightning during the rainy season are beyond my ability to
+describe. The loud peals of thunder roll for several minutes in succession,
+magnificently, awfully grand. The lightning is proportionably vivid, yet
+with fewer instances of conveying the electric fluid to houses than might
+be expected when the combustible nature of the roofs is considered; the
+chief of which are thatched with coarse dry grass. The casualties are by
+no means frequent; and although trees surround most of the dwellings, yet
+we seldom hear of any injury by lightning befalling them or their
+habitations. Fiery meteors frequently fall; one within my recollection was
+a superb phenomenon, and was visible for several seconds.
+
+The shocks from earthquakes are frequently felt in the Upper Provinces of
+India;[11] I was sensible of the motion on one occasion (rather a severe
+one), for at least twenty seconds. The effect on me, however, was attended
+with no inconvenience beyond a sensation of giddiness, as if on board ship
+in a calm, when the vessel rolls from side to side.
+
+At Kannoge, now little more than a village in population, between Cawnpore
+and Futtyghur, I have rambled amongst the ruins of what formerly was an
+immense city, but which was overturned by an earthquake some centuries
+past. At the present period numerous relics of antiquity, as coins, jewels,
+&c., are occasionally discovered, particularly after the rains, when the
+torrents break down fragments of the ruins, and carry with the streams of
+water the long-buried mementos of the riches of former generations to the
+profit of the researching villagers, and to the gratification of curious
+travellers, who generally prove willing purchasers.[12]
+
+I propose giving in another letter the remarks I was led to make on
+Kannoge during my pleasant sojourn in that retired situation, as it
+possesses many singular antiquities and contains the ashes of many holy
+Mussulmaun saints. The Mussulmauns, I may here observe, reverence the
+memory of the good and the pious of all persuasions, but more particularly
+those of their own faith. I have sketches of the lives and actions of many
+of their sainted characters, received through the medium of my husband and
+his most amiable father, that are both amusing and instructive; and
+notwithstanding their particular faith be not in accordance with our own,
+it is only an act of justice to admit, that they were men who lived in the
+fear of God, and obeyed his commandments according to the instruction they
+had received; and which, I hope, may prove agreeable to my readers when
+they come to those pages I have set apart for such articles.
+
+My catalogue of the trying circumstances attached to the comforts which
+are to be met with in India are nearly brought to a close; but I must not
+omit mentioning one 'blessing in disguise' which occurs annually, and
+which affects Natives and Europeans indiscriminately, during the hot winds
+and the rainy season: the name of this common visitor is, by Europeans,
+called 'the prickly heat'; by Natives it is denominated 'Gurhum dahnie'[13]
+(warm rash). It is a painful irritating rash, often spreading over the
+whole body, mostly prevailing, however, wherever the clothes screen the
+body from the power of the air; we rarely find it on the hands or face. I
+suppose it to be induced by excessive perspiration, more particularly as
+those persons who are deficient in this freedom of the pores, so essential
+to healthiness, are not liable to be distressed by the rash; but then they
+suffer more severely in their constitution by many other painful attacks
+of fever, &c. So greatly is this rash esteemed the harbinger of good
+health, that they say in India, 'the person so afflicted has received his
+life-lease for the year'; and wherever it does not make its appearance, a
+sort of apprehension is entertained of some latent illness.
+
+Children suffer exceedingly from the irritation, which to scratch is
+dangerous. In Native nurseries I have seen applications used of pounded
+sandal-wood, camphor, and rose-water; with the peasantry a cooling earth,
+called mooltanie mittee,[14] similar to our fuller's-earth, is moistened
+with water and plastered over the back and stomach, or wherever the rash
+mostly prevails; all this is but a temporary relief, for as soon as it is
+dry, the irritation and burning are as bad as ever.
+
+The best remedy I have met with, beyond patient endurance of the evil, is
+bathing in rain-water, which soothes the violent sensations, and
+eventually cools the body. Those people who indulge most in the good
+things of this life are the greatest sufferers by this annual attack. The
+benefits attending temperance are sure to bring an ample reward to the
+possessors of that virtue under all circumstances, but in India more
+particularly; I have invariably observed the most abstemious people are
+the least subject to attacks from the prevailing complaints of the country,
+whether fever or cholera, and when attacked the most likely subjects to
+recover from those alarming disorders.
+
+At this moment of anxious solicitude throughout Europe, when that awful
+malady, the cholera, is spreading from city to city with rapid strides,
+the observations I have been enabled to make by personal acquaintance with
+afflicted subjects in India, may be acceptable to my readers; although I
+heartily pray our Heavenly Father may in His goodness and mercy preserve
+our country from that awful calamity, which has been so generally fatal in
+other parts of the world.
+
+The Natives of India designate cholera by the word 'Hyza', which with them
+signifies 'the plague'. By this term, however, they do not mean that
+direful disorder so well known to us by the same appellation; as, if I
+except the Mussulmaun pilgrims, who have seen, felt, and described its
+ravages on their journey to Mecca, that complaint seems to be unknown to
+the present race of Native inhabitants of Hindoostaun. The word 'hyza', or
+'plague', would be applied by them to all complaints of an epidemic or
+contagious nature by which the population were suddenly attacked, and
+death ensued. When the cholera first appeared in India (which I believe
+was in 1817), it was considered by the Natives a new complaint.[15]
+
+In all cases of irritation of the stomach, disordered bowels, or severe
+feverish symptoms, the Mussulmaun doctors strongly urge the adoption of
+'starving out the complaint'. This has become a law of Nature with all the
+sensible part of the community; and when the cholera first made its
+appearance in the Upper Provinces of Hindoostaun, those Natives who
+observed their prescribed temperance were, when attacked, most generally
+preserved from the fatal consequences of the disorder.
+
+On the very first symptom of cholera occurring in a member of a Mussulmaun
+family, a small portion of zahur morah[16] (derived from zahur, poison;
+morah, to kill or destroy, and thence understood as an antidote to poison,
+some specimens of which I have brought with me to England) moistened with
+rosewater, is promptly administered, and, if necessary, repeated at short
+intervals; due care being taken to prevent the patient from receiving
+anything into the stomach, excepting rosewater, the older the more
+efficacious in its property to remove the malady. Wherever zahur morah was
+not available, secun-gebeen[17] (syrup of vinegar) was administered with
+much the same effect. The person once attacked, although the symptoms
+should have subsided by this application, is rigidly deprived of
+nourishment for two or three days, and even longer if deemed expedient;
+occasionally allowing only a small quantity of rose-water, which they say
+effectually removes from the stomach and bowels those corrupt adhesions
+which, in their opinion, is the primary cause of the complaint.
+
+The cholera, I observed, seldom attacked abstemious people; when, however,
+this was the case, it generally followed a full meal; whether of rice or
+bread made but little difference, much I believe depending on the general
+habit of the subject; as among the peasantry and their superiors the
+complaint raged with equal malignity, wherever a second meal was resorted
+to whilst the person had reason to believe the former one had not been
+well digested. An instance of this occurred under my own immediate
+observation in a woman, the wife of an old and favourite servant. She had
+imprudently eaten a second dinner, before her stomach, by her own account,
+had digested the preceding meal. She was not a strong woman, but in
+tolerable good health; and but a few hours previous to the attack I saw
+her in excellent spirits, without the most remote appearance of
+indisposition. The usual applications failed of success, and she died in a
+few hours. This poor woman never could be persuaded to abstain from food
+at the stated period of meals; and the Natives were disposed to conclude
+that this had been the actual cause of her sufferings and dissolution.
+
+In 1821 the cholera raged with even greater violence than on its first
+appearance in Hindoostaun; by that time many remedies had been suggested,
+through the medium of the press, by the philanthropy and skill of European
+medical practitioners, the chief of whom recommended calomel in large
+doses, from twenty to thirty grains, and opium proportioned to the age and
+strength of the patient. I never found the Natives, however, willing to
+accept this as a remedy, but I have heard that amongst Europeans it was
+practised with success. From a paragraph which I read in the Bengal papers,
+I prepared a mixture that I have reason to think, through the goodness of
+Divine Providence, was beneficial to many poor people who applied for it
+in the early stages of the complaint, and who followed the rule laid down
+of complete abstinence, until they were out of danger from a relapse, and
+even then for a long time to be cautious in the quantity and digestible
+quality of their daily meal. The mixture was as follows:
+
+Brandy, one pint; oil or spirit of peppermint, if the former half an
+ounce--if the latter, one ounce; ground black pepper, two ounces; yellow
+rind of oranges grated, without any of the white, one ounce; these were
+kept closely stopped and occasionally shook, a table-spoonful administered
+for each dose, the patient well covered up from the air, and warmth
+created by blankets or any other means within their power, repeating the
+close as the case required.
+
+Of the many individuals who were attacked with this severe malady in our
+house very few died, and those, it was believed, were victims to an
+imprudent determination to partake of food before they were
+convalescent,--individuals who never could be prevailed on to practise
+abstemious habits, which we had good reason for believing was the best
+preventive against the complaint during those sickly seasons. The general
+opinion entertained both by Natives and Europeans, at those awful periods,
+was, that the cholera was conveyed in the air; very few imagined that it
+was infectious, as it frequently attacked some members of a family and the
+rest escaped, although in close attendance--even such as failed not to pay
+the last duties to the deceased according to Mussulmaun custom, which
+exposed them more immediately to danger if infection existed;--yet no
+fears were ever entertained, nor did I ever hear an opinion expressed
+amongst them, that it had been or could be conveyed from one person to
+another.
+
+Native children generally escaped the attack, and I never heard of an
+infant being in the slightest degree visited by this malady. It is,
+however, expedient, to use such precautionary measures as sound sense and
+reason may suggest, since wherever the cholera has appeared, it has proved
+a national calamity, and not a partial scourge to a few individuals; all
+are alike in danger of its consequences, whether the disorder be
+considered infectious or not, and therefore the precautions I have urged
+in India, amongst the Native communities, I recommend with all humility
+here, that cleanliness and abstemious diet be observed among all classes
+of people.
+
+In accordance with the prescribed antidote to infection from scarlet fever
+in England, I gave camphor (to be worn about the person) to the poor in my
+vicinity, and to all the Natives over whom I had either influence or
+control; I caused the rooms to be frequently fumigated with vinegar or
+tobacco, and labaun[18] (frankincense) burnt occasionally. I would not,
+however, be so presumptuous to insinuate even that these were preventives
+to cholera, yet in such cases of universal terror as the one in question,
+there can be no impropriety in recommending measures which cannot injure,
+and may benefit, if only by giving a purer atmosphere to the room
+inhabited by individuals either in sickness or in health. But above all
+things, aware that human aid or skill can never effect a remedy unaided by
+the mercy and power of Divine Providence, let our trust be properly placed
+in His goodness, 'who giveth medicine to heal our sickness', and humbly
+intreat that He may be pleased to avert the awful calamity from our shores
+which threatens and disturbs Europe generally at this moment.
+
+Were we to consult Nature rather than inordinate gratifications, we should
+find in following her dictates the best security to health at all times,
+but more particularly in seasons of prevailing sickness. Upon the first
+indications of cholera, I have observed the stomach becomes irritable, the
+bowels are attacked by griping pains, and unnatural evacuations; then
+follow sensations of faintness, weakness, excessive thirst, the pulse
+becomes languid, the surface of the body cold and clammy, whilst the
+patient feels inward burning heat, with spasms in the legs and arms.
+
+In the practice of Native doctors, I have noticed that they administer
+saffron to alleviate violent sickness with the best possible effect. A
+case came under my immediate observation, of a young female who had
+suffered from a severe illness similar in every way to the cholera; it was
+not, however, suspected to be that complaint, because it was not then
+prevailing at Lucknow: after some days the symptoms subsided, excepting
+the irritation of her stomach, which, by her father's account, obstinately
+rejected everything offered for eleven days. When I saw her, she was
+apparently sinking under exhaustion; I immediately tendered the remedy
+recommended by my husband, viz. twelve grains of saffron, moistened with a
+little rose-water; and found with real joy that it proved efficacious;
+half the quantity in doses were twice repeated that night, and in the
+morning the patient was enabled to take a little gruel, and in a
+reasonable time entirely recovered her usual health and strength.
+
+I have heard of people being frightened into an attack of cholera by
+apprehending the evil: this, however, can only occur with very weak minds,
+and such as have neglected in prosperity to prepare their hearts for
+adversity. When I first reached India, the fear of snakes, which I
+expected to find in every path, embittered my existence. This weakness was
+effectually corrected by the wise admonitions of Meer Hadjee Shaah, 'If
+you trust in God, he will preserve you from every evil; be assured the
+snake has no power to wound without permission.'
+
+
+[1] The _Cantharis resicatoria_ is imported into India for use in blisters.
+    But there is a local substitute, _mylabris_, of which there are
+    several varieties (Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, ii. 128, v. 309).
+
+[2] The reference is perhaps to what is known as the Dehli Boil, a form
+    of oriental sore, like the Biskra Button, Aleppo Evil, Lahore and
+    Multan Sore (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_, 302); possibly only to
+    hot-weather boils.
+
+[3] _Chadar_.
+
+[4] For a good account of the ways of Indian ants, see M. Thornton,
+    _Haunts and Hobbies of an Indian Official,_ 2 ff.
+
+[5] _Khidmatgar_.
+
+[6] The habit of laying sugar near ants' nests is a piece of fertility
+    magic, and common to Jains and Vishnu-worshippers; see J. Fryor, _A
+    New Account of East India and Persia_, Hakluyt Society ed., I, 278.
+
+[7] _Pipal, Ficus religiosa_.
+
+[8] An esteemed friend has since referred me to the second chapter of the
+    prophet Joel, part of the seventh and eighth verses, as a better
+    comparison. [_Author._]
+
+[9] The variety of locust seen in India is _acridium peregrinum_, which is
+    said to range throughout the arid region from Algeria to N.W. India.
+    They have extended as far south as the Kistna District of Madras (Watt,
+    _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part i, 154).
+
+[10] _Tufan_, storm, _andhi_, darkness.
+
+[11] Earthquakes tend generally to be more frequent in the regions of
+    extra-peninsular India, where the rocks have been more recently folded,
+    than in the more stable Peninsula. Serious earthquakes have occurred
+    recently in Assam, June, 1897, and in Kangra, Panjab, April,
+    1907. (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1907, i. 98 f.)
+
+[12] Kanauj, in the Farrukhabad District, United Provinces of Agra
+    and Oudh. The ruin of the great city was due to attacks by Mahmud
+    of Ghazni, A.D. 1019, and by Shihab-ud-din, Muhammad Ghori,
+    in 1194.
+
+[13] _Garm dahani_, hot inflammation, prickly heat.
+
+[14] _Multani mitti_, 'Multan Earth', a soft, drab-coloured
+    saponaceous earth, like fuller's earth, used in medicine and for
+    cleansing the hair.
+
+[15] Cholera (_haiza_) was known to the Hindus long before the arrival of
+    the Portuguese, who first described it (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 586
+    ff.). The attention of English physicians was first seriously called
+    to it in 1817, when it broke out in the Jessore District of Bengal,
+    and in the camp of Marquess Hastings in the Datiya State, Central
+    India. (See Sleeman, _Rambles_, 163, 232.)
+
+[16] _Zahr-mohra_, 'poison vanguard': the bezoar stone, believed to be
+    an antidote to poison (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 90 f.).
+
+[17] _Sikanjabin_, oxymel, vinegar, lime-juice, or other acid, mixed
+    with sugar or honey.
+
+[18] _Loban_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIX
+
+  Kannoge.--Formerly the capital of Hindoostaun.--Ancient
+  castle.--Durability of the bricks made by the aborigines.--Prospect
+  from the Killaah (castle).--Ruins.--Treasures found therein.--The
+  Durgah Baallee Peer Kee.--Mukhburrahs.--Ancient Mosque.--Singular
+  structure of some stone pillars.--The Durgah Mukdoom
+  Jhaunneer.--Conversions to the Mussulmaun Faith.--Anecdote.--Ignorance
+  of the Hindoos.--Sculpture of the Ancients.--Mosque inhabited by
+  thieves.--Discovery of Nitre.--Method of extracting it.--Conjectures
+  of its produce.--Residence in the castle.--Reflections.
+
+
+Kannoge, now comparatively a Native village, situated about midway between
+Cawnpore and Futtyghur, is said to have been the capital of Hindoostaun,
+and according to Hindoo tradition was the seat of the reigning Rajahs two
+thousand years prior to the invasion of India by the Sultaun Timoor. If
+credit be given to current report, the Hindoos deny that the Deluge
+extended to India[1] as confidently as the Chinese declare that it never
+reached China.
+
+These accounts I merely state as the belief of the Hindoos, and those
+the least educated persons of the population. The Mussulmauns, however,
+are of a different opinion; the account they give of the Deluge
+resembles the Jewish, and doubtless the information Mahumud has conveyed
+to his followers was derived from that source.
+
+Some of the people are weak enough to conjecture that Kannoge was founded
+by Cain.[2] It bears, however, striking features of great antiquity, and
+possesses many sufficient evidences of its former extent and splendour to
+warrant the belief that it has been the capital of no mean kingdom in ages
+past. The remarks I was enabled to make during a residence of two years at
+Kannoge may not be deemed altogether uninteresting to my readers, although
+my descriptions may be 'clouded with imperfections'. I will not, therefore,
+offer any useless apologies for introducing them in my present Letter.
+
+Kannoge, known as the oldest capital of the far-famed kingdom of
+Hindoostaun, is now a heap upon heap of ruins, proclaiming to the present
+generation, even in her humility, how vast in extent and magnificent in
+style she once was, when inhabited by the rulers of that great empire. The
+earth entombs emblems of greatness, of riches, and of man's vain-glorious
+possessions; buildings have been reared by successive generations on
+mounds which embowelled the ruined mansions of predecessors.
+
+The killaah[3] (castle) in which during two years we shared an abode with
+sundry crows, bats, scorpions, centipedes, and other living things, was
+rebuilt about seven hundred years ago, on the original foundation which,
+as tradition states, has continued for more than two thousand years. The
+materials of which the walls are constructed are chiefly bricks.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that the bricks of ancient manufacture in India
+give evidence of remarkable durability, and are very similar in quality to
+the Roman bricks occasionally discovered in England. At Delhi I have met
+with bricks that have been undoubtedly standing six or seven centuries;
+and at Kannoge, if tradition speak true, the same articles which were
+manufactured upwards of two thousand years ago, and which retain the
+colour of the brightest red, resemble more the hardest stone than the
+things we call bricks of the present day. After the minutest examination
+of these relics of ancient labour, I am disposed to think that the clay
+must have been more closely kneaded, and the bricks longer exposed to the
+action of fire than they are by the present mode of manufacturing them;
+and such is their durability, that they are only broken with the greatest
+difficulty.
+
+The killaah was originally a fortified castle, and is situated near the
+river Kaullee Nuddie,[4] a branch or arm of the Ganges, the main stream of
+which flows about two miles distant. During the periodical rains, the
+Ganges overflows its banks, and inundates the whole tract of land
+intervening between the two rivers, forming an extent of water more
+resembling a sea than a river.
+
+At the time we occupied the old castle, scarcely one room could be called
+habitable; and I learned with regret after the rains of 1826 and 1827,
+which were unusually heavy, that the apartments occupied since the
+Honourable East India Company's rule by their taasseel-dhaars,[5]
+(sub-collectors of the revenue), were rendered entirely useless as a
+residence.
+
+The comfortless interior of that well-remembered place was more than
+compensated by the situation. Many of my English acquaintance, who
+honoured me by visits at Kannoge, will, I think, agree with me, that the
+prospect from the killaah was indescribably grand. The Ganges and the
+Kaullee Nuddee were presented at one view; and at certain seasons of the
+year, as far as the eye could reach, their banks, and well-cultivated
+fields, clothed in a variety of green, seemed to recall the mind to the
+rivers of England, and their precious borders of grateful herbage. Turning
+in another direction, the eye was met by an impenetrable boundary of
+forest trees, magnificent in growth, and rich in foliage; at another
+glance, ruins of antiquity, or the still remaining tributes to saints; the
+detached villages; the sugar plantations; the agriculturists at their
+labour; the happy peasantry laden with their purchases from the bazaars;
+the Hindoo women and children, bearing their earthen-vessels to and from
+the river for supplies of water:--each in their turn formed objects of
+attraction from without, that more than repaid the absence of ordinary
+comforts in the apartment from which they were viewed. The quiet calm of
+this habitation, unbroken by the tumultuous sounds of a city, was so
+congenial to my taste, that when obliged to quit it, I felt almost as much
+regret as when I heard that the rains had destroyed the place which had
+been to me a home of peaceful enjoyment.
+
+The city of Kannoge has evidently suffered the severities of a shock from
+an earthquake: the present inhabitants cannot tell at what period this
+occurred, but it must have been some centuries since, for the earth is
+grown over immense ruins, in an extensive circuit, forming a strong but
+coarse carpet of grass on the uneven mounds containing the long-buried
+mansions of the great. The rapid streams from the periodical rains forcing
+passages between the ruins, has in many places formed deep and frightful
+ravines, as well as rugged roads and pathways for the cattle and the
+traveller.
+
+After each heavy fall of rain, the peasantry and children are observed
+minutely searching among the ruins for valuables washed out with the loose
+earth and bricks by the force of the streams, and, I am told, with
+successful returns for their toil; jewels, gold and silver ornaments,
+coins of gold and silver, all of great antiquity, are thus secured; these
+are bought by certain merchants of the city, by whom they are retailed to
+English travellers, who generally when on a river voyage to or from the
+Upper Provinces, contrive, if possible, to visit Kannoge to inspect the
+ruins, and purchase curiosities.
+
+There is a stately range of buildings at no great distance from the
+killaah (castle), in a tolerable state of preservation, called 'Baallee
+Peer Kee Durgah'.[6] The entrance is by a stone gateway of very superior
+but ancient workmanship, and the gates of massy wood studded with iron. I
+observed that on the wood framework over the entrance, many a stray
+horseshoe has been nailed, which served to remind me of Wales, where it is
+so commonly seen on the doors of the peasantry.[7] I am not aware but that
+the same motives may have influenced the two people in common.
+
+To the right of the entrance stands a large mosque, which, I am told, was
+built by Baallee himself; who, it is related, was a remarkably pious man
+of the Mussulmaun persuasion, and had acquired so great celebrity amongst
+his countrymen as a perfect durweish, as to be surnamed peer[8] (saint).
+The exact time when he flourished at Kannoge, I am unable to say; but
+judging from the style of architecture, and other concurring circumstances,
+it must have been built at different periods, some parts being evidently
+of very ancient structure.
+
+There are two mukhburrahs,[9] within the range, which viewed from the main
+road, stand in a prominent situation: one of these mukhburrahs was built
+by command, or in the reign (I could not learn which), of Shah Allumgeer
+[10] over the remains of Ballee Peer; and the second contains some of the
+peer's immediate relatives.
+
+From the expensive manner in which these buildings are constructed, some
+idea may be formed of the estimation this pious man was held in by his
+countrymen. The mausoleums are of stone, and elevated on a base of the
+same material, with broad flights of steps to ascend by. The stone must
+have been brought hither from a great distance, as I do not find there is
+a single quarry nearer than Delhi or Agra. There are people in charge of
+this Durgah who voluntarily exile themselves from the society of the world,
+in order to lead lives of strict devotion and under the imagined presiding
+influence of the saint's pure spirit; they keep the sanctuary from
+pollution, burn lamps nightly on the tomb, and subsist by the occasional
+contributions of the charitable visitors and their neighbours.
+
+Within the boundary of the Durgah, I remarked a very neat stone tomb, in
+good preservation: this, I was told, was the burying-place of the Kalipha
+[11] (head servant) who had attended on and survived Baallee Peer; this man
+had saved money in the service of the saint, which he left to be devoted
+to the repairs of the Durgah; premising that his tomb should be erected
+near that of his sainted master, and lamps burned every night over the
+graves, which is faithfully performed by the people in charge of the
+Durgah.
+
+After visiting the ruins of Hindoo temples, which skirt the borders of the
+river in many parts of the district of Kannoge, the eye turns with
+satisfaction to the ancient mosques of the Mussulmauns, which convey
+conviction to the mind, that even in the remote ages of Hindoostaun, there
+have been men who worshipped God; whilst the piles of mutilated stone
+idols also declare the zealous Mussulmaun to have been jealous for his
+Creator's glory. I have noticed about Kannoge hundreds of these broken or
+defaced images collected together in heaps (generally under trees), which
+were formerly the objects to which the superstitious Hindoos bowed in
+worship, until the more intelligent Mussulmauns strayed into the recesses
+of the deepest darkness to show the idolaters that God could not be
+represented by a block of stone.
+
+In a retired part of Kannoge, I was induced to visit the remains of an
+immense building[12], expecting the gratification of a fine prospect from
+its towering elevation; my surprise, however, on entering the portal drove
+from my thoughts the first object of my visit.
+
+The whole building is on a large scale, and is, together with the gateway,
+steps, roof, pillars, and offices, composed entirely of stone: from what I
+had previously conceived of the ancient Jewish temples, this erection
+struck me as bearing a strong resemblance. It appears that there is not
+the slightest portion of either wood or metal used in the whole
+construction; and, except where some sort of cement was indispensable, not
+a trace of mortar is to be discovered in the whole fabric. The pillars of
+the colonnade, which form three sides of the square, are singular piles of
+stone, erected with great exactness in the following order:--
+
+A broad block of stone forms the base; on the centre is raised a pillar of
+six feet by two square, on this rests a circular stone, resembling a
+grindstone, on which is placed another upright pillar, and again a
+circular, until five of each are made to rest on the base to form a pillar;
+the top circulars or caps are much larger than the rest; and on these the
+massy stone beams for the roof are supported. How these ponderous stones
+forming the whole roof were raised, unacquainted as these people ever have
+been with machinery, is indeed a mystery sufficient to impress on the
+weak-minded a current report amongst the Natives, that the whole building
+was erected in one night by supernatural agency, from materials which had
+formerly been used in the construction of a Hindoo temple, but destroyed
+by the zeal of the Mussulmauns soon after their invasion of Hindoostaun.
+
+The pillars I examined narrowly, and could not find any traces of cement
+or fastening; yet, excepting two or three which exhibit a slight curve,
+the whole colonnade is in a perfect state. The hall, including the
+colonnade, measures one hundred and eighty feel by thirty, and has
+doubtless been, at some time or other, a place of worship, in all
+probability for the Mussulmauns, there being still within the edifice a
+sort of pulpit of stone evidently intended for the reader, both from its
+situation and construction; this has sustained many rude efforts from the
+chisel in the way of ornament not strictly in accordance with the temple
+itself; besides which, there are certain tablets engraved in the Persian
+and Arabic character, which contain verses or chapters from the Khoraun;
+so that it may be concluded, whatever was the original design of the
+building, it has in later periods served the purposes of a mosque.
+
+In some parts of this building traces exist to prove that the materials of
+which it has been formed originally belonged to the Hindoos, for upon many
+of the stones there are carved figures according with their mythology;
+such stones, however, have been placed generally upside down, and attempts
+to deface the graven figures are conspicuous,--they are all turned inside,
+whilst the exterior appearance is rough and uneven. It may be presumed
+they were formerly outward ornaments to a temple of some sort, most likely
+a 'Bootkhanah'[13] (the house for idols).
+
+I have visited the Durgah, called Mukhdoom Jhaaunneer[14], situated in the
+heart of the present city, which is said to have been erected nearly a
+thousand years ago, by the order of a Mussulmaun King; whether of
+Hindoostaun or not, I could not learn. It bears in its present dilapidated
+state, evidences both of good taste and superior skill in architecture, as
+well as of costliness in the erection, superior to any thing I expected to
+find amongst the ancient edifices of Hindoostaun.
+
+The antique arches supporting the roof, rest on pillars of a good size;
+the whole are beautifully carved. The dome, which was originally in the
+centre of this pavilion, has been nearly destroyed by time; and although
+the light thus thrown into the interior through the aperture, has a good
+effect, it pained me to see this noble edifice falling to decay for the
+want of timely repairs. Notwithstanding this Durgah is said to have been
+built so many years, the stone-work, both of the interior and exterior, is
+remarkably fresh in appearance, and would almost discredit its reputed age.
+The walls and bastions of the enclosure appear firm on their foundations;
+the upper part only seems at all decayed.
+
+The side rooms to the Durgah, of which there are several on each side of
+the building, have all a fretwork of stone very curiously cut, which
+serves for windows, and admits light and air to the apartments, and
+presents a good screen to persons within; this it should seem was the only
+contrivance for windows in general use by the ancient inhabitants of
+Hindoostaun; and even at the present day (excepting a few Native gentlemen
+who have benefited by English example), glazed windows are not seen in any
+of the mansions in the Upper Provinces of India.
+
+I noticed that in a few places in these buildings, where the prospect is
+particularly fine, small arches were left open, from whence the eye is
+directed to grand and superb scenery, afforded by the surrounding country,
+and the remains of stately buildings. From one of these arches the killaah
+is seen to great advantage, at the distance of two miles: both the Durgah
+and the killaah are erected on high points of land. I have often, whilst
+wandering outside the killaah, looked up at the elevation with sensations
+of mistrust, that whilst doing so it might, from its known insecure state,
+fall and bury me in its ruins; but viewing it from that distance, and on a
+level with the Durgah, the appearance was really gratifying.
+
+At Kannoge are to be seen many mukhburrahs, said to have been erected over
+the remains of those Hindoos who at different periods had been converted
+to the Mussulmaun faith. This city, I am informed, has been the chosen
+spot of righteous men and sainted characters during all periods of the
+Mussulmaun rule in Hindoostaun, by whose example many idolators were
+brought to have respect for the name of God, and in some instances even to
+embrace the Mahumudan faith. Amongst the many accounts of remarkable
+conversions related to me by the old inhabitants of that city, I shall
+select one which, however marvellous in some points, is nevertheless
+received with full credit by the faithful of the present day:--
+
+'A very pious Syaad took up his residence many hundred years since at
+Kannoge, when the chief part of the inhabitants were Hindoos, and, as
+might be expected, many of them were Brahmins. He saw with grief the state
+of darkness with which the minds of so many human beings were imbued, and
+without exercising any sort of authority over them, he endeavoured by the
+mildest persuasions to convince these people that the adoration they paid
+to graven images, and the views they entertained of the river Ganges
+possessing divine properties, were both absurd and wicked.
+
+'The Syaad used his best arguments to explain to them the power and
+attributes of the only true God; and though his labours were unceasing,
+and his exemplary life made him beloved, yet for a long period all his
+endeavours proved unsuccessful. His advice, however, was at all times
+tendered with mildness, his manners so humble, and his devotion so
+remarkable, that in the course of time the people flocked around him,
+whenever he was visible, to listen to his discourse, which generally
+contained some words of well-timed exhortation and kind instruction. His
+great aim was directed towards enlightening the Brahmins, by whom, he was
+aware, the opinions of the whole population were influenced, and to whom
+alone was confined such knowledge as at that remote period was conveyed by
+education.
+
+'Ardently zealous in the great work he had commenced, the Syaad seemed
+undaunted by the many obstacles he had to contend with. Always retaining
+his temper unruffled, he combined perseverance with his solicitude, and
+trusted in God for a happy result in His good time. On an occasion of a
+great Hindoo festival the population of the then immense city were
+preparing to visit the Ganges, where they expected to be purified from
+their sins by ablution in that holy river, as they term it. The Ganges, at
+that period, I understand, flowed some miles distant from the city.
+
+'The Syaad took this occasion to exhort the multitude to believe in God;
+and after a preliminary discourse, explaining the power of Him whom he
+alone worshipped, he asked the people if they would be persuaded to follow
+the only true God, if His power should be demonstrated to them by the
+appearance of the river they adored flowing past the city of Kannoge,
+instead of, as at that moment, many miles distant. Some of his auditory
+laughed at the idea, and derided the speaker; others doubted, and asked
+whether the God whom the Mussulmauns worshipped possessed such power as
+the Syaad had attributed to Him; many Brahmins, however, agreed to the
+terms proposed, solemnly assuring the holy man he should find them
+converts to his faith if this miracle should be effected by the God he
+worshipped.
+
+'It is related that the Syaad passed the whole day and night in devout
+prayers; and when the morning dawned the idolators saw the river Ganges
+flowing past the city in all the majesty of that mighty stream.[15] The
+Brahmins were at once convinced, and this evidence of God's power worked
+the way to the conversion of nearly the whole population of Kannoge.'
+
+The number of the inhabitants may be supposed to have been immensely great
+at the period in question, as it is related that on the occasion of their
+conversion the Brahmins threw away the cords which distinguish them from
+other castes of Hindoos, (each cord weighing about a drachm English),
+which when collected together to be consigned to the flames, were weighed,
+and found to be upwards of forty-five seers; a seer in that province being
+nearly equal to two pounds English.[16]
+
+The Brahmins, it will be recollected, form but a small portion of that
+community, and are the priesthood of the Hindoos, very similar in their
+order to the Levites among the children of Israel.
+
+There are still remaining traces of monuments erected over the remains of
+converted Hindoos, which have been particularly pointed out to me by
+intelligent men, from whom I have received information of that great work
+which alone would render Kannoge a place of interest without another
+object to attract the observation of a reflecting mind.
+
+Notwithstanding that the Ganges continues to water the banks of Kannoge,
+and that other proofs exist of idolatry having ceased for a considerable
+time to disgrace the inhabitants, it is still partially occupied by
+Hindoos, who retain the custom of their forefathers according to the
+original, whether descendants of the converted, or fresh settlers is not
+in my power to determine; but I may remark, without prejudice, from what I
+have been enabled to glean in conversation with a few Hindoos of this city,
+that they have a better idea of one over-ruling Supreme power than I have
+ever been able to find elsewhere in the same class of people.
+
+I was much interested with an old blacksmith, who was employed at the
+killaah. On one occasion I asked him what views he entertained of the
+Source from whence all good proceeds--whether he believed in God? He
+replied promptly, and as if surprised that such a doubt could exist, 'Yes,
+surely; it is to Allah (God) the supreme, I am indebted for my existence;
+Allah created all things, the world and all that is in it: I could not
+have been here at this moment, but for the goodness of Allah!'
+
+There are amongst them men of good moral character, yet in a state of
+deplorable ignorance, a specimen of which may be here noticed in a person
+of property employed in the service of Government, at the killaah; he is
+of the caste denominated Burghutt[17],--one of the tribe which professes
+so great reverence for life, as to hold it sinful to destroy the meanest
+reptile or insect; and, therefore, entirely abstain from eating either
+fish, flesh, or fowl:--yet, when I pressed for his undisguised opinion, I
+found that he not only denied the existence of God, but declared it was
+his belief the world formed itself.
+
+I was induced to walk three miles from the killaah, on a cool day in
+December, to view the remains of a piece of sculpture of great antiquity.
+I confess myself but little acquainted with Hindoo mythology, and
+therefore my description will necessarily be imperfect. The figure of
+Luchmee is represented in relief, on a slab of stone eight feet by four,
+surrounded by about a hundred figures in different attitudes. Luchmee, who
+is of course the most prominent, is figured with eight arms; in his right
+hands, are sabres, in his left, shields; his left foot upon the hand of a
+female, and the right on a snake.[18] This figure is about four feet high,
+and finely formed, standing in a martial attitude; his dress (unlike that
+of the modern Hindoo) is represented very tight, and, altogether, struck
+me as more resembling the European than the Asiatic: on his head I
+remarked a high-crowned military cap without a peak: the feet were bare.
+There can be no doubt this figure is emblematical; the Hindoos, however,
+make it an object of their impure and degrading worship.
+
+I could not help expressing my surprise on finding this idol in such
+excellent condition, having had so many samples throughout Kannoge of the
+vengeance exercised by Mussulmaun zeal, on the idols of the Hindoos. My
+guide assured me, that this relic of antiquity had only been spared from
+the general destruction of by-gone periods by its having been buried,
+through the supposed influence of unconverted venerating Brahmins; but
+that within the last thirty years it had been discovered and dug out of
+the earth, to become once more an ornament to the place. My own ideas lead
+me to suppose that it might have been buried by the same convulsion of the
+earth which overturned the idolatrous city.
+
+I observed that a very neat little building, of modern date, was erected
+over this antiquity, and on inquiry found that the Hindoos were indebted
+to the liberality of a lady for the means of preserving this relic from
+the ravages of the seasons.
+
+There is in the same vicinity a second piece of mythological sculpture, in
+a less perfect state than Luchmee, the sabred arm of which has been struck
+off, and the figure otherwise mutilated by the zealous Mussulmauns, who
+have invariably defaced or broken the idols wherever they have been able
+to do so with impunity. On a platform of stone and earth, near this place,
+a finely-formed head of stone is placed, which my guide gravely assured me
+was of very ancient date, and represented Adam, the father of men!
+
+I heard with pain during my sojourn at Kannoge, that the house of God had
+been made the resort of thieves; a well-known passage of Scripture struck
+me forcibly when the transaction was related.
+
+I have before stated that the mosque is never allowed to be locked or
+closed to the public. Beneath the one I am about to speak of (a very
+ancient building near to Baallee Peer's Durgah), is a vaulted suite of
+rooms denominated taarkhanah[19], intended as a retreat from the intense
+heat of the day; such as is to be met with in most great men's residences
+in India. In this place, a gang of thieves from the city had long found a
+secure and unsuspected spot wherein to deposit their plunder. It happened,
+however, that very strict search was instituted after some stolen property
+belonging to an individual of Kannoge; whether any suspicions had been
+excited about the place in question, I do not recollect, but thither the
+police directed their steps, and after removing some loose earth they
+discovered many valuable articles,--shawls, gold ornaments, sabres, and
+other costly articles of plunder. It is presumed,--for the thieves were
+not known or discovered,--that they could not possibly be Mussulmauns,
+since the very worst characters among this people hold the house of God in
+such strict veneration, that they, of all persons, could not be suspected
+of having selected so sacred a place to deposit the spoils of the
+plunderer.
+
+The process of obtaining nitre from the earth is practised at Kannoge by
+the Natives in the most simple way imaginable, without any assistance from
+art. They discover the spot where nitre is deposited by the small white
+particles which work through the strata of earth to the surface. When a
+vein is discovered, to separate the nitre from the earth, the following
+simple method is resorted to:--large troughs filled with water are
+prepared, into which the masses of earth containing nitre are thrown; the
+earth is allowed to remain undisturbed for some time, after which it is
+well stirred, and then allowed to settle; the water by this means becomes
+impregnated with the nitre, and is afterwards boiled in large iron pans,
+from which all the dirt is carefully skimmed, until the water is
+completely evaporated, and the nitre deposited in the pans.
+
+I know not how far the admixture of animal bodies with the soil may tend
+to produce this article, but it is a fact, that those places which bear
+the strongest proofs of having received the bodies of both men and beasts,
+produce it in the greatest abundance.[20]
+
+The retirement of Kannoge afforded me so many pleasant ways of occupying
+time, that I always look back to the period of my sojourn at the old
+killaah with satisfaction. The city is sufficiently distant from the
+killaah to leave the latter within reach of supplies, without the
+annoyance of the bustle and confusion inseparable from a Native city. In
+my daily wanderings a few peasantry only crossed my path; the farmers and
+citizens were always attentive, and willing to do us such kind offices as
+we at any time required. They respected, I may say venerated my husband;
+and I must own that my feelings oblige me to remember with gratitude the
+place and the people whence I drew so many benefits.
+
+Here I could indulge in long walks without incurring the penalty of a
+departure from established custom, which in most well-populated parts of
+Hindoostaun restrains European ladies from the exercise so congenial to
+their health and cherished habits. Should any English-woman venture to
+walk abroad in the city of Lucknow, for instance,--to express their most
+liberal opinion of the act,--she would be judged by the Natives as a
+person careless of the world's opinion. But here I was under no such
+constraint; my walks were daily recreations after hours of quiet study in
+the most romantic retirement of a ruined killaah, where, if luxury
+consists in perfect satisfaction with the objects by which we are
+surrounded, I may boast that it was found here during my two years'
+residence.
+
+
+[1] This is incorrect. Hindu traditions refer to a deluge, in which Manu,
+    with the help of a fish, makes a ship, and fastening her cable to the
+    fish's horn, is guided to the mountain, and then he, alone of human
+    beings, is saved.--J. Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_, part ii (1860),
+    p. 324.
+
+[2] This is merely a stupid folk etymology, comparing Kanauj with Cain.
+
+[3] _Qil'a_.
+
+[4] Kali Nadi, 'black stream', a corruption of the original
+    name, Kalindi.
+
+[5] _Tahsildar_.
+
+[6] In the southern centre of the ruined citadel stand the tombs of
+    Bala Pir and his son, Shaikh Mahdi. Shaikh Kabir,
+    commonly called Bala Pir, is said to have been the tutor of
+    the brother Nawabs, Dalel and Bahadur Khan. The former
+    ruled Kanauj in the time of Shah Jahan (A.D. 1628-1651), and
+    died after his deposition in 1666.--A. Führer, _Monumental Antiquities
+    and Inscriptions of the N.W. Provinces and Oudh_, 1891, p. 80.
+
+[7]  Horseshoes are often nailed on the gates of the tombs of Musalman
+    saints, as at the mosque of Fatehpur Sikri.
+
+[8] _Pir_, 'a saint, a holy man'.
+
+[9] _Maqbara_, 'a sepulchre'.
+
+[10] The Emperor Aurangzeb, A.D. 1658-1707.
+
+[11] Khalifah, Caliph, one of the terms which have suffered degradation,
+    often applied to cooks, tailors, barbers, or other Musalman
+    servants.
+
+[12] This may be the building known as Sita ki Rasoi, the kitchen
+    of Sita, heroine of the Ramayana epic. It is described and
+    drawn by Mrs. F. Parks (_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 143).
+
+[13] Butkhana.
+
+[14] The tomb of the Saint Sa'id Shaikh Makhdum Jahaniya
+    Jahangasht of Multan (A.D. 1308-81). Führer, _op. cit._, p. 81.
+
+[15] Many saints are credited with the power of changing the courses of
+    rivers: see instances in W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of
+    N. India_, 2nd ed., ii. 218.
+
+[16] This may be a variant of the story that after the capture of Chitor,
+    Akbar weighed 74-1/2 _man_ (8 lbs. each) of cords belonging to the
+    slain Rajputs.--J. Tod, _Annals of Rajasthan_, 1884, i. 349.
+
+[17] The name has not been traced. The reference is to Jains, who are
+    specially careful of animal life.
+
+[18] If this is a male figure it cannot represent the goddess Lakshmi.
+    Mrs. Parks (_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 144) speaks of images of
+    Rama and his brother Lakshmana, one of which may possibly be that
+    referred to in the text.
+
+[19] _Tahkhana_, an underground cellar.
+
+
+[20] This account is fairly correct. 'Although active saltpetre is met
+    with under a variety of conditions, they all agree in this particular,
+    that the salt is formed under the influence of organic matter.'--(G.
+    Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part ii, 431 _ff_).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XX
+
+  Delhi.--Description of the city.--Marble hall--The Queen's Mahul
+  (palace).--Audience with the King and Queen.--Conversation with
+  them.--Character of their Majesties.--Visit to a
+  Muckburrah.--Soobadhaars.--The nature of the office.--Durgah of Shah
+  Nizaam ood deen.--Tomb of Shah Allum.--Ruins in the vicinity of Delhi.
+  --Antique pillars (Kootub) .--Prospect from its galleries.--Anecdotes
+  of Juangheer and Khareem Zund...Page 289
+
+
+My visit to Delhi, once the great capital of Hindoostaun, and the
+residence of the great Sultauns, has made impressions of a lasting kind,
+and presented a moral lesson to my mind, I should be sorry to forget in
+after years; for there I witnessed the tombs of righteous men in perfect
+repair after the lapse of many centuries, standing in the midst of the
+mouldering relics of kings, princes, and nobles, many of whose careers, we
+learn from history, was comparatively of recent date; yet, excepting in
+one solitary instance of Shah Allum's grave, without so much of order
+remaining as would tell to the passing traveller the rank of each
+individual's mausoleum, now either entirely a ruin or fast mouldering to
+decay.
+
+The original city of Delhi presents to view one vast extent of ruins;
+abounding in mementos of departed worth, as well as in wrecks of greatness,
+ingenuity, and magnificence. Why the present city was erected or the
+former one deserted, I cannot venture an opinion, neither can I remember
+correctly in what reign the royal residence was changed; but judging from
+the remnants of the old, I should imagine it to have been equally
+extensive with the modern Delhi. A part of the old palace is still
+standing, whither the present King, Akbaar Shah,[1] occasionally resorts
+for days together, attracted perhaps by sympathy for his ancestors, or by
+that desire for change inherent in human nature, and often deemed
+essential to health in the climate of Hindoostaun.
+
+The city of Delhi is enclosed by a wall; the houses, which are generally
+of brick or red stone, appear to good advantage, being generally elevated
+a story or two from the ground-floor, and more regularly constructed than
+is usual in Native cities. Mosques, mukhburrahs, and emaum-baarahs, in all
+directions, diversify the scene with good effect; whilst the various shops
+and bazaars, together with the outpourings of the population to and from
+the markets, give an animation to the whole view which would not be
+complete without them.
+
+The palace occupies an immense space of ground, enclosed by high walls,
+and entered by a gateway of grand architecture. On either side the
+entrance I noticed lines of compact buildings, occupied by the military,
+reaching to the second gateway, which is but little inferior in style and
+strength to the grand entrance; and here again appear long lines of
+buildings similarly occupied. I passed through several of these formidable
+barriers before I reached the marble hall, where the King holds his durbar
+(court) at stated times; but as mine was a mere unceremonious visit to the
+King and Queen, it was not at the usual hour of durbar, and I passed
+through the hall without making any particular observations, although I
+could perceive it was not deficient in the costliness and splendour suited
+to the former greatness of the Indian empire.
+
+After being conveyed through several splendid apartments, I was conducted
+to the Queen's mahul[2] (palace for females), where his Majesty and the
+Queen were awaiting my arrival. I found on my entrance the King seated in
+the open air in an arm chair enjoying his hookha; the Queen's musnud was
+on the ground, close by the side of her venerable husband. Being
+accustomed to Native society, I knew how to render the respect due from an
+humble individual to personages of their exalted rank. After having left
+my shoes at the entrance and advanced towards them, my salaams were
+tendered, and then the usual offering of nuzzas, first to the King and
+then to the Queen, who invited me to a seat on her own carpet,--an honour
+I knew how to appreciate from my acquaintance with the etiquette observed
+on such occasions.
+
+The whole period of my visit was occupied in very interesting conversation;
+eager inquiries were made respecting England, the Government, the manners
+of the Court, the habits of the people, my own family affairs, my husband's
+views in travelling, and his adventures in England, my own satisfaction
+as regarded climate, and the people with whom I was so immediately
+connected by marriage;--the conversation, indeed, never flagged an instant,
+for the condescending courtesy of their Majesties encouraged me to add to
+their entertainment, by details which seemed to interest and delight them
+greatly.
+
+On taking leave his Majesty very cordially shook me by the hand, and the
+Queen embraced me with warmth. Both appeared, and expressed themselves,
+highly gratified with the visit of an English lady who could explain
+herself in their language without embarrassment, or the assistance of an
+interpreter, and who was the more interesting to them from the
+circumstance of being the wife of a Syaad; the Queen indeed was particular
+in reminding me that 'the Syaads were in a religious point of view, the
+nobles of the Mussulmauns, and reverenced as such far more than those
+titled characters who receive their distinction from their fellow-mortals'.
+
+I was grieved to be obliged to accept the Queen's parting present of an
+embroidered scarf, because I knew her means were exceedingly limited
+compared with the demands upon her bounty; but I could not refuse that
+which was intended to do me honour at the risk of wounding those feelings
+I so greatly respected. A small ring, of trifling value, was then placed
+by the Queen on my finger, as she remarked, 'to remind me of the giver.'
+
+The King's countenance, dignified by age, possesses traces of extreme
+beauty; he is much fairer than Asiatics usually are; his features are
+still fine, his hair silvery white; intelligence beams upon his brow, his
+conversation gentle and refined, and his condescending manners hardly to
+be surpassed by the most refined gentleman of Europe. I am told by those
+who have been long intimate with his habits in private, that he leads a
+life of strict piety and temperance, equal to that of a durweish[3] of his
+faith, whom he imitates in expending his income on others without
+indulging in a single luxury himself.
+
+The Queen's manners are very amiable and condescending; she is reported to
+be as highly gifted with intellectual endowments as I can affirm she is
+with genuine politeness.
+
+I was induced to visit the mukhburrah of the great-great-grandfather of the
+present King of Oude,[4] who, at his death,--which occurred at Delhi, I
+believe,--was one of the Soobadhaars[5] of the sovereign ruler of India.
+This nobleman, in his time, had been a staunch adherent to the descendants
+of Timoor, and had been rewarded for his fidelity by public honours and
+the private friendship of the King. The monument erected over his remains,
+is in a costly style of magnificence, and in the best possible condition,
+standing in the centre of a flower-garden which is enclosed by a stone
+wall, with a grand gateway of good architecture. The mukhburrah is
+spacious, and in the usual Mussulmaun style of building mausoleums; viz.,
+a square, with a dome, and is ascended by a flight of broad steps. This
+building stands about three miles from the city, in a good situation to be
+seen from the road. I was told that the family of Oude kept readers of the
+Khoraun in constant attendance at the mukhburrah; and I observed several
+soldiers, whose duty it was to guard the sacred spot, at the expense of
+the Oude government.
+
+In explanation of the word Soobadhaar, it may not be uninteresting to
+remark in this place, that when the government of Hindoostaun flourished
+under the descendants of Timoor, Soobadhaars were appointed over districts,
+whose duty, in some respects, bore resemblance to that of a Governor; with
+this difference, that the soobadhaaries were gifts, not only for the life
+of the individuals, but to their posterity for ever, under certain
+restrictions and stipulations which made them tributary to, and retained
+them as dependants of, the reigning sovereign:--as for instance, a certain
+annual amount was to be punctually transferred to the treasury at Delhi;
+the province to be governed by the same laws, and the subjects to be under
+the same control in each Soobadhaarie as those of the parent sovereignty;
+the revenue exacted in the very same way,; each Soobadhaar was bound to
+retain in his employ a given number of soldiers, horse and foot, fully
+equipped for the field, with perfect liberty to employ them as occasion
+served in the territory which he governed, whether against refractory
+subjects, or encroachments from neighbouring provinces; but in any
+emergency from the Court at Delhi, the forces to be, at all times, in
+readiness for the Sultaun's service at a moment's notice.
+
+The gift of a Soobadhaarie was originally conferred on men who had
+distinguished themselves, either in the army, or in civil capacities, as
+faithful friends and servants of the Sultaun. In the course of time, some
+of these Soobadhaars, probably from just causes, threw off their strict
+allegiance to their Sovereign, abandoned the title of Soobadhaar, and
+adopted that of Nuwaub in its stead, either with or without the consent of
+the Court of Delhi.
+
+As it is not my intention to give a precise history of the Indian empire,
+but merely to touch on generalities, I have confined my remarks to a brief
+explanation of the nature of this office; and will only add, that whilst
+the Soobadhaars (afterwards the Nuwaubs) of Oude swayed over that
+beautiful province under these titles, they continued to send their usual
+nuzzas to the King of Delhi, although no longer considered under his
+dominion; thus acknowledging his superiority, because inferiors only
+present nuzzas. But when Ghauzee ood deen Hyder was created King of Oude,
+he could no longer be considered tributary to the House of Timoor, and the
+annual ceremony of sending a nuzza, I understood, was discontinued. The
+first King of Oude issued coins from his new mint almost immediately after
+his coronation, prior to which period the current money of that province
+bore the stamp of Delhi.[6]
+
+Shah Nizaam ood deen[7] was one of the many Mussulmaun saints, whose
+history has interested me much. He is said to have been dead about five
+hundred years, yet his memory is cherished by the Mussulmauns of the
+present day with veneration unabated by the lapse of years, thus giving to
+the world a moral and a religious lesson, 'The great and the ambitious
+perish, and their glory dieth with them; but the righteous have a name
+amongst their posterity for ever.'
+
+I was familiar with the character of Nizaam ood deen long prior to my
+visit at the Court of Delhi, and, as maybe supposed, it was with no common
+feeling of pleasure I embraced the opportunity of visiting the mausoleum
+erected over the remains of that righteous man.
+
+The building originally was composed of the hard red stone, common to the
+neighbourhood of Delhi, with an occasional mixture of red bricks of a very
+superior quality; but considerable additions and ornamental improvements
+of pure white marble have been added to the edifice, from time to time, by
+different monarchs and nobles of Hindoostaun, whose pious respect for the
+memory of the righteous Shah Nizaam ood deen is testified by these
+additions, which render the mausoleum at the present time as fresh and
+orderly as if but newly erected.
+
+The style of the building is on the original, I might say, only plan of
+Mussulmaun mukhburrahs--square, with a cupola. It is a beautiful structure
+on a scale of moderate size. The pavements are of marble, as are also the
+pillars, which are fluted and inlaid with pure gold; the ceiling is of
+chaste enamel painting (peculiarly an Indian art, I fancy,) of the
+brightest colours. The cupola is of pure white marble, of exquisite
+workmanship and in good taste; its erection is of recent date, I
+understand, and the pious offering of the good Akbaar Shah, who, being
+himself a very religions personage, was determined out of his limited
+income to add this proof of his veneration for the sainted Nizaam to the
+many which his ancestors had shown.[8]
+
+The marble tomb enclosing the ashes of Shah Nizaam ood deen is in the
+centre of the building immediately under the cupola; this tomb is about
+seven feet long by two, raised about a foot from the pavement; on the
+marble sides are engraved chapters from the Khoraun in the Arabic
+character, filled up with black; the tomb itself has a covering of very
+rich gold cloth, resembling a pall.
+
+This tranquil spot is held sacred by all Mussulmauns. Here the sound of
+human feet are never heard; 'Put off thy shoes', being quite as strictly
+observed near this venerated place, as when the mosque and emaum-baarah
+are visited by 'the faithful'; who, as I have before remarked, whenever a
+prayer is about to be offered to God, cast off their shoes with scrupulous
+care, whether the place chosen for worship be in the mosque, the abode of
+men, or the wilderness.
+
+I was permitted to examine the interior of the mausoleum. The calm
+stillness, which seemed hardly earthly; the neatness which pervaded every
+corner of the interior; the recollection of those virtues, which I so
+often heard had distinguished Shah Nizaam's career on earth, impressed me
+with feelings at that moment I cannot forget; and it was with reluctance I
+turned from this object to wander among the surrounding splendid ruins,
+the only emblems left of departed greatness; where not even a tablet
+exists to mark the affection of survivors, or to point to the passing
+traveller the tomb of the monarch, the prince, or the noble,--except in
+the instance of Shah Allum,--whilst the humble-minded man's place of
+sepulture is kept repaired from age to age, and still retains the
+freshness of a modern structure in its five hundredth year.
+
+There are men in charge of Shah Nizaam ood deen's mausoleum who lead
+devout lives, and subsist on the casual bounties gleaned from the
+charitable visitors to his shrine. Their time is passed in religious
+duties, reading the Khoraun over the ashes of the saint, and keeping the
+place clean and free from unholy intrusions. They do not deem this mode of
+existence derogatory; for to hold the situation of darogahs, or keepers of
+the tombs of the saints, who are held in universal veneration amongst
+Mussulmauns, is esteemed an honourable privilege.
+
+In this sketch of my visit to the tombs at Delhi, I must not omit one very
+remarkable cemetery, which, as the resting place of the last reigning
+sovereign of Hindoostaun, excited in me no small degree of interest,
+whilst contrasting the view it exhibited of fallen greatness, with the
+many evidences of royal magnificence.
+
+The tomb I am about to describe is that erected over the remains of Shah
+Allum;[9] and situated within view of the mausoleum of the righteous
+plebeian, Shah Nizaam. It is a simple, unadorned grave; no canopy of
+marble, or decorated hall, marks here the peaceful rest of a monarch, who
+in his life-time was celebrated for the splendour of his Court; a small
+square spot of earth, enclosed with iron railings, is all that remains to
+point to posterity the final resting place of the last monarch of
+Hindoostaun. His grave is made by his favourite daughter's side, whose
+affection had been his only solace in the last years of his earthly
+sufferings; a little masonry of brick and plaster supports the mound of
+earth over his remains, on which I observed the grass was growing,
+apparently cultured by some friendly hand. At the period of my visit, the
+solitary ornament to this last terrestrial abode of a King was a luxuriant
+white jessamine tree, beautifully studded with blossoms, which scented the
+air around with a delightful fragrance, and scattered many a flower over
+the grave which it graced by its remarkable beauty, height, and luxuriance.
+The sole canopy that adorns Shah Allum's grave is the rich sky, with all
+its resplendent orbs of day and night, or clouds teeming with beneficent
+showers. Who then could be ambitious, vain, or proud, after viewing this
+striking contrast to the grave of Shah Nizaam? The vain-glorious humbled
+even in the tomb;--the humble minded exalted by the veneration ever paid
+to the righteous.
+
+I was persuaded to visit the ruins of antiquity which are within a morning'
+s drive of Delhi. Nothing that I there witnessed gave me so much pleasure
+as the far-famed Kootub, a monument or pillar, of great antiquity, claimed
+equally by the Hindoo and Mussulmaun as due to their respective periods of
+sovereign rule. The site is an elevated spot, and from the traces of
+former buildings, I am disposed to believe this pillar, standing now erect
+and imposing, was one of the minarets of a mosque, and the only remains of
+such a building, which must have been very extensive, if the height and
+dimensions of the minaret be taken as a criterion of the whole.[10]
+
+This pillar has circular stairs within, leading to galleries extending all
+round, at stated distances, and forming five tiers from the first gallery
+to the top, which finishes with a circular room, and a canopy of stone,
+open on every side for the advantage of an extensive prospect. Verses from
+the Khoraun are cut out in large Arabic characters on the stones, which
+form portions of the pillar from the base to the summit in regular
+divisions; this could only be done with great labour, and, I should
+imagine, whilst the blocks of stone were on the level surface of the earth,
+which renders it still more probable that it was a Mussulmaun erection.
+
+The view from the first gallery was really so magnificent, that I was
+induced to ascend to the second for a still bolder extent of prospect,
+which more than repaid me the task. I never remember to have seen so
+picturesque a panorama in any other place. Some of my party, better able
+to bear the fatigue, ascended to the third and fourth gallery. From them I
+learned that the beauty and extent of the view progressively increased
+until they reached the summit, from whence the landscape which fell
+beneath the eye surpassed description.
+
+On the road back to Delhi, we passed some extensive remains of buildings,
+which I found on inquiry had been designed for an observatory by Jhy
+Sing,[11]--whose extraordinary mind has rendered his name conspicuous in
+the annals of Hindoostaun,--but which was not completed while he lived. It
+may be presumed, since the work was never finished, that his countrymen
+either have not the talent, or the means to accomplish the scientific plan
+his superior mind had contemplated.
+
+At the time I visited Delhi, I had but recently recovered from a serious
+and tedious illness; I was therefore ill-fitted to pursue those researches
+which might have afforded entertaining material for my pen, and must, on
+that account, take my leave of this subject with regret, for the present,
+and merely add my acknowledgments to those kind friends who aided my
+endeavours in the little I was enabled to witness of that remarkable place,
+which to have viewed entirely would have taken more time and better health
+than I could command at that period. I could have desired to search out
+amongst the ruined mausoleums for those which contain the ashes of
+illustrious characters, rendered familiar and interesting by the several
+anecdotes current in Native society, to many of which I have listened with
+pleasure, as each possessed some good moral for the mind.
+
+It is my intention to select two anecdotes for my present Letter, which
+will, I trust, prove amusing to my readers; one relates to Jhaungeer,[12]
+King of India; the other to Kaareem Zund, King of Persia. I am not aware
+that either has appeared before the public in our language, although they
+are so frequently related by the Natives in their domestic circles. If
+they have not, I need hardly apologise for introducing them, and on the
+other hand, if they have before been seen, I may plead my ignorance of the
+circumstance in excuse for their insertion here.
+
+I have already noticed that, among the true Mussulmauns, there are no
+religious observances more strictly enforced than the keeping the fast of
+Rumzaun, and the abstaining from fermented liquors. It is related, however,
+that 'A certain king of India, named Jhaungeer, was instructed by his
+tutors in the belief, that on the day of judgment, kings and rulers will
+not have to answer either for the sin of omission or commission, as
+regards these two commands; but that the due administration of justice to
+the subjects over whom they are placed, will be required at the hands of
+every king, ruler, or governor, on the face of the earth.
+
+'Jhaungeer was determined to walk strictly in the path which he was
+assured would lead him to a happy eternity; and, therefore, in his reign
+every claim of justice was most punctiliously discharged. Each case
+requiring decision was immediately brought to the foot of the throne; for
+the King would not allow business of such importance to his soul's best
+interest to be delegated to the guardianship of his Vizier, or other of
+his servants; and in order to give greater facility to complainants of
+every degree, the King invented the novel contrivance of a large bell,
+which was fixed immediately over his usual seat on the musnud, which bell
+could be sounded by any one outside the palace gate, by means of a stout
+rope staked to the ground. Whenever this alarum of justice was sounded in
+the King's ear, he sent a trusty messenger to conduct the complainant into
+his presence.[13]
+
+'One day, upon the bell being violently rung, the messenger was commanded
+to bring in the person requiring justice. When the messenger reached the
+gate, he found no other creature near the place but a poor sickly-looking
+ass, in search of a scanty meal from the stunted grass, which was dried up
+by the scorching sun, and blasts of hot wind which at that season
+prevailed. The man returned and reported to the King that there was no
+person at the gate.
+
+'The King was much surprised at the singularity of the circumstance, and
+whilst he was talking of the subject with his nobles and courtiers, the
+bell was again rung with increased violence. The messenger being a second
+time despatched, returned with the same answer, assuring the King that
+there was not any person at or within sight of the gate. The King,
+suspecting him to be a perverter of justice, was displeased with the man,
+and even accused him of keeping back a complainant from interested motives.
+It was in vain the messenger declared himself innocent of so foul a crime;
+a third time the bell rang, "Go," said the King to his attendants, "and
+bring the supplicant into my presence immediately!" The men went, and on
+their return informed the King that the only living creature near the gate
+was an ass, poor and manged, seeking a scanty meal from the parched blades
+of grass. "Then let the ass be brought hither!" said the King; "perhaps
+_he_ may have some complaint to prefer against his owner."
+
+'The courtiers smiled when the ass was brought into the presence of the
+monarch, who upon seeing the poor half-starved beast covered with sores,
+was at no loss for a solution of the mysterious ringing at the bell, for
+the animal not finding a tree or post against which he could rub himself,
+had made use of the bell-rope for that purpose.
+
+"Enquire for the owner of the ass!" commanded the King, "and let him be
+brought before me without delay!" The order promptly given, was as readily
+obeyed; and the hurkaarahs (messengers, or running footmen) in a short
+time introduced a poor Dhobhie[14] (washerman) who had owned the ass from a
+foal. The plaintiff and defendant were then placed side by side before the
+throne, when the King demanded, "Why the sick ass was cast out to provide
+for itself a precarious subsistence?" The Dhobhie replied, "In truth, O
+Jahaum-punah![15] (Protector or Ruler of the World), because he is grown
+old and unserviceable, afflicted with mange, and being no longer able to
+convey my loads of linen to the river, I gave him his liberty."
+
+'"Friend," said the King, "when this thine ass was young and healthy,
+strong and lusty, didst thou not derive benefits from his services? Now
+that he is old, and unable from sickness to render thee further benefits,
+thou hast cast him from thy protection, and sent him adrift on the wide
+world; gratitude should have moved thee to succour and feed so old and
+faithful a servant, rather than forsake him in his infirmities. Thou hast
+dealt unjustly with this thy creature; but, mark me, I hold thee
+responsible to repair the injury thou hast done the ass. Take him to thy
+home, and at the end of forty days attend again at this place, accompanied
+by the ass, and compensate to the best of thy power, by kind treatment,
+for the injury thou hast done him by thy late hard-hearted conduct."
+
+'The Dhobhie, glad to escape so well, went away leading the ass to his
+home, fed him with well-soaked gram (grain in general use for cattle), and
+nicely-picked grass, sheltered him from the burning sun, poured healing
+oil into his wounds, and covered his back to keep off the flies; once a
+day he bathed him in the river. In short, such expedients were resorted to
+for the comfort and relief of the ass, as were ultimately attended with
+the happiest effects.
+
+'At the expiration of the forty days, the Dhobhie set off from his home to
+the palace, leading his now lively ass by a cord. On the road the
+passers-by were filled with amazement and mirth, at the manners and
+expressions of the Dhobhie towards his led ass. "Come along,
+brother!--Make haste, son!--Let us be quick, father!--Take care, uncle!"
+
+'"What means the old fool?" was asked by some; "does he make his ass a
+relation?"--"In truth," replied the Dhobhie, "my ass is a very dear old
+friend, and what is more, he has been a greater expense to me than all my
+relations latterly: believe me, it has cost me much care and pains to
+bring this ass into his present excellent condition." Then relating the
+orders of the King, and his own subsequent treatment of the beast, the
+people no longer wondered at the simple Dhobhie's expressions which had
+prompted them at first to believe he was mad.
+
+'The King, it is related, received the Dhobhie graciously, and commended
+and rewarded him for his careful attention to the animal; which in his
+improved condition became more useful to his master than he had ever been,
+through the King's determination to enforce justice even to the brute
+creation.'
+
+The second anecdote, translated for me by the same kind hand, is often
+related, with numerous embellishments, under the title of 'Khareem
+Zund'.[16]
+
+'Khareem Zund ruled in Persia. One day he was seated in the verandah of
+his palace smoking his hookha, and, at the same time, as was his frequent
+practice, overlooking the improvements carried on by masons and labourers,
+under the superintendence of a trusty servant. One of the labourers, who
+was also named Khareem, had toiled long, and sought to refresh himself
+with a pipe. The overseer of the work, seeing the poor man thus engaged,
+approached him in great wrath, rated him severely for his presumption in
+smoking whilst he stood in the presence of his sovereign, and striking him
+severely with a stick, snatched the pipe from the labourer and threw it
+away. The poor wretch cared not for the weight of the blow so much as for
+the loss of his pipe: his heart was oppressed with the weight of his
+sorrows, and raising his eyes to Heaven he cried aloud, "Allah
+Khareem!"[17] (God is merciful!), then lowering his eyes, his glance
+rested on the King, "App Khareem!" (thou art named merciful!), from whom
+withdrawing his eyes slowly he looked at his own mean body, and added,
+"Myn Khareem!" (I am called merciful!).
+
+'The King, who had heard the labourer's words, and witnessed with emotion
+the impressive manner of lifting his eyes to Heaven, had also seen the
+severity of the overseer to the unoffending labourer; he therefore
+commanded that the man should be brought into his presence without delay,
+who went trembling, and full of fear that his speech had drawn some heavy
+punishment on his head.
+
+'"Sit down," said the King.--"My sovereign pardon his slave!" replied the
+labourer.--"I do not jest; it is my pleasure that you sit down," repeated
+the King; and when he saw his humble guest seated, he ordered his own
+silver hookha to be brought and placed before the poor man, who hesitated
+to accept the gracious offer; but the King assured him in the kindest
+manner possible it was his wish and his command. The labourer enjoyed the
+luxury of a good hookha, and by the condescending behaviour of the King
+his composure gradually returned.
+
+'This King, who it would seem delighted in every opportunity that offered
+of imparting pleasure and comfort to his subjects of all ranks and degrees,
+seeing the labourer had finished his second chillum[18] (contents of a
+pipe) told him he had permission to depart, and desired him to take the
+hookha and keep it for his sake. "Alas, my King!" said the labourer, "this
+costly silver pipe will soon be stolen from me; my mud hut cannot safely
+retain so valuable a gift; the poor mazoor[19] inhabits but a chupha (or
+coarse grass-roofed) hut."--"Then take materials from my store-houses to
+build a house suited to your hookha," was the order he received from the
+King; "and let it be promptly done! I design to make you one of my
+overseers; for _you_, Khareem, have been the instrument to rouse _me_ to
+be Khareem (merciful); and I can now approach Allah with increased
+confidence. Who is the only true Khareem!"'
+
+
+[1] Akbar Shah II, King of Delhi, A.D. 1806-37.
+
+[2] _Mahall_.
+
+[3] _Darvesh_, 'a religious mendicant'.
+
+[4] Mansur 'Ali Khan, Safdar Jang, Nawab of Oudh
+    (A.D. 1739-56), his successors being--his son, Shuja-ud-daula
+    (1756-75); his son, Asaf-ud-daula (1775-97); his reputed son Wazir
+    'Ali (1797-8); Sa'a dat 'Ali Khan, half-brother of
+    Asaf-ud-daula (1798-1814); his son, Ghazi-ud-din Haidar
+    (1814-37). The tomb of Safdar Jang is near that of the Emperor
+    Humayun. 'This tomb in one of the last great Muhammadan
+    architectural efforts in India, and for its age it deserves perhaps
+    more commendation than is usually accorded to it. Though the general
+    arrangement of the tomb in the same as that of the Taj, it was not
+    intended to be a copy of the latter' (H.C. Fanshawe, _Delhi Past and
+    Present_, 1902, 246 f., with a photograph). For a different
+    appreciation, see Sleeman, _Rambles_, p. 507.
+
+[5] _Subahdar_, the Viceroy or Governor of a Subah or Province of
+    the Moghul Empire.
+
+[6] Ghazi-ud-din announced his independence of Delhi under the
+    advice of his Minister, Agha Mir.
+
+[7] Shaikh Nizam-ud-din. Auliya, one of the noblest disciples of
+    Shaikh Farid-ud-din Shakkarganj; born at Budaun, A.D. 1236,
+    died at Delhi, 1325.
+
+[8] The entrance to the Dargah was built by Firoz Shah, and bears
+    the date A.D. 1378. The structure over the tomb has been rebuilt by
+    many pious donors, and little of the original work is left (Fanshawe,
+    op. cit., 235 ff.; Sleeman, _Rambles_, 490 ff., 507).
+
+[9] Shah 'Alam II, King of Delhi, A.D. 1759-1806. 'Three royal graves
+    in the little court to the south side of the mosque lie within a
+    single marble enclosure--that on the last is the resting-place of
+    Akbar Shah II (died 1837 A.D.); the next to it is that of Shah
+    Alam II (died 1806), and then beyond an empty space, intended for
+    the grave of Bahadur Shah, [the last King of Delhi], buried at
+    Rangoon, comes the tomb of Shah Alam Bahadur Shah, a plain
+    stone with grass on it' (Fanshawe, 281 f.; Sleeman, _Rambles_, 500).
+
+[10] Qutb, 'the polar star'. The pillar, 238 feet in height, was begun by
+    Qutb-ud-di Aibak (A.D. 1206-10), and there are inscriptions of
+    Altamsh or Iltutmish, his son-in-law. It is entirely of Muhammadan
+    origin, and was primarily intended to serve as a minaret to
+    Qutb-ud-din's mosque adjoining it; but its name refers to the saint
+    Qutb-ud-din, buried close by. (Fanshawe, 265 ff.; Sleeman,
+    _Rambles_, 492 ff.)
+
+[11] This observatory was built by Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur (A.D.
+    1693-1743) in 1724. He also erected similar observatories at Benares,
+    Multan, Ujjain, and Jaipur (Fanshawe, 247).
+
+[12] Jahangir, eldest son of the Emperor Akbar, reigned A.D. 1605-27.
+
+[13] 'The first order that I issued was for the setting up of a Chain of
+    Justice, so that if the Officers of the Courts of Justice should fail
+    in the investigation of the complaints of the oppressed, the injured
+    person might come to this chain and shake it, and so give notice of
+    their wrongs. I ordered that the chain should be made of pure gold,
+    and be thirty _gaz_ [yards] long, with sixty bells upon it. The
+    weight of it was four Hindustani _mans_ [8 lb.] of 'Irak.
+    One end was firmly attached to a battlement of the fort of Agra, the
+    other to a stone column on the bank of the river' (_Memoirs of
+    Jahangir_ in Sir H.M. Elliot, _History of India_, vi. 284). It
+    does not appear that this silly contrivance was ever used, and it was
+    meant only for parade. Raja Anangpal had already set up a
+    similar bell at Delhi (ibid. vi. 262, iii. 565).
+
+[14] _Dhobi_.
+
+[15] _Jahan-panah_.
+
+
+[16] Karim Khan, of the Zand tribe, defeated the Afghans and
+    secured the Kingdom of Fars or Southern Persia, with his capital at
+    Shiraz. He died at an advanced age, A.D. 1779 (Sir J. Malcolm,
+    _History of Persia_, 1829, ii. 58 ff.).
+
+[17] _Allah Karim, Ap Karim, Main Karim_.
+
+
+[18] _Chilam_, the clay bowl of a water-pipe: its contents.
+
+[19] _Mazdur_, a day labourer.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXI
+
+  Natural Productions of India.--Trees, shrubs, plants, fruits,
+  &c.--Their different uses and medicinal qualities.--The Rose.--Native
+  medical practice.--Antidote to Hydrophobia.--Remedy for the venom of
+  the Snake.--The Chitcherah (Inverted thorn).--The Neam-tree.--The
+  Hurrundh (Castor-tree).--The Umultass (Cassia-tree).--The
+  Myrtle.--The Pomegranate.--The Tamarind.--The Jahmun.--The
+  Mango.--The Sherrefah.--White and red Guavers.--The Damascus Fig.--The
+  Peach, and other Fruits.--The Mahdhaar (Fire-plant).--The Sirrakee and
+  Sainturh (Jungle-grass).--The Bamboo, and its various uses
+  enumerated.
+
+
+In Europe we are accustomed to cultivate the rose merely as an ornament of
+the garden. This is not the case with my Indian acquaintance; they
+cultivate the rose as a useful article, essential to their health, and
+conducive to their comfort.
+
+The only rose I have ever seen them solicitous about is the old-fashioned
+'hundred-leaf' or cabbage-rose'.[1] Where-ever a Mussulmaun population
+congregate these are found planted in enclosed fields. In the month of
+September, the rose trees are cut down to within eight inches of the
+surface of the earth, and the cuttings carefully planted in a sheltered
+situation for striking, to keep up a succession of young trees. By the
+first or second week in December the earliest roses of the season are in
+bloom on the new wood, which has made its way from the old stock in this
+short period. Great care is taken in gathering the roses to preserve every
+bud for a succession. A gardener in India is distressed when the Beeby
+Sahibs[2] (English ladies) pluck roses, aware that buds and all are
+sacrificed at once. I shall here give a brief account of the several
+purposes to which the rose is applied.
+
+Rose-water is distilled in most Mussulmaun families as a medicine and an
+indispensable luxury. For medicine, it is administered in all cases of
+indigestion and pains of the stomach or bowels,--the older the rose-water
+the more effectual the remedy. I have been accustomed to see very old
+rose-water administered in doses of a wine-glass full, repeated frequently,
+in cases of cholera morbus and generally with good effect, when the
+patient has applied the remedy in time and due care has been observed in
+preventing the afflicted person from taking any other liquid until the
+worst symptoms have subsided. This method of treatment may not accord with
+the views of professional men generally; however, I only assert what I
+have repeatedly seen, that it has been administered to many members of my
+husband's family with the best possible effect. On one occasion, after
+eating a hearty dinner, Meer Hadjee Shaah was attacked with cholera;
+rose-water was administered, with a small portion of the stone called zahur
+morah. In his agony, he complained of great thirst, when rose-water was
+again handed to him, and continued at intervals of half-an-hour during the
+day and part of the night. In the morning, the pain and symptoms had
+greatly subsided; he was, notwithstanding, restrained from taking any
+liquid or food for more than forty-eight hours, except occasionally a
+little rose-water; and when his Native doctors permitted him to receive
+nourishment, he was kept on very limited portions of arrow-root for
+several days together. At the end of about eight days (the fever having
+been entirely removed) chicken-broth was allowed, and at first without
+bread; solids, indeed, were only permitted when all fears of a relapse had
+ceased, and even then but partially for some time, fearing the
+consequences to the tender state of the bowels. Such persons as are
+abstemious and regard the quality of their daily food are most likely to
+recover from the attack of this awful scourge. Very young children are
+rarely amongst the sufferers by cholera; the adults of all classes are
+most subject to it in India; indeed, I do not find the aged or the
+youthful, either male or female, preponderate in the number attacked; but
+those who live luxuriously suffer most. Amongst the Natives, it is
+difficult to prevail on them to forego their usual meals, particularly
+amongst the lower orders: if they feel rather inconvenienced by heartburns
+or other indications of a disordered stomach, they cannot resist eating
+again and again at the appointed hours, after which strong symptoms of
+cholera usually commence. I never heard of one case occurring after a good
+night's rest, but invariably after eating, either in the morning or the
+evening.
+
+My remarks have drawn me from my subject, by explaining the supposed
+medicinal benefits of rose-water, which as a luxury is highly valued in
+India. It is frequently used by the Natives in preparing their sweet
+dishes, is added to their sherbet, sprinkled over favoured guests, used to
+cleanse the mouth-piece of the hookha, and to cool the face and hands in
+very hot weather. Although they abstain from the use of rose-water,
+externally and internally, when suffering from a cold,--they fancy
+smelling a rose will produce a cold, and I have often observed in India,
+that smelling a fresh rose induces sneezing,[3]--yet, at all other times,
+this article is in general use in respectable Mussulmaun families. Dried
+rose-leaves and cassia added to infusions of senna, is a family medicine
+in general request.
+
+The fresh rose-leaves are converted by a very simple process into a
+conserve, which is also used as a medicine; it is likewise an essential
+article, with other ingredients, in the preparation of tobacco for their
+luxurious hookha.
+
+A syrup is extracted from the fresh rose, suited admirably to the climate
+of India as an aperient medicine, pleasant to the taste and mild in its
+effects. A table-spoon full is considered a sufficient dose for adults.
+
+The seed of the rose is a powerful astringent, and often brought into use
+in cases of extreme weakness of the bowels. The green leaves are
+frequently applied pounded as a cold poultice to inflamed places with much
+the same effect as is produced in England from golard-water.[4]
+
+The oil or otta of roses is collected from the rose-water when first
+distilled. Persons intending to procure the otta, have the rose-water
+poured into dishes while warm from the still: this remains undisturbed
+twenty-four hours, when the oily substance is discovered on the surface as
+cream on milk; this is carefully taken off, bottled, the mouth closed with
+wax, and then exposed to the burning rays of the sun for several days. The
+rose-water is kept in thin white glass bottles, and placed in baskets for
+a fortnight, either on the roofs of houses or on a grass-plot; or wherever
+the sun by day and the dew by night may be calculated on, which act on the
+rose-water and induce that fragrant smell so peculiar to that of India.
+
+I have elsewhere remarked that the Native medical practice is strictly
+herbal; minerals are strongly objected to as pernicious in after
+consequences, although they may prove effectual in removing present
+inconvenience. Quicksilver[5] is sometimes resorted to by individuals, but
+without the sanction of their medical practitioners. They have no notion
+of the anatomy of the human body, beyond a few ideas suggested in the old
+Grecian school of medicine, in favour of which they are strongly
+prejudiced. They, however, are said to perform extraordinary cures by
+simple treatment, many cases of severe fever occurred under my own
+observation, which were removed, I really believe, by strict attention to
+diet, or rather starving the enemy from its strong hold, than by any of
+the medicines administered to the patients. If any one is attacked by
+fever, his medical adviser inquires the day and the hour it commenced, by
+which he is guided in prescribing for the patient. On the borehaun[6]
+(critical days) as the third, fifth, and seventh, after the fever
+commences, nothing could induce the medical doctor to let blood or
+administer active medicines; there only remains then for the patient to be
+debarred any kind of food or nourishment, and that duly observed, the
+fever is often thrown off without a single dose of medicine. By three or
+four days of most strict abstinence, and such simple nourishment as the
+thinnest gruel or barley water,--the latter made from the common field
+barley, very sparingly allowed, the patient is rendered convalescent.
+
+The Natives of India profess to have found an antidote to, and cure for,
+hydrophobia in the reetah[7] berry, described as a saponaceous nut. I have
+never seen a case of hydrophobia, but it is by no means uncommon, I
+understand. They always advise that the person bitten by a rabid animal,
+should have the limb promptly tied up with a bandage above and below the
+bite; the wound, as speedily as possible, to be seared with a red-hot iron,
+and a few doses of the reetah berry with a portion of soap administered.
+The berry is well known for its good property in cleansing and softening
+the hair, for which purpose it is generally found in the bathing-rooms
+both of the European and Native ladies.
+
+The Native remedy for snake bites, is called neellah tootee[8] (blue
+vitrol): if from eight to twelve grains be administered in ghee or butter
+immediately after the bite is received, the happiest results will follow.
+A person in our family was bitten by a snake, but neglected to apply for
+the remedy for more than half an hour after the accident, when his own
+expressions were, that 'he suffered great uneasiness in his body, and his
+faculties seemed darkened;' half a masha, about eight grains of blue stone,
+was now given in ghee. In a few hours he was apparently quite well again,
+and for several days he found no other inconvenience than a slight
+numbness in the hand which had been bitten by the snake.
+
+This person had occasion soon after to leave home, and had exerted himself
+unusually by walking, when he found the same symptoms of uneasiness return;
+he hurried to a house where he was known, and requested to be supplied
+with a certain quantity of blue stone without delay. He had sense enough
+remaining to explain for what purpose he required it, when the person
+applied to objected to furnish him with the poisonous article. The remedy,
+however, was ultimately procured, taken, and in a few hours he was
+recovered sufficiently to return home. He never found the symptoms return
+again to my recollection.
+
+The chitcherah[9] (inverted thorn), is a shrub common to India, which
+bears small grains not unlike rice; these seeds are poisonous in their
+natural state, but when properly prepared with a portion of
+urzeez[10]--(tin), it becomes a useful medicine; and in particular cases
+of scrofula, which have resisted all other remedies offered by the medical
+practitioners, the Natives tell me this has proved an effectual remedy;
+and my informant, a Native doctor, assures me that three doses, of three
+grains each, is all he finds necessary to give his patient in scrofula
+cases.
+
+The chitcherah in its green state is resorted to as a remedy for the sting
+of scorpions: when applied to the wound, which is often much inflamed and
+very painful, the cure is prompt. The scorpion runs from this shrub when
+held to it, as if it were frightened: many people declare scorpions are
+never met with in the grounds where the chitcherah grows.
+
+The neam-tree[11] is cultivated near the houses of Natives generally, in
+the Upper Provinces, because, as they affirm, it is very conducive to
+health, to breathe the air through the neam-trees. This tree is not very
+quick of growth, but reaches a good size. When it has attained its full
+height, the branches spread out as luxuriantly as the oak and supplies an
+agreeable shelter from the sun. The bark is rough; the leaves long, narrow,
+curved, pointed, and with saw teeth edges; both the wood and leaves
+partake of the same disagreeable bitter flavour. The green leaves are used
+medicinally as a remedy for biles; after being pounded they are mixed with
+water and taken as a draught; they are also esteemed efficacious as
+poultices and fomentations for tumours, &c. The young twigs are preferred
+by all classes of the Natives for tooth-brushes.
+
+The hurrundh,[12] or castor-tree, is cultivated by farmers in their
+corn-fields throughout Hindoostaun. This tree seldom exceeds in its growth
+the height of an English shrub. The bark is smooth; the leaf, in shape,
+resembles the sycamore, but of a darker green. The pods containing the
+seed grow in clusters like grapes, but of a very different appearance, the
+surface of each pod being rough, thorny, and of a dingy red cast when ripe.
+The seed produces the oil, which is in common use as a powerful medicine,
+for men and animals. In remote stations, where any difficulty exists in
+procuring cocoa-nut oil, the castor oil is often rendered useful for
+burning in lamps; the light, however, produced by it is very inferior to
+the oil of cocoa-nut. The green leaves are considered cooling to wounds or
+inflamed places, and therefore used with ointment after the
+blister-plaster is removed.
+
+As I have seen this tree growing in corn-fields, I may here remark that
+the farmer's motives for cultivating it originate in the idea that his
+crops are benefited by a near vicinity to the hurrundh. It is also very
+common to observe a good row of the plant called ulsee[13](linseed),
+bordering a plantation of wheat or barley: they fancy this herb preserves
+the blade healthy, and the corn from blight.
+
+The umultass[14] (cassia) is a large and handsome forest tree, producing
+that most useful drug in long dark pods, several inches long, which hang
+from the branches in all directions, giving a most extraordinary
+appearance to the tree. The seed is small and mixed with the pulp, which
+dissolves in water, and is in general use with the Natives as a powerful
+and active medicine in bilious cases. I am not, however, aware that the
+seed possesses any medicinal property: it certainly is not appropriated to
+such cases in Hindoostaun.
+
+Myrtle-trees,[15] under many different names, and of several kinds, are
+met with in India, of an immense size compared with those grown in Europe.
+They are cultivated for their known properties, rather than as mere
+ornaments to the garden. The leaves, boiled in water, are said to be of
+service to the hair; the root and branches are considered medicinal.
+
+The pomegranate-tree[16] may be ranked amongst the choicest beauties of
+Asiatic horticulture; and when its benefits are understood, no one wonders
+that a tree or two is to be seen in almost every garden and compound of
+the Mussulmaun population in India.
+
+The finest fruit of this sort is brought, however, from Persia and Cabul,
+at a great expense; and from the general estimation in which it is held,
+the merchants annually import the fruit in large quantities. There are two
+sorts, the sweet and the acid pomegranate, each possessing medicinal
+properties peculiar to itself. Sherbet is made from the juice, which is
+pressed out, and boiled up with sugar or honey to a syrup; thus prepared
+it keeps good for any length of time, and very few families omit making
+their yearly supply, as it constitutes a great luxury in health, and a
+real benefit in particular disorders. The Natives make many varieties of
+sherbet from the juices of their fruits, as the pine-apple, falsah,[17]
+mango, or any other of the same succulent nature, each having properties
+to recommend it beyond the mere pleasantness of its flavour.
+
+An admirer of Nature must be struck with the singular beauty of the
+pomegranate-tree, so commonly cultivated in India. The leaves are of a
+rich dark green, very glossy, and adorned at the same time with every
+variety of bud, bloom, and fruit, in the several stages of vegetation,
+from the first bud to the ripe fruit in rich luxuriance, and this in
+succession nearly throughout the year. The bright scarlet colour of the
+buds and blossoms seldom vary in their shades; but contrasted with the
+glossy dark green foliage, the effect excites wonder and admiration. There
+is a medicinal benefit to be derived from every part of this tree from its
+root upwards, each part possessing a distinct property, which is employed
+according to the Native knowledge and practice of medicine.
+
+Even the falling blossoms are carefully collected, and when made into a
+conserve, are administered successfully in cases of blood-spitting.
+
+The tamarind-tree may often be discovered sheltering the tomb of revered
+or sainted characters; but I am not aware of any particular veneration
+entertained towards this tree by the general population of India, beyond
+the benefit derived from the medicinal properties of the fruit and the
+leaves.[18]
+
+The ripe fruit, soaked in salt and water, to extract the juices, is
+strained, and administered as a useful aperient; and from its quality in
+cleansing the blood, many families prefer this fruit in their curries to
+other acids. From the tamarind-tree, preserves are made for the affluent,
+and chatnee for the poor, to season their coarse barley unleavened cakes,
+which form their daily meal, and with which they seem thoroughly contented.
+
+From what cause I know not, but it is generally understood that vegetation
+does not thrive in the vicinity of the tamarind-tree. Indeed, I have
+frequently heard the Natives account for the tamarind being so often
+planted apart from other trees, because they fancy vegetation is always
+retarded in their vicinity.
+
+The jahmun-tree[19] is also held in general estimation for the benefit of
+the fruit, which, when ripe, is eaten with salt, and esteemed a great
+luxury, and in every respect preferable to olives. The fruit, in its raw
+state, is a powerful astringent, and possesses many properties not
+generally known out of Native society, which may excuse my mentioning them
+here. The fruit, which is about the size and colour of the damson-plum,
+when ripe is very juicy, and makes an excellent wine, not inferior in
+quality to port. The Natives, however, are not permitted by their law to
+drink wine, and therefore this property in the fruit is of no benefit to
+them; but they encourage the practice of extracting the juice of jahmun
+for vinegar, which is believed to be the most powerful of all vegetable
+acids. The Native medical practitioners declare, that if by accident a
+hair has been introduced with food into the stomach, it can never digest
+of itself, and will produce both pain and nausea to the individual. On
+such occasions they administer jahmun vinegar, which has the property of
+dissolving any kind of hair, and the only thing they are aware of that
+will. Sherbet is made of this vinegar, and is often taken in water either
+immediately after dinner, or when digestion is tardy.
+
+The skin of the jahmun produces a permanent dye of a bright lilac colour,
+and with the addition of urzeez (tin), a rich violet. The effect on wool I
+have never tried, but on silks and muslins the most beautiful shades have
+been produced by the simplest process possible, and so permanent, that the
+colour resisted every attempt to remove it by washing, &c.[20]
+
+The mango-tree stands pre-eminently high in the estimation of the Natives,
+and this is not to be wondered at when the various benefits derived from
+it are brought under consideration. It is magnificent in its growth, and
+splendid in its foliage, and where a plantation of mango-trees, called 'a
+tope', is met with, that spot is preferred by travellers on which to pitch
+their tent. The season of blooming is about February and March; the
+aromatic scent from the flowers is delightful, and the beautiful
+clustering of the blossoms is not very unlike the horse-chestnut in
+appearance and size, but branching horizontally. The young mangoes are
+gathered for preserves and pickles before the stone is formed; the
+full-grown unripe fruit is peeled, split, and dried, for seasoning curries,
+&c. The ripe fruit spoken of in a former Letter requires no further
+commendation, neither will it admit of comparison with any European fruits.
+The kernels, when ripe, are often dried and ground into flour for bread in
+seasons of scarcity. The wood is useful as timber for doors, rafters, &c.,
+and the branches and leaves for fuel; in short, there is no part of the
+whole tree but is made useful in some way to man.
+
+The sherrefah[21] (custard-apple) is produced on a very graceful tree, not,
+however, of any great size; the blossom nearly resembles that of the
+orange in colour and shape; the fruit ripens in the hottest months, and is
+similar in flavour to well-made custards. The skin is of a dusky pea-green
+rough surface, in regular compartments; each division or part containing a
+glossy black seed covered with the custard. This seed is of some utility
+amongst the lower order of Natives who have occasion to rid themselves of
+vermin at the expense of little labour; the seed is pounded fine and when
+mixed in the hair destroys the living plague almost instantly. The same
+article is often used with a hair-pencil to remove a cataract of the eye
+(they have no idea of surgical operations on the eye). There is one thing
+worthy of remark in this tree and its fruit, that flies are never known to
+settle on either; ants of every description feed on the fruit without
+injury, so that it cannot be imagined there is anything poisonous to
+insects, generally, in the quality of the fruit; yet, certain it is, the
+sherrefah is equally obnoxious to flies as the seed is destructive to
+vermin. The leaves and tender twigs are considered detrimental to health,
+if not actually poisonous to cattle.
+
+The guaver,[23] white and red, are produced in the Upper Provinces; but
+the fruit is seldom so fine as in the Bengal district. The strong aromatic
+smell and flavour of this fruit is not agreeable to all tastes; in size
+and shape it resembles the quince.
+
+The Damascus fig ripens well, and the fruit is superior to any I have met
+with in other countries. The indigenous fig-tree of Hindoostaun is one of
+the objects of Hindoo veneration. It has always been described to me by
+those Natives, as the sacred burbut,[24]--why? they could not explain. The
+fruit is very inferior.
+
+The peach is cultivated in many varieties, and every new introduction
+repays the careful gardener's skill by a rich and beautiful produce. They
+have a flat peach,[24] with a small round kernel (a native of China), the
+flavour of which is delicious, and the tree prolific.
+
+I may here remark, that all those trees we are accustomed in Europe to
+designate wall-fruit, are in India pruned for standards. The only fruit
+allowed to trail on frames is the vine, of which they have many choice
+varieties; one in particular, of late introduction from Persia, has the
+remarkable peculiarity of being seedless, called 'Ba daanah'[25] (without
+seeds); the fruit is purple, round, and sweet as honey.
+
+Peach, nectarine, and apricot trees, are cut down early in February, much
+in the same way as willows are docked in England: the new wood grows
+rapidly, and the fruit is ready for the table in the month of June. A tree
+neglected to be pruned in this way annually, would the first year yield
+but little, and that indifferent fruit, the tree become unhealthy, and, in
+most cases, never again restored to its former vigour.
+
+Apple-trees are found chiefly in the gardens of Europeans; they are not
+perhaps as yet understood by Native gardeners, or it may be the climate is
+not favourable to them; certain it is, that the apples produced in
+Hindoostaun are not to be compared with those of other countries. Singular
+as it may seem, yet I have never met with more than one species of apple
+in my visits to the gardens of India. I have often fancied a fresh
+importation of English apple-trees would be worth the trouble of the
+transfer.[26]
+
+The apple-trees grow tall and slender, the blossoms break out on the top
+of each branch in a cluster; the fruit, when ripe, is about the size of
+small crabs, and shaped like golden-pippins, without any acidity, but the
+sweetness rather resembles turnips than the well-flavoured apple. In the
+bazaars are to be met with what is called apple-preserve, which, however,
+is often a deception,--turnips substituted for apples.
+
+Mulberries are indigenous, and of several varieties. The Native gardeners,
+however, take so little pains to assist or improve the operations of
+Nature, that the mulberry here is seldom so fine as in other countries.
+The common sort is produced on an immense tree with small leaves; the
+berry is long, and when ripe, of a yellow-green, very much resembling
+caterpillars in colour and form.
+
+Plum-trees would thrive in Hindoostaun if introduced and cultivated,[27]
+since the few, chiefly the bullace-plum, I have seen, produce tolerably
+good fruit.
+
+Cherries, I have never observed; they are known, however, by the name of
+'glass'[28] to the travelling Natives, who describe them as common to
+Cashmire, Cabul, and Persia.
+
+Gooseberries and currants are not known in India, but they have many good
+substitutes in the falsah, American sorrel, puppayah,[29] and a great
+variety of Chinese fruits--all of which make excellent tarts, preserves,
+and jellies. Strawberries and raspberries repay their cultivation in the
+Upper Provinces: they thrive well with proper care and attention.
+
+The melon I have described elsewhere as an indigenous fruit greatly valued
+by the Natives, who cultivate the plant in the open fields without much
+trouble, and with very little expense; the varieties are countless, and
+every year adds to the number amongst the curious, who pride themselves on
+novelty in this article of general estimation.
+
+The pine-apple requires very little pains to produce, and little demand on
+art in bringing it to perfection. The Bengal climate, however, suits it
+better than the dry soil of the Upper Provinces. I have frequently heard a
+superstitious objection urged by the Natives against this fruit being
+planted in their regular gardens; they fancy prosperity is checked by its
+introduction, or to use their own words,--'It is unfortunate to the
+proprietor of the garden.'
+
+There is a beautiful shrub, called by the Natives, mahdhaar, or
+arg,[30]--literally, fire-plant,--met with in the Upper Provinces of India,
+inhabiting every wild spot where the soil is sandy, as generally as the
+thistle on neglected grounds in England.
+
+The mahdhaar-plant seldom exceeds four feet in height, the branches spread
+out widely, the leaves are thick, round, and broad; the blossom resembles
+our dark auricula. When the seed is ripe, the pod presents a real treat to
+the lover of Nature. The mahdhaar pod may be designated a vegetable bag of
+pure white silk, about the size of large walnuts. The skin or bag being
+removed, flat seeds are discovered in layers over each other, resembling
+scales of fish; to each seed is affixed very fine white silk, about two
+inches long; this silk is defended from the air by the seed; the texture
+greatly resembles the silky hair of the Cashmire goat. I once had the
+mahdhaar silk collected, spun, and wove, merely as an experiment, which
+answered my full expectation: the article thus produced might readily be
+mistaken for the shawl stuff of Cashmire.[31]
+
+The stalks of mahdhaar, when broken, pour out a milky juice at all seasons
+of the year, which falling on the skin produces blisters. The Natives
+bring this juice into use both for medicine and alchymy in a variety of
+ways.
+
+The mahdhaar, as a remedy for asthma, is in great repute with the Natives;
+it is prepared in the following way:--The plants are collected, root,
+stalks, and leaves, and well dried by exposure to the sun; they are then
+burnt on iron plates, and the ashes thrown into a pan of water, where they
+remain for some days, until the water has imbibed the saline particles; it
+is then boiled in an iron vessel, until the moisture is entirely absorbed,
+and the salt only left at the bottom. The salt is administered in
+half-grain doses at the first, and increasing the quantity when the
+patient has become accustomed to its influence: it would be dangerous to
+add to the quantity suddenly.[32]
+
+Another efficient remedy, both for asthma and obstinate continuance of a
+cough, is found in the salt extracted from tobacco-leaves, by a similar
+process, which is administered with the like precaution, and in the same
+quantities.
+
+The sirrakee and sainturh[33] are two specimens of one genus of
+jungle-grass, the roots of which are called secundah,[34] or khus-khus,[35]
+and are collected on account of their aromatic smell, to form thatch
+tatties, or screens for the doors and windows; which being kept constantly
+watered, the strong wind rushing through the wet khus-khus is rendered
+agreeably cool, and produces a real luxury at the season of the hot winds,
+when every puff resembles a furnace-heat to those exposed to it by
+out-of-door occupation.
+
+This grass presents so many proofs of the beneficent care of Divine
+Providence to the creatures of His hand, that the heart must be
+ungratefully cold which neglects praise and thanksgiving to the Creator,
+whose power and mercy bestows so great a benefit. The same might be justly
+urged against our insensibility, if the meanest herb or weed could speak
+to our hearts, each possessing, as it surely does, in its nature a
+beneficial property peculiar to itself. But here the blessing is brought
+home to every considerate mind, since a substitute for this article does
+not appear to exist in India.
+
+I have seen the sainturh stalks, on which the bloom gracefully moves as
+feathers, sixteen feet high. The sirrakee has a more delicate blossom,
+finer stalk, and seldom, I believe, exceeds ten feet; the stalk resembles
+a reed, full of pith, without a single joint from the shoot upwards; the
+colour is that of clean wheat straw, but even more glossy. The blossom is
+of a silky nature possessing every variety of shade, from pure white to
+the rainbow's tints, as viewed in the distance at sunrise; and when
+plucked the separated blossoms have many varieties of hue from brown and
+yellow, to purple.
+
+The head or blossom is too light to weigh down the firm but flexible stalk;
+but as the wind presses against each patch of grass, it is moved in a mass,
+and returns to its erect position with a dignity and grace not to be
+described.
+
+I have watched for the approaching season of the blooming sirrakee with an
+anxiety almost childish; my attention never tired with observing the
+progressive advances from the first show of blossom, to the period of its
+arriving at full perfection; at which time, the rude sickle of the
+industrious labourer levels the majestic grass to the earth for domestic
+purposes. The benefits it then produces would take me very long to
+describe.
+
+The sirrakee and sainturh are stripped from the outward sheltering blades,
+and wove together at the ends; in this way they are used for bordering
+tatties, or thatched roofs; sometimes they are formed into screens for
+doors, others line their mud-huts with them. They are found useful in
+constructing accommodations after the manner of bulk-heads on boats for
+the river voyagers, and make a good covering for loaded waggons. For most
+of these purposes the article is well suited, as it resists moisture and
+swells as the wet falls on it, so that the heaviest rain may descend on a
+frame of sirrakee without one drop penetrating, if it be properly placed
+in a slanting position.
+
+I cannot afford space to enumerate here the variety of purposes which this
+production of Nature is both adapted for and appropriated to; every part
+of the grass being carefully stored by the thrifty husbandman, even to the
+tops of the reed, which, when the blossom is rubbed off, is rendered
+serviceable, and proves an excellent substitute for that useful invention,
+a birch-broom. The coarse parent grass, which shelters the sirrakee, is
+the only article yet found to answer the purposes for thatching the
+bungalows of the rich, the huts of the poor, the sheds for cattle, and
+roofs for boats. The religious devotee sets up a chupha-hut,[36] without
+expense,--(all the house he requires,)--on any waste spot of land most
+convenient to himself, away from the busy haunts of the tumultuous world,
+since bamboo and grass are the common property of all who choose to take
+the trouble of gathering it from the wilderness. And here neither rent or
+taxes are levied on the inhabitant, who thus appropriates to himself a
+home from the bounteous provision prepared by Divine goodness for the
+children of Nature.
+
+This grass is spontaneous in its growth, neither receiving or requiring
+aid from human cultivation. It is found in every waste throughout
+Hindoostaun, and is the prominent feature of the jungle, into which the
+wild animals usually resort for shelter from the heat of the day, or make
+their covert when pursued by man, their natural enemy.
+
+The beneficence of Heaven has also exacted but little labour from the
+husbandman of India in procuring his daily provision. Indeed the actual
+wants of the lower order of Natives are few, compared with those of the
+same class in England; exertion has not, therefore, been called forth by
+necessity in a climate which induces habits of indulgence, ease, and quiet;
+where, however it may have surprised me at first, that I found not one
+single Native disposed to delight in the neat ordering of a flower-garden,
+I have since ascertained it is from their unwillingness to labour without
+a stronger motive than the mere gratification of taste.[37] Hence the
+uncultivated ground surrounding the cottages in India, which must
+naturally strike the mind of strangers with mingled feelings of pity and
+regret, when comparing the cottages of the English peasantry with those of
+the same classes of people in Hindoostaun.
+
+The bamboo presents to the admirer of Nature no common specimen of her
+beautiful productions; and to the contemplating mind a wide field for
+wonder, praise, and gratitude. The graceful movements of a whole forest of
+these slender trees surpass all description; they must be witnessed in
+their uncultivated ground, as I have seen them, to be thoroughly
+understood or appreciated, for I do not recollect wood scenery in any
+other place that could convey the idea of a forest of bamboo.
+
+The bamboos are seen in clusters, striking from the parent root by suckers,
+perhaps from fifty to a hundred in a patch, of all sizes; the tallest in
+many instances exceed sixty feet, with slender branches, and leaves in
+pairs, which are long, narrow, and pointed. The body of each bamboo is
+hollow and jointed, in a similar way to wheat stalks, with bands or knots,
+by which wonderful contrivance both are rendered strong and flexible,
+suited to the several designs of creative Wisdom. The bamboo imperceptibly
+tapers from the earth upwards. It is the variety of sizes in each cluster,
+however, which gives grace and beauty to the whole as they move with every
+breath of air, or are swayed by the strong wind.
+
+Where space allows the experiment, the tallest bamboo may be brought down
+to a level with the earth, without snapping asunder. In the strong tempest
+the supple bamboo may be seen to bow submissively,--as the self-subdued
+and pliant mind in affliction,--and again rear its head uninjured by the
+storm, as the righteous man 'preserved by faith' revives after each trial,
+or temptation.
+
+The wood of the bamboo is hard, yet light, and possesses a fine grain,
+though fibrous. The outward surface is smooth and highly polished by
+Nature, and the knot very difficult to penetrate by any other means than a
+saw. The twigs or branches are covered with sharp thorns, in all
+probability a natural provision to defend the young trees from herbaceous
+animals. I have heard of the bamboo blossoming when arrived at full age;
+this I have, however, never seen, and cannot therefore presume to
+describe.[38]
+
+In the hollow divisions of the bamboo is found, in small quantities, a
+pure white tasteless substance, called tawurshear,[39] which as a medicine
+is in great request with the Native doctors, who administer it as a
+sovereign remedy for lowness of spirits, and every disease of the heart,
+such as palpitations, &c. The tawurshear when used medicinally is pounded
+fine, and mixed up with gold and silver leaf, preserved quinces and apples,
+and the syrup of pomegranates, which is simmered over a slow fire until it
+becomes of the consistence of jam. It is taken before meals by the patient.
+
+The bamboo is rendered serviceable to man in a countless variety of ways,
+both for use and ornament. The chuphas (thatched-roofs) of huts, cottages,
+or bungalows, are all constructed on frames of bamboo, to which each layer
+of grass is firmly fixed by laths formed of the same wood.
+
+The only doors in poor people's habitations are contrived from the same
+materials as the roof: viz., grass on bamboo frames, just sufficient to
+secure privacy and defend the inmates from cold air, or the nightly
+incursions of wolves and jackals. For the warm weather, screens are
+invented of split bamboos, either fine or coarse, as circumstances permit,
+to answer the purpose of doors, both for the rich and poor, whenever the
+house is so situated that these intruders may be anticipated at night.
+
+The bamboo is made useful also in the kitchen as bellows by the aid of the
+cook's breath; in the stable, to administer medicine to horses; and to the
+poor traveller, as a deposit for his oil, either for cooking or his lamp.
+To the boatman as sculls, masts, yards, and poles; besides affording him a
+covering to his boat, which could not be constructed with any other wood
+equally answering the same varied purpose of durability and lightness.
+
+The carriers (generally of the bearer caste), by the help of a split
+bamboo over the shoulder, convey heavy loads suspended by cords at each
+end, from one part of India to the other, many hundred miles distant. No
+other wood could answer this purpose so well; the bamboo being remarkably
+light and of a very pliant nature lessens the fatigue to the bearer,
+whilst almost any wood sufficiently strong to bear the packages would fret
+the man's shoulder and add burden to burden. The bearers do not like to
+carry more than twelve seer (twenty-four pounds) slung by ropes at each
+end of their bamboo for any great distance; but, I fear, they are not
+always allowed the privilege of thinking for themselves in these matters.
+
+When a hackery[40] (sort of waggon) is about to be loaded with of corn or
+goods, a railing is formed by means of bamboos to admit the luggage; thus
+rendering the waggon itself much lighter than if built of solid wood, an
+object of some moment, when considering the smallness of the cattle used
+for draught, oxen of a small breed being in general use for waggons, carts,
+ploughs, &c. I have never seen horses harnessed to any vehicle in India,
+except to such gentlemen's carriages as are built on the English principle.
+
+The Native carriages of ladies and travellers are indebted to the bamboo
+for all the wood used in the construction of the body, which is merely a
+frame covered with cloth, shaped in several different ways,--some square,
+others double cones, &c.
+
+Baskets of every shape and size, coarse or fine, are made of the split
+bamboo; covers for dinner trays, on which the food is sent from the
+kitchen to the hall; cheese-presses, punkahs, and screens, ingeniously
+contrived in great varieties; netting-needles and pins, latches and bolts
+for doors; skewers and spits; umbrella sticks, and walking canes; toys in
+countless ways, and frames for needle-work.
+
+A long line of etceteras might here be added as to the number of good
+purposes to which the bamboo is adapted and appropriated in Native economy;
+I must not omit that even the writing-paper on which I first practised the
+Persian character was manufactured from the bamboo, which is esteemed more
+durable, but not so smooth as their paper made from cotton. The young
+shoots of bamboo are both pickled and preserved by the Natives, and
+esteemed a great luxury when produced at meals with savoury pillaus, &c.
+
+I am told, a whole forest of bamboo has sometimes been consumed by fire,
+ignited by their own friction in a heavy storm, and the blaze fanned by
+the opposing wind; the devouring element, under such circumstances, could
+be stayed only when there ceased to be a tree to feed the flame.
+
+
+[1] The Indian rose-water is made principally from _Rosa damascena_ about
+    Ghazipur in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It has no
+    medicinal value, but is used as a vehicle for other mixtures (Watt,
+    _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part i. 560 ff.).
+
+[2] _Bibi Sahiba_. 'On the principle of the degradation of titles
+    which is general, this word in application to European ladies has been
+    superseded  by the hybrid _Mem Sahib_ or Madam Sahib, though it
+    is often applied to European maid-servants or other Englishwomen of
+    that rank of life' (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 78).
+
+[3] It is one of the flowers which produce pollen catarrh. Pope's
+    suggestion that a man with a hypersensitive nervous system might 'die
+    of a rose in aromatic pain', is not an impossible contingency.
+
+[4] Goulard water, named after Thomas Goulard, a French surgeon: a
+    solution of sub-acetate of lead, used as a lotion in cases of
+    inflammation (_New English Dictionary, s.v._).
+
+[5] P. 235.
+
+[6] Not in Platts' _Hindustani Dictionary_: probably _barhan_,
+    increasing.
+
+[7] _Ritha_, the berry of the soap-nut tree, _Sapindus trifoliatus_
+    or _mukorossi_. (Watt, _Economic Dict_., vol. vi, part ii, 468.)
+
+[8] _Nila tutiya_, copper sulphate: used as an emetic in cases
+    of poisoning, but not now recognized as a remedy for snake-bite.
+
+[9] _Chichra, Achryanthes aspera_ (Watt, i. 81).
+
+[10] _Arziz_.
+
+[11] _Nim, Melia Azadirachta_. The belief that it is a prophylactic
+    against fever and cholera is held even by some Europeans
+    (Watt, v. 217).
+
+[12] _Arand, Ricinus communis_.
+
+[13]  Alsi, _Linum usitatissimum._
+
+[14] _Amaltas, Cassia fistula_. The pulp of the fruit and the root-bark
+    form the most useful domestic medicine, a simple purgative.
+
+[15] _Myrtus communis_.
+
+[16] _Punica Granatum_. The best varieties of the fruit come from
+    Afghanistan and Persia.
+
+[17] _Phalsa, falsa, Grewia asiatica_.
+
+[18] The shade of the tree is supposed to be unhealthy to men, animals,
+    and plants, as it is believed to be haunted by spirits, and it is
+    worshipped on a day known as 'Tamarind Eleventh'.
+
+[19] See p. 194.
+
+[20] Watt, however, writes: 'Tin is a highly important metal in dyeing as
+    practised in Europe, but in this respect is apparently unknown to the
+    natives of India.' (Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, vol. vi, part iv, 60.)
+
+[21] _Sharifa, Anona squamosa_.
+
+[22] Guava.
+
+[23] _Bargat_, the banyan-tree.
+
+[24] _Pyrus persica_.
+
+[25] _Be-danah._
+
+[26] Excellent apples are now grown on the lower Himalayas.
+
+[27] _Prunus communis_ grows in the lower Himalayas and as far down as
+    Saharanpur, but the fruit is inferior.
+
+[28] The sweet or wild cherry, _Prunus avium_, is called _gilas_ in the
+    Hills.
+
+[29] _Papaiya_, the papau tree, _Carica papaya_, has the curious
+    property of making meat tender, if placed near it.
+
+[30] _Madar, ak._ The latter term is derived from Sanskrit _arka_,
+    'the sun', on account of the fiery colour of its flowers.
+
+[31] The plant yields a silk cotton from the seeds and a rich white bass
+    fibre from the bark, both likely to be of commercial value (Watt, ii.
+    38 ff.)
+
+[32] Used in equal proportions with black pepper, the fresh blossoms are a
+    useful and cheap remedy for asthma, hysteria, and epilepsy (_ibid_. ii.
+    44 ff).
+
+[33] _Sirki_ is the upper portion of the blossoming stem, and
+    _sentha_ the lower portion of the reed grass _Saccharum ciliare_
+    (_ibid_. vi, part ii, 2.)
+
+[34] _Sarkanda_ is the Panjab name for the grass _Saccharum
+    arundinaceum_, but it is also applied to _Saccharum ciliare_ in last
+    note (_ibid_. vi, part ii, 1 f.).
+
+[35] _Khaskhas_, used for screens, is the root of the grass _Andropogon
+    muricatus_ (_ibid_. i, 245 ff.)
+
+[36] _Chhappar_.
+
+[37] This is true of the higher class Musalmans; but there were
+    splendid gardens in the palaces of the Moghul Emperors: see C.M.
+    Villiers Stuart, _The Gardens of the Great Mughals_, 1913.
+
+[38] The subject of the flowering of the bamboo has been investigated by
+    Sir G. Watt, who writes: 'A bamboo may not flower before it has
+    attained a certain age, but its blossoming is not fixed so arbitrarily
+    that it cannot be retarded or accelerated by climatic influences. It
+    is an undoubted fact that the flowering of the bamboo is decided by
+    causes which bring about famine, for the providential supply of food
+    from this source has saved the lives of thousands of persons during
+    several of the great famines of India.' Hence the provision of the
+    edible seeds by the extension of bamboo cultivation has been
+    recommended as a means of mitigating distress (_Economic Dictionary_,
+    vol. i, 373 ff., 386).
+
+[39] _Tabashir_, bamboo manna, is a siliceous substance found in the
+    joints of the bamboo: considered cooling, toxic, aphrodisiac and
+    pectoral, but as a medicinal agent it is inert (_ibid_. i. 384, Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 887).
+
+[40] A bullock carriage, Hindustani _chhakra_ (Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 407 f.).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXII
+
+  Monkeys.--Hindoo opinions of their Nature.--Instances of their
+  sagacity.--Rooted animosity of the Monkey tribe to the
+  snake.--Cruelty to each other when maimed.--The female remarkable for
+  affection to its young.--Anecdotes descriptive of the belief of the
+  Natives in the Monkey being endowed with reason.--The Monkeys and the
+  Alligator.--The Traveller and the Monkeys.--The Hindoo and the
+  Monkey.
+
+
+The Natives of India, more particularly the Hindoos, are accustomed to pay
+particular attention to the habits of the varied monkey race, conceiving
+them to be connecting links in the order of Nature between brutes and
+rational creatures; or, as some imagine and assert, (without any other
+foundation than conjecture and fancy), that they were originally a race of
+human beings, who for their wicked deeds have been doomed to perpetuate
+their disgrace and punishment to the end of time in the form and manner we
+see them, inhabiting forests, and separated from their superior man.
+
+I have had very few opportunities of acquainting myself with the general
+principles of the Hindoo belief, but I am told, there are amongst them
+those who assert that one of their deities was transformed to a particular
+kind of monkey, since designated Hummoomaun,[1] after the object of their
+adoration; whence arises the marked veneration paid by Hindoos of certain
+sects to this class of monkeys.
+
+The Natives firmly believe the whole monkey race to be gifted with reason
+to a certain extent, never accounting for the sagacity and cunning they
+are known to possess by instinctive habits; arguing from their own
+observations, that the monkeys are peaceable neighbours, or inveterate
+enemies to man, in proportion as their good will is cultivated by kindness
+and hospitality, or their propensity to revenge roused by an opposite line
+of conduct towards them.
+
+The husbandman, whose land is in the vicinity of a forest, and the abode
+of monkeys, secures safety to his crops, by planting a patch of ground
+with that species of grain which these animals are known to prefer. Here
+they assemble, as appetite calls, and feast themselves upon their own
+allotment; and, as if they appreciated the hospitality of the landlord,
+not a blade is broken, or a seed destroyed in the fields of corn to the
+right and left of their plantation. But woe to the farmer who neglects
+this provision; his fields will not only be visited by the marauders, but
+their vengeance will be displayed in the wasteful destruction of his
+cultivation. This undoubtedly looks more like reason than instinct; and if
+credit could be given to half the extraordinary tales that are told of
+them, the monkeys of India might justly be entitled to a higher claim than
+that of instinct for their actions.
+
+Monkeys seem to be aware that snakes are their natural enemies. They never
+advance in pursuit of, yet they rarely run from a snake; unless its size
+renders it too formidable an object for their strength and courage to
+attack with anything like a prospect of success in destroying it. So great
+is the animosity of the monkey race to these reptiles, that they attack
+them systematically, after the following manner:--
+
+When a snake is observed by a monkey, he depends on his remarkable agility
+as a safeguard from the enemy. At the most favourable opportunity he
+seizes the reptile just below the head with a firm grasp, then springs to
+a tree, if available, or to any hard substance near at hand, on which he
+rubs the snake's head with all his strength until life is extinct; at
+intervals smelling the fresh blood as it oozes from the wounds of his
+victim. When success has crowned his labour, the monkey capers about his
+prostrate enemy, as if in triumph at the victory he has won; developing,
+as the Natives say, in this, a striking resemblance to man.
+
+Very few monkeys, in their wild state, ever recover from inflicted wounds;
+the reason assigned by those who have studied their usual habits is, that
+whenever a poor monkey has been wounded, even in the most trifling way,
+his associates visit him by turns, when each visitor, without a single
+exception, is observed to scratch the wound smartly with their nails. A
+wound left to itself might be expected to heal in a short time, but thus
+irritated by a successive application of their sharp nails, it inflames
+and increases. Mortification is early induced by the heated atmosphere,
+and death rapidly follows.
+
+The monkeys' motives for adding to their neighbour's anguish, is accounted
+for by some speculators on the score of their aversion to the unnatural
+smell of blood; or they are supposed to be actuated by a natural
+abhorrence to the appearance of the wound, not by any means against the
+wounded; since in their domestic habits, they are considered to be
+peaceable and affectionate in their bearings towards each other. The
+strong will exercise mastery over the weak where food is scarce, but, in a
+general way, they are by no means quarrelsome or revengeful amongst
+themselves. They are known to hold by each other in defending rights and
+privileges, if the accounts given by credible Natives be true, who add
+that a whole colony of monkeys have been known to issue forth in a body to
+revenge an injury sustained by an individual of their tribe; often firing
+a whole village of chupha-roofs, where the aggressor is known to be a
+resident, who in his anger may have maimed or chastised one of their
+colony.
+
+The female monkey is remarkable for her attachment to her progeny, which
+she suckles until it is able to procure food for its own sustenance. When
+one of her young dies, the mother is observed to keep it closely encircled
+in her arms, moaning piteously with true maternal feelings of regret, and
+never parting with it from her embrace until the dead body becomes an
+offensive mass: and when at last she quits her hold, she lays it on the
+ground before her, at no great distance, watching with intense anxiety the
+dead body before her, which she can no longer fold in her embrace, until
+the work of decomposing has altered the form of the creature that claimed
+her tender attachment. What an example is here given to unnatural mothers
+who neglect or forsake their offspring!
+
+I shall here insert a few anecdotes illustrative of the opinions of the
+Natives on the subject of monkeys being possessed of reasoning faculties.
+They shall be given exactly as I have received them, not expecting my
+readers will give to them more credit than I am disposed to yield to most
+of these tales; but as they are really believed to be true by the Natives
+who relate them, I feel bound to afford them a place in my work, which is
+intended rather to describe men as they are, than men as I wish to see
+them.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Muttra is an immense jungle or forest, where
+monkeys abound in great numbers and variety. Near a village bordering this
+forest, is a large natural lake which is said to abound with every sort of
+fish and alligators. On the banks of this lake are many trees, some of
+which branch out a great distance over the water. On these trees monkeys
+of a large description, called Lungoor,[2] gambol from spray to spray in
+happy amusement: sometimes they crowd in numbers on one branch, by which
+means their weight nearly brings the end of the bough to the surface of
+the water; on which occasion it is by no means unusual for one or more of
+their number to be lessened.
+
+Whether the monkeys told their thoughts or not, my informant did not say,
+but the retailers of this story assert, that the oldest monkey was aware
+that his missing brethren had been seized by an alligator from the branch
+of the tree, whilst they were enjoying their amusement. This old monkey,
+it would seem, resolved on revenging the injury done to his tribe, and
+formed a plan for retaliating on the common enemy of his race.
+
+The monkeys were observed by the villagers, for many successive days,
+actively occupied in collecting the fibrous bark of certain trees, which
+they were converting into a thick rope. The novelty of this employment
+surprised the peasants and induced them to watch daily for the result.
+When the rope was completed, from sixty to seventy of the strongest
+monkeys conveyed it to the tree: having formed a noose at one end with the
+nicest care, the other end was secured by them to the overhanging arm of
+the tree. This ready, they commenced their former gambols, jumping about
+and crowding on the same branch which had been so fatal to many of their
+brethren.
+
+The alligator, unconscious of the stratagem thus prepared to secure him,
+sprang from the water as the branch descended but instead of catching the
+monkey he expected, he was himself caught in the noose; and the monkeys
+moving away rather precipitately, the alligator was drawn considerably
+above the surface of the water. The more he struggled the firmer he was
+held by the noose; and here was his skeleton to be seen many years after,
+suspended from the tree over the water, until time and the changes of
+season released the blanched bones from their exalted situation, to
+consign them to their more natural element in the lake below.
+
+On one occasion, a Hindoo traveller on his way to Muttra, from his place
+of residence, drew down the resentment of the monkeys inhabiting the same
+forest, by his inattention to their well-known habits. The story is told
+as follows:--
+
+'The man was travelling with all his worldly wealth about his person: viz.,
+fifty gold mohurs, (each nearly equal to two pounds in value[3]), and a
+few rupees, the savings of many a year's hard service, which were secreted
+in the folds of his turban; a good suit of clothes on his back; a few gold
+ornaments on his neck and arms; and a bundle of sundries and cooking
+vessels.
+
+'The Hindoo was on foot, without companions, making his way towards the
+home of his forefathers, where he hoped with his little treasury to be
+able to spend his remaining years in peace with his family and friends,
+after many years' toil and absence from his home. He stopped near to the
+lake in question, after a long and fatiguing march, to rest himself
+beneath the shade of the trees, and cook his humble meal of bread and
+dhall. I ought here, perhaps, to say, that this class of Natives always
+cook in the open air, and, if possible, near a river, or large body of
+water, for the purpose of bathing before meals, and having water for
+purifying their cooking utensils, &c.
+
+'The man having undressed himself, and carefully piled his wardrobe
+beneath the tree he had selected for shelter, went to the lake and bathed;
+after which he prepared his bread, and sat himself down to dine. As soon
+as he was comfortably seated, several large monkeys advanced and squatted
+themselves at a respectful distance from him, doubtless expecting to share
+in the good things he was enjoying. But, no: the traveller was either too
+hungry or inhospitable, for he finished his meal, without tendering the
+smallest portion to his uninvited visitors, who kept their station
+watching every mouthful until he had finished.
+
+'The meal concluded, the traveller gathered his cooking vessels together
+and went to the bank of the lake, in order to wash them, as is customary,
+and to cleanse his mouth after eating; his clothes and valuables were left
+securely under the tree as he imagined,--if he thought at all about
+them,--for he never dreamed of having offended the monkeys by eating all
+he had cooked, without making them partakers. He was no sooner gone,
+however, than the monkeys assembled round his valuables; each took
+something from the collection; the oldest among them having secured the
+purse of gold, away they ran to the tree over the very spot where the man
+was engaged in polishing his brass vessels.
+
+The Hindoo had soon completed his business at the lake, and unconscious of
+their movements, he had returned to the tree, where to his surprise and
+sorrow, he discovered his loss. Nearly frantic, the Hindoo doubted not
+some sly thief had watched his motions and removed his treasures, when he
+heard certain horrid yells from the monkeys which attracted his attention:
+he returned hastily to the lake, and on looking up to the tree, he
+discovered his enemies in the monkeys. They tantalized him for some time
+by holding up the several articles to his view, and when the old monkey
+shook the bag of gold, the poor man was in an agony; they then threw the
+whole into the lake, the coins, one by one, were cast into the deep water,
+where not a shadow of hope could be entertained of their restoration, as
+the lake was deep and known to be infested with alligators.
+
+'The man was almost driven mad by this unlooked-for calamity, by which he
+was deprived of the many comforts his nursed treasure had so fairly
+promised him for the remainder of life. He could devise no plan for
+recovering his lost valuables, and resolved on hastening to the nearest
+village, there to seek advice and assistance from his fellow-men; where
+having related his unfortunate adventures, and declaring he had done
+nothing to anger the creatures, he was asked if he had dined, and if so,
+had he given them a share? He said, he had indeed cooked his dinner, and
+observed the monkeys seated before him whilst he dined, but he did not
+offer them any.
+
+'"That, that, is your offence!" cried the villagers in a breath; "who
+would ever think of eating without sharing his meal with men or with
+animals? You are punished for your greediness, friend."--"Be it so," said
+the traveller; "I am severely used by the brutes, and am now resolved on
+punishing them effectually in return for the ill they have done me."
+
+'He accordingly sold the gold ornaments from his arms and neck, purchased
+a quantity of sugar, ghee, flour, and arsenic, returned to his old
+quarters, prepared everything for cooking, and, in a short time, had a
+large dish filled with rich-looking cakes, to tempt his enemies to their
+own ruin.
+
+'The feast was prepared in the presence of the assembled multitude of
+monkeys. The Hindoo placed the dish before his guests, saying, "There, my
+lords! your food is ready!" The old monkey advanced towards the dish, took
+up a cake, raised it to his nose, and then returning it to the dish,
+immediately ran off, followed by the whole of his associates into the
+thick jungle.
+
+'The man began to despair, and thought himself the most unlucky creature
+existing; when, at length, he saw them returning with augmented numbers;
+he watched them narrowly, and observed each monkey had a green leaf in his
+paw, in which he folded a cake and devoured the whole speedily. The man
+expected of course to see them sicken immediately, for the quantity of
+arsenic he had used was sufficient, he imagined to have killed twenty
+times their number. But, no: his stratagem entirely failed; for the leaf
+they had provided themselves was an antidote to the poison put into their
+food. The traveller thus sacrificed even that little which would have
+carried him on his journey, had he been satisfied with his first loss; but
+the Hindoo cherished a revengeful disposition, and thereby was obliged to
+beg his way to his family.'
+
+The next monkey story is equally marvellous, the Natives believe that it
+actually occurred; I am disposed, however, to think all these stories were
+originally fables to impress a moral upon the ignorant.
+
+'Near a small town in the province of Oude there is a jungle of some
+extent, inhabited by monkeys. A certain man of the Hindoo class, residing
+in the town, resolved upon enjoying himself one day with a bottle of
+arrack he had procured by stealth, and since it is well known that spirits
+or fermented liquors are prohibited articles in the territories governed
+by Mussulmaun rulers, the man betook himself with his treat to the
+neighbouring jungle, where in private he might drink the spirit he loved,
+and escape the vigilance of the police.
+
+'Arriving at a convenient spot, the Hindoo seated himself under a tree,
+prepared his hookha, drew from his wrapper the bottle of spirits, and a
+small cup he had provided; and if ever he knew what happiness was in his
+life, this moment was surely his happiest.
+
+'He drank a cup of his liquor, smoked his hookha with increased relish,
+and thought of nothing but his present enjoyment. Presently he heard the
+sound of rustling in the trees, and in a few minutes after, a fine sturdy
+monkey, of the Lungoor tribe, placed himself very near to him and his
+bottle.
+
+'The Hindoo was of a lively temper, and withal kindly disposed towards the
+living, though not of his own species. Having a cake of dry bread in his
+waistband, he broke off a piece and threw it to his visitor; the monkey
+took the bread and sniffed at the cup. "Perhaps you may like to taste as
+well as to smell," thought the Hindoo, as he poured out the liquor into
+the cup, and presented it to his guest.
+
+'The monkey raised the cup with both paws to his mouth, sipped of its
+contents, winked his eyes, appeared well satisfied with the flavour, and
+to the surprise of the Hindoo, finished the cup, which was no sooner done,
+than away he sprang up the tree again.
+
+'"Had I known you would run away so soon, my guest, I should have spared
+my arrack;" thought the Hindoo. But the monkey quickly returned to his old
+position, threw down a gold mohur to his entertainer, and sat grinning
+with apparent satisfaction. The Hindoo, astonished at the sight of gold,
+thought to repay his benefactor by another cup of spirits, which he placed
+before the monkey, who drank it off, and again mounted the tree, and
+shortly returned with a second gold mohur.
+
+'Delighted with the profit his arrack produced, the Hindoo drank sparingly
+himself, for each time the monkey took a cup, a gold mohur was produced,
+until the man counted eight of these valuable coins on his palm. By this
+time, however, the monkey was completely overcome by the strength of his
+potations, and lay apparently senseless before the Hindoo, who fancied now
+was his turn to mount the tree, where he found, on diligent search, in a
+hollow place, a small bag of gold mohurs, with which he walked off,
+leaving the monkey prostrate on the earth.
+
+'The Hindoo determined on going some distance from his home, in a
+different direction, fearing his secret treasure might be the means of
+drawing him into difficulties amongst the people of his own town, who had
+probably been robbed by the monkey at some previous period.
+
+'In the meanwhile the monkey is supposed to have recovered from his stupor,
+and the next morning on discovering his loss, he set up a horrid yell,
+which brought together all his fellow-inhabitants of the jungle; and some
+neighbouring villagers saw an immense number of monkeys of all sorts and
+sizes, collected together in a body. The story runs that this army of
+monkeys was headed by the one who had recovered from his drunken fit, and
+that they marched away from the jungle in pursuit of the robber.
+
+'Their first march was to the adjacent village, where every house was
+visited in turn by the monkeys, without success; no one ever venturing to
+obstruct or drive away the intruders, fearing their resentment. After
+which they sallied out of the village to the main road, minutely looking
+for footsteps, as a clue, on the sandy pathway; and by this means
+discovering the track of the Hindoo, they pursued the road they had
+entered throughout the day and night. Early in the morning of the
+following day, the monkeys advanced to the serai (inn, or halting place
+for travellers) soon after the Hindoo himself had quitted it, who had
+actually sojourned there the previous night.
+
+'On the road, when the horde of monkeys met any traveller, he was detained
+by them until the chief of them had scrutinized his features, and he was
+then liberated on finding he was not the person they were in pursuit of.
+After having marched nearly forty miles from their home, they entered one
+of the halting places for travellers, where the Hindoo was resting after
+his day's journey.
+
+'The monkey having recognized the robber, immediately grasped him by the
+arm, and others entering, the frightened robber was searched, the purse
+discovered in his wrapper, which the chief monkey angrily seized, and then
+counted over its contents, piece by piece. This done, finding the number
+correct, the monkey selected eight pieces, and threw them towards the
+Hindoo; and distributing the remaining number of gold mohurs amongst the
+monkeys, who placed each his coin in the hollow of his cheek, the whole
+body retired from the serai to retrace their steps to the jungle.'
+
+
+[1] Hanuman, the divine monkey of the Ramayana epic, who helped
+    Rama to recover his abducted wife, Sita.
+
+[2] _Langur, Semnopithecus entellus_.
+
+[3] Now worth a little more than a sovereign.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXIII
+
+  The Soofies.--Opinion of the Mussulmauns concerning Solomon.--The
+  Ood-ood.--Description of the Soofies and their sect.--Regarded with
+  great reverence.--Their protracted fasts.--Their opinion esteemed by
+  the Natives.--Instance of the truth of their predictions.--The Saalik
+  and Majoob Soofies.--The poets Haafiz and Saadie.--Character and
+  attainments of Saadie.--His 'Goolistaun'.--Anecdotes descriptive of
+  the origin of that work.--Farther remarks on the character and
+  history of Saadie.--Interesting anecdotes illustrative of his virtues
+  and the distinguishing characteristics of the Soofies.
+
+
+The life of King Solomon, with all his acts, is the subject of many an
+author's pen, both in the Arabic and Persian languages; consequently the
+learned Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun are intimately acquainted with his
+virtues, his talent, and the favour with which he was visited by the great
+goodness of the Almighty. In the course of my sojourn amongst them, I have
+heard many remarkable and some interesting anecdotes relating to Solomon,
+which the learned men assure me are drawn from sources of unquestionable
+authority.
+
+They affirm that the wisdom of Solomon not only enabled him to search into
+the most hidden thoughts of men, and to hold converse with them in their
+respective languages, but that the gift extended even to the whole brute
+creation; by which means he could hold unlimited converse, not only with
+the animate, as birds, beasts, and fish, but with inanimate objects, as
+shrubs, trees, and, indeed, the whole tribe of vegetable nature; and,
+further, that he was permitted to discern and control aerial spirits, as
+demons, genii, &c.
+
+The pretty bird, known in India by the name of Ood-ood,[1] is much
+regarded by the Mussulmauns, as by their tradition this bird was the
+hurkaarah of King Solomon; and entrusted with his most important
+commissions whenever he required intelligence to be conveyed to or from a
+far distant place, because he could place greater confidence in the
+veracity of this bird, and rely on more certain dispatch, than when
+entrusting his commands to the most worthy of his men servants.
+
+The ood-ood is beautifully formed, has a variegated plumage of black,
+yellow, and white, with a high tuft of feathers on its head, through which
+is a spear of long feathers protruding directly across the head for
+several inches, and is of the woodpecker species. The princes, Nuwaubs,
+and nobility of Hindoostaun, keep hurkaarahs for the purpose of conveying
+and obtaining intelligence, who are distinguished by a short spear, with a
+tuft of silk or worsted about the middle of the handle, and the tail of
+the ood-ood in the front of their turban, to remind them of this bird,
+which they are expected to imitate both in dispatch and fidelity. I am
+told, these men (from their early training) are enabled to run from fifty
+to sixty miles bare-footed, and return the same distance without halting
+on the same day.
+
+The religious devotees of the Mussulmaun persuasion, who are denominated
+Soofies,[1] are conjectured, by many, to have a similar gift with Solomon
+of understanding the thoughts of other men. By some it is imagined that
+Solomon was the first Soofie; by others, that Ali, the husband of Fatima,
+imparted the knowledge of that mystery which constitutes the real Soofie.
+I am acquainted with some Natives who designate the Soofies 'Freemasons'
+but I imagine this to be rather on account of both possessing a secret,
+than for any similarity in other respects, between the two orders of
+people.
+
+My business, however, is to describe. The Soofies then are, as far as I
+can comprehend, strictly religious men, who have forsaken entirely all
+attachment to earthly things, in their adoration of the one supreme God.
+They are sometimes found dwelling in the midst of a populous city, yet,
+even there they are wholly detached from the world, in heart, soul, and
+mind, exercising themselves in constant adoration of, and application to
+God; occasionally shutting themselves up for several weeks together in a
+hut of mud, thatched with coarse grass, with scarce sufficient provision
+to support the smallest living animal, and water barely enough to moisten
+their parched lips during the weeks thus devoted to solitary retirement
+and prayer.
+
+When these recluses can no longer support their self-inflicted privation,
+they open the door of their hut, a signal anxiously watched for by such
+persons as have a desire to meet the eye of the holy man, of whom they
+would inquire on some (to them) interesting matter; probably regarding
+their future prospects in the world, the cause of the ill-health and
+prospects of recovery of a diseased member of their family, or any like
+subject of interest to the inquirer.
+
+The Soofie, I am told, does not approve of being thus teased by the
+importunities of the thronging crowd, who beset his threshold the instant
+his door is heard to open. Being weak in body, after the fatigue of a
+protracted fast of weeks together, his replies to the questions (preferred
+always with remarkable humility) are brief and prompt; and the Natives
+assure me dependence may always be placed on the good Soofie's reply being
+strictly the words of truth. On this account, even if the oracle's reply
+disappoint the hopes of the questioner, he retires without a murmur, for
+then he knows the worst of his calamity, and if God orders it so, he must
+not complain, because Infinite Wisdom cannot err, and the holy man will
+assuredly speak the truth.
+
+The practice so long prevailing in Europe of visiting the cunning man, to
+have the hidden mysteries of fate solved, occurred to my recollection when
+I first heard of this custom in India.
+
+'Will my son return from his travels during my lifetime?'--was the inquiry
+of a truly religious man, whom I knew very intimately, to one of the
+professed Soofie class, on his emerging from his hut. The reply was as
+follows:--'Go home!--be happy;--comfort your heart;--he is coming!' By a
+singular coincidence it happened, that the following day's daak produced a
+letter, announcing to him that his son was on his way returning to his
+home and his father, who had for some years despaired of ever again seeing
+his son in this life.
+
+It is needless to say, that the veneration shown to this Soofie was much
+increased by the singular coincidence, because the person who consulted
+him was a man of remarkable probity, and not given to indulge in idle
+conversations with the worldly-minded of that city.
+
+There are many men in this country, I am told, who make Soofieism their
+profession, but who are in reality hypocrites to the world, and their
+Maker: actuated sometimes by the love of applause from the multitude, but
+oftener, I am assured, by mercenary motives. A Soofie enjoying public
+favour may, if he choose, command any man's wealth who gives credit to his
+supposed power. All men pay a marked deference to his holy character, and
+few would have the temerity to withhold the desired sum, however
+inconvenient to bestow, should the demand be made by one professing to be
+a Soofie.
+
+The real Soofie is, however, a very different character, and an object of
+deserved veneration, if only for the virtue of perfect content with which
+his humble mind is endued: respect cannot be withheld by the reflecting
+part of the world, when contemplating a fellow-creature (even of a
+different faith) whose life is passed in sincere devotion to God, and
+strictly conforming to the faith he has embraced. My Native friends inform
+me,--and many reprobate the notion,--that the Soofies believe they resolve
+into the Divine essence when their souls are purified from the animal
+propensities of this life by severe privations, fervent and continual
+prayer, watchings, resisting temptations, and profound meditation in
+solitude. When they have acquired the perfection they aim at, and are
+really and truly the perfect Soofie, they rarely quit the hut they have
+first selected for their retirement, and into which no one ever attempts
+to intrude, without the Soofie commands it. He enjoys the universal
+respect and veneration of all classes of people; he has no worldly rewards
+to bestow, yet there are servants always ready to do him any kindness,
+amongst the number of his admirers who flock to catch but a glimpse of the
+holy man, and fancy themselves better when but the light of his
+countenance has beamed upon them. Proudly pre-eminent, in his own eyes, is
+the one amongst the multitude who may be so far honoured as to be allowed
+to place a platter of food before the Soofie, when the imperative demands
+of Nature prevail over his self-inflicted abstinence.
+
+Some Soofies shut themselves in their hut for a few days, and others for
+weeks together, without seeing or being seen by a human being. Their
+general clothing is simply a wrapper of calico, and their only furniture a
+coarse mat. They are said to be alike insensible to heat or cold, so
+entirely are their hearts weaned from the indulgence of earthly comforts.
+
+I must explain, however, that there are two classes of the professedly
+devout Soofies, viz. the Saalik, and the Majoob.[3] The true Saalik
+Soofies are those who give up the world and its allurements, abstain from
+all sensual enjoyments, rarely associate with their fellow-men, devote
+themselves entirely to their Creator, and are insensible to any other
+enjoyments but such as they derive from their devotional exercises.
+
+The Majoob Soofies have no established home nor earthly possessions; they
+drink wine and spirits freely, when they can obtain them. Many people
+suppose this class have lost the possession of their reason, and make
+excuse for their departure from the law on that score. Both classes are
+nevertheless in great respect, because the latter are not deemed guilty of
+breaking the law, since they are supposed to be insensible of their
+actions whilst indulging in the forbidden juice of the grape.
+
+Haafiz,[4] the celebrated poet of Persia, it is related, was a Soofie of
+the Majoob class, he lived without a thought of providing for future
+exigencies, accepted the offerings of food from his neighbour, drank wine
+freely when offered to him, and slept under any shed or hovel he met with,
+as contented as if he was in the palace of a king.
+
+Saadie,[5] the Persian poet, was, during the latter years of his life, a
+Saalik Soofie of the most perfect kind. Many of the inspirations of his
+pen, however, were written in that part of his life which was devoted to
+the world and its enjoyments; yet most of these indicate purity of thought
+in a remarkable degree. Saadie's life was subject to the most
+extraordinary vicissitudes; he possessed an independent mind, scorning
+every allurement of wealth which might tend to shackle his principles. He
+is said to have repeatedly rejected offers of patronage and pecuniary
+assistance from many noblemen, whilst he still loved the world's
+enticements, declaring he never could submit to confine himself to
+attendance on an earthly master for any lengthened period. His wit,
+pleasing deportment, and polite manners, together with the amiable
+qualities of his heart, rendered him a general favourite, and they who
+could boast most intimacy with Saadie were the most honoured by the world;
+for, though but the poor Saadie, he shed a lustre over the assemblies of
+the great and noble in birth or station, by his brilliant mind.
+
+The 'Goolistaun'[6] of Saadie has been so often eulogized, as to render it
+unnecessary for me to add a single word in commendation of its style and
+morality; but I will here take leave to insert an anecdote translated for
+me by my husband, in allusion to the incident which prompted Saadie to
+write that work, under the title of 'Goolistaun' (Garden of Roses). I will
+also here remark, that in the principal cities of Persia, the Mussulmauns
+of that age were not equally rigid in their observance of the law
+interdicting the use of fermented liquors, as are those of the present day
+in Hindoostaun. Many young men among the higher orders indulged freely in
+the 'life-inspiring draught', as they were wont to call the juice of the
+grape.
+
+'Shiraaz was the abode and the presumptive birth-place of Saadie. In his
+early years he was led by a love of society to depart from the rigid
+customs of his forefathers, and with the wild youth of his acquaintance to
+indulge freely in nightly potations of the forbidden juice of the grape.
+He had long delighted his friends and favourites by sharing in their
+nocturnal revels, and adding by his wit and pleasantry to the mirthful
+moments as they flew by unheeded.
+
+'At a particular season of the year, a convivial party were accustomed to
+assemble in a garden of roses, from midnight to the rising sun, to indulge
+in the luxury of wine during that refreshing season; as to receive the
+first scent from the opening roses as they expand with the dawn of the
+morning, constituted a delight, proverbially intoxicating, amongst the
+sons of Persia. Saadie composed many airs for the occasion, and gifted by
+Nature with a voice equalled only by his wit, he sang them with a melody
+so sweet as to render him almost the idol of his companions.
+
+'At one of these seasons of enjoyment, the festival was prepared by his
+circle of friends as usual, but Saadie delayed his visit. The whole party
+were lost in surprise and regret at an absence as unexpected as deplored.
+Some time was passed in fruitless conjecture on the cause of his delay,
+and at last it was agreed that a deputation from his well-beloved
+associates should go in quest of their favourite. They accordingly went,
+and knocked at the door of his room, which they found was securely
+fastened within. The poet inquired "Who is it that disturbs my repose, at
+this hour, when all good subjects of the King should be at rest?"--"Why,
+Saadie, Saadie!" they replied, "it is your friends and associates, your
+favourites!--have you forgotten our enjoyments and this season of bliss?
+Come, come, open the door, Saadie! away with us! our revels await your
+presence. Nothing gives enjoyment to our party until you add your smiles
+to our mirth."
+
+'"Let me alone," replied Saadie; "enjoy your pastime, if such it be to ye;
+but for me, I am heartily ashamed of my late wanton pursuits. I have
+resolved on mending my ways, whilst yet I have time; and be ye also wise,
+my friends; follow Saadie's example. Go home to your beds, and forsake the
+sinful habits of the world!"
+
+'"Why Saadie, what aileth thee! art thou mad?--or has the study of
+philosophy drawn thee from thy former self, whilst yet thine hairs are jet
+with youth? These reflections of thine will suit us till far better when
+time hath frosted our beards. Come, come, Saadie, away with us! let not
+the precious moments escape in this unprofitable converse. You must come,
+Saadie; our hearts will break without you!"
+
+'"Nay, nay," responded Saadie, "my conscience smites me that I have erred
+too long. It suits not my present temper to join in your mirth."--"Open
+the door to us at any rate," sounded from the many voices without; "speak
+to us face to face, our dear and well-beloved friend! let us have
+admission, and we will argue the subject coolly."--Saadie's good-nature
+could not resist the appeal, the door was unbarred, and the young men
+entered in a body.
+
+'"We have all wickedly broken the law of the faithful," said Saadie to his
+guests; and he tried to reason with his unreasonable favourites, who, on
+their part, used raillery, bantering, argument, and every power of speech,
+to turn Saadie from his steady purpose of now fulfilling the law he had
+wilfully violated. They effected nothing in moving him from his purpose,
+until one of the young men, to whom Saadie was much attached, spoke
+tenderly to him of the affection both himself and friends entertained for
+him, adding, "It is written in our law, that if a Mussulmaun be guilty of
+any sin, however great, (and all kinds of sin are therein enumerated), and
+he afterwards sincerely repents before God, with fasting and prayer, his
+sins shall be forgiven. Now you, Saadie, who are deeply versed in the way
+of wisdom, and better acquainted with the words of the Khoraun than any
+other man on earth, tell me, is there in that holy book a promise made of
+forgiveness for that man who breaks the hearts of his fellow-creatures?
+With us there are many hearts so devotedly attached to you, that must
+assuredly burst the bonds of life by your complete and sudden desertion of
+them, so that not one sin but many shall be hurled by their deaths on your
+conscience, to be atoned for how you may."
+
+'Saadie loved them all too dearly to resist their persevering proofs of
+affection, and he suffered himself, after a little more argument, to be
+led forth to the scene of their revels, where, however, he argued strongly
+on the impropriety of their habits and refused to be tempted by the
+alluring wine. He then promised to prepare for them a never-fading garden
+of roses which should last with the world; every leaf of which, if plucked
+with attention, should create a greater and more lasting bliss about their
+hearts than the best wine of Shiraaz, or the most refined aromatic had
+hitherto conveyed to their sensual appetites.'
+
+After the evening in question, Saadie abstained from all participation in
+the revels of his friends, and devoted his hours to retirement that he
+might accomplish the 'Goolistaun' he had pledged himself to cultivate for
+their more substantial benefit and perpetual enjoyment. The simplicity,
+elegance, purity of style, and moral precepts conveyed in this work, prove
+the author to have been worthy the respect with which his name has been
+reverenced through all ages, and to this day, by the virtuously disposed
+his work is read with unabated interest.
+
+Saadie did not remain very long at Shiraaz after his conversion, nor did
+he settle any where for any long period. The Persian writers assert that
+he disliked the importunities of the world, which, sensible of his merits
+as a poet and companion, constantly urged him to associate with them. He,
+therefore, lived a wandering life for many years, carefully concealing his
+name, which had then become so celebrated by his writings, that even
+beyond the boundaries of Persia his fame was known.
+
+As his manner of life was simple, his wants were few; he depended solely
+on the care of Divine Providence for his daily meal, avoiding every thing
+like laying by from to-day's produce for the morrow's sustenance. He
+considered that provision alone acceptable, which the bounty of Divine
+Providence daily provided for his need, by disposing the hearts of others
+to tender a suitable supply. In fact, he is said to have been of opinion
+that the store laid up by men for future exigencies lessened the
+delightful feeling of dependance on the bounty of God, who faileth not,
+day by day, to provide for the birds and beasts of the forest with equal
+care as for the prince on his throne; he would say, 'I shall be tempted to
+forget from whom my bread is received, if I have coins in my purse to
+purchase from the vender. Sweet is the daily bread granted to my prayers
+and dependance on the sole Giver of all good!'
+
+To illustrate the necessity of perfect content, he relates, in his
+writings, the following interesting anecdote:--'I was once travelling on
+foot, where the roads were rugged, my shoes worn out, and my feet cut by
+the stones. I was desirous of pursuing my journey quickly, and secretly
+mourned that my feet pained me, and that my shoes were now rendered
+useless; often wishing, as I stepped with caution, that I possessed the
+means of replenishing these articles so useful to a traveller.
+
+'With these feelings of dissatisfaction, I approached the spot where a
+poor beggar was seated, who, by some calamity, had been deprived of both
+his feet. I viewed this sad object with much commiseration, for he was
+dependant on the kindness of his fellow-beggars to convey him daily to
+that public spot, where the passing traveller, seeing his misery, might be
+induced to bestow upon him a few coins to provide for his subsistence.
+"Alas! alas!" said I, "how have I suffered my mind to be disturbed because
+my feet pained me, and were shoeless. Ungrateful being that I am! rather
+ought I to rejoice with an humble heart, that my gracious Benefactor hath
+granted me the blessing of feet, and sound health. Never let me again
+murmur or repine for the absence of a luxury, whilst my real wants are
+amply supplied."'
+
+One of my objects in detailing the anecdotes of Saadie in this place, is
+to give a more correct idea of the Soofie character of that particular
+class called Saalik, to which he ultimately belonged.
+
+The next translation from the life of Saadie will show how beautifully his
+well-tempered spirit soared above those difficulties which the common mind
+would have sunk under. His fame, his superior manners, were of that rare
+kind, that distance from his birth-place could be no obstacle to his
+making friends, if he chose to disclose his name in any city of Asia.
+
+I have no dates to guide me in placing the several anecdotes in their
+proper order; this, however, will be excused, as I do not pretend to give
+his history.
+
+'On one occasion, Saadie was journeying on foot, and being overtaken by
+the Arabs, (who, or a party of, it may be presumed, were at war with
+Persia), he was taken prisoner, and conveyed by them, with many others, to
+Aleppo. The prisoners, as they arrived, were all devoted to the public
+works (fortifying the city), and obliged to labour according to their
+ability.
+
+'Saadie, unused to any branch of mechanical labour, could only be employed
+in conveying mortar to the more scientific workmen. For many months he
+laboured in this way, degrading as the employment was, without a murmur,
+or a desire that his fate had been otherways ordained. Hundreds of men
+then living in Aleppo would have been proud of the honour and the good
+name they must have acquired from the world, by delivering the Poet from
+his thraldom, had they known he was amongst them, a slave to the Arabs;
+for Saadie was revered as a saint by those who had either read his works,
+or heard of his name, extolled as it was for his virtues. But Saadie
+placed his trust in God alone, and his confidence never for an instant
+forsook him; he kept his name concealed from all around him, laboured as
+commanded, and was contented.
+
+'Many months of degrading servitude had passed by, when one day, it so
+happened that a rich Jew merchant, who had formerly lived at Shiraaz, and
+there had been honoured by the regard of the idolized Saadie, visited
+Aleppo, on his mercantile concerns. Curiosity led him to survey the
+improvements going on in the city; and passing the spot where Saadie was
+then presenting his load of mortar to the mason, he thought he recognized
+the Poet, yet deemed it impossible that he should be engaged in so
+degrading an employment, who was the object of universal veneration in
+Persia. Still the likeness to his former friend was so striking, that he
+felt no trifling degree of pleasure, whilst contemplating those features
+whose resemblance recalled the image of that holy man who was so dear to
+him, and brought back to his recollection many delightful hours of
+friendly converse, which at Shiraaz had cheated time of its weight, and
+left impressions on his heart to profit by during life.
+
+'"I will talk with this man," thought the Jew; "surely he must be related
+to my friend; the face, the form, the graceful manner, and even in that
+rude garb and occupation, he so strongly resembles my friend, that I
+cannot doubt he must be of the same kindred."
+
+'Drawing near to Saadie, the Jew accosted him with, "Who are you,
+friend,--and whence do you come?" Saadie's voice dispelled every doubt of
+the Jew, their eyes met, and in a few seconds they were clasped in each
+other's warm embrace, the Jew lamenting, in terms of warm sympathy, the
+degradation of the immortalized poet, and sainted man; whilst he in turn
+checked his friend's murmurings, by expressing his conviction that the
+wisdom of God knew best how to lead his confiding servants to himself,
+declaring his present occupation did not render him discontented.
+
+'The Jew went without delay to the superintendant of the public works, and
+inquired the sum he would be willing to receive in lieu of the labourer
+whom he desired to purchase, carefully avoiding the name of Saadie lest
+the ransom should be proportioned to the real value of such a slave. The
+man agreed to take one hundred and ten pieces of silver (each in value
+half a dollar). The sum was promptly paid, and the Jew received an order
+to take away his purchase when and wherever he pleased. He lost no time in
+possessing himself of his treasured friend, conveyed him to the city,
+where he clothed him in apparel better suited to his friend, and on the
+same day Saadie accompanied the benevolent Israelite to his country
+residence, some miles distant from the city of Aleppo.
+
+'Arrived here, Saadie enjoyed uninterrupted peace of mind for a long
+season, his heart bounding with gratitude to God, who had, he felt assured,
+worked out his deliverance from slavery and its consequences; and as may
+be supposed from such a heart, Saadie was truly sensible of the benevolent
+Jew's kindness, with whom he was constrained to remain a considerable time,
+for the Jew indeed loved him as a brother, and always grieved at the bare
+probability that they might ever again be separated; and desiring to
+secure his continuance with him during their joint lives, he proposed that
+Saadie should accept his only daughter in marriage with a handsome dowry.
+
+'Saadie resisted his friend's offer for some time, using arguments which,
+instead of altering his friend's purpose, only strengthened the desire to
+secure this amiable man as the husband of his daughter. Saadie assured him
+he was sensible of the offence his friend might give to the opinions of
+his people, by the proposal of uniting his daughter to a man of another
+faith, and that their prejudices would bring innumerable evils on his good
+name by such an alliance. "No," said Saadie, "I cannot consent to such a
+measure. I have already been a great trouble to you, if not a burden; let
+me depart, for I cannot consent to draw down on the head of my friend the
+censures of his tribe, and, perhaps, in after-time, disappointments. I
+have, indeed, no desire to marry; my heart and mind are otherways engaged."
+
+'The friends often discussed the subject ere Saadie gave way to the
+earnest solicitations of the Jew, to whose happiness the grateful heart of
+Saadie was about to be sacrificed when he reluctantly consented to become
+the husband of the young Jewess. The marriage ceremony was performed
+according to the Jewish rites, when Saadie was overpowered with the
+caresses and munificence of his friend and father-in-law.
+
+'A very short season of domestic peace resulted to him from the alliance.
+The young lady had been spoiled by the over-indulgence of her doating
+parent, her errors of temper and mind having never been corrected. Proud,
+vindictive, and arrogant, she played the part of tyrant to her meek and
+faultless husband. She strove to rouse his temper by taunts, revilings,
+and indignities that required more than mortal nature to withstand
+replying to, or bear with composure.
+
+'Still Saadie went on suffering in silence; although the trials he had to
+endure undermined his health, he never allowed her father to know the
+misery he had entailed on himself by this compliance with his well-meant
+wishes; nor was the secret cause of his altered appearance suspected by
+the kind-hearted Jew, until by common report his daughter's base behaviour
+was disclosed to the wretched father, who grieved for the misfortunes he
+had innocently prepared for the friend of his heart.
+
+'Saadie, it is said, entreated the good Jew to allow of a divorce from the
+Jewess, which, however, was not agreed to; and when his sufferings had so
+increased that his tranquillity was destroyed, fearing the loss of reason
+would follow, he fled from Aleppo in disguise and retraced his steps to
+Shiraaz, where in solitude his peace of mind was again restored, for there
+he could converse with his merciful Creator and Protector uninterrupted by
+the strife of tongues.'
+
+
+[1] _Hudhud_, the lapwing, hoopoe. In the Koran (xxvii. 20, with Sale's
+    note) the bird is described as carrying a letter from Solomon to the
+    Queen of Sheba. On another occasion, when Solomon was lost in the
+    desert, he sent it to procure for him water for ablution.
+
+[2] The term _sufi_, derived from _suf_, 'wool', in allusion to
+    the garments worn by them, was applied in the second century of Islam
+    to men or women who adopted the ascetic or quietistic way of life. See
+    Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 608 ff.: D.B. Macdonald, _The
+    Development of Muslim Theology_, 1903: E.G. Browne, _A Year Amongst
+    the Persians_, 1893.
+
+[3] If a Sufi becomes, by devotion, attracted to God, he is called
+    _Salik-i-majzub_, 'an attracted devotee': if he practises
+    complete devotion, but is not influenced by the special attraction of
+    God, he is called _Salik_, 'a devotee' (Hughes, _Dictionary of
+    Islam_, 612: Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 197).
+
+[4] See p. 255.
+
+[5] See p. 255.
+
+[6] Gulistan.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXIV
+
+  The Soofies continued.--Eloy Bauxh.--Assembly of Saalik
+  Soofies.--Singular exhibition of their zeal.--Mystery of Soofeism.--The
+  terms Soofie and Durweish explained.--Anecdote of Shah Sherif.--Shah
+  Jee and the Paltaan.--Dialogue on death between Shah Jee and his
+  wife.--Exemplary life of his grandson.--Anecdote of a Mussulmaun
+  lady.--Reflections on modern Hindoos.--Anecdotes of Shah ood Dowlah
+  and Meer Nizaam...Page 348
+
+
+My last Letter introduced the Soofies to your notice, the present shall
+convey a further account of some of these remarkable characters who have
+obtained so great celebrity among the Mussulmauns of India, as to form the
+subjects of daily conversation. I have heard some rigid Mussulmauns
+declare they discredit the mysterious knowledge a Soofie is said to
+possess, yet the same persons confess themselves staggered by the singular
+circumstances attending the practice of Soofies living in their vicinity,
+which they have either witnessed or heard related by men whose veracity
+they cannot doubt; amongst the number I may quote an intimate acquaintance
+of my husband's, a very venerable Syaad of Lucknow, who relates an
+anecdote of Saalik Soofies, which I will here introduce.
+
+'Meer Eloy Bauxh,[1] a Mussulmaun of distinguished piety, who has devoted
+a long life to the service of God, and in doing good to his fellow-men,
+tells me, that being curious to witness the effect of an assembly of
+Saalik Soofies, he went with a party of friends, all equally disposed with
+himself to be amused by the eccentricities of the Soofies, whose practice
+they ridiculed as at least absurd,--to speak in no harsher terms of their
+pretended supernatural gifts.
+
+'This assembly consisted of more than a hundred persons, who by agreement
+met at a large hall in the city of Lucknow, for the purpose of
+"remembering the period of absence", as they term the death of a highly
+revered Soofie of their particular class. The room being large, and free
+admittance allowed to all persons choosing to attend the assembly, Meer
+Eloy Bauxh and his party entered, and seated themselves in a convenient
+place for the more strict scrutiny of the passing-scene.
+
+'The service for the occasion began with a solemn strain by the musical
+performers, when one of the inspired Soofies commenced singing in a voice
+of remarkable melody. The subject was a hymn of praise to the great
+Creator, most impressively composed in the Persian language. Whilst the
+Soofie was singing, one of the elders in particular,--though all seemed
+sensibly affected by the strain,--rose from his seat, in what the Soofies
+themselves call, "the condition changed," which signifies, by what I could
+learn, a religious ecstasy. This person joined in the same melody which
+the other Soofie had begun, and at the same time accompanied the music by
+capering and sobbing in the wildest manner imaginable. His example had the
+effect of exciting all the Soofies on whom his eyes were cast to rise also
+and join him in the hymn and dance.
+
+'The singularity of this scene seemed, to Meer Eloy Bauxh and his party,
+so ludicrous that they could not refrain from laughing in an audible
+manner, which attracted the attention of the principal Soofie engaged in
+the dance, who cast his eyes upon the merry party, not, however,
+apparently in anger. Strange as he confesses it to be,--and even now it
+seems more like a dream than a reality,--at the moment he met the eye of
+the Soofie, there was an instant glow of pure happiness on his heart, a
+sensation of fervent love to God, which he had never before felt, in his
+most devout moments of prayer and praise; his companions were similarly
+affected, their eyes filled with tears, their very souls seemed elevated
+from earth to heaven in the rapture of their songs of adoration, which
+burst forth from their lips in unison with the whole Soofie assemblage.
+
+'Before they had finished their song of praise, which lasted a
+considerable time, the chief of the Soofie party sunk exhausted on the
+carpet, whilst the extraordinary display of devotion continued in full
+force on the whole assembly, whether Soofies or mere visitors, for many
+minutes after the principal devotee had fallen to the floor. Water was
+then procured, and animation gradually returned to the poor exhausted
+devotee, but with considerable delay. Meer Eloy Bauxh says he waited until
+the Soofie was perfectly restored to sense, and saw him taken to his place
+of abode; he then returned to his own home to meditate on the events of a
+day he never can forget.'
+
+Soofeism, it appears, (by the accounts I have received,) is a mystery; the
+secret of which can only be imparted by the professor to such persons as
+have been prepared for its reception, by a course of religious instruction.
+No one can be initiated into the mystery who has not first renounced all
+worldly vanities and ambitious projects--who is not sincerely repentant of
+past offences--who has not acquired perfect humility of heart, and an
+entire resignation to the Divine Will--a lively faith in God, and a firm
+determination to love and serve Him, from a conviction, 'That God alone is
+worthy to be served, loved, and worshipped by His creatures.' Thus
+prepared, the person is to receive instruction from a Calipha, (head or
+leader of the Soofies), who directs the pupil in certain exercises of the
+heart, which constitute the secrets of their profession. What these
+exercises are, I am not competent to give an opinion, but judging by the
+way a real Soofie conducts himself, it may be presumed his practices are
+purely religious; for I am assured that he is devoted to all good ways;
+that he carefully avoids worldly vanities, and every species of temptation
+and alluring gratification of the senses; that he is incessant in prayer,
+and in fasting severe; free from all prejudice, as regards the belief or
+persuasion of other men, so long as they worship God alone; regarding all
+mankind as brothers, himself the humblest of the race; claiming no merit
+for the ascendancy he has acquired over earthly wishes, he gives glory
+alone to God, whom he loves and worships.
+
+All the Durweish are of the Mussulmaun persuasion. Many are devout
+Durweish, who are, nevertheless, unacquainted with the mystery of Soofeism;
+and, to use their own words, (by which the Natives distinguish them),
+'Every real Soofie is undoubtedly a Durweish, but all Durweishes are not
+Soofies,' although their lives may be devoted much in the same holy way,
+both in the practice of religion and abstinence from worldly enjoyments;
+and if the writers on these subjects may be believed, many wonderful cures
+have been effected by the prayers of the devout Durweish.
+
+There are some pretenders, I am told, who put themselves forth to the
+world in the character of a Durweish, who are not, in fact, entitled to
+the appellation,--hypocritical devotees, who wear the outward garb of
+humility, without the feeling of that inward virtue which is the
+characteristic principle of the true Durweish. The distinction between the
+real and the pretended Durweish, may be illustrated by the following
+anecdote which I have received from the mouth of Meer Hadjee Shaah:--
+
+'In the last century,' he says, 'there lived at or near Delhi, a very
+pure-minded Durweish, named Shah Sherif ood deen Mah-mood,[2] (he was
+known in his latter years by several of my aged acquaintance at Lucknow,
+and his son and grandson both lived, at different periods, in that city).
+This person forsook the world whilst in the prime of manhood, and devoted
+himself to prayer, fasting, and good deeds. He was esteemed the most
+humble-minded of human beings, and his devotion to his Maker sincere and
+ardent. His principal abode was Delhi, where his wife and children also
+resided, to whom he was tenderly attached; yet so tempered were his
+affections, that he never allowed any earthly endearments to interfere
+with his devotions, or to separate him from his love to his Creator.
+
+'It was announced by the Soofies and Durweish, that on a certain day a
+festival or assembly of holy men would meet for the service of God, at the
+Jummah musjud[3] (Friday mosque), situated in the city of Delhi.
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen was disposed to attend the meeting, which consisted
+of the heads or superiors of several classes of the religious, with their
+disciples and followers. At this meeting, as was expected, were assembled
+the Soofies, Durweish, and religious mendicants of all ranks and
+conditions, from those clothed in gold-cloth and brocade, down to the
+almost naked Faakeer;[4] and amongst the latter number may be classed the
+humble-minded Shah Sherif ood deen. A small wrapper girt about his loins
+by a girdle of black wool spun into small ropes, and a similar article
+wound round his head, with a coarse white sheet over his shoulders for his
+summer apparel; and a black blanket to shelter his naked limbs from the
+cold winter, formed his sole wardrobe.
+
+'This holy man took his station in the most humble spot of the assembly,
+"sitting amongst the shoes" of the more esteemed or more aspiring
+personages. As there was nothing remarkable in his appearance, he remained
+unobserved, or unnoticed by the multitude present. Many of the assembly
+made great display of their right to pre-eminence, by the costliness of
+their robes, the splendour of their equipage, and the number of their
+servants; striving to command respect, if possible, by their superior
+external habiliments.
+
+'This meeting had been convened to celebrate the death of one of their
+order, which had occurred some years prior. After prayers had been read,
+suited to the occasion, a poor man, whose very appearance might excite
+compassion, addressed the heads of the devotees with folded hands,
+beseeching them, who were accounted so truly holy in their lives, to offer
+up a prayer for him who had so long suffered severe affliction, by reason
+of his neck and face being drawn awry, from a paralytic attack, or some
+like calamity. The sufferer said, "I am a poor merchant, and have a large
+family dependant altogether on my personal exertions for support; but,
+alas! this illness prevents me from attending to the business of life. I
+am wasting both in body and in substance through this grievous affliction."
+
+'The sick man's address was heard by the whole assembly in silence; many
+present, both Soofies and Durweish, were really pious men, and were
+willing to allow the person who seemed to be the head of this assembly, to
+intercede in behalf of the sufferer. To him they all looked, expecting he
+would commence a prayer in which they might join; but he, it is suspected,
+conscious of his own duplicity in assuming only the character of a Soofie
+without the virtues, was anxious to dismiss the supplicant, with a promise
+that prayer should certainly be made for him in private, adding, "This is
+not a proper season for your application; it is disrespectful to disturb
+our meeting with your requests; we came not here to listen to your
+importunities, but on more important, business."
+
+'"True, my Lord," answered the afflicted man; "I am sensible of all you
+say; but, I do assure you, private prayer has been tried for my relief by
+many individuals of your holy profession, and I have still to mourn my
+calamity. I thought when so many holy persons were assembled together, the
+united prayer--in accordance with our Prophet's commands--offered up at
+this time, would certainly be received at the throne of Mercy. I entreat
+then, at the hands of this venerable assembly, the aid I require."
+
+'The pretended Soofie looked haughtily on the sick man, and bade him
+retire to his home; he should have a prayer offered, he might depend, but
+it must be in private. The sufferer was still importunate, and urged every
+argument he could command, to induce the inexorable Soofie to allow the
+present assembly to offer a prayer on the spot for his recovery; but
+nothing he could urge availed with the proud Soofie, who at length grew
+angry even to the use of bitter words.
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen observed in silence the scene before him; at length
+he ventured (in the most respectful terms) to suggest to the heads of the
+assembly the propriety of vouchsafing the poor man's request; and hinted
+that, the prayer of some one more pure of heart than the rest might
+effectually reach the throne of Mercy in behalf of the supplicant.
+
+'"And pray," said the leader, rising haughtily, "who gave you leave to
+suggest or recommend to your superiors in knowledge and virtue? Is not our
+determination sufficient, that you, insignificant being! should presume to
+teach us what we ought to do?--you can know nothing of the Durweish's
+powerful prayers, nor the mystery of a Soofie's holy calling."
+
+'"I am, indeed, a very ignorant and unworthy creature," replied Shah
+Sherif, "and acknowledge my great presumption in daring to speak before so
+many of my superiors in knowledge and virtue; but we are told in our
+hudeeths (true speech) that the prayers of many hearts may prevail in a
+good cause, whilst singly offered the same prayer might fail," The proud
+Soofie's anger seemed to increase as the Durweish spoke; he bade him keep
+silence, and reviled him with many bitter words, which the good Shah
+received with his usual humility and forbearance. At length, the Shah
+looked attentively at the Soofie, who had thus rebuked and insulted him,
+and said, "I will believe, Sir, you are the Soofie you aspire to be
+thought among your fellow-men, if you will immediately offer up your
+single prayer, by which the suffering man may be relieved; for we know
+such prayers have been answered by the gracious Giver of all good."
+
+'"What do you know of the powerful prayer of the Soofie?" replied the
+proud man, "I suspect you to be an impostor in your humble exterior."--"No,
+" said the Shah, "I am but a poor beggar, and a humble, the very humblest
+servant of God."--"You pretend to much humility," retorted the Soofie,
+"suppose we see one of your miraculous works in answer to your prayer; it
+would please us to witness what you can do."
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen raised his eyes to Heaven, his heart went with his
+prayer, and in a dignified manner he stretched forth his hand towards the
+afflicted person. The man was instantly restored; then drawing his hand
+into a direct line with the proud Soofie, and pointing his finger to him,
+he said, "What more, friend, dost them now require of me? The man's
+affliction is removed, but the power which is delegated to me rests still
+on my finger; command me, to whom shall I present it; to you, or any one
+of your people?"
+
+'The proud Soofie hung his head abashed and confounded, he had not power
+to answer. The Shah observed his confusion and said, "It is not well to
+pray for relief to one poor weak fellow-creature, and then to afflict
+another; to the mountain's retreat, I will consign this malady." Then
+shaking his hand as if to relieve himself from a heavy weight, he uttered
+in a solemn tone, "Go to the mountains!" and resumed that humble seat he
+had first chosen with a smile of composure beaming on his countenance.'
+This miracle is actually believed by the Natives to be true.
+
+Shah Sherif ood deen, say the people who know him, spent the principal
+part of each day and night in silent prayer and meditation; no one ever
+ventured to intrude within his small sanctuary, but hundreds of people
+would assemble outside the building, in front of which he occasionally sat
+for an hour, but scarcely ever conversed with any one of his visitors.
+During the time he was thus seated, he generally raised his eyes once or
+twice, and looked round on the faces of his audience. It was generally
+remarked, that no one could meet the eye of Shah Jee--that familiar
+appellation by which he was known--without an indescribable sensation of
+reverential awe, which irresistibly compelled them to withdraw their eyes.
+The talismanic power of Shah Jee's eyes had become proverbial throughout
+the city of Delhi. A certain Pattaan,[5] however, of warlike appearance, a
+man remarkable for his bravery, declared amongst his associates that he
+would certainly out-stare Shah Jee, if ever they met, which he was
+resolved should be the very first opportunity; he accordingly went with
+his companions at a time when this Durweish was expected to appear in
+public.
+
+The Pattaan was seated on the floor with many other people; when the Shah
+issued from his sanctuary, the people rose to make their salaams, which
+Shah Jee either did not, or would not observe, but seated himself
+according to his custom on the mat which had been spread for him; where,
+his eyes fixed on the ground, he seemed for some time to be wholly
+absorbed in silent meditation. At length, raising his head, he turned his
+face to the long line of spectators, saluting with his eyes each person in
+the row, until he came to the Pattaan, who, according to his vow, kept his
+large eyes fixed on the Durweish. Shah Jee went on with his survey, and a
+second time cast a glance along the whole line, not omitting the Pattaan
+as before, whose gaze, his companions observed, was as firmly settled on
+the Durweish as at the first. A third time the eyes of the Shah went round
+the assembly and rested again on the Pattaan.
+
+Observing the immoveable eyes of their Pattaan acquaintance, the visitors
+smiled at each other, and secretly gave him credit for a piety and
+pureness of heart which he was not before supposed to be blessed with;
+'How else,' said they, 'would he have been able to withstand the
+penetrating glance of the revered Durweish.' Shah Jee rose from his seat,
+and retired, thus giving to the company a signal for their departure from
+the place.
+
+The associates of the Pattaan congratulated him on his success, and
+inquired by what stratagem he had so well succeeded in fulfilling his
+promise; but his eyes being still fixed in a wild stare, he replied not to
+his questioners. They rallied him, and tried by a variety of means to
+dissolve his reverie; but the Pattaan was insensible, all the boasted
+energies of his mind having forsaken him. His friends were now alarmed at
+his abstractedness, and with considerable difficulty removed him from the
+place to his own home, where his family received him, for the first time,
+with grief, as he was their whole stay and support, and the kind head of a
+large family.
+
+The Pattaan continued staring in the same state throughout the night and
+following day, talking wildly and incoherently. 'The Pattaan is paid for
+his presumption,' said some; others recommended application to be made to
+the Durweish, Shah Jee, who could alone remove the calamity. The wife and
+mother, with many female dependants, resolved on pleading his case with
+the benevolent Shah Jee; but as access to him would be difficult, they
+conceived the idea of making their petition through the agency of the wife
+of the Durweish, to whom they accordingly went in a body at night, and
+related their distress, and the manner in which they supposed it to have
+originated, declaring, in conclusion, that as the excellent Durweish had
+been pleased to cast this affliction on their guardian, they must become
+slaves to his family, since bread could no longer be provided by the
+labour of him who had hitherto been their support.
+
+The wife of the Durweish comforted the women by kind words, desiring them
+to wait patiently until her dear lord could be spoken with, as she never
+ventured to intrude on his privacy at an improper moment, however urgent
+the necessity. After a few hours' delay, passed with impatient feeling by
+the group of petitioning females, they were at length repaid by the voice
+of Shah Jee. His wife going to the door of his apartment, told him of the
+circumstance attending the Pattaan, and the distressed condition of the
+females of his family, who came to supplicate his aid in restoring their
+relative to reason; adding, 'What commands will you be pleased to convey
+by me? What remedy do you propose for the suffering Pattaan?'
+
+The Durweish answered, 'His impure heart, then, could not withstand the
+reflected light. Well, well! tell the poor women to be comforted, and as
+they desire to have the Pattaan restored to his former state, they need
+only purchase some sweetmeats from the bazaar, which the man being induced
+to eat, he will speedily be restored to his wonted bodily and mental
+powers.'
+
+Upon hearing the commands of Shah Jee, the women speedily departed,
+ejaculating blessings on the Durweish, his wife, and family. On their
+return they purchased the sweetmeats and presented them to the Pattaan,
+who devoured them with eagerness, and immediately afterwards his former
+senses returned, to the no small joy of his family circle. They inquired
+of him, what had been the state of his feelings during the time he was in
+that insensible state from which he was now happily relieved? He replied,
+that the first gaze of the Durweish had fixed his eyes so firmly that he
+could by no means close or withdraw them from the object; the second
+glance detached his thoughts from every earthly vanity or wish; and that
+the third look from the same holy person, fixed him in unspeakable joys,
+transports pure and heavenly, which continued until he had eaten the
+sweetmeats they had presented, with a kind intention, he had no doubt, but
+which nevertheless, must be ever regretted by him whilst life remained;
+for no earthly joy could be compared with that which he had experienced in
+his trance.
+
+The Durweish Shah Sherif ood deen, was asked by some one why he had
+selected the bazaar sweetmeats as a remedy in the Pattaan's case? He
+answered, 'Because I knew the man's heart was corrupt. The light which had
+been imparted to him could alone be removed by his partaking of the
+dirtiest thing mortals hold good for food, and surely there cannot be any
+thing more dirty than the bazaar sweetmeats, exposed as they are to the
+flies and dust of the city; and how filthily they are manufactured
+requires not my aid in exposing.'
+
+This Durweish is said,--and believed by the good Mussulmaun people I have
+conversed with,--to have foreseen the hour when he should be summoned from
+this life into eternity; and three weeks prior to the appointed time, he
+endeavoured to fortify the minds of his wife and family, to bear with
+resignation that separation he had been warned should take place. He
+assembled his affectionate relatives on the occasion, and thus addressed
+them, 'My dear family, it is the will of God that we should part; on such
+a day (mentioning the time), my soul will take flight from its earthly
+mansion. Be ye all comforted, and hereafter, if ye obey God's holy law, ye
+shall meet me again in a blessed eternity.'
+
+As may be supposed, the females wept bitterly; they were distressed,
+because the good Durweish had ever been kind, indulgent, affectionate, and
+tender in all the relative situations he held amongst them. He tried many
+soothing arguments to comfort and console them for some hours, but without
+in the least reducing their grief, or moderating their bewailings: they
+could not, and would not be comforted.
+
+'Well,' said the Durweish, 'since the separation I have predicted causes
+you all so much sorrow, it would be better, perhaps, that we part not. I
+have thought of another method to avoid the pangs of separation; I will
+offer my prayers this night to the gracious Giver of all good, that He may
+be pleased to permit ye all to bear me company in death.'
+
+'Oh! stay your prayer!' said the wife of the Durweish; 'this must not be;
+for if we all die at once, who will perform the funeral rites, and deposit
+our bodies in the earth?' The Durweish smiled at his wife's objection, and
+answered, 'This is of no consequence to us, dear wife: the body may be
+likened to a garment that is thrown off when old; the soul having worn its
+earthly covering for a season, at the appointed time shakes off the
+perishable piece of corruption, to enter into a purer state of existence.
+It matters not if the body have a burial or not; the soul takes no
+cognizance of the clay it has quitted. Yet, if it be a matter of great
+consideration with you, be assured that many pious men and Durweish, whose
+respect we have enjoyed in life, will not fail to give decent interment to
+the remains of those they have loved and respected.'
+
+This for a moment baffled the wife in her argument; but presently she
+persuasively urged that her daughters were all young, that they had as yet
+seen but little of this world, and therefore it would be cruel to take
+them away so soon; they must desire to see more of this life ere they
+entered on another state of existence. 'Oh, my wife,' said the Durweish,
+'you reason badly; this life hath no joys to be compared with those which
+the righteous man's hopes lead him to expect in the world beyond the grave.
+I will assuredly make my promised prayer, if I find a semblance of
+remaining grief upon separating from me at the appointed time, for our
+removal to perfect happiness.'
+
+'No, no!' was cried by all the assembled family; 'do let us remain a
+little longer here, we are not in a hurry to quit this world.'--'Well,
+well, be satisfied then,' responded the Durweish, 'if such is your desire;
+and hereafter let me not hear a sigh or a murmur from one of you, for my
+appointed time is drawing to a close; if you will not accompany me, let me,
+at least, depart in peace.'
+
+The people who relate this (and I have heard the anecdote from many) add,
+that the Durweish Shah Sherif ood deen Mah-mood died at the close of the
+third week, and on the day and hour he had predicted.
+
+A grandson of this Durweish I have been writing about is still living in
+India, remarkable for a very retentive memory and propriety of life. I
+have not met with this gentleman during my residence in India, but have
+often heard his name mentioned with respect by Meer Hadjee Shaah who knew
+him well. He says that this Syaad, when but a boy, learned the whole
+Khoraun by heart[6] in the short space of forty days; he adds, that this
+person is exemplary in his life, and in his habits and manners humble;
+that he is truly a servant of God; rejects the mystic tenets of Soofieism;
+possesses an enlightened mind, and is a Moollah or Doctor of the
+Mussulmaun law. I have heard many singular anecdotes of his life, proving
+his disregard for riches, honours, and the vain pursuits of the
+worldly-minded. If I recollect right, he once was engaged in the
+confidential office of Moonshie to a highly talented gentleman at Fort
+William, from which employment he retired and took up his abode for some
+time at Lucknow; from whence, it was said, he went to Hydrabaad, where, it
+is probable, he may still be found in the exercise of a religious course
+of life. His name is respected by all the good men of his own persuasion,
+with whom I have been most intimately acquainted.
+
+Conceiving the subject may be interesting to my friends, I will not offer
+any apology for introducing to your notice a female character of great
+merit, whose death occurred during my residence in the vicinity of her
+abode. I was induced to make memorandums of the circumstances which
+brought the knowledge of her virtues more immediately before the public.
+
+Maulvee Meer Syaad Mahumud[7] succeeded, on the death of his father, in
+1822, to the exalted position amongst Mussulmauns of head leader and
+expounder of the Mahumudan law in the city of Lucknow; he is a person of
+unassuming manners and extreme good sense, is an upright, honest-hearted,
+religious man, meriting and receiving the respect and good opinion of all
+his countrymen capable of appreciating the worthiness of his general
+deportment. He is esteemed the most learned person of the present age
+amongst Asiatic scholars; and occupies his time in study and devotion, and
+in giving gratuitous instruction to youth, at stated hours, in those laws
+which he makes his own rule of life. Neither is the good Maulvee's fame
+confined to the city in which he sojourns, as may be gathered from the
+following anecdote, which exhibits the upright principles of this worthy
+man, at the same time that it discloses the character of a very amiable
+female, whose charity was as unbounded as her memory is revered in
+Furrukhabaad.
+
+'The late Nuwaub of Furrukhabaad[8] was first married to a lady of birth
+and good fortune, Villoiettee Begum,[9] by whom he was not blessed with a
+son; but he had other wives, one of whom bore him an heir, who at the
+present time enjoys the musnud of his father.
+
+'Villoiettee Begum was beautiful in person, and possessed a heart of the
+most benevolent and rare kind; her whole delight was centred in the
+exercises of those duties which her religion inculcated; she spent much of
+her time in prayer, in acquiring a knowledge of the Khoraun, in acts of
+kindness to her fellow-creatures, and in strict abstinence.
+
+'It was her unvaried custom at meals before she touched a morsel herself,
+to have twelve portions of food, selected from the choicest viands
+provided for her use, set apart for as many poor people; and when they had
+been served, she humbly and sparingly partook of the meal before her. She
+was possessed of great wealth, yet never expended any portion of it in the
+extravagances of dress; indeed, so humble was her appearance, that she
+might have been mistaken for the meanest of her slaves or domestics. It
+was her usual custom, whenever she purchased new clothing for her own wear,
+to lay in a large store for the poor; and it is affirmed, by those who
+were long intimate with the family, that a supplicant was never known to
+pass her door without relief. She even sought out, with the aid of a
+faithful domestic, the modest poor who were restrained by their feelings
+from intruding their necessities; and her liberal donations were
+distributed in so kind a manner, that even the pride of birth could never
+feel distressed when receiving her charitable assistance.
+
+'This lady was much attached to the duties of her religion, and delighted
+in acquiring instruction from righteous persons of her own faith. She
+showered favours on all the poor who were reported to live in the fear of
+God; indeed, such was the liberality, benevolence, and unvaried charity of
+this good lady, that the news of her death was received by hundreds of
+people as their greatest earthly calamity. The example of this lady's
+character is the more enhanced by reflecting on the retired way in which
+she was reared and lived, restrained by the customs of her people within
+the high walls of a zeenahnah, without the advantages of a liberal
+education or the immediate society of intelligent people. She seems, by
+all accounts, to have been a most perfect pattern of human excellence.
+
+'In forming her will (Villoiettee Begum had been a widow several years
+before her death), she does not appear to have wished a single thing to be
+done towards perpetuating her name,--as is usual with the great, in
+erecting lofty domes over the deposited clay of the Mussulmaun,--but her
+immense wealth was chiefly bequeathed in charitable gifts. The holy and
+the humble were equally remembered in its distribution. She had been
+acquainted with the virtues of the good Maulvee of Lucknow, to whom she
+left a handsome sum of money for his own use, and many valuable articles
+to fit up the Emaum-baarah for the service of Mahurrum, with a, desire
+that the same should be conveyed to him as soon after her death as
+convenient. Her vakeel (agent) wrote to Meer Syaad Mahumud very soon after
+the lady's death, to apprise him of the bequest Villoiettee Begum had
+willed to him, and at the same time forwarded the portable articles to him
+at Lucknow.
+
+'The Maulvee was much surprised, and fancied there must be some mistake in
+the person for whom this legacy was intended, as the lady herself was
+entirely unknown to him, and an inhabitant of a station so remote from his
+own residence as not likely ever to have heard of him. He, however,
+replied to the vakeel, and wrote also to a gentleman in the neighbourhood,
+desiring to have a strict inquiry instituted before he could venture to
+accept the riches of this lady's bounty, presuming that even if he was the
+person alluded to in her will, that the Begum must have intended him as
+her almoner to the poor of Lucknow. The good, upright Maulvee acted on the
+integrity of his heart and desired a strict scrutiny might be instituted
+into the will of the deceased, which was accordingly made, and he was
+assured in reply, that Villoiettee Begum had been long acquainted with his
+worth, and in her liberal bequest she had decidedly intended the money for
+his sole use and benefit, in testimony of her respect for his virtuous
+character. The Maulvee again wrote and requested to be informed by those
+most intimate with the Begum's way of life, whether she had left
+unperformed any of the duties incumbent on a member of the faithful, as
+regards zuckhaut[10], pilgrimage, the fast, &c.? which not having
+accomplished, and having ample means, he felt himself bound, in the
+situation he held, to devote her legacy to the purpose of such duties by
+proxy (which their law commands) in her name. He was in reply assured that
+the good Begum had not omitted any part of her duty; she had regularly
+applied zuckhaut, duly performed the fast, had paid the expenses for poor
+pilgrims to Mecca (her substitutes); and not until all the scruples of the
+just Maulvec had been removed would he hear of, or accept the Begum's
+legacy.'
+
+The anecdote I have now given will serve to illustrate the character of
+some good people of Hindoostaun of the present day; indeed, the veneration
+and respect paid by all classes to those men who lead religious lives, is
+but little changed from the earlier pages of the Mussulmaun history. I
+have just met with a Durweish anecdote, of former times, that may be worth
+transcribing, as I have received it from Meer Hadjee Shaah, whose aid I am
+so much indebted to for subjects with which to amuse my friends.
+
+'Shaah ood Dowlah[11] was a Durweish who flourished in the reign of King
+Shah Jaluui at Delhi, but whose fame is known throughout India to the
+present day. The Durweish was remarkable for his activity of body. It is
+related, that he was often to be seen at prayer in Delhi, and in three
+hours after he had transported himself eighty miles oil without any
+visible assistance but his own personal activity on foot. This
+extraordinary rapidity of movement rendered him an object of veneration;
+and the general belief was, that he was highly favoured of Heaven, and
+gifted with supernatural power; the life he led was purely religious, with
+a total disregard of earthly riches.
+
+'The King, Shah Jahan, was a very sensible person, and a great admirer of
+all that is counted good and excellent in his fellow-men; he was
+particularly friendly to such men as the Durweish, or others who devoted
+their lives to religious exercises. He had often heard of Shah ood Dowlah,
+without ever meeting with him, and on hearing of some singular acts of
+this Durweish, he was desirous of seeing him, and gave orders accordingly
+to his Minister, that messengers should be sent in search of the holy man,
+but as often as they appeared before the Durweish's hut he was invisible;
+this statement even added to the King's curiosity. On a certain day the
+King was seated on the story of his palace which overlooked the town and
+the outskirts beyond the walls, in conversation with his Minister and
+favourites, when the Durweish was espied at no great distance standing on
+the broadway; which, when the King knew, he desired messengers might be
+dispatched to convey the holy man to his presence. "Your royal will shall
+be obeyed", replied the Minister; "but your Majesty must be aware that the
+extent of the circuit from the palace to the outer gate is so great that
+long before a slave can get to that road, Shah ood Dowlah will be beyond
+the reach of our summons. With all due submission to your Majesty's better
+judgement, would it not be more prudent to call him from hence, and
+persuade him to ascend the wall in a basket suspended to a rope." The King
+agreed, and the Durweish was hailed. "Our King, the Protector of the World,
+commands Shah ood Dowlah's attendance?"--The Durweish, looking up at the
+summoner, inquired, "Where is the King?"--"In this apartment," he was
+answered.--"How am I to get near him? he is too far off: an old man does
+not well to climb."--"Wait a minute", replied the servant, "your
+conveyance shall be prepared."
+
+'In a few minutes the basket descended from the upper story, by a strong
+rope, well secured against the probability of accident. The Durweish,--who
+was covered with a chudha[12], or sheet, to keep him from giddiness in the
+ascent,--seated himself firmly in the basket, and the servants drew him up
+in safety. He was immediately conveyed to the King's apartment; who,
+contrary to precedent, rose at his entrance to receive this respected and
+much-desired guest.
+
+'"Pray be seated, my friend", said the King, leading him to the most
+honoured part of the royal carpet. The Durweish obeyed without a moment's
+hesitation, to the astonishment of the Vizier, nobles, courtiers, &c., who
+had never before seen a human being seated in the King's presence, not
+even one of the most exalted of the nobles. "I have long desired this
+happiness," said the King to the Durweish, "that I might converse with you.
+"--"Your Majesty is very gracious to the poor Durweish", was responded. "I
+hear much of your great virtue and good life," said the King, "from the
+world, my subjects."--"They do but flatter the poor Durweish," was his
+reply; adding, "none can tell what passes in my heart, when they view only
+my face. I am but a poor Durweish."
+
+'"I have many questions to ask you," said the King, "which I hope to have
+resolved from your own mouth; but, first, I beg to be informed, what
+methods you have used in order to acquire that command over selfish
+feelings, which is displayed in your intercourse with the world? and by
+what means you have become so enlightened in the ways pleasing to God?"
+
+'The Durweish with a smile of pleasure, and in language calm as respectful,
+answered in the following words:--"Your Majesty, the Protector of the
+World, was desirous of becoming personally known to the very meanest of
+your subjects, the poor Durweish; the opportunity arrived, and you
+condescended to let down a line of rope to assist your poor subject in the
+ascent to your presence. With equal condescension you have seated me by
+your side; and I, the poor Durweish, feel a due sense of the honour
+conferred on me. Had I been anxious to gain admittance to the Protector of
+the World, many would have been the difficulties to surmount; your castle
+is well guarded, your gates innumerable to be passed ere this place could
+be reached, and who would have aided the poor Durweish's wishes? But your
+Majesty had the will, and the power to effect that will; whilst I, who had
+neither, might have exerted myself for ages without effect. Such then, O
+King! is the way God draws those whom He wills unto Him. He sees into the
+hidden recesses of the human heart, and knows every working of mortal
+minds; He has no difficulty to surmount; for to whom in His mercy He
+grants evidence of His love, He draws them to Himself in heart, in soul,
+in mind, with infinitely less effort than thou hast exerted to draw my
+mortal body within thy palace. It is God who in love and mercy throws the
+line to man; happy that soul who accepts the offered means, by which he
+may ascend!"'
+
+Meer Nizaam ood deen[13] lived many years at Lucknow, where he was much
+esteemed by the religious men of the time; some who survived him have
+frequently entertained me with anecdotes of that respected Durweish. Out
+of the many I have heard detailed by them, I have selected for this place
+a few of the most interesting:--
+
+A certain King of Delhi (whose name has escaped my recollection) having
+heard of the remarkable piety of this Durweish, expressed a great desire
+to see him, and the message was conveyed by a confidential person,
+instructed to say to the holy man, that his presence was solicited as a
+favour at Court. The person intrusted with the royal message, remarked to
+Meer Nizaam, when he had agreed to accompany him, that his mean apparel
+was not suited to appear in the presence of majesty, and offered to
+provide him with a superior dress.
+
+The Durweish looked steadily in the face of the proposer, and addressed
+him, 'Friend! know you not, that clad in these very garments you deride, I
+make my daily prayers to Him who is the Creator and Lord of the whole
+earth, and all that therein is? If I am not ashamed to appear in the
+presence of my God thus habited, canst thou think I shall deem it needful
+to change my garments for one who is, at best but the creature of my
+Creator? Thinkest thou I would pay more deference to my fellow-man than I
+have done to my God? No, no; be assured the clothes I wear will not be
+changed for earthly visits.'
+
+This Durweish had a mind and heart so entirely devoted to his Creator, and
+was so thoroughly purified from earthly vanity, that his every wish was
+granted as soon as it had been formed in his heart, says one of his many
+admirers, Meer Eloy Bauxh[14]; who, in proof that he was so gifted, relates
+the following anecdote which I give in his own words:--
+
+'One day I was conversing with the Durweish, Meer Nizaam, when he told me
+he could bring me to his door, from my own home, at any hour or time he
+pleased. I was a little wavering in my belief of his power to do so, and
+offered some remarks that indicated my doubts. "Well," said he in reply,
+"you shall be convinced, my friend, ere long, I promise you."
+
+'A few evenings after this conversation had been held, I was seated on my
+charpoy, in meditation,--my usual practice after the evening namaaz,--when
+a sudden impulse seized my mind, that I must immediately go off to the
+Durweish who lived at the opposite extremity of this large city (Lucknow).
+I prepared to set out, and by the time I was ready, the rain burst forth
+in torrents from the over-charged clouds. Still the impulse was so strong
+that I cared not for this impediment even, which under ordinary
+circumstances would have deterred me from venturing out on a dark evening
+of storm; I wrapped myself up in my labaadah[15], took a stick and
+umbrella, and sallied forth in great haste. On reaching the outer gate of
+my premises, the strong, feeling that had impelled me to proceed, vanished
+from my mind, and I was as strongly urged by an opposite impulse to retire
+again within my own habitation, where, if I reasoned at all, it was on the
+unusual changeableness of my fixed resolution, for I never thought about
+the subject of the Durweish's prediction at the time.
+
+'Some few days after this, I paid Meer Nizaam a visit, and after our usual
+embrace and salutations were over, he said to me, "Well, my friend, are
+you convinced by this time, that I have the power to bring you to me
+whenever I wish, by the preparations you made for coming on the evening of
+such a day?" (mentioning the time and hour accurately).
+
+'"I remember well my desire to visit you, but why was I deterred from my
+purpose?" I asked. The Durweish replied, "Out of pure compassion for the
+fatigue and pains it would have given you, had you come so far on such a
+night of rain and tempest. My pity for you altered my wishes, and thereby
+your purposes. I only wished you to be convinced, and perhaps you are so
+now."'
+
+Meer Eloy Bauxh often speaks of this circumstance, and declares he has
+full confidence that the Durweish in question possessed the power of
+influencing the minds of others, or attracting them by his wishes to
+appear before him.
+
+'This Durweish was once applied to by a Mussulmaun, who went regularly for
+many days in succession, to watch a favourable moment for soliciting
+advice and assistance in his then uneasy state of mind. The Mussulmaun's
+name was Hummoon[16], since designated Shah, a native of the Upper
+Provinces of Hindoostaun, in the Lahore district. Hummoon occasionally
+passing near the river, had frequently observed, amongst, the number of
+Hindoo women, on their way to and from the place of bathing, one young
+female whose charms riveted his attention. He sometimes fancied that the
+girl smiled on him; but aware of the strong prejudices of her caste, which
+prohibits intercourse even, much less marriage, with men of another
+persuasion, he loved therefore without hope; yet he could not resist, as
+the opportunity offered, of again and again watching for a glance at the
+beautiful Hindoo whose person had won his entire affections. Not a word
+had ever passed between them, but he fancied she sometimes returned his
+looks of love in her smiles.
+
+'The passion of Hummoon increased daily; he could with difficulty restrain
+himself within the prescribed bounds; he longed to address her, and in
+vain puzzled his imagination for the proper means to adopt, for he knew
+the edict of her caste had placed a barrier between them of an
+insurmountable nature. For months he endured all the torments of his
+perplexing state, and at last resolved on applying to the good Durweish
+for advice and assistance, whose famed powers had been long the subject of
+admiration among the Mussulmauns.
+
+Hummoon went daily to the threshold of the Durweish, and seated himself
+among the many who, like him, had some favour to ask of the holy man, at
+the propitious moment when he chose to be visible and disposed to look
+round upon his petitioning visitors. All waited for a look with the most
+intense anxiety (for a Durweish does not always notice his courtiers), and
+happy did he deem himself who was encouraged by the recognition of his eye,
+to offer his petition by word of mouth. Many such applicants had been
+favoured by the Durweish, yet Hummoon visited daily without being noticed
+by the holy man. At length, however, a look of inquiry was given to the
+almost despairing Hummoon; thus encouraged, he folded his hands, and bent
+them forward in a supplicating attitude, told his distresses as briefly as
+the subject would permit, and concluded his tale of sorrow, by entreating
+the Durweish would instruct him in the exercise of some prayer by which he
+might be made happy with the object of his love.
+
+'The Durweish listened attentively to Hummoon's tale; and more, he pitied
+him, for he felt at all times a due proportion of sympathy for the misery
+of his fellow-creatures, and the singularity of Hummoon's case affected
+him. He told him he could teach the way to become deserving of having his
+wishes in this world granted to him, but more he could not answer for; but
+it would take him a considerable time to practise the devotions necessary
+to his future peace, which were of the heart, not the mere repetition of a
+prayer by the lips. Hummoon readily assured the Durweish, he was willing
+to be guided by his advice and instruction; adding, that he would
+patiently persevere for any length of time necessary, so that at last his
+object might be accomplished.
+
+'Hummoon commenced under the tuition of the Durweish the practice of
+devotional exercises. He forsook (as was required of him) all vain
+pursuits, worldly desires, or selfish gratifications; day and night was
+devoted to religious study and prayer, and such was the good effect of his
+perseverance and progressive increase of faith, that at the end of some
+few months he had entirely left off thinking of the first object of his
+adoration, his whole heart and soul being absorbed in contemplation of,
+and devotion to, his Creator. At the end of a year, no trace or
+remembrance of his old passion existed; he became a perfect Durweish,
+retired to a solitary place, where under the shade of trees he would sit
+alone for days and nights in calm composure, abstracted from every other
+thought but that of his God, to whom he was now entirely devoted.'
+
+I am told that this Durweish, Hummoon Shah, is still living
+in the Lahore province, a pattern of all that is excellent in
+virtue and devotion.
+
+
+[1] Mir Ilahi Bakhsh.
+
+[2] Shah Sharif-ud-din, Mahmud.
+
+[3] Jame' Masjid, the Congregational mosque.
+
+[4] Faqir, a poor man, one poor in the sight of God.
+
+[5] Pathan, a frontier tribe, many of which reside in British India.
+
+[6] Such a person is called Hafiz.
+
+[7] Maulavi Mir Sayyid Muhammad.
+
+[8] Early in the eighteenth century Farrukhabad, now a district of
+    this name in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, became an
+    independent State during the decay of the Moghul Empire. The line of
+    Nawabs was founded by Muhammad Khan, an Afghan of the Bangash
+    tribe. It was annexed by Oudh in 1749 and ceded to the British in 1801,
+    on which event the Nawab ceased to be independent. The last Nawa
+    b joined the rebels in the mutiny of 1857.
+
+[9] Wilayati Begam, the foreign lady.
+
+[10] See p. 67.
+
+[11] Shah-ud-daula.
+
+[12] _Chadar_.
+
+[13] Mir Nizam-ud-din.
+
+[14] Mir Ilahi Bakhsh.
+
+[15] _Labada_, a rain-coat.
+
+[16] Hamun.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXV
+
+  Mussulmaun Devotees.--The Chillubdhaars.--Peculiar mode of
+  worship.--Propitiatory offerings.--Supposed to be invulnerable to
+  fire.--The Maadhaars or Duffelees.--Character of the
+  founder.--Pilgrimage to his tomb.--Females afflicted on visiting
+  it.--Effects attributed to the violation of the sanctuary by a
+  foreigner.--Superstition of the Natives.--Anecdote of Sheikh Suddoo
+  and the Genii.--The way of the world exemplified, a Khaunie
+  (Hindoostaunie fable).--Moral fable.--The King who longed for
+  fruit...Page 370
+
+
+There are many classes of men amongst the Mussulmauns, who either abjure
+the world or seem to do so, independent of those denominated Durweish;--
+such us the religions mendicants, &c., who have no earthly calling, and
+derive their subsistence from the free-will offerings of their neighbours,
+or the bounty of the rich, who from respect for their humble calling, and
+a hope of benefit from their prayers, or rather from the veneration of
+Mussulmauns towards such of their faith as have renounced the world for
+the service of God.
+
+The Chillubdhaars[1] are a well-known class of wanderers; their founder
+was a Syaad, Ahmud Kaabeer,[2] of whom many wonderful things are related
+sufficient to impress on the weak mind a belief in his supernatural
+ascendancy. His presumed powers are said to have been chiefly instrumental
+in curing the sick or in removing temporal afflictions; but his effectual
+prayers in behalf of people in difficulty, they say, surpassed those of
+any other of the whole tribes of devotees that have at any age existed.
+His admirers and followers speak of him as having been invulnerable to
+fire. In his lifetime he had forty disciples or pupils constantly with him;
+at his death these forty separated, each in the course of time
+accumulating his forty pupils, after the pattern of their founder, who
+also eventually became leaders, and so on, until at the present time, it
+is conjectured, there are few places in Asia exempt from one or more
+detachments of these Chillubdhaar practical beggars who are much admired
+by the weak; and although they profess the same tenets and rules of life
+with their founder, Syaad Ahmud Kaabeer, yet, I believe, no one gives the
+Chillubdhaars of the present period credit for possessing either the
+virtues or the power of that man who set them so many bright examples;
+nevertheless, they are applied to on emergencies by the ignorant and the
+credulous of the present day, courted by the weak, and tolerated by all.
+
+They all practise one plan whenever called upon to remove the difficulty
+of any person who places sufficient confidence in their ability. On such
+occasions, a young heifer, two years old, is supplied by the person having
+a request to make, after which a fire of charcoal is made in an open space
+of ground, and the animal sacrificed according to Mussulmaun form. The
+tender pieces of meat are selected, spitted, and roasted over the fire, of
+which when cooked, all present are requested to partake. Whilst the meat
+is roasting, the Chillubdhaars beat time with a small tambourine to a song
+or dirge expressive of their love and respect to the memory of the
+departed saint, their founder and patron, and a hymn of praise to the
+Creator.
+
+The feast concluded, whilst the fire of charcoal retains a lively heat,
+these devotees commence dancing, still beating their tambourines and
+calling out with an audible voice, 'There is but one God!--Mahumud is the
+Prophet of God!' Then they sing in praise of Ali, the descendants of the
+Prophet, and, lastly, of Syaad Ahmud Kaabeer their beloved saint. Each
+then puts his naked foot in the fire: some even throw themselves upon
+it,--their associates taking care to catch them before they are well
+down,--others jump into the fire and out again instantly; lastly, the whole
+assembly trample and kick the remaining embers about, whilst a spark
+remains to be quenched by this means.[3] These efforts, it is pretended,
+are sufficient to remove the difficulties of the persons supplying
+the heifer and the charcoal.
+
+These mendicants live on public favour and contributions; they wear
+clothes, are deemed harmless, never ask alms, but are always willing to
+accept them, and have no laws of celibacy, as is the case with some
+wandering beggars in India, who are naked except the wrapper; sometimes
+they settle, making fresh converts, but many wander from city to city,
+always finding people disposed to administer to their necessities. They
+are distinguished from other sects, by each individual carrying a small
+tambourine, and wearing clothing of a deep buff colour.
+
+There are another set of wandering mendicants, who are called Madhaar[4]
+beggars, or the Duffelees,[5] by reason of the small hand-drum they carry
+with them. These are the disciples of the sainted Maadhaar, whose tomb is
+visited annually by little short of a million of people, men, women, and
+children, at a place called Muckunpore, about twenty koss from Cawnpore.
+
+Maadhaar was esteemed in his lifetime a most perfect Durweish, and his
+admirers speak of the power he then possessed as still existing; in that
+his pure spirit at stated periods hovers near his last earthly remains,
+where the common people make a sort of pilgrimage to entreat his influence
+in their behalf. A mayllah[6] (fair) is the consequence of this annual
+pilgrimage, which continues, I think, seventeen days in succession, and
+brings together, from many miles distant, the men of business, the
+weak-minded, and the faithful devotees of every class in the Upper
+Provinces.
+
+From the respect paid to the memory of Maadhaar, and the expected
+influence of his spirit at the shrine, the ignorant people bring their
+sons to receive the saint's blessing on their tender years. The man of
+business also presents himself before it, desirous to insure a share of
+success at the fair, and ultimate prosperity at home. The devotee visits
+the shrine from a desire to increase in true wisdom by the reflected light
+of the Maadhaar Durweish's purer spirit. Women having made vows to visit
+the shrine, come to fulfil it at this period, if their hopes be realized
+in the birth of a son; and others to entreat his influence that their
+daughters may be suitably married; in short, all who assemble at this
+mayllah have some prayer to offer, or acknowledgments to make, for they
+depend on the abundant power and influence of the saint's spirit to supply
+their several wants or desires.
+
+At the shrine of this saint, a descendant, or as is suspected often in
+such cases, a pretended relative, takes his station to collect, with all
+the appearance of sanctity and humility, the nuzzas offered at the shrine
+of Maadhaar. The amount so collected is enormous, if credit be given to
+the reports in circulation; for all visitors are expected to present an
+offering, and most of the pilgrims do it for conscience sake. I knew a
+Mussulmaun who went from curiosity to this mayllah; he was accosted rather
+rudely as he was quitting the tomb, without leaving a nuzza; he told the
+guardian of the tomb he had presented the best nuzza he possessed, in a
+prayer for the soul of the departed; (as commanded every Mussulmaun should
+offer when drawing near the tomb of one of his own faith).
+
+I have conversed with a remarkably devout person, on the numerous
+extraordinary stories related of Maadhaar's life, and the subsequent
+influence of his tomb. He told me that women can never, with safety to
+themselves, enter the mausoleum containing his ashes; they are immediately
+seized with violent pains as if their whole body was immersed in flames of
+fire. I spoke rather doubtingly on this subject, upon which he assured me
+that he had known instances of one or two women who had imprudently defied
+the danger, and intruded within the mausoleum, when their agony was
+extreme, and their sufferings for a long time protracted, although they
+eventually recovered.
+
+Another still more remarkable circumstance has been related to me by the
+Natives, for the truth of which I cannot venture to vouch, although I have
+no reason to doubt the veracity of the narrators.
+
+'A party of foreigners, encamped near the fair, wished to see what was
+going on at this far-famed mayllah, and for the purpose of gratifying
+their curiosity, halted on a certain day in the vicinity of the Durgah,
+when the place was much thronged by the various pilgrims to that shrine.
+The party dined in their tent, but drank more wine than was consistent
+with propriety, and one was particularly overcome. When they sallied forth,
+at the close of the day, to visit this saint's tomb, their approach was
+observed by the keepers, who observing how very unfit the strangers
+appeared to enter the sanctuary of other men's devotions,--the hallowed
+ground that was by them respected,--the head-keeper very civilly advanced
+as they moved towards the entrance, requesting that they would desist from
+entering in their apparent condition, contrary to the rules of the place
+and people. The convivial party then drew back, without contesting the
+point, excepting the one most disguised in liquor, who asserted his right
+to enter wherever and whenever he thought good, nor would he be controlled
+by any man in India.
+
+'The keepers spoke very mildly to the tipsy foreigner, and would have
+persuaded him he was doing wrong, but he was not in a state to listen to
+any argument dissuading him from his determined purpose; they warned him
+that a severe punishment must follow his daring, as he pushed past them
+and reeled into the mausoleum, triumphing at his success. He had
+approached the tomb, when he was immediately seized with trembling, and
+sank senseless on the floor; his friends without, observing his situation,
+advanced and were assisted by the keepers in removing the apparently
+inanimate body to the open air: water was procured, and after considerable
+delay, returning symptoms of life were discovered. When able to speak, he
+declared himself to be on the eve of death, and in a few short hours he
+breathed his last.' The unhappy man may have died of apoplexy.
+
+The ignorant part of the population of Hindoostaun hold a superstitious
+belief in the occasional visitations of the spirit of Sheikh Suddoo.[7] It
+is very common to hear the vulgar people say if any one of their friends
+is afflicted with melancholy, hypochondria, &c., 'Ay, it is the spirit of
+Sheikh Suddoo has possessed him.' In such cases the spirit is to be
+dislodged from the afflicted person by sweetmeats, to be distributed among
+the poor; to which is added, if possible, the sacrifice of a black goat. I
+am not quite sure that the night blindness, with which the lower orders of
+Natives are frequently attacked, has not some superstitious allusion
+attached to it; but the only remedy I have ever heard prescribed for it is,
+that the patient should procure the liver of a young kid, which must be
+grilled over the fire, and eaten by the afflicted person. The story of
+this Sheikh Suddoo, which is often related in the zeenahnahs of the
+Mussulmauns, is as follows:--
+
+'Sheikh Suddoo was a very learned man, but a great hypocrite, who passed
+days and nights in the mosque, and was fed by the charitable, his
+neighbours, from such viands as they provided daily for the poor traveller,
+and those men who forsake the world. The Sheikh sometimes wandered into a
+forest seldom penetrated by the foot of man, where, on a certain day, he
+discovered a copper cup, curiously engraved with characters which he tried
+in vain with all his learning to decipher. The Sheikh returned with the
+cup to the mosque, regretting that the characters were unknown to him; but
+as he had long desired to have a good-sized lamp, he fancied from the
+peculiar shape of his prize, that it would answer the very purpose, and
+the same night he exultingly prepared his charaagh[8] (a light) in the
+engraved vessel.
+
+'The moment he had ignited one wick, he was surprised by the appearance of
+a figure, resembling a human being, standing before him, "Who art thou,"
+he demanded, "intruding at this hour on the privacy of a
+hermit?"--"I come", replied the figure, "on the summons from your lamp.
+That vessel, and whoever possesses it, has four attendants, one of whom
+you see before you, your slave. We are Genii, and can only be summoned by
+the lighting up of the vessel now before you; the number of your slaves
+will be in due attendance, always guided by as many wicks as it may be
+your pleasure to light up for our summons. Demand our attendance, at any
+hour you please, we are bound to obey."
+
+'The Sheikh inquired if he or his companions possessed any power. "Power",
+replied the Genii, "belongs to God alone, the Creator of all things
+visible and invisible; but by His permission we are enabled to perform, to
+a certain extent, any reasonable service our master requires."
+
+'The Sheikh soon put their abilities to the test, and satisfied himself
+that these agents would aid and assist him in raising his character with
+the world (for he coveted their praise), "They would", he thought,
+"assuredly believe he was a pious Durweish, when he could convince them by
+a ready compliance with their requests, which must seem to follow his
+prayers, and which he should be able to further now by the aid of the
+Genii."
+
+'The pretended holy man employed his attendant Genii fully; many of his
+demands on their services were difficult, and too often revolting to them;
+yet whilst he retained the lamp in his possession, they were bound to obey
+his commands. He once heard of a king's daughter, who was young and
+beautiful; he therewith summoned the Genii, and required that they should
+convey the princess to him. They reluctantly obeyed his command, and the
+princess was the Sheikh's unwilling companion in the mosque. On another
+occasion, he desired the Genii to bring without delay, to the ground in
+front of his present abiding place, a very curious mosque situated many
+leagues distant, the stones of which were so nicely cemented together,
+that no trace of the joining could be discovered. The Genii received this
+command with regret, but they were obliged to obey, and departed from the
+Sheikh's presence to execute his unworthy orders.
+
+'It happened that the mosque which the Sheikh coveted was the retreat of a
+righteous man, who had separated from the world to serve his God,
+venerable in years and devout in his duties. The Genii commenced their
+labour of removing the mosque; the good man who was at his devotions
+within, fancied an earthquake was shaking the building to its foundation,
+but as he trusted in God for preservation, he breathed a fervent prayer as
+he remained prostrate before Him.
+
+'The shaking of the mosque continued, and he was inspired by a sudden
+thought that induced him to believe some supernatural agency was employed
+against the holy house; he therefore called out, "Who and what are ye, who
+thus sacrilegiously disturb the house of God!" The Genii appeared, and
+made known to what order of beings they belonged, whose servants they were,
+and the purpose of their mission.
+
+'"Begone this instant!" replied the pious man, with a tone of authority
+that deprived them of strength: "a moment's delay, and I will pray that
+you be consumed by fire! Know ye not that this is a mosque, holy, and
+erected wherein to do service to the great and only God? Would Sheikh
+Suddoo add to his enormities by forcing the house of God from its
+foundation? Away, ye servants of the wicked Sheikh, or meet the fire that
+awaits you by a moment's further delay!"
+
+'The Genii fled in haste to their profane employer, whose rage was
+unbounded at their disobedience, as he termed their return without the
+mosque; he raved, stormed, and reviled his slaves in bitter sarcasms, when
+they, heartily tired of the Sheikh's servitude, caught up the copper
+vessel, and, in his struggle to resist the Genii, he was thrown with
+violence on the ground, when his wicked soul was suddenly separated from
+his most impure body.'
+
+This story receives many alterations and additions, agreeable to the
+talent and the inclination of the person relating it in Native society;
+but as there once was a person on whose history it has been founded, they
+do not denominate it fabulous or khaunie.[9] The following, which I am
+about to copy from a translation of my husband's, is really a mere fable;
+and, however trifling and childish it may appear, I feel bound to insert
+it, as one among those things which serves to illustrate the character of
+the people I have undertaken to describe; merely adding, that all these
+fables prove an unceasing entertainment in the zeenahnah, with females who
+cannot themselves read, either for amusement or instruction:--
+
+'A certain man was travelling on horseback through an immense forest; and
+when he came to a particular spot, he observed fire consuming some bushes,
+in the centre of which was a monstrous large snake. The Snake was in
+danger of being destroyed by the flames, so he called to the Traveller, in
+a voice of despair--"Oh! good Sahib, save me, or I perish!"[10]
+
+'The Traveller was a very tender-hearted creature, prone to pity the
+painful sufferings of every living creature, whether man or animal; and
+therefore began to devise some scheme for liberating the Snake from the
+devouring flames. His horse's corn bag, which was made of leather, hung
+dangling by a rope from the crupper; this, he thought, would be the best
+thing he could offer to the distressed Snake. Accordingly, holding fast by
+the rope, he threw the bag towards the flames, and desired the Snake to
+hasten into it, who immediately accepted the offered aid, and the
+Traveller drew him out of his perilous situation.
+
+'No sooner was the Snake released from danger, than, ungrateful for the
+services he had received from the Traveller, he sprang towards him, with
+the purpose of wounding his deliverer. This, however, he failed to
+accomplish, for the Traveller drew back in time to escape the attack; and
+demanded of his enemy his reasons for such base ingratitude, saying--"Have
+I not saved your life by my prompt assistance? What a worthless reptile
+art thou! Is this thy mode of rewarding benefits?"--"Oh!" said the Snake,
+"I am only imitating the way of the world; who ever thinks of returning
+good for good? No, no! every benefit received by the creature of this
+world is rewarded to the donor by an ungrateful return. I tell you, good
+Traveller, I am only following the example set me in the way of the world."
+
+'"I shall not take your word for it," said the Traveller in reply; "but if
+I can be convinced that what you say is true, you shall be welcome to bite
+me."--"Agreed," said the Snake; and off they set together in search of
+adventures.
+
+'The first object they met was a large Pepul-tree[11] whose branches spread
+out an inviting shelter to the weary traveller to repose under, without
+rent or tax. The Pepul-tree was asked, "Whether it was consistent with the
+way of the world for the Snake to try to wound the man who had preserved
+him from destruction."
+
+'The Pepul-tree replied, "To follow in the way of the world, I should say
+the Snake was justified. A good return is never now-a-days tendered for a
+benefit received by mere worldlings, as I can bear witness by my own
+sufferings. Listen to my complaint:--Here in this solitary jungle, where
+neither hut nor mansion is to be found, I spread forth my well-clothed
+branches,--a welcome shelter to the passing traveller from the burning
+heat of the noontide sun, or the deluge poured out from the over-charged
+cloud;---under my cover they cook their meal, and my falling leaves supply
+them with fuel, as also with a bed on which they may recline their weary
+limbs. Think you, when they have thus profited by the good I have done
+them, that they are grateful for my services?--Oh, no! the ingrates
+despoil the symmetry of my form, break off my branches with violence, and
+trudge off triumphantly with the spoil which may serve them for fuel for
+cooking at their next stage. So you see the Snake is right; he has but
+followed the way of the world."
+
+'The Snake exultingly led the way in search of other proofs by which he
+should be justified. They fell in with a man who was by occupation a
+camel-driver. The Man being made acquainted with the point at issue,
+desired to be heard, as he could prove by his own tale that the Snake's
+ingratitude was a true picture of the way of the world:--"I was the sole
+proprietor of a very fine strong camel, by whose labour I earned a
+handsome competence for each day's provision of myself and family, in
+conveying goods and sometimes travellers from place to place, as my good
+fortune served me. On a certain day, returning home through an intricate
+wood, I drew near to a poor blind man who was seated on the ground
+lamenting his hard fate. Hearing my camel's feet advance, he redoubled his
+cries of distress, calling loudly for help and assistance. His piteous
+cries won upon the tender feelings of my heart; so I drew near to inquire
+into his situation, he told me with tears and sobs, that he was travelling
+on foot from his home to visit his relations at the next town; that he had
+been attacked by robbers, his property taken from him by violence, and
+that the boy, his guide, was forced from him by the banditti as a slave;
+and here, added the blind man, must I perish, for I can neither see my way
+home, nor search for food; in this lone place my friends will never think
+to seek me, and my body will be the feast for jackals ere the morning
+dawns.
+
+'"The poor man's story made so deep an impression on my mind, that I
+resolved on assisting him; accordingly my camel was made to kneel down, I
+seated the blind man safely on my beast, and set off with him to the city
+he called his home. Arrived at the city gates, I lowered my camel, and
+offered to assist the poor man in descending from his seat; but, to my
+astonishment, he commenced abusing me for my barefaced wickedness,
+collected a mob around us, by his cries for help from his persecutor,
+declared himself the master of the camel, and accused me of attempting to
+rob him now as I had done his brother before.
+
+'"So plausible was his speech--so apparently innocent and just his
+demands--that the whole collected populace believed I was actually
+attempting to defraud the blind man of his property, and treated me in
+consequence with great severity. I demanded to be taken before the Kauzy
+of the city. 'Yes yes,' said the blind man, 'we will have you before the
+Kauzy'; and away we went, accompanied by the crowd who had espoused the
+blind man's cause against me.
+
+'"The blind man preferred his claim, and advocated his own cause with so
+many arguments of apparent justice, that I was not allowed a voice in the
+business; and in the end I was sentenced to be thrust out of the city as a
+thief and vagabond, with a threat of still greater punishment if I dared
+to return. Here ends my sad tale; and you may judge for yourself, oh,
+Traveller! how truly the Snake has proved to you that he follows but the
+way of the world!"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+'As they pursued their way in search of further conviction, they met a Fox,
+whose wisdom and sagacity was consulted on the important question. Having
+heard the whole history with becoming gravity, the Fox addressed the
+Traveller:--"You can have no good reason to suppose, Mr. Traveller, that
+in your case there should be any deviation from the general rule. I have
+often been obliged to suffer the vilest returns from friends whom I have
+been active to oblige; but I am rather curious to see the way you effected
+the release of the Snake from the fire, for I will candidly confess myself
+so stupid as not clearly to understand the description you have both
+attempted to give. I shall judge the merits of the case better if I see it
+performed."
+
+'To this proposal the Snake and Traveller agreed: and when the corn bag
+was thrown towards the Snake, he crept into it as before. The Fox then
+called out to the Traveller "Draw quickly!" he did so, and the Snake was
+caught by a noose in the cord which the Fox had contrived unperceived, by
+which the Snake was secured fast round the middle. "Now," said the Fox,
+"bruise your enemy, and thus relieve the world of one base
+inhabitant!"'[12]
+
+This fable is frequently enlarged and embellished by the reciter to a
+considerable extent, by introducing many different objects animate and
+inanimate, to elucidate the question before the Fox arrives, who is
+generally brought in to moral the fable.
+
+I trust to be excused for transcribing the following moral fable which was
+translated from the Persian by my husband for my amusement, bearing the
+title of 'The King who longed for an unknown fruit:'--
+
+'A certain King was so great a tyrant, that his servants and subjects
+dreaded each burst of anger, as it were the prelude to their own
+annihilation. The exercise of his will was as absolute as his power; he
+had only to command, and obedience followed, however difficult or
+inconvenient to the people who served under him.
+
+'This tyrant dreamed one night that he was eating fruit of an
+extraordinary flavour and quality. He had never in his whole life seen
+fruit of the kind, neither had he heard such described by travellers; yet
+when he ruminated on the subject in the morning he was resolved to have
+fruit of the same sort his dream presented, or his people should suffer
+for his disappointment.
+
+'The King related his dream, and with it his commands to his Vizier, his
+courtiers, and attendants, that fruit of the same description should be
+brought before him within seven days; in default of which he vowed
+solemnly that death should be the portion of his Vizier, his courtiers,
+and servants. They all knew the King meant to be obeyed, by the
+earnestness of his manner, and they trembled under the weight of his
+perplexing orders; each, therefore, was speedily engaged in the
+all-important search. The whole empire was canvassed, and all the business
+of the Court was suspended to satisfy the whim of the Monarch, without
+avail; terror and dismay marked the countenance of the whole city--for
+certain death awaited these servants of the Court--and there was but now
+one day left to their hopes. The city, the suburbs, the provinces, had
+been searched; disappointment followed from every quarter, and the
+threatened party gave up their hearts to despair.
+
+'A certain Durweish, knowing the consternation of the people, and feeling
+pity for their unmerited sufferings, sent for the Vizier privately. "I am
+not", said the Durweish, "by any means anxious to please the vanity and
+silly wishes of your master, the King, but I do hear with pity the state
+of despair you and your fellows are reduced to, by the unsuccessful
+results of your search after the fruit, and the certain consequences which
+are to follow your failure."
+
+'Then giving the Vizier a fragment of a broken pitcher, on which was
+ciphered unknown characters, he told him to take it with him to a certain
+tomb, situated in the suburbs of the royal city, (directing him to the
+spot with great exactness), and casting the fragment on the tomb, to
+follow the directions he would there receive; he further desired him to be
+secret, to go alone, and at midnight.
+
+'The now hope-inspired Vizier went as desired at midnight, and cast the
+fragment on the tomb, which instantly opened to him. He then descended a
+flight of steps, from the foot of which, at a little distance, he first
+espied a light not larger than a taper, but which increased as he went on
+until the full splendour of noonday succeeded. Proceeding with confidence,
+revived hope cheered his heart, anticipating that by success so many lives
+besides his own would be preserved through his humble endeavours; and that
+life would be more than doubly dear, as the prospect of losing the gift
+had embittered the last few days so severely.
+
+'The Vizier passed on courageously through halls, corridors, and
+apartments of magnificent structure, decorated and furnished in the most
+perfect style of elegant neatness. Everything he saw bore marks of
+splendour. The King's palace was then remembered in all its costliness, to
+be as much inferior to the present scene as could be detected by the
+lapidary's correct eye, when comparing the diamond with the pebble.
+
+'He was perfectly entranced as he gazed on the emerald gate, through which
+he had to pass to enter a garden of luxuriant beauty, where every shrub,
+plant, flower, and fruit teemed with richness. In the centre of a walk an
+old man was seated in a chair of burnished gold, clad in the costume of
+the country, who seemed to be engaged in breathing the sweet odours by
+which he was surrounded with a calm and tranquil countenance of joy. "I
+know your business," said the possessor of this paradise, to the Vizier as
+he advanced towards him; "you are come to obtain fruit from this tree,
+which bows its branches to the earth with the weight and number of its
+burden. Take one only; this is the fruit your master's dream pictured to
+his fancy."
+
+'Full of joy at the prospect of release from the dreaded anger of his
+royal master, the Vizier hastily plucked the fruit, and retreated by the
+way he came, without waiting to inquire what the old man meant by an
+exclamation he uttered at parting, which at the time seemed of lesser
+import than he afterwards imagined; but "Alas, the world" was recalled to
+his memory on his way back to the palace, and haunted his mind so strongly
+that he became restless and uneasy, even after the King had conferred
+honours and favours innumerable on him for his successful efforts in
+procuring that fruit which had never before been seen by any creature on
+earth but by the King, and by him only in a dream. "Alas, the world!" was
+like a dark envelope over every attempt to be cheerful; an impenetrable
+cloud seemed to pervade the Vizier's mind; he could think of nothing but
+the parting words of the old man, and his own folly in not inquiring his
+meaning.
+
+'The Vizier at last went to the same Durweish who had befriended him in
+his hour of need, and related to him the obstacle to his enjoyment of the
+blessings and honours which had crowned his success, and hoped from this
+holy-minded man to ascertain the meaning of that perplexing sentence,
+"Alas, the world!" The Durweish could not, or would not explain the old
+man's meaning; but willing to do the Vizier all possible service, he
+proposed giving him again the necessary passport to the inhabitant of the
+garden.
+
+'The fragment of a pitcher was again traced with the mystic characters,
+and with this in his hand the Vizier at midnight sought the tomb, where he
+found as easy access as on the former occasion. Everything he saw seemed
+doubly beautiful to his imagination since his former visit. He entered by
+the emerald gate and found the old man enjoying the magnificent and
+sense-devouring scene, with as much delight as mortals are wont to show
+when content fills the heart of man.
+
+'"I know your second errand, my friend," said the old man, "and am quite
+as willing to oblige you as on your first visit. Know then, Vizier, that
+whilst an inhabitant of earth, I followed the humble occupation of a
+village barber; by shaving and paring nails I earned my daily bread, and
+maintained my family. Sometimes I collected ten pice in my day of labour
+from house to house, and if twelve crowned my efforts I was fortunate.
+
+'"Many years passed over my head in this way, when one day I was less
+successful in my calling, and but half my usual earnings was all I had
+gained. On my way home I was ruminating on the scantiness of the meal
+likely to be procured by five pice for my family of seven people; the
+season was one of such great scarcity, that ten pice on other days had
+been of late barely sufficient to procure our daily food; and even with
+twelve we thought our wants had been but inadequately supplied. I went on
+grieving,--more for my family than myself, it is true,--and could have
+cried at the thought of the small portion of bread and dhall I should see
+allotted to each individual dependant on me.
+
+'"In my progress towards home, whilst regretting my poverty, I saw an
+unfortunate beggar, whose earnest entreaty seemed to make no impression on
+those who passed him by; for, in truth, when money is scarce and corn dear,
+people's hearts grow somewhat cold to the distresses of those who have no
+claim by kindred ties. But with me it was otherways: my scantiness seemed
+to make me more tender to the sorrows of my fellow-creatures. Poor soul,
+said I to myself, thou art starving, and no one gives ear to thy
+complaints; now if I take home this scanty produce of my day's labour, it
+will not give a meal to all my household; besides, they dined with me
+tolerably well yesterday. We shall not starve by one day's fasting;
+to-morrow Divine Providence may send me in the way of more bearded men
+than I have met to-day. I am resolved this poor man shall have the
+benefit of a good meal for once, which he supplicates for in the name of
+God.
+
+'"I then went to the beggar and threw the five pice into his upheld
+wrapper. 'There, brother,' said I, 'it is all I have; go, make yourself
+happy in a good meal, and remember me in your prayers.' 'May Heaven give
+you plenty in this world and bless your soul in the next!' was his only
+response. That prayer was heard, for during my further sojourn on earth
+abundance crowned my board; and here, it is unnecessary to remark on the
+bounties by which you perceive I am surrounded.
+
+'"That I said _Alas, the world!_ was from the reflection that I did but
+one act of real charity whilst I remained in it, and see what an abundance
+rewards me here. Had I known how such things are rewarded hereafter, I
+should have been more careful to have embraced the passing opportunities,
+while I walked with my fellow-man on earth. That I said, _Alas, the
+world_! to you, was an intended admonition to mankind; to convince them of
+the blessings bestowed in this world of bliss eternal, in reward for every
+proper use to which the benefits they received in their probationary state
+of existence may have been devoted. Go, friend! and profit by the example
+I present of heavenly rewards! Persevere in a course of practical charity
+in that world you still inhabit; and secure, whilst you may, the blessed
+rewards of eternity!"'
+
+
+[1] This term does not appear in the ordinary dictionaries or Census
+    reports. Sir C. Lyall, with much probability, suggests that the
+    correct form is Chalapdar, 'a cymbal player'.
+
+
+[2] A saint, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir, is buried at Bijaimandil, Delhi.
+    T.W. Beale, _Oriental Biographical Dictionary, s.v._
+
+[3] Fire-walking is practised by many Musalman devotees. In a case
+    recorded on the NW. frontier, a fakir and other persons walked
+    through a fire-trench and showed no signs of injury; others came out
+    with blistered feet and were jeered at as unorthodox Musalmans; a
+    young Sikh, shouting his Sikh battle-cry, performed the feat, and as
+    he escaped uninjured, a riot was with difficulty prevented.--T.L.
+    Pennell, _Among the Wild Tribes of the Afghan Frontier_, 1909, p. 37,
+    See M.L. Dames, 'Ordeals by Fire in the Punjab' (_Journal
+    Anthropological Society, Bombay_, vol. iv). The subject is fully
+    discussed by Sir J. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_[3], part vii, vol. ii,
+    1913, pp. 5 ff.
+
+[4] Madari fakirs, who take their names from Badi-ud-din Madar
+    Shah, a disciple of Shaikh Muhammad Taifuri Bastami, who
+    died A.D. 1434 at the ago of 124 years, and is buried at Makanpur in
+    the Cawnpur District, where an annual fair is held at his tomb. On the
+    anniversary of his death food is offered here, and amulets
+    _(baddhi)_ are hung round the necks of children. Some light a
+    charcoal fire, sprinkle ground sandalwood on it, and jumping into it,
+    tread out the embers with their feet, shouting out _dam Madar_, 'by
+    the breath of Madar!' the phrase being regarded as a charm against
+    snake-bite and scorpion stings. After the fire-walk the feet of the
+    performers are washed and are found to be uninjured. Others vow a
+    black cow, sacrifice it, and distribute the meat to beggars. The rite
+    is of Hindu origin, and Hindus believe that the saint is an
+    incarnation of their god Lakshmana.--Jaffur Sharreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_,
+    158 f.: W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the NW. P. and Oudh_, iii.
+    397 ff.
+
+[5] Dafali, from _daf_, a drum.
+
+[6] _Mela_.
+
+[7] Shaikh Saddu is the special saint of women. His name was
+    Muhi-ud-din, and he lived at Amroha or Sambhal, in the United
+    Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Some unorthodox Musalmans offer food in
+    the name, and hold a session, in which a female devotee becomes
+    possessed. A woman who wants a child says to her: 'Lady! I offer my
+    life to you that I may have a child', whereupon the devotee gives her
+    betel which she has chewed, or sweets, and this is supposed to bring
+    about the desired result (Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 184 f: W.
+    Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, i. 204). In
+    Bihar it is said that he had a lamp with four wicks, on lighting
+    which, four Jinns appeared, and he used them for the purpose of
+    debauchery. Finally, another Jinn slew him. People become possessed in
+    his name, and when summoned in cases of illness or trouble, announce
+    that a goat or a cock must be sacrificed to the saint (_Census Report,
+    Bengal_, 1901, i. 180).
+
+[8] _Chiragh_, an earthenware cup in which a wick is lighted.
+
+[9] _Kahani_, a folk-tale.
+
+[10] This tale comes from the Nala-Damayanti Saga. Nala finds a snake
+    in danger of death from a jungle fire, saves it, and is bitten by the
+    reptile, in the forehead, which causes him to become weak, deformed,
+    and black in colour. The snake turns out to be the King Snake,
+    Karkotaka. He says to Nala: 'I gave you this bite for your good, as
+    you will soon learn, in order that your deformity may conceal you in
+    carrying out your plans' (C.H. Tawney, _Katha-saral-Sagara_, i.
+    564 f.: C.H. Bompas, _Folklore of the Santal Parganas_, 149 ff.).
+
+[11] _Pipal, Ficus religiosa_.
+
+[12] A common Indian folk-tale. In one of the most common versions the
+    jackal tricks the ungrateful tiger, and induces him to go back to his
+    cage.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXVI
+
+  Superstition of the Natives.--Fair annually kept by Hindoos.--Supposed
+  practice of witchcraft by an old woman.--Assaulted by an infuriated
+  populace.--Rescued by a Native gentleman.--He inquires their reasons
+  for persecuting her.--Is instrumental in appeasing their
+  malignity.--Endeavours to remove their prejudice.--Proneness of
+  Asiatics to superstition.--Opinion of a Mussulmaun on the influence
+  of evil spirits.--Account of a woman possessed by an evil
+  spirit.--Dialogue with her during the paroxysms of her
+  affliction.--Means used for her recovery.--Further allusions to the
+  false notions of the Natives respecting supernatural agency...Page 387
+
+
+All the Natives of Hindoostaun appear to me to be, more or less, tinctured
+with superstitious notions, which, in many instances, are so grafted in
+their nature as to resist every attempt made to root out by arguments the
+folly of this great weakness.
+
+I hope to be forgiven for introducing in this Letter a few anecdotes and
+occurrences, which may illustrate that faulty side of the character of a
+people who have not derived those advantages which are calculated to
+displace superstition from the mind of man;--in a word, they are strangers
+to that Holy volume which teaches better things.
+
+A fair had been held at Lucknow one afternoon, not immediately within our
+view, but the holiday folks passed our house on the road to and from the
+scene of action. This fair or mayllah is visited by all ranks and classes
+of Natives; but it is strictly a Hindoo festival annually kept up in
+remembrance of the celebrated Kornea,[1] of Hindoo mythologic celebrity,
+who according to their tradition, when but a child, on a certain day
+killed with his slender arm a great tyrant, the giant Khaunce. Had there
+ever existed a suspicion that the Hindoos sprang from any of the tribes of
+Israel, I should have imagined the event they celebrate might have
+reference to the act of David, who with his single arm destroyed Goliath
+of Gath. This, however, can hardly be supposed, although the similarity is
+remarkably striking.
+
+The figure of Khaunce is made up of bamboo and paper, representing a human
+being of gigantic stature, and bearing a most fierce countenance, with
+some certain appendages, as horns, tail, &c., to render the figure more
+disgusting. It is placed near the bank of the river Goomtie, in a
+conspicuous situation, for the wonder and admiration of some, the terror
+of the weak, and the satisfaction of the believers in the fabled story of
+Kornea and his supposed supernatural power.
+
+Kornea is represented by a little boy, dressed in costly apparel, who is
+conveyed in grand procession, seated on an elephant, and surrounded by
+attendants on horseback, with bands of music and a multitude of followers,
+through the principal streets of the city to the chosen spot where Khaunce
+is placed to be attacked by the child.
+
+When the farce is properly prepared for the attack, the child, I am
+told,--for I have never seen the ceremony,--takes aim from his
+well-ornamented bow, and with a single arrow sends the monstrous giant
+into the river, whilst the shouts of the multitude declare the victory of
+Kornea, and the destruction of the enemy to the repose of mankind. The
+figure, I should have remarked, is made up of parts merely placed on each
+other, so that the force of an arrow is sufficient to dislodge the lofty
+erection as readily as a pack of cards in a mimic castle may be levelled
+by a breath. The mayllah concludes when the floating members of the figure
+have glided with the stream out of sight.
+
+A party of poor weak-minded mortals, pedestrians, but by their dress
+respectable people, returning from this day's mayllah when the evening was
+well advanced, suddenly halted near my house; my attention was soon
+aroused by violent screams, and exclamations of 'Seize her! seize her! she
+is eating my heart!' accompanied by all those indications of fear and pain,
+that did not fail to excite my sympathy; for I could not comprehend what
+was the matter and imagined the poor man had been wounded by the hand of
+an assassin.
+
+A crowd quickly assembled, and a great bustle ensued; I was really alarmed,
+and the tumult of voices continuing for some minutes, we distinctly heard
+the loud cries of a coarse female voice who seemed to be in great danger
+of losing her life by the rough treatment of a lawless rabble; this
+induced a Native gentleman of our family to venture out, to ascertain if
+possible the cause of the excitement, and also to endeavour to assuage the
+angry feelings of the turbulent party. His appearance amongst them
+produced the desired effect, they were silenced by his command; and when
+the man whose alarming screams had first assailed us, was brought before
+him, he found that he was a man of great respectability amongst the
+shop-keepers of the city, with a child of four years old in his arms, or
+rather I should say the child was seated astride on his father's hip, the
+arm encircling the child's body, as is the general manner of nursing
+amongst all classes of the Natives.
+
+On being questioned as to the cause of his raising the tumult, he declared
+that he was walking quietly on the roadway with his party, when the old
+woman (who was in custody) had touched him as he passed, when immediately
+his heart sickened, and he was sensible she had bewitched him, for she was
+still devouring his heart and feasting on his vitals.[2] 'I will certainly
+kill her!' he added, 'if she does not restore me to myself and my child
+likewise!'--'When was your child attacked?'--'About four days since,'
+answered the angry father.
+
+'Good man!' replied my friend; 'you must be under the influence of
+delusion, since you told me just now, the woman is a stranger to you, and
+that you never saw her before; how could she have bewitched your child
+then four days ago? I am sure weakening fears or illness has taken
+possession of your better feelings; the poor creature looks not like one
+who possesses the power you ascribe to her.'
+
+The old woman threw herself at the feet of my friend, and implored his
+protection, reiterating her gratitude to him as her preserver from the
+fury of an angry populace, who had already beaten her with slippers on her
+head, as a prelude to their future harsh intentions towards her. She
+stretched out her hands to touch him and bless him, as is the custom with
+the lower orders of women to their superior of either sex, but the
+multitude insisted she should not be allowed to let her unhallowed hands
+fall on the good Mussulmaun gentleman; in a second was to be heard the
+invocations of Hindoos and Mussulmauns, on their several sources of
+supreme aid, to save the gentleman from her power, for all the mob felt
+persuaded the old woman was a witch.
+
+'Be assured you are mistaken, I, at least, have no fears that her touch
+can harm me;' responded my friend. 'Exercise your reason--is she not a
+human being like ourselves? True she is old and ugly, but you are really
+wicked in accusing and ill-treating the poor wretch.' They were silenced
+for a few minutes, then declared she must be a witch, for her feet were
+crooked, she was desired to exhibit them, and they were found to be
+perfectly good straight feet.
+
+My friend inquired of the old woman who she was; she answered, 'A poor
+mazoorie[3] (corn-grinder), my husband and my sons are grass-cutters, our
+abode is in the serai (inn for travellers), we are poor, but honest
+people.' 'You see, Sir,' said my friend to the accusing person, 'your own
+weak fears have imposed upon your mind. This woman cannot have done you any
+injury; let her depart quietly to her home without farther annoyance.'
+
+'No!' replied the accuser, 'she must satisfy me she is not a witch, or
+worse than that, by allowing me to pluck a few hairs from her head.'--'
+What benefit do you propose to yourself by this measure?'--'Why I shall
+relieve myself from her power over me, by possessing hairs plucked from
+her head, on which my friends will exercise certain prayers, and thus the
+craft she has used to bewitch me will be dissolved, and I shall be
+restored to myself again.'[4]
+
+Willing as my friend was to get the poor woman released from the hands of
+the accusing party, and finding reason or argument of no avail in turning
+them from their purpose to detain her, the terms were acceded to on the
+one part, provided the woman herself was willing to comply, to which, when
+she was asked, she replied, 'I am not the wretched creature my accuser
+imagines, and therefore can have no objection, on condition that I may be
+allowed afterwards to return to my home in peace.'
+
+The poor old head was now in danger of being plucked of its white hairs by
+the surrounding crowd, whose extravagant desire to possess the, to them,
+invaluable specific against witchcraft--for they still believed she was
+actually a witch--led them to overlook humanity and feeling; but the
+peacemaker's voice was again heard, commanding the crowd to desist, and
+they should all be gratified, when the scissors he had sent a servant to
+fetch, might enable them to possess the prize without inflicting pain on
+the poor persecuted woman.
+
+Whilst this was in agitation, and before the scissors were used, several
+well-armed soldiers, attracted by the appearance of a riot, had made their
+way to the scene of contention, who recognizing the old woman as the
+mother and wife of their three grass-cutters, immediately took the poor
+old soul under their protection, and conveyed her safely from her
+tormentors. My friend was very well satisfied to resign his charge to
+their guardianship, and not a little pleased that he had been instrumental
+in preserving a fellow-creature from the lawless hands of the foolishly
+superstitious of his countrymen.
+
+It is lamentable to witness how powerful an ascendancy superstition sways
+over the minds of Asiatics generally. The very wisest, most learned, most
+religious, even, are more or less tinctured with this weakness; and, I may
+add, that I have hardly met with one person entirely free from the opinion
+that witchcraft and evil agency are in the hands of some, and often
+permitted to be exercised on their neighbours. The truly religious people
+declare to me, that they only are preserved from such calamities who can
+place their whole reliance on the power and goodness of God alone; Who,
+they are persuaded, will never suffer His faithful servants to be
+persecuted by the evil one in any shape, or under any mysterious agency.
+Perfect dependance on Divine Providence is the Mussulmaun's only safeguard,
+for they declare it to be their belief that evil agency exists still, as
+it did in the first ages of the world. Faith and trust in God can alone
+preserve them; when that fails, or if they have never learned to rely on
+Him for protection, they are necessarily exposed to the influence of that
+evil agency by which so many have suffered both in body and soul amongst
+their country-people.
+
+The return of our friend, with the explanation of the scene I had
+witnessed from my window, led me to inquire very minutely into the opinion
+and general belief of the Mussulmauns on such subjects. A sensible, clever
+gentleman of that persuasion then present, told me that there could be no
+doubt witchcraft was often practised in Lucknow, detailing things he had
+often heard, about the wicked amongst human beings who practised muntah[5]
+(incantations); and perhaps would have explained the motives and the
+acquired power if I had been disposed to listen. I inquired of my friend,
+as he had always appeared a religious person, whether he really believed
+in magic, genii, evil agency, &c. He told me, that he did believe
+certainly that such things still existed; but he added, 'such power can
+only work on the weak or the wicked, for that heart whose dependance is
+wholly fixed on God, has a sure protection from every evil, whether of man
+or spirit. You have in your sacred book a full and ample delineation of
+the works of magic, in the period of Moses, and also of Saul. In later
+periods you have proofs of greater weight with you, where Christ cast out
+devils and gave the same power to His disciples. My opinion,' he added,
+'will not alter yours, nor do I wish it; neither would I argue or dispute
+with you on subjects become obsolete in the enlightened world of which you
+are a member, but as far as my own individual opinion is concerned, it is
+my belief that all things are possible to the Almighty power and will of
+God. And I see no right we have either to inquire why, or to dispute about
+the motives by which His wisdom permits the weak to be afflicted for a
+season, or the wicked to be punished in this life.'
+
+I inquired if he had ever witnessed any of the strange events I
+continually heard his people speak of, as having occurred in their
+neighbourhood, such as people possessed with unclean spirits, sufficient
+to confirm his belief in their probability. He replied, 'I have not only
+witnessed but have, under Divine Providence, been the instrument to convey
+relief to several different women, who suffered from being possessed by
+evil spirits.' He then related the following, which I copy from the notes
+I took at the time of his relation:--
+
+'When I was a very young man, my mind was bent on inquiring into the truth
+of the generally believed opinion, that some righteous men of our faith
+had power granted to them to remove evil spirits from their victims. I
+took the advice of a certain venerable person, who was willing to impart
+his knowledge to me. Preparatory to my own practice, I was instructed to
+forsake the haunts of man, and give myself wholly to prayer. Accordingly I
+absented myself from my home, family, and friends, and led the life you
+would call a hermit's; my food was simply herbs and fruits, and
+occasionally an unleavened cake of my own preparing, whilst the nearest
+tank of water supplied me with the only beverage I required; my clothing a
+single wrapper of calico; my house a solitary chupha (a thatch of coarse
+grass tied over a frame of bamboo), and this placed on the margin of a
+wood, where seldom the feet of man strayed to interfere with, or disturb
+my devotion. My days and nights were given to earnest prayer; seeking God
+and offering praises with my mouth to Him, constituted my business and my
+delight for nearly two whole years, during which time my friends had
+sought me in vain, and many a tear I fear was shed at the uncertain fate
+of one they loved so well in my father's house.'
+
+'The simplicity of my mode of life, added to the veneration and respect
+always paid to the Durweish's character, raised me in the opinion of the
+few who from time to time had intruded on my privacy, to ask some boon
+within my limits to give as a taawise[6] (talisman), which is in fact a
+prayer, or else one of the names or attributes of God, in such a character
+as best suited the service they required; for you must be told, in the
+Mussulmaun faith, we count ninety-nine different names or titles to the
+great merciful Creator and only true God. In many cases the taawise I had
+so given, had been supposed by the party receiving them, to have been
+instrumental in drawing down upon them the favour of God, and thus having
+their difficulties removed; this induced others influenced by their report,
+to apply to me, and at last my retirement was no longer the hermit's cell,
+but thronged as the courtyard of a king's palace. My own family in this
+way discovered my retreat, they urged and prevailed on me to return
+amongst them, and by degrees to give up my abstemious course of life.
+
+'The fame of my devotion, however, was soon conveyed to the world; it was
+a task to shake off the entreaties of my poor fellow-mortals who gave me
+more credit for holiness of life than I felt myself deserving of. Yet
+sympathy prevailed on me to comfort when I could, although I never dared
+to think myself deserving the implicit confidence they placed in me.
+
+'On one occasion I was induced, at the urgent entreaties of an old and
+valued friend, to try the effects of my acquired knowledge in favour of a
+respectable female, whose family, and her husband in particular, were in
+great distress at the violence of her sufferings. They fancied she was
+troubled by a demon, who visited her regularly every eighth day; her
+ravings when so possessed endangered her health, and destroyed the
+domestic harmony of the house.
+
+'The day was fixed for my visit, and the first exercise of my acquirements;
+even then I had doubts on my mind whether the demons so often quoted did
+really exist, or were but the disordered wanderings of imagination; and if
+they did exist, I still was doubtful as to the extent of my knowledge
+being sufficient to enable me to be the instrument for effecting the
+desired benefit. Trusting faithfully, however, in God's help, and desiring
+nothing but His glory, I commenced my operations. The woman was seated on
+a charpoy (bedstead) behind a wadded curtain, which hid her from my view.
+Respectable females, you are aware, are not allowed to be seen by any
+males except very near relatives. I took my seat opposite the curtain with
+the husband of the suffering woman, and entered into conversation with him
+on general subjects.
+
+'I soon heard the wild speeches of the woman, and my heart fully
+sympathized in her sufferings. After preparing the sweet-scented flowers
+for my purpose (it is believed all aerial beings feed on the scent of
+flowers), fire was brought in a chafing-dish, at my request, and a copper
+plate was placed on this fire, on which I strewed my prepared flowers
+mixed up with drugs. Instantly the demon became furious in the woman,
+calling out to me, "Spare me! spare me!"
+
+'I should remark that the woman was so entirely hidden by the curtain as
+to leave it beyond a doubt that she could not see what I was doing on the
+other side, but she seemed, by the instinct of the evil spirit which
+possessed her, to be thoroughly acquainted with the nature of my visit,
+and the exertion I was making by prayer, for her release from the intruder.
+The women attending her, her friends and relatives, had no power to
+restrain her in the violence of her paroxysms; she tore the curtain with
+more than human force, and it gave way, leaving her and the other women
+exposed to my gaze.
+
+'I would, from modesty, have retired, but her husband, having confidence
+in my ability to help his afflicted wife, whom he loved most tenderly,
+entreated me not to retire, but to think of the woman as my own sister.
+The woman, or rather the demon in the woman, told me what I was going to
+do was not withheld from her knowledge, desiring me immediately to leave
+the place.
+
+'"Who are you?" I inquired.--"I am the spirit of an old woman, who once
+inhabited this house;" was answered by a coarse harsh voice.--"Why have
+you dared to possess yourself of this poor female? she never could have
+done you any injury."--"No," was answered, "not the female, but her
+husband has taken possession of this house, and I am here to torment him
+for it, by visiting his wife."
+
+'"Do you know that I am permitted to have power to destroy you in this
+fire?"--"Yes, but I hope you will shew mercy; let me escape and I will
+flee to the forest."--"I cannot agree to this, you would then, being at
+liberty, fasten yourself on some other poor mortal, who may not find one
+to release him from your tyranny; I shall destroy you now;" and I was
+actually preparing my methods for this purpose, when the screaming became
+so violent, the poor woman's agony so terrific, that I dreaded her instant
+death from the present agony of her ravings.
+
+'"How am I to know you are what you represent yourself to be?" said I,
+trying the softest manner of speech; (the poor victim appeared at ease
+immediately).--"Ask me any question you please," was replied, apparently
+by the woman, "and I will answer you." I rose and went into the front
+entrance of the house, which is divided from the zeenahnah by a high wall,
+as are all our Mussulmaun houses, and returned with something closely
+concealed in my hand. I asked, "What is enclosed in my clenched hand?"--"A
+piece of charcoal," was the prompt reply. It was so in truth; I could no
+longer doubt.
+
+'Another of the party was sent to the outer house; and, again I inquired,
+"What is in this person's hand?"--"Grains of corn."--"Of what
+nature?"--"Wheat." The hand was opened, and the contents were really as
+was said;--confirming to all present, if they had ever doubted, that the
+poor woman was possessed by the demon, as I have before represented.
+Nearly two hours were spent in the most singular conversations, which,
+whilst they amused me exceedingly, convinced me by my own observations of
+the truth of that which I had but imperfectly believed before these trials.
+
+'"I will certainly destroy you in this fire, unless you give me ample
+assurances that you will never again annoy or torment this poor
+inoffensive woman;" and, as I presented my preparation, the screams, the
+cries of "Spare me! oh, spare me this fiery torment!" were repeated with
+redoubled force. I asked, "What is your belief?"--"I believe in one God,
+the Creator of all things;" was promptly answered.--"Then away to the
+forest, the boon you first craved from me, nor again venture to return to
+this house."
+
+'The instant my command was given, the woman was calm, her reason restored
+immediately; her shame and confusion were beyond expressing by words, as
+she awoke from what she termed a dream of heavy terror that had
+overpowered her. The appearance of a strange man,--herself but half clad,
+for in the moments of raving she had torn off parts of her clothing,
+leaving the upper part of her person entirely uncovered--nearly deprived
+her again of returning reason; her husband's presence, however, soothed
+her mind; but it was some time before her confusion was sufficiently
+banished to enable her to converse freely with me. In answer to the
+questions I asked of her, she replied that she had not the least
+recollection of what had occurred. She fancied herself overpowered by a
+dreadful dream which had agitated her greatly, though she could not
+recollect what was the nature of that dream. I ordered some cooling
+beverage to be prepared for my patient, and recommending rest and quiet,
+took my leave, promising to visit her again in my professional character,
+should any return of the calamity render my visit necessary. The whole
+family heaped blessings and prayers on my head for the benefit they
+believed I had been the instrument of Providence in rendering to their
+house.
+
+'This was my first attempt at the practice I had been instructed in; and,
+you may believe, I was gratified with the success with which my endeavours
+had been crowned. For several months the lady continued quite well, when
+some symptoms of irritability of temper and absence of mind warned her
+husband and family of approaching danger upon which, they urged and
+entreated my second visit. I went accompanied by several friends who were
+curious to witness the effect expected to be produced by my prayer. It
+appeared the poor woman was more calm on my first entrance, than when _I_
+had previously visited her; but after repeating my form of prayer, the
+most violent ravings followed every question I put to her.
+
+'Many hours were spent in this way. The replies to my questions were
+remarkable; she always answered, as if by the spirit with which she was
+possessed. I demanded, "Why have you dared to return to this poor
+creature? do you doubt my ability to destroy you?" The reply was, "had no
+power to fix myself again on the woman, until you entered the house, but I
+have hovered over her."--I said, "I do not believe that you are the soul
+of a deceased old woman as you represent yourself to be; perhaps you may
+wish to convince me, by answering the questions that will be made by me
+and my friends." The several questions were then put and answered in a way
+that surprised all present.
+
+Afterwards, I said, "You professed when here on a former occasion, to
+believe in God. Answer me now, to what sect of people did you
+belong?"--"Sheikh," was the reply, "and I believe in one God of mercy and
+of truth,"'--"Then you are my brother,'" I said, rising, and holding out
+my hand to the woman, "we will shake hands."---"No, No!" replied the woman,
+with great agitation and terror, "I beseech you not to touch me; the fire
+which I dread would then torment me more than I could bear. I would
+willingly shake hands with all here present, that would give me no pain,
+but with you the case is different; one touch of yours would destroy me
+immediately. Not to prolong my story, at the husband's earnest entreaty,
+the evil soul was destroyed by the practice I had learned, and the poor
+woman, restored to health and peace, was no more troubled by her enemy."
+
+When this story was related, I fancied it a mere fable of the relator's
+brain to amuse his audience; but on a more intimate acquaintance with him,
+I find it to be his real opinion that he had been instrumental in the way
+described, in removing evil spirits from the possessed; nor could I ever
+shake his confidence by any argument brought forward for that purpose
+during many years of intimate acquaintance; which is the more to be
+regretted as in all other respects he possesses a very superior and
+intelligent mind, and as far as _I_ could judge of his heart by his life,
+always appeared to be a really devout servant of God.
+
+It is not surprising that the strongly grounded persuasion should be too
+deeply rooted to give way to my feeble efforts; time, but more especially
+the mercy of Divine goodness extended to them, will dissolve the delusion
+they are as yet fast bound by, as it has in more enlightened countries,
+where superstition once controlled both the ignorant and the scholar, in
+nearly as great a degree as it is evident it does at this day the people
+of India generally. Here the enlightened and the unenlightened are so
+strongly persuaded of the influence of supernatural evil agency, that if
+any one is afflicted with fits, it is affirmed by the lookers on, of
+whatever degree, that the sick person is possessed by an unclean spirit.
+
+If any one is taken suddenly ill, and the doctor cannot discover the
+complaint, the opinion is that some evil spirit has visited the patient,
+and the holy men of the city are then applied to, who by prayer may draw
+down relief for the beloved and suffering object. Hence arises the number
+of applications to the holy men for a written prayer, called taawise (
+talisman) which the people of that faith declare will not only preserve
+the wearer from the attacks of unclean spirits, genii, &c., but these
+prayers will oblige such spirits to quit the afflicted immediately on
+their being placed on the person. The children are armed from their birth
+with talismans; and if any one should have the temerity to laugh at the
+practice, he would be judged by these superstitious people as worse than a
+heathen.
+
+
+[1] Kanhaiya, a name of the demigod Krishna, whom Kansa, the wicked King
+    of Mathura, tried to destroy. For the miracle-play of the
+    destruction of Kansa by Krishna and his brother Balarama, see Prof.
+    W. Ridgeway, _The Origin of Tragedy_, 140, 157, 190. The author seems
+    to refer to the Ramlila festival.
+
+[2] For cases of witches sucking out the vitals of their victims, see
+    W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India_, ii. 268 ff.
+
+[3] _Mazdurni_, a day labourer.
+
+[4] On the efficacy of shaving or plucking out hair from a witch in order
+    to make her incapable of bewitching people, see W. Crooke, _Popular
+    Religion and Folklore of N. India_[2], ii. 250 f.
+
+[5] _Mantra_.
+
+[6] _Ta'wiz_, see p. 214.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXVII
+
+  Memoir of the life of Meer Hadjee Shah.--His descent.--Anecdote of a
+  youthful exploit.--His predilection for the army.--Leaves his home to
+  join the army of a neighbouring Rajah.--Adventures on the way.--Is
+  favourably received and fostered by the Rajah.--His first pilgrimage
+  to Mecca.--Occurrences during his stay in Arabia.--Description of a
+  tiger-hunt.--Detail of events during his subsequent pilgrimages.--The
+  plague.--Seizure by pirates.--Sketch of the life of Fatima, an
+  Arabian lady.--Relieved from slavery by Meer Hadjee Shah.--He marries
+  her.--Observations on the piety of his life.--Concluding
+  remarks...Page 400
+
+
+The name of Meer Hadjee Shah has so often occurred in my Letters, that I
+feel persuaded a brief sketch of his life may be acceptable here, more
+particularly as that venerated man presented to my immediate observation a
+correct picture of the true Mussulmaun. I can only regret my inability to
+do justice to the bright character of my revered father-in-law, whose
+conduct as a devout and obedient servant to his Maker, ruled his actions
+in every situation of life, and to whom my debt of gratitude is boundless,
+not alone for the affectionate solicitude invariably manifested for my
+temporal comforts, but for an example of holy living, which influences
+more than precept. This much valued friend of mine was the mouth of wisdom
+to all with whom he conversed, for even when intending to amuse by
+anecdotes, of which his fund was inexhaustible, there was always a moral
+and religious precept attached to the relation, by which to benefit his
+auditor, whilst he riveted attention by his gentle manners and
+well-selected form of words.
+
+Before we met, I had often heard him described by his dutiful son, but
+with all that affection had prompted him to say of his father, I was not
+prepared to expect the dignified person I found him,--a perfect model of
+the patriarchs of old to my imagination, nor could I ever look at him
+through our years of intimacy, without associating him in my mind with
+Abraham, the father of his people.
+
+His form was finely moulded, his height above six feet, his person erect,
+even in age, his fine cast of countenance beamed with benevolence and
+piety, and his dark eye either filled with tears of sympathy or
+brightening with joy, expressed both superior intelligence and intensity
+of feeling. His venerable flowing beard gave a commanding majesty to the
+figure before me, whilst his manners were graceful as the most polished
+even of European society. Raising his full eyes in pious thankfulness to
+God (whose mercy had thus filled his cup of earthly happiness to the brim),
+he embraced us both with a warmth of pressure to his throbbing heart, that
+pronounced more than his words, the sincerity of our welcome. Never have I
+forgotten the moment of our meeting. The first impression lasted through
+our long acquaintance, for he proved indeed a real solace during my
+pilgrimage in a strange land.
+
+The subject of my present Letter, Meer Mahumud Hadjee Shah, was a native
+of Loodeeanah,[1] the capital city of the Punjaab territory, so called
+from the five rivers which water that tract of country, and derived from
+punje (five), aab (water). He descended through a long line of pure Syaad
+blood, from Mahumud, many of his ancestors having been remarkable for
+their holy lives, and his grandsire in particular, a singularly devout
+Durweish, of whom are related in the family many interesting incidents and
+extraordinary escapes from peril which distinguished him as a
+highly-favoured mortal. On one occasion, when attacked by a ravenous tiger,
+his single blow with a sabre severed the head from the carcase: the sabre
+is still retained in the family with veneration, as the instrument by
+which the power and goodness of God was manifested to their sire.
+
+The father of Meer Hadjee Shah was a Kauzy (Judge) of the city of
+Loodeeanah, a man greatly admired for his extensive knowledge of the
+Mahumudan law, respected for his general worthiness, and venerated for his
+holy life. He had a large family, of whom the subject before me was the
+eldest son; his father designed to instruct and prepare him as his
+successor in the same honourable employment, whenever old age or
+infirmities should render his own retirement from the office necessary.
+But,--as the son always regretted when talking over the circumstance, with
+becoming remorse that his mind was differently swayed,--through an
+enterprising spirit he preferred the adventurous to the more sober calling
+for which his father had originally destined him.
+
+To illustrate the temper of his youth, his often repeated anecdote of an
+event which occurred when he was but twelve years old may here be
+presented:--
+
+'After our hours of study, boys of my own age were allowed to meet
+together for exercise and amusement, without the controlling presence of
+our Maulvees (tutors). Many an enterprising feat had been performed during
+our hours of play, but none that has impressed me with so keen a
+remembrance of my youthful follies as the one I am about to relate. We had
+long observed the wild pigeons, which owned not any earthly master, take
+refuge for the night in an old and dilapidated well outside the town; a
+plan was laid between my companions and myself to possess ourselves of
+some of these pigeons, and one evening we assembled by agreement to put
+our project in force.
+
+'A strong rope was procured, to which we fastened a piece of board, so as
+to form a seat; a bag was provided, into which the game was to be
+deposited as fast as it was caught; and a thick stick, with which to
+ascertain in the holes the situation of each pigeon, which was to be
+seized by the neck when thus discovered. Everything was arranged when,
+"Who will be lowered first?" was inquired by the head of our party. Meer
+Mahumud was not a little pleased when it was suggested, that he was the
+bravest boy among them; and with a proud feeling of ecstasy my young heart
+bounded whilst I seated myself on the board and was lowered from the
+summit for several yards down the well, my young companions holding fast
+the rope outside from which I was suspended; the bag conveniently slung
+across my left shoulder, with the open mouth in front, to enable me to
+deposit my gleanings without delay.
+
+'I had collected several pigeons in this way; and, at last, my stick was
+presented to search in a new aperture, where it seemed to be resisted by
+something more than the soft feathers of a bird; fearless as I was, my
+young hand was thrust into the hole, and I caught at something with a firm
+grasp, which at once convinced me could not be a pigeon; but I resolved
+not to part from my prize very readily, and drawing my hand and arm from
+the hole with great difficulty (putting all my youthful strength and
+energy to the task), I discovered my prize was a living snake of rather a
+large size.
+
+'Fearful to announce the nature of my present prisoner to the youngsters,
+at whose mercy I then was, lest they, through terror, should let the rope
+go, and thus precipitate me to the bottom of the well, I called out, "Draw
+up! draw up quickly! delay not, brothers!" and I was soon brought to the
+mouth of the well with the snake coiled round my arm, and firmly grasped
+just under the head, so that it could not extricate itself or injure me.
+The boys soon assisted me off the top of the well, and brought pieces of
+stone, with which they bruised the snake's head until I was relieved from
+its pressure on my arm by its death. I should remark, that I had presence
+of mind to rub the head against the wall on my ascent, which had
+considerably lessened the snake's pressure on my arm, and I believe it was
+more than half dead before I had reached the top.
+
+'My arm pained me dreadfully, but still my greatest agony was for fear my
+father should hear of my exploit, which I felt convinced would not only
+excite his present anger, but be the means of preventing my having another
+opportunity of enjoying the society and amusements of my young companions.
+Strict secrecy was therefore enjoined by my command upon the whole party;
+and returning to my home, I thought to disguise my real feelings by
+seeking repose instead of the evening dinner which was prepared for me. My
+affectionate mother had no suspicion that I was ill, although she was much
+distressed that play had destroyed the appetite of her son. I had dozed
+for some hours, when the agony of my arm awoke me as from an uneasy dream;
+I could hardly recollect the last evening's adventure, for my mind seemed
+much bewildered. My groans, however, brought my mother to my bed-side,
+whose tender care was exercised in fomenting my arm, which she found much
+swollen and inflamed.
+
+'The secret of my enterprize was never divulged by me until the news of my
+sudden illness was reported in the neighbourhood; when some of my young
+friends told the tale, and it was conveyed by one of the gossiping old
+women, of the city to the zeenahnah of my mother. My arm was for a long
+period rendered useless, and I was under the care of doctors for many
+months; the whole skin peeled off, and left me cause for remembering the
+circumstance, although it did not cure me of that preference for
+enterprize, which afterwards drew me from my home to visit other places,
+and to search for new adventures. Often did I remonstrate with my father
+on the subject of my future profession: how often did I declare my
+disinclination to pursue those studies (deemed essential to fit me for the
+office I was in due time to be appointed to), and avow my predilection for
+a military life!'
+
+At that period of Indian History, the Punjaab district was disturbed by
+the depredations of the Mahrattas.[2] Hordes of those lawless banditti
+were in the habit of frequent encroachments on the Mussulmaun possessions,
+committing frightful enormities in their predatory excursions against
+towns and villages, spreading terror and desolation wherever they
+approached. On this account military ardour was encouraged by the heads of
+families, and the youth of respectable Mussulmauns were duly instructed in
+the use of defensive weapons, as a measure of prudence by which they were
+enabled, whenever called upon, to defend the lives and property of their
+neighbours as well as of their individual families.
+
+In describing this period of his life, I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shah
+confess with remorse, that he was wont to pay far greater attention to his
+military instructors than to the Maulvee's lectures on law or other dry
+subjects of books, as he then often thought them, and at fourteen years
+old he was perfect master of the sabre, spear, matchlock, and the bow;
+able even then to defend himself against an enemy, or take the palm of
+victory, when practising those arts with the youth of his own standing.
+
+At seventeen, his love of enterprize drew him from the calm study of his
+tutors under the parental roof, to seek amongst strangers employment
+better suited to his inclination. His early adventures were attended with
+many vicissitudes and trials, which would (however interesting to those
+who have loved him) appear tedious to the general reader; I shall,
+therefore, but digress occasionally with such anecdotes as maybe generally
+interesting. One which presents him in the early part of his career
+amongst strangers in a position which marks the bravery of his youth, I
+shall take the liberty of introducing in his own words:--
+
+'After a good night's repose, I was desirous of pursuing my march, and
+prepared to take leave of my hospitable entertainer (a Kauzy of the
+village), from whom I had received the utmost attention and civility. This
+kind-hearted man was unwilling to allow of my journeying alone, and
+insisted that two of his menservants should accompany me that day's march
+at least. I had no fears, nor much to lose beside my life, and for some
+time resisted the offer, but without avail. The men therefore accompanied
+me, and after six hours' walk, I prevailed on them to take refreshment and
+rest at the serai of the village, through which we had to pass, with leave
+to retrace their way home afterwards with my duty to their master.
+
+'Released from their guardianship, I felt my own independence revive, and
+bounded on as lively as the antelope, full of hope that I might yet reach
+the Rajah's territory by nightfall, who, I had heard, was willing to give
+employment to the enterprising youth of Loodeeanah, in the army he was
+then raising. I must have walked since the morning near twenty koss (forty
+miles) without food or water; but I neither felt hunger nor fatigue, so
+deeply was my heart engaged in the prospect of a military life. At length
+hunger awakened me to a sense of my forlorn condition, for I had left home
+without a coin in my possession; and although I passed through many
+inhabited villages where relief would have been gladly tendered, if I had
+only applied for it, yet my pride forbade the humble words of supplicating
+for a meal; hungry as I was, death even would have been preferable at that
+time to breathing out a want amongst strangers.
+
+'I was overjoyed on approaching a cultivated tract of country to find a
+field of wheat, ripe for the harvest, evincing the great Creator's
+bountiful hand, and hesitated not, without a scruple, to possess myself of
+an occasional handful as I passed along, rubbing the ears and eating as I
+went, to save that time I deemed so precious; for my anxiety to reach the
+Rajah and employment, increased as the day advanced. I had traversed near
+thirty koss on foot, scarcely having halted since the dawning day; this to
+a young man who had been through life indulged by the luxury of a horse
+for exercise, whilst under the parental roof, may be imagined to have been
+no trifling undertaking. But buoyant youth, filled with hopes of honour
+and preferment is regardless of those difficulties which must subdue the
+indolent or less aspiring spirit.
+
+'At the extremity of a large field through which I had to pass, my eye
+rested on a man with two oxen, certain indications, I imagined, of a well
+of water being adjacent for the purpose of irrigation, towards whom I
+approached sufficiently near to inquire if a draught of pure water could
+be obtained for a thirsty traveller. The sturdy farmer-looking man seemed
+to view me with scrutiny, without deigning to reply; my question was
+repeated with civility, but no answer was given, and I then fancied his
+looks foreboded no good meaning; he held in his hand a large heavy stick
+studded at the top with iron rings (in common use with the lower orders of
+people as a weapon of defence against robbers, tigers, wolves, or
+reptiles), but as I stood far enough off to be out of immediate danger of
+a sudden attack, if such was premeditated, the surly look of his
+countenance gave me little concern until he called out in a commanding
+tone, "Youngster! off with your garments; lay down those bow and arrows
+instantly, or I will fell you to the earth with this staff that is in my
+hand!" which he raised in a position to prove himself in earnest.
+
+'My surprise was great, but it did not put me off my guard, and I replied
+with courage, that his insolent demand would not meet with a willing
+compliance; I was able to defend myself, young as I was, against his
+treacherous intentions on an unoffending traveller; and I prepared my bow
+in the expectation that he would either be deterred, or leave me no
+alternative but to use it in self-defence. Two arrows were promptly
+prepared, one placed in my bow, the other in my girdle, as he advanced
+repeating his demand, with the countenance of a ruffian, and his club
+elevated; he no doubt fancied that the bow was a plaything in the hand of
+a mere ignorant stripling. I warned him repeatedly not to advance, or my
+bow should teach him that my young arm was well instructed.
+
+'He however dared my vengeance, and advanced still nearer, when seeing I
+had no alternative, I aimed at his legs, not desiring to revenge but to
+deter my enemy; the arrow entered his thigh, passing completely through:
+he was astonished and stood like a statue. I then desired him to throw
+down his club, with which I walked away, or rather ran a sufficient
+distance to relieve myself from further expectation of annoyances from my
+enemy or the villagers.
+
+'Much time had been spent in that contest, which had left me the victor; I
+waited not however to witness his further movements, but with hastened
+steps in half an hour I reached the Rajah's palace. Several soldiers were
+guarding outside the gate, where stood, as is usual, charpoys for their
+use, on one of which, uninvited, I seated myself, fatigued by my long and
+unusual exercise. The men with great civility offered me water and their
+hookha, and when refreshed I answered their many inquiries, founded very
+naturally on my appearance, my youth, and travelling without an attendant.
+
+'I frankly told them that the Rajah's famed liberality had drawn me from
+Loodeeanah to seek employment as a soldier under his command. One of my
+new acquaintance recommended my immediately going into the palace, where
+the Rajah was seated in Durbar (holding his Court) for the express purpose
+of receiving applicants for the army now raising, under the expectation of
+a hostile visit from the Sikhs. I followed my guide through several
+avenues and courts until we arrived at the Baarah Daree[3] (twelve doors),
+or state apartments.'
+
+I must, however, here abstain from following Meer Hadjee Shah through the
+whole detail of his intimacy with the Rajah, which continued for some
+years, and by whom he was fostered as a favourite son; he accompanied the
+Rajah to the field against the Sikhs, whose singular habits and manners,
+both in battle and in their domestic circle, he has often amused his
+friends by relating.
+
+His first pilgrimage to Mecca was undertaken whilst a very young man,
+travelling the whole way by land, and enduring many trials and hardships
+in what he deemed 'The road of God'. On one occasion he was beset by
+wolves whilst on foot; but as he always confessed his preservation was by
+the power and goodness of Divine Providence, so in the present instance
+the wolves even ran from the blows of his staff, howling to their dens.
+
+During his stay in Arabia, when on his pilgrimage, his funds were
+exhausted, and he had no knowledge of a single individual from whom he
+could condescend to borrow, but as he always put his sole trust in God, a
+way was made for his returning prosperity in rather a singular and
+unexpected manner.
+
+A rich Begum, the widow of a wealthy Arab merchant, had long suffered from
+a severe illness, and had tried every medical prescription within her
+reach without relief. On a certain night she dreamed that a Syaad pilgrim
+from India, who had taken up his abode at the serai outside the town,
+possessed a medicine which would restore her to health. She had faith in
+her dream, and sent a polite message to the Syaad, who was described
+minutely by the particulars of her dream. Meer Hadjee Shah attended the
+summons, but assured the lady who conversed with him, that he was not
+acquainted with medicine; true, he had a simple preparation, which enabled
+him to benefit a fellow pilgrim, when by circumstances no better adviser
+could be found: he then offered her the powder, giving directions how to
+use it, and left her. In the evening a handsome dinner was conveyed by
+this lady's orders to Meer Hadjee Shah, which he accepted with gratitude
+to God, and for several days this was repeated, proving a sensible benefit
+to him, and to others equally destitute of the means of present provision,
+who were abiding at the serai.
+
+In the course of a week he was again summoned to attend the Begum, who was
+entirely cured of her long illness, which she attributed solely to the
+medicine he had left with her, and she now desired to prove her gratitude
+by a pecuniary compensation. He was too much gratified at the efficacy of
+his simple remedy, to require further recompense than the opportunity he
+had enjoyed of rendering himself useful to a fellow-creature, and would
+have refused the reward tendered, but the lady had resolved not to be
+outdone in generosity; and finding how he was circumstanced by another
+channel, she made so many earnest appeals, that he at last consented to
+accept as much as would defray his expenses for the journey to the next
+place he was on the point of embarking for, where he expected to meet with
+his Indian friends, and a supply of cash.
+
+On one occasion, he was exposed to danger from a tiger, but, to use his
+own words, 'as my trust was placed faithfully in God, so was I preserved
+by Divine favour'. The anecdote relative to that event, I cannot pass over,
+and therefore I relate it, as near as I recollect, in his own words:--'I
+was at Lucknow during the reign of the Nuwaub, Shujah ood Dowlah,[4] who
+delighted much in field sports; on one occasion it was announced that he
+intended to hunt tigers, and orders were issued to the nobility and his
+courtiers, requiring their attendance on elephants, to accompany him on a
+certain day. The preparations were made on a grand scale, and excited a
+lively interest throughout the city. I had never been present at a tiger
+hunt, and I felt my usual ambition to share in the adventures of that day
+too irresistible to be conquered by suggestions of prudence; and
+accordingly I went, on horseback, accompanied by a friend about my own age,
+falling into the rear of the Nuwaub's cavalcade which was far more
+splendid than any thing I had before witnessed, the train of elephants
+richly caparisoned, on which were seated in their gold or silver howdahs,
+the whole strength of the Court in rich dresses.
+
+'The hunting party had penetrated the jungle a considerable distance
+before a single trace of a tiger could be discovered, when, at length it
+was announced to the Nuwaub that the sheekaarees[5] (huntsmen) had reason
+to believe one at least was concealed in the high grass near which the
+party approached. The order was then given to loosen the led buffaloes,
+and drive them towards the grass which concealed the game, a practice at
+that time common with Native sportsmen to rouse the ferocious animal, or
+to attract him, if hungry, from his lurking place; but it seemed as if the
+buffaloes were scared by the number of elephants, for with all the goading
+and whipping, which was dealt to them unsparingly, they could not be
+pressed into the service for which they were provided.
+
+'The Nuwaub was remarkable for bravery, and prided himself on his
+successful shot; he therefore caused his elephant to advance to the edge
+of the high grass, that he might have the satisfaction of the first fire,
+when the animal should be roused. Some delay in this, induced the Nuwaub
+to order the dunkah-wallah (kettle-drummer) on horseback to be guarded on
+each side by soldiers with drawn sabres, to advance in front and beat his
+drums. The first sounds of the dunkah roused the tiger: this being
+instantly perceived, the horsemen wheeled round, and were in a second or
+two cleared from danger. The tiger sprang towards the elephant, but was
+instantly thrown back by her trunk to a good distance, the Nuwaub taking
+aim at the same instant, fired and slightly wounded the animal, only
+however sufficiently to add to its former rage.
+
+'My friend and myself were at this time (attracted by our eagerness to
+witness the sports) not many paces from the spot, when perceiving our
+dangerous position, retreat was the thought of the moment with us both: my
+friend's horse obeyed the signal, but mine was petrified by fear; no
+statue ever stood more mute and immoveable; for a second I gave myself up
+for lost, but again my heart was lifted up to the only Power whence safety
+proceeds, and drawing my sabre as the tiger was springing towards me (the
+same sabre which had been the instrument of safety to my grandsire in a
+like danger) as my arm was raised to level the blow, the animal curved his
+spring as if in fear of the weapon, brushed close to my horse's nose, and
+then stuck its sharp talons in the neck of another horse on which a
+Pattaan soldier was seated: his horse plunged, kicked, threw his rider on
+the ground with a violence that left him senseless, his open sabre falling
+on the handle, which, like a miracle, was forced into the earth leaving
+the point upwards in a slanting position, just clearing his neck by a few
+inches.
+
+'The tiger turned on the man with fury and wide-extended jaw, but was met
+by the sabre point, and the Pattaan's red turban, which fell at the
+instant; the tiger endeavouring to extricate himself from the entanglement,
+the sabre entered deeper through his jaw, from which he had but just
+released himself, when a ball from the Nuwaub's rifle entered his side and
+he slank into the grass, where he was followed and soon dispatched.'
+
+In his travels Meer Hadjee Shah had often been exposed to the dangerous
+consequences of the plague; but (as he declares), he was always preserved
+from the contagion through the same protecting care of Divine Providence
+which had followed him throughout his life. He has been often in the very
+cities where it raged with awful violence, yet neither himself nor those
+who were of his party, were ever attacked by that scourge. On one occasion,
+he was, with a large party of pilgrims, halting for several days together
+at a place called Bundah Kungoon[6] (the word Bundah implies the
+sea-shore), preparatory to commencing their projected journey to Shiraaz;
+he relates, that the mules and camels were provided, and even the day fixed
+for their march; but, in consequence of a dream he had been visited with,
+he was resolved to change his course, even should his fellow-travellers
+determine on pursuing their first plan, and thereby leave him to journey
+alone in an opposite direction.
+
+He made his new resolution known to the pilgrims, and imparted to them the
+dream, viz., 'Go not to Shiraaz, where thou shalt not find profit or
+pleasure, but bend thy steps towards Kraabaallah. His companions laughed
+at his wild scheme, and as their minds were fixed on Shiraaz, they would
+have persuaded Meer Hadjee Shah to accompany them; but, no, his dream
+prevailed over every other argument, and he set out accompanied by two
+poor Syaads and fifteen mendicant pilgrims, embarking at Kungoon on a
+small vessel for Bushire, which by a favourable wind they reached on the
+third day. Here they first learned the distressing intelligence that the
+plague had raged with frightful consequences to the population; and during
+their few days' sojourn at Busserah, he says, many victims fell by that
+awful visitation. The city itself was in sad disorder, business entirely
+suspended, and many of the richer inhabitants had fled from the scene of
+terror and dismay. No accommodation for travellers within his means could
+be procured by Meer Hadjee Shah, and he was constrained to set out on foot
+with his companions, after providing themselves with provisions for a few
+days.
+
+Unused to walk any great distance of late, and the effects of the short
+voyage not being entirely removed, he grew weary ere the first day's march
+was ended; 'But here', he says, 'I found how kind my Creator was to me,
+who put it into the hearts of my companions to take it by turns to carry
+me, until we arrived within sight of Feringhee Bargh[7] (Foreigners'
+Garden), where we found many of the healthy inhabitants from Bushire had,
+with permission, taken refuge, some in tents, others without a shelter;
+and in their haste to flee from danger, had forsaken all their possessions,
+and neglected provision for present comfort; a change of garments even had
+been forgotten in their haste to escape from the pestilential city.
+
+'Never', he says, 'shall I forget the confusion presented at this place
+nor the clamorous demands upon us, whom they esteemed religious men, for
+our prayers and intercessions that the scourge might be removed from them.
+I could not help thinking and expressing also, "How ready weak mortals are
+to supplicate for God's help when death or affliction approaches their
+threshold, who in prosperity either forget Him entirely or neglect to seek
+Him or to obey His just commands."
+
+'The next day our march led us to the vicinity of a large populated town.
+We halted near a plantation of date-trees, and one of our mendicant
+pilgrims was dispatched with money to purchase bread and dates for our
+sustenance, with instructions to conceal, if possible, our numbers and our
+halting-place, fearing that the inhabitants might assail us with stones if
+it were suspected that we came from the infected city. The quantity of
+food, however, required for so large a party excited suspicion, but our
+preservation was again secured by Divine interference.
+
+'A Dirzy[9] from the city visited our resting-place, and finding we were
+pilgrims, asked permission to travel with us to Kraabaallah, which was
+readily agreed to, and when a host of men were observed issuing from the
+town, this man, who was an inhabitant, ran towards them, explained that we
+were all healthy men, and interested several Arab-Syaads to come forward
+and befriend me and my party, which they readily assented to on finding
+that brother Syaads were in danger. The Kauzy of the town hearing all the
+particulars attending us, came to the spot which we had selected for our
+halt, presented his nuzza of twenty-one dinars to me, entreated pardon for
+the intended assault he had in ignorance authorized, obliged me to accept
+his proffered civilities, and we remained several days in the enjoyment of
+hospitality in that town, where we had at first such strong reasons to
+anticipate violence and persecution; but this could not be whilst the arm
+of the Lord was raised to shelter His confiding servants. To Him be the
+praise and the glory for every preservation I have been favoured with! and
+many were the perils with which I was surrounded in my walk through life,
+yet, always safely brought through them, because I never failed putting my
+trust in His mercy and protection who alone could defend me.'
+
+On one occasion of his pilgrimage to Mecca, Meer Hadjee Shah, with all his
+companions on board a trading ship, off the coast of Arabia, were attacked
+by pirates, and taken prisoners; but, as he always declared, the goodness
+of Divine Providence again preserved him and those with him from the hands
+of their enemies. In the event in question, he undertook to speak for all
+his party to the Arab chief, before whom they were taken prisoners, and
+having a thorough knowledge of the Arabic language, he pleaded their joint
+cause so effectually, that the chief not only liberated the whole party,
+but forced presents upon them in compensation for their inconvenient
+detention.
+
+The most interesting, if not the most remarkable incident which occurred
+to Meer Hadjee Shah in his journey through life, remains to be told. The
+story has been so often related by his own lips, that I think there will
+be little difficulty in repeating it here from memory. It may be deemed
+prolix, yet I should not do justice by a farther abridgement.
+
+
+
+FATIMA'S HISTORY
+
+'Fatima was the daughter of Sheikh Mahumud,[9] an Arab, chief of a tribe,
+dwelling in the neighbourhood of Yumen, who was a wealthy man, and much
+esteemed amongst his people. His wife died when Fatima, their only child,
+was but six years old, and two years after her father also was taken from
+this world, leaving his whole estate and possessions to his daughter, and
+both to the guardianship of his own brother, Sheikh ----, who was tenderly
+attached to the little girl, and from whom she received the fostering care
+of parental solicitude.
+
+'This uncle was married to a lady of no very amiable temper, who seized
+every opportunity of rendering the orphan daughter of his brother as
+comfortless as possible, but her uncle's affection never slackened for an
+instant, and this consoled her whenever she had trials of a domestic
+nature to distress her meek spirit.
+
+'When Fatima had reached her sixteenth year, an eligible match being
+provided by her uncle, it was intended to be immediately solemnized; for
+which purpose her uncle went over to Yumen to make preparations for the
+nuptials, where he expected to be detained a few days; leaving with his
+niece the keys of all his treasuries, whether of money or jewels.
+
+'On the very day of his departure from home, a brother of his wife's
+arrived at the mansion, and required, in Fatima's presence, a loan of five
+hundred pieces of silver. This could only be obtained by Fatima's consent,
+who firmly declared her resolution not to betray the trust her uncle had
+reposed in her. The wife was severe in her censures on her husband's
+parsimony, as she termed his prudence, and reviled Fatima for being the
+favoured person in charge of his property. This woman in her rage against
+the unoffending girl, struck her several times with violence. Situated as
+their residence was, apart from a single neighbour, she feared to stay
+during her uncle's absence, and left the house not knowing exactly where
+to seek a temporary shelter; but recollecting a distant relation of her
+mother's resided at Bytool Faakere,[10] no great distance off (within a
+walk as she imagined), she left her home without further reflection,
+unattended by a single servant.
+
+'When within a mile of her destined place of refuge, she was observed by a
+party of Bedouin robbers, who descended from their hill to arrest her
+progress, by whom she was conveyed to their retreat, almost in a state of
+insensibility from terror and dismay. Arriving at their hut, however, she
+was cheered by the sight of females, one of whom particularly struck her
+as being very superior to her companions, and in whose countenance
+benevolence and pity seemed to indicate a sympathizing friend in this hour
+of severe trial. The women were desired to relieve the prisoner Fatima of
+her valuables, which were, in accordance with their station, very costly
+both in pearls and gold ornaments.
+
+'Fatima overheard, during the night, some disputes and debates between the
+robbers, about the disposal of her person, one of whom was single, and
+declared his willingness to marry the girl, and so retain her with them;
+but Fatima had, when she was seized, recognized his countenance, having
+seen him before, and knew that his connexions lived in the town of Bytool
+Faakere, which she had unguardedly declared. The robbers, therefore,
+dreaded detection if her life was spared; they were not by nature
+sanguinary, but in this case there seemed no medium between their
+apprehension and the death of Fatima.
+
+'The female, however, who had at first sight appeared so amiable and
+friendly, fulfilled the poor girl's impressions, by strenuously exerting
+her influence, and eventually prevailed, in saving the orphan Fatima from
+the premeditated sacrifice of life; and as no better arrangement could be
+made to secure the robbers from detection, it was at length agreed she
+should be sold to slavery. This decided on, the swiftest camel in their
+possession was prepared at an early hour, a few short minutes only being
+allowed to Fatima, to pour out her gratitude to God, and express her
+acknowledgements to her humane benefactress, when she was mounted on the
+camel's back, with the husband of that kind-hearted female.
+
+'With the prospect of continued life, poor Fatima ceased to feel acute
+agony, and bore the fatigue of a whole day's swift riding without a murmur,
+for the Bedouin's behaviour was marked with respect. Towards the evening,
+as they drew near to a large town, the Bedouin halted by the margin of a
+forest, and the long night was passed in profound silence, with no other
+shelter than that which the forest afforded; and at the earliest dawn the
+march was again resumed, nor did he slacken his speed, until they were in
+sight of Mocha, where he designed to dispose of his victim. She was there
+sold to a regular slave-merchant, who was willing to pay the price
+demanded when he saw the beautiful face and figure of the poor girl,
+expecting to make a handsome profit by the bargain.
+
+'The Bedouin made his respectful obedience and departed in haste, leaving
+poor Fatima in almost a state of stupor from fatigue. Left however to
+herself in the slave-merchant's house, she seemed to revive, and again to
+reflect on the past, present, and future. Her escape from death called
+forth grateful feelings, and she felt so far secure that the wretch who
+had bought her, had an interest in her life, therefore she had no further
+fear of assassination. But then she reverted to her bonds; painful indeed
+were the reflections, that she who had been nobly born, and nursed in the
+lap of luxury, should find herself a slave, and not one friendly voice to
+soothe her in her bondage. She resolved however (knowing the privilege of
+her country's law) to select for herself a future proprietor.
+
+'Her resolution was soon put to the test; she was summoned to appear
+before a fisherman, who had caught a glimpse of her fine figure as she
+entered Mocha, and who desired to purchase her to head his house. The poor
+girl summoned all her courage to meet this degrading offer with dignity. A
+handsome sum was offered by the fisherman, as she appeared before him to
+reject the proposal. "Here is your new master, young lady," said the
+slave-merchant; "behave well, and he will marry you."
+
+Fatima looked up, with all her native pride upon her brow; "He shall never
+be my master!" she replied, with so much firmness, that (astonished as
+they were) convinced the bargainers that Fatima was in earnest. The
+merchant inquired her objection, us she had betrayed no unwillingness to
+be sold to him; she answered firmly, whilst the starting tear was in her
+eye, "My objection to that man is our inequality: I am of noble birth. My
+willingness to become your slave, was to free me from the hands of those
+who first premeditated my murder; and sooner than my liberty should be
+sold to the creature I must detest, this dagger", as she drew one from her
+vest, "shall free me from this world's vexations".
+
+'This threat settled the argument, for the slave-merchant calculated on
+the loss of three hundred dinars he had paid to the Bedouin; and Fatima,
+aware of this, without actually intending any violence to herself, felt
+justified in deterring the slave-merchant from further importunities.
+Several suitors came to see, with a view to purchase the beautiful Arab of
+noble birth, but having acted so decidedly in the first instance, the
+merchant felt himself obliged to permit her to refuse at will, and she
+rejected all who had made their proposal.
+
+'Meer Hadjee Shah, in the fulfilment of his promise to his wife at parting,
+to take home a slave for her attendant, happening at that time to be
+passing through Mocha, inquired for a slave-merchant: he was conducted to
+the house where Fatima was still a prisoner with many other less noble,
+but equally unhappy females. Fatima raised her eyes as he entered the hall;
+she fancied by his benevolent countenance that his heart must be kind; she
+cast a second glance and thought such a man would surely feel for her
+sufferings and be a good master. His eye had met hers, which was instantly
+withdrawn with unaffecting modesty; something prepossessed him that the
+poor girl was unhappy, and his first idea was pity, the second her
+liberation from slavery, and, if possible, restoration to her friends.
+
+'When alone with the slave-merchant, Meer Hadjee Shah inquired the price
+he would take for Fatima. "Six hundred pieces of silver (dinars),"[11] was
+the reply.--"I am not rich enough," answered the pilgrim; "salaam, I must
+look elsewhere for one:" and he was moving on.---"Stay," said the merchant,
+"I am anxious to get that girl off my hands, for she is a stubborn subject,
+over whom I have no control; I never like to buy these slaves of high
+birth, they always give me trouble. I paid three hundred dinars to the
+Bedouin for her, now if she will agree to have you for her master (which I
+very much doubt, she has so many scruples to overcome), you shall add
+fifty to that sum, and I will be satisfied."
+
+'They entered the hall a second time together, when the merchant addressed
+Fatima. "This gentleman desires to purchase you; he is a Syaad of India,
+not rich, he says, but of a high family, as well as a descendant of the
+Emaums."--"As you will," was all the answer Fatima could make. The money
+was accordingly paid down, and the poor girl led away from her
+prison-house, by the first kind soul she had met since she quitted her
+benefactress in the Bedouins' retreat.
+
+'Fatima's situation had excited a lively interest in the heart of Meer
+Hadjee Shah, even before he knew the history of those sufferings that had
+brought her into bondage, for he was benevolent, and thought she seemed
+unhappy; he wanted no stronger inducement than this to urge him to release
+her. Many a poor wretched slave had been liberated through his means in a
+similar way, whilst making his pilgrimages; and in his own home I have had
+opportunities of seeing his almost paternal kindness invariably exercised
+towards his slaves, some of whom he has, to my knowledge, set at liberty,
+both male and female, giving them the opportunity of settling, or leaving
+them to choose for themselves their place of future servitude.
+
+'But to return to Fatima. On taking her to his lodgings, he tried to
+comfort her with the solicitude of a father, and having assured her she
+was free, inquired where her family resided, that she might be forwarded
+to them. The poor girl could scarce believe the words she heard were
+reality and not a dream; so much unlooked for generosity and benevolence
+overpowered her with gratitude, whilst he addressed her as his daughter,
+and explained his motives for becoming her purchaser, adding, "Our laws
+forbid us to make slaves of the offspring of Mussulmauns of either sex;
+although be it confessed with sorrow, unthinking men do often defy the law,
+in pursuance of their will; yet I would not sell my hopes of heaven for
+all that earth could give. I again repeat, you are free; I am not rich,
+but the half of my remaining funds set apart to take me to my home in
+India, shall be devoted to your service, and without any delay I will
+arrange for your return to Yumen, under safe convoy" (and seeing she was
+about to express her gratitude to him): "Forbear, as you respect me, a
+single word of acknowledgement; if any thanks are due, it is to that good
+Providence who hath preserved you from greater evils, to Whom be offered
+also my humble praises, that through His mercy my steps were directed
+through Mocha, at such a time as this, when an unprotected female required
+fatherly protection."
+
+'Fatima was in tears during this speech of her true friend, and when he
+paused, she said, "Heaven, indeed, sent you to my aid; you seem like a
+guardian angel. Much, much I fear to be separated from one so pious and so
+bountiful. May I not again be thrown into similar scenes to those your
+generosity has been exercised to release me from? Who but yourself and my
+own dear uncle could ever feel that lively interest for my preservation?"
+
+'Meer Hadjee Shah would willingly have conveyed the poor girl to her uncle'
+s residence near Yumen, had it been possible; but his arrangements were
+made to sail by an Arab ship to Bombay, which if many days postponed would
+detain him nearly another year from India, where he was aware his return
+was expected by his wife and family; and he was not willing to give them
+cause for uneasiness, by any further delay; he however went out to make
+inquiries at Mocha for some safe means of getting Fatima conveyed to her
+uncle.
+
+'In the meantime she resolved in her mind the several circumstances
+attending her actual situation in the world, and before the next morning
+had well dawned, she had resolved on urging her kind protector to take her
+with him to India, before whom she appeared with a more tranquil
+countenance than he had yet witnessed. When they were seated, he said,
+"Well, Fatima, I propose to devote this day to the arrangement of all
+things necessary for your comfort on your journey home, and to-morrow
+morning the kaarawaun[12] sets out for Yumen, where I heartily pray you
+may be conducted in safety, and meet your uncle in joy. Have no fears for
+your journey, put your entire trust in God, and never forget that your
+safety and liberation were wrought out by His goodness alone."
+
+'"Huzerut[13] (revered Sir)," she replied, "I have weighed well the
+advantages I should derive by being always near to you, against the
+prospects of my home and wealth in Arabia, which I am resolved to
+relinquish if you accede to my proposal. Let me then continue to be your
+slave, or your servant, if that term is more agreeable to my kind master.
+Slavery with a holy master is preferable to freedom with wealth and
+impiety. You must have servants, I will be the humblest and not the least
+faithful in my devoted services."
+
+'The pious man was surprised beyond measure; he attempted to dissuade her,
+and referred to his wife and children in India. "Oh! take me to them," she
+cried with energy; "I will be to them all you or they can desire," This
+arrangement of Fatima's was rather perplexing to him; her tears and
+entreaties, however, prevailed over his preference, and he quieted her
+agitation by agreeing to take her to India with him.
+
+'After maturely weighing all the circumstances of the voyage by sea, and
+the long journey by land from Bombay to Lucknow, he came to the
+determination of giving Fatima a legal claim to his protection, and
+thereby a security also from slanderous imputations either against her or
+himself, by marrying her before they embarked at Mocha; and on their
+arrival at Lucknow, Fatima was presented to his first wife as worthy her
+sympathy and kindness, by whom she was received and cherished as a dear
+sister. The whole family were sincerely attached to the amiable lady
+during the many years she lived with them in Hindoostaun. Her days were
+passed in piety and peace, leaving not an instance to call forth the
+regrets of Meer Hadjee Shah, that he had complied with her entreaties in
+giving her his permanent protection. Her removal from this life to a
+better was mourned by every member of the family with equal sorrow as when
+their dearest relative ceased to live.'
+
+It is my intention (if I am permitted), at some future period, to write a
+more circumstantial account of Meer Hadjee Shah's adventures through life,
+than my present limits allow. In the meantime, however, I must satisfy
+myself by a few remarks founded on a personal observation and intimacy
+during the last eleven years of his eventful life. His example and precept
+kept pace with each other, 'That this world and all its vanities, were
+nothing in comparison with acquiring a knowledge of God's holy will, and
+obeying Him, in thought, in word, and deed.'
+
+He was persuaded by the tenets of his religion that by exercising the body
+in the pilgrimage to Mecca, the heart of man was enlightened in the
+knowledge and love of God. He found by obeying the several duties of the
+religion he professed, and by enduring the consequent trials and
+privations of a pilgrimage without regard to any feelings of selfish
+gratification or indulgent ease, that, his nature being humbled, his love
+to God was more abundant.
+
+His law commanded him to fast at stated periods, and although he was
+turned of seventy when I first saw him, yet he never failed, as the season
+of Rumzaun approached, to undergo the severity of that ordinance day by
+day during the full period of thirty days; and it was even a source of
+uneasiness to my venerated friend, when, two years prior to his decease,
+his medical friends, aided by the solicitude of his family, urged and
+prevailed on him to discontinue the duty, which by reason of his age was
+considered dangerous to health, and perhaps to life. Prayer was his
+comfort; meditation and praise his chief delight. I never saw him
+otherways than engaged in some profitable exercise, by which he was
+drawing near to his Creator, and preparing himself for the blessedness of
+eternity, on which his soul relied.
+
+During our eleven years' constant intercourse, I can answer for his early
+diligence; before the day had dawned his head was bowed in adoration to
+his Maker and Preserver. At all seasons of the year, and under all
+circumstances, this duty was never omitted. Even in sickness, if his
+strength failed him, his head was bowed on a tray of earth, to mark his
+dutiful recollection of the several hours appointed for prayer. The
+Psalmist's language has often been realized to my view, in him, 'Seven
+times a day do I praise thee, O Lord,' and 'at midnight I will rise to
+give thanks unto Thee,' when witnessing his undeviating observance of
+stated prayer duties; and when those duties were accomplished, even his
+amusements were gleaned from devotional works, visits of charity, and acts
+of benevolence. I never saw him idle; every moment was occupied in prayer
+or in good works. His memory was retentive, and every anecdote he related
+was a lesson calculated to lead the mind of his auditor to seek, trust,
+and obey God, or to love our neighbour as ourselves.
+
+The many hours we have passed in profitable discourses or readings from
+our Holy Scripture and the lives of the Prophets have left on my memory
+lasting impressions.
+
+I was, at first, surprised to find Meer Hadjee Shah so well acquainted
+with the prominent characters of our Scripture history, until the source
+from whence his knowledge had been enlarged was produced and read aloud by
+my husband every evening to our family party. The 'Hyaatool Kaaloob' (a
+work before alluded to) occupied us for a very long period, each passage
+being verbally translated to me by my husband.
+
+When that work was finished, our Holy Scripture was brought forward, which,
+as I read, each passage was again translated by my husband, either in
+Persian or Hindoostaunic, as best suited the understanding of our party at
+the time. So interesting was the subject, that we have been five or six
+hours at, a time engaged without tiring or even remembering the flight of
+those moments which were devoted, I trust, so beneficially to us all.
+
+Meer Hadjee Shah's views of worldly enjoyments resembled the Durweish's in
+principle; for he thought it unworthy to heap up riches, to swell his
+wardrobe, or to fare on sumptuous diet; but his delight consisted in
+sharing the little he could at any time command with those who needed it.
+He possessed an intelligent mind, highly cultivated by travel, and a heart
+beaming with tenderness and universal charity: so tempered were his
+affections by a religious life, that the world was made but a place of
+probation to him whilst looking forward with joy to the promises of God in
+a happy eternity. His purity of heart and life has often realized to my
+imagination that 'Israelite in whom (our Redeemer pronounced) there was no
+guile.'
+
+I must here draw my Letters to a conclusion, with many an anxious wish
+that my gleanings in the society of the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun may
+afford profitable amusement to my friends and to those persons who may
+honour my work with a perusal, humbly trusting that the people whose
+character, manners, habits, and religion, I have taken upon me to pourtray,
+may improve in their opinion by a more intimate acquaintance.
+
+In my attempt to delineate the Mussulmauns, I have been careful to speak
+as I have found them, not allowing prejudice to bias my judgment, either
+on the side of their faults or virtues. But I deem it incumbent to state,
+that my chief intimacy has been confined to the most worthy of their
+community; and that the character of a true Mussulmaun has been my aim in
+description. There are people professing the faith without the principle,
+it is true; but such persons are not confined to the Mussulmaun persuasion;
+they are among every class of worshippers, whether Jew or Gentile
+throughout the world.
+
+Of my long sojourn in the society of the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun, I
+need here but remark, that I was received amongst them without prejudice,
+and allowed the free usage of my European habits and religious principles
+without a single attempt to bias or control me; that by respecting their
+trifling prejudices as regards eating and drinking, their esteem and
+confidence were secured to me; and that by evincing Christian charity,
+(which deters the possessor from proud seeming), I believe, I may add,
+their affection for me was as sincere, as I trust it will be lasting.
+
+It may be regretted, with all my influence, that I have not been the
+humble instrument of conversion. None can lament more than myself that I
+was not deemed worthy to convince them of the necessity, or of the
+efficacy of that great Atonement on which my own hopes are founded. Yet
+may I not, without presumption, hope my sojourn, with reference to a
+future period, may be the humble means of good to a people with whom I had
+lived so many years in peace? I must for many reasons be supposed to
+entertain a lively interest in their welfare, and an earnest desire for
+their safety, although at the present moment I can distinguish but one
+advantage accruing from our intimacy, namely, that they no longer view the
+professors of Christianity as idolaters. They have learned with surprise
+that the Christian religion forbids idolatry,--thus the strong barrier
+being sapped, I trust it may be thrown down by abler servants of our Lord;
+for the Mussulmauns are already bound by their religion to love and
+reverence Christ as the Prophet of God: may the influence of his Holy
+Spirit enlighten their understandings to accept Him as their Redeemer!
+
+Like the true Christian, they are looking forward to that period when
+Jesus Christ shall revisit the earth, and when all men shall be of one
+faith. How that shall be accomplished, they do not pretend to understand,
+but still they faithfully believe it, because it has been declared by an
+authority they reverence, and deem conclusive. Often, during my
+acquaintance with these people, have I felt obliged to applaud their
+fidelity, although, in some points, I could not approve of the subject on
+which it was displayed--their zeal at Mahurrum, for instance, when they
+commemorate the martyrdom of the grandchildren of their Prophet,--I have
+thought 'had they been favoured with the knowledge we possess, what
+zealous Christians would these people be, who thus honour the memory of
+mere holy men.'
+
+The time, I trust, is not very far distant when not one nation in the
+whole world shall be ignorant of the Saviour's efficacy, and His
+willingness to receive all who cast their burden at the foot of His cross.
+My heart's desire for the people I have dwell amongst is that which St.
+Paul in the Epistle to the Romans declares to be his prayer to God for
+Israel, 'that they might be saved!' and I know not any way in which I
+could better testify my regard for the Mussulmauns collectively, or my
+gratitude individually, than by recommending the whole of the tenth
+chapter of the Romans to the serious consideration of those persons who
+possess such influence, us that the gospel of peace may be preached to
+them effectually by well-chosen and tried servants of our Lord, who are
+duly prepared both in heart and speech, to make known the glad tidings to
+their understandings that 'God so loved the world, that He gave His only
+begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish, but have
+everlasting life;' that 'If any man sin we have an Advocate with the
+Father, Jesus Christ the righteous;' and that 'He is the propitiation for
+our sins: and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world.'
+
+Should the view I have conscientiously given of their character be the
+humble means of removing prejudice from the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun, so
+that they may be sought and won by brotherly kindness, my humble heart
+will rejoice that my labours, as an observer and detailer, have been
+successful through the merciful orderings of Divine Providence.
+
+
+[1] Ludhiana, a city, not the capital of the Panjab: 'the land of
+    five rivers' _(panj-ab)._
+
+[2] Under the Peshwas, Baji Rao I and Balaji Rao
+    (A.D. 1720-61) the incursions of the Mahrattas extended as far north
+    as the Panjab.
+
+[3] _Barahdari_, a room nominally with twelve doors.
+
+[4] Shuja-ud-daula, son of Mansur 'Ali Khan, Safdar Jang,
+    Governor of Oudh: born A.D. 1731; succeeded his father, 1753. He was
+    present at the battle of Panipat in 1761: became Wazir of the
+    Emperor Shah 'Alam: defeated by the British at the battle of
+    Buxar, 1764: died at Faizabad, then his seat of government, 1775.
+
+[5] _Shikari_.
+
+[6] Bandar [harbour] Kangun, a port on the west side of the Persian
+    Gulf, about 100 miles west of Gombroon.
+
+[7] Firangi Bagh, Franks' Garden.
+
+[8] Darzi, a tailor.
+
+[9] Shaikh Muhammad.
+
+[10] Baitu'l-faqir, 'house of a holy man'.
+
+[11] _Dinar_, Lat. _denarius_, a coin of varying value: see Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 317 f.
+
+[12] _Karwan_, a caravan.
+
+[13] _Hazrat_.
+
+
+
+THE END
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS
+
+USED IN PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
+
+
+Arnold, T.W. _The Preaching of Islam_, London, 1896.
+
+Beale, T.W. _An Oriental Biographical Dictionary_, London, 1894.
+
+Burton, Sir R.F. _The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night_, 12 vols.,
+London, 1894.
+
+Burton, Sir R.F. _A Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Mecca_, 2 vols.,
+London, 1893.
+
+Crooke, W. _The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_,
+2 vols., Westminster, 1896.
+
+Fanshawe, H.C. _Delhi Past and Present_, London, 1902.
+
+Fazalalullah Lutfullah, 'Gujarat Musalmans', in _Bombay Gazetteer_,
+ix, part ii, Bombay, 1899.
+
+Führer, A. _The Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions of the
+North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, Allahabad, 1891.
+
+Irwin, H.C. _The Garden of India_, London, 1880.
+
+Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam, or the Customs of the Mussulmans of
+India_, trans. G.A. Herklots, Madras, 1863.
+
+_Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh_, 3 vols., Lucknow, 1877.
+
+Hughes, T.P. _A Dictionary of Islam_, London, 1885.
+
+[Knighton, W.] _The Private Life of an Eastern King_, London, 1855.
+
+_Koran, The_, trans. J.M. Rodwell, Everyman's Library, London, _n.d._;
+by G. Sale, London, 1844.
+
+Lane, E.W. _An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern
+Egyptians_, 2 vols., 5th ed., London, 1871.
+
+_Mishcat-ul Masabih_, by Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah, trans. A.N.
+Matthews, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1809-10.
+
+Ockley, S. _History of the Saracens_, London, 1848.
+
+Parks, F. _Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque_, 2 vols.,
+London, 1852.
+
+Polly, Col. Sir L. _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from
+Oral Tradition_, 2 vols., London, 1879.
+
+Sell, E. _The Faith of Islam_, Madras, 1880.
+
+Sleeman, Major-Gen. Sir W.H. _A Journey through the Kingdom of
+Oudh, in 1849-1850_, 2 vols., London, 1858.
+
+Sleeman, Major-Gen. Sir W.H. _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian
+Official_, ed. V.A. Smith, 2 vols., Westminster, 1893.
+
+Watt, Sir G. _A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_, 6 vols.,
+Calcutta, 1889-93.
+
+Yule, Col. H., Burnell, A.C. _Hobson-Jobson_, 2nd ed., London, 1903.
+
+       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Aameen, Ameen, Ami, Amen
+Aaroon, Aaron
+Abass Ali, 'Abbas, nephew of Husain;
+  Abass Ali Huzerut ke Durgah, Hazrat 'Abbas 'Ali ki dargah
+Ablution
+Aboubuker, Abubakr, the Caliph
+Abraham, sacrifice of Ishmael;
+  his title
+Abstinence during the Muharram festival
+Adam, his burial-place;
+  his title;
+  image of
+Affrine Khaun, Afrin Khan, a eunuch
+Afthaadah, _aftabgir_, a sun-shade
+Agha Mir, minister in Oudh
+Ahmud Kaabeer, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir, a saint
+Akbhar Shah, Akbar Shah II, King of Delhi
+Akbar, the Moghul Emperor, his capture of Chitor
+Alchemy
+Aleppo
+Alexandria, alleged destruction of the library at
+Ali, 'Ali, son-in-law of Muhammad;
+  murder of;
+  imparted knowledge to the Sufis
+Ali Reezah, Ar-Raza
+Ali Ul Hoodah, 'Ali ul Huda
+Al-kauloek, _alkhalaq_, a coat with sleeves
+Allah Khareem, Al-Karim, 'the generous one'
+Allah wo uckbaar, _Allah u akbar_, 'God is most great'
+Alligators, caught by monkeys
+Allum, _'alam_, a standard
+Allumgeer, 'Alamgir, the Emperor Aurangzeb
+Al Mauss Ali Khaun, Almas 'Ali Khan, a eunuch
+Almsgiving at the Muharram festival
+Alrouschid, Harun-al-Rashid, the Caliph
+Amulets for children
+Amusements of children
+Angels, the attendant
+Animal, fights at the Court of Oudh;
+  mode of slaughtering by Musalmans;
+  life, sanctity of
+Antelopes, hunted by leopards
+Ants;
+  sugar laid near their nests;
+  white
+Apples
+Arg, _arka_, the fire plant
+Arms, polishers of
+Arrack, _'araq,_ spirits
+Artoojee, _ustadji_, a teacher
+Artush-baajie, _atishbazi_, fireworks
+'Ashura, the last day of the Muharram festival
+Asof ood Duolah, Nawab Asaf-ud-daula;
+  his proclamation against infanticide
+Asthma, a cure for
+Astrology
+Ausmaun, 'Usman, the Caliph
+Ausur namaaz, _'asr ki namaz_, prayer at the third watch of the day
+Ayah, _aya_, a nurse
+Ayashur, Ayishah, wife of Muhammad
+
+Baalee Peer, Bala Pir
+Baaraat, _barat_. the procession of the bridegroom
+Baarah Daree, _barahdari_ a room with twelve doors
+Babool, _babul_, the tree _acacia arabica_
+Bacherkaunie, _baqirkhani_, a kind of bread
+Ba daanah, _bedanah_, seedless grapes
+Baer, _ber_, the tree _Zizyphus Jujuba_
+Bahadhoor, _bahadur_, 'a champion', a title of honour
+Baittee, _beti_, a daughter
+Bamboos,
+  uses of;
+  flowering of;
+  set on fire by friction
+Banner of Husain (see ALLUM)
+Bareheaded people not allowed in a house
+Basun, _besan_, pulse flour
+Bazars described
+Beards worn by Musalmans;
+  dyeing of
+Bearer caste, the
+Bedspreads
+Bedsteads
+Beeby Sahib, _bibi sahiba_, an English lady
+Beggar, a famous, in Lucknow
+Begum, _begam_, a title of a Sayyid lady
+Biles and blains
+Birds,
+  catchers of;
+  released in time of sickness
+Birth rites,
+  scanty rejoicings at birth of a girl;
+  gun-firing;
+  nursing,;
+  first dose of medicine;
+  bathing of child;
+  forty days' impurity after childbirth;
+  gifts made to the child;
+  birthday celebrations;
+  circumcision;
+  child carried to the Dargah
+Bis ma Allah, _bi'smi'llah_, 'in the name of Allah'
+Bleeding, procedure at
+Blistering, flies used for
+Blood-spitting; cure for
+Blue stone, a remedy for snakebites
+Boats set adrift in honour of Khwaja Khizr
+Bodice, the
+Bohue Begum, _Bahu Begum_, a daughter-in-law
+Bootkhanah, _butkhanah_, an idol temple
+Borehaun, _burhan_, the critical days of fever
+Bows and arrows, use of
+Brahmanical cords burnt
+Bread, varieties of
+Bricks, ancient
+Bride,
+  the peculium of;
+  modes of selecting;
+  dress of
+Bridegroom, veil worn by
+Brushes for hair and teeth
+Buckaria, Bokhara
+Buckrah Eade, the _baqarah id_, festival;
+  gifts sent at
+Budgerow, a kind of boat
+Bull-bull, _bulbul_, the nightingale
+Bundah Kungoon, Bandar Kangun
+Bunyah, Baniya, a corn merchant
+Buraq, the animal on which Muhammad flew to Mecca
+Burbut, _bargat_, the banyan tree
+Burghutt, caste, regard for animal life
+Burial rites, purification after touching the corpse; see DEATH.
+Burkhundhar, _barqandaz_, a man armed with a matchlock
+Burqa', a woman's veil
+Burrhsaatie, _barsati_ a disease of horses
+Burruff wallah, _barfwala_ a seller of ice
+Bushire, a town on the Persian Gulf
+Bussorah, Basra, a town on the Shatt el Arab in Asiatic Turkey
+Bussund, _basant_, the spring festival
+Butcher bird, the
+Butchers
+Buttaire, _bater_, a quail
+Butter sellers
+Buttooah, _batua_, ornamented bag
+Bytool Faakere, _baitu'l-faqir,_ 'the house of a holy man'
+
+Cain, reputed founder of Kanauj
+Caliphas, _khalifah_, of Shi'ahs and Sunnis;
+  a head of a trade or profession
+Camphor, used in treating cholera;
+  in burial rites
+Cardimun, the cardamom
+Cards, the game of
+Carounder, _karaunda, Carissa Carandas_
+Castanets, see CHUCKIE
+Catechu, used with betel
+Cattle, slaughter of, objected to by Hindus
+Chaff, thrown on the head in mourning
+Chain at the Ka'bah;
+  of justice, put up by Jahangir
+Chair, right to use
+Chapaatie, _chapata_, a griddle cake
+Charaagh, _chiragh_, a lamp
+Charity, a religious duty;
+  among Musalmans
+Charpoy, _charpai_, a kind of bed
+Chatnee, _chatni_, a kind of relish
+Chattah, _chhata_, an umbrella
+Cheek, _chiq_, a door screen
+Cheetah, _chita_, a hunting leopard
+Cherries
+Children, fasting of
+Chillum, _chilam_, the bowl of a water-pipe, the tobacco used to
+fill it
+Chillumchee, _chilamchi_, a wash-hand basin
+Chilubdhaar, _chalapdar_, a cymba player
+China vessels, use of
+Chirrya wallah, _chiryawala_, a bird-catcher
+Chitcherah, _chichra_, the _Achryanthes aspera_ tree
+Chitlah, _chitra_, a kind of melon
+Chobdhaah, Chobdhaar, _chobdar_, a mace-bearer
+Chokeedhar, _chaukidar_, a watchman
+Cholera;
+  cures for
+Chowrie, Chowry, _chauri_, a yak tail fan
+Chowsah, _chausa_, four-sided, of dice
+Chubbaynee, _chabena_, parched grain
+Chuckie, Chuckee, _charkhi_, a kind of castanets;
+  _chakki_, a grindstone
+Chuddah, Chudha, _chadar_, a sheet
+Chuhsah, _chhahsa_, six-sided, of dice
+Chumund, _chaman_, a flower bed
+Chundole, _chandol_, a kind of sedan chair
+Chupha, _chhappar_, a thatched shed
+Chupkund, _chapkan_, a kind of coat
+Cider, made from melon juice
+Circumcision
+Clepsydra, used to mark time
+Cloak, hooded, worn by women
+Cock-fighting
+Coel, _koil_, a kind of cuckoo
+Concubinage
+Confectioners
+Cookery, in Musalman families
+Cooking, prohibited in the house of mourning
+Cord, Brahmanical, burned
+Cossum, Qasim, nephew of Husain;
+  model of his tomb taken in procession
+Courtie, _kurti_, a woman's jacket
+Cowry shells
+Cream sellers
+Cries of hawkers
+Crown of the King of Oudh
+Crows, impudence of
+Cummerbund, _kamarband_, a waist-cloth, girdle
+Cuppers
+Curd sellers.
+Currants
+Currie, _karhi_
+Cutlers
+Cuttie, _khatai_, soured milk;
+  kath, gum used with pan
+
+Daak, _dak_, the letter post
+Daaood, Daud, David, his mother's prayer
+Dacca cloths
+Damascus fig, the
+Dancing, considered degrading;
+  women
+Dates, eating of
+Dead, food for the;
+  period of mourning for
+Death rites
+Debt, imprisonment for, said to be forbidden
+Decca, Dacca
+Delhi described
+Deluge, said not to be known in India
+Deputtah, _dopatta_, a double sheet
+Devotees, Musalman.
+Dhall, _dal_, pulse
+Dhaullie, _dali_, a basket of fruit and vegetables
+Dhie, _dahi_, curds
+Dhie mudgelluss, _dah majlis_, the ten days of the Muharram festival
+Dhobie, _dhobi_, a washerman
+Dholle, _dhol_, a drum
+Dhollie, a 'dooly', a litter;
+  wives
+Dhome, a drum
+Dhull Dhull, Duldul, the mule of Muhammad
+Dhurzie, darzi, the tailor caste
+Diamonds
+Dice, games played with
+Dimishk, Dimashq, Damascus
+Dinar, _dinar_, denarius, a coin
+Dinners provided in time of mourning
+Dirzy; see DHURZIE
+Divination in selecting a bride
+Divorce
+Dog, an impure animal
+Domenie, Domni, a singing woman
+Dooar prayer, _du'a_, supplication
+Doob grass, _dub, Cynodon Dactylon_
+Dowry of bride, how fixed
+Draughts, the game of
+Dress, not changed during the Muharram festival;
+  of a bride
+Duffelee, _dafali_, the drummer caste
+Dukhaun, _dukan_, a shop
+Dulhaun, _dalan_, the hall, entrance of a house
+Dullha, _dulha_, a bridegroom
+Dullun, _dulhin_, a bride
+Dunkah, _danka_, a kettle-drum;
+  dunkah wallah, _dankawala,_ a drummer
+Dunyah, _dhaniya_, coriander
+Durbar, _darbar_, a court
+Durgah, _dargah_, a saint's shrine;
+  processions to, at Lucknow
+Durwaun, _darwan_, a doorkeeper
+Durweish, _darvesh_ a beggar, a religious mendicant;
+  pretenders to the title
+Dustha-khawn, _dastarkhwan_, a table-cloth
+Dustoor, _dastur_, custom,
+  the percentages on purchases taken by native servants
+Dust-storms
+
+Eade, _'Id_, a festival;
+  eade-gaarh, _'Idgah_,
+  the place where the festival rites are performed
+Ear cleaners
+Earrings
+Earwax, human, administered to elephants
+Earthquakes;
+  follow a flight of locusts;
+  Kanauj damaged by
+Eclipse observances
+Eggs sent at the Nauroz festival
+Elephant trained to march in time;
+  carriages drawn by;
+  beggar riding on;
+  etiquette on meeting the king
+Elias ky kishtee, _Ilyas ki kishti_,
+  boats set adrift in honour of Khwaja Khizr
+Elijah, Elisha, the prophet
+Emaum, _Imam_, leaders of the faithful;
+  Jaffur Saadick, Ja'far as-Sadiq
+Emaum baarah, _Imambara_,
+  the place where the Muharram rites are performed
+Emaum zamunee, _imam zamini_,
+  a charm to secure safety in a journey
+English women not visiting the Lucknow bazar
+Esaee, _'Isa 'l-Masih_, Jesus Christ, the Messiah
+Eshaa namaaz, _salatu 'l-'Isha_, the night prayer
+Etiquette in the zenanah;
+  at the Court of Oudh
+Eunuchs, their power in the Court of Oudh;
+  tale of a pilgrim
+Eve, the grave of
+Execution of criminals
+Exercise, modes of, used by young men
+Exorcism of evil spirits
+Eyes decorated with antimony
+
+Faakeer, _faqir_, a beggar, holy man
+Fahteeah, _al Fatihah_, the first chapter of the Koran
+Falsah, _phalsa, falsa_, the fruit _Grewia asiatica_
+Fasting;
+  exemptions from
+Fat, not eaten by Musalmans
+Fatima, Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad;
+  an Arab girl purchased
+Feringhee Bargh, _Farangi Bagh_, 'the Franks' Garden
+Fierdowsee, Firdausi, the poet;
+  translations of;
+  on slavery
+Fig, the
+Fire, jumping into, and walking through
+Fireworks at the Shab-i-Bara'at festival;
+  see ARTUSH-BAAJIE
+Firing guns at the birth of a boy
+Fish, use of;
+  varieties prohibited for use as food;
+  a symbol at the Court of Oudh
+Flags, in use at the Court of Oudh
+Flies, inconvenience from;
+  a variety which produces blisters
+Flower gardens, neglect of;
+  in Moghul palaces
+Flowers, scent of, the food of aerial spirits
+Folk tales, told in the zenanah;
+  tale reciters;
+  tale of Daaood;
+  of the Prophet;
+  of pilgrims;
+  of a charitable Arab;
+  of Syaad Harshim;
+  of a saint changing the course of a river;
+  of an ungrateful snake;
+  of a king who longed for a fruit
+Food, for the dead;
+  not cooked in a house of mourning;
+  lawful for Musalmans
+Fraught, Furat, the river Euphrates
+Friday, the Musalman Sabbath
+Frogs
+Fruit, use of;
+  sellers of
+Furniture in the zenanah
+Furrukhabaad, Farrukhabad, Nawab of
+
+Gabriel, the Angel;
+  inspires the Koran
+Games played by boys;
+  in the zenanah
+Gaming prohibited
+Genii, the Jinn
+Ghauzee ood deen, Ghazi-ud-diu, King of Oudh
+Ghee, _ghi_, clarified butter
+Ghurrie, _ghari_, a space of about twenty minutes
+Glass, _gilas_, a cherry
+Glass, vessels, use of;
+  use in windows
+Goatah chandnie, _gola chandni_, lace
+Goattur, _gota_, a substitute for betel, at the Muharram
+God, ninety-nine names of
+Golard, Goulard water
+Gooderie, _gudri_, a quilt
+Goolbudden, _gulbadan_, a silk fabric
+Goolistaun, Gulistan of Sa'adi
+Goomtie, the river Gumti
+Gooseberries
+Gootlie, _guthli_, the first dose given to a baby
+Grain, threshing and winnowing of
+Gram, a kind of chick pea, _Cicer arietinum_
+Green, the colour preferred by Sayyids;
+  symbolizing Hasan
+Greengrocers
+Grief, exhibition of, at the Muharram festival
+Guaver, the guava fruit
+Guinah, _genda_, the marigold
+Gurdonie, _gardani_, a neck ring
+Gurhum dahnie, _garm dahani_ prickly heat
+
+Haafiz, Hafiz, the Persian poet
+Haarh, _har_, a necklace;
+  see HARRH
+Hackery, _chhakra_, a bullock carriage
+Hadge, _hajj_, pilgrimage to holy places
+Hadjee, _hajji_, a pilgrim
+Hafiz, a man who has learned the Koran by heart
+Hafsah, the wife of Muhammad
+Hair, mode of dressing;
+  let loose at the Muharram festival;
+  not shaven in mourning
+Hand, spread, a symbol;
+  left, not used in eating
+Harrh, _har_, a necklace;
+  see HAARH
+Harshim Syaad, Sayyid Hashim, tale of
+Hasan, the martyr;
+  Hasan ul Ushkeree, Hasan al-Askari
+Hatim Tai
+Haundhee, _audhi_, a dust storm
+Haverdewatt. avadavat, the bird _estrelda amadara_;
+  see LOLLAH
+Heifer, sacrifice of
+Herbs used in cooking
+Hindu gods, images of
+Holie, the Holi festival
+Hookha, _huqqah_, the water-pipe;
+  etiquette in use of;
+  makers of 'snakes' for
+Horse racing at Lucknow
+Horses, food of;
+  use of heel ropes;
+  marks on;
+  paces of;
+  shoes fixed on doors;
+  tails and legs dyed;
+  tails not docked;
+  use of in carriages
+Hosein, Husain, the martyr;
+  disposal of his head
+Howdah, _haudah_, a seat fixed on an elephant
+Hudeeth, _hadis_, the sayings of the Prophet
+Hummoomaun, the monkey god Hanuman
+Hummoon Shah, Hamun Shah
+Hurkaarah, _harkara_, a footman, messenger
+Hurrh, al-Hurr, the Shami leader
+Hurrundh, _arand_, the castor-oil plant
+Hurth Maaree, the scene of the slaughter of the martyrs
+Husbandmen, life of
+Huzerut, _hazrat_, a title of respect
+Hydrabaad, Hyderabad
+Hydrophobia, a cure for
+Hyza, _haiza_, cholera
+
+Ibrahim, son of the Prophet;
+  Ibraahim Mukhaun, Ibrahim Makan,
+  'the place of Abraham', at Mecca
+Ice-making
+Idolatry prohibited to Musalmans
+Infanticide among Musalmans
+Ink-making
+Ishmael, son of the Prophet;
+  sacrifice of
+Islaaim, Islam
+
+Ja'adah poisons Hasan
+Jaffur Saadick, the Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq
+Jahaun-punah, _jahan panah_, a title of honour, 'asylum of the world'
+Jahmun, Jamun, _jaman, jamun_, the fruit _Eugenia Jambolana_;
+  see JARMUN
+Jains, their tenderness for animal life
+Jarmun, see JAHMUN
+Jaullie, _jali_, netting
+Jeddah
+Jerusalem, pilgrimage to
+Jessamine tree, the
+Jesus Christ, the Musalman title of;
+  His Nativity;
+  His Coming
+Jewellery, craving of women for;
+  put aside at the Muharram festival
+Jhaawn namaaz, _ja'e namaz_, a prayer carpet
+Jhammah, _jama_, a long gown
+Jhaumdanie, _jamdani_, an ornamented bag
+Jhanngeer, the Emperor Jahangir, his chain of justice
+Jhewl, _jhul_, the trappings of an elephant
+Jhillmun, _jhilmil_, venetian shutters for doors and windows
+Jhy Singh, Raja Jai Singh, his observatories
+Jillewdhar, _jilaudur_, an attendant on a man of rank
+Jinn, the
+Joel, the Prophet
+Jonk, a leech
+Joshun, _joshan_, an ornament worn by women on the upper arm
+Judee, Mount
+Jugglers
+Jumma musjid, Jumna musjid, _Jame' masjid_, a congregational mosque
+Justice, administration of in Oudh
+
+Kaabah, _Ka'bah_, the holy place at Mecca;
+  water spout at
+Kaanaut, _qanat_, the side walls of a tent
+Kaarawaun, _kawan_, a caravan
+Kaareem Zund, Karim Khan Zand, anecdote of;
+  see KHAREEM ZUND
+Kaarjil, _kajal_, lampblack applied to the eyes
+Kaawaus, _khawass_, a special female attendant
+Kabooza, _kharbuzah_, the melon
+Kalipha, _khalifah_, a Caliph, head servant;
+  see CALIPHA
+Kallonie wallah, _khilauniwala_, a toy-seller
+Kannoge, the city of Kanauj;
+  founded by Cain;
+  destroyed by an earthquake
+Katorah, _katora_, a shallow drinking cup
+Kauflaah, _kafilah_, a caravan
+Kaullie Nuddee, the Kali Nadi river
+Kauzy, _Qazi_, a Musalman law officer
+Keebaab, _kabab_, pieces of meat roasted on skewers
+Keerah, _kira_, a leech
+Ketcherie, _khichri_, rice cooked with pulse and spices
+Kettledrum, the;
+  see DUNKAH
+Khadijah, wife of the Prophet
+Khareem Zund;
+  see KAAREEM ZUND
+Khaun, _khan_, 'lord', a title of honour
+Khaunce, Kansa, King of Mathura
+Khaunie, a folk tale
+Kheer, _khir_, milk boiled with rice
+Khidmutghar, _khidmatgar_, a table servant
+Khillaut, _khil'at,_ a robe of honour
+Khodah Afiz, _Khuda hafiz_, 'God be your Protector!'
+Khoraan, the Koran, Qur'an;
+  its history;
+  not to be translated;
+  taught to girls;
+  its doctrine regarding women;
+  passages of, inscribed as amulets;
+  learnt by heart;
+  readers of
+Khus-khus, _khaskhas_,
+  the fragrant root of the grass _Andropogon muricatus_
+Khusru Parviz, King of Persia
+Khwaja Khizr, the saint
+Kiblaah, _qiblah_, the direction assumed in prayer
+Killaah, _qal'a qil'a_, a fort
+Kirhnee, _kirni_, the fruit _Canthium parviflorum_
+Kirrich, _kirch_, a straight thrusting sword
+Kishtee, _kishti_, a boat
+Kitchens in the zenanah
+Kite-flying
+Knife-grinders
+Koofah, the city Kufah
+Kootub, the Qutb Minar pillar at Delhi
+Kornea, Kanhaiya, Krishna
+Koss, _kos_, a measure of distance, about two miles
+Kraabaalah, Kerbela, Karbala, the holy city
+Kuffin, _kafn_, a coffin, winding-sheet
+Kummeruck, _kamrak_, the  fruit _Averrhoa Carambola_
+Kungoon, Bandar Kangun in the Persian Gulf
+Kurah, _kora_, aloe water
+Kurbootah, _kharbuza_, the shaddock fruit
+Kutcher, _khichar_, rice boiled with pulse and spices
+
+Labaadah, Labaadh, _labada_, a rain-coat
+Labaun, _loban_, frankincense;
+  see LAHBAUN
+Ladies, European, not visiting bazars;
+  Musalman, conversation of
+Lahaaf, _lahaf_, a quilt
+Lahbaun, see LABAUN
+Lampblack, applied to the eyes
+Lance, exercises with the
+Leopards trained for sport
+Leech vendors
+Leechie, _lichi_, the fruit _Nephelium Lichi_
+Left hand used for ablution, not for eating with
+Letters, dedicated to God
+Licenses for marriage unknown
+Lights burned before the Taziahs
+Lime, applied to wounds
+Liquors, fermented, prohibited to Musalmans
+Locusts;
+  used for food
+Lollah, _lal_, the bird _Estrelda amandava_;
+  see HAVERDEWATT
+Loodocanah, the city and district Ludhiana
+Looking-glasses in zenanahs;
+  bride's face first seen in
+Lota, a brass water-vessel
+Luchmee, Lakshmana, image of
+Luggun, _lagan_ a washing pan
+Lungoor, _langur_, the ape _Semnopithecus entellus_
+
+
+Mabaaruck Now-Rose, _Nauroz mubarak_
+Maccurrub, _muqarrab_, angel messengers
+Madhaar, Madar, the saint
+Magic, to bring rain;
+  to cause fertility
+Mahana, _miyana_, a kind of litter
+Mahdhaar, _madar_, the tree _Calotropis gigantea_
+Mahout, _mahawat_, an elephant driver
+Mahrattas, raids of in the Panjab
+Mahul, _mahall_ the seraglio
+Mahummud, Muhammad, the Prophet, his mission;
+  his title;
+  tales regarding;
+  fixes Friday as the Sabbath;
+  laws of the pilgrimage;
+  his rules of conduct;
+  laws regarding polygamy
+Mahummud Baakur, Muhammad Baqir
+Mahurrum, the Muharram festival;
+  date of;
+  ornaments laid aside at;
+  immense expenditure on;
+  second day observances;
+  fifth day observances;
+  last day observances;
+  clothes given away;
+  inauspicious for marriages;
+  objected to by Sunnis
+Majoob Soofies, _majzub_, 'abstracted'
+Mango tree, the
+Marriage, forced, prohibited;
+  age for;
+  settlements unknown;
+  service;
+  exorbitant expenditure on
+Matchmakers
+Matunjun, _muttajjan_, meat boiled with sugar and spices;
+  see MATUNJUN
+Maulvee, _maulavi,_ a doctor of the law
+Mautunjun, see MATUNJUN
+Mayllah, _mela_, a fair, a religious assemblage
+Mayndhie, _mendhi_,
+  the shrub _Lawsonia alba_, apllied to hands and feet;
+  smeared on bride and bridegroom;
+  procession of;
+  sent to bridegroom by bride;
+  smeared on horses;
+  rite at marriage
+Mayvour, _mewa_, fruit
+Mazoor, Mazoorie, _mazdur, mazdurni_, a day labourer
+Meals, among Musalmans
+Meat, use of by Musalmans
+Mecca, the holy city;
+  the Holy House;
+  life held sacred at;
+  Black Stone at;
+  see KAABAH
+Medicine, native system of
+Medina, the holy city
+Meer, _mir_, a title of Sayyids
+Meer Eloy Bauxh, Mir Ilahi Bakhsh
+Meer Hadjee Shah, Mir Haji Shah, his life;
+  character;
+  makes his own winding sheet;
+  listens to the reading of the Bible;
+  views on fasting;
+  tea drinking;
+  describes the Hajj;
+  describes Mecca;
+  life at Ludhiana;
+  adventure with a snake;
+  adventures with tiger;
+  his pilgrimage to Arabia;
+  cures an Arab lady;
+  attacked by pirates;
+  purchases Fatimah, an Arab girl
+Meer Hasan Ali, husband of the authoress
+Meer Hasan Ali, Mrs., the authoress
+Meer Nizaam ood deen, Mir Nizam-ud-din
+Meer Syaad Mahumud, Mir Sayyid Muhammad
+Meetah, meettah, _mitha, mithai_, sweet, sweetmeats
+Melons,
+  cider made from the juice
+Metals transformed into gold
+Mhembur, _minbar, mimbar_, the pulpit of a mosque
+Mhidie, al Mahdi, 'the Directed One';
+  signs of his coming;
+  his birthday
+Mina, _maina_, the bird _Gracula religiosa_
+Minerals, medicinal use of
+Missee, _missi_, a preparation for staining the teeth
+Mittie wallah, _mithaiwala_, a sweetmeat vendor
+Moat, _moth_, the aconite-leaved kidney bean
+Mocha, Mokha, a port on the Red Sea
+Moghdhur, _mugdar_, a sort of dumb-bell or club used in athletic exercises
+Mohur, a gold coin
+Monkeys;
+  and alligators;
+  affection for their offspring;
+  and snakes;
+  wounded;
+  and treasure;
+  use of antidotes for poison
+Moollakhaut, _mulaqat_, a mourning assemblage
+Mooltanie mittee, _multani mitti_, fuller's earth
+Moon, new, festival at;
+  influence of;
+  when full auspicious;
+  drinking the;
+  influence on wounds
+Moonkih, Munkar, Munkir, the Recording Angel
+Moonshie, _munshi_, a writer, secretary
+Moosa, Musa, Moses;
+  Musa al-Kazim, the Caliph
+Moosul, _musal_, a pestle used for husking rice
+Mortem, _matam_, mourning
+Moses, Musalman title of;
+  tale regarding
+Moslem, Muslim, cousin of Husain
+Mosque, absence of decoration in;
+  caretakers of;
+  at Kanauj;
+  pollution of
+Mosquitoes
+Mourning, dress worn during the Muharram festival;
+  chaff thrown on the head;
+  head and feet left bare;
+  for forty days after a death;
+  shaving forbidden during
+Muchullee, _machhli_, fish
+Mucka Beg
+Muckunpore, Makanpur
+Mudgeluss, _majlis_, a mourning assembly
+Muggalanie, _Mughlani_, a Moghul woman, a needlewoman
+Mugganee, _mangni_, the marriage engagement
+Muggrib, _maghrib ki namaz_, sunset prayer
+Mukburrah, Mukhburrah, _maqbarah_, a mausoleum
+Mukhdoom Jhaunneer, Makhdum Jahaniya Jahangasht, the saint
+Mukhun, _makkhan_, butter
+Mulberries
+Mullie, _malai_, cream
+Munall, _munhnal_, a pipe mouth-piece
+Muntah, _mantra_, spells, incantations
+Murdanah, _mardanah_, the men's quarters in a house
+Murseeah, _marsiyah_, a funeral elegy;
+  see MUSSEEAH
+Musheroo, _mashru_, silk cloth permitted to be worn at prayer
+Mushukh, _mashk_, a skin water-bag
+Music in the zenanah
+Musnud, _masnad_ a pile of cushions, a throne
+Musseah, Musseeah;
+  see MURSEEAH
+Mustaches
+Myriam, Maryam, the Virgin Mary
+Myrtle, the tree
+
+Naalkie, _nalki_, a kind of litter
+Naarah, _nara_, a string
+Nadir Shaah, Nadir Shah, King of Persia
+Najoom, najoomee, _nujumi_, an astrologer
+Nala and Damayanti, tale of
+Namaaz, _namaz_, the daily liturgical prayer of Musalmans
+Namaazie, _namazi_, one given to prayer, a devotee,
+  one who calls the people to prayer
+Nativity of Jesus Christ, observed by Musalmans
+Naunbye, _nanbai_, a bazar baker
+Nautch woman;
+  Nautchunee, _nachni_, a dancer
+Neam, _nim_, the tree _Melia Azadirachta_;
+  see NEEM
+Neellah tootee, _nila tutiya_, blue vitriol, medicinal use of
+New Moon festival, the
+New Year's Day, see NOU-ROSE
+Nitre, manufacture of
+Nizaam ood deen, Nizam-ud-din, the saint
+Noah, Musalman title of;
+  his place of burial;
+  ark of, where rested
+Nose-rings;
+  see NUT
+Nou-Rose, _nauroz_ the New Year's Day festival
+Nudghiff Usheruff, Nejef, Mashhad 'Ali
+Nujeeb, _najib_, a class of infantry
+Nusseer ood Deen Hyder, Nasir-ud-din Haidar, King of Oudh
+Nut, Nutt, _nath_, a nose-ring
+Nuwaub, _nawab_, 'a deputy', title of the rulers of Oudh
+Nuzza, _nazr, nazar_, an offering from an inferior to a superior
+Nykee, Nakir, the Recording Angel
+
+Omens, at Nauroz festival;
+  used in selecting a bride;
+  at marriage
+Omir, 'Umar, the second Caliph;
+  said to have destroyed the Alexandrian library
+Ood-ood, _hudhud_, the lapwing, hoopoe
+Oostardie, _ustadi_, a teacher;
+  see ARTOOJEE
+Orme, _am_, the mango
+Orme peach, the peach
+Ornaments, use of by women;
+  see JEWELLERY
+Otta, _'itr,_ otto of roses
+Oudh, administration of justice in the Nawabi;
+  Nawabs and Kings of
+
+Paadishah Begum, Padshah Begam, the
+Paak, _pak_, pure
+Pachisi, the game
+Paidshah, _padshah_, a King
+Palace, the, at Delhi
+Palkie, _palki_, the common palanquin
+Pallungh, _palang_, a kind of bed
+Paper, written, objection to burning;
+  made of bamboo
+Pataan, one of the Pathan tribe
+Pawn, _pan_, betel leaf;
+  not used during the Muharram festival
+Pawndawn, _pandan,_ a box to hold betel leaf
+Peach, the
+Pearls
+Pedigrees of Sayyids carefully kept
+Peer, _pir_, a Musalman saint or holy man
+Pellet bow, use of the
+Pepul, _pipal_, the sacred fig tree, _Ficus religiosa_
+Pickles, use of, and sale
+Pigeon flying;
+  shooting
+Pilgrims, regulations for;
+  cloak worn by
+Pillau, _pilau_, meat or fowl boiled with rice and spices
+Pineapple, the;
+  see UNANAS
+Plague, an outbreak of
+Plums
+Poison detected by means of dishes
+Polygamy;
+  among Indian kings
+Pomegranate, the
+Prayer, the call to;
+  'opening of difficulties';
+  carpet;
+  times of, how announced
+Prickly heat
+Printing, not practised in Lucknow
+Prisoners released to effect a cure of the sick or as a thank-offering
+Punkah, _pankah_, a kind of fan;
+  punkah wala, _punkah wala_, a fan-seller
+Pappayah, _papaiya_, the papaw tree, _Carica Papaya_
+Purdah, _pardah_, a screen to conceal ladies
+Purrh, _pahar_, a watch, a measure of time
+Pyjaamah, _paejama_, drawers;
+  stuff used in making
+
+Quail fighting
+Quicksilver, use of in medicine
+
+Racaab puttie, _rikab patthari_, a stone plate
+Rain magic
+Rainy season, the
+Rajpoots, Rajputs, infanticide among
+Raspberries
+Ravenscroft, G., murder of
+Red, the Sunni colour;
+  of Husain
+Reetah, _ritha_ the soapnut, use of in medicine
+Resident at Lucknow, the
+Resurrection, doctrine of the
+Ricketts, Mordaunt, Resident at Lucknow
+Right hand used in eating
+River, course of changed by a saint
+Romall, _rumal_, a handkerchief
+Rooey, _rohu_ the carp fish
+Rope-dancing
+Roses;
+  smelling of, causes colds and sneezing;
+  rose water;
+  syrup, seeds, oil, uses of
+Roshunie, _roshanai_, ink
+Rozedhaar, _rozadar_, one who keeps a fast
+Rumzaun, Ramazan, Ramzan, the festival
+Rutt, _rath_, a bullock carriage
+Ruzzie, _razai_ a quilt
+Ryott, _ra'iyat_ a subject, a cultivator
+
+Saabeel, _sabil_,
+  the place where sherbet is distributed at the Muharram festival
+Saadie, Shaikh S'adi, the Persian poet
+Saag, _sag,_ herbs of various kinds used in cooking
+Saalik, _salik_, a devotee, a kind of Sufi
+Saatarah, _sitara_, a guitar
+Sabbath, the, among Musalmans
+Sacrifice of animals at the Bakrah 'Id festival
+Safdar Jang, Nawab of Oudh, tomb of
+Sahbaund, Sawan, the fourth Hindu month
+Sahib Logue, Sahib Log, Europeans
+Saints' tombs at Kanauj
+Sainturh, _sentha_ the grass _Saccharum ciliare_;
+  see SECUNDAH
+Sakeena Koobraah, Sakina Kibriya, daughter of Husain
+Salaam-oon-ali khoon, _salam 'alai-kum_, 'Peace be with thee'
+Sallon, _salan_, a curry of meat, fish, or vegetables
+Sampwalla, _sampwala_, a snake-charmer
+Sarchuk, _saachaq_, fruits, &c., carried in procession at a marriage
+Saulgirrah, _salgirah_, the knot tied to mark a birthday
+Scales, the, doctrine of
+Scapegoat, released in times of sickness
+Scorpio, moon of, inauspicious
+Scorpions, mode of repelling
+Seclusion of womem, origin of the custom
+Secundah, _sarkanda_,
+  roots of the grass _Saccharum ciliare_, used for mats and screens;
+  see SAINTURH
+Secungebeen, _sikanjabin_, oxymel, vinegar
+Seepie wallah deelie sukha,
+  _sipi wala gila sukha_, moist or dry cuppers
+Seer, _scr_, a weight of about two pounds
+Serai, _sarai_, a native inn
+Seur, _suar_ a hog, a term of abuse
+Seven, a lucky number
+Shaah Jhee, Shahji, a beggar
+Shaah Nudghiff, Shah Najaf, a shrine at Lucknow
+Shaah ood Dowlah, Shah-ud-daula, a darvesh
+Shah Allum, Shah 'Alam II, King of Delhi, his grave
+Shah Allumgeer, Shah 'Alamgir, the Emperor Aurangzeb
+Shah Jahan, the Moghul Emperor
+Shahjee, see SHAH SHERIF OOD DEEN
+Shahnama, the poem by Firdausi
+Shah Nizaam ood deen, Shaikh Nizam ud-din Auliya, the saint
+Shah Sherif ood deen Mahmood,
+  Shah Sharif ud-din Mahmud, a darvesh
+Shampooing
+Shaving, discontinued during mourning
+Shawm, Sham, Syria
+Shawmie, Shami, a native of Syria
+Sheah, Shiah, the Musalman sect;
+  quarrels with Sunnis at the Muharram;
+  their numbers compared with those of Sunnis;
+  the creed of
+Sheah-maul, _shirmal_, a kind of bread; see SHEERMAUL
+Sheekaree, _shikari_, a huntsman
+Sheermaul, _shirmal_, a kind of bread; see SHEAH-MAUL
+Sheikh Mahumud, Shaikh Muhammad
+Sherbet, _sharbat_, a drink, how made;
+  distributed at the Muharram festival;
+  payment for at marriages
+SHERREFAH, SHERREEFHA, _sharifah_, the custard apple
+Sheruff, Sharif, the governor of Mecca
+Shimeear, Shimar, the chief agent in the murder of Husain
+Shiraaz, Shiraz, a city in Persia
+Shoes removed in sacred places and in houses;
+  varieties of
+Shooghur Allah, see SHUGGUR ALLAH
+Shopkeepers, mode of doing business
+Shroff, _sarraf_, a moneychanger
+Shroud, the burial
+Shubh-burraat, _Shab-i-bara'at_, the night of record, a festival
+Shubnum, _shabnam_, 'dew', a kind of fine cloth
+Shuggur Allah, _shukr Allah_,
+  'Praise be to God!'; see SHOOGHUR ALLAH
+Shujah ood Dowlah, Shuja ud-daula, Nawab of Oudh
+Shutteringhie, _shatranji_, a striped floor-cloth
+Sickley ghur, _saikalgar_, a polisher of arms
+Sickness, attributed to spirits
+Sikhs, the;
+  campaign against
+Silk, wearing of
+Sin, repentance of
+Singing women
+Siraat, _sirat_, the bridge over which the soul passes
+Sirrakee, _sirki_, the reed _Saccharum
+  ciliare_, used for mats, &c
+Sita ki Rasoi, a building at Kanauj
+Slaves, domestic, condition of;
+  female in the zenanah;
+  liberated by or on the death of the owner;
+  property of reverting to the master
+Snake charmers, deception practised by
+Snakes, superstitions regarding;
+  and monkeys;
+  tale of an ungrateful;
+  an adventure with
+Soap, substitutes for
+Society of Musalman ladies
+Solomon, King, tale of;
+  the first Sufi
+Soobadhaar, _subahdar_, a native officer, a viceroy
+Soobadhaarie, _subahdari_, a province under a viceroy
+Soobhoo namaaz, _namaz-i-subh_, the dawn prayer
+Soofy, Sufi, a sect of Musalmans;
+  consulted to solve mysteries;
+  pretenders to piety;
+  assemblage of with singing and dancing;
+  principles of
+Soojinee, _sozani_, a quilted cloth
+Soonie, Sunni, the Musalman sect;
+  rulers at Mecca
+Soota-badhaar, _Soutabardar_, a mace-bearer;
+  see SOTA-BADHAAH
+Sota-badhaah; see SOOTA-BADHAAR
+Spinach, varieties and uses of
+Spirits, evil, exorcism of
+Starvation, a cure for disease
+Stockings, wearing of in the zenanah
+Stone dishes
+Strawberries
+Subzah, _sabzah_, a song bird
+Suffee Ali, Safiya 'Ilah, a title of Adam
+Sulleed, _tharid_, a kind of bread
+Sulmah, _surma_, antimony applied to the eyes
+Sumdun Begum, _samdhan begum_, a connexion by marriage
+Surraie, _surahi_, a long-necked water flagon
+Surringhee, _sarangi_, a sort of violin
+Sutkah, _sadaqah_, offerings of intercession
+Suwaaree, _sawari_, an equipage, escort
+Sweetmeats, sellers of;
+  given to a man in a state of ecstasy,
+Swine, held abominable by Musalmans
+Sword exercises
+Syaad, Sayyid, a class of Musalmans;
+  their origin;
+  care used and difficulty in making marriage engagements;
+  respect paid to;
+  dues received by
+Syaad Ahmad Kaabeer, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir,
+Syaad Harshim, Sayyid Hashim
+
+Taaif, Ta'if, a fertile tract near Mecca,
+Taarkhanah, _tahkhanah_, an underground room,
+Taaseel-dhaar, _tahsildar_, a native collector of revenue,
+Taaweez, taawize, _ta'wiz_, an amulet, talisman,
+Tahujjoot, _namaz-i-tahajjud_, prayer after midnight,
+Tale kee archah wallah,
+  _Tel ka acharwala_, a seller of oil pickles,
+Talismans; see TAAWEEZ
+Tamarind tree, the, vegetation beneath it dying,
+Tamerlane, Taimur Lang, introduces seclusion of women,
+Tarantula, the,
+Tattle, _tatti_, a screen, a device for cooling rooms,
+Tawurshear, _tabashir_, a substance found in bamboos,
+Tazia, _ta'ziya_,
+  a model tomb carried in procession at the Muharram festival;
+  not peculiar to India;
+  not used by Sunnis;
+  burial of,
+Tea, use of,
+Teeth, cleaning of, 59
+Thonjaun, _tamjhan_, _thamjhan_, a kind of litter,
+Throne, of the King of Oudh,
+Tigers, tamed, wandering about the house;
+  adventure with,
+Time, Musalman division of;
+  measured by a clepsydra,
+Timoor, Taimur, his invasion of India,
+Tin, use of in dyeing and in medicine,
+Tithes,
+Toddy,
+Toothbrushes,
+Tope, a grove of trees,
+Tor, _tar_, the palm tree, _Borassus flabelliformis_,
+Toy sellers,
+Trades in Lucknow,
+Travellers excused from fasting,
+Treasure, burying of,
+Trees, speaking on the Mahdi's birthday,
+Tuckht, _takht_, a wooden platform on which men sit and sleep,
+Tufaun, _tufan_, a storm,
+Tumaushbeen, _tamashabin_, 'a spectator of wonders',
+Tundhie, _thandi_, a cooling draught taken at the breaking of a fast,
+Turkaarie, _tarkari_, vegetables
+
+Uberuck, _abrak_, talc, mica,
+Ulsee, _alsi_, linseed, _Linum usitatissimum_,
+Umbrella, a mark of dignity,
+Umultass, _amaltas_,
+  the Indian laburnum, _Cassia fistula_, use in medicine,
+Ungeeah, _angiya_, an under-jacket or bodice,
+Ungeel, _injil_, Evangel, the Gospels,
+Unnah, _anna_, a nurse,
+Unrurkha, _angarkha_, a long tunic,
+Ununas, _ananas_, the pineapple, _Ananassa sativa_,
+Urzees, _arziz_, tin, used in medicine and dyeing,
+Usury, forbidden
+
+Vakeel, _wakil_, an agent
+Vazeefah, _wazifah_, a passage read from the Koran
+Vegetables, use of as food
+Veil, worn by a bridegroom
+Venus, the conjunction of
+Vermicelli, used in the times of fasting
+Villoiettee Begum, Wilayati begam, 'the foreign lady'
+Vizier, _wazir_, the prime minister at the Court of Oudh
+
+Walking barefoot, a sign of mourning
+Wax from the human ear administered to elephants
+White ants
+Widows, dress of;
+  reduced numbers of;
+  marriage of
+Window glass, scarcity of
+Witch, tale of a;
+  hair plucked from the head of;
+  has crooked feet;
+  sucking out the vitals of a victim
+Witchcraft, general belief in
+Wives, prescribed number of;
+  large numbers of married
+Women, belief that they do not possess souls;
+  seclusion of
+Wounds, treatment of
+
+Yaacoob, Ya'qub, Jacob
+Yeusuf, Yusuf, Joseph
+Yieyah, Yahya, St. John
+Yoube, Aiyub, Job
+Yumen, Yemen in Arabia
+Yuzeed, Yazid, second Caliph of the house of Umaiyah
+
+Zahur morah, _zahr mohra_, the bezoar stone
+Zarbund, _zerband_, a waist string
+Zechareah, Zachariah
+Zeearut, _ziyarah, ziyarat_, a visit to a shrine
+Zeenahnah, the zenanah, described
+Zemindhaar, _zamindar_, a landowner
+Zohur namaaz, _salatu-'z-zuhr_, mid-day prayer
+Zuckhaut, _zakat_, alms for the poor
+Zynool auberdene, Az-zainu'l-'abidin
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13127 ***
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #13127 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13127)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Observations on the Mussulmauns of India, by
+Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, et al, Edited by W. Crooke
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Observations on the Mussulmauns of India
+
+Author: Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali
+
+Release Date: August 7, 2004  [eBook #13127]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSSULMAUNS OF
+INDIA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Allen Siddle and Project Gutenberg Distributed
+Proofreaders from images provided by the Million Book Project
+
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSSULMAUNS OF INDIA
+
+Descriptive of Their Manners, Customs, Habits and Religious Opinions
+Made During a Twelve Years' Residence in Their Immediate Society
+
+by
+
+MRS. MEER HASSAN ALI
+
+Second Edition, Edited with Notes and an Introduction by W. Crooke
+
+1917
+
+
+
+
+WITH SENTIMENTS OF GRATITUDE
+AND PROFOUND RESPECT
+THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE HUMBLY DEDICATED,
+WITH PERMISSION,
+
+TO HER ROYAL HIGHNESS
+THE PRINCESS AUGUSTA;
+
+BY HER ROYAL HIGHNESS'S
+MOST OBEDIENT,
+FAITHFULLY ATTACHED,
+AND VERY HUMBLE SERVANT,
+
+B. MEER HASSAN ALI.
+
+[1832.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
+
+In the present reprint the text of the original edition of this work has
+been reproduced without change, even the curious transliterations of the
+vernacular words and phrases having been preserved. The correct forms of
+these, so far as they have been ascertained, have been given in the Notes
+and in the Index-Glossary. I have added an Introduction containing an
+account of the authoress based on the scanty information available, and I
+have compiled some notes illustrating questions connected with Islam
+and Musalman usages. I have not thought it necessary to give detailed
+references in the notes, but a list of the works which have been used will
+be found at the end of the text. As in other volumes of this series, the
+diacritical marks indicating the varieties of the sound of certain letters
+in the Arabic and Devanagari alphabets have not been given: they are
+unnecessary for the scholar and serve only to embarrass the general reader.
+
+I have to acknowledge help from several friends in the preparation of this
+edition. Mr. W. Foster, C.I.E., has supplied valuable notes from the India
+Office records on Mir Hasan 'Ali and his family; Dr. W. Hoey, late
+I.C.S., and Mr. L.N. Jopling, I.C.S., Deputy-Commissioner, Lucknow, have
+made inquiries on the same subject. Mr. H.C. Irwin, late I.C.S., has
+furnished much information on Oudh affairs in the time of the Nawabi.
+Sir C.J. Lyall, K.C.S.I, C.I.E., and Professor E.G. Browne, M.A., have
+permitted me to consult them on certain obscure words in the text.
+
+W. CROOKE.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Very little is known about the authoress of this interesting book. She is
+reticent about the affairs of her husband and of herself, and inquiries
+recently made at Lucknow, at the India Office, and in other likely
+quarters in England, have added little to the scanty information we
+possess about her.
+
+The family of her husband claimed to be of Sayyid origin, that is to say,
+to be descended from the martyrs, Hasan and Husain, the sons of Fatimah,
+daughter of the Prophet, by her marriage with her cousin-german, 'Ali.
+The father-in-law of the authoress, Mir Haji Shah, of whom she
+speaks with affection and respect, was the son of the Qazi, or
+Muhammadan law-officer, of Ludhiana, in the Panjab. During his
+boyhood the Panjab was exposed to raids by the Mahrattas and incursions of
+the Sikhs. He therefore abandoned his studies, wandered about for a time,
+and finally took service with a certain Raja--where she does not tell
+us--who was then raising a force in expectation of an attack by the Sikhs.
+He served in at least one campaign, and then, while still a young man,
+made a pilgrimage thrice to Mecca and Kerbela, which gained him the title
+of Haji, or pilgrim. While he was in Arabia he fell short of funds,
+but he succeeded in curing the wife of a rich merchant who had long
+suffered from a serious disease. She provided him with money to continue
+his journey. He married under romantic circumstances an Arab girl named
+Fatimah as his second wife, and then went to Lucknow, which, under the
+rule of the Nawabs, was the centre in Northern India of the Shi'ah
+sect, to which he belonged. Here he had an exciting adventure with a tiger
+during a hunting party, at which the Nawab, Shuja-ud-daula, was
+present. He is believed to have held the post of Peshnamaz, or 'leader
+in prayer', in the household of the eunuch, Almas 'Ali Khan, who
+is referred to by the authoress.
+
+His son was Mir Hasan 'Ali, the husband of the authoress. The
+tradition in Lucknow is that he quarrelled with his father and went to
+Calcutta, where he taught Arabic to some British officers and gained a
+knowledge of English. We next hear of him in England, when in May 1810 he
+was appointed assistant to the well-known oriental scholar, John
+Shakespear, professor of Hindustani at the Military College, Addiscombe,
+from 1807 to 1830, author of a dictionary of Hindustani and other
+educational works. Mention is made of two cadets boarding with Mir
+Hasan 'Ali, but it does not appear from the records where he lived.
+After remaining at the College for six years he resigned his appointment
+on the ground of ill-health, with the intention of returning to India. He
+must have been an efficient teacher, because, on his resignation, the East
+India Company treated him with liberality. He received a gift of £50 as a
+reward for his translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, and from the
+Court minutes it appears that on December 17, 1816, it was resolved to
+grant him 100 guineas to provide his passage and £100 for equipment.
+Further, the Bengal Government was instructed to furnish him on his
+arrival with means to reach his native place, and to pay him a pension of
+Rs. 100 _per mensem_ for the rest of his life.[1]
+
+A tradition from Lucknow states that he was sent to England on a secret
+mission, 'to ask the Home authorities to accept a contract of Oudh direct
+from Nasir-ud-din Haidar, who was quite willing to remit the money
+of contract direct to England instead of settling the matter with the
+British Resident at Lucknow'. It is not clear what this exactly means. It
+may be that the King of Oudh, thinking that annexation was inevitable, may
+have been inclined to attempt to secure some private arrangement with the
+East India Company, under which he would remain titular sovereign, paying
+a tribute direct to the authorities in England, and that he wished to
+conduct these negotiations without the knowledge of the Resident at
+Lucknow. There does not seem to be independent evidence of this mission of
+Mir Hasan 'Ali, and we are told that it was, as might have been
+expected, unsuccessful.
+
+No mention is made of his wife in the official records, and I have been
+unable to trace her family name or the date and place of her marriage.
+Mir Hasan 'Ali and his wife sailed for Calcutta, and travelled to
+Lucknow via Patna. She tells little of her career in India, save that she
+lived there for twelve years, presumably from 1816 to 1828, and that
+eleven years of that time were spent in the house of her father-in-law at
+Lucknow. In the course of her book she gives only one date, September 18,
+1825, when her husband held the post of Tahsildar, or sub-collector
+of revenue, at Kanauj in the British district of Farrukhabad. No
+records bearing on his career as a British official are forthcoming.
+Another Lucknow tradition states that on his arrival at the Court of Oudh
+from England he was, on the recommendation of the Resident, appointed to a
+post in the King's service on a salary of Rs. 300 per annum. Subsequently
+he fell into disgrace and was obliged to retire to Farrukhabad with
+the court eunuch, Nawab Mu'tamad-ud-daula, Agha Mir.
+
+With the restoration of Agha Mir to power, Hasan 'Ali returned
+to Lucknow, and was granted a life pension of Rs. 100 _per mensem_ for his
+services as Darogha at the Residency, and in consideration of his
+negotiations between the King and the British Government or the East India
+Company.
+
+From the information collected at Lucknow it appears that he was known as
+Mir Londoni, 'the London gentleman', and that he was appointed
+Safir, or Attaché, at the court of King Ghazi-ud-din Haidar,
+who conferred upon him the title of Maslaha-ud-daula, 'Counsellor of
+State'. By another account he held the post of Mir Munshi, head
+native clerk or secretary to the British Resident.
+
+One of the most influential personages in the court of Oudh during this
+period was that stormy petrel of politics, Nawab Hakim Mehndi. He
+had been the right-hand man of the Nawab Sa'adat Ali, and on the
+accession of his son Ghazi-ud-din Haidar in 1814 he was dismissed on
+the ground that he had incited the King to protest against interference in
+Oudh affairs by the Resident, Colonel Baillie. The King at the last moment
+became frightened at the prospect of an open rupture with the Resident.
+Nawab Hakim Mehndi was deprived of all his public offices and of
+much of his property, and he was imprisoned for a time. On his release he
+retired into British territory, and in 1824 he was living in magnificent
+style at Fatehgarh. In that year Bishop Heber visited Lucknow and received
+a courteous letter from the Nawab inviting him to his house at
+Fatehgarh. He gave the Bishop an assurance 'that he had an English
+housekeeper, who knew perfectly well how to do the honours of his
+establishment to gentlemen of her own nation. (She is, in fact, a singular
+female, who became the wife of one of the Hindustani professors at
+Hertford, now the Hukeem's dewan,[2] and bears, I believe, a very
+respectable character.)' The authoress makes no reference to Hakim
+Mehndi, nor to the fact that she and her husband were in his employment.
+
+The cause of her final departure from India is stated by W. Knighton in a
+highly coloured sketch of court life in the days of King Nasir-ud-daula,
+_The Private Life of an Eastern King_, published in 1855. 'Mrs. Meer
+Hassan was an English lady who married a Lucknow noble during a visit to
+England. She spent twelve years with him in India, and did not allow him
+to exercise a Moslem's privilege of a plurality of wives. Returning to
+England afterwards on account of her health, she did not again rejoin
+him.'[3] The jealousy between rival wives in a polygamous Musalman
+household is notorious. 'A rival may be good, but her son never: a rival
+even if she be made of dough is intolerable: the malice of a rival is
+known to everybody: wife upon wife and heartburnings'--such are the common
+proverbs which define the situation. But if her separation from her
+husband was really due to this cause, it is curious that in her book she
+notes as a mark of a good wife that she is tolerant of such arrangements.
+'She receives him [her husband] with undisguised pleasure, although she
+has just before learned that another member has been added to his
+well-peopled harem. The good and forbearing wife, by this line of conduct,
+secures to herself the confidence of her husband, who, feeling assured
+that the amiable woman has an interest in his happiness, will consult her
+and take her advice in the domestic affairs of his children by other wives,
+and even arrange by her judgement all the settlements for their marriages,
+&c. He can speak of other wives without restraint--for she knows he has
+others--and her education has taught her that they deserve her respect in
+proportion as they contribute to her husband's happiness.'[4]
+
+It is certainly noticeable that she says very little about her husband
+beyond calling him in a conventional way 'an excellent husband' and 'a
+dutiful, affectionate son'. There is no indication that her husband
+accompanied her on her undated visit to Delhi, when she was received in
+audience by the King, Akbar II, and the Queen, who were then living in a
+state of semi-poverty. She tells us that they 'both appeared, and
+expressed themselves, highly gratified with the visit of an English lady,
+who could explain herself in their language without embarrassment, or the
+assistance of an interpreter, and who was the more interesting to them
+from the circumstance of being the wife of a Syaad'.[5]
+
+From inquiries made at Lucknow it has been ascertained that Mir
+Hasan 'Ali had no children by his English wife. By one or more native
+wives he had three children: a daughter, Fatimah Begam, who married a
+certain Mir Sher 'Ali, of which marriage one or more descendants
+are believed to be alive; and two sons, Mir Sayyid 'Ali or Miran
+Sahib, said to have served the British Government as a Tahsildar,
+whose grandson is now living at Lucknow, and Mir Sayyid Husain, who
+became a Risaldar, or commander of a troop, in one of the Oudh
+Irregular Cavalry Regiments. One of his descendants, Mir Agha 'Ali
+Sahib, possesses some landed property which was probably acquired by
+the Risaldar. After the annexation of Oudh Mir Hasan 'Ali is
+said to have been paid a pension of Rs. 100 _per mensem_ till his death in
+1863.
+
+It is also worthy of remark that she carefully avoids any reference to the
+palace intrigues and maladministration which prevailed in Oudh during the
+reigns of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar and Nasir-ud-din Haidar, who
+occupied the throne during her residence at Lucknow. She makes a vague
+apology for the disorganized state of the country: 'Acts of oppression may
+sometimes occur in Native States without the knowledge even, and much less
+by the command of, the Sovereign ruler, since the good order of the
+government mainly depends on the disposition of the Prime Minister for the
+time being'[6]--a true remark, but no defence for the conduct of the weak
+princes who did nothing to suppress corruption and save their subjects
+from oppression.
+
+Little is known of the history of Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali after her
+arrival in England. It has been stated that she was attached in some
+capacity to the household of the Princess Augusta, who died unmarried on
+September 22, 1840.[7] This is probable, because the list of subscribers
+to her book is headed by Queen Adelaide, the Princess Augusta, and other
+ladies of the Royal Family. She must have been in good repute among
+Anglo-Indians, because several well-known names appear in the list: H.T.
+Colebrooke, G.C. Haughton, Mordaunt Ricketts and his wife, and Colonel J.
+Tod.
+
+The value of the book rests on the fact that it is a record of the
+first-hand experiences of an English lady who occupied the exceptional
+position of membership of a Musalman family. She tells us nothing of
+her friends in Lucknow, but she had free access to the houses of
+respectable Sayyids, and thus gained ample facilities for the study of the
+manners and customs of Musalman families. Much of her information on
+Islam was obtained from her husband and his father, both learned,
+travelled gentlemen, and by them she was treated with a degree of
+toleration unusual in a Shi'ah household, this sect being rigid and
+often fanatical followers of Islam. She was allowed to retain a firm
+belief in the Christian religion, and she tells us that Mir Haji
+Shah delighted in conversing on religious topics, and that his happiest
+time was spent in the quiet of night when his son translated to him the
+Bible as she read it.[8]
+
+Her picture of zenana life is obviously coloured by her frank admiration
+for the people amongst whom she lived, who treated her with respect and
+consideration. It is thus to some extent idyllic. At the same time, it may
+be admitted that she was exceptionally fortunate in her friends. Her
+sketch may be usefully compared with that of Mrs. Fanny Parks in her
+charming book, _The Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque_.
+Mrs. Parks had the advantage of having acquired a literary knowledge of
+Hindustani, while Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, to judge from the way in
+which she transliterates native words, can have been able to speak little
+more than a broken patois, knew little of grammar, and was probably unable
+to read or write the Arabic character. Colonel Gardner, who had wide and
+peculiar experience, said to Mrs. Parks: 'Nothing can exceed the quarrels
+that go on in the zenana, or the complaints the begams make against each
+other. A common complaint is "Such a one has been practising witchcraft
+against me". If the husband make a present to one wife, if it be only a
+basket of mangoes, he must make the same exactly to all the other wives to
+keep the peace. A wife, when in a rage with her husband, if on account of
+jealousy, often says, "I wish I were married to a grass-cutter," i.e.
+because a grass-cutter is so poor that he can only afford to have one
+wife.'[9] Mrs. Parks from her own experience calls the zenana 'a place of
+intrigue, and those who live within four walls cannot pursue a straight
+path; how can it be otherwise, when so many conflicting passions are
+called forth?'[10] She adds that 'Musalmani ladies generally forget
+their learning when they grow up, or they neglect it. Everything that
+passes without the four walls is repeated to them by their spies; never
+was any place so full of intrigue, scandal, and chit-chat as a zenana.'[11]
+When she visited the Delhi palace she remarks: 'As for beauty, in a whole
+zenana there may be two or three handsome women, and all the rest
+remarkably ugly.'[12] European officers at the present day have no
+opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of the conditions of zenana life;
+but from the rumours that reach them they would probably accept the views
+of Mrs. Parks in preference to those of Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali.
+
+Though her opinions on the life of Musalman ladies is to some extent
+open to criticism, and must be taken to apply only to the exceptional
+society in which she moved, her account of the religious feasts and fasts,
+the description of the marriage ceremonies and that of the surroundings of
+a native household are trustworthy and valuable. Some errors, not of much
+importance and probably largely due to her imperfect knowledge of the
+language, have been corrected in the notes of the present edition. It must
+also be understood that her knowledge of native life was confined to that
+of the Musalmans, and she displays no accurate acquaintance with the
+religion, life or customs of the Hindus. The account in the text displays
+a bias in favour of the Shi'ah sect of Musalmans, as contrasted with
+that of the Sunnis. For a more impartial study of the question the
+reader is referred to Sir W. Muir, _Annals of the Early Caliphate, The
+Caliphate_, and to Major R.D. Osborn, _Islam under the Khalifs of Baghdad_.
+
+
+[1] Col. H.M. Vibart, _Addiscombe_, pp. 39, 41, 42.
+
+[2] _Diwan_, chief agent, manager.
+
+[3] p. 208.
+
+[4] p. 182.
+
+[5] p. 290.
+
+[6] p. 227.
+
+[7] _Calcutta Review_, ii. 387.
+
+[8] pp. 80, 422.
+
+[9] Vol. i, pp. 230, 453.
+
+[10] i. 391.
+
+[11] i. 450.
+
+[12] ii. 215.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+INTRODUCTORY LETTER
+
+
+LETTER I
+
+  Introductory Remarks.--The characteristic simplicity of manners
+  exhibited in Native families.--Their munificent charity.--The Syaads.
+  Their descent, and the veneration paid to them.--Their pride of
+  birth.--Fast of Mahurrum.--Its origin.--The Sheahs and
+  Soonies.--Memorandum of distances.--Mount Judee (Judea), the
+  attributed burying-place of Adam and Noah.--Mausoleum of Ali.--Tomb
+  of Eve.--Meer Hadjee Shah.
+
+
+LETTER II
+
+  Celebration of Mahurrum.--The Tazia.--Mussulmaun Cemeteries.--An
+  Emaum-baarah.--Piety of the ladies.--Self-inflicted abstinence and
+  privations endured by each sex.--Instances of the devotional zeal of
+  the Mussulmauns.--Attempted infringement on their religious
+  formalities.--The Resident at Lucknow.--Enthusiastic ardour of the
+  poor.--Manner of celebrating the Mahurrum in opposition to the
+  precepts of the Khoraun.--Mosque and Emaum-baarah contrasted.--The
+  supposition of Mussulmauns practising idolatry confuted.
+
+
+LETTER III
+
+  Continuation of Mahurrum.--Consecration of Banners.--Durgah at
+  Lucknow.--Its origin explained.--Regarded with peculiar
+  veneration.--The Nuwaub vows to build a new one.--Its
+  description.--Procession to the Durgah.--Najoomies.--Influence
+  possessed and practised by them.--Eunuchs.--Anecdotes of some having
+  attained great honours and wealth.--Presents bestowed upon them
+  generally revert to the donor.--Rich attire of male and female
+  slaves...Page 32
+
+
+LETTER IV
+
+  Mahurrum concluded.--Night of Mayndhie.--Emaum-baarah of the King of
+  Oude.--Procession to Shaah Nudghiff.--Last day of
+  Mahurrum.--Chattahs.--Musical instruments.--Zeal of the Native
+  gentlemen.--Funeral obsequies over the Tazia at
+  Kraabaallah.--Sentiments of devout Mussulmauns.--The fast followed by
+  acts of charity.--Remarks on the observance of Mahurrum...Page 42
+
+
+LETTER V
+
+  Time.--How divided in Hindoostaun.--Observances after
+  Mahurrum--Luxuries and enjoyments resumed.--Black dye used by the
+  ladies.--Their nose-ring.--Number of rings worn in their ears.--Mode
+  of dressing their hair.--Aversion to our tooth-brushes.--Toilet of
+  the ladies.--The Pyjaamahs.--The Ungeeah (bodice).--The Courtie.--The
+  Deputtah.--Reception of a superior or elder amongst the
+  ladies.--Their fondness for jewels.--Their shoes.--The state of
+  society amongst the Mussulmaun ladies.--Their conversational
+  endowments.--Remark upon the fashion and duty of beards...Page 55
+
+
+LETTER VI
+
+  The Mussulmaun religion.--Sectarians.--Their difference of
+  faith.--History of the Soonies.--The Caliphas Omir, Osman, Aboubuker,
+  &c.--Mahumud's parting charge to Ali.--Omir's jealousy of Ali.--The
+  Khoraun.--How compiled.--The Calipha Omir held in detestation.--Creed
+  of the Sheahs.--Funeral service.--Opinions of the Mussulmauns
+  respecting the Millennium.--The foundation of their faith
+  exhibited.--Sentiments of the most devout followers of
+  Mahumud.--Bridge of Sirraat, the Scales, &c., explained.--Emaum
+  Mhidhie.--Prophecy of his reappearance.--Its early fulfilment
+  anticipated.--Discourse with Meer Hadjee Shaah on this
+  subject...Page 66
+
+
+LETTER VII
+
+  Namaaz (daily prayer).--The Mussulmaun prayers.--Their different
+  names and times.--Extra prayer-service.--The Mosque.--Ablutions
+  requisite previous to devotion.--Prostrations at prayers.--Mosque
+  described.--The Mussulmaun's Sabbath.--Its partial observance.--The
+  amusements of this life not discontinued on the Sabbath.--Employment
+  of domestics undiminished on this day.--Works of importance then
+  commenced.--Reasons for appropriating Friday to the Sabbath.--The
+  Jews opposed to Mahumud.--The Prophet receives instructions from the
+  angel Gabriel.--Their import and definition.--Remarks of a
+  Commentator on the Khoraun.--Prayer of intercession.--Pious
+  observance of Christmas day by a Native Lady.--Opinions entertained
+  of our Saviour.--Additional motives for prayer.--David's Mother's
+  prayer.--Anecdote of Moses and a Woodcutter.--Remarks upon the piety
+  and devotion of the female Mussulmauns...Page 82
+
+
+LETTER VIII
+
+  The Fast of Rumzaun.--Motives for its strict observance.--Its
+  commencement and duration.--Sentiments of Meer Hadjee Shaah on the
+  day of fasting.--Adherence of the females to the observing this
+  fast.--How first broken.--Devout persons extend the term to forty
+  days.--Children permitted to try their zeal.--Calamitous effects of
+  the experiment.--Exemptions from this duty.--Joyful termination of
+  the fast.--Celebration of Eade on the last day.--The
+  Nuzza.--Nautchwomen and Domenie.--Surprise of the Natives at European
+  dancing.--Remarks on their Music.--Anecdotes of Fatima.--The
+  Chuckee...Page 98
+
+
+LETTER IX
+
+  The Hadje (Pilgrimage to Mecca).--Commanded to be performed by
+  Mahumud.--Eagerness of both, sexes to visit the Prophet's
+  tomb.--Qualifications requisite for the undertaking.--Different
+  routes from India to Mecca.--Duties of the pilgrims at the Holy
+  House.--Mecca and its environs.--Place of Abraham.--The
+  Bedouins.--Anecdote of a devotee and two pilgrims.--A Bedouin Arab
+  and the travellers to Mecca.--The Kaabah (Holy
+  House).--Superstitious regard to a chain suspended there.--Account of
+  the gold water-spout.--Tax levied on pilgrims visiting the tomb of
+  Mahumud by the Sheruff of Mecca.--Sacred visit to the tombs of Ali,
+  Hasan, and Hosein.--The importance attached to this duty.--Travellers
+  annoyed by the Arabs.--An instance recorded.--The Nudghiff
+  Usheruff.--Anecdotes of Syaad Harshim...Page 112
+
+
+LETTER X
+
+  The Zuckhaut (God's portion).--Syaads restricted the benefit of this
+  charity.--The Sutkah.--The Emaum's Zaumunee (protection).--The Tenths,
+  or Syaads' Due.--Mussulmauns attribute thanks to God only, for all
+  benefits conferred.--Extracts from the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'.--Mahumud's
+  advice.--His precepts tend to inculcate and encourage
+  charity.--Remarks on the benevolence of Mussulmauns...Page 135
+
+
+LETTER XI
+
+  Mussulmaun festivals.--Buckrah Eade.--Ishmael believed to have been
+  offered in sacrifice by Abraham and not Isaac.--Descent of the
+  Mussulmauns from Abraham.--The Eade-gaarh.--Presentation of
+  Nuzzas.--Elephants.--Description of the Khillaut (robe of
+  honour).--Customs on the day of Buckrah Eade.--Nou-Roze (New Year's
+  Day).--Manner of its celebration.--The Bussund (Spring-colour).--The
+  Sah-bund.--Observances during this month.--Festival of the New
+  Moon.--Superstition of the Natives respecting the influence of the
+  Moon.--Their practices during an eclipse.--Supposed effects of the
+  Moon on a wound.--Medicinal application of lime in
+  Hindoostaun.--Observance of Shubh-burraat.
+
+
+LETTER XII
+
+  The Zeenahnah.--Its interior described.--Furniture, decorations,
+  &c.--The Purdah (curtains).--Bedstead.--The Musnud (seat of
+  honour).--Mirrors and ornamental furniture disused.--Display on
+  occasions of festivity.--Observations on the Mussulmaun
+  Ladies.--Happiness in their state of seclusion.--Origin of secluding
+  females by Mahumud.--Anecdote.--Tamerlane's command prohibiting
+  females being seen in public.--The Palankeen.--Bearers.--Their
+  general utility and contentedness of disposition.--Habits peculiar to
+  Mussulmaun Ladies.--Domestic arrangements of a Zeenahnah.--Dinner
+  and its accompanying observances.--The Lota and Lugguns.--The
+  Hookha.--Further investigation of the customs adopted in
+  Zeenahnahs...Page 163
+
+
+LETTER XIII
+
+  Plurality of wives.--Mahumud's motive for permitting this
+  privilege.--State of society at the commencement of the Prophet's
+  mission.--His injunctions respecting marriage.--Parents invariably
+  determine on the selection of a husband.--First marriages attended by
+  a public ceremony.--The first wife takes precedence of all
+  others.--Generosity of disposition evinced by the Mussulmaun
+  ladies.--Divorces obtained under certain restrictions.--Period of
+  solemnizing marriage.--Method adopted in choosing a husband or
+  wife.--Overtures and contracts of marriage, how regulated.--Mugganee,
+  the first contract.--Dress of the bride elect on this occasion.--The
+  ceremonies described as witnessed.--Remarks on the bride.--Present
+  from the bridegroom on Buckrah Eade... Page 179
+
+
+LETTER XIV
+
+  Wedding ceremonies of the Mussulmauns.--The new or full moon
+  propitious to the rites being concluded.--Marriage settlements
+  unknown.--Control of the wife over her own property.--Three days and
+  nights occupied in celebrating the wedding.--Preparations previously
+  made by both families.--Ostentatious display on these occasions.--Day
+  of Sarchuck.--Customs on the day of Mayndhie.--Sending Presents.--Day
+  of Baarraat.--Procession of the bridegroom to fetch the bride.--The
+  bride's departure to her new home.--Attendant ceremonies
+  explained.--Similarity of the Mussulmaun and Hindoo
+  ceremonies.--Anecdote of a Moollah.--Tying the Narrah to the
+  Moosul...Page 195
+
+
+LETTER XV
+
+  On the birth and management of children in Hindoostaun.--Increase of
+  joy on the birth of a Son.--Preference generally shown to male
+  children.--Treatment of Infants.--Day of Purification.--Offerings
+  presented on this occasion to the child.--The anniversary of the
+  birthday celebrated.--Visit of the father to the Durgah.--Pastimes of
+  boys.--Kites.--Pigeons.--The Mhogdhur.--Sword-exercise.--The Bow and
+  Arrows.--The Pellet-bow.--Crows.--Sports of Native
+  gentlemen.--Cock-fighting.--Remarks upon horses, elephants, tigers,
+  and leopards.--Pigeon-shooting.--Birds released from captivity on
+  particular occasions.--Reasons for the extension of the royal
+  clemency in Native Courts.--Influence of the Prime Minister in the
+  administration of justice...Page 210
+
+
+LETTER XVI
+
+  Remarks on the trades and professions of Hindoostaun.--The
+  Bazaars.--Naunbye (Bazaar cook).--The Butcher, and other
+  trades.--Shroffs (Money-changers).--Popular cries in Native
+  cities.--The articles enumerated and the venders of them
+  described.--The Cuppers.--Leechwomen.--Ear-cleaners.--Old
+  silver.--Pickles.--Confectionery.--Toys.--Fans.--Vegetables and
+  fruit.--Mangoes.--Melons.--Melon-cyder.--Fish.--Bird-catcher.--The
+  Butcher-bird, the Coel, and Lollah.--Fireworks.--Parched
+  corn.--Wonder-workers.--Snakes.--Anecdote of the Moonshie and the
+  Snake-catcher.--The Cutler.--Sour curds.--Clotted
+  cream.--Butter.--Singular process of the Natives in making
+  butter.--Ice.--How procured in India.--Ink.--All writing dedicated to
+  God by the Mussulmauns.--The reverence for the name of God.--The
+  Mayndhie and Sulmah...Page 228
+
+
+LETTER XVII
+
+  Seclusion of Females.--Paadshah Begum.--The Suwaarree.--Female
+  Bearers.--Eunuchs.--Rutts.--Partiality of the Ladies to Large
+  retinues.--Female Companions.--Telling the Khaunie.--Games of the
+  Zeenahnah.--Shampooing.--The Punkah.--Slaves and
+  slavery.--Anecdote.--The Persian Poets.--Fierdowsee.--Saadie, his
+  'Goolistaun'.--Haafiz.--Mahumud Baarkur.--'Hyaatool
+  Kaaloob'.--Different manner of pronouncing Scripture names...Page 248
+
+
+LETTER XVIII
+
+  Evils attending a residence in India.--Frogs.--Flies.--Blains.--
+  Musquitoes.--The White Ant.--The Red Ant.--Their destructive
+  habits.--A Tarantula.--Black Ants.--Locusts.--Superstition of the
+  Natives upon their appearance.--The Tufaun, or Haundhie
+  (tempest).--The rainy season.--Thunder and lightning.--Meteors.--
+  Earthquakes.--A city ruined by them.--Reverence of the Mussulmauns
+  for saints.--Prickly heat.--Cholera Morbus.--Mode of
+  Treatment.--Temperance the best remedy.--Recipe...Page 258
+
+
+LETTER XIX
+
+  Kannoge.--Formerly the capital of Hindoostaun.--Ancient
+  castle.--Durability of the bricks made by the aborigines.--Prospect
+  from the Killaah (castle).--Ruins.--Treasures found therein.--The
+  Durgah Baallee Peer Kee.--Mukhburrahs.--Ancient Mosque.--Singular
+  structure of some stone pillars.--The Durgah Mukdoom
+  Jhaunneer.--Conversions to the Mussulmaun Faith.--Anecdote.--Ignorance
+  of the Hindoos.--Sculpture of the Ancients.--Mosque inhabited by
+  thieves.--Discovery of Nitre.--Method of extracting it.--Conjectures
+  of its produce.--Residence in the castle.--Reflections...Page 274
+
+
+LETTER XX
+
+  Delhi.--Description of the city.--Marble hall--The Queen's Mahul
+  (palace).--Audience with the King and Queen.--Conversation with
+  them.--Character of their Majesties.--Visit to a
+  Muckburrah.--Soobadhaars.--The nature of the office.--Durgah of Shah
+  Nizaam ood deen.--Tomb of Shah Allum.--Ruins in the vicinity of Delhi.
+  --Antique pillars (Kootub).--Prospect from its galleries.--Anecdotes
+  of Juangheer and Khareem Zund...Page 289
+
+
+LETTER XXI
+
+  Natural Productions of India.--Trees, shrubs, plants, fruits,
+  &c.--Their different uses and medicinal qualities.--The Rose.--Native
+  medical practice.--Antidote to Hydrophobia.--Remedy for the venom of
+  the Snake.--The Chitcherah (Inverted thorn).--The Neam-tree.--The
+  Hurrundh (Castor-tree).--The Umultass (Cassia-tree).--The
+  Myrtle.--The Pomegranate.--The Tamarind.--The Jahmun.--The
+  Mango.--The Sherrefah.--White and red Guavers.--The Damascus Fig.--The
+  Peach, and other Fruits.--The Mahdhaar (Fire-plant).--The Sirrakee and
+  Sainturh (Jungle-grass).--The Bamboo, and its various uses
+  enumerated...Page 304
+
+
+LETTER XXII
+
+  Monkeys.--Hindoo opinions of their Nature.--Instances of their
+  sagacity.--Rooted animosity of the Monkey tribe to the
+  snake.--Cruelty to each other when maimed.--The female remarkable for
+  affection to its young.--Anecdotes descriptive of the belief of the
+  Natives in the Monkey being endowed with reason.--The Monkeys and the
+  Alligator.--The Traveller and the Monkeys.--The Hindoo and the
+  Monkey...Page 324
+
+
+LETTER XXIII
+
+  The Soofies.--Opinion of the Mussulmauns concerning Solomon.--The
+  Ood-ood.--Description of the Soofies and their sect.--Regarded with
+  great reverence.--Their protracted fasts.--Their opinion esteemed by
+  the Natives.--Instance of the truth of their predictions.--The Saalik
+  and Majoob Soofies.--The poets Haafiz and Saadie.--Character and
+  attainments of Saadie.--His 'Goolistaun'.--Anecdotes descriptive of
+  the origin of that work.--Farther remarks on the character and
+  history of Saadie.--Interesting anecdotes illustrative of his virtues
+  and the distinguishing characteristics of the Soofies...Page 331
+
+
+LETTER XXIV
+
+  The Soofies continued.--Eloy Bauxh.--Assembly of Saalik
+  Soofies.--Singular exhibition of their zeal.--Mystery of Soofeism.--The
+  terms Soofie and Durweish explained.--Anecdote of Shah Sherif.--Shah
+  Jee and the Paltaan.--Dialogue on death between Shah Jee and his
+  wife.--Exemplary life of his grandson.--Anecdote of a Mussulmaun
+  lady.--Reflections on modern Hindoos.--Anecdotes of Shah ood Dowlah
+  and Meer Nizaam...Page 348
+
+
+LETTER XXV
+
+  Mussulmaun Devotees.--The Chillubdhaars.--Peculiar mode of
+  worship.--Propitiatory offerings.--Supposed to be invulnerable to
+  fire.--The Maadhaars or Duffelees.--Character of the
+  founder.--Pilgrimage to his tomb.--Females afflicted on visiting
+  it.--Effects attributed to the violation of the sanctuary by a
+  foreigner.--Superstition of the Natives.--Anecdote of Sheikh Suddoo
+  and the Genii.--The way of the world exemplified, a Khaunie
+  (Hindoostaunie fable).--Moral fable.--The King who longed for
+  fruit...Page 370
+
+
+LETTER XXVI
+
+  Superstition of the Natives.--Fair annually kept by Hindoos.--Supposed
+  practice of witchcraft by an old woman.--Assaulted by an infuriated
+  populace.--Rescued by a Native gentleman.--He inquires their reasons
+  for persecuting her.--Is instrumental in appeasing their
+  malignity.--Endeavours to remove their prejudice.--Proneness of
+  Asiatics to superstition.--Opinion of a Mussulmaun on the influence
+  of evil spirits.--Account of a woman possessed by an evil
+  spirit.--Dialogue with her during the paroxysms of her
+  affliction.--Means used for her recovery.--Further allusions to the
+  false notions of the Natives respecting supernatural agency...Page 387
+
+
+LETTER XXVII
+
+  Memoir of the life of Meer Hadjee Shah.--His descent.--Anecdote of a
+  youthful exploit.--His predilection for the army.--Leaves his home to
+  join the army of a neighbouring Rajah.--Adventures on the way.--Is
+  favourably received and fostered by the Rajah.--His first pilgrimage
+  to Mecca.--Occurrences during his stay in Arabia.--Description of a
+  tiger-hunt.--Detail of events during his subsequent pilgrimages.--The
+  plague.--Seizure by pirates.--Sketch of the life of Fatima, an
+  Arabian lady.--Relieved from slavery by Meer Hadjee Shah.--He marries
+  her.--Observations on the piety of his life.--Concluding
+  remarks...Page 400
+
+
+INDEX...Page 427
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY LETTER
+
+
+Actuated by a sense of duty to the people with whom twelve years of my
+life were passed on terms of intimacy and kindness, I was induced to write
+the principal number of the following Letters as faithful sketches of the
+Manners, Customs, and Habits of a people but little known to the European
+reader. They were at first designed merely for the perusal of private
+friends; who, viewing them with interest, recommended my bringing them
+before the public, considering that the information they contained would
+be acceptable from its originality, as presenting a more familiar view of
+the opinions and the domestic habits of the Mussulmaun community of
+Hindoostaun than any hitherto presented through other channels.
+
+I have found (and I believe many will coincide with me in the opinion)
+that it is far easier to think with propriety than to write our thoughts
+with perspicuity and correctness; but when the object in view is one which
+conscience dictates, the humblest effort of a female pen advances with
+courage; and thus influenced, I venture to present my work to the public,
+respectfully trusting they will extend their usual indulgence to a first
+attempt, from the pen of a very humble scribe, more solicitous for
+approbation than applause.
+
+The orthography of Asiatic words may differ in some instances in my pages
+from those of other writers--this, however, is from error, not design, and
+may be justly attributed to my own faulty pronunciation.
+
+I have inserted in these Letters many anecdotes and fables, which at the
+first view, may be considered as mere nursery tales. My object, however,
+will I trust plead my excuse: they are introduced in order to illustrate
+the people whom I have undertaken to describe; and, primarily strengthened
+by the moral tendency of each anecdote or fable selected for my pages, I
+cannot but consider them as well suited to the purpose.
+
+Without farther apology, but with very great deference, I leave these
+imperfect attempts to the liberality of my readers, acknowledging with
+gratitude the condescending patronage I have been honoured with, and
+sincerely desiring wherever anticipations of amusement or information from
+my observations have been formed, that the following pages may fulfil
+those expectations, and thus gratify my wish to be in the smallest degree
+useful in my generation.
+
+[B. MEER HASSAN ALI]
+
+
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS, ETC.
+
+LETTER I
+
+  Introductory Remarks.--The characteristic simplicity of manners
+  exhibited in Native families.--Their munificent charity.--The
+  Syaads.--Their descent, and the veneration paid to them.--Their pride
+  of birth.--Fast of Mahurrum.--Its origin.--The Sheahs and
+  Soonies.--Memorandum of distances.--Mount Judee (Judea), the
+  attributed burying-place of Adam and Noah.--Mausoleum of Ali.--The
+  tomb of Eve.--Meer Hadjee Shaah.
+
+
+I have promised to give you, my friends, occasional sketches of men and
+manners, comprising the society of the Mussulmauns in India. Aware of the
+difficulty of my task, I must entreat your kind indulgence to the
+weaknesses of a female pen, thus exercised for your amusement, during my
+twelve years' domicile in their immediate society.
+
+Every one who sojourns in India for any lengthened period, will, I believe,
+agree with me, that in order to promote health of body, the mind must be
+employed in active pursuits. The constitutionally idle persons, of either
+sex, amongst Europeans, are invariably most subject to feel distressed by
+the prevailing annoyances of an Indian climate: from a listless life
+results discontent, apathy, and often disease. I have found, by experience,
+the salutary effects of employing time, as regards, generally, healthiness
+of body and of mind. The hours devoted to this occupation (tracing remarks
+for the perusal of far distant friends) have passed by without a murmur or
+a sigh, at the height of the thermometer, or the length of a day during
+the season of hot winds, or of that humid heat which prevails throughout
+the periodical rains. Time flies quickly with useful employment in all
+places; in this exhausting climate every one has to seek amusement in
+their own resources, from sunrise to sunset, during which period there is
+no moving from home for, at least, eight months out of the twelve. I have
+not found any occupation so pleasant as talking to my friends, on paper,
+upon such subjects as may admit of the transfer for their acceptance--and
+may I not hope, for their gratification also?
+
+The patriarchal manners are so often pictured to me, in many of the
+every-day occurrences exhibited in the several families I have been most
+acquainted with in India, that I seem to have gone back to that ancient
+period with my new-sought home and new friends. Here I find the master and
+mistress of a family receiving the utmost veneration from their slaves and
+domestics, whilst the latter are permitted to converse and give their
+opinions with a freedom (always respectful), that at the first view would
+lead a stranger to imagine there could be no great inequality of station
+between the persons conversing. The undeviating kindness to aged servants,
+no longer capable of rendering their accustomed services; the remarkable
+attention paid to the convenience and comfort of poor relatives, even to
+the most remote in consanguinity; the beamings of universal charity; the
+tenderness of parents; and the implicit obedience of children, are a few
+of those amiable traits of character from whence my allusions are drawn,
+and I will add, by which my respect has been commanded. In their
+reverential homage towards parents, and in affectionate solicitude for the
+happiness of those venerated authors of their existence, I consider them
+the most praiseworthy people existing.
+
+On the spirit of philanthropy exhibited in their general charity, I may
+here remark, that they possess an injunction from their Lawgiver, 'to be
+universally charitable'.[1] This command is reverenced and obeyed by all
+who are his faithful followers. They are persuaded that almsgiving
+propitiates the favour of Heaven, consequently this belief is the inducing
+medium for clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, supporting the weak,
+consoling the afflicted, protecting the fatherless, sheltering the
+houseless traveller, and rendering the ear and the heart alive to the
+distresses of the poor in all situations. A good Mussulmaun never allows
+the voice to pass unheeded where the suppliant applies, 'In the name of
+God', or 'For the love of God'.
+
+I have often been obliged to hear the Mussulmauns accused of an
+ostentatious display of their frequent acts of charity. It may be so in
+some instances; human nature has failings common to all complexions. Pride
+may sometimes open the purse of the affluent to the poor man's petition;
+but when the needy benefit by the rich, it is unjust to scrutinize the
+heart's motive, where the act itself alleviates the present sufferings of
+a fellow-creature.
+
+Imposition is doubtless often practised with success by the indolent, who
+excite the good feelings of the wealthy by a tale of woe; the sin rests
+with him who begs unworthily, not with him who relieves the supposed
+distresses of his poorer neighbour. The very best of human beings will
+acknowledge they derive benefits from the bounty of their Maker, not
+because they are deserving, but that 'He is merciful'.
+
+I shall have occasion to detail in my Letters some of the Mussulmaun
+observances, festivals, &c., which cannot be accomplished without feeding
+the poor; and, in justice to their general character, be it acknowledged,
+their liberality is not confined to those stated periods.
+
+The Syaads[2] (Meers[3]) are descendants from Mahumud, the acknowledged
+Prophet and Lawgiver of the Mussulmauns; and, as might be expected, are
+peculiar objects of respect and favour amongst the true believers (as
+those who hold their faith are designated). 'The poor Syaad's family' are
+the first to be considered when the rich have determined on dispensing
+gifts in charity. The Syaads, however, are under peculiar restrictions as
+regards the nature of those gifts which they are permitted to accept.
+Money obtained by unlawful means, as forbidden in the Khoraun[4] (usury
+for instance[5]), is deemed polluted, and must neither be offered to, nor
+accepted by, these 'children of the Prophet'.
+
+The Syaads are the Lords of Mussulmaun society, and every female born to
+them is a Lady (Begum[6]). Heralds' offices they have none, but genealogy
+is strictly kept in each Mussulmaun family, who can boast the high
+privilege of bearing the Prophet's blood in their veins. The children of
+both sexes are taught, from the time of their first speaking intelligibly,
+to recount their pedigree, up to Hasan, or Hosein, the two sons of Ali, by
+his cousin Fatima, the daughter of their Prophet: this forms a striking
+part of their daily education, whilst they continue in their mother's
+zeenahnah[7] (lady's apartment); and, from the frequent repetition, is so
+firmly fixed in the memory, that they have no difficulty in tracing their
+pedigree whenever called upon to do so, unaided by the manuscript
+genealogy kept with care in the parental treasury.
+
+This method of retaining lineage is not always a check against impostors;
+many have taken upon themselves the honourable distinction of the Syaad,
+without having the slightest claim to the title; but when the cheat is
+discovered such persons are disgraced, and become aliens to the
+respectable. So many advantages are enjoyed by Syaads, that it is not
+surprising there should be some, which have no right, anxious to be
+numbered with those who are truly the Mussulmaun lords; though such men
+are taught to believe that, by the usurpation, they shut themselves out
+from the advantages of their Prophet's intercession at the great day of
+judgment.
+
+The Syaads are very tenacious in retaining the purity of their race
+unsullied, particularly with respect to their daughters; a conscientious
+Syaad regards birth before wealth in negotiations for marriage: many a
+poor lady, in consequence of this prejudice, lives out her numbered days
+in single blessedness, although--to their honour be it told--many
+charitably disposed amongst the rich men of the country have, within my
+recollection of Indian society, granted from their abundance sufficient
+sums to defray the expenses of a union, and given the marriage portion,
+unsolicited, to the daughters of the poorer members of this venerated race.
+A Syaad rarely speaks of his pecuniary distresses, but is most grateful
+when relieved.
+
+I am intimately acquainted with a family in which this pride of birth
+predominates over every advantage of interest. There are three unmarried
+daughters, remarkable for their industrious habits, morality, and strict
+observance of their religious duties; they are handsome, well-formed women,
+polite and sensible, and to all this they add an accomplishment which is
+not by any means general amongst the females of Hindoostaun, they have
+been taught by their excellent father to read the Khoraun in Arabic--it is
+not allowed to be translated,[8]--and the Commentary in Persian. The fame
+of their superiority has brought many applications from the heads of
+families possessing wealth, and desirous to secure for their sons wives so
+eminently endowed, who would waive all considerations of the marriage
+dowry, for the sake of the Begum who might thus adorn their untitled house.
+All these offers, however, have been promptly rejected, and the young
+ladies themselves are satisfied in procuring a scanty subsistence by the
+labour of their hands. I have known them to be employed in working the
+jaullie[9] (netting) for courties[10] (a part of the female dress), which,
+after six days' close application, at the utmost could not realize three
+shillings each; yet I never saw them other than contented, happy, and
+cheerful,--a family of love, and patterns of sincere piety.
+
+The titles and distinctions conferred by sovereigns, or the Hon. East
+India Company in India, as Khaun,[11] Bahadhoor,[12] Nuwaub,[13] &c., are
+not actually hereditary honours, though often presumed on, and indulged in,
+by successors. The Syaads, on the contrary, are the Meers and Begums
+(nobility) throughout their generations to the end of time, or at any rate,
+with the continuance of the Mussulmaun religion.
+
+Having thus far explained the honourable distinction of the Syaads, I
+propose giving you some account of the Mahurrum,[14] a celebrated mourning
+festival in remembrance of their first martyrs, and which occupies the
+attention of the Mussulmauns annually to a degree of zeal that has always
+attracted the surprise of our countrymen in India; some of whom, I trust,
+will not be dissatisfied with the observations of an individual, who
+having spent many years of her life with those who are chief actors in
+these scenes, it may be expected, is the better able to explain the nature
+of that Mahurrum which they see commemorated every year, yet many, perhaps,
+without comprehending exactly why. Those strong expressions of grief--the
+sombre cast of countenance,--the mourning garb,--the self-inflicted
+abstinence, submitted to by the Mussulmaun population, during the ten days
+set apart for the fulfilment of the mourning festival, all must have
+witnessed who have been in Hindoostaun for any period.
+
+I must first endeavour to represent the principal causes for the observance
+of Mahurrum; and for the information of those who have witnessed its
+celebration, as well as for the benefit of others who have not had the same
+opportunity, describe the manner of celebrating the event, which occurred
+more than twelve hundred years ago.
+
+Hasan and Hosein were the two sons of Fatima and Ali, from whom the whole
+Syaad race have generated; Hasan was poisoned by an emissary of the
+usurping Calipha's;[15] and Hosein, the last sad victim of the family to
+the King Yuzeed's[16] fury, suffered a cruel death, after the most severe
+trials, on the plains of Kraabaallah,[17] on the tenth day of the Arabian
+month Mahurrum; the anniversary of which catastrophe is solemnized with
+the most devoted zeal.
+
+This brief sketch constitutes the origin of the festival; but I deem it
+necessary to detail at some length the history of that period, which may
+the better explain the motives assigned by the Mussulmauns, for the deep
+grief exhibited every year, as the anniversary of Mahurrum returns to
+these faithful followers of their martyred leaders, Hasan and Hosein, who,
+with their devoted families, suffered innocently by the hands of the
+guilty.
+
+Yuzeed, the King of Shawm,[18] it appears, was the person in power,
+amongst the followers of Mahumud, at that early period of Mussulmaun
+history. Of the Soonie sect,[19] his hatred to the descendants of Mahumud
+was of the most inveterate kind; jealousy, it is supposed, aided by a very
+wicked heart, led him to desire the extirpation of the whole race,
+particularly as he knew that, generally, the Mussulmaun people secretly
+desired the immediate descendants of their Prophet to be their rulers.
+They were, however, intimidated by Yuzeed's authority; whilst he, ever
+fearing the possibility of the Syaads' restoration to their rights,
+resolved, if possible, on sacrificing the whole family, to secure himself
+in his illegal power.
+
+Ali had been treacherously murdered through the contrivances of the
+usurping Calipha; after his death, the whole family removed from Shawm,
+the capital, to Medina, where they lived some years in tranquillity,
+making many converts to their faith, and exercising themselves in the
+service of God and virtuous living. Unostentatious in their habits and
+manners, they enjoyed the affection of their neighbours, their own good
+name increasing daily, to the utter dismay of their subtle enemy.
+
+In the course of time, the devout people of Shawm, being heartily tired of
+Yuzeed's tyrannical rule, and fearing the true faith would be defamed by
+the excesses and abuses of power committed by him, they were desirous of
+calling to their aid a leader from the Prophet's family, who would secure,
+in its original purity, the performance of that religion which Mahumud had
+taught. Some thousands of respectable Mussulmauns, it is related, signed a
+petition to Hosein, requesting his immediate presence at Shawm, in order,
+as the petition stated, 'that the religion his grandsire taught might be
+supported and promoted'; and declaring 'the voluptuousness and infamy of
+Yuzeed's life to be so offensive and glaring, that the true faith was
+endangered by his vicious examples'; and entreating him to accept his
+lawful rights as 'Emaum'[20] (Leader of the Faithful).
+
+Hosein received the petition, but declined accepting the proposed
+restitution of his family's rights at that time; yet he held out hopes in
+his reply, that he might eventually listen to their entreaties, should he
+be convinced his presence was essential to their welfare; and, as a
+prelude to this, he sent his cousin Moslem,[21] on whom he could rely, to
+make personal observation of the real state of things at Shawm; expecting
+to learn, from his matured knowledge, the real causes of complaint, and
+the wishes of the people, and by whose report he would be guided, as to
+his final acceptance or rejection of the proposed measure for his becoming
+their leader.
+
+Moslem, accompanied by his two sons, mere youths, left Medina on this
+important mission, and having accomplished the tedious march without
+accident or interruption, he delivered Hosein's letters to those persons
+of consequence in Shawm, who were at the head of the party petitioning his
+appearance there, and who proffered their influence and support for the
+recovery of the rights and privileges so long withheld from the
+descendants of Mahumud.
+
+Moslem was kindly greeted by them, and multitudes flocked to his quarters,
+declaring Hosein the lawful leader of true Mussulmauns. Elated with these
+flattering indications, he too promptly despatched his messengers to
+Hosein, urging his immediate return to Shawm.
+
+In the mean time, and long before the messengers could reach Medina,
+Yuzeed, learning the state of things in the capital, was seriously alarmed
+and greatly enraged; he issued orders for the seizure of Moslem and his
+children, and desiring to have them brought to his presence, offered
+immense sums of money for their capture. The friends of Moslem, however,
+succeeded, for a time, in secreting his person from King Yuzeed's
+emissaries, trusting the darkness of night would enable him to escape. But
+the slaves and dependants of the tyrant being despatched into all quarters
+of the city, Moslem's retreat was eventually discovered; and, through the
+influence of a purse of gold, his person was given up to the King's
+partizans.
+
+The unfortunate agent of Hosein had confided the charge of his two sons to
+the Kauzy[22] of the city, when the first report reached him of the tyrant
+Yuzeed's fury. This faithful Kauzy, as the night advanced, intended to get
+the poor boys conveyed to the halting place of a Kaarawaun,[23] which he
+knew was but a few miles off, on their route for Medina. The guide, to
+whom the youths were intrusted, either by design or mistake, took the
+wrong road; and, after wandering through the dreary night, and suffering
+many severe trials, they were taken prisoners by the cruel husband of a
+very amiable female, who had compassionately, at first, given them shelter
+as weary travellers only; but, on discovering whose children they were,
+she had secreted them in her house. Her husband, however, having
+discovered the place of their concealment, and identified them as the sons
+of Moslem, cruelly murdered the innocent boys for the sake of the reward
+offered for their heads. In his fury and thirst for gold, this wicked
+husband of the kind-hearted woman spared not his own wife and son, who
+strove by their united efforts, alternately pleading and resisting, to
+save the poor boys from his barbarous hands.
+
+This tragic event is conveyed into pathetic verse, and as often as it is
+repeated in the families of the Mussulmauns, tears of fresh sympathy are
+evinced, and bewailings renewed. This forms the subject for one day's
+celebration during Mahurrum; the boys are described to have been most
+beautiful in person, and amiable in disposition.
+
+After enduring ignominy and torture, and without even being brought to
+trial, Moslem was cast from a precipice, by Yuzeed's orders, and his life
+speedily terminated, to glut the vengeance of the tyrant King.
+
+As the disastrous conclusion of Moslem's mission had not reached the ear
+of Hosein, he, elated with the favourable reception of his cousin, and the
+prospect of being received at Shawm in peace and good will, had without
+delay commenced his journey, accompanied by the females of his family, his
+relations, and a few steady friends who had long devoted themselves to his
+person and cause. The written documents of that remarkable period notice,
+that the whole party of Hosein, travelling from Medina towards Shawm,
+consisted only of seventy-two souls: Hosein having no intention to force
+his way to the post of leader, had not deemed it necessary to set out with
+an army to aid him, which he undoubtedly might have commanded by his
+influence with the people professing 'the Faith'.
+
+Yuzeed, in the mean time, having by his power destroyed Moslem and the two
+youths his sons, and receiving positive intelligence that Hosein had
+quitted Medina to march for Shawm, as his fears suggested, with an army of
+some magnitude, he ordered out an immense force to meet Hosein on the way,
+setting a price on his head, and proclaiming promises of honours and
+rewards, of the most tempting nature, to the fortunate man who should
+succeed in the arduous enterprise.
+
+The first detachment of the Shawmies (as they are designated in the
+manuscript of Arabia), under a resolute chief named Hurrh,[24] fell in
+with Hosein's camp, one day's march beyond the far-famed ground, amongst
+Mussulmauns, of Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree,[25] as it was originally
+called.
+
+Hurrh's heart was subdued when he entered the tent of the peaceable Hosein,
+in whose person he discovered the exact resemblance of the Prophet; and
+perceiving that his small camp indicated a quiet family party journeying
+on their way, instead of the formidable force Yuzeed's fears had
+anticipated, this chief was surprised and confounded, confessed his shame
+to Hosein that he had been induced to accept the command of the force
+despatched against the children of the Prophet, and urged, in mitigation
+of his offences, that he had long been in Yuzeed's service, whose
+commission he still bore; but his heart now yearning to aid, rather than
+persecute the Prophet's family, he resolved on giving them an opportunity
+to escape the threatened vengeance of their bitterest enemy. With this
+view, he advised Hosein to fall with his party into the rear of his force,
+until the main body of the Shawmies had passed by; and as they were then
+on the margin of a forest, there to separate and secrete themselves till
+the road was again clear, and afterwards to take a different route from
+the proposed one to Shawm.
+
+Hosein felt, as may be supposed, grateful to his preserver; and, following
+his directions, succeeded in reaching the confines of Kraabaallah
+unmolested.
+
+The ancient writings of Arabia say, Mahumud had predicted the death of
+Hosein, by the hands of men professing to be of 'the true faith', at this
+very place Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree.
+
+Hosein and his family having concluded their morning devotions, he first
+inquired and learned the name of the place on which their tents were
+pitched, and then imparted the subject of his last night's dream, 'that
+his grandsire had appeared to him, and pronounced that his soul would be
+at peace with him ere that day closed'. Again he fell on his knees in
+devout prayer, from which he rose only to observe the first warnings of an
+approaching army, by the thick clouds of dust which darkened the horizon;
+and before the evening closed upon the scene, Hosein, with every male of
+his small party capable of bearing arms, had been hurried to their final
+rest. One son of Hosein's, insensible from fever at the time, was spared
+from the sacrifice, and, with the females and young children, taken
+prisoners to the King's palace at Shawm.
+
+The account given by historians of this awful battle, describes the
+courage and intrepidity of Hosein's small band, in glowing terms of praise;
+having fought singly, and by their desperate bravery 'each arm (they say)
+levelled his hundreds with their kindred dust ere his own gave way to the
+sway of death'.
+
+Amongst the number of Hosein's brave defenders was a nephew, the son of
+Hasan: this young man, named Cossum,[26] was the affianced husband of
+Hosein's favourite daughter, Sakeena Koobraah;[27] and previous to his
+going to the combat on that eventful day, Hosein read the marriage lines
+between the young couple, in the tent of the females. I mention this here,
+as it points to one particular part of the celebration of Mahurrum, which
+I shall have occasion to mention in due order, wherein all the outward
+forms of the wedding ceremony are strictly performed, annually.
+
+During the whole of this terrible day, at Kraabaallah, the family party of
+Hosein had been entirely deprived of water; and the river Fraught[28]
+(Euphrates) being blockaded by their enemies, they suffered exceedingly
+from thirst. The handsome Abass,[29] another nephew of Hosein, and his
+standard-bearer, made many efforts to procure water for the relief of the
+almost famishing females; he had, at one attempt, succeeded in filling the
+mushukh,[30] when, retreating from the river, he was discovered by the
+enemy, was pursued and severely wounded, the mushukh pierced by arrows,
+and the water entirely lost ere he could reach the camp.
+
+In remembrance of this privation of the sufferers at Kraabaallah, every
+good Mussulmaun, at Mahurrum, distributes sherbet in abundance, to all
+persons who choose to accept this their favourite beverage (sugar and
+water, with a little rosewater, or kurah,[31] to flavour it); and some
+charitable females expend large sums in milk, to be distributed in the
+public streets; for these purposes, there are neat little huts of
+sirrakee[32] (a reed, or grass, resembling bright straw) erected by the
+road side of the Mussulmauns' houses; they are called saabeels,[33] where
+the red earthen cups of milk, sherbet, or pure water are seen ranged in
+rows, for all who choose to call for drink.
+
+Hosein, say their historians, was the last of the party who suffered on
+the day of battle; he was surrounded in his own camp--where, by the usage
+of war, at that time, they had no right to enter--and when there was not
+one friendly arm left to ward the blow. They relate 'that his body was
+literally mangled, before he was released from his unmerited sufferings'.
+He had mounted his favourite horse, which, as well as himself, was pierced
+by arrows innumerable; together they sank on the earth from loss of blood,
+the cowardly spearmen piercing his wounded body as if in sport; and whilst,
+with his last breath, 'Hosein prayed for mercy on his destroyers,
+Shimeear[34] ended his sufferings by severing the already prostrate head
+from the mutilated trunk'.--'Thus they sealed (say those writers) the
+lasting disgrace of a people, who, calling themselves Mussulmauns, were
+the murderers of their Prophet's descendants.'
+
+This slight sketch gives but the outline of those events which are every
+year commemorated amongst the zealous followers of Ali, the class
+denominated Sheahs.
+
+The Mussulmaun people, I must here observe, are divided into two distinct
+sects, viz. the Sheahs and the Soonies. The former believe Ali and his
+descendants were the lawful leaders after Mahumud; the latter are
+persuaded that the Caliphas, as Aboubuker, Omir, &c., were the leaders to
+be accredited 'lawful'; but of this I shall speak more fully in another
+Letter.
+
+Perhaps the violence of party spirit may have acted as an inducement to
+the Sheahs, for the zealous annual observance of this period, so
+interesting to that sect; whatever the motive, we very often find the two
+sects hoard up their private animosities and dislikes until the return of
+Mahurrum, which scarcely ever passes over, in any extensively populated
+city of Hindoostaun, without a serious quarrel, often terminating in
+bloodshed.[35]
+
+I could have given a more lengthened account of the events which led to
+the solemnization of this fast, but I believe the present is sufficient to
+explain the motives by which the Mussulmauns are actuated, and my next
+Letter must be devoted to the description of the rites performed upon the
+celebration of these events in India.
+
+P.S. I have a memorandum in my collection which may here be copied as its
+proper place.
+
+From Mecca, 'The Holy City', to Medina the distance is twelve stages (a
+day's march is one stage, about twenty miles of English measurement). From
+Medina to Kraabaallah there are twenty-one stages; this distance is
+travelled only by those who can endure great difficulties; neither water
+nor provisions are to be met with on the whole journey, excepting at one
+halt, the name of which is Shimmaar. From Kraabaallah to Koofah is two
+stages.
+
+In the vicinity of Koofah[36] stands Mount Judee[37] (Judea), on which is
+built, over the remains of Ali, the mausoleum called Nudghiff Usheruff.[38]
+On this Mount, it is said, Adam and Noah were buried. Ali being aware of
+this, gave directions to his family and friends, that whenever his soul
+should be recalled from earth, his mortal remains were to be deposited
+near those graves venerated and held sacred 'by the faithful'. The ancient
+writers of Arabia authorise the opinion that Ali's body was entombed by
+the hands of his sons, Hasan and Hosein, who found the earth open to
+receive their sire, and which closed immediately on his remains being
+deposited.
+
+Here, too, it is believed Noah's ark rested after the Deluge. When
+pilgrims to Mecca make their zeearut[39] (all sacred visits are so called)
+to this Mount, they offer three prayers, in memory of Adam, Noah, and All.
+
+The grave of Eve is also frequently visited by pilgrims, which is said to
+be situated near Jeddah; this, however, is not considered an indispensable
+duty, but, as they say, prompted by 'respect for the Mother of men'.[40]
+
+These remarks, and many others of an interesting nature, I have been
+favoured with from the most venerable aged man I ever knew, Meer Hadjee
+Shaah,[41] the revered father of my excellent husband; who having
+performed the Hadje[42] (pilgrimage) three several times, at different
+periods of his eventful life--returning after each pilgrimage to his home
+in Lucknow--and being a person of strict veracity, with a remarkably
+intelligent mind and retentive memory, I have profited largely by his
+information, and derived from it both amusement and instruction, through
+many years of social intercourse. When he had numbered more than eighty
+years he dwelt with hope on again performing the Hadje, where it was his
+intention to rest his earthly substance until the great day of restitution,
+and often expressed his wishes to have me and mine to share with him the
+pilgrimage he desired to make. But this was not allowed to his prayer; his
+summons arrived rather unexpectedly to those who loved and revered him for
+virtues rarely equalled; happily for him, his pure soul was prepared to
+meet his Creator, in whose service he had passed this life, with all
+humility, and in whose mercy alone his hopes for the future were centred.
+
+
+[1] 'Whatsoever alms ye shall give, of a truth God knoweth it.... Give ye
+    your alms openly? it is well. Do ye conceal them and give them to the
+    poor? This, too, will be of advantage to you, and will do away your
+    sins: and God is cognizant of your actions' (_Koran_, ii. 274-5).
+
+[2] _Sayyid_, 'lord', 'chief, the class of Musalmans who claim descent
+    from Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet, and 'Ali, his
+    cousin-german and adopted son; they are divided into two branches
+    descended from Hasan and Husain, sons of 'Ali and Fatimah.
+
+[3] _Mir_, a contraction of _Amir_, 'lord'.
+
+[4] _Koran, Qur'an_.
+
+[5] 'They who swallow down usury shall arise in the resurrection only as
+    he ariseth whom Satan hath infected by his touch' (_Koran_, ii.
+    276). But this is rather theory than practice, and many ingenious
+    methods are adopted to avoid the prohibition.
+
+[6] _Begam_, feminine of _Beg_, 'lord', used to denote a Sayyid lady, like
+    Khanam among Pathans.
+
+[7] Here, as elsewhere, _zenanah, zananah_, Persian _zan_, 'woman'.
+
+[8] This is incorrect. The Koran has been translated into various
+    languages, but the translation is always interlineary with the
+    original text. In Central Asia the Musalman conquerors allowed the
+    Koran to be recited in Persian, instead of Arabic, in order that it
+    might be intelligible to all (Arnold, _The Preaching of Islam_, 183).
+
+[9] _Jali_.
+
+[10] _Kurti_, a loose, long-sleeved jacket of muslin or net, among rich
+    women embroidered on the neck and shoulders with gold, and draped down
+    to the ankles in full, loose folds. It is made of red or other
+    light-coloured fabrics for girls and married women; dark blue, bronze,
+    or white for old ladies; bronze or black for widows.
+
+[11] _Khan_, 'lord', 'prince', specially applied to persons of Mughal
+    or Pathan descent.
+
+[12] _Bahadur_, 'champion', a Mongol term; see Yule,
+     _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 48 ff.
+
+[13] _Nawab_, 'a deputy, delegate': the Anglo-Indian Nabob (ibid.,
+    610 ff.).
+
+[14] _Muharram_, 'that which is forbidden', the first month of the
+    Musalman year, the first ten days of which are occupied with this
+    mourning festival.
+
+[15] By his wife Ja'dah, who was suborned to commit the deed by Yazid.
+
+[16] Yazid, son of Mu'awiyah, the second Caliph of the house of
+    Umaiyah, who reigned from A.D. 679 to 683. Gibbon (_Decline and Fall_,
+    ed. W. Smith, vi. 278) calls him 'a feeble and dissolute youth'.
+
+[17] Kerbala, Karbala, a city of Iraq, 50 miles south-west of Baghdad,
+    and about 6 miles from the Euphrates.
+
+[18] Syria.
+
+[19] _Sunni_, Ahlu's-Sunnah, 'one of the Path', a traditionalist. The
+    Sunnis accept the first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Usman,
+    'Ali, as the rightful successors of Muhammad, and follow the six
+    authentic books of the traditions. The Shi'ahs, 'followers' of
+    'Ali, maintain that he was the first legitimate Imam or Caliph,
+    i.e. successor of the Prophet. For a full account of the martyrdom of
+    Husain see Simon Ockley, _History of the Saracens_ (1848), 287 ff.;
+    Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_ (1879), Preface,
+    v ff.
+
+[20] _Imam._
+
+[21] Muslim.
+
+[22] _Qazi_, a Muhammadan law officer.
+
+[23] _Karwan_, a caravan.
+
+[24] al-Hurr.
+
+[25] This term is obscure. Jaffur Shurreef (_Qanoon-e-Islam_, 107) says
+    the plain of the martyrdom was called 'Mareea'. For 'Hurth' Prof. E.G.
+    Browne suggests _hirth_, 'a ploughed field', or _ard_, 'land'. Sir C.
+    Lyall suggests Al-hirah, the old Arabian capital which stood near
+    the site of the later Kufah.
+
+[26] Qasim.
+
+[27] Sakinah, Hebrew Shechinah; Koobraah, _Kibriya_, 'noble'.
+
+[28] The Euphrates is called in Sumerian _pura-num_, 'Great water', whence
+    Purat, Purattu in Semitic Babylonian; Perath in Hebrew; Frat or
+    Furat in Arabic.
+
+[29] 'Abbas, son of 'Ali.
+
+[30] _Mashk_, _Mashak_, the Anglo-Indian Mussuck, a leathern skin for
+    conveying water, in general use amongst Musalmans at this day in
+    India; it is composed of the entire skin of a goat, properly prepared.
+    When filled with water it resembles a huge porpoise, on the back of
+    the beeshtie [Bhishti] (water-carrier). [_Author._]
+
+[31] _Kora_, the fresh juice of _Aloe vera_, said to be cathartic and
+    cooling.
+
+[32] _Sirki_ (_Saccharum ciliare_).
+
+[33] _Sabil_: see Burton, _Pilgrimage_, Memorial ed., i. 286.
+
+[34] Shimar, whose name now means 'contemptible' among Shi'ahs.
+
+[35] This statement is too wide. 'Among Muhammadans themselves there is
+    very little religious discussion, and Sunnis and Shi'ahs, who
+    are at such deadly feud in many parts of Asia, including the Punjab
+    and Kashmir, have, in Oudh, always freely intermarried' (H.C. Irwin,
+    _The Garden of India_, 45).
+
+[36] Kufah, four miles from Najaf, the capital of the Caliph 'Ali,
+    which fell into decay when the government was removed to Baghdad.
+
+[37] Confused with Al-judi, Mt. Ararat, on which the Ark
+    rested.--_Koran_, xi. 46.
+
+[38] Najaf al Sharif, or Mashhad 'Ali, 50 miles south of Karbala,
+    the tomb and shrine of 'Ali.
+
+[39] _Ziyarat_, 'visitation', especially to the tomb of the Prophet or
+    that of a Muhammadan saint. The pilgrim says, not 'I have visited the
+    Prophet's tomb', but 'I have visited the Prophet'. (Burton,
+    _Pilgrimage_, i. 305.)
+
+[40] The grave is said to be nine yards long: according to others, much
+    longer. See the flippant remark of Burton, ibid., ii. 273 ff.
+
+[41] Mir Haji Shah.
+
+[42] _Hajj_, 'setting out'.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER II
+
+  Celebration of Mahurrum.--The Tazia.--Mussulmaun Cemeteries.--An
+  Emaum-baarah.--Piety of the ladies.--Self-inflicted abstinence and
+  privations endured by each sex.--Instances of the devotional zeal of
+  the Mussulmauns.--Attempted infringement on their religious
+  formalities.--The Resident at Lucknow.--Enthusiastic ardour of the
+  poor.--Manner of celebrating the Mahurrum in opposition to the
+  precepts of the Khoraun.--Mosque and Emaum-baarah contrasted.--The
+  supposition of Mussulmauns practising idolatry confuted.
+
+
+My former Letter prepares you for the celebration of Mahurrum, the
+observance of which is at this time going forward here (at Lucknow) with
+all that zealous emulative spirit and enthusiasm which I have before
+remarked the Mussulmaun population of India entertain for their Emaums
+(leaders), and their religion.
+
+This annual solemn display of the regret and veneration they consider due
+to the memory of departed excellence, commences on the first day of the
+Moon (Mahurrum). The Mussulmaun year has twelve moons; every third year
+one moon is added, which regulation, I fancy, renders their years, in a
+chronological point of view, very nearly equal with those of Europe. Their
+day commences and ends when the stars are first visible after sunset.
+
+The first day of Mahurrum invariably brings to my recollection the
+strongly impressed ideas of 'The Deserted Village'. The profound quiet and
+solemn stillness of an extensively populated native city, contrasted with
+the incessant bustle usual at all other times, are too striking to
+Europeans to pass by unheeded. This cessation of the animated scene,
+however, is not of long duration; the second day presents to the view vast
+multitudes of people parading backwards and forwards, on horseback, in
+palkies, and on foot, through the broad streets and roadways, arrayed in
+their several mourning garbs, speeding their way to the Emaum-baarahs[1]
+of the great men, and the houses of friends, to pay the visit of respect
+(zeearut), wherever a Tazia is set up to the remembrance of Hasan and
+Hosein.
+
+The word Tazia[2] signifies grief. The term is applied to a representation
+of the mausoleum at Kraabaallah, erected by their friends and followers,
+over the remains of Hasan and Hosein. It is formed of every variety of
+material, according to the wealth, rank, or preference, of the person
+exhibiting, from the purest silver down to bamboo and paper, strict
+attention being always paid to preserve the model of Kraabaallah, in the
+exact pattern with the original building. Some people have them of ivory,
+ebony, sandal-wood, cedar, &c., and I have seen some beautifully wrought
+in silver filigree. The handsomest of the kind, to my taste, is in the
+possession of his Majesty the King of Oude, composed of green glass, with
+brass mouldings, manufactured in England (by whom I could not learn). All
+these expensive Tazias are fixtures, but there are temporary ones required
+for the out-door ceremony, which, like those available to the poor and
+middling classes, are composed of bamboo frames, over which is fixed
+coloured uberuck[3] (lapis specularum, or tulk); these are made in the
+bazaar, of various sizes and qualities, to suit the views of purchasers,
+from two rupees to two hundred each.
+
+The more common Tazias are conveyed in the procession on the tenth day,
+and finally deposited with funeral rites in the public burial-grounds, of
+which there are several outside the town. These cemeteries are denominated
+Kraabaallah,[4] and the population of a large city may be presumed on by
+the number of these dispersed in the suburbs. They do not bury their dead
+in the vicinity of a mosque, which is held too sacred to be allowed the
+pollution. Any one having only touched a dead body, must bathe prior to
+entering the mosque, or performing their usual prayer-service at
+home;--such is the veneration they entertain for the name of God.
+
+The opulent people of Mussulmaun society have an Emaum-baarah erected in
+the range of buildings exclusively denominated murdanah[5] (men's abode).
+The habitation of all Mussulmauns being composed of separate departments
+for the males and the females, communicating by private entrances, as will
+be explained hereafter.
+
+The Emaum-baarah is a sacred place, erected for the express purpose of
+commemorating Mahurrum; the founder not unfrequently intends this also as
+the mausoleum for himself and family. But we generally find Mukhburrahs[6]
+(mausoleums) built in conspicuous situations, for the remains of kings,
+princes, nobles, and sainted persons. Of the latter, many are visited, at
+stated periods, by the multitude, with religious veneration, the
+illiterate attaching considerable importance to the annual pilgrimage to
+them; and where--to secure the influence of the particular saint's spirit,
+in furthering their views--mothers present their children, in numbers
+beyond all calculation; and each having something to hope for who visits
+the shrine, presents offerings of money and sweetmeats, which become the
+property of the person in charge of the tomb, thus yielding him a
+profitable sinecure, in proportion as the saint is popular amongst the
+ignorant.
+
+An Emaum-baarah is a square building, generally erected with a cupola top,
+the dimensions guided by the circumstances of the founder. The floor is
+matted with the date-leaf mats, in common use in India, on which is spread
+a shutteringhie[7] (cotton carpet), and over this a clean white calico
+covering, on which the assembled party are seated, during the several
+periods of collecting together to remember their leaders: these meetings
+are termed Mudgelluss[8] (mourning assemblies). It would be esteemed
+indecorous or disrespectful to the Emaums, if any one in error called
+these assemblies Moollakhaut,[9] the usual term for mere worldly visiting.
+
+The Tazia is placed against the wall on the side facing Mecca, under a
+canopy of rich embroidery. A reading-desk or pulpit (mhembur[10]) is
+placed in a convenient situation, for the reader to face Mecca, and his
+voice to be heard by the whole assembly of people; it is constructed of
+silver, ivory, ebony, &c. to correspond with the Tazia, if possible: the
+steps are covered sometimes with gold-cloth, or broad-cloth of black, or
+green,[11] if a Syaad's property, being the colour worn by that race for
+mourning. The shape of a mhembur is a flight of steps with a flat top,
+without any railing or enclosed place; the reader, in his recitings,
+occasionally sitting on the steps, or standing, as may be most convenient
+to himself.
+
+On the walls of the Emaum-baarah, mirrors and looking-glasses are fixed in
+suitable situations to give effect to the brilliant display of light, from
+the magnificent chandeliers suspended from the cupola and cornices. The
+nobles and the wealthy are excited with a desire to emulate each other in
+the splendour of their display on these occasions;--all the mirrors, glass,
+lustres, chandeliers, &c. are brought together to this place, from their
+several stations in the mansion; and it is due to them to admit the effect
+to be often imposingly grand, and the blaze of light splendid. I have
+frequently been reminded in these scenes of the visionary castles conjured
+to the imagination, whilst reading 'The Arabian Nights' Entertainments'.
+
+On each side the Tazia--the whole length of the wall--banners are ranged,
+in great variety of colour and fabric; some of them are costly and
+splendid. I have seen many constructed of the richest embroidery, on silk
+grounds, of gold and silver, with massy gold fringes, cords, and tassels;
+the staff is cased with gold or silver, worked into figures of birds and
+other animals, in every variety; the top of which has a crest, in some a
+spread hand,[12] in others a sort of plume, and not unfrequently a crest
+resembling a grenade, formed of the precious metals, and set with stones
+of great value.
+
+On the base of the Tazia the several articles are placed conceived likely
+to have been used by Hosein at Kraabaallah; a turban of gold or silver
+tissue, a splendid sword and belt, the handle and hilt set with precious
+stones, a shield, the Arabian bow and arrows. These ancient emblems of
+royalty are indispensable in order to do honour to Hosein, in the view
+they take of his sovereign right to be the head or leader of the true
+Mussulmauns. Wax lights, red and green, are also placed in great numbers
+about its base, in silver or glass candlesticks; and censers of gold and
+silver, burning incense perpetually during Mahurrum. Many other minor
+tributes to the Emaums are discovered near the Tazia, as choice fruits and
+garlands of sweet-scented flowers, the offerings of ladies of the family
+to their relative's Tazia.
+
+Amongst the poorer classes of the people an equal proportion of zealous
+spirit is evinced; and according to their several abilities, so they
+commemorate the period, interesting alike to all. Those who cannot compass
+the real splendour of an Emaum-baarah, are satisfied with an imitative one
+in the best hall their habitation affords; and, where mirrors and
+chandeliers are not available, they are content to do honour to the Emaums
+with lamps of uberuck, which in truth are pleasing substitutes at a small
+price: these lamps are made in a variety of pretty shapes, curiously
+painted, and ingeniously ornamented with cut paper; they burn oil in them,
+and, when well arranged, and diversified with their wonted taste, produce
+a good light, and pleasing effect.
+
+The banners of Hosein, in the houses of the poor, are formed of materials
+according to their humble means, from tinsel imitations down to dyed
+muslin; and a similar difference is to be perceived in their selection of
+the metal of which their crests are made.
+
+Mourning assemblies are held in the Emaum-baarahs twice every day during
+Mahurrum; those of the evening, however, are the most attractive, and have
+the fullest attendance of visitors. The master of the house, at the
+appointed hour, takes his seat on the floor near the pulpit, surrounded by
+the males of his family and intimate friends, and the crowd of strangers
+arrange themselves--wherever there is sitting room--without impeding the
+view of the Tazia.
+
+One of the most popular Maulvees[13] of the age is engaged to recite the
+particular portion appointed for each day, from the manuscript documents,
+called Dhie Mudgelluss,[14] in the Persian language. This work is in ten
+parts and contains a subject for each day's service, descriptive of the
+life and sufferings of the Emaums, their friends, and children,
+particularly as regards the eventful period of Mahurrum in which they were
+engaged. It is, I am assured, a pathetic, fine composition, and a faithful
+narrative of each particular circumstance in the history of their leaders,
+the heroic bravery of their friends, &c. They are particularly anxious to
+engage an eloquent reader for this part of the performance, who by his
+impressive manner compels his hearers to sympathise in the affecting
+incidents which are recited by him.
+
+I have been present when the effect produced by the superior oratory and
+gestures of a Maulvee has almost terrified me, the profound grief, evinced
+in his tears and groans, being piercing and apparently sincere. I have
+even witnessed blood issuing from the breast of sturdy men, who beat
+themselves simultaneously as they ejaculated the names 'Hasan!'
+'Hosein!'[15] for ten minutes, and occasionally during a longer period, in
+that part of the service called Mortem.[16]
+
+The portion of Dhie Mudgelluss concluded, sherbet is handed round to the
+assembly; and as they voluntarily abstain from luxuries at this season, a
+substitute for pawn[17]--the green leaf in general use amongst the
+natives--has been introduced, consisting of dried coffee, cocoa-nut shreds,
+betel-nut, cardimuns,[18] dunyah,[19] and a proportionate quantity of
+tobacco-leaf and lime; these are mixed together and handed to the
+visitors, on small silver trays. The hookha[20] is introduced to the
+superiors of the assembly; you are perhaps aware that inferiors do not
+smoke in the presence of superiors without their command or permission.
+
+This ceremony terminated, the Murseeah[21] is chanted, by several
+well-practised voices, with good effect. This part of the service is,
+perhaps, the most impressive, as the very ignorant, even, can comprehend
+every word,--the Murseeah being in the Hindoostanic tongue, a poetical
+composition of great merit, and embracing all the subjects they meet to
+commemorate. The whole assembly rise up afterwards, and, as with one voice,
+recount the names of the lawful leaders after Mahumud, entreating
+blessings and peace to their souls. They then repeat the names of the
+hated usurpers (Caliphas), on whose memory they invoke curses, &c. Mortem
+follows, beating of breasts in unison with the voices, and uttering the
+names of Hasan and Hosein; this performance concludes each day's
+Mudgelluss, either of the morning or evening.
+
+The ladies celebrate the returning season of Mahurrum with as much spirit
+and zeal as the confinement, in which they exist, can possibly admit of.
+There are but few, and those chiefly princesses, who have Emaum-baarahs at
+command, within the boundary of the zeenahnah; the largest and best
+apartment in their establishment is therefore selected for the purpose of
+an Emaum-baarah, into which none but females are admitted, excepting the
+husband, father, son, or brother, of the lady; who having, on this
+occasion, full liberty to invite her female acquaintance, those who are
+her nearest male relatives even are not admitted until previous notice is
+given, in order that the female guests may secrete themselves from the
+sight of these relatives of their hostess.
+
+In commemorating this remarkable event in Mussulmaun history, the
+expressions of grief, manifested by the ladies, are far greater, and
+appear to me more lasting than with the other sex; indeed, I never could
+have given credit to the extent of their bewailings, without witnessing,
+as I have done for many years, the season for tears and profound grief
+return with the month of Mahurrum. In sorrowing for the martyred Emaums,
+they seem to forget their private griefs; the bereavement of a beloved
+object even is almost overlooked in the dutiful remembrance of Hasan and
+Hosein at this period; and I have had opportunities of observing this
+triumph of religious feeling in women, who are remarkable for their
+affectionate attachment to their children, husbands, and parents;--they
+tell me, 'We must not indulge selfish sorrows of our own, whilst the
+Prophet's family alone have a right to our tears'.
+
+The religious zeal of these people is evinced, likewise, in a stern,
+systematic, line of privations, during the period of Mahurrum; no one is
+obliged by any law or command; it is voluntary abstinence on the part of
+each individual--they impose it on themselves, out of pure pity and
+respect for their Emaums' well-remembered sufferings. Every thing which
+constitutes comfort, luxury, or even convenience at other times, on these
+occasions are rigidly laid aside. The pallungh and the charpoy[22] (the
+two descriptions of bedsteads in general use), on which the females love
+to lounge for some hours in the day and night, are removed from their
+standings, and, in lieu of this comfort, they take their rest on a common
+date mat, on the floor. The musnud,[23] and all its cushioned luxuries,
+give place, on this occasion, to the simply matted floor. The indulgence
+in choice dainties, at other times so necessary to their happiness, is now
+foregone, and their meal limited, throughout Mahurrum, to the coarsest
+food--such as barley bread, rice and peas boiled together (called
+kutcher),[24] without even the usual additions to make it palatable
+ketcherie,[25] as ghee, salt, pepper, and spices; these ingredients being
+considered by the zealous females too indulgent and luxurious for humble
+mourners during Muhurrum.
+
+The pawn leaf, another luxury of no small moment to Asiatic tastes, is now
+banished for the ten days' mourning. A very poor substitute has been
+adopted, in the mixture described at the gentlemen's assembly--it is
+called goattur.[26] The truth is, their health would suffer from any long
+disuse of tobacco-leaf, lime, and a bitter gum,[27] which are in general
+use with the pawn; the latter is of a warm aromatic nature, and imparts a
+fine flavour to the other ingredients; but, as it is considered a great
+indulgence to eat pawn, they abstain from it altogether during
+Mahurrum;--the mixture, they say, is only allowed for health's sake.
+
+When visitors call on the Mussulmaun ladies at Mahurrum, the goattur is
+presented on trays, accompanied by bags, neatly embroidered in silver and
+gold, of many different shapes and patterns, mostly their own work and
+invention; they are called buttooah[28] and jhaumdanies.[29]
+
+The variety of ornaments, which constitute the great delight of all
+classes of females in India, are entirely laid aside, from the first hour
+of Mahurrum, until the period for mourning concludes. I never heard of any
+people so thoroughly attached to ornaments as the females of India are
+generally. They are indulged in this foible--pardonable it may be--by
+their husbands and parents. The wealthiness of a family may often be
+judged by a single glance at the principal lady of the zeenahnah, who
+seldom omits doing honour to her husband, by a full display of the
+precious metals, with a great variety of gems or jewels on ordinary
+occasions. The men of all ranks are proud of their wives' finery; even the
+poorest hold in derision all ornament that is not composed of sterling
+metal, of which they seem excellent judges. The massy chains of gold or
+silver, the solid bangles for the arms and ancles, the nut[30] (nose-ring)
+of gold wire, on which is strung a ruby between two pearls, worn only by
+married women; the joshun[31] (armlet), of silver or gold, often set with
+precious stones; the many rings for the fingers, thumbs, and toes, form
+the daily dress of a lady;--but I must not digress further. These are all
+removed from the person, as soon as the moon is seen, when the first day
+of Mahurrum commences; the hair is unloosed from its usual confinement,
+and allowed to flow in disorder about the person; the coloured
+pyjaamahs[32] and deputtahs[33] are removed, with every other article of
+their usual costume, for a suit that, with them, constitutes
+mourning--some choose black, others grey, slate, or green, and the widow
+wears white from the day her husband dies.
+
+A widow never alters her style of dress, neither does she wear a single
+ornament, during her widowhood, which generally lasts with her life. I
+never heard of one single instance, during my twelve years' residence
+amongst them, of a widow marrying again--they have no law to prohibit it;
+and I have known some ladies, whose affianced husbands died before the
+marriage was concluded, who preferred a life of solitude and prayer,
+although many other overtures were made.[34]
+
+Many of the rigidly zealous, among the females, mortify themselves by
+wearing their suit of mourning, during the ten days, without changing; the
+dress is worn next the skin, and, in very warm weather, must be
+comfortless after the first day--but so it is; and so many are the
+varieties of self-inflicted privations, at this period, that my letter
+might be filled with the observations I have made. I cannot, however, omit
+to mention my old woman-servant (ayah[35]), whose mode of abstinence, in
+remembrance of Hosein, is rigidly severe; my influence does not prevail in
+dissuading her, although I fear the consequences to her health will be
+seriously felt if she persist in the fulfilment of her self-imposed trial.
+This poor old creature resolves on not allowing one drop of water, or any
+liquid, to pass her lips during the ten days' mourning; as she says, 'her
+Emaum, Hosein, and his family, suffered from thirst at Kraabaallah, why
+should such a creature as she is be indulged with water?' This shows the
+temper of the people generally; my ayah is a very ignorant old woman, yet
+she respects her Emaum's memory.[36]
+
+The Tazia, you are to understand, graces the houses of all good
+Mussulmauns in India, who are not of the sect called Soonies. This model
+of their Emaum's tomb is an object of profound respect. Hindoos, even, on
+approaching the shrine, bow their heads with much solemn gravity; I often
+fancied they mistook the Tazia for a Bootkhanah[37] (the house of an idol).
+
+It is creditable to the Mussulmauns, that they do not restrict any
+profession of people from visiting their assemblies; there is free
+admission granted when the Emaum-baarah is first lighted up, until the
+hour of performing the service, when strangers, that is the multitude, are
+civilly requested to retire. Every one is expected, on entering the
+outward verandah, to leave their shoes at the threshold of the
+sanctuary;[38] none but Europeans have any occasion to be reminded of this,
+as it is a well known and general observance with all degrees of natives
+in Asia. The servants, in charge of the Emaum-baarah, are responsible for
+the due observance of respect to the place, and when any foreigners are
+advancing, they are politely requested to leave their shoes outside; which
+must be complied with, or they cannot possibly be admitted.
+
+Some few years since, a party of young gentlemen, from cantonments, had
+made up their minds to evade the necessity for removing their boots, on
+the occasion of a visit to one of the great men's Emaum-baarahs, at a
+Native city; they had provided themselves with white socks, which they
+drew over their boots before leaving their palkies. The cheat was
+discovered by the servants in attendance, after they had been admitted;
+they made a precipitate retreat to avoid the consequences of a
+representation to the Resident, by the proprietor of the Emaum-baarah; who,
+hearing of the circumstance, made all possible inquiry, without, however,
+discovering the names of the gentlemen, who had thus, in his opinion,
+violated the sanctuary.
+
+The Natives are aware that the Resident sets the bright example of
+conforming to the observances of the people, over whom he is placed as
+governor and guardian; and that he very properly discountenances every
+attempt of his countrymen to infringe on their rights, prejudices, or
+privileges; and they have, to my knowledge, always looked up to him as to
+a parent and a friend, from the first to the last day of his exalted
+station amongst them. Many a tear marked the regret of the Natives, when
+their best, their kindest, earthly friend quitted the city he had blessed
+by his presence; and to the latest page of their history, his memory will
+doubtless be cherished with sincere veneration and respectful
+attachment.[39]
+
+The poor people vie with their rich neighbours, in making a brilliant
+light in their little halls containing the Tazia; the very poorest are
+liberal in the expenditure of oil and tallow candles--I might say
+extravagantly so, but for the purity of their intentions, supposing it to
+be a duty--and they certainly manifest their zeal and respect to the
+utmost of their power; although many, to my knowledge, live all the year
+round on the very coarsest fare, to enable them to show this reverence to
+their Emaum's memory.
+
+The ladies assemble, in the evening, round the Tazia they have set up in
+their purdahed privacy--female friends, slaves, and servants, surrounding
+the mistress of the house, in solemn gravity.
+
+The few females who have been educated are in great request at this season;
+they read the Dhie Mudgelluss, and chant the Musseeah with good effect.
+These women, being hired for the purpose, are detained during the ten days;
+when the Mahurrum ceases, they are dismissed to their own homes, loaded
+with the best gifts the good lady their employer can conveniently spare,
+commensurate with the services performed. These educated females are
+chiefly daughters of poor Syaads, who have not been married for the lack
+of a dowry; they live devoutly in the service of God, according to their
+faith. They are sometimes required, in the families of the nobility, to
+teach the Khoraun to the young ladies, and, in that capacity, they are
+called Oustaardie, or more familiarly Artoojee.[40]
+
+As I have mentioned before, the Musseeah narrative of the sufferings at
+Kraabaallah is a really pathetic and interesting composition; the work
+being conveyed in the language of the country, every word is understood,
+and very deeply felt, by the females in all these assemblies, who, having
+their hearts softened by the emphatic chantings of the readers, burst into
+violent tears and sobbings of the most heart-rending description. As in
+the gentlemen's assembly, they conclude with Mortem, in which they
+exercise themselves until they are actually exhausted; indeed, many
+delicate females injure their health by the violence and energy of their
+exertions, which they nevertheless deem a most essential duty to perform,
+at all hazards, during the continuance of Mahurrum.
+
+This method of keeping Mahurrum is not in strict obedience to the
+Mahumudan laws; in which code may be found prohibitions against all
+violent and excessive grief--tearing the hair, or other expressions of
+ungovernable sorrow.[41]
+
+I have observed that the Maulvees, Moollahs,[42] and devoutly religious
+persons, although mixing with the enthusiasts on these occasions, abstain
+from the violent exhibition of sorrows which the uninformed are so prone
+to indulge in. The most religious men of that faith feel equal, perhaps
+greater sympathy, for the sufferings of the Emaums, than those who are
+less acquainted with the precepts of the Khoraun; they commemorate the
+Mahurrum without parade or ostentatious display, and apparently wear
+mourning on their hearts, with their garb, the full term of forty
+days--the common period of mourning for a beloved object; but these
+persons never join in Mortem, beating breasts, or other outward show of
+sadness, although they are present when it is exercised; but their quiet
+grief is evidently more sincere.
+
+I have conversed with many sensible men of the Mussulmaun persuasion on
+the subject of celebrating Mahurrum, and from all I can learn, the pompous
+display is grown into a habit, by a long residence amongst people, who
+make a merit of showy parades at all their festivals. Foreign Mussulmauns
+are equally surprised as Europeans, when they visit Hindoostaun, and first
+see the Tazia conveyed about in procession, which would be counted
+sacrilegious in Persia or Arabia; but here, the ceremony is not complete
+without a mixture of pageantry with, the deeply expressed and public
+exposure of their grief.[43]
+
+The remarkable plainness of the mosque, contrasted with the superb
+decorations of an Emaum-baarah, excited my surprise. I am told by the most
+venerable of Syaads, 'The Mosque is devoted only to the service of God,
+where it is commanded no worldly attractions or ornaments shall appear, to
+draw off the mind, or divert the attention, from that one great object for
+which the house of prayer is intended'. An Emaum-baarah is erected for the
+purpose of doing honour to the memory of the Emaums, and of late years the
+emulative spirit of individuals has been the great inducement to the
+display of ornamental decorations.
+
+It is rather from their respect to the Founder of their religion and his
+descendants, than any part of their profession of faith, that the
+Mussulmaun population of Hindoostaun are guided by in these displays,
+which are merely the fashion of other people whom they imitate; and with
+far different motives to the weak-minded Hindoos, who exalt their idols,
+whilst the former thus testify their respect to worthy mortals only. This
+is the explanation I have received from devout Mussulmauns, who direct me
+to remark the strong similarity--in habit only, where 'the faith' is not
+liable to innovations--between themselves and the Hindoo population;--the
+out-of-door celebrations of marriage festivals, for instance, which are so
+nearly resembling each other, in the same classes of society, that
+scarcely any difference can be discovered by the common observer.
+
+Idolatry is hateful to a Mussulmaun, who acknowledges 'one only true God',
+and 'Him alone to be worshipped'.[44] They respect, venerate, love, and
+would imitate, their acknowledged Prophet and the Emaums (who succeeded
+Mahumud in the mission), but they never worship them, as has been often
+imagined. On the contrary, they declare to me that their faith compels
+them 'to believe in one God, and that He alone is to be worshipped by the
+creature; and that Mahumud is a creature, the Prophet sent by God to make
+His will known, and declare His power. That to bow down and worship
+Mahumud would be gross idolatry; and, although he is often mentioned in
+their prayers, yet he is never prayed to. They believe their Prophet is
+sensible of whatever passes amongst his true disciples; and that, in
+proportion as they fulfil the commands he was instructed by God to leave
+with them, so will they derive benefit from his intercession, on that
+great and awful day, when all mankind shall appear before the judgment
+seat of God.'
+
+
+[1] _Imambara_, 'enclosure of the Imam', the place where the
+    Muharram rites are performed, as contrasted with Masjid, a mosque, and
+    'Idgah, where the service at the 'Id festivals is conducted.
+
+[2] _Ta'ziya_, 'consoling'. The use of these miniature tombs is said to
+    date from the time of Amir Taimur (A.D. 1336-1405), who on his
+    return from Karbala made a model of Husain's tomb. See a good account
+    of them in Sir G. Birdwood, _Sva_, 173 ff.
+
+[3] _Abrak_, tale.
+
+[4] From Karbala, the place of pilgrimage.
+
+[5] _Mardanah_.
+
+[6] _Maqbarah_, 'place of graves'.
+
+[7] _Shatranj[-i]_, a chequered cloth, from _shatrang_, the game of chess.
+
+[8] _Majlis_.
+
+[9] _Mulaqat_.
+
+[10] _Mimbar_, sometimes a wooden structure, sometimes of masonry.
+
+[11] Green is the Sayyid colour (E.W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_, i. 38).
+    But it is an innovation in Islam, and Sayyids in Al-Hijaz, as a
+    general rule, do not wear a green turban (Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 4).
+
+[12] The spread hand designates the Sheah sect. There are times when
+    holding up the spread hand declares the Sheah, whilst the Soonie is
+    distinguished by his holding up three fingers only. In villages, the
+    spread hand is marked on the walls where Sheahs reside during Mahurrum.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+    [The five spread fingers are regarded as emblematical of the Prophet,
+    Fâtimah, 'Ali, Hasan, and Husain. The Sunnis prefer three
+    fingers, signifying the first three Caliphs. In its ultimate origin,
+    the spread hand is a charm against demons and evil spirits.]
+
+[13] _Maulavi_, a Muhammadan doctor of law, a judge.
+
+[14] From Dhie, ten; Mudgelluss, assembling together for sacred purposes.
+    [_Author_.] or [_Dah_, or _Dahha majlis_ denotes the ten days of
+    Muharram; see Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_,
+    i. 74.]
+
+[15] Corrupted by Anglo-Indians into _Hobson-Jobson_, the title of Sir H.
+    Yule's _Anglo-Indian Glossary_.
+
+[16] _Matam_, 'mourning'.
+
+[17] _Pan_, 'betel leaf'.
+
+[18] Cardamom.
+
+[19] _Dhaniya_ (_Coriandrum sativitm_).
+
+[20] _Huqqah_, 'a water tobacco pipe'.
+
+[21] _Marsiyah_, 'a funeral elegy'.
+
+[22] _Palang_, a more pretentious piece of furniture than the
+    _charpai_, or common 'cot'.
+
+[23] _Masnad_, 'a thing leaned on', a pile of cushions; the throne of a
+    sovereign.
+
+[24] _Khichar_.
+
+[25] _Khichri_, the 'Kedgeree' of Anglo-Indians.
+
+[26] _Gota_.
+
+[27] Catechu, Hindi _Kath_.
+
+[28] _Batua_.
+
+[29] _Jamdani_, properly a portmanteau for holding clothes
+    (_Jama_): a kind of flowered cloth.
+
+[30] _Nath_.
+
+[31] _Joshan_, an ornament worn on the upper arm.
+
+[32] _Pa[~e]jama_, 'leg clothing', drawers.
+
+[33] _Dopatta_, a sheet made of two breadths of cloth.
+
+[34] Amongst the Muhammadans the proportion of widows has declined
+    steadily since 1881, and is now only 143 per mille compared with 170
+    in that year. It would seem that the prejudices against
+    widow-marriages are gradually becoming weaker.--_Report Census of
+    India_, 1911, i. 273.
+
+[35] [~A]y[~a], from Portuguese _aia_, 'a nurse'.
+
+[36] After much, entreaty, this humble zealot was induced to take a sweet
+    lime, occasionally, to cool her poor parched mouth. She survived the
+    trial, and lived many years to repeat her practised abstinence at the
+    return of Mahurrum. [_Author_.]
+
+[37] _Butkhanah_.
+
+[38] This was a primitive Semitic taboo (Exodus iii. 5; Joshua v. 15, &c.).
+    The reason of this prohibition is that shoes could not be easily
+    washed.--W.R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_[2], 453.
+
+[39] Mordaunt Ricketts was Resident at Lucknow between 1821 and 1830, when
+    he was 'superannuated' owing to financial scandals, for the details of
+    which see Sir G. Trevelyan, _Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay_, cap.
+    x; H.G. Keene, _Here and There_, 10; on November 1, 1824, he was
+    married at Lucknow by Bishop Heber to the widow of George Ravenscroft,
+    the civilian who was Collector of Cawnpore, and there embezzled large
+    sums of money, the property of Government. He fled with his wife and
+    child to Bhinga in Oudh, where, on May 6, 1823, he was murdered by
+    Dacoits. The strange story is well told by Sleeman, _A Journey through
+    the Kingdom of Oudh_, i. 112 ff.
+
+[40] Persian _ustad, ustadji_, 'an instructor'.
+
+[41] Lamentation for the dead was strictly prohibited by the Prophet; but,
+    like all orientals, the Indian Musalmans indulge in it.
+    (_Mishkat_, i, chap, vii.)
+
+[42] _Mulla_, the Persian form of Maulavi, 'a doctor of law'.
+
+[43] It is a mistake to suppose that the procession of the Ta'ziya or
+    Tabut is peculiar to India. It is practised in Persia and Egypt.
+
+[44] The Prophet was obliged to make some compromise with idolatry, as in
+    the case of the Black Stone at Mecca. But he protested against idols
+    in one of the earliest Suurahs of the Koraan (lii 35-43), and in
+    other passages.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER III
+
+  Continuation of Mahurrum.--Consecration of Banners.--Durgah at
+  Lucknow.--Its origin explained.--Regarded with peculiar
+  veneration.--The Nuwaub vows to build a new one.--Its
+  description.--Procession to the Durgah.--Najoomies.--Influence
+  possessed and practised by them.--Eunuchs.--Anecdotes of some having
+  attained great honours and wealth.--Presents bestowed upon them
+  generally revert to the donor.--Rich attire of male and female slaves.
+
+
+After the Tazia is brought home (as the temporary ones are from the bazaar
+on the eve of Mahurrum, attended by a ceremonious display of persons,
+music, flags, flambeaux, &c.), there is little to remark of out-door
+parade beyond the continual activity of the multitude making the sacred
+visits to their several Emaum-baarahs, until the fifth day, when the
+banners are conveyed from each of them in solemn procession, to be
+consecrated at the Durgah[1] (literally translated, 'The threshold' or
+'Entrance to a sanctified place').
+
+This custom is perhaps exclusively observed by the inhabitants of Lucknow,
+where I have had the privilege of acquiring a knowledge of the motives
+which guide most of their proceedings; and as there is a story attached to
+the Durgah, not generally known to European visitors, I propose relating
+it here, as it particularly tends to explain the reasons for the
+Mussulmauns conveying their banners for consecration to that celebrated
+shrine.
+
+'A native of India--I forget his name--remarkable for his devotion and
+holy life, undertook the pilgrimage to Mecca; whilst engaged in these
+duties at the "holy house", he was visited with a prophetic dream. Abass
+Ali (the standard-bearer and relation of Hosein) appeared to him in his
+dream, commanding him, that as soon as his duties at Mecca were fulfilled
+he should, without delay, proceed to Kraabaallah, to the tomb of Hosein;
+directing him, with great precision, how he was to find the exact spot of
+earth where was deposited the very Allum[2] (banner) of Hosein, which he
+(Abass Ali) had, on the great day of Kraabaallah, carried to the field.
+The man was further instructed to possess himself of this relic secretly,
+and convey it about his person until he should reach his native country,
+when he would be more fully directed by the orderings of Providence how
+the relic should be disposed of.
+
+'The Hadjee followed all the injunctions he had received punctually; the
+exact spot was easily discovered, by the impressions from his dream; and,
+fearing the jealousy of the Arabs, he used the utmost precaution, working
+by night, to secure to himself the possession of so inestimable a prize,
+without exciting their suspicion, or attracting the notice of the numerous
+pilgrims who thronged the shrine by day. After several nights of severe
+labour he discovered, to his great joy, the metal crest of the banner; and
+concluding the banner and staff to have mouldered away, from their having
+been so long entombed in the earth, he cautiously secreted the crest about
+his person, and after enduring the many vicissitudes and privations,
+attendant on the long journey from Arabia to India, he finally succeeded
+in reaching Lucknow in safety with his prize.
+
+'The Nuwaub Asof ood Duolah[3] ruled at this period in Oude; the pilgrim
+made his adventures known to him, narrating his dream, and the
+circumstances which led to his gaining possession of the crest. The Nuwaub
+gave full credence to his story, and became the holder of the relic
+himself, rewarding the Hadjee handsomely for his trouble, and gave
+immediate orders for a small building to be erected under the denomination
+of "Huzerut Abass Ali Ke Durgah",[4] in which the crest was safely
+deposited with due honours, and the fortunate pilgrim was appointed
+guardian with a liberal salary.
+
+'In the course of time, this Durgah grew into great repute amongst the
+general classes of the Mussulmaun population, who, venerating their Emaum
+Hosein, had more than common respect for this trifle, which they believed
+had been used in his personal service. Here the public were permitted to
+offer their sacrifices and oblations to God, on occasions of importance to
+themselves; as after the performance of the rite of circumcision in
+particular, grand processions were formed conveying the youthful
+Mussulmaun, richly attired, attended by music, &c. and offering presents
+of money and sweetmeats at the shrine which contains their Emaum's sacred
+relic. On these occasions the beggars of every denomination were benefited
+by the liberality of the grateful father, and the offerings at the shrine
+became the property of the guardian of the Durgah, who, it was expected,
+would deal out from his receipts to the necessitous as occasions served.'
+
+This custom is still observed, with equal veneration for the shrine and
+its deposit; and when a lady recovers from the perils attendant on giving
+to her husband's house a desired heir, she is conveyed, with all the pomp
+and parade due to her rank in life, to this Durgah, attended by her female
+relatives, friends, domestics, eunuchs, and slaves, in covered conveyances;
+in her train are gentlemen on horseback, in palkies, or on elephants, to
+do honour to the joyful event; the Guardian's wife having charge on these
+occasions of the ladies' visits; and the Guardian, with the gentlemen and
+all the males, guarding the sanctuary outside; for they are not permitted
+to enter whilst it is occupied by the ladies, the eunuchs alone having
+that privilege where females congregate.
+
+Recovery from sickness, preservation from any grievous calamity, danger,
+or other event which excites grateful feelings, are the usual inducements
+to visiting the Durgah, with both males and females, amongst the
+Mussulmaun population of Lucknow. These recurrences yield ample stores of
+cash, clothes, &c. left at the disposal of the Guardian, who, if a good
+man, disperses these charitable donations amongst the indigent with a
+liberality equal to that of the donors in their various offerings.
+
+The Durgah had grown into general respect, when a certain reigning Nuwaub
+was afflicted by a severe and tedious illness, which baffled the skill of
+his physicians, and resisted the power of the medicine resorted to for his
+recovery. A confidential Najoom[5] (astrologer), in the service of his
+Highness, of great repute in his profession, advised his master to make a
+vow, that 'If in the wisdom of Divine Providence his health should be
+restored, he would build a new Durgah on the site of the old one, to be
+dedicated to Abass Ali, and to be the shrine for the sacred deposit of the
+crest of Hosein'. The Nuwaub, it appears, recovered rapidly after the vow
+had been made, and he went in great pomp and state to return thanks to God
+in this Durgah, surrounded by the nobles and officers of his Court, and
+the whole strength of his establishment accompanied him on the occasion.
+So grand was the spectacle, that the old people of the city talk of it at
+this day as a scene never equalled in the annals of Lucknow, for splendour
+and magnificence; immense sums of money were distributed on the road to
+the populace, and at the Durgah; the multitude, of all classes, hailing
+his emancipation from the couch of sickness with deafening cheers of
+vociferous exultation.
+
+In fulfilment of his vow, the Nuwaub gave immediate orders for erecting
+the magnificent edifice, which now graces the suburbs of Lucknow, about
+five miles from that part of the city usually occupied by the Sovereign
+Ruler of the province of Oude. By virtue of the Nuwaub's vow and recovery,
+the before-respected Durgah has, thus newly built, increased in favour
+with the public; and, on account of the veneration they have for all that
+concerns their Emaums, the banners which adorn the Tazias of Hosein must
+be consecrated by being brought to this sacred edifice; where, by the
+condescending permission of the Sovereign, both the rich and the poor are
+with equal favour admitted, at that interesting period of Mahurrum, to
+view the crest of their Leader, and present their own banners to be
+touched and thus hallowed by the, to them, sacred relic. The crest is
+fixed to a staff, but no banner attached to it; this is placed within a
+high railing, supported by a platform, in the centre of the building; on
+either side splendid banners are exhibited on these occasions.
+
+The Durgah is a square building, entered by flights of steps from the
+court-yard; the banner of each person is conveyed through the right
+entrance, opposite the platform, where it is immediately presented to
+touch the revered crest; this is only the work of a few seconds; that
+party walks on, and moves out to the left again into the court-yard; the
+next follows in rapid succession, and so on till all have performed this
+duty: by this arrangement, confusion is obviated; and, in the course of
+the day, perhaps forty or fifty thousand banners[6] may have touched the
+Emaum's consecrated crest. On these occasions, the vast population of
+Lucknow may be imagined by the almost countless multitude, of every rank,
+who visit this Durgah: there is no tax levied on the people, but the sums
+collected must be immense, since every one conscientiously offers
+something, according to his inclination or his means, out of pure respect
+to the memory of Hosein.
+
+The order of procession, appointed by each noble proprietor of banners, to
+be consecrated at the Durgah, forms a grand spectacle. There is no
+material difference in their countless numbers; the most wealthy and the
+meanest subjects of the province make displays commensurate with their
+ability, whilst those persons who make the most costly exhibitions enjoy
+the greatest share of popular favour, as it is considered a proof of their
+desire to do honour to the memory of Hosein and Hasan, their venerated
+Emaums.
+
+A description of one, just passing my house, will give you a general idea
+of these processions,--it belongs to a rich man of the city:--A guard of
+soldiers surrounds four elephants on which several men are seated, on pads
+or cushions, supporting the banners; the staffs of several are of
+silver,--the spread hand, and other crests, are formed of the same metal,
+set with precious stones. Each banner--they all resemble--is in the shape
+of a long scarf of rich silk, of bright florid colours, embroidered very
+deep at the ends, which are finished with gold and silver bullion fringes;
+it is caught together near the middle, and tied with rich gold and silver
+cords and tassels to the top of the staff, just under the hand or crest.
+The silks, I observe, are of many different colours, forming an agreeable
+variety, some blue, purple, green, yellow, &c. Red is not used; being the
+Soonies' distinguishing colour at Mahurrum it is carefully avoided by the
+zealous Sheahs--the Soonies are violently opposed to the celebration of
+this festival. After the elephants, a band of music follows, composed of
+every variety of Native instruments, with drums and fifes; the trumpets
+strike me as the greatest novelty in their band; some of them are very
+long and powerful in their effect.
+
+Next in the order of procession I observe a man in deep mourning,
+supporting a black pole, on which two swords are suspended from a bow
+reversed--the swords unsheathed glittering in the sun. The person who owns
+the banners, or his deputy, follows next on foot, attended by readers of
+the Musseeah, and a large party of friends in mourning. The readers select
+such passages as are particularly applicable to the part Abass Ali took in
+the affair at Kraabaallah, which is chanted at intervals, the procession
+pausing for that purpose.
+
+Then comes Dhull Dhull,[7]--the name of Hosein's horse at
+Kraabaallah;--that selected for the present purpose is a handsome white
+Arab, caparisoned according to the olden style of Arabia: due care is
+taken to represent the probable sufferings of both animal and rider, by
+the bloody horsecloth--the red-stained legs--and the arrows apparently
+sticking in several parts of his body; on the saddle is fixed a turban in
+the Arabian style, with the bow and arrows;--the bridle, &c. are of very
+rich embroidery; the stirrups and mountings of solid silver. The horse and
+all its attire are given after Mahurrum, in charity, to a poor Syaad.
+Footmen, with the afthaadah[8] and chowrie[9]--peculiar emblems of royalty
+in India--attend Dhull Dhull. The friends of the family walk near the
+horse; then servants of all classes, to fill up the parade, and many
+foot-soldiers, who occasionally fire singly, giving to the whole
+description a military effect.
+
+I have seen many other processions on these fifth days of Mahurrum--they
+all partake of one style,--some more splendid than others; and the very
+poor people parade their banners, with, perhaps, no other accompaniment
+than a single drum and fife, and the owner supporting his own banner.
+
+My next letter will contain the procession of Mayndhie, which forms a
+grand feature of Mahurrum display on the seventh night.
+
+P.S.--The Najoomee are men generally with some learning, who, for their
+supposed skill in astrology, have, in all ages since Mahumud's death, been
+more or less courted and venerated by the Mussulmaun people;--I should say,
+with those who have not the fear of God stronger in their hearts than the
+love of the world and its vanities;--the really religious people
+discountenance the whole system and pretended art of the astrologer.
+
+It is wonderful the influence a Najoom acquires in the houses of many
+great men in India;--wherever one of these idlers is entertained he is the
+oracle to be consulted on all occasions, whether the required solution be
+of the utmost importance, or the merest trifling subject. I know those who
+submit, with a childlike docility, to the Najoom's opinion, when their
+better reason, if allowed to sway, would decide against the astrologer's
+prediction. If Najoom says it is not proper for Nuwaub Sahib, or his Begum,
+to eat, to drink, to sleep, to take medicine, to go from home, to give
+away or accept a gift, or any other action which human reason is the best
+guide to decide upon, Najoom has said it,--and Najoom must be right.
+Najoom can make peace or war, in the family he overrules, at his pleasure;
+and many are the houses divided against themselves by the wicked influence
+of a bad man, thus exercising his crafty wiles over the weakness of his
+credulous master.--So much for Najoomee; and now for my second notice of
+the Eunuchs:--[10]
+
+They are in great request among the highest order of people, and from
+their long sojourn in a family, this class of beings are generally
+faithfully attached to the interest and welfare of their employer; they
+are much in the confidence of their master and mistress, and very seldom
+betray their trust. Being frequently purchased, whilst children, from the
+base wretches who have stolen them in infancy from the parental roof, they
+often grow up to a good old age with the family by whom they are adopted;
+they enjoy many privileges denied to other classes of slaves;--are
+admitted at all hours and seasons to the zeenahnahs; and often, by the
+liberality of their patrons, become rich and honourable;--still 'he is but
+a slave', and when he dies, his property reverts to his owner.
+
+In Oude there have been many instances of Eunuchs arriving to great honour,
+distinctions, and vast possessions. Al Mauss Ali Khaun[11] was of the
+number, within the recollection of many who survive him; he was the
+favoured Eunuch of the House of Oude; a person of great attainments, and
+gifted with a remarkably superior mind, he was appointed Collector over an
+immense tract of country, by the then reigning Nuwaub, whose councils he
+benefited by his great judgment. He lived to a good old age, in the
+unlimited confidence of his prince, and enjoyed the good will and
+affection of all who could appreciate what is valuable in honest integrity.
+He died as he had lived, in the most perfect resignation to whatever was
+the will of God, in whose mercy he trusted through time, and for eternity.
+Many of the old inhabitants speak of him with veneration and respect,
+declaring he was the perfect pattern for good Mussulmauns to imitate.
+
+Another remarkable Eunuch, Affrine Khaun,[12] of the Court of Oude, is
+well remembered in the present generation also,--the poor having lost a
+kind benefactor, and the rich a sensible companion, by his death. His vast
+property he had willed to others than the sovereign ruler of Oude (whose
+property he actually was), who sent, as is usual in these cases, to take
+possession of his estate, immediately after his death; the gates were
+barred, and the heirs the Eunuch had chosen to his immense wealth had
+taken possession; which I am not aware was disputed afterwards by the
+reigning Nuwaub, although by right of the Mussulmaun law, the Nuwaub owned
+both the slave and the slave's wealth.
+
+This accounts, perhaps, for the common practice in the higher circles of
+the Mussulmaun population, of heaping ornaments and riches on favourite
+slaves; the wealth thus expended at one time, is but a loan in the hands
+of safe keepers, to revert again to the original proprietor whenever
+required by the master, or no longer of service to the slave, who has
+neither power to bestow, nor heirs to benefit from the property he may
+leave when he dies.
+
+I have frequently observed, among the most exalted ladies, that their
+female slaves are very often superbly dressed; and, on occasions of
+marriage ceremonies, or other scenes of festivity, they seem proud of
+taking them in their suite, handsomely dressed, and richly adorned with
+the precious metals, in armlets, bangles, chains, &c.; the lady thus
+adding to her own consequence by the display of her attendant slaves. The
+same may be observed with regard to gentlemen, who have men-slaves
+attending them, and who are very frequently attired in costly dresses,
+expensive shawls, and gold ornaments.
+
+
+[1] _Dargah_, '(sacred) door-place'.
+
+[2] '_Alam_. For illustrations of those banners see Hughes,
+    _Dictionary of Islam_, 408 ff.; Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a
+    Pilgrim_, ii. 18.
+
+[3] Asaf-ud-daula, eldest son of Nawab Shuja'-ud-daula, on whose
+    death in 1775 he succeeded. He changed the seat of government
+    from Faizabad to Lucknow, where he died in 1797, and was
+    buried in the Imambara. He is principally remembered for
+    his liberality. The merchants, on opening their shops, used to
+    sing:
+
+      _Jisko na de Maula,
+      Tisko de Asaf-ud-daula_.
+      Who from Heaven nought receiveth,
+      To him Asaf-ud-daula giveth.
+
+[4] Mr. H.C. Irwin informs me that the Dargah is situated on the
+    Crommelin Road, rather more than a mile south-west of the
+    Machhi Bhawan fort. It was here that Nawab Sa'adat
+    'Al'i, on his accession, vowed that he would reform his
+    ways--an intention which was not realized.
+
+[5] _Nujumi_, 'an astrologer'; '_ilm-i-nujum_, 'astrology,
+    astronomy'.
+
+[6] The numbers are greatly exaggerated.
+
+[7] Duldul was the name of the Prophet's mule which he gave to
+    'Ali. It is often confounded with Buraq, the
+    Assyrian-looking gryphon on which he alleged that he flew to
+    Mecca.
+
+[8] _Aftabgir_, 'a sun-screen'; see p. 47.
+
+[9] _Chaunri_, the bushy tail of the yak, used as a fly-flapper.
+
+[10] Writing in 1849, General Sleeman remarks that Dom singers and eunuchs
+    are the virtual rulers of Oudh.--_A Journey through Oudh_, i, introd.
+    lxi, 178.
+
+[11] Almas ['the diamond'] 'Ali Khan, known as Miyan ['Master']
+    Almas, according to General Sleeman, was 'the greatest and best man
+    of any note that Oude has produced. He held for about forty years
+    Miyanganj and other districts, yielding to the Oude  Government an
+    annual revenue of more than eighty lacs of rupees [about £850,000].
+    During this time he kept the people secure in life and property, and
+    as happy as people in such a state of society can be; and the whole
+    country under his charge was during his lifetime a garden. He lived
+    here in great magnificence, and was often visited by his sovereign.'
+    (Ibid., i. 320 f.). Lord Valentia more than once speaks highly of him
+    (_Travels_, i. 136, 241). He also notes that the Nawab was
+    anxiously watching for his death, because, being a slave, under
+    Muhammadan law his estates reverted to the Crown.--See N.B.E. Baillie,
+    _Digest of Moohummudan Law_ (1875), 367 f.
+
+[12] Afrin Khan, 'lord of praise', Mr. Irwin informs me, is
+    mentioned in the _Tarikh Farahbakhsh_ (tr. W. Hoey, 129) as
+    engaged in negotiations when Nawab Asaf-ud-daula, at the
+    instigation of Warren Hastings and Haidar Beg, was attempting to
+    extort money from the Nawab Begam.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER IV
+
+  Mahurrum concluded.--Night of Mayndhie.--Emaum-baarah of the King of
+  Oude.--Procession to Shaah Nudghiff.--Last day of Mahurrum.--Chattahs.
+  --Musical instruments.--Zeal of the Native gentlemen.--Funeral
+  obsequies over the Tazia at Kraabaallah.--Sentiments of devout
+  Mussulmauns.--The fast followed by acts of charity.--Remarks on the
+  observance of Mahurrum.
+
+
+The public display on the seventh Mahurrum is by torch-light, and called
+the night of Mayndhie,[1] intending to represent the marriage ceremony for
+Cossum, who, it will be remembered, in the sketch of the events of
+Kraabaallah, was married to his cousin Sakeena Koobraah, the favourite
+daughter of Hosein, on the morning of the celebrated battle.
+
+This night presents to the public all the outward and showy parade which
+marks the Mayndhie procession of a real wedding ceremony, of which I
+propose speaking further in another place. This display at Mahurrum is
+attended with considerable expense; consequently, the very rich only
+observe the out-door formalities to be exhibited on this occasion; yet all
+classes, according to their means, remember the event, and celebrate it at
+home.
+
+The Mayndhie procession of one great personage, in Native cities, is
+directed--by previous arrangement--to the Emaum-baarah of a superior. I
+was present, on one occasion, when the Mayndhie of the Prime Minister of
+Oude was sent to the King's Emaum-baarah, called Shaah Nudghiff,[2]--from
+the mausoleum of Ali, of which it is an exact representation, on a small
+scale.
+
+It is situated near the banks of the river Goomtie,[3] some distance from
+the palace at Lucknow; the entrance to the outer court, or quadrangle, is
+by a handsome gateway of brickwork plastered and polished, resembling
+marble. On each side of the gateway, and carried up the two sides, in a
+line with the building, are distinct apartments, designed for the abode of
+the distressed and houseless poor; the back of these apartments forms a
+substantial wall or enclosure. The Shaah Nudghiff faces the gateway, and
+appears to be a square building, on a broad base of flights of steps, with
+a cupola roof; the interior is paved with black and white marble
+tesselated, the walls and dome neatly ornamented with plaster and gold in
+relief, the beading, cornices, &c. of gold, to correspond on a
+stone-colour ground. The cupola and cornices on the outside are richly
+ornamented with plaster designs, relieved with gold; on the summit of the
+dome is placed a crown, of pure silver, gilt, of an immense size.
+
+The decorations of the interior, for the season of Mahurrum, were on a
+scale of grandeur not easily to be conveyed by description. The walls were
+well covered with handsome glasses and mirrors; the splendid
+chandeliers,--one containing a hundred wax lights,--in every variety, and
+relieved with coloured lamps--amber, blue, and green,--mellowing the light,
+and giving a fairy-like effect to the brilliant scene. In the centre of
+the building stood the green glass Tazia, surrounded by wax lights; on
+the right of which was placed an immense lion, and on the left, a fish,[4]
+both formed of the same bright emerald-green glass as the Tazia. The
+richness and elegance of the banners,--which were numerous and well
+arranged,--could be equalled only by the costliness of their several
+mountings.
+
+In Asiatic buildings niches and recesses prevail in all convenient
+situations, and here they are appropriated for the reception of the relics
+of antiquity and curiosities; such as models of Mecca, the tent of Hosein,
+the gate of Kraabaallah, &c.; these three are made of pure silver, and
+rest on tables of the same metal. Many curious sabres, of all ages,
+shields, chain armour of the ancients, lances, &c., arranged with much
+taste, adorn the interior.
+
+The pulpit (mhembur) is of silver, and of very handsome workmanship; the
+whole of the fitting up and arrangements had been made under the eye of
+his Majesty, and to his good taste may be ascribed all the merit of the
+well-ordered display for these occasions. He delighted in visiting this
+place, which he not only designed as a tribute of his respect to the
+Emaums, but as the future repository for his own remains, when this world
+should cease to be his place of joy, or anxious care. His intention has
+been fulfilled--he died in 1827, aged fifty years, much and justly beloved
+and regretted by all who knew him; his funeral obsequies were impressively
+grand, according to Mussulmaun custom. This good and amiable King was
+succeeded by his only son Nusseer ood deen Hyder,[5] who had just
+completed his twenty-second year when he began to reign.
+
+On the evening of Mayndhie, the crowds of admiring people were admitted to
+view their Paidshah's (King's) exhibition; until the distant sounds of
+musketry announced the approach of the spectacle, when the multitude were
+desired to quit the Emaum-baarah. Hundreds still lingering, could not be
+prevailed on to depart, except by the stripes dealt out unsparingly from
+the whips of the hurkaarahs[6] and peons, appointed to keep order on the
+occasion. The place cleared, and quiet restored, I had leisure to view the
+fairy-like palace of splendour, before the bustle of the procession
+reached the building. I could hardly persuade myself the picture before me
+was not a dream, instead of a reality.
+
+I stood at the entrance to watch the approach of the minister's train,
+through the gateway into the illuminated quadrangle. Spacious as this
+court-yard is, it was nearly filled with the many people forming the
+Mayndhie parade. I should imagine there could not be less than three
+thousand souls engaged in this service, including the match-lock soldiery.
+Several trays of Mayndhie are brought, with the other requisites for the
+usual forms of marriage gifts, such as sweetmeats, dried fruits, garlands
+of sweet jasmine, imitative beds of flowers, composed of uberuck: in some
+of the flowers, fireworks were concealed, to be let off in the quadrangle.
+An imitative tomb on a bier is also paraded, together with the palkie and
+chundole of silver, which are the covered conveyances for females of the
+royal family, or such of the nobility as are privileged by grants from the
+crown; all other females use the covered palkie, mahanah, dhollee, and the
+rutt.[7] Several bands of music follow, and torches out of number. The
+elephants, camels, cavalry, &c., are left in the open space, outside the
+gateway--the gentlemen, dismounting, enter with Dhull Dhull and the trays
+of Mayndhie.
+
+I trembled for the probable destruction of the brilliant ornaments in the
+Emaum-baarah, when I heard the noble animal was to make the circuit round
+the Tazia. Dhull Dhull, being led in, went up the steps with little
+difficulty; and to my astonishment, the gentle creature paced the
+tesselated floor, in very slow time, without once slipping, or seeming
+concerned at the novelty of his situation; indeed, this docile animal
+seemed to me the only living thing present that felt no interest in the
+scene--rendered more attractive and conspicuous by the gentle manners of
+the pretty Dhull Dhull himself. The circuit being made, he was conducted
+back into the court-yard, without the slightest accident or confusion
+occurring during his visit to the Emaum-baarah.
+
+The model of the tomb of Cossum, the chundole and palkie, the trays of
+Mayndhie, sweetmeats, &c. were deposited here until the tenth day, when
+they accompany the King's temporary Tazia cavalcade to Kraabaallah for
+interment.
+
+The ceremonies performed on this night of Mayndhie resemble, in every
+particular, those of the same rank of persons on the actual solemnization
+of a wedding, even to the distribution of money amongst the populace who
+crowd in multitudes on such occasions, though apparently more eager for
+the prize than the sight.
+
+The most imposing spectacle in the celebration of Mahurrum, is reserved
+for the last day;[8] and, judging from the activity of all classes, the
+zealous exertions of the multitude, the deep interest marked on every face,
+male and female, a mere spectator might well imagine this morning to be of
+more importance than any other in the Mussulmaun's catalogue of days.
+
+At the earliest hour of the dawning day, the preparations for the march
+being complete,--which had occupied the hours usually devoted to
+sleep,--the streets and roads present a very animated picture. From the
+bustle and outpouring of the multitude, on this one absorbing engagement,
+a stranger might be led back in imagination to the flight from Egypt; the
+object, however, is very different from that of the children of Israel.
+The order of the day being to commemorate the death of Hosein, a grand
+military funeral is pourtrayed in each person's cavalcade, all pressing
+forward to their chosen Kraabaallah,--the poor man, with his humble Tazia
+and flags, falling in the rear of the more affluent person's display, as
+well for protection as for speed. There is so much of similarity in these
+processions, that the description of one will be sufficient to convey the
+idea of the whole, as they pass on in succession to the chosen place of
+burial.[9]
+
+The consecrated banners take the precedence, in the order of march,
+carried by men on elephants; then a band of music. Next comes the
+jillewdhar[10] (sword-bearer), supporting, on a black staff, the bow
+reversed, with brilliant swords suspended; on each side of him are men
+bearing black poles, on which are fixed immense long streamers of black
+unspun silk,--designed to symbolize grief, despair, &c.
+
+Then follows the horse, caparisoned as on the day of consecrating the
+banners; it is attended by servants, in the same order as when a prince
+rides out,--viz. a man with the afthaadah[11] (or sun),--the well-dressed
+grooms, holding the bridle rein on either side,--a man with the chowrie of
+peacock's feathers in a silver handle,--chobdhaahs[12] with long silver
+and gold staffs,--sota badhaahs,[13] with short staffs resembling fish, of
+the same materials,--hurkaarahs (running-footmen, or messengers), bearing
+small triangular banners with silver handles,--shoe-bearers, &c.
+
+The royal chattah[14] (umbrella), of embroidered velvet, is supported over
+the head of Dhull Dhull. This article in its plain garb, so generally used
+in Europe, is, in Hindoostaun, an original distinguishing mark of royalty,
+gracing the King's throne in lieu of a canopy. In Oude, the chattah cannot
+be used by the subject when in view of the sovereign; if the King's
+dunkah[15] be heard abroad, the people hide their chattahs, and even
+descend from their carriages, elephants, horses, or palkies, standing with
+their hands folded, in all humility, to make obeisance to the
+King,--resuming them only when the royal cortège has moved out of sight. I
+have known many of the first nobility in the Court of Oude, and English
+gentlemen in the King's suite, exposed to the rays of the morning sun,
+during the hottest season of the year; in these airings, the King alone
+has the benefit of a chattah, except the Resident happens to be of the
+party, who being always received as an equal, is privileged to the chattah,
+the chowrie, and the hookha; indulgences of which those only who have
+lived in India can possibly estimate the true value.
+
+But to my subject:--The saddle is adorned with Hosein's chain armour, gold
+turban, a richly set sword, with an embroidered belt: some of the family
+and friends attend respectfully near the horse. Then follow the bearers of
+incense, in gold censers, suspended to chains, which they wave about,
+fumigating the air with the refreshing smell of lahbaun,[16]--a
+sweet-scented resin from the cedar of Lebanon, I imagine, though some
+suppose it to be the frankincense noticed in Scripture.
+
+Next in the cavalcade is a chanter or reader of the Musseeah, who selects
+passages from that well-arranged work suited to the time when Hosein's
+person was the mark for Yuzeed's arrows, and which describe his conduct on
+the trying occasion; one or two couplets being chanted, the procession
+advances in slow time, halting every five minutes on the way from the
+beginning to the end of the march. The reader is attended by the
+proprietor of the Tazia display, and his many relatives and friends,
+bare-footed, and without any covering on their heads;--many of these
+persons throw chaff on their heads,[17] expressive of grief, and whilst
+the Musseeah is chanted, their boisterous expressions of sorrow are
+painfully severe to the mere observer of the scene.
+
+The Tazia then follows, surrounded by banners, and covered with a canopy
+upheld by silver poles in the hands of the supporters, according to the
+general style of conveying their dead at the funerals of the Mussulmauns.
+The canopy is of green, bordered and embroidered with gold. The model of
+Cossum's tomb follows in succession, which is covered with gold cloth, and
+has a canopy also supported over it, in the same way, by poles carried by
+several men. The palkie and chundole of silver and tissue are next seen;
+the trays of Mayndhie, the flowers of uberuck, and the other paraphernalia
+of the marriage ceremony, follow in due order. Then the camels and
+elephants, conveying the tent equipage and luggage of Hosein, form a long
+train, representing the supposed style of his march from Medina to
+Kraabaallah.
+
+The last and most judicious feature in the arrangement is the several
+elephants with confidential servants, distributing bread and money to the
+poor, who are thus attracted to the rear in countless numbers, leaving the
+cavalcade in quiet possession of the space of roadway uncrowded by the
+multitude. The bread given on these occasions is in great esteem amongst
+the females, who receive a small portion from the followers on their
+return from Kraabaallah with veneration, for the Emaum's sake, in whose
+name it is given. I have often been led to the remembrance of past times
+by this act of theirs, when the cross-buns of Good-Friday were esteemed by
+the aged women as possessing virtues beyond the mere substance of the cake.
+
+The whole line of march is guarded in each procession by burkhandhars[18]
+(matchlock men), who fire singly, at intervals on the way. Several bands
+of music are dispersed in the cavalcade, performing solemn dirge-like airs,
+peculiar to the style of composition in Hindoostaun and well-suited to the
+occasion--muffled drums and shrill trumpets, imitating the reiteration of
+'Hasan, Hosein', when Mortem is performed. I remember a fine female
+elephant, belonging to King Ghauzee ood deen Hyder, which had been so well
+instructed, as to keep time with the soundings from her proboscis with the
+occasional Mortems. I cannot say that she clearly pronounced the names of
+the two sons of Ali, yet the regularity of keeping time with the music and
+the human voices was of itself sufficient to excite admiration--the
+Natives declare that she pronounces the names distinctly. Her name is
+Hoseinie, the feminine of Hosein.
+
+Amongst the many varieties of Native musical instruments I have seen in
+India, the kettle-drum is the most simple and singular, which I will take
+the liberty of describing:--It is of well-baked earth, moulded in the
+usual way, and very similar in shape to those of the Royal Horse Guards. A
+globe of the common size, divided into exact halves, would be about the
+dimension and shape of a pair of Indian manufacture; the parchment is
+strained over the open mouth, with a thin hoop to fix it firm; the
+slightest pressure with the fingers on this hoop draws it into tune. The
+simplicity of this accompaniment to the human voice, when touched by the
+fingers, very much in the way Europeans use the tambourine, is only to be
+appreciated by those who have been long acquainted with the sound. The
+only time when it is beaten with sticks is, when used as dunkahs, before
+the King and Queen, on their appearing in public--a sort of alarum to warn
+obstructing hackeries, or carriages, to move out of the way.
+
+I have occasionally observed a singular mode of imitating the sound of
+cavalry going over hard ground, adopted in the processions of great men on
+the tenth of Mahurrum; the contrivance is called chuckee,[19] and composed
+of ebony, or some equally hard wood, the shape and size of a pocket globe,
+divided into halves; each person, having the pair, beats them with a
+particular tact on the flat surface, so as to produce the desired sound of
+horses galloping; and where from fifty to a hundred men, or more, are
+engaged in this performance, the resemblance may be easily conceived.
+
+There are many little observances, not of sufficient importance to make
+them general to all who keep Mahurrum, that need not here be
+detailed;--but one must not be omitted, as it is a feature in the domestic
+observances of Mussulmauns. On the Tazias, when about to be conveyed to
+Kraabaallah, I discovered small portions of corn, rice, bread, fruits,
+flowers, cups of water, &c.;--this is in keeping with the Mussulmaun
+funerals, who invariably convey food to the tomb with their dead.[1] For
+the same reason, at Mahurrum, camphor and rosewater are always carried
+with the Tazia to Kraabaallah, although there is not the same occasion for
+the articles, as will be observed when the burial service is explained.
+
+I have seen females of rank, with their own hands, place red and green wax
+lights in front of the Tazia in their halls, on the night of Mayndhie. I
+was told, in answer to my inquiry, What was meant by the solemn process I
+had witnessed?--that these ladies had some petition to make, for which
+they sought the Emaum's intercession at the throne of mercy. The red light
+was for Hosein, who died in battle; the green for Hasan, who died by
+poison,--which these colours symbolize; and that those females place great
+dependance on the fulfilment of their desires, who thus present to their
+Emaums the wax lights on the night of Mayndhie.
+
+I have remarked that the noblemen and gentlemen generally engaged in the
+service of celebrating Mahurrum, walk on the tenth morning with their
+heads bare and their feet uncovered from their homes to the burial
+ground[2] called Kraabaallah, whatever may be the distance,--perhaps four
+or five miles,--exposed to the fiery rays of the sun: some persons, who on
+this occasion are very scrupulous in thus humbling their nature, walk back
+again in the same manner, after the funeral ceremony has been duly gone
+through at Kraabaallah. The magnitude of this undertaking can be only well
+understood by those who have experienced the state of an atmosphere in the
+shady rooms of a large house, when the thermometer ranges from eighty-four
+to eighty-eight, or even ninety degrees; and when, if you venture to the
+verandah for a few seconds, the flames of heated wind are not only
+insupportable to Europeans, but frequently produce severe attacks of fever.
+The luxurious habits of the Eastern great men may be well recollected when
+counting over the proofs of zeal exhibited in this undertaking, where
+every selfish consideration for the time is banished. The nobility (or
+indeed any one who lays the slightest claim to gentility) never walk from
+one house to another during their lives, but at this particular season;
+even in their gardens indulging in whatever luxury they may boast, by
+being conveyed round in their palkie, or thonjaun[22]--a chair with poles,
+supported by bearers. On the tenth day, the good Mussulmauns rigidly fast
+until after the third watch; not even a drop of water, or the hookha,
+enters their mouths;--as they believe Hosein's sufferings only concluded
+just before the third watch, they cautiously abstain from indulgences,
+until that hour has passed.
+
+The procession having reached Kraabaallah, the whole ceremony of a funeral
+is gone through. The Tazia is committed to the grave with equal solemnity
+to that which is observed when their dead are deposited in the tomb: this
+occupies some time. I never witnessed the movements at Kraabaallah,--the
+season of the year, the confusion, and the anticipated feuds between
+Sheahs and Soonies, ever deterred me from gratifying my curiosity. It is
+always expected that the bad feelings between the two sects, amongst the
+lower orders of the people, may produce a real battle on the imitative
+ground of Kraabaallah; and I have heard of many such terminations of the
+Mahurrum at Lucknow, where the enthusiastic Sheahs and Soonies--having
+reserved their long hatred for a favourable opportunity of giving it
+vent,[23]--have found an early grave on the very ground to which their
+Tazia has been consigned. Private quarrels are often reserved for decision
+on the field of Kraabaallah.
+
+I may here remark, swords form a part of every man's daily costume, from
+the king to the poorest peasant; save only the devout men, who having
+forsaken the world have no occasion for a sword. I have often heard them
+say, 'My trust is not resting on a morsel of steel, but on the great mercy
+of my God'.--'What shall I defend? my life? Where is the arm that can
+assault me without the permission of my God; if He ordains it, should I
+murmur, or ward off the blow?'--'Is it my worldly goods I am to defend?
+From whose bounty have I received them? Is not the great Giver able to
+defend His gifts? and if He wills that I should lose them, what shall I
+say, but as Yoube[24] (Job) said, "It is the Lord, to do His own will";
+blessed be His great name for ever.' These are the sentiments of the
+devout men of all creeds; and these are likewise the exemplary opinions of
+some good Mussulmauns I have known in India.
+
+Returned to their home, the rich men are occupied in dispensing benefits
+among the poor. Food, money, and clothes, are distributed in nearly as
+great proportions as when they have to mourn over a recent separation by
+death from a beloved relative. The clothes worn during Mahurrum are never
+retained for the next occasion, but always distributed amongst the poor,
+who derive so many advantages from the annual commemoration of Mahurrum,
+that the philanthropic heart will rather be pleased than vexed at the zeal
+which produces such a harvest of benefits to the necessitous.
+
+The riches of a native city may be calculated by the immense sums expended
+at Mahurrum every year; and if no greater advantage be derived from the
+gorgeous display of the wealthy, than the stimulus to honest industry
+amongst the several trades, whose labour is brought into use on these
+occasions, there is enough in the result to excuse the expenditure of
+surplus cash in apparent trifles. This, however, is strictly the result,
+not the design, of those expensive displayers at Mahurrum, who are
+actuated solely by fervent zeal, in keeping a continued remembrance of the
+sufferings of their Emaums, and doing honour to their memory.
+
+It is not my province either to praise or condemn, but merely to mark out
+what I observe of singularity in the habits, manners, and customs of the
+Mussulmauns, in whose domestic circles I have been so many years a
+sojourner. On the subject which my pen has faintly traced to your
+view,--the celebration of Mahurrum,--I cannot refrain from offering one
+remark; I think them to be actuated by so fervent a zeal, that if they
+could believe with me, that whatever we do in this life is for Eternity,
+they would still persevere in this their supposed duty of honouring their
+Emaums.
+
+
+[1] _Mendhi_ in its primary sense is the plant _Lawsonia alba_, the
+    leaves of which are used for dyeing the hands and feet of the bride
+    and bridegroom; hence, the marriage rites on this occasion.
+
+[2] This edifice was built under the superintendence of Ghauzee ood deen
+    Hyder, first King of Oude; and it is here his remains are deposited.
+    May his soul rest in peace! [_Author_.] [This building was named after
+    Shah Najaf or Najaf Ashraf, the scene of the martyrdom of 'Ali,
+    120 miles south-west of Baghdad. The capture of the Shah Najaf, in
+    which the guns of Captain Peel played a leading part, was a notable
+    incident in the relief of Lucknow by Sir Colin Campbell.--T.R.E.
+    Holmes, _History of the Indian Mutiny_ (1885), 398 ff.]
+
+[3] The Gumti, Gomati, 'abounding in cattle'.
+
+[4] The fish is a symbol of sovereignty, or authority emanating from the
+    sovereign, in Hindoostaun, since the period of Timour.--Possessors of
+    Jaghires, Collectors of Districts, &c., have permission to use the
+    fish, in the decorations on their flags, in the way similar to our
+    armorial bearings. In Oude the fish is represented in many useful
+    articles--pleasure boats, carriages, &c. Some of the King's Chobdhaars
+    carry a staff representing a gold or silver fish. [_Author_.] [The
+    Order of the Fish (_mahi maratib_) is said to have been founded
+    by Khusru Parviz, King of Persia (A.D. 591-628), and thence
+    passed to the Moghul Emperors of Delhi and to the Court of Oudh.--W.H.
+    Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections_, ed. V.A. Smith, 135 ff.]
+
+[5] Nasir-ud-din Haidar, son of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar, whom
+    he succeeded in 1827, died, poisoned by his own family, in 1837. 'He
+    differed from his father, Ghazi-ud-din Haidar, in being
+    considerably more debauched and disreputable. His father had been an
+    outwardly decent hedonist and voluptuary, but the son was under no
+    restraints of any sort or kind, and it is probable that his character
+    was not unfavourably depicted in that highly coloured sketch, "The
+    Private Life of an Eastern King" (by W. Knighton, 1855). "Any one", we
+    are told, "was his friend who would drink with him," and his whole
+    reign was one continued satire upon the subsidiary and protected
+    system.'--H.C. Irwin, _The Garden of India_, p. 117.
+
+[6] _Harkara_, 'a messenger, orderly'.
+
+[7] _Palki_, the common palanquin or litter; _chandol_, usually carried
+    by four men at each end (a drawing representing one carried by twelve
+    men will be found in N. Manucci, _Storia do Mogor_, iv. 32, and see ii.
+    76 f.;) _miyana_, a middle-sized litter out of which the type used
+    by Europeans was developed; the Anglo-Indian 'dhooly', properly
+    _duli_; the _rath_ is a kind of bullock-carriage, often with
+    four wheels, used by women and by portly merchants.
+
+[8] Known as 'Ashura.
+
+[9] See a graphic account of the procession at Bombay in Sir G. Birdwood,
+    _Sva_, 177 ff.
+
+[10] _Jilaudar, Jalaudar_, properly an attendant holding the bridle
+    of a mounted officer or magnate.
+
+[11] The afthaadah is a sun embroidered on crimson velvet, both sides the
+    same, and fixed on a circular framework, about two yards in
+    circumference; this is attached to a silver or gold staff, the circle
+    deeply and fully flounced with gold brocade, or rich silk bound with
+    silver ribands. The person riding is sheltered from the rays of the
+    sun by the afthaadah being carried in an elevated position.
+    [_Author_.] (See p. 38.)
+
+[12] _Chobdar_, 'a stick-or staff-bearer'.
+
+[13] _Sontabardar_, 'a bearer of the silver stick or mace'.
+
+[14] _Chhata_, a mark of dignity in the East.
+
+[15] _Danka_, 'a kettle-drum'.
+
+[16] _Loban_, _luban_, frankincense, olibanum, procured from various
+    species of _Boswellia_.
+
+[17] As early as A.D. 1000 the people of Baghdad used to throw dust and
+    ashes about the streets, and dress in black sackcloth on the
+    anniversary of the death of Husain (Ockley, _History of the Saracens_,
+    418). The custom was common among the Hebrews (Isaiah iii. 26, xlvii.
+    1; Job ii. 8, & c.). Robertson Smith suggests that the dust was
+    originally taken from the grave, and the ashes from the funeral pyre
+    (_Religion, of the Semites_, 413).
+
+[18] _Barqandaz_, 'lightning-darter'.
+
+[19] _Charkhi_; the description is reproduced, without acknowledgement,
+    by Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 299.
+
+[20] The practice of offering food to the dead is an Indian innovation on
+    Musalman practice; it is based on the Hindu custom of offering
+    flour-balls (_pinda_) to the spirit of the dead man.
+
+[21] This was a Hebrew practice, condemned by the prophets (2 Samuel
+    xv. 30; Ezekiel xxiv. 17).
+
+[22] _Tamjhan, thamjan_, the Anglo-Indian 'tonjon' or
+    'tomjohn', the derivation of which is obscure. See Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 930 f.
+
+[23] Ill-feeling between Sunnis and Shi'ahs is not universal in
+    India. 'Though the Sunnis consider the Shi'ah observances as
+    impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The fact that
+    the British Government punishes all who break the peace may have
+    something to do with this. Still the Sunni and the Shi'ah in
+    India live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other
+    than the Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some
+    Musalman poets, indeed, are both Sunnis and Shi'ahs.'--E.
+    Sell, _The Faith of Islam_, 292 f.; cf. p. 14.
+
+[24] Aiyub.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER V
+
+  Time.--How divided in Hindoostaun.--Observances after
+  Mahurrum.--Luxuries and enjoyments resumed.--Black dye used by the
+  ladies.--Their nose-ring.--Number of rings worn in their ears.--Mode
+  of dressing their hair.--Aversion to our tooth-brushes.--Toilet of
+  the ladies.--The Pyjaamahs.--The Ungeeah (bodice).--The Courtie.--The
+  Deputtah.--Reception of a superior or elder amongst the
+  ladies.--Their fondness for jewels.--Their shoes.--The state of
+  society amongst the Mussulmaun ladies.--Their conversational
+  endowments.--Remarks upon the fashion and duty of beards.
+
+
+In my last I alluded to the 'third watch'; it will now, perhaps, be
+necessary to explain the divisions of time, as observed by the Mussulmauns
+of Hindoostaun.
+
+The day is divided into four equal parts, or watches, denominated
+purrhs[1]; as, first purrh, second purrh, &c. The night is also divided
+into four purrhs, each of which is subdivided into ghurries[2] (hours),
+varying in number with the changes of season; the longest days require
+eight ghurries to one purrh; the shortest, only six. The same division is
+observed for the night. The day is reckoned from the earliest dawn to the
+last decline of light:--there is very little twilight in the Upper
+Provinces of India.
+
+By this method of calculating time, you will understand that they have no
+occasion for those useful, correct, mechanical time-keepers, in general
+use in Europe; but they have a simple method of measuring the hour, by
+means of a brass vessel, with a small aperture at the bottom, which, being
+floated on a tank or large pan of water, one drop to a second of time
+forces its way through the aperture into the floating vessel, on which
+marks are made outside and in, to direct the number of ghurries by the
+depth of water drawn into it; and in some places, a certain division of
+time is marked by the sinking of the vessel. Each hour, as it passes, is
+struck by the man on duty with a hammer on a broad plate of bell-metal,
+suspended to the branch of a tree, or to a rail;--the gong of an English
+showman at the country fairs is the exact resemblance of the metal plates
+used in India for striking the hours on, and must, I think, have been
+introduced into England from the East.
+
+The durwaun (gate-keeper), or the chokeedhars (watchmen), keep the time.[3]
+In most establishments the watchmen are on guard two at a time, and are
+relieved at every watch, day and night. On these men devolves the care of
+observing the advance of time by the floating vessel, and striking the
+hour, in which duty they are required to be punctual, as many of the
+Mussulmauns' services of prayer are scrupulously performed at the
+appointed hours, which will be more particularly explained when their
+creed is brought forward in a future Letter; and now, after this
+digression, I will pursue my subject.
+
+When a member of the Mussulmaun family dies, the master of the house
+mourns forty days, during which period the razor is laid aside.[4] In the
+same manner the devout Mussulmaun mourns every year for his martyred
+Emaums; this, however, is confined to the most religious men; the general
+practice of the many is to throw off their mourning garb and restore the
+razor to its duties on the third day after the observances of Mahurrum
+have terminated.
+
+It is stated, on the authority of ancient Arabian writers, on whose
+veracity all Mussulmauns rely, that the head of Hosein being taken to
+Yuzeed, one of his many wives solicited and received the head, which she
+gave to the family of the martyred leader, who were prisoners to the King,
+and that they contrived to have it conveyed to Kraabaallah, where it was
+deposited in the same grave with his body on the fortieth day after the
+battle.[5]
+
+When a death occurs in a Mussulmaun family, the survivor provides dinners
+on the third, seventh, and fortieth days succeeding, in memory of the
+deceased person; these dinners are sent in trays to the immediate
+relatives and friends of the party,--on which sacred occasion all the poor
+and the beggars are sought to share the rich food provided. The like
+customs are observed for Hosein every year. The third day offering is
+chiefly composed of sugar, ghee, and flour, and called meetah[6]; it is of
+the consistence of our rice-puddings, and whether the dainty is sent to a
+king or a beggar there is but one style in the presentation--all is served
+in the common brown earthen dish,--in imitation of the humility of Hosein
+and his family, who seldom used any other in their domestic circle. The
+dishes of meetah are accompanied with the many varieties of bread common
+to Hindoostaun, without leaven, as sheah-maul,[7] bacherkaunie,[8]
+chapaatie,[9] &c.; the first two have milk and ghee mixed with the flour,
+and nearly resemble our pie-crust. I must here stay to remark one custom I
+have observed amongst Natives: they never cook food whilst a dead body
+remains in the house;[10] as soon as it is known amongst a circle of
+friends that a person is dead, ready-dressed dinners are forwarded to the
+house for them, no one fancying he is conferring a kindness, but
+fulfilling a duty.
+
+The third day after the accomplishment of the Mahurrum ceremonies is a
+busy time with the inmates of zeenahnahs, when generally the mourning garb
+is thrown off, and preparations commence at an early hour in the morning
+for bathing and replacing the banished ornaments. Abstinence and privation
+being no longer deemed meritorious by the Mussulmauns, the pawn--the dear
+delightful pawn, which constitutes the greatest possible luxury to the
+Natives,--pours in from the bazaar, to gladden the eye and rejoice the
+heart of all classes, who after this temporary self-denial enjoy the
+luxury with increased zest.
+
+Again the missee[11] (a preparation of antimony) is applied to the lips,
+the gums, and occasionally to the teeth of every married lady, who emulate
+each other in the rich black produced;--such is the difference of taste as
+regards beauty;--where we admire the coral hue, with the females of
+Hindoostaun, Nature is defaced by the application of black dye. The eyelid
+also is pencilled afresh with prepared black, called kaarjil[12]: the
+chief ingredient in this preparation is lampblack. The eyebrow is well
+examined for fear an ill-shaped hair should impair the symmetry of that
+arch esteemed a beauty in every clime, though all do not, perhaps,
+exercise an equal care with Eastern dames to preserve order in its growth.
+The mayndhie is again applied to the hands and feet, which restores the
+bright red hue deemed so becoming and healthy.
+
+The nose once more is destined to receive the nutt[13] (ring) which
+designates the married lady; this ring, I have before mentioned, is of
+gold wire, the pearls and ruby between them are of great value, and I have
+seen many ladies wear the nutt as large in circumference as the bangle on
+her wrist, though of course much lighter; it is often worn so large, that
+at meals they are obliged to hold it apart from the face with the left
+hand, whilst conveying food to the mouth with the other. This nutt,
+however, from ancient custom, is indispensable with married women, and
+though they may find it disagreeable and inconvenient, it cannot possibly
+be removed, except for Mahurrum, from the day of their marriage until
+their death or widowhood, without infringing on the originality of their
+customs, in adhering to which they take so much pride.
+
+The ears of the females are pierced in many places; the gold or silver
+rings return to their several stations after Mahurrum, forming a broad
+fringe of the precious metals on each side the head; but when they dress
+for great events,--as paying visits or receiving company,--these give
+place to strings of pearls and emeralds, which fall in rows from the upper
+part of the ear to the shoulder in a graceful, elegant style. My ayah, a
+very plain old woman, has no less than ten silver rings in one ear and
+nine in the other,[15] each of them having pendant ornaments; indeed, her
+ears are literally fringed with silver.
+
+After the hair has undergone all the ceremonies of washing, drying, and
+anointing with the sweet jessamine oil of India, it is drawn with great
+precision from the forehead to the back, where it is twisted into a queue
+which generally reaches below the waist; the ends are finished with strips
+of red silk and silver ribands entwined with the hair, and terminating
+with a good-sized rosette. The hair is jet black, without a single
+variation of tinge, and luxuriantly long and thick, and thus dressed
+remains for the week,--about the usual interval between their laborious
+process of bathing;--nor can they conceive the comfort other people find
+in frequent brushing and combing the hair. Brushes for the head and the
+teeth have not yet been introduced into Native families, nor is it ever
+likely they will, unless some other material than pigs' bristles can be
+rendered available by the manufacturers for the present purposes of
+brushes. The swine is altogether considered abominable to Mussulmauns; and
+such is their detestation of the unclean animal that the most angry
+epithet from a master to a slave would be to call him 'seur'[15] (swine).
+
+It must not, however, be supposed that the Natives neglect their teeth;
+they are the most particular people living in this respect, as they never
+eat or drink without washing their mouths before and after meals; and as a
+substitute for our tooth-brush, they make a new one every day from the
+tender branch of a tree or shrub,--as the pomegranate, the neem,[16]
+babool,[17] &c. The fresh-broken twig is bruised and made pliant at the
+extremity, after the bark or rind is stripped from it, and with this the
+men preserve the enamelled-looking white teeth which excite the admiration
+of strangers; and which, though often envied, I fancy, are never surpassed
+by European ingenuity.
+
+As I have rather prematurely introduced the Native ladies' style of dress
+into this Letter, I may as well conclude the whole business of their
+toilet under the present head, instead of reserving the detail of the
+subject for a future Letter when the zeenahnah is to be described, and
+accordingly proceed to tell you that the ladies' pyjaamahs are formed of
+rich satin, or gold cloth, goolbudden,[18] or mussheroo[19] (striped
+washing silks manufactured at Benares), fine chintz,--English manufacture
+having the preference,--silk or cotton ginghams,--in short, all such
+materials are used for this article of female dress as are of sufficiently
+firm texture, down to the white calico of the country, suited to the means
+of the wearer. By the most fashionable females they are worn very full
+below the knee, and reach to the feet, which are partially covered by the
+fulness, the extremity finished and the seams are bound with silver riband;
+a very broad silver riband binds the top of the pyjaamah; this being
+double has a zarbund[20] (a silk net cord) run through, by which this part
+of the dress is confined at the waist. The ends of the zarbund are
+finished with rich tassels of gold and silver, curiously and expressly
+made for this purpose, which extend below the knees: for full dress, these
+tassels are rendered magnificent with pearls and jewels.
+
+One universal shape is adopted in the form of the ungeeah[21] (bodice),
+which is, however, much varied in the material and ornamental part; some
+are of gauze or net, muslin, &c., the more transparent in texture the more
+agreeable to taste, and all are more or less ornamented with spangles and
+silver trimmings. It is made to fit the bust with great exactness, and to
+fasten behind with strong cotton cords; the sleeves are very short and
+tight, and finished with some fanciful embroidery or silver riband. Even
+the women servants pride themselves on pretty ungeeahs, and all will
+strive to have a little finery about them, however coarse the material it
+is formed of may happen to be. They are never removed at night but
+continue to be worn a week together, unless its beauty fades earlier, or
+the ornamental parts tarnish through extreme heat.
+
+With the ungeeah is worn a transparent courtie (literally translated shirt)
+of thread net; this covers the waistband of the pyjaamah but does not
+screen it; the seams and hems are trimmed with silver or gold ribands.
+
+The deputtah is a useful envelope, and the most graceful part of the whole
+female costume. In shape and size, a large sheet will convey an idea of
+the deputtah's dimensions; the quality depends on choice or circumstances;
+the preference is given to our light English manufacture of leno or muslin
+for every-day wear by gentlewomen; but on gala days, gold and silver gauze
+tissues are in great request, as is also fine India muslin manufactured at
+Decca--transparent and soft as the web of the gossamer spider;--this is
+called shubnum[22] (night dew), from its delicate texture, and is procured
+at a great expense, even in India; some deputtahs are formed of
+gold-worked muslin, English crape, coloured gauze, &c. On ordinary
+occasions ladies wear them simply bound with silver riband, but for dress
+they are richly trimmed with embroidery and bullion fringes, which add
+much to the splendour of the scene, when two or three hundred females are
+collected together in their assemblies. The deputtah is worn with much
+original taste on the back of the head, and falls in graceful folds over
+the person; when standing, it is crossed in front, one end partially
+screening the figure, the other thrown over the opposite shoulder.
+
+I should say they rarely stand; but when distinguished guests, or their
+elders amongst relatives, are announced, this mark of respect is never
+omitted. It is an interesting sight, as they have much ease and grace in
+their manner, which no tutoring could impart; they rise and arrange their
+drapery, advance a few steps from their place in the hall, and embrace
+their visitor thrice in due form, ending by salaaming, with the head bowed
+very low towards the ground and the open hand raised to the forehead,
+three times in succession, with solemnity and dignity.
+
+I have told you, in a former Letter, how many precious ornaments were laid
+aside on the eve of Mahurrum, and need hardly describe them again. Their
+fondness for good jewellery perhaps exceeds the same propensity in any
+other females on the globe: the rude workmanship of Native jewellers is
+never an object of weighty consideration, provided the precious metals are
+unalloyed in quality. The same may be remarked in their selection of
+jewels: pearls of the largest size, even when discoloured or misshapen,
+are selected in preference to the most regular in form and colour, of a
+smaller size; large diamonds, having flaws, are often preferred to smaller
+ones most perfect. The gentlemen are good judges of precious stones, and
+evince some taste in their style of ornaments; they are worn on their
+turbans, and in necklaces or harrhs[23]--rings, armlets, &c.; but these
+are all laid aside at seasons of devotion, when they are restricted
+wearing, not only ornaments, but mixed articles of silk and wool in their
+apparel. The most religious men and women invariably abstain from
+ornamental dress in every way, deeming it frivolous vanity, and
+inconsistent with that they profess--'to be seeking God, and forsaking
+worldly things'.
+
+The ladies never wear stockings,[24] and only cover the feet with shoes
+when pacing across their court-yard, which bounds their view and their
+walks. Nevertheless, there is a fashion and taste about the ladies' shoes,
+which is productive of much emulation in zeenahnah life;--they are
+splendidly worked in many patterns, with gold and silver spangles,
+variously-coloured small seed beads and embroidery--the whole one mass of
+glittering metal;--they are made with sharp points curling upwards, some
+nearly reaching half-way to the knees, and always worn down at the heel,
+as dressing slippers; the least costly for their every-day wear are of
+gold embroidery on velvet; the less opulent condescend to wear tinsel work,
+and the meanest servants yellow or red cloth with silver binding. The same
+style of shoes are worn by the males as by the females; I have seen some
+young men with green shagreen slippers for the rainy season; these are
+made with a high heel and look unseemly. The fashion of shoes varies with
+the times in this country, as well as in others--sometimes it is genteel
+to have small points to the shoes; at another, the points are long and
+much curled; but they still retain the preference for pointed shoes
+whatever be the fashion adopted.
+
+The greatest novelty in the way of shoes, which came under my observation
+in India, was a pair of silver embroidery, small pointed, and very neatly
+made: on the points and round the instep small silver bells were fastened,
+which produced harmony with every step, varied by the quick or more gentle
+paces of the wearer; these were a present to me from a lady of distinction
+in Oude. Upon visiting this lady on one occasion, my black silk slippers,
+which I had left at the entrance (as is the custom here), had most likely
+attracted the curiosity of the Begum's slaves, for when that lady attended
+me to the threshold, they could nowhere be found; and I was in danger of
+being obliged to soil my stockings by walking shoeless to my palkie,
+across the court-yard. In this dilemma the lady proffered me the pair here
+described; I was much amused with the novelty of the exchange, upon
+stepping into the musical shoes, which, however they may be prized by
+Native ladies, did not exactly suit my style of dress, nor convenience in
+walking, although I must always remember the Begum's attention with
+gratitude.
+
+
+The ladies' society is by no means insipid or without interest; they are
+naturally gifted with good sense and politeness, fond of conversation,
+shrewd in their remarks, and their language is both correct and refined.
+This, at first, was an enigma to me, considering that their lives are
+spent in seclusion, and that their education was not conducted on European
+principles; the mystery, however, has passed away upon an intimate
+acquaintance with the domestic habits of the people. The men with whom
+genteel women converse, are generally well educated, and from the
+naturally inquisitive disposition of the females, not a word escapes the
+lips of a father, husband, or brother, without an inquiry as to its
+meaning, which having once ascertained, is never forgotten, because their
+attention is not diverted by a variety of pursuits, or vain amusements.
+The women look up to the opinions of their male relatives with the same
+respect as children of other climes are accustomed to regard their tutor
+or governess,--considering every word pronounced as worthy of imitation,
+and every sentiment expressed, as a guide to their own. Thus the habit of
+speaking correctly is so familiar to the females of Mussulmaun society,
+that even women servants, long accustomed to serve in zeenahnahs, may be
+readily distinguished by their language from the same class of people in
+attendance on European ladies.
+
+P.S. All good Mussulmauns are expected to wear their beards, by command of
+the Prophet; so says my informant, who is of 'the faith', and wears his
+beard, in accordance with the injunction of his Lawgiver. In modern times,
+however, the Mussulmauns have seen fit to modify the strict letter of the
+law, and we perceive generally, mustachios only reserved on the upper lip.
+This ornament is trained with the nicest care amongst the fashionable
+young men of the present day, and made to creep over the lip at each
+corner of the mouth with curling points; well-trained mustachios being
+with them much esteemed.
+
+The religious Mussulmauns become more scrupulous as they advance in
+knowledge of their faith, when they allow their beards to grow and their
+heads to be shaven; if the hair turns white--while to look well is an
+object of interest--a dye is resorted to, composed of mayndhie and indigo,
+which restores its youthful appearance, and the beard retains its black
+glossy hue for about six weeks, when the process of dyeing is again made
+the business of a convenient hour.[25] The vanities of the world ceasing
+to charm (the heart being fixed on more important subjects), the beard is
+permitted to retain its natural colour; and, truly, the venerable
+countenance of an aged Mussulmaun, with a silvery-white beard flowing
+nearly to his girdle, is a picture that would interest every beholder well
+acquainted with Bible history.
+
+When the Mussulmaun determines on fulfilling the command of his Lawgiver,
+in making the pilgrimage to Mecca, the beard is allowed to grow whatever
+be his age; and this may be considered a badge of their faith, none being
+admitted at 'the Holy House' who have not this passport on their chin.
+
+
+[1] _Pahar_.
+
+[2] _Ghari_, about twenty-four minutes.
+
+[3] _Darwan, chaukidar_.
+
+[4] See p. 64.
+
+[5] According to the Shi'ahs, Zainu-l-'Abidin obtained from Yazid,
+    after forty days, the head of Husain, and brought it to Karbala. They
+    deny that the head is at Cairo and the body at Karbala. Others say
+    that the head was sent to Medina, and buried near the grave of
+    Fatimah.--Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 40; Ockley, _History of the
+    Saracens_, 412, 415 note.
+
+[6] _Mitha_, 'sweet'.
+
+[7] _Shirmal_, bread made with milk.
+
+[8] _Baqirkhani_, a kind of crisp bread or cake, like piecrust,
+    made of milk, sugar, and flour.
+
+[9] _Chapati_, the griddle cake, the standard food of the people.
+
+[10] No food should be cooked in the house of a Musalman during the
+    forty days of mourning. Sir J.G. Frazer thinks that this is due to
+    the risk of eating the ghost clinging to the food (_Journal
+    Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) 92 ff.).
+
+[11] _Missi_, from _mis_, 'copper', because copper-filings form its
+    chief ingredient, to which are added myrobalan, gall-nuts, vitriol, &c.
+    The custom is based on the Arab admiration for the rose-red colour of
+    the inner lip.--Burton, _A Thousand Nights and A Night_, iii. 365.
+
+[12] _Kajal_.
+
+[13] _Nath_, a love-token presented to the bride by the bridegroom. The
+    very mention of it is considered indelicate.
+
+
+[14] They generally adopt an odd number.
+
+[15] _Suar_.
+
+[16] _Nim_ (_Melia Azidirachta_).
+
+[17] _Babul_ (_Acacia arabica_).
+
+[18] _Gulbadan_, 'with body like a rose', a fine silk fabric.
+
+[19] _Mashru_ 'conformable to law', a silk-cotton cloth, which--but not
+    pure silk--a Musulman can wear during prayer.
+
+[20] _Zerband_, 'fastening below', 'a girth'.
+
+[21] _Angiya_.
+
+[22] _Shabnam_. The finest varieties of these cloths were made at Dacca.
+    Aurungzeb is said to have remonstrated with his daughter for wearing
+    what he thought to be a _Coa vestis_. She answered that she wore seven
+    folds of this cloth.
+
+[23] _Har_, a necklace, an embroidered garland thrown round the neck of
+    a visitor on his departure, as a mark of respect. These garlands were
+    substituted for the pearl necklaces which, in former days, were
+    presented to guests.
+
+[24] 'Stockings are never worn [in the Zenana]: but I have seen little
+    coloured stockings, made of the wool from Cashmir, worn at times
+    during the cold season.'--Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_,
+     i. 456.
+
+[25] According to the traditions, the Prophet said, 'Change the whiteness
+    of your hair, but not with anything black'. The first Caliph is said
+    to have dyed his beard red with henna. Nowadays indigo is largely used.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VI
+
+  The Mussulmaun religion.--Sectarians.--Their difference of
+  faith.--History of the Soonies.--The Caliphas Omir, Osman, Aboubuker,
+  &c.--Mahumud's parting charge to Ali.--Omir's jealousy of Ali.--The
+  Khoraun.--How compiled.--The Calipha Omir held in detestation.--Creed
+  of the Sheahs.--Funeral service.--Opinions of the Mussulmauns
+  respecting the Millennium.--The foundation of their faith
+  exhibited.--Sentiments of the most devout followers of
+  Mahumud.--Bridge of Sirraat, the Scales, &c. explained.--Emaum
+  Mhidhie.--Prophecy of his reappearance.--Its early fulfilment
+  anticipated.--Discourse with the Meer Hadjee Shaah on this subject.
+
+
+I do not presume to offer opinions on the nature, substance, or character,
+of the Mussulmaun Faith; but confine myself to the mere relation of such
+facts as I have received from the best possible authority, viz. the
+religious men who are of that faith, and live in strict accordance with
+the tenets they profess.
+
+There are two sects of the Mussulmaun persuasion, as I have before
+remarked, viz. the Sheahs and the Soonies. The leaders of the former are
+called Emaums; and those of the latter Caliphas. The Sheahs acknowledge
+Ali and his immediate descendants (eleven in number) 'the right and only
+lawful Emaums', in succession, after Mahumud. The Soonies declare the
+Caliphas--as Omir, Aboubuker, &c.--to be their lawful leaders after
+Mahumud.
+
+I do not find that there is any great difference in the points of faith
+between the two sects; they are equally guided by the same laws and
+ordinances inculcated by Mahumud in the Khoraun;--the Sheahs pursuing the
+pattern of observances traced out in the life and manners of Ali and his
+descendants;--and the Soonies taking their examples from the manners of
+the Caliphas. There is a distinguishing method in ablutions before prayers,
+and also in the manner of bowing and prostrating in their devotional
+exercises;[1] this difference, however, has nothing to do with their
+faith,--the subject and form of their daily prayer is one; but both sects
+have extra services for particular occasions, agreeable to the instruction
+of their favourite leaders. The Namaaz (daily prayer) was taught by
+Mahumud to his followers, every line of which is religiously reverenced by
+Mussulmauns, and cannot be altered by sectarian principles.
+
+The Mussulmaun faith is founded on three roots; from these spring, with
+the Sheahs, six branches; with the Soonies, five. The roots are as
+follows:--
+
+First.--'There is but one God, self existing; ever was, and ever will be;
+in Whom is all Power, Majesty, and Dominion; by Whom all things are, and
+were created. With Whom is neither partner or substance:[2] and He alone
+is to be worshipped.'
+
+Second.--'The Prophets were all true; and all their writings to be relied
+on, with a true faith.'
+
+Third.--'The resurrection of the dead is certain.'
+
+The Sheahs' branches, or emanations, from the three roots of their faith,
+are as follow:--
+
+1st.--'Namaaz,'[3] (prayer five times daily); a necessary duty, never to
+be omitted.
+
+2nd.--'Rumzaun,'[4] (fasting) the whole thirty days of that month; a
+service acceptable to God from His humble creatures.
+
+3rd.--'The Hadje,'[5] (pilgrimage to Mecca); commanded by Mahumud, and
+therefore to be obeyed.
+
+4th.--'Zuckhaut;'[6] the fortieth portion of all worldly goods to be set
+apart every year (an offering to God) for the service of the poor.
+
+5th.--To fight in the road of God, or in His service, against the
+idolaters.
+
+6th.--To believe that the twelve Emaums were the true and lawful leaders,
+after Mahumud; to follow in their path, or example, and to succour and
+defend the Syaads, their descendants.
+
+The Soonies omit the last branch in their profession of faith; with this
+solitary exception, the creed of the two sects, from all I can understand,
+is the same. The Sheahs are those who celebrate Mahurrum: in my
+description of that event will be seen the zealous partizans of the sect;
+and here may be introduced with propriety, some account of the opposite
+party denominated Soonies.
+
+The word Calipha[7] implies the master or head of any trade, profession,
+or calling,--as the master of the tailors, the head master of a college or
+school, &c. Omir was the first to usurp the title after Mahumud's death,
+and to him succeeded Aboubuker, and then Ausmaun (Osman).[8]
+
+Aboubuker may have claimed some relationship to Mahumud;--he was converted
+by his preaching from idolatry to the faith;--he gave his daughter in
+marriage to Mahumud, by whom two sons were born to him, Ishmael and
+Ibrahim.[9] 'An angel appeared to Mahumud, saying, Which of thy family
+shall be taken from thee, Oh, Mahumud! such is the command of God; two of
+thy youth must die, and I am sent to demand of thee whether it is thy wish
+Ishmael and Ibrahim, thine own sons, shall be taken from this world, or
+Hasan and Hosein, the sons of Fatima thy daughter?' The historian
+continues, after dwelling much on the virtues of the Prophet's only
+daughter, 'Such was the affection of Mahumud for his daughter Fatima and
+her children, and so well he knew the purity of their hearts, that he
+hesitated not a moment in replying, "If the Lord graciously permits His
+servant to choose, I freely offer my two sons Ishmael and Ibrahim; that
+Hasan and Hosein may live by His mercy "'.
+
+Omir was also a convert to the faith Mahumud taught: he likewise gave a
+daughter in marriage to Mahumud;[10] by whom, however, the same historian
+remarks, his house was not peopled. His only daughter, Fatima, lived to
+add numbers to his family: she was born to him by the pious female (a
+widow) who was his first wife[11] and to whom he was united before he
+commenced his work of conversion. Ali, to whom Fatima was married, was the
+nephew of Mahumud, and from this union the Syaad race descend to the
+present day. The Prophet observing real piety in Ali, designed him not
+only to be the most suitable husband for his amiable daughter, but the
+best qualified person to be chosen as his successor, when he should be
+called by 'the hand of death'; and in the most public manner gave charge
+of his flock to Ali, not long before that event occurred. Mahumud's speech
+to Ali on that occasion is much reverenced by the Sheah sect;--it has been
+translated for me by my husband, and is as follows:--
+
+'You, my son, will suffer many persecutions in the cause of religion; many
+will be the obstructions to your preaching, for I see they are not all as
+obedient and faithful as yourself. Usurpers of the authority, delegated to
+you, will arise, whose views are not pure and holy as your own; but let my
+admonitions dwell on your mind, remember my advice without swerving. The
+religion I have laboured to teach, is, as yet, but as the buds shooting
+forth from the tree; tender as they are, the rude blasts of dissension may
+scatter them to the winds, and leave the parent tree without a leaf:--but
+suffered to push forth its produce quietly, the hand of Time will ripen
+and bring to perfection that which has been the business of my awakened
+life to cultivate. Never, my son, suffer your sword to be unsheathed in
+the justice of your cause; I exhort you to bear this injunction on your
+mind faithfully; whatever may be the provocations you receive, or insults
+offered to your person,--I know this trial is in store for my
+son,--remember the cause you are engaged in; suffer patiently; never draw
+your sword against the people who profess the true faith, even though they
+are but by name Mussulmauns.
+
+'Against the enemies of God, I have already given you directions; you may
+fight for Him--the only true God,--but never against Him, or His faithful
+servants.'
+
+When Mahumud was numbered with the dead, Omir soon set himself forward as
+the lawful successor; he was of good address, and insinuating manners, and
+succeeded in drawing 'numbers to his threshold'. He preached the same
+doctrine Mahumud had taught, but sensual indulgence and early developed
+ambition were more strong in his heart than the faith he preached. Omir
+grew jealous of Ali's virtues and forbearance, under the various trials of
+oppression and injustice he chose to visit him with; and resolved that, if
+possible, he would destroy not only Ali, but his whole family. Omir caused
+his house to be fired treacherously, but as the historians say, 'the mercy
+of God watched over the sanctified family'; they escaped from the flames,
+with no other loss than that of their small property.
+
+The Khoraun was not the work of any particular period in the life of
+Mahumud. It was not compiled into a book until after Mahumud's death, who
+was totally unacquainted with letters; each chapter having been conveyed
+by the angel Gabriel[12] to Mahumud, his inspired memory enabled him to
+repeat, verbatim, the holy messenger's words to his disciples and converts
+when assembled as was their daily custom. To as many as committed verse,
+chapter, or portion to memory, by this oral communication, Mahumud
+rewarded with the highest seats in his assembly (meaning nearest his
+person); and to those who wished for employment, he gave the command of
+detachments sent out against the infidels.
+
+The whole Khoraun was thus conveyed to Mahumud by the angel Gabriel, at
+many different periods of his mission; and by daily repetition, did he
+instil into the memory of his followers that mental scripture. But when
+Omir usurped the right to lead, he ambitiously planned for himself a large
+share of popularity by causing the Khoraun to be committed to paper, and
+he accordingly gave orders, that the best scribes should be employed to
+convey its precepts to writing.
+
+Ali had been engaged in the same employment for some time, perceiving the
+future benefit to the faith which would accrue from such a labour, and on
+the very day, when Omir was seated in form to receive the work of his
+scribes, Ali also presented himself with his version of the Khoraun. It is
+asserted that Omir treated him with some indignity, and gave the
+preference to the volume his own scribes had prepared, desiring Ali,
+nevertheless, to leave that he had transcribed with him, though he
+candidly told him he never intended it should be 'the Book for the People'.
+Ali found, on this trying occasion, the benefit of Mahumud's advice, to
+keep his temper subdued for the trial, and withdrew with his book clasped
+to his heart, assuring Omir, that the volume should only be the property
+of his descendants; and that when the twelfth Emaum, prophesied by Mahumud,
+should disappear from the eye of man, the Khoraun he had written should
+also disappear, until that Emaum returned, with whom the book he had
+written should again be found.
+
+The name of Omir is detestable to all lovers of literature, or admirers of
+ancient history and valuable records. By his orders, the bath was heated
+with the valuable collection of manuscripts, which it had been the work of
+ages to complete.[13] Omir was told that the people valued the writings of
+the ancients, and that they were displeased at this irreparable
+destruction of valuable records; he asked if the people were not satisfied
+with the Khoraun? and if satisfied, why should they seek for other
+knowledge than that book contained? declaring it to be an useless
+employment of time, to be engaged in any other readings. They say the
+collection of books thus destroyed was so vast, that it served the purpose,
+to which it was applied, for many successive days. I have thus far given
+the accounts I have received of the origin of the two sects amongst the
+Mussulmauns from good authority. My husband says, that in Hindoostaun the
+two sects may be nearly equal in number;[14] in Persia the Sheahs
+certainly prevail; in Turkey all are Soonies; and in Arabia the Sheahs are
+supposed to preponderate. On the whole, perhaps, the two sects are about
+equally divided.
+
+The Mussulmauns' Creed, of the Sheah sect, is as follows:--
+
+'I believe in one God, supreme over all, and Him alone do I worship.
+
+'I believe that Mahumud was the creature of God, the Creator; I believe
+that Mahumud was the messenger of God, (the Lord of messengers); and that
+he was the last of the prophets. I believe that Ali was the chief of the
+faithful, the head of all the inheritors of the law, and the true leader
+appointed of God; consequently to be obeyed by the faithful. Also I
+believe that Hasan and Hosein, the sons of Ali, and Ali son of Hosein, and
+Mahumud son of Ali, and Jaufur son of Mahumud, and Moosa son of Jaufur,
+and Ali son of Moosa, and Mahumud son of Ali, and Ali son of Mahumud, and
+Hasan son of Ali, and Mhidhie (the standing proof) son of Hasan; the mercy
+of God be upon them! these were the true leaders of the faithful, and the
+proof of God was conveyed by them to the people.'[15]
+
+This creed is taught to the children of both sexes, in Mussulmaun families,
+as soon as they are able to talk; and, from the daily repetition, is
+perfectly familiar to them at an early age.
+
+I propose describing the funeral service here, as the substance of their
+particular faith is so intimately connected with the appointed service for
+the dead.
+
+The dead body of a Mussulmaun, in about six hours after life is extinct,
+is placed in a kuffin[16] (coffin) and conveyed to the place of burial,
+with parade suited to the rank he held in life.
+
+A tent, or the kaanaut[17] (screen), is pitched in a convenient place,
+where water is available near to the tomb, for the purpose of washing and
+preparing the dead body for interment. They then take the corpse out of
+the coffin and thoroughly bathe it; when dry, they rub pounded camphor on
+the hands, feet, knees, and forehead, these parts having, in the method of
+prostrating at prayer, daily touched the ground; the body is then wrapped
+neatly in a winding-sheet of white calico, on which has been written
+particular chapters from the Khoraun:[18] this done, it is taken up with
+great gentleness and laid in the grave on the side, with the face towards
+Mecca. The officiating Maulvee steps solemnly into the grave (which is
+much deeper and wider than ours), and with a loud voice repeats the creed,
+as before described; after which he says, 'These were thy good and holy
+leaders, O son of Adam! (here he repeats the person's names). Now when the
+two angels come unto thee, who are the Maccurrub[19] (messengers) from thy
+great and mighty God, they will ask of thee, "Who is thy Lord? Who is thy
+Prophet? What is thy faith? Which is thy book? Where is thy Kiblaah?[20]
+Who is thy Leader?"
+
+'Then shalt thou answer the Maccurrub thus:--
+
+  '"God, greatest in glory, is my only Lord; Mahumud, my Prophet; Islaaim,
+  my faith, (Islaaim means true faith); the Khoraun, my book; the Kaubah
+  (Holy House at Mecca), my Kiblaah;
+
+  '"Emaum Ali, son of Aboutalib,
+    "   Hasan and Hosein,
+    "   Ali, surnamed Zynool Auberdene,
+    "   Mahumud,  "   Baakur,
+    "   Jaufur,   "   Saadick,
+    "   Moosa,    "   Khazim,
+    "   Ali,      "   Reezah,
+    "   Mahumud,  "   Ul Jawaad,
+    "   Ali,      "   Ul Hoodah,
+    "   Hasan,    "   Ul Ushkeree,
+    "   Mhidhie, the standing proof that we are waiting for.[21]
+
+  '"These are all my leaders, and they are my intercessors, with them is my
+  love, with their enemies is my hatred, in the world of earth and in the
+  world to come eternal."'
+
+Then the Maulvee says:--
+
+'Know ye for a truth, O man (repeating his name), that the God we worship
+is One only, Great and Glorious, Most High and Mighty God, who is above
+all lords, the only true God.
+
+'Know ye also, That Mahumud is the best of the Lord's messengers.
+
+'That Ali and his successors (before enumerated, but always here repeated)
+were the best of all leaders.
+
+'That whatever came with Mahumud is true, (meaning the whole work of his
+mission);--Death is true; the Interrogation by Moonkih and Nykee[22] (the
+two angels) is true; the Resurrection is true; Destruction is true; the
+Bridge of Sirraat[23] is true; the Scales are true; Looking into the Book
+is true; Heaven and Earth are true; Hell is true; the Day of Judgment is
+true.
+
+'Of these things there is no doubt--all are true; and, further, that God,
+the great and glorious God, will raise all the dead bodies from their
+graves.'
+
+Then the Maulvee reads the following prayer or benediction, which is
+called Dooar[24] prayer:--
+
+'May the Lord God, abundant in mercy, keep you with the true speech; may
+He lead you to the perfect path; may He grant you knowledge of Him, and of
+His prophets.
+
+'May the mercy of God be fixed upon you for ever. Ameen.'
+
+This concluded, the Maulvee quits the grave, and slowly moves forty
+measured paces in a line with it; then turning round, he comes again to
+the grave, with the same solemnity in his steps, and standing on the edge,
+he prays,
+
+'O great and glorious God, we beseech Thee with humility make the earth
+comfortable to this Thy servant's side, and raise his soul to Thee, and
+with Thee may he find mercy and forgiveness.'
+
+'Ameen, Ameen,' is responded by all present.
+
+This ends the funeral service: the earth is closed over by the servants,
+&c. and, except with the very poor, the grave is never entirely forsaken
+day or night, during the forty days of mourning; readers of the Khoraun
+are paid for this service, and in the families of the nobility the grave
+is attended for years by those hired, who are engaged to read from that
+book perpetually, relieving each other at intervals day and night.
+
+They believe that when the Maulvee quits the grave, the angels enter to
+interrogate the dead body, and receive the confession of his particular
+faith; this is the object of the Maulvee's retiring forty paces, to give
+the angels time to enter on their mission to the dead.
+
+The Mussulmauns all believe that Mhidhie, the standing proof as he is
+called, will visit the earth at a future period; they are said to possess
+prophecies, that lead them to expect the twelve hundred and sixtieth year
+of the Hegirah, as the time for his coming. The Soonies say, this Emaum
+has yet to be born:--the Sheahs believe that Emaum Mhidhie is the person
+to reappear. Some believe he is still on earth, dwelling, as they
+conjecture, in the wilds and forests; and many go so far as to assert,
+that Mhidhie visits (without being recognized) the Holy House of Mecca
+annually, on the great day of sacrifice; but I cannot find any grounds
+they have for this opinion.[25]
+
+They also possess a prophecy, on which much dependance is placed, that
+'When the four quarters of the globe contain Christian inhabitants, and
+when the Christians approach the confines of Kaabah, then may men look for
+that Emaum who is to come'. And it is the general belief amongst
+Mussulmauns, founded on the authority of their most revered and valued
+writers, that Emaum Mhidhie will appear with Jesus Christ at his second
+coming; and with whom, they declare and firmly believe, he will act in
+concert to purge the world of sin and wickedness. When, they add, 'all men
+shall be of one mind and one faith'.
+
+Of the three principal Roots of the Mussulmauns' faith, little need be
+further said in explanation. I have had various opportunities of learning
+their undisguised thoughts, and wish only to impart what the people are,
+who are so little known to the world in general. All persons having had
+the opportunity of studying the peculiarities of their particular faith,
+will, I think, give them due credit, that reverence for, and belief in God,
+forms a prominent trait in their character and faith: 'The English
+translation of the Khoraun by Sale, (imperfect as all works must be, where
+the two languages are inadequate to speak each other's meaning,) will tell
+without a commentary, that the worship of God was the foundation on which
+Mahumud built his code of laws; and that the prophets were all
+acknowledged by him as messengers sent from God to His people, in every
+age of the world; and, lastly, that Mahumud was the Prophet, who came when
+the people of the earth, vicious and profane, had fallen into the most
+dissolute habits, worshipping idols instead of God.' This passage is the
+sentiment expressed to me by a worthy man, and a true Mussulmaun; I have
+traced it out for the sake of explaining what is in the hearts of the
+Mussulmauns of the present day.
+
+When I have conversed with some of them on the improbability of Mahumud's
+prophetic mission, I have been silenced by a few words, 'How many prophets
+were sent to the Israelites?'--'Many.'--'You cannot enumerate them? then,
+is it too much to be probable that God's mercy should have been graciously
+extended to the children of Ishmael? they also are Abraham's seed. The
+Israelites had many prophets, in all of whom we believe; the Ishmaelites
+have one Prophet only, whose mission was to draw men from idolatry to the
+true God. All men, they add will be judged according to their fidelity in
+the faith they have professed. It is not the outward sign which makes a
+man the true Mussulmaun; neither is it the mere profession of Christianity
+which will clear the man at the last day. Religion and faith are of the
+heart.'
+
+In their collection of writings, I have had access to a voluminous work,
+entitled 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'[26] (Enlightener of the Heart). My husband has
+translated for me, occasionally, portions of this valuable work, which
+bears a striking similarity to our Holy Scriptures, though collected after
+a different manner; I have acquired, by this means, a more intimate
+acquaintance with the general character of the Mussulmaun's belief. This
+book contains all the prophets' lives, at every age of the world. It was
+compiled by Mahumud Baakur, first in Arabic, and afterwards translated by
+him into the Persian language, for the benefit of the public; and is of
+great antiquity--I cannot now ascertain the exact date.
+
+The Mussulmaun belief on the subject of the resurrection is, 'When the
+fulness of time cometh, of which no man knoweth, then shall the earth be
+destroyed by fire--and after this will be the resurrection of the dead'.
+
+The branches emanating from the roots of the Mussulmaun faith will require
+further explanation which shall follow in due course. I will in this
+letter merely add what is meant by the Bridge of Sirraat,[27] the
+Scales,[28] and Looking into the Book as noted in the burial service.
+
+'The Bridge of Sirraat', they understand, is to be passed over by every
+person in their passage to eternity, and is represented sharp as the
+keenest sword.[29] The righteous will be gifted with power to pass over
+with the rapidity of lightning, neither harm nor inconvenience will attend
+them on the passage. The wicked, on the contrary, will be without help,
+and must be many times injured and cut down in the attempt. An idea has
+crept into the minds of some, that whoever offers up to God, at different
+periods of his life, such animals as are deemed clean and fitting for
+sacrifice, the same number and kind, on their day of passing Sirraat,
+shall be in readiness to assist them on the passage over.
+
+On this supposition is grounded the object of princes and nobles in India
+offering camels in sacrifice on the day of Buckrah Eade.[30] This event
+answers our Scripture account of Abraham's offering, but the Mussulmauns
+say, the son of Abraham so offered was Ishmael, and not Isaac. I have
+disputed the point with some of their learned men, and brought them to
+search through their authorities; in some one or two there is a doubt as
+to which was the son offered, but the general writers and most of the
+Mussulmauns themselves believe Ishmael was the offering made by Abraham.
+
+'The Scales are true;' the Mussulmauns believe, that on the day of
+judgment, the good and the bad deeds of every mortal will be submitted to
+the scales prepared in Heaven for that purpose.
+
+'Looking into the Book is true;' the Mussulmauns believe that every human
+being from their birth is attended by two angels,[31] one resting on the
+right shoulder the other on the left, continually; their business is to
+register every action of the individual they attend; when a good action is
+to be recorded, they beseech the Almighty in His mercy to keep the person
+in the good and perfect way; when evil ways are to be registered, they
+mourn with intercessions to God that His mercy may be extended, by
+granting them repentant hearts, and then, His forgiveness. Thus they
+explain 'Looking into the Book is true', that whatever is contained in
+this book will be looked into on the day of judgment, and by their deeds
+therein registered shall they be judged.
+
+In the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob' is to be found the lives of the Emaums, from
+which is gleaned the following remarks:--
+
+The Emaum Mhidhie was an orphan at nine years old. Alrouschid,[32] the
+King of Bagdad, advised by his wicked minister, resolved on destroying
+this boy (the last of the Emaums), fearing as he grew into favour with the
+people, that the power of his sovereignty would decrease.
+
+The King sent certain soldiers to seize Mhidhie, who was at prayers in an
+inner room when they arrived. The soldiers demanded and were refused
+admittance they then forced an entrance and proceeded to the room in which
+the Emaum was supposed to be at prayers, they discovered him immersed to
+the waist in a tank of water; the soldiers desired him to get out of the
+water and surrender himself, he continued repeating his prayer, and
+appeared to take no notice of the men nor their demand. After some
+deliberations amongst the soldiers, they thought the water was too shallow
+to endanger their lives, and one entered the tank intending to take the
+Emaum prisoner, he sank instantly to rise no more, a second followed who
+shared the same fate; and the rest, deterred by the example of their
+brother soldiers, fled from the place, to report the failure of their plan
+to the King at Bagdad.
+
+This writer reports that Emaum Mhidhie was secretly conveyed away,
+supposed by the interposition of Divine Providence, and was not again seen,
+to be recognized, on earth; yet it is believed he still lives and will
+remain for the fulfilment of that prophecy which sayeth:--'When Mecca is
+filled with Christian people Emaum Mhidhie will appear, to draw men to the
+true faith; and then also, Jesus Christ will descend from heaven to Mecca,
+there will be great slaughter amongst men; after which there will be but
+one faith--and then shall there be perfect peace and happiness over all
+the world.'
+
+The Mussulmauns of the present age discourse much on the subject of that
+prophecy--particularly during the contest between the Greeks and Turks, of
+which however they had no very correct information, yet they fancied the
+time must be fast approaching, by these leading events, to the fuller
+accomplishment; often, when in conversation with the most religious men of
+the country, I have heard them declare it as their firm belief that the
+time was fast approaching when there should be but one mind amongst all
+men. 'There is but little more to finish;' 'The time draws near;' are
+expressions of the Mussulmauns' belief, when discoursing of the period
+anticipated, as prophesied in their sacred writings;--so persuaded are
+they of the nearness of that time. In relating the substance of my last
+serious conversation with the devout Meer Hadjee Shaah, I shall disclose
+the real sentiments of most, if not every religious reflecting, true
+Mussulmaun of his sect in India.
+
+Meer Hadjee Shaah delighted in religious conversations; it was his
+happiest time when, in the quiet of night, the Meer, his son, translated,
+as I read, the Holy Bible to him. We have often been thus engaged until
+one or two, and even to a later hour in the morning; he remembered all he
+heard, and drew comparisons, in his own mind, between the two authorities
+of sacred writings--the Khoraun and Bible; the one he had studied through
+his long life, the other, he was now equally satisfied, contained the word
+of God; he received them both, and as the 'two witnesses' of God. The last
+serious conversation I had with him, was a very few days before his death;
+he was then nearly in as good health as he had been for the last year; his
+great age had weakened his frame, but he walked about the grounds with his
+staff, as erect as when I first saw him, and evinced nothing in his
+general manner that could excite a suspicion that his hours had so nearly
+run their course.
+
+We had been talking of the time when peace on earth should be universal;
+'My time, dear baittie[33] (daughter), is drawing to a quick conclusion.
+You may live to see the events foretold, I shall be in my grave; but
+remember, I tell you now, though I am dead, yet when Jesus Christ returns
+to earth, at His coming, I shall rise again from my grave; and I shall be
+with Him, and with Emaum Mhidhie also.'
+
+This was the substance of his last serious conversation with me, and
+within one short week he was removed from those who loved to hear his
+voice; but he still lives in the memory of many, and those who knew his
+worth are reconciled by reflecting on the 'joy that awaits the righteous'.
+
+'Other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring,
+and they shall hear My voice; and there shall be one fold, and one
+shepherd.' Also, 'In My Father's house are many mansions'. These were
+particularly pleasing passages to him, and often referred to in our
+scriptural conversations.
+
+
+[1] The Shi'ahs only wipe or rub the feet, instead of washing them, as
+    do the Sunnis. In the standing posture (_qiyam_) in prayer, the
+    Sunnis place the right hand over the left below the navel; the
+    Shi'ahs keep their hands hanging on both sides of the body.
+
+[2] I have met with the creed of the modern Jews, some time in the course
+    of my life, in Hurd's _History of all Religions_; the belief of the
+    Mussulmauns, as regards the unity of God, strictly coincides with that
+    of the Jews, described in the first four articles of their creed.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[3] _Namaz_, liturgical prayer, as contrasted with _du'a_, ordinary
+    prayer.
+
+[4] _Ramzan, Ramazan_.
+
+[5] _Hajj_.
+
+[6] _Zakat_.
+
+[7] Khalifah, 'successor,' 'lieutenant,' 'viceregent.'
+
+[8] 'Umar, Abu Bakr, 'Usman.
+
+[9] No son named Ishmail is recorded. Ibrahim, his son from
+    his slave girl, Mary the Copt, died A.D. 631, and was buried at Medina.
+    The daughter of Abu Bakr was 'Ayishah.
+
+[10] The Prophet married Hafsah, daughter of 'Umar, as his third wife.
+
+[11] Khadijah.
+
+[12] 'Whoso is the enemy of Gabriel--for he has by God's leave caused to
+    descend on thy heart the confirmation of previous
+    revelations.'--_Koran_, ii. 91.
+
+[13] 'The story of the destruction of the library at Alexandria is first
+    told by Bar-hebraeus (Abulfaragius), a Christian writer who lived six
+    centuries later: it is of very doubtful authority.'--_Encyclopaedia
+    Britannica_, i. 570.
+
+[14] This is incorrect, Sunnis very largely preponderating over
+    Shi'ahs. According to the latest information there were in the
+    United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, nearly 6-1/2 million Sunnis and
+    183,000 Shi'ahs (_Imperial Gazetteer_ (1908), xxiv. 172). This
+    information was not collected in recent census reports. In the whole
+    of India, in 1881, there were 46-3/4 million Sunnis, as compared
+    with 809,561 Shi'ahs.
+
+[15] The correct list of the Imams recognized by the Imamiya or
+    orthodox Shi'ahs is as follows: 'Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet;
+    Al-Hasan, son of 'Ali, Al-Husain, second son of 'Ali; 'Ali
+    Zain-ul-'Abidin, son of Al-Husain; Muhammad Al-Baqir, son of
+    Zain-ul-'Abidin; Ja'afar as-Sadiq, son of Muhammad Al-Baqir;
+    Ar-Raza, son of Musa; Muhammad At-Taqi, son of Ar-Raza;
+    'Ali-an Naqi, son of Muhammad At-Taqi; Al-Hasan Al-Askari,
+    son of 'Ali-an Naqi; Muhammad, son of Al-Hasan Al-Askari, or
+    the Imam Al-Mahdi, who is believed to be still alive, and will
+    appear in the last days as the Mahdi.
+
+[16] _Kafn_, properly 'a winding-sheet'.
+
+[17] _Qanat_.
+
+[18] The religious man generally prepares his own winding-sheet, keeping
+    it always ready, and occasionally taking out this monitor to add
+    another verse or chapter, as the train of thought may have urged at
+    the time. I have seen this done by the Meer Hadjee Shaah, who
+    appropriated a piece of fine white cambric muslin, he had received
+    from me, to this sacred purpose. I have often been a silent observer
+    of my revered friend whilst he was engaged in writing passages from
+    the book whose rules he lived by. The anticipated moment when he
+    should require this his kuffin dress, was never clouded by dread, but
+    always looked forward to with cheerfulness and fervent hope; for he
+    trusted in the mercy of God whom he loved and worshipped. [_Author_.]
+    [Many pilgrims buy at Mecca the shroud in which they desire to be
+    buried, and wash it in the well Zamzam, supposing that the holy water
+    will secure the repose of the soul after death.]
+
+[19] Maccurrub means those angels who are at all times privileged to
+    appear in the presence of God;--they are supposed to have eyes of
+    great brilliance. In order that the Mussulmauns may have the reply
+    ready for that awful moment, they have a custom of repeating the
+    responses to the angel every evening, when the lamp is first lighted,
+    as they say this sudden light resembles the angels' eyes. I had
+    noticed the custom for some time, and fancied the Mussulmaun people
+    worshipped light, until I was made acquainted with the real motive for
+    this general observance both with the men and women. [_Author._]
+    [_Muqarrab_, 'those allowed to come near'.]
+
+[20] Kiblaah is the holy place to which men turn their face when offering
+    up their prayer to God, as the Jews face Jerusalem. Literally,
+    'worshipping place'. [_Author._] [_Qiblah_: the direction of prayer
+    was changed by the Prophet from Jerusalem to Mecca (_Koran_, ii.
+    138-9, with Sale's note).]
+
+[21] See p. 72.
+
+[22] Munkir, or Munkar, and Nakir are the two recording angels.
+
+[23] See p. 78.
+
+[24] _Du'a_.
+
+[25] Al-Mahdi, 'the directed one', who will appear in the last day.
+    According to the Shi'ahs, he has already appeared in the person of
+    Muhammad Abu'l-Qasim, the 12th Imam. Later claimants are
+    Sayyid Ahmad, who fought against the Sikhs in 1826; Muhammad Ahmad ibn
+    Sayyid Abdulla, who fled after the fatal day of Omdurman, and was
+    killed in battle in 1899.
+
+[26] _Hayat[u']l-Qulub_ compiled by Muhammad Baqir, whose last
+    work was published A.D. 1627. It has been partly translated into
+    English by J.L. Morrick, Boston, 1850.
+
+[27] Sirat, the bridge over which the soul must cross on its way to
+    Paradise.
+
+[28] Mizan, the Balance, with which the deeds of the dead man are
+    weighed.--_Koran_, xxi. 47.
+
+[29] May not this be a poetical symbol, similar to the scythe? [_Author._]
+
+[30] Baqarah 'Id, 'cow festival,' held on the 10th of the month
+    Zu'l-Hijjah, the month of pilgrimage, the attempted sacrifice of
+    Ishmael having, it is said, occurred at Mount Mina, near Mecca.
+
+[31] Kiramu'l-Katibin, one recording the good, the other the
+    evil actions of the dead.
+
+[32] Harun-al-Rashid, 'Aaron the Orthodox', fifth Abbasid Caliph,
+    of Baghdad (A.D. 763 or 776-809), best known from _The Arabian Nights_.
+
+[33] _Beti_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VII
+
+  Namaaz (daily prayer).--The Mussulmaun prayers.--Their different names
+  and times.--Extra prayer-service.--The Mosque.--Ablutions requisite
+  previous to devotion.--Prostrations at prayers.--Mosque
+  described.--The Mussulmauns' Sabbath.--Its partial observance.--The
+  amusements of this life not discontinued on the Sabbath.--Employment
+  of domestics undiminished on this day.--Works of importance then
+  commenced.--Reasons for appropriating Friday to the Sabbath.--The Jews
+  opposed to Mahumud.--The Prophet receives instructions from the angel
+  Gabriel.--Their import and definition. Remarks of a Commentator on the
+  Khoraun.--Prayer of intercession.--Pious observance of Christmas Day
+  by a Native Lady.--Opinions entertained of our Saviour.--Additional
+  motives for prayer.--David's Mother's prayer.--Anecdote of Moses and
+  a Woodcutter.--Remarks upon the piety and devotion of the female
+  Mussulmauns.
+
+
+The Mussulmaun Lawgiver commanded Namaaz (daily prayer) five times a day:
+
+1st. 'The Soobhoo Namaaz,' to commence at the dawn of day.
+
+2nd. 'The Zohur,' at the second watch of the day, or mid-day.
+
+3rd. 'The Ausur,' at the third day watch.
+
+4th. 'The Muggrib,' at sunset; and,
+
+5th. 'The Eshaa,' at the fourth ghurrie of the night.[1]
+
+These are the commanded hours for prayer. Mahumud himself observed an
+additional service very strictly, at the third watch of the night, which
+was called by him, 'Tahujjoot,'[2] and the most devout men, in all ages of
+their faith, have imitated this example scrupulously.
+
+'The Soobhoo Namaaz' is deemed a necessary duty, and commences with the
+earliest dawn of day. The several prayers and prostrations occupy the
+greatest part of an hour, with those who are devout in their religious
+exercises; many extend the service by readings from an excellent
+collection, very similar to our Psalms, called 'The Vazefah'.[3]
+
+'The Zohur Namaaz', an equally essential duty, commences at mid-day, and
+occupies about the same time as 'The Soobhoo'.
+
+'The Ausur Namaaz' commences at the third day watch. The religious men are
+not tempted to excuse themselves from the due observance of this hour; but
+the mere people of the world, or those whose business requires their time,
+attach this service to the next, and satisfy their conscience with
+thinking that the prayer-hours combined, answers the same purpose as when
+separately performed.
+
+'The Muggrib Namaaz'. This is rigidly observed at sunset; even those who
+cannot make it convenient at other hours, will leave their most urgent
+employment to perform this duty at sunset. Who that has lived any time in
+India, cannot call to mind the interesting sight of the labouring classes,
+returning to their home after the business of the day is over? The sun
+sinking below the Western horizon, the poor man unbinds his waist, and
+spreads his cummerbund on the side of the road; he performs his ablutions
+from his brass lota of water, and facing Mecca, bows himself down under
+the canopy of heaven, to fulfil what he believes to be his duty at that
+hour to his merciful God.
+
+'The Eshaa Namaaz' commences at the fourth ghurrie of the night. The form
+of prayer for this Namaaz is much longer than the rest. The devout men
+extend their prayers at this still hour of the night; they tell me that
+they feel more disposed at this time to pour out their hearts to God in
+praise and thanksgiving, than at any other period of the day or night; and
+I have known many of them to be at silent prayer for hours together.
+
+Many persons in their early life may have neglected that due obedience
+expected in the commanded daily prayers; in after life, they endeavour to
+make up the deficiency, by imposing on themselves extra services, to
+fulfil the number omitted. By the same rule, when a member of the family
+dies, and it is suspected the due performance of Namaaz had been neglected
+by him, the survivor, who loved him or her in life, is anxious for the
+soul's rest, and thus proves it by performing additional prayers for the
+benefit of the soul of that beloved individual.
+
+If a Mussulmaun falls from affluence to penury, twelve devout men of his
+faith engage to fast and pray, on a day fixed by themselves, to make
+intercession for their friend:--they believe in the efficacy of good men's
+prayers; and Meer Hadjee Shaah has often declared to me, that he has
+witnessed the benefit of this exercise by the happiest results, in many
+such cases.
+
+The Khoraun, it is commanded, shall be read. A person perhaps dies before
+he has been awakened to a love of sacred things; his friends therefore
+engage readers to attend his grave, and there to read the Khoraun for the
+benefit of the departed soul.[4]
+
+They have a firm belief in the efficacy of prayer by proxy; and the view
+they have of departed spirits is still more singular. They believe the
+soul hovers over the body in the grave for some time, and that the body is
+so far animated, as to be sensible of what is passing; as when the Maulvee
+is repeating the service, the angels visit in the grave, or when the
+Khoraun is read; hence the belief in the efficacy of prayer and reading as
+substitutes for neglected or omitted duties whilst on earth. There are in
+all the mosques men retained to do the requisite service there,[5] that is,
+to keep it clean, and to prevent any thing that could pollute the
+sanctuary from entering; to call at the stated hours for Namaaz, with a
+loud voice, so that all the neighbourhood may hear and go to prayers; he
+mounts the minaret as the hour is striking, and pronounces, 'Allah wo
+uckbaar!' 'Mahumudoon Russool Allah!'[6]--God alone is true! Mahumud is
+God's Prophet!--with a voice, the extent of which can only be imagined by
+those who have heard it; this summons is repeated many times over.
+
+The mosque is open day and night for all who choose to enter for the
+purpose of prayer. The Mussulmauns, however, in their prayer-services are
+not restricted to the mosques; all places are deemed holy where no unclean
+animal has been to defile the spot, as dogs or swine, nor any idol been
+set up for worship. The person coming to Namaaz must not have contaminated
+himself by touching the dead, or any other thing accounted unclean, until
+he has bathed his whole body and changed his clothes. This resembles the
+Mosaic law.
+
+Ablutions are regarded as essentially necessary: if any one is ill, and to
+use water would be dangerous, or if there be no water to be found where
+the Mussulmaun is about to pray, there is an allowed substitute, merely to
+rub the hands, feet, knees, and head with the dry dust of clay, and this
+is counted to them for ablutions. Thus prepared, the devotee spreads his
+prayer-carpet[7] (generally of fine matting) in the most convenient place
+to himself, if not in the mosque;--perhaps under a tree, in the verandah,
+or in a room, no matter where, taking care, under all circumstances, that
+the carpet is spread to face the Kaabah (Holy House at Mecca).
+
+At the commencement of his prayers, he stands erect, his hands lifted up,
+the palms held out towards heaven, where the eyes are also turned whilst
+expressing adoration and praise to God. This ended, he prostrates himself
+before the Almighty, his forehead touching the ground; the form of words
+here used expresses the unworthiness of the creature permitted to approach
+and worship the Creator; again he stands to repeat the glorious
+perfections of God; he then kneels in worship and prayer, after which
+prostrations are resumed, &c. In the performance of some of the services
+they prostrate five times, standing up and kneeling an equal number of
+times; the shortest services have three, and all the prayers and praises
+are arranged in Arabic,--that most expressive language,--which to
+translate, they say, is to corrupt the meaning of the prayers. For this
+reason the Khoraun is not allowed in any other than the original language;
+and for the benefit of the unlearned in Arabic, it is commented upon,
+passage by passage, in the Persian language.
+
+The mosques are all erected on one plan; the entrance to the outer court
+is secured by a gate or door always on the latch, without locks, bars, or
+bolts; in the paved yard a tank or reservoir for bathing or ablutions is
+usually provided. The mosque itself is square, with a dome and two
+minarets; the side next the court-yard is the entrance, and generally this
+front is entirely open; the back of the mosque faces Mecca, in which
+direction the prayer must be offered to be effectual. These houses of
+prayer are generally kept clean and neat, but not the slightest ornament
+allowed within the walls; the floor is matted, and a plain wooden mhembur
+(pulpit) is provided. Shoes never enter within the precincts of the mosque;
+'Put off thy shoes' is strictly observed by Mussulmauns in all sacred
+places--a man praying with shoes on his feet would be accounted mad or a
+heathen.[8]
+
+The Sabbath of the Mussulmauns is kept on Friday, commencing on the
+preceding night, after the manner of the Jews, only with the difference of
+the day.[9]
+
+As a religious rest, the Sabbath is but partially observed with
+Mussulmauns. The Soonies, I have remarked, pay much more attention to its
+institutions than the Sheahs; but with either sect, the day is less
+strictly kept, than might have been expected from people who really seem
+to make religion their study, and the great business of their lives. Both
+sects have extra prayers for the day besides the usual Namaaz, which, the
+religious people perform with, great punctuality, whether they carry their
+devotions to the mosque, or offer their prayers in due form in their own
+abode. On the Sabbath they make it a point to bathe and change their
+apparel; the public offices are closed, and the shops partially shut until
+mid-day; the rulers,--as Kings or Nuwaubs,--distinguish the day by not
+receiving their courtiers and the public visitors, as on other days.
+Charitable donations are likewise more bountifully dispensed from the rich
+to the poor on Friday.
+
+These observances serve to convince us that they believe in the
+constituted Sabbath; still there is not that strict respect for the holy
+day which could satisfy the scrupulous feelings of a Christian; the
+servants are quite as much employed on Friday as on any other day;--the
+dhurzie[10] (tailor), dhobhie[11] (washerman), and indeed the whole
+establishment of servants and slaves, male and female, find their work
+undiminished on the Sabbath. The ladies amuse themselves with cards or
+dice, the singing women even are quite as much in request as on other days;
+and all the amusements of life are indulged in without once seeming to
+suspect that they are disobeying the law of God, or infringing on their
+actual duties. Indeed, I believe they would keep the day strictly, if they
+thought doing so was a necessary duty: but I have often observed, that as
+Friday is one of their 'fortunate days', works of any importance are
+commenced on this day;--whether it be building a house,--planting a garden
+or field,--writing a book,--negotiating a marriage,--going a
+journey,--making a garment, or any other business of this life which they
+wish should prosper. With them, therefore, the day of rest is made one of
+the busiest in the calendar; but I must do them the justice to say, that
+they believe their hearts are more pure after the ablutions and prayers
+have been performed. And that as nothing, however trifling or important,
+according to their praiseworthy ideas, should ever be commenced without
+being first dedicated to God,--from whose mercy they implore aid and
+blessings on the labour of their hands,--they set apart Friday for
+commencing whatever business they are anxious should prosper. This was the
+excuse made by the pious Meer Hadjee Shaah.
+
+Mahumud's biographers notice in many instances the strict observance of
+the Sabbath, at the period in which he flourished; they also say he
+selected Friday to be observed as the Mussulmaun Sabbath in distinction
+from the Jews, who it would seem were jealous of Mahumud's teaching, and
+annoyed both him and his followers in every way they could possibly devise.
+And the Khoraun commentators, on the subject of Mahumud's mission, declare,
+when speaking of the place to which the Mussulmaun bow in prayer, 'That
+when Mahumud first commenced his task of teaching the ignorant Arabians to
+forsake their idol worship, and to turn to the only true God, he was often
+reviled and insulted by the Jews; who even ridiculed the presumption of
+the Mussulmauns in daring to bow down, in their worship, towards Jerusalem,
+in the same direction with them. Mahumud was sadly perplexed whether to
+abstain or continue the practice, as he was unwilling to offend the Jews:
+in this trial he was visited by the angel Gabriel, who brought the
+following command to him from God:--
+
+'Turn from Jerusalem; and when thou bowest down to Me, face that Holy
+House of Abraham, the place of sacrifice: that shall be thy Kiblaah, O
+Mahumud.'
+
+Kiblaah is the point to which men bow in worship.[12] Kaabah is the 'Holy
+House' where Abraham's sacrifice was offered. Mecca is the city or tract
+of country surrounding the house.
+
+Thus they will say: 'I am making my pilgrimage to Mecca, to visit the
+Kaabah, which in my Namaaz, has been my Kiblaah when worshipping my God.'
+
+A Commentator on the Khoraun writes, in allusion to the prevailing
+worldly-minded men of his day, the following expressive definition of the
+objects most worshipped by them, and concludes with the one only Kiblaah
+deserving men's attention.
+
+'The Sovereign's Kiblaah is His well-ornamented crown.'
+
+'The Sensualist's Kiblaah, The gratification of his appetites.'
+
+'The Lover's Kiblaah, The mistress of his heart.'
+
+'The Miser's Kiblaah, His hoards of gold and silver.'
+
+'The Ambitious Man's Kiblaah, This world's honours and possessions.'
+
+'The mere Professor's Kiblaah, The arch of the Holy House.'
+
+And
+
+'The Righteous Man's Kiblaah, The pure love of God,--which may all men
+learn and practise.'
+
+The Mussulmaun Faith directs them to believe, not only in the prophets and
+their writings, but also that they are intercessors at the throne of grace;
+for this reason Mahumud taught his followers to call on God to hear them
+for the sake of,--
+
+'1st. Adam, Suffee Ali ("the Pure" is the nearest possible translation).'
+
+'2nd. Noah, the Prophet of God.'
+
+'3rd. Abraham, the Friend of God.'
+
+'4th. Moses, who Conversed with God.'
+
+'5th. Jesus, the Soul of God.'
+
+'6th. Mahumud, the Prophet of God.'[13]
+
+Those persons who are devout in the exercise of their religious duties day
+by day, in the concluding part of the morning Namaaz strictly observe the
+practice of Mahumud and the Emaums, in the prayers of intercession; and
+the 'Salaam-oon-ali Khoom',[14] (peace or rest be with thee) O Adam Suffee
+Ali! and to thee, O Noah, the Prophet of God! and to thee, O Abraham! &c.
+&c. going through the line in the manner and rotation above-described,
+concluding with the several Emaums, twelve in number (as in their Creed).
+
+It will be seen by this, that they have reverence for all who came from
+God, to teach mankind His will. They believe also, that the Holy Prophets
+are sensible of the respect paid to them by existing mortals, as also when
+on earth they knew what was in the hearts of those men they conversed with.
+I have the honour to be acquainted with a lady of the Mussulmaun Religion,
+who lives in accordance with the Faith she professes. There was a period
+in her life, within my recollection, when she had very severe trials of a
+domestic nature. She trusted in God for relief, and followed in the way
+she had been instructed, keeping fasts and holy days; testifying her
+respect for the prophets, by observing those days for extra prayer and
+giving alms, which the Khoraun and commentaries represent as worthy to be
+done, by the devout Mussulmauns.
+
+Amongst the number of days strictly observed by this pious lady during her
+troubles, was the Nativity of Jesus Christ, for whose sake she fed the
+hungry, clothed the naked, and gave alms to the necessitous. I was the
+more delighted when first hearing of this circumstance, because I had
+judged of the Mussulmaun faith by common report, and fancied they rejected,
+with the Jews, our Redeemer having come. They, on the contrary, believe,
+according to their Prophet's words, 'that He was born of the Virgin Mary;
+that He worked miracles; that He ascended after His earthly commission had
+ceased, to the seventh heaven; that He will again visit the earth (when
+their Emaum Mhidhie will also appear), to cleanse the world of its corrupt
+wickedness, when all men shall live in peace, and but one faith shall
+prevail, in the worship of the true God'.
+
+The Mussulmaun work, 'Hyaatool Kaloob' (which I have so often referred to),
+contains, with the lives of all the prophets, the Life of Jesus Christ,
+His acts, and the Ungeel[15] (Gospel). The Gospel they have is in many
+things different from ours; it is not formed into books by the apostles,
+neither are the miracles united with the Gospel, but are detailed as the
+acts of Christ Jesus. What they understand by the Ungeel, is, 'the Word of
+God by the mouth of Jesus';--for instance, the Sermon on the Mount, or, in
+other words, the precepts of Jesus. I am indebted to the Meer for this
+information.
+
+The Mussulmauns say, 'All power belongs to God.--Who would dare dispute
+the miracle of Christ's birth? Is there any thing difficult with God? God
+first formed Adam from the dust; and by His word all things were created.
+Is there any thing too great for His power? Let no man, then, dispute the
+birth of Christ by a pure Virgin.' They believe that Jesus Christ was the
+Prophet of God, but they believe not that He is God; and they deem all who
+thus declare Christ to be God, as unfaithful both to God and to Christ.
+
+I have said the Mussulmauns of each sect have extra prayers, beside the
+Namaaz, or daily services of prayer. I suppose there are a greater variety
+of prayers amongst these people than with those of any other religion.
+Very few, if any, of the devout men, in the early ages of their religion,
+have omitted to leave behind them some testimony of their regard for
+posterity in the form of 'prayers', dictating the words most likely to
+lead the heart of the creature to the worship of the Creator; and also
+directions how to pray for any particular object they may desire to
+accomplish by the aid of God, in whom they are instructed and believe the
+fulness of power, as of glory, ever was, is, and will be to all eternity.
+
+If the Mussulmaun suffers by persecution, by sickness, by loss of property,
+or any other distress of mind or body, he applies himself to the
+particular prayer of a favourite Emaum, or holy scribe, suited to his
+exact case. I cannot do better here than copy the translation my husband
+has made of the leading causes for the use of that prayer called
+'Daaood's[16] (David's) Mother's Prayer', in which I have known so many
+people to be engaged, when under difficulties, at the appointed period,
+viz. the fifteenth day of the month Rujub. The prayer itself occupies
+about sixteen closely written pages, and the person intending to make use
+of it, is expected to bathe and fast, as commanded by Mahumud, who
+instructed his followers in this prayer, which was then called 'The
+Opening of Difficulties',[17] afterwards, and to the present day 'David's
+Mother's Prayer', by reason of a miraculous occurrence which followed her
+having fulfilled the task of fasting, preparation, and the prayer alluded
+to.
+
+'A very poor woman had been engaged in the family of the Emaum Jaffur
+Saadick,[18] as wet-nurse to his son; she was much respected in the family,
+who wished to have retained her with them, when the child was weaned; but
+she would return to her own village, where her son was living, at some
+distance from the city of Koofah.
+
+'Her son, named Daaood, grew up under her maternal care, and proved the
+great comfort and solace of her life, by his dutiful and affectionate
+bearing towards her. At that period the reigning King of Arabia was a most
+cruel man, and an idolater; he persecuted all the professors of the "True
+Faith" whenever they came within his reach, with the most barbarous
+brutality.
+
+'One day, at an early hour, Daaood's mother presented herself at the house
+of the Emaum, in great distress of mind, and related the heavy affliction
+which had befallen her, in the loss of her dearly loved son (then a fine
+youth), who had been decoyed by the wicked emissaries of the King, for the
+purpose, it was feared, of immolation--as it was known to be his custom,
+when, laying the foundation of a building, to deposit living victims of
+the Mussulmaun faith beneath it. The poor woman had no hope her eyes would
+ever again be blessed with the sight of her fondly-loved son, and still
+more agonizing were her fears, that his protracted sufferings would be of
+the same terrible description with numbers of the faithful who had fallen
+into the hands of that wretched heathen King.
+
+'Her friends in the Emaum's family grieved over the sad affliction with
+which their favourite had been visited. The Emaum strove to comfort her,
+and proposed that she should perform the prayer in which Mahumud had
+instructed his followers for "The Opening of Difficulties". "Alas!"
+replied the woman, "poor ignorant that I am, how shall I repeat that
+prayer; I cannot read: knowest thou not, my Emaum, that I am not
+acquainted with letters?" "But I will teach you the prayer," answered the
+Emaum; "you shall repeat it after me, and by diligence you will acquire it
+perfectly by that day, on which our Prophet commanded his followers to
+perform the fast and offer this prayer, that God might be pleased to
+remove their calamities."
+
+'The poor woman obeyed all the injunctions and advice of the Emaum Jaffur
+Saadick punctually; acquired, by her diligence, the words of the prayer;
+strictly observed the preparation by fast; and, on the fifteenth "day of
+Rujub", the prayer was duly performed, with sincere devotion and perfect
+faith in God's power, and His infinite mercy.
+
+'In the mean time, it appears, the King having been much troubled in a
+dream, he was warned to release his prisoner from captivity without delay,
+at the peril of destruction to himself and all he possessed. The warning
+dream presented him with a view of the gulf to which he was condemned, if
+he delayed the release of Daaood from his confinement. The person of the
+youth was so clearly represented to the King in his dream, that there
+could be no possible mistake in the particular captive to be freed, out of
+the many he held in bondage. The King awakening from his troubled sleep,
+demanded of his attendants where the young man was confined; and learning
+from the chief officer of his court that Daaood was sent to a distant
+place, to be the offering buried under the foundation of a house, erecting
+by his command: the swiftest camels were ordered immediately, to convey
+messengers with two bags of gold, and the King's mandate, peremptorily
+ordering the release of the youth, if happily he yet existed; and if the
+building was proceeding with, the superintendent was cautioned to pull it
+down with the utmost care and dispatch, so that nothing should be omitted
+which could be done to preserve that life now so dear to the hopes of the
+King.
+
+'The messengers reached the place on the third day after Daaood had been
+immured in the foundation of the building. Small, indeed, were the hopes
+that the King's desires would be gratified. The builder, however, more
+humane than his employer, had so raised the work round the person of
+Daaood, as to leave him unhurt by its pressure, and having left a small
+aperture for air, his life was preserved;--the masonry being removed
+promptly, and with caution, the youth was discovered not only alive, but
+even uninjured by the confinement. The courier mounted the boy on the
+camel, with the present of gold contained in two bags, and conveyed Daaood,
+without loss of time, to his mother's abode.
+
+'All the particulars having undergone due investigation, it was clearly
+proved that it was on that very day when the poor woman was occupied in
+her fast and prayer, that her son Daaood was released from the foundation
+of the King's house and restored to his home. From this time forward the
+prayer of "Opening Difficulties" was denominated "Or of Daaood's Mother".'
+
+Turning over my collection of curiosities for the story of Daaood's Mother,
+which the Meer translated for me many years since, I met with an ancient
+anecdote which. I received from the same dear revered friend I must often
+quote as my author when I am detailing the particulars of things which I
+have heard and not seen,--Meer Hadjee Shaah,--who tells me he has found
+the following anecdote in the 'Commentary on The History of Moses'.--It is
+translated by my husband.
+
+'When Huzerut[19] Moosa (Moses), "to whose spirit be peace!" was on earth,
+there lived near him a poor yet remarkably religious man, who had for many
+years supported himself and his wife by the daily occupation of cutting
+wood for his richer neighbours; four small copper coins (equivalent to our
+halfpence) proved the reward of his toil, which at best afforded the poor
+couple but a scanty meal after his day's exertions.
+
+'The prophet Moosa passed the Woodcutter one morning, who accosted him
+with "O Moosa! Prophet of the Most High; behold I labour each day for my
+coarse and scanty meal; may it please thee, O Huzerut! to make a petition
+for me to our gracious God, that He may in His mercy grant me at once the
+whole supply for my remaining years, so that I shall enjoy one day of
+earthly happiness, and then, with my wife, be transferred to the place of
+eternal rest". Moosa promised and made the required petition; his prayer
+was answered from Mount Tor, thus:--
+
+'"This man's life is long, O Moses! nevertheless, if he be willing to
+surrender life when his supply is exhausted, tell him thy prayer is heard,
+the petition accepted, and the whole amount shall be found beneath his
+jhaawn namaaz[20] (prayer-carpet) after his early prayers."
+
+'The Woodcutter was satisfied when Moosa told him the result of his
+petition, and when the first duties of the morning were concluded, he
+failed not in looking for the promised remittance, where, to his surprise,
+he found a heap of silver coins. Calling his wife, the Woodcutter told her
+what he had required of the Lord through his Holy Prophet Moosa; pointing
+to the result, they both agreed it was very good to enjoy a short life of
+happiness on earth and depart in peace; although they could not help again
+and again recurring to the number of years on earth they had thus
+sacrificed. "We will make as many hearts rejoice as this the Lord's gift
+will admit," they both agreed, "and thus we shall secure in our future
+state the blessed abode promised to those who fulfil the commands of God
+in this, since to-morrow our term of life must close."
+
+'The day was spent in providing and preparing provisions for the meal. The
+whole sum was expended on the best sorts of food, and the poor made
+acquainted with the rich treat the Woodcutter and his wife were cooking
+for their benefit. The food was cooked for the indigent, and allotments
+made to each hungry applicant, reserving for themselves one good
+substantial meal, to be eaten only when the poor were all served and
+satisfied. It happened at the very moment they were seated to enjoy this
+their last meal, as they believed, a voice was heard, "O friend! I have
+heard of your feast,--I am late, yet may it be that you have a little to
+spare, for I am hungry to my very heart. The blessing of God be on him who
+relieves my present sufferings from hunger!" The Woodcutter and his wife
+agreed that it would be much, better for them to go to heaven with half a
+bellyful, than leave one fellow-creature on earth famishing for a meal;
+they, therefore, determined on sharing their own portion with him who had
+none, and he went away from them rejoicing. "Now," said the happy pair,
+"we shall eat our half-share with unmixed delight, and with thankful
+hearts. By to-morrow eve we shall be transferred to paradise."
+
+'They had scarcely raised the savoury food to their opening mouths, when a
+voice of melancholy bewailing arrested their attention, and stayed the
+hands already charged with food;--a poor wretched creature, who had not
+tasted food for two whole days, moaned his piteous tale in accents that
+drew tears from the Woodcutter and his wife--their eyes met and the
+sympathy was mutual; they were more willing to depart for heaven without
+the promised benefit of one earthly enjoyment, than suffer the hungry
+creature to die from want of that meal they had before them. The dish was
+promptly tendered to the bewailing subject, and the Woodcutter and his
+wife consoled each other by thinking that, as their time of departure was
+now so near at hand, the temporary enjoyment of a meal was not worth one
+moment's consideration. "To-morrow we die, then of what consequence to us
+whether we depart with full or empty stomachs!" And now their thoughts
+were set on the place of eternal rest. They slept, and arose to their
+morning orisons with hearts resting humbly on their God, in the fullest
+expectation that this was their last day on earth: the prayer was
+concluded, and the Woodcutter in the act of rolling up his carpet, on
+which he had bowed with gratitude, reverence, and love to his Creator,
+when he perceived a fresh heap of silver on the floor;--he could scarcely
+believe it was not a dream. "How wonderful art Thou, O God!" cried the
+poor Woodcutter; "this is Thy bounteous gift that I may indeed enjoy one
+day before I quit this earth." And when Moosa came to him, he (Moosa) was
+satisfied with the goodness and power of God; but he retired again to the
+Mount to inquire of God the cause of the Woodcutter's respite. The reply
+given to Moosa was, "That man has faithfully applied the wealth given in
+answer to his petition. He is worthy to live out his numbered years on
+earth, who, receiving My bounty, thought not of his own enjoyments whilst
+his fellow men had wants he could supply." And to the end of the
+Woodcutter's long life, God's bounty lessened not in substance; neither
+did the pious man relax in his charitable duties of sharing with the
+indigent all that he had, and with the same disregard to his own
+enjoyments.'
+
+I have but little to add, as regards the manner of worship amongst my
+Mussulmaun acquaintance; but here I cannot omit remarking, that the women
+are devout in their prayers and strict in their observance of ordinances.
+That they are not more generally educated is much to be regretted; this,
+however, is their misfortune, not their fault. The Mussulmaun faith does
+not exclude the females from a participation in the Eternal world,[21]--as
+has so often been assorted by people who could not have known them,--and
+the good Mussulmaun proves it by his instruction of the females under his
+control in the doctrines of Mahumud, and who he believes to be as much
+dependent on him for guidance on the road to heaven, as for personal
+protection from want or worldly dangers.
+
+The pure life of Fatima, Mahumud's only daughter, is greatly esteemed as
+an example of female excellence, whom they strive to imitate as much as
+possible, as well in religious as in moral or domestic duties. They are
+zealous to fulfil all the ordinances of their particular faith,--and I
+have had the best possible opportunity of studying their
+character,--devotion to God being the foundation on which every principal
+action of their lives seems to rest.
+
+In my delineation of character, whether male or female, I must not be
+supposed to mean the whole mass of the Mussulmaun population. There are
+good and bad of every class or profession of people; it has been my good
+fortune to be an inmate with the pious of that faith, and from their
+practice I have been aided in acquiring a knowledge of what constitutes a
+true disciple of Mahumud.
+
+
+[1] The writer mixes up the Persian and Arabic names of the hours of
+    prayer. The proper names, according to this list, are: i,
+    Namaz-i-Subh, from dawn to sunrise; ii, Salatu'l-Zuhr, when the
+    sun has begun to decline; iii, Salatu'l 'Asr, midway between
+    Nos. ii and iv; iv, Sala tu'l-Maghrib, a few minutes after sunset;
+    v, Salatu'l 'Isha, when night has closed in.
+
+[2] _Namaz-i-Tahajjid_, the prayer after midnight.
+
+
+[3] _Wazifah_, 'a daily ration of food', a term used for the daily
+    lesson or portion of the _Koran_ read by devout Musalmans. The
+    _Koran_ is divided into thirty lessons (_siparah_) for use
+    during the month Ramazan.
+
+[4] Special readers (_muqri_) of the _Koran_ are needed, owing to
+    the want of vowels in the Arabic character (Sale, _Preliminary
+    Discourse_, 47). Readers are often employed to recite the _Koran_
+    over a corpse on the way to Karbala.
+
+[5] Known as Khadim.
+
+[6] _Allahu akbar ... Muhammadan rasulu'llah._ In English the
+    entire call runs: 'Allah is most great (four times), I testify that
+    there is no God but Allah (twice), I testify that Muhammad is the
+    Apostle of Allah (twice), Come to prayer (twice), Come to salvation
+    (twice), Allah is most great (twice), There is no God but Allah!'
+
+[7] Known as _Ja'e-namaz,_ 'place of prayer'.
+
+[8] See p. 27.
+
+[9] The _Salatu'l-Juma'_, the Friday prayer, is obligatory. Friday was
+    appointed a Sabbath to distinguish Musalmans from Jews and
+    Christians.
+
+[10] _Darzi_.
+
+[11] _Dhobi_.
+
+[12] See p. 74.
+
+[13] The correct titles are as follows: Adam, _Safiyu'llah,_ 'The
+    Chosen One of God'; Noah, _Nabiyu'llah_, 'The Prophet of God';
+    Abraham, _Khalilu'llah_, 'The Friend of God'; Moses,
+    _Kalimu'llah_, 'He that spoke with God'; Jesus, _Ruhu'llah_,
+    'A Spirit from God'; Muhammad, _Rasulu 'Illah,_ 'The Prophet of
+    God'.
+
+[14] _Salam-'alai-kum._
+
+
+[15] _Injil, [Greek: e'uaggélion]_, the Gospel, as opposed to
+    _taurat_, the Pentateuch.
+
+[16] Daud.
+
+[17] The Fatiha, or opening chapter of the _Koran_, used like the
+    Pator-noster.
+
+[18] Ja'afar as-Sadiq.
+
+[19] _Hazrat_, 'Reverend', or 'Superior'.
+
+[20] _Ja'e-namaz_, known also as _sajjadah_, or _musalla_.
+
+[21] The assertion that the Koran teaches that women have no souls is
+    incorrect. See the texts collected by Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_,
+    pp. 677 ff.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VIII
+
+  The Fast of Rumzaun.--Motives for its strict observance.--Its
+  commencement and duration.--Sentiments of Meer Hadjee Shaah on the
+  duty of fasting.--Adherence of the females to the observing this
+  fast.--How first broken.--Devout persons extend the term to forty
+  days.--Children permitted to try their zeal.--Calamitous effects of the
+  experiment.--Exemptions from this duty.--Joyful termination of the
+  fast.--Celebration of Eade on the last day.--The Nuzza.--Nautchwomen
+  and Domenie.--Surprise of the Natives at European dancing.--Remarks on
+  their Music.--Anecdotes of Fatima.--The Chuckee.
+
+
+  'The poor man fasts, because he wanteth meat;
+  The sick man fasts, because he cannot eat.
+  The miser fasts, with greedy mind, to spare;
+  The glutton fasts, to eat a greater share.
+  The hypocrite, he fasts to seem more holy;
+  The righteous man, to punish sinful folly.'
+
+The secret motive of the heart, man cannot fathom in his neighbour's deeds.
+There are some actions so praiseworthy in themselves, that the charitably
+disposed will pass over the probable actuating motive, when looking only
+to the fair example. I have, however, reason to think that the Mussulmauns
+generally, in fulfilling the commanded fast of Rumzaun, have an
+unexceptionable motive. They are taught by their Lawgiver, that the due
+performance of this rigid fast is an acceptable service to God the Creator,
+from man the creature: they believe this, and therefore they fast?
+
+Amongst the well-informed it is persevered in as a duty delightful to be
+permitted to perform; the ignorant take some merit to themselves in having
+faithfully observed the command; yet all the fasting population are
+actuated more or less by the same motive,---the desire to please God by
+fulfilling His commands, delivered to them by their acknowledged Prophet.
+
+The severity of a Mussulmaun's fast can alone be understood by those who
+have made the trial, as I frequently have, of the strict rules of
+abstinence which they observe; and with the additional privations to be
+endured at the period of the hottest months and the longest days in the
+same climate, as will sometimes be the case with all their movable fasts.
+
+The Mussulmaun fast commences when the first streak of light borders the
+Eastern horizon, and continues until the stars are clearly discerned in
+the heavens. During this period not the slightest particle of food, not
+one single drop of water, or any other liquid, passes the lips; the hookha,
+even, is disallowed during the continuance of the fast, which of itself
+forms not only a luxury of great value, but an excellent antidote to
+hunger.
+
+Amongst the really religious Mussulmauns the day is passed in occasional
+prayer, besides the usual Namaaz, reading the Khoraun, or the Lives of the
+Prophets. I have witnessed some, in their happy employment of these
+fatiguing days, who evinced even greater animation in their conversation
+than at other times; towards the decline of a day, when the thermometer
+has stood at eighty-nine in the shade of a closed house, they have looked
+a little anxious for the stars appearing, but,--to their credit be it
+told,--without the slightest symptom of impatience or fretfulness at the
+tardy approach of evening.
+
+My revered friend, Meer Hadjee Shaah, always told me that the great secret
+of a fast, to be beneficial, was to employ time well, which benefited both
+soul and body; employment suited to the object of the fast being the best
+possible alleviation to the fatigue of fasting. He adds, if the temper be
+soured either by the abstinence or the petty ills of life, the good
+effects of the fast are gone with the ruffled spirit, and that the person
+thus disturbed had much better break his fast, since it ceases to be of
+any value in the sight of Him to whom the service is dedicated; the
+institution of the fast having for its object to render men more humble,
+more obedient to their God; all dissensions must be forgotten; all vicious
+pursuits abandoned, to render the service of a fast an acceptable offering
+to God.
+
+In the zeenahnah, the females fast with zealous rigidness; and those who
+have not the happiness to possess a knowledge of books, or a husband or
+father disposed to read to them, will still find the benefit of employment
+in their gold embroidery of bags and trimmings, or other ornamental
+needle-work; some will listen to the Khaaunie[1] (tales), related by their
+attendants; others will overlook, and even assist in the preparations
+going forward for opening the fast. Ladies of the first quality do not
+think it a degradation to assist in the cooking of choice dishes. It is
+one of the highest favours a lady can confer on her friends, when she
+sends a tray of delicate viands cooked by her own hands. So that with the
+prayers, usual and occasional, the daily nap of two hours, indulged in
+throughout the year, occupation is made to fill up the day between dawn
+and evening; and they bear the fatigue with praiseworthy fortitude. Those
+who are acquainted with letters, or can afford to maintain hired readers,
+pass this month of trials in the happiest manner.
+
+The fast is first broken by a cooling draught called tundhie[2]; the same
+draught is usually resorted to in attacks of fever. The tundhie is
+composed of the seeds of lettuce, cucumber, and melon, with coriander, all
+well pounded and diluted with cold water, and then strained through muslin,
+to which is added rose-water, sugar, syrup of pomegranate, and kurah[3] (a
+pleasant-flavoured distilled water from the blossom of a species of aloe).
+This cooling draught is drank by basins' full amongst the Rozedhaars[4]
+(fasters), and it is generally prepared in the zeenahnah apartments for
+the whole establishment, male and female. Some of the aged and more
+delicate people break their fast with the juice of spinach[5] only, others
+choose a cup of boiling water to sip from. My aged friend, Meer Hadjee
+Shaah, has acquired a taste for tea, by partaking of it so often with me;
+and with this he has broken his fast for several years, as he says, with
+the most comforting sensations to himself. I have seen some people take a
+small quantity of salt in the first instance, preparatory to a draught of
+any kind of liquid. Without some such prelude to a meal, after the day's
+fast, the most serious consequences are to be apprehended.
+
+After indulging freely in the simple liquids, and deriving great benefit
+and comfort from a hookha, the appetite for food is generally stayed for
+some time: many persons prefer a rest of two hours before they can
+conveniently touch the food prepared for them, and even then, seldom eat
+in the same proportion as they do at other meals. Many suffice themselves
+with the one meal, and indulge in that very sparingly. The servants and
+labouring classes, however, find a second meal urgently necessary, which
+they are careful to take before the dawning day advances. In most families,
+cold rice-milk is eaten at that early hour. Meer Hadjee Shaah, I have
+before noticed, found tea to be the best antidote to extreme thirst, and
+many are the times I have had the honour to present him with this beverage
+at the third watch of the night, which he could enjoy without fear of the
+first streaks of light on the horizon arriving before he had benefited by
+this luxury.
+
+The good things provided for dinner after the fast are (according to the
+means of the party) of the best, and in all varieties; and from the
+abundance prepared, a looker-on would pronounce a feast at hand; and so it
+is, if to feed the hungry be a feast to the liberal-hearted bestower,
+which with these people I have found to be a part and parcel of their
+nature. They are instructed from their infancy to know all men as brothers
+who are in any strait for food; and they are taught by the same code, that
+for every gift of charity they dispense with a free good will, they shall
+have the blessing and favour of their Creator abundantly in return. On the
+present occasion, they cook choice viands to be distributed to the poor,
+their fellow-labourers in the harvest; and in proportion to the number fed,
+so are their expectations of blessings from the great Giver of all good,
+in whose service it is performed. In my postscript you will find several
+anecdotes of the daughter of Mahumud on the subject of charity.
+
+When any one is prevented fulfilling the fast of Rumzaun in his own person
+he is instructed to consider himself bound to provide food for opening the
+fast of a certain number of poor men who are Rozedhaars. The general food
+of the peasantry and lower orders of the people--bread and dhall[6]--is
+deemed sufficient, if unable to afford anything better.
+
+When any one dies without having duly observed the fast, pious relatives
+engage some devout person to perform a month's fast, which they believe
+will be accepted for the neglectful person. Many devout Mussulmauns extend
+the fast from thirty to full forty days, by the example of Mahumud and his
+family; and it is no unusual thing to meet with others who, in addition to
+this month, fast every Thursday through the year; some very rigid persons
+even fast the month preceding and the following month, as well as the
+month of Rumzaun.
+
+Some very young people (children we should call them in happy England) are
+permitted to try their fasting powers, perhaps for a day or two during the
+month of Rumzaun. The first fast of the noviciate is an event of no small
+moment to the mother, and gives rise to a little festival in the zeenahnah;
+the females of the family use every sort of encouragement to induce the
+young zealot to persevere in the trial when once commenced, and many are
+the preparations for the opening last with due éclat in their
+circle--sending trays of the young person's good things to intimate
+friends, in remembrance of the interesting event; and generally with a
+parade of servants and music, when the child (I must have it so) belongs
+to the nobility, or persons of consequence, who at the same time
+distribute money and food to the poor.
+
+These first fasts of the young must be severe trials, particularly in the
+hot season. I have heard, it is no uncommon thing for the young sufferers
+to sink under the fatigue, rather than break the fast they have had
+courage to commence. The consolation to the parents in such a case would
+be, that their child was the willing sacrifice, and had died 'in the road
+of God', as all deaths occurring under performances of a known duty are
+termed.
+
+Within my recollection a distressing calamity of this nature occurred at
+Lucknow, in a very respectable family. I did not know the party personally,
+but it was the topic in all the houses I visited at that period. I made a
+memorandum of the circumstance at the time, from which the following is
+copied:
+
+'Two children, a son and daughter of respectable parents, the eldest
+thirteen and the youngest eleven years of age, were permitted to prove
+their faith by the fast, on one of the days of Rumzaun; the parents,
+anxious to honour their fidelity, expended a considerable sum of money in
+the preparations for celebrating the event amongst their circle of friends.
+Every delicacy was provided for opening their fast, and all sorts of
+dainties prepared to suit the Epicurean palates of the Asiatics, who when
+receiving the trays at night would know that this was the testimony of the
+children's perseverance in that duty they all hold sacred.
+
+'The children bore the trial well throughout the morning, and even until
+the third watch of the day had passed, their firmness would have reflected
+credit on people twice their age, making their first fast. After the third
+watch, the day was oppressively hot, and the children evinced symptoms of
+weariness and fatigue; they were advised to try and compose themselves to
+sleep; this lulled them for a short time, but their thirst was more acute
+when they awoke than before. The mother and her friends endeavoured to
+divert their attention by amusing stories, praising their perseverance, &c.
+The poor weak lady was anxious that they should persevere; as the day was
+now so far gone, she did not like her children to lose the benefit of
+their fast, nor the credit due to them for their forbearance. The children
+endeavoured to support with patience the agony that bowed them down--they
+fainted, and then the mother was almost frantic, blaming herself for
+having encouraged them to prolong their fast against their strength. Cold
+water was thrown over them; attempts were made to force water into their
+mouths; but, alas! their tender throats were so swollen, that not a drop
+passed beyond their mouths. They died within a few minutes of each other;
+and the poor wretched parents were left childless through their own
+weakness and mistaken zeal. The costly viands destined for the testimony
+of these children's faith, it may be supposed, were served out to the
+hungry mendicants as the first offerings dedicated to the now happy
+spirits of immortality.'
+
+This is a sad picture of the distressing event, but I have not clothed it
+in the exaggerated garb some versions bore at the time the circumstance
+happened.
+
+There are some few who are exempt from the actual necessity of fasting
+during Rumzaun; the sick, the aged, women giving nourishment to infants,
+and those in expectation of adding to the members of the family, and very
+young children, these are all commanded not to fast.[7] There is a
+latitude granted to travellers also; but many a weary pilgrim whose heart
+is bent heavenward will be found taking his rank amongst the Rozedhaars of
+the time, without deeming he has any merit in refraining from the
+privileges his code has conferred upon him; such men will fast whilst
+their strength permits them to pursue their way.
+
+Towards the last week of Rumzaun the haggard countenances and less
+cheerful manners of the fasting multitude seem to increase, but they
+seldom relax unless their health is likely to be much endangered by its
+continuance.
+
+The conclusion of the month Rumzaun is celebrated as an Eade[8] (festival),
+and, if not more splendid than any other in the Mussulmaun calendar, it is
+one of the greatest heart-rejoicing days. It is a sort of thanksgiving day
+amongst the devout people who have been permitted to accomplish the task;
+and with the vulgar and ignorant, it is hailed with delight as the season
+of merriment and good living--a sort of reward for their month's severe
+abstinence.
+
+The namaaz of the morning, and the prayer for Eade, commence with the dawn;
+after which the early meal of Eade is looked forward to with some anxiety.
+In every house the same dainties are provided with great exactness (for
+they adhere to custom as to a law): plain boiled rice, with dhie[9] (sour
+curd) and sugar, forms the first morning repast of this Eade; dried dates
+are eaten with it (in remembrance of the Prophet's family, whose greatest
+luxury was supposed to be the dates of Arabia).[10] A preparation of flour
+(similar to our vermicelli)[11] eaten with cold milk and sugar, is amongst
+the good things of this day, and trifling as it may appear, the indulgence
+is so great to the native population, that they would consider themselves
+unfortunate Rozedhaars, if they were not gratified, on this occasion, with
+these simple emblems of long-used custom. The very same articles are in
+request in Mussulmaun society, by this custom, from the King to the
+meanest of his subjects.
+
+The ladies' assemblies, on this Eade, are marked by all the amusements and
+indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy, in their secluded state.
+Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing
+honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dresses.
+The zeenahnah rings with the festive songs and loud music, the cheerful
+meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependants, and
+remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and
+amusement, on this happy day of Eade, when the good lady of the mansion
+sits in state to receive nuzzas from inferiors, and granting proofs of her
+favour to others.
+
+Nuzza[12] is an offering of money from inferiors to those who rank in
+society above the person presenting; there is so much of etiquette
+observed in Native manners, that a first visit to a superior is never made
+without presenting a nuzza. When we arrived in India, an old servant of my
+husband's family, named Muckabeg, was sent to meet us at Patna to escort
+us to Lucknow; on entering our budgerow[13] he presented fourteen rupees
+to me, which were laid on a folded handkerchief. I did not then understand
+what was intended, and looked to the Meer for explanation; he told me to
+accept Muckabeg's 'Nuzza'. I hesitated, remarking that it seemed a great
+deal more than a man in his situation could afford to give away. My
+husband silenced my scruples by observing, 'You will learn in good time
+that these offerings are made to do you honour, together with the certain
+anticipation of greater benefits in return; Muckabeg tenders this nuzza to
+you, perhaps it is all the money he possesses, but he feels assured it
+will be more than doubly repaid to him in the value of a khillaut[14]
+(dress of honour) he expects from your hands to-day. He would have behaved
+himself disrespectfully in appearing before you without a nuzza, and had
+you declined accepting it, he would have thought that you were either
+displeased with him, or did not approve of his coming.' This little
+incident will perhaps explain the general nature of all the nuzzas better
+than any other description I could offer.
+
+Kings and Nuwaubs keep the festival in due form, seated on the throne or
+musnud, to receive the congratulations and nuzzas of courtiers and
+dependants, and presenting khillauts to ministers, officers of state, and
+favourites. The gentlemen manage to pass the day in receiving and paying
+visits, all in their several grades having some inferiors to honour them
+in the presentation of offerings, and on whom they can confer favours and
+benefits; feasting, music, and dancing-women, filling up the measure of
+their enjoyments without even thinking of wine, or any substitute stronger
+than such pure liquids as graced the feasts of the first inhabitants of
+the world.
+
+The Nautchwomen in the apartments of the gentlemen, and the Domenie[15] in
+the zeenahnahs are in great request on this day of festivity, in every
+house where the pleasures and the follies of this world are not banished
+by hearts devoted solely to the service of God. 'The Nautch' has been, so
+often described that it would here be superfluous to add to the
+description, feeling as I do an utter dislike both to the amusement and
+the performers. The nautchunies are entirely excluded from the female
+apartments of the better sort of people; no respectable Mussulmaun would
+allow these impudent women to perform before their wives and daughters.
+
+But I must speak of the Domenie, who are the singers and dancers admitted
+within the pale of zeenahnah life; these, on the contrary, are women of
+good character, and their songs are of the most chaste description,
+chiefly in the Hindoostaunie tongue. They are instructed in Native music
+and play on the instruments in common use with some taste,--as the
+saattarah[16] (guitar), with three wire strings; the surringhee[17]
+(rude-shaped violin); the dhome or dholle[18] (drum), in many varieties,
+beaten with the fingers, never with sticks. The harmony produced is
+melancholy and not unpleasing, but at best all who form the several
+classes of professors in Native societies are indifferent musicians.
+
+Amateur performers are very rare amongst the Mussulmauns; indeed, it is
+considered indecorous in either sex to practise music, singing, or dancing;
+and such is the prejudice on their minds against this happy resource
+amongst genteel people of other climates, that they never can reconcile
+themselves to the propriety of 'The Sahib Logue',--a term in general use
+for the English people visiting India,--figuring away in a quadrille or
+country dance. The nobles and gentlemen are frequently invited to witness
+a 'station-ball'; they look with surprise at the dancers, and I have often
+been asked why I did not persuade my countrywomen that they were doing
+wrong. 'Why do the people fatigue themselves, who can so well afford to
+hire dancers for their amusement?' Such is the difference between people
+of opposite views in their modes of pleasing themselves: a Native
+gentleman would consider himself disgraced or insulted by the simple
+inquiry, 'Can you dance, sing, or play?'
+
+The female slaves are sometimes taught to sing for their ladies' amusement,
+and amongst the many Hindoostanie airs there are some that would please
+even the most scientific ear; although, perhaps, they are as old as the
+country in which they were invented, since here there are neither
+composers of modern music, nor competitors for fame to bring the amusement
+to a science. Prejudice will be a continual barrier to improvement in
+music with the natives of India; the most homely of their national airs
+are preferred at the present day to the finest composition of modern
+Europe.
+
+My promised postscript is a translation from the Persian, extracted from
+'The Hyaatool Kaaloob'. The author is detailing the manner of living
+habitual to Mahumud and his family, and gives the following anecdotes
+'hudeeth' [19] (to be relied on), which occurred at the season of Rumzaun;
+the writer says:--
+
+'It is well known that they (Mahumud's family) were poor in worldly wealth;
+that they set no other value on temporal riches (which occasionally passed
+through their hands) but as loans from the great Giver of all good, to be
+by them distributed amongst the poor, and this was done faithfully; they
+kept not in their hands the gifts due to the necessitous. The members of
+Mahumud's family invariably lived on the most simple diet, even when they
+could have commanded luxuries.
+
+'At one season of Rumzaun,--it was in the lifetime of Mahumud,--Fatima,
+her husband Ali, and their two sons, Hasan and Hosein, had fasted two days
+and nights, not having, at that period, the means of procuring the
+smallest quantity of food to break their fast with. Habitually and from,
+principle, they disguised from the world or their friends all such
+temporal trials as it seemed good in the wisdom of Divine Providence to
+place in their chequered path; preferring under any circumstances of need,
+to fix their sole trust in the mercy and goodness of God for relief,
+rather than by seeking aid from their fellow-creatures lessening their
+dependence on Him.
+
+'On the evening above mentioned, Mahumud went to the cottage of Fatima,
+and said, "Daughter, I am come to open my fast with thee."--"In the name
+of the most merciful God, be it so," was the reply of Fatima; yet secretly
+she sorrowed, that the poverty of her house must now be exposed to her
+beloved father.
+
+'Fatima spread the dustha-khawn[20] (a large square of calico) on the
+floor of the room near her father, placed empty plates before him, then
+retired to her station for prayers; spreading her mat in the direction of
+Kaabah, she prostrated herself to the earth before God in the humblest
+attitude, imploring His merciful aid, in this her moment of trial.
+Fatima's fervent prayer was scarcely finished, when a savoury smell of
+food attracted her attention; raising her head from the earth, her anxious
+eye was greeted with the view of a large bowl or basin filled with
+sulleed[21] (the Arabian food of that period). Fatima again bowed down her
+head, and poured out in humble strains that gratitude to God with which
+her heart overflowed. Then rising from her devotions, she took up the
+savoury food and hurried with it to her father's presence, and summoned
+her husband and the children to partake of this joyous meal, without even
+hinting her thoughts that it was the gift of Heaven.
+
+'Ali had been some time seated at the meal, when he, knowing they had no
+means of procuring it, looked steadily on Fatima, and inquired where she
+had secreted this delicious food; at the same time recurring to the two
+days' fast they had endured. "Rebuke her not, my son," said Mahumud;
+"Fatima is the favoured of Heaven, as was Myriam[22] (Mary), the mother of
+Esaee[23] (Jesus), who, living in her uncle Zechareah's[24] (Zachariah's)
+house, was provided by God with the choicest of fruits. Zechareah was poor,
+and oft he hungered for a meal; but when he entered Myriam's apartment, a
+fresh supply of rare fruits was wont to greet his eye. Zechareah asked,
+Whence had ye these precious gifts? Myriam answered, An angel from God
+places the fruit before me; eat, my uncle, and be satisfied."'
+
+The writer thus leaves the story of the miraculous food to Fatima's prayer,
+and goes on as follows:--
+
+'At another season of the fast, this family of charity endured a severe
+trial, which was miraculously and graciously rewarded. Fatima had a female
+slave, who shared with her equally the comforts and the toils of life.
+
+'The food allotted to every member of Ali's family was two small barley
+cakes for each day; none had more or less throughout the family. The
+labour of domestic affairs was shared by Fatima with her female slave, and
+each took their day for grinding the barley at the chuckee,[25] with which
+the cakes were made.
+
+'On the--day of Rumzaun, the corn was ground as usual, the cakes made, and
+the moment for opening the fast anxiously anticipated, by this abstemious
+family. The evening arrived, and when the family had fulfilled their
+prayer-duty, the party assembled round the homely dustha-khawn with
+thankful hearts, and countenances beaming with perfect content. All had
+their allotted portions, but none had yet tasted of their cakes, when the
+voice of distress caught their ears. "Give me, oh, give me, for the love
+of God! something to relieve my hunger and save my famishing family from
+perishing." Fatima caught up her barley cakes, and ran out to the
+supplicant, followed by her husband, the two children, and the slave. The
+cakes were given to the distressed creature, and as they comprised their
+whole stock, no further supply awaited their returning steps, nor even a
+substitute within the bare walls of their cottage; a few grains of salt
+had been left from cooking the barley cakes, and each took a little of the
+small quantity, to give a relish to the water they now partook of freely;
+and then retired to sleep away the remembrance of hunger.
+
+'The next day found them all in health, and with hearts at peace; the day
+was passed in useful occupation, and when evening drew nigh, the same
+humble fare was ready for the fasting family, whose appetites were doubly
+keen by the lengthened abstinence. Again they meet to partake in gratitude
+the great gift of Divine goodness, wholesome sustenance; when, lo! the
+sound of sorrowing distress, petitioning in the holy name adored by these
+pious souls,--"For the Love of God!"--arrested their attention. An appeal
+so urgently made carried with it a command to their devout hearts, and the
+meal so long delayed to their own necessities was again surrendered to the
+beggar's prayers.
+
+'This family of charity had returned to their empty hut, and were seated
+in pious conversation to beguile their sufferings; not a murmuring word or
+sigh escaped their sanctified mouths. As the evening advanced thus
+occupied, a pleasing joy seemed to fill the heart of Fatima, who secretly
+had sorrowed for her good dear children's privations; presently a bright
+and powerful light filled the room, an angel stood before them; his
+appearance gave them no alarm;--they beheld his presence with humility.
+"Thy good deeds", said the angel (Gabriel), "are acceptable to God, the
+All Merciful! by whose command I come to satisfy the demands of mortal
+nature; this fruit (dates) is the gift of Him you serve; eat and be at
+peace." The meal was ample which the angel brought to this virtuous family,
+and having placed it before them, he vanished from their sight.'
+
+The Chuckee, before mentioned, is two flat circular stones (resembling
+grindstones in England), the upper stone has a peg or handle fixed in it,
+near the edge, with which it is forced round, by the person grinding, who
+is seated on the floor; the corn is thrown in through a circular hole on
+the upper stone, and the flour works out at the edges between the two
+stones. This is the only method of grinding corn for the immense
+population throughout Oude, and most other parts of Hindoostaun even to
+the present day. The late King of Oude, Ghauzieood deen Hyder, was at one
+time much pressed by some English friends of his, to introduce water-mills,
+for the purpose of grinding corn; he often spoke of the proposed plan to
+the Meer, and declared his sole motive for declining the improvement was
+the consideration he had for the poor women, who by this employment made
+an excellent living in every town and village, and who must, by the
+introduction of mills, be distressed for the means of support. 'My poor
+women', he would often say, 'shall never have cause to reproach me, for
+depriving them of the use and benefit of their chuckee.'
+
+I have before said it is not my intention to offer opinions on the
+character of the Mussulmaun people, my business being merely to relate
+such things as I have heard and seen amongst them. The several
+translations and anecdotes I take the opportunity of placing in these
+letters, are from authorities the Mussulmauns style, hudeeth
+(authentic),--that are not, cannot, be doubted, as they have been handed
+down either by Mahumud or by the Emaums, whose words are equally to be
+relied on. When any passages in their sacred writings are commented on by
+different authors, they give their authority for the opinion offered, as
+Emaum Such-a-one explains it thus. You understand, therefore, that the
+Mussulmauns believe these miracles to have occurred to the members of
+their Prophet's family as firmly as we believe in the truth of our Holy
+Scripture.
+
+
+[1] _Kahani_.
+
+[2] _Thandi_.
+
+[3] See p. 13.
+
+[4] _Rozadar_, 'one who keeps fast' (_roza_).
+
+[5] _Spinacea oleracea_, or _Basella alba_.
+
+[6] Dhall [_dal_] is a sort of pea, sometimes cooked in a savoury way
+    with garlic, salt, ghee, pepper and herbs. It is about the consistence
+    of thick pea-soup--but without meat. [_Author_.]
+
+[7] But it is directed that infirm people, unable to fast, should feed a
+    poor person when the fast is over. Women in child and those suckling
+    children are advised to fast at some other more convenient season.
+
+[8] 'Idu'l-fitr, 'the Festival of the Breaking of the Fast'.
+
+[9] _Dahi_.
+
+[10] The Ajwah date is never sold in Arabia, because the Prophet advised
+    that whosoever break the fast every day with, six or seven of those
+    fruits need fear neither poison nor magic.--Burton, _Pilgrimage_,
+    i. 401 f.
+
+[11] Known as _siwayan_, which Musalman servants present on this day
+    to their European masters in India.
+
+[12] _Nazr, nazar_.
+
+[13] A lumbering, keelless barge, formerly much used by Europeans
+    travelling on the Ganges and its tributaries: _bajra_ meaning
+    'heavy'.
+
+[14] _Khil'at._
+
+[15] _Domni_, a woman of the Dom or singer class.
+
+[16] _Sitara_, 'three-stringed', but often possessing four or more
+    strings of steel and brass wire, played with a steel wire frame.
+
+[17] _Saranyi_.
+
+[18] _Dhol_: 'dhome' is a mistake.
+
+[19] _Hadis_, the sayings of the Prophet, not of an uninspired divine or
+    teacher.
+
+[20] _Dastarkhwan_, a modification of the Arab leathern table-spread
+    (_sufra_).
+
+
+[21] _Tharid_, bread moistened with broth and mixed with scraps of meat.
+
+[22] Maryam.
+
+[23] 'Isa'l-Masih.
+
+[24] Zakariya (_Koran_, iii. 32, vi. 85, xix. 1-12, xxi. 89).
+
+[25] _Chakki_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER IX
+
+  The Hadje (Pilgrimage to Mecca).--Commanded to be performed by
+  Mahumud.--Eagerness of both sexes to visit the Prophet's
+  tomb.--Qualifications requisite for the undertaking.--Different
+  routes from India to Mecca.--Duties of the pilgrims at the Holy
+  House.--Mecca and its environs.--Place of Abraham.--The
+  Bedouins.--Anecdote of a devotee and two pilgrims.--A Bedouin Arab,
+  and the travellers to Mecca.--The Kaabah (Holy House).--Superstitious
+  regard to a chain suspended there.--Account of the gold
+  water-spout.--Tax levied on pilgrims visiting the tomb of Mahumud by
+  the Sheruff of Mecca.--Sacred visit to the tombs of Ali, Hasan, and
+  Hosein.--The importance attached to this duty.--Travellers annoyed by
+  the Arabs.--An instance recorded.--The Nudghiff Usheruff.--Anecdotes
+  of Syaad Harshim.
+
+
+'The Pilgrimage to Mecca' is commanded by Mahumud to his followers at
+least once during their lifetime, provided the obstacles are not
+insurmountable. Indulgences are made for the sick, or individual poverty.
+All who have the means at command, whatever may be their distance from the
+place, are expected to perform the Hadje themselves if possible; or, if
+prevented by any circumstances they cannot control, they are required to
+pay the expenses of other persons willing to be their proxies.
+
+Whatever information I have acquired on the subject of this pilgrimage has
+been gleaned from frequent conversations with Meer Hadjee Shaah, who, as I
+have before remarked, performed the Hadje from Hindoostaun to Mecca, at
+three different periods of his eventful life.
+
+If the fatigues, privations, and difficulties of the pilgrimage to Mecca
+be considered, the distance from Hindoostaun must indeed render the Hadje
+a formidable undertaking; yet, the piously disposed of both sexes yearn
+for the opportunity of fulfilling the injunctions of their Lawgiver, and
+at the same time, gratifying their laudable feelings of sympathy and
+curiosity--their sympathy, as regards the religious veneration for the
+place and its purposes; their curiosity, to witness with their own eyes
+those places rendered sacred by the words of the Khoraun in one instance,
+and also for the deposits contained in the several tombs of prophets, whom
+they have been taught to reverence and respect as the servants of God.
+
+Every year may be witnessed in India the Mussulmauns of both sexes forming
+themselves into Kauflaahs[1] (parties of pilgrims) to pursue their march
+on this joyous expedition, believing, as they do, that they are fulfilling
+a sacred duty. The number of women is comparatively few, and those chiefly
+from the middling and lower classes of the people, whose expenses are
+generally paid by the rich females. The great obstacle to the higher
+classes performing the pilgrimage themselves is, that the person must at
+times be necessarily exposed to the view of the males. The lower orders
+are less scrupulous in this respect, who, whilst on the pilgrimage, wear a
+hooded cloak[2] of white calico, by which the person is tolerably well
+secreted, so that the aged and youthful have but one appearance; the
+better sort of people, however, cannot reconcile themselves to go abroad,
+unless they could be permitted to have their covered conveyances, which in
+this case is impossible.
+
+The qualifications necessary for all to possess, ere they can be deemed
+fit subjects for the Hadje, are, as I learn, the following:
+
+'They must be true Mussulmauns in their faith; that is, believe in one
+only true God, and that Mahumud is His Prophet.
+
+'They must strictly obey the duties commanded by Mahumud; that is, prayer
+five times daily, the fast of Rumzaun, &c.
+
+'They must be free from the world; that is, all their debts must be paid,
+and their family so well provided for, according to their station, that no
+one dependent on them may be in want of the necessaries of life during the
+absence of the pilgrim from his home and country.
+
+'They must abstain from all fermented or intoxicating liquors, and also
+from all things forbidden to be eaten by the law (which is strictly on the
+Mosaic principle).
+
+'They must freely forgive their enemies; and if they have given any one
+cause of offence, they must humble themselves, and seek to be forgiven.
+
+'They must repent of every evil they have committed, either in thought,
+word, or deed, against God or their neighbour.'
+
+Thus prepared, the pious Mussulmaun sets out on his supposed duty, with
+faith in its efficacy, and reliance on the goodness of Divine Providence
+to prosper him in the arduous undertaking.
+
+Many Kauflaahs from the Upper Provinces of India, travel overland to
+Bombay; others make Calcutta their place of embarkation, in the Arab ships,
+which visit those ports annually with returning pilgrims from Arabia,
+cargoes of coffee, Arabian fruits, and drugs. Some few enterprising people
+make the whole pilgrimage by land; this is, however, attended with so many
+and severe difficulties, that but few of the present day have courage to
+attempt it. In those cases their road would be from Delhie to Cashmire,
+through Buckaria,[3] making a wide circuit to get into Persia. This is the
+most tedious route, but possesses the advantages of more inhabited places
+on the line of march, and therefore provisions are the more readily
+procured. There is one route from the Lahore Province,--the English
+territory here is bounded by the river Suttledge, which the traveller
+crosses into the Sikh country,--through Afghastaan and Persia. I have not
+heard of the Kauflaahs making this their road of late; there seems to be
+always a disposition to fear the Sikhs,[4] who are become a powerful
+nation under Runjeet Singh; but I am not aware what ground the pilgrims
+have for their distrust, except that they can scarcely expect the same
+courtesy from these people as from the Mussulmauns, who would naturally
+aid and assist the pilgrims, and respect the persons thus labouring to
+accomplish the command of their Prophet.
+
+Whatever may be the chosen route, the pilgrims must make up their minds to
+many trials necessarily incident to the undertaking; and to the habits of
+the Mussulmauns of India, I cannot suppose any fatigue or trial greater
+than the voyage by sea, in an Arab vessel. It is well for those persons
+whose hearts have undergone that thorough change, which by the law fits
+them for the Hadje; with such men, earthly calamities, privations, or any
+other mere mortal annoyances, are met with pious fortitude, having
+consolations within which strengthen the outward man: in all their trials
+they will say, 'It is in the road of God, by Him cometh our reward'.
+
+The duty of the pilgrims, on their arrival at the Holy Place, is to
+worship God, and visit the tombs of the Prophets. There are forms and
+regulations to be observed in the manner of worship; certain circuits to
+be made round the Kaabah; saluting with the lips the sacred stone therein
+deposited; and calling to remembrance the past wonders of God, with
+reverence and piety of heart. I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah speak
+of the comfort a humble-minded pilgrim enjoys at the time he is making his
+visit to the Holy House; he says, 'There the heart of the faithful servant
+of God is enlightened and comforted; but the wicked finds no rest near
+Kaabah'.
+
+The pilgrims visit the tombs of every prophet of their faith within their
+reach; as the mausoleum of Hasan and Hosein, the Nudghiff Usheruff of Ali,
+and, if it be possible, Jerusalem also. At Dimishk (Damascus) they pay
+respect to the burying-place of Yieyah[5] (St. John), over whose earthly
+remains is erected, they say, the Jumna Musjud[6] (mosque), to which the
+faithful resort on Fridays (their Sabbath) to prayer.
+
+Within the confines of the Holy House, life is held so sacred that not the
+meanest living thing is allowed to be destroyed; and if even by accident
+the smallest insect is killed, the person who has caused the death is
+obliged to offer in atonement, at the appointed place for sacrificing to
+God, sheep or goats according to his means.[7]
+
+According to the description of Meer Hadjee Shaah the city of Mecca is
+situated in the midst of a partially barren country; but at the spot
+called Taaif,[8]--only one day's journey from Mecca,--the soil is
+particularly fertile, producing all kinds of fruit and vegetables in great
+abundance, and the air remarkably pure and healthy. The word Taaif implies
+in the Arabic 'the circuits completed'. It is recorded 'that the angel
+Gabriel brought this productive soil, by God's command, and placed it at a
+convenient distance from Mecca, in order that the pilgrims and sojourners
+at the Holy House might be benefited by the produce of the earth, without
+having them sufficiently near to call off their attention from the solemn
+duty of worshipping their God, which they are expressly called upon to
+perform at Mecca'.
+
+My informant tells me that there is a stone at Mecca known by the
+appellation of 'Ibraahim Mukhaun' (Place of Abraham):[9] on this is seen
+the mark of a human foot, and believed by pilgrims, on good authority, to
+be the very stone on which Abraham rested his foot when making occasional
+visits to his son Ishmael: at the performance of this duty he never
+dismounted from his camel, in compliance with his sacred promise made to
+Sarah the mother of Isaac.
+
+The pilgrimage to Mecca is most securely performed by those persons who
+travel in a humble way; riches are sure to attract the cupidity of the
+Bedouins. A poor pilgrim they respect, and with him they will share their
+last meal or coin. The Bedouin Arab delights in hospitably entertaining
+men of his own faith, provided they are really distressed; but the
+consequence of deception would be a severe visitation on the delinquent.
+The two following stories I have received from Meer Hadjee Shaah,
+descriptive of some of the incidents that occur to pilgrims, and therefore
+may be acceptable here.
+
+'A good Mussulmaun of Hindoostaun resolved on undertaking the Hadje, being
+under the strong impression of a warning dream that his earthly career
+would speedily terminate. He travelled on foot, with one companion only,
+who was a faithfully-attached friend; they had no worldly wealth, and
+journeyed on their way as mendicants, trusting for each day's food to the
+bountiful care of Divine Providence: nor was their trust in vain, since
+the hearts of all who saw these pious travellers were moved by the power
+of God to yield them present relief.
+
+'On a certain day these pilgrims had journeyed from the dawn until eve
+without a meal, or meeting any one to assist them, when they were at last
+encountered by a religious devotee of another nation, with whom they
+conversed for some time. Their new acquaintance having found they were
+indeed poor, not even possessed of a single coin to purchase corn or food
+of any kind, expressed his hearty sympathy, and desired to be of service
+to the pilgrims; he therefore disclosed to them that he was in possession
+of a secret for the transmutation of metals,[10] and offered some of his
+prepared powder to the elder Hadjee, by which he would have persuaded him
+want should never again intrude; adding, "You will with this be
+independent of all future care about subsistence on your pilgrimage."
+
+'The pious Hadjee, however, was of a different mind from the devotee, and
+politely rejected the offer of the powder by which he was to acquire
+riches, declaring that the possession of such an article would rob him of
+the best treasure he enjoyed, namely, the most perfect reliance on Him, by
+whom the birds of the air are fed from day to day without labour or care,
+and who had hitherto fed him both in the city and in the desert; and that
+in this trust he had comforts and consolations which the whole world could
+not grant him: "My God, in whom I trust, will never desert me whilst I
+rely on Him alone for succour and support."'
+
+My excellent friend says, such pilgrims as the one described may pass
+through the haunts of the Bedouins without fear or sorrow, and they are
+always respected. The next anecdote I am about to relate will develop more
+particularly the Arab's natural disposition, and how necessary it is for
+men really to be that they would seem, when placed by circumstances within
+their reach. Some of the parties were known to my venerable relative.
+
+'Six Mussulmauns from India were travelling on foot in Arabia; they
+assumed the title of pilgrim mendicants. On a certain day they drew nigh
+to the tent of a Bedouin Arab, who went out to meet them, and entering
+into conversation, soon discovered by their talk that they were poor
+pilgrims from India, who depended on casual bounties from men of their
+faith for their daily meal. The Bedouin, though a robber, had respect for
+the commands of his religion; and with that respect he boasted a due share
+of hospitable feeling towards all who were of his own faith; he
+accordingly told them they were welcome to his home, and the best meal he
+could provide for them, which offers they very gladly accepted, and
+followed him to the tent.
+
+'The Arab desired his wife to take water to his guests and wash their feet
+after the fatigue of their day's march, and told her in secret to divert
+their attention whilst he went out in search of plunder, that the
+hospitality of an Arab might be shown to the strangers. Then mounting his
+fleet-camel, he was quickly out of sight. Many a weary circuit the Arab
+made, his ill stars prevailed; not a Kauflaah nor a traveller could he
+meet, whence a supply might be extracted, to be the means of providing for
+his guests; his home was penniless, and with the Bedouins, none give
+credit. His bad success dispirited him, and he returned to the back of his
+tent, to consult what was best to be done in this emergency. The only
+thing he possessed in the world fit for food was the animal on which he
+rode, from day to day, to levy contributions upon the passing traveller.
+
+'His only immediate resource was to kill his favourite camel. His honour
+was at stake; the sacrifice would be great; he was attached to the beast;
+the loss would be irreparable, he thought:--yet every weighty argument on
+one side to preserve the camel's life, was as quickly overturned in the
+reflection of his Arabian honour;--his visitors must be fed, and this was
+the only way he could contrive the meal. With trembling hands and
+half-averted eyes, the camel's blood was shed; with one plunge his
+favourite ceased to breathe. For some minutes, the Arab could not look on
+his poor faithful servant; but pride drove pity from her haunt, and the
+animal was quickly skinned and dressed in savoury dishes, with his wife's
+assistance. At length, the food prepared, the Arab and his wife placed the
+most choice portions before their guests, and whilst they dined attended
+them with respectful assiduity; selecting for each the most delicate
+pieces, to induce the travellers to eat, and evince the cordial welcome
+tendered by the host.[11]
+
+'The travellers having dined; the Arab and his wife took their turn at the
+feast with appetites most keen,--forgetful even, for the time, whence the
+savoury dishes were procured; and if an intruding thought of his favourite
+camel shot across the mind of the Arab, it was quickly chased in the
+reflection that his prided honour was secured by the sacrifice, and that
+reflection was to him a sufficient compensation.
+
+'The pilgrims, refreshed by food, were not inclined to depart, and as they
+were urged to stay by their friendly host, they slept comfortably in the
+Arab's tent, on coarse mats, the only bed known to the wandering Bedouins.
+The morning found them preparing to pursue their march; but the Arab
+pressed their continuance another day, to share with him in the abundance
+his camel afforded for the whole of the party. The travellers were not
+unwilling to delay their departure, for they had journeyed many days
+without much ease, and with very little food; their host's conversation
+also was amusing, and this second day of hospitality by the Arab was an
+addition to the comfort and convenience of the weary pilgrims.
+
+'The following morning, as was fixed, the travellers rose to take leave of
+their benevolent host and his attentive wife; each as he embraced the Arab,
+had some grateful word to add, for the good they had received at his hands.
+The last of the pilgrims, having embraced the Arab, was walking from the
+tent, when the dog belonging to the host seized the man by his garment and
+held him fast. "What is this?" inquired the Arab, "surely you must have
+deceived me; my dog is wise as he is trusty,--he never yet lied to his
+master. This labaadhar of yours he has taken a fancy to it seems; but you
+shall have my coat of better-looking stuff for your old chintz garment. We
+will exchange labaadhars,[12] my friend," said the Arab, throwing his own
+towards the hesitating traveller. His fellow-pilgrims, hearing altercation,
+advanced, and with surprise listened to the parley going on between the
+host and guest.--"I have a veneration for my chintz, old as it is," said
+the pilgrim; "it has been my companion for many years, brother; indeed I
+cannot part with it." The dog held fast the garment, and the Arab, finding
+persuasion was but loss of words, cast a frown of deep meaning on the
+travellers, and addressed them:--"Ye came to me beggars, hungry and
+fatigued; I believed ye were poor, and I sheltered ye these two days, and
+fed ye with my best; nay, more, I even killed my useful camel, that your
+hunger might be appeased. Had I known there was money with any of ye, my
+poor beast's life might yet have been spared; but it is too late to repent
+the sacrifice I made to serve you," Then, looking steadfastly at the
+chintz-robed traveller, he added, in a tone of sharp authority, "Come,
+change garments!--here, no one disputes my commands!"
+
+'The trembling pilgrim reluctantly obeyed. The Arab took up the garment
+and proceeded with it to where the fire was kindled. "Now we shall see
+what my trusty dog discovered in your tattered chintz," said the Arab, as
+he threw it on the fire. All the pilgrims hovered round the flames to
+watch what would result from the consuming garment, with intense anxiety.
+The Arab drew from the embers one hundred gold mohurs, to the surprise and
+wonder of all the travellers, save him who owned the chintz garment; he
+had kept his treasures so secretly, that even in their greatest distress
+he allowed his brother pilgrims to suffer, with himself, want and
+privations which, owing to his lust for gold, he had no heart to relieve.
+
+'The Arab selected from the prize he had obtained, by the exchange of
+garments, ten gold mohurs, and presented them to the owner with a sharp
+rebuke for his duplicity, alluding to the meanness he had been guilty of
+in seeking and accepting a meal from a Bedouin, whilst he possessed so
+much wealth about his person; then adding,--"There is nothing hidden from
+God; I killed my sole treasure to give food to the poor hungry travellers;
+my deed of charity is rewarded; deceit in you is punished by the loss of
+that wealth you deserved not to possess.--Depart, and be thankful that
+your life is spared; there are some of my tribe who would not have
+permitted you to go so easily: you have enough spared to you for your
+journey; in future, avoid base deceptions."'
+
+Of the Kaabah (Holy House) many wonderful things are recorded in the
+several commentaries on the Khoraun, and other ancient authorities, which
+it would fill my letter to detail. I will, however, make mention of the
+mystic chain as a sample of the many superstitious habits of that age.
+
+It is said, 'A chain was suspended from the roof of Kaabah, whither the
+people assembled to settle (by the touch) disputed rights in any case of
+doubt between contending parties.'
+
+Many curious things are related as having been decided by this mystic
+chain,[13] which it should seem, by their description, could only be
+reached by the just person in the cause to be decided, since, however long
+the arm of the faulty person, he could never reach the chain; and however
+short the person's arm who was in the right, he always touched the chain
+without difficulty. I will here relate one of the anecdotes on this
+subject.
+
+'Two pilgrims travelled together in Arabia; on the way one robbed the
+other of his gold coins, and secreted them carefully in the hollow of his
+cane or staff. His companion missing his cash, accused him of the theft,
+and when disputes had risen high between them, they agreed to visit the
+mystic chain to settle their difference. Arriving at Kaabah, their
+intentions being disclosed to the keepers of the place, the thief claimed
+the privilege, being the accused, of first reaching to touch the chain; he
+then gave the staff in which he had deposited the money into his
+fellow-pilgrim's hands, saying, "Keep this, whilst I go to prove my
+innocence." He next advanced and made the usual prayer, adding to which,
+"Lord, whatever I have done amiss I strive to remedy; I repent, and I
+restore"; then raising his arm, he touched the chain without difficulty.
+The spectators were much surprised, because all believed he was actually
+the thief. The man who lost his gold, freely forgave his fellow-traveller,
+and expressed sorrow that he had accused him wrongfully; yet he wished to
+prove that he was not guilty of falsehood--having really lost his
+gold,--and declared he also would approach the chain to clear himself from
+such a suspicion. "Here," said he to the criminal, "take back your staff;"
+and he advanced within the Kaabah, making the required prayer, and adding,
+"Now my Creator will grant me mercy and favour, for He knoweth my gold was
+stolen, and I have not spoken falsely in that, yet I know not who is the
+thief." He raised his hand and grasped the chain, at which the people were
+much amazed.'
+
+It is presumed, by writers of a later period, that this circumstance threw
+the mystic properties of the chain out of favour; for it was soon after
+removed secretly, these writers add, and its disappearance made the
+subject of much conjecture; no one could ever ascertain by whom it was
+taken, but the general belief is, that it was conveyed away by
+supernatural agency. Another marvellous story is recorded of the Kaabah,
+as follows:
+
+'A poor pilgrim, nearly famishing with hunger, while encircling the Holy
+House, on looking up towards the building observed the water-spout of
+gold[14] hanging over his head. He prayed that his wants might be relieved,
+adding, "To Thee, O God, nothing is difficult. At thy command, that spout
+of gold may descend to my relief;" holding the skirt of his garment to
+receive it, in answer to his faithful address. The spout had been firmly
+fixed for ages, yet it fell as the pilgrim finished his prayer. He lost no
+time in walking away with his valuable gift, and offered it to a merchant
+for sale, who immediately recognizing the gold spout of Kaabah, accused
+the pilgrim of sacrilege, and without delay handed him over to the
+Sheruff[15] of Mecca, to answer for his crime. He declared his innocence
+to the Sheruff, and told him how he became possessed of the treasure. The
+Sheruff had some difficulty in believing his confession, yet perceiving he
+had not the appearance of a common thief, he told him, if what he had
+declared was true, the goodness of God would again be extended towards him
+on the trial he proposed to institute. The spout was restored to its
+original position on the Kaabah, and made secure. This done, the pilgrim
+was required to repeat his faithful address to God, in the presence of the
+assembled multitude; when, to their astonishment, it again descended at
+the instant his prayer was finished. Taking up the spout without
+hesitation, he was walking away with it very quietly, when the people
+flocked round him, believing him to be some sainted person, and earnestly
+requested him to bestow on them small portions of his raiment as relics of
+his holy person. The Sheruff then clothed him in rich garments, and in
+lieu of the gold spout--which none could now dispute his right to,--the
+same weight of gold in the current coin of Arabia was given to him, thus
+raising him from beggary to affluence.'
+
+I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah speak of this gold spout which adorns
+the Kaabah, being held in great veneration by the pilgrims who make the
+Hadje to that place.
+
+All Mussulmauns performing the pilgrimage pay a kind of tax to the Sheruff
+of Mecca. The present possessors of power in Mecca are of the Soonie sect.
+The admission money, in consequence, falls heavy on the Sheahs, from whom
+they exact heavy sums, out of jealousy and prejudice. This renders it
+difficult for the poor Sheah pilgrim to gain admittance, and it is even
+suspected that in many cases they are induced to falsify themselves, when
+it is demanded of them what sect they belong to, rather than be denied
+entrance after their severe trial to reach the confines of Mecca. The tax
+levied on the Soonies is said to be trifling in proportion to that of the
+Sheahs.
+
+Amongst the different places visited by each Hadjee,--after the circuit is
+made,--a zeearut to the tomb of Ali at Nudghiff Usheruff, and the
+far-famed Kraabaallah of Hasan and Hosein are esteemed indispensable
+engagements, if it be possible; there is not, however, any command to this
+effect in the Mussulmaun law, but the Sheahs, zealous for their leaders,
+are willing to think they do honour to their memory, by visiting those
+tombs which contain the mortal remains of their respected Emaums.
+
+Travelling through this part of Arabia, Meer Hadjee Shaah says, is
+attended with much inconvenience and fatigue; but he failed not at each
+pilgrimage he made, to pay a visit to the mausoleums of his forefathers.
+He tells me that Kraabaallah was for a long time almost an interdicted
+visit, through the power of the Soonies, who were so jealous of the
+respect paid to the Emaums, that the Turks (who are Soonies) raised the
+price of admission within the gates to one hundred gold pieces. At that
+time very few people could gratify their yearnings beyond the outside view
+of the mausoleum; and even now that the entrance-money is much reduced the
+sums so collected yield a handsome revenue to the Turks.
+
+I will here introduce an anecdote which proves the value certain
+individuals set on the zeearut (sacred visit) to Kraabaallah, which I have
+received from my revered pilgrim-friend and relative.
+
+'Amongst the applicants for admission at the gates of Kraabaallah was an
+aged woman clothed in ragged garments. The gate-keeper, judging from her
+appearance, that she was destitute of money, scoffed at her presumption;
+she, however, produced the price of admission with much confidence of
+manner, and demanded entrance without further delay. The keepers now
+suspected the old woman to be a thief, and commenced interrogating her how
+she became possessed of so large a sum. The poor old woman answered them,
+"I have laboured hard for thirty years at my spinning-wheel, and have
+debarred myself during those years of all superfluities, contenting myself
+with a bare subsistence; I have done this that the dearest wish of my
+heart might once in my lifetime be gratified, to visit and weep over the
+tomb of my Emaums. Here, take the fruits of my labour, and let me have my
+reward; every moment delayed is agony to me."'
+
+In journeying through Arabia, pilgrims are much annoyed with the intrusion
+they so frequently meet with from the idle Arabs, who force their way into
+every stranger's place of sojourn without ceremony, to strain the nerves
+of charity from 'brethren of the faith'.
+
+There is a maxim well known amongst Mussulmauns,--the words of
+Mahumud,--'With the faithful, all are brothers'; and this is the pass-word
+with those idle men who pretend to have too much pride to beg, and are yet
+too indolent to labour for their support.
+
+A Mussulmaun,--however great his rank,--is seated with his friends and
+attendants; an Arab, who lives by this method, stalks into the tent or
+apartment, salutes the master with, 'Salaam-oon-ali Koom!' (health or
+peace be with you!) and unbidden takes his seat on the nearest vacant spot
+to the head person of the assembly. After the first surprise excited by
+the stranger's intrusion, he looks at the master and says, 'I claim the
+privilege of a brother'; by which it is to be understood the Arab requires
+money from the richer man of his faith. A small sum is tendered, he
+receives it without indicating any sense of obligation, rises from his
+seat, and moves off with no other than the familiar salute which marked
+his entrance, 'Salaam-oon-ali Koom!'[16]
+
+A rich Eunuch, of Lucknow, accompanied Meer Hadjee Shaah on one of his
+pilgrimages, with a large Kauflaah. Upon one occasion, when the whole
+party were seated in friendly conclave, some of these idle Arabs entered
+in the way described; the Eunuch was unacquainted with the language, or
+the manners of Arabia, and expressed his dislike to their freedom in warm
+language, and evident anger in his countenance; many had claimed the
+tribute of brotherhood, when the Eunuch, who was accustomed in his own
+country to receive respect and deference from inferiors, lost all patience
+with the uncourtly intrusion of the Arabs, and evinced his wrath to the
+proud Arab then present, who understood by his violent manners, if not by
+his language, that he was offended with him. The good sense and kindly
+manner of Meer Hadjee Shaah restored tranquillity in the assembly; he gave
+money to the man, and apologized for his friend's ignorance of the customs
+of Arabia: thus preventing the enraged Arab from fulfilling his threat of
+forcing the Eunuch to appear before the Sheruff of Mecca.
+
+Nudghiff Usheruff, the burying-place of Ali, is the resort of many pious
+men of the Mussulmaun persuasion, as well as the shrine to be visited by
+'the faithful' of the Sheah sect. Amongst the many singular stories I have
+heard of the devout men of that religion, I select one from the number
+relating to a man whose abode was--through choice--near the shrine of
+their beloved Emaum Ali. I shall give it in exactly the style I have
+received it, through my husband's translation, from an old work in the
+Persian language.
+
+'In the reign of Nadir Shaah,[17] a devout man of the faith took up his
+abode in the vicinity of Nudghiff Usheruff in Arabia. He was a Syaad,
+named Harshim;[18] a man of great learning, whose heart was set on seeking
+with love the most merciful God, whom he served faithfully. Syaad Harshim,
+conscious that the riches and honours of this world are inadequate to
+procure eternal happiness, and feeling convinced that the more humble a
+man's mode of living is, the greater are the prospects of escaping
+temptations in this life of probation, resolved on labouring for his daily
+bread, and relinquished with his paternal home, the abundance and riches
+which his ancient house had long boasted.
+
+'Syaad Harshim selected Nudghiff Usheruff for his sojourn, and the
+business of a woodman for a calling. The piety of his life, and the
+goodness of his heart, drew upon him the respect of the inhabitants of the
+city. It was his practice to spend every day in the jungle (wilderness)
+cutting fire-wood, of which he gave a light burthen to his ass; and
+returning towards evening to the populated city, he found ready customers
+for the load which his day's labour produced. His honesty and love of
+truth were proverbial: he asked the price for his wood which he intended
+to take; if more was offered, it was rejected,--if less, he would not
+accept it.
+
+'One evening, a man of superior address to his usual customers, but poorly
+clad, met him at the entrance of the street, and bargained for the load of
+wood. Syaad Harshim was penetrating, and could not help expressing his
+surprise at the circumstance of one, evidently moving in a higher sphere,
+being there to purchase wood. "I see," said the Syaad to the purchaser,
+"that your station is superior to your circumstances!--How is this?"--"My
+story," replied the stranger, "is not, I fear, uncommon in this age of the
+world. I will relate it briefly:--I was once a rich man, and my mind was
+set on making the pilgrimage. Aware that valuables and money would be an
+incumbrance to me on my journey, I applied to the Kauzy of this city to
+take charge of all my worldly riches during my absence, to which he
+readily consented, and having packed my jewels, money, and valuables in a
+strong chest with a good lock, I gave it into his charge and departed.
+
+'"My pilgrimage accomplished, and tired of a wandering life, I returned
+home after a few years' absence, waited on the Kauzy, and applied for the
+treasure I had deposited in his care; he denied all knowledge of me or my
+valuables, pretended not to understand me, called me an impostor, and
+eventually drove me from his house with violence. I again tried the Kauzy
+by expostulation, and sent my friends to him, but all without benefit; for
+here I am as you see me, Syaad Harshim, reduced to penury by the Kauzy's
+injustice. The world esteems him a person of great character, and condemns
+me as the unjust one. Well! I can say no more; I know that God is merciful,
+I put my trust in Him!" "Ameen," responded the Syaad, "do you so, and it
+will yet be well with you."
+
+'The stranger lingered with the sympathizing Woodman, and after some time
+had elapsed he asked him if he would interest himself with the Kauzy to
+effect a restitution of his rights, adding, "All are willing to give you,
+O Syaad, great credit for superior virtues." Harshim replied he had no
+merit to call for his fellow-mortals' good opinion, but as he felt
+interested in the affair he would certainly visit the unjust man, and
+requested the stranger to meet him at the Kauzy's door on the following
+morning.
+
+'Arrived at the Kauzy's residence, Harshim was received with evident
+pleasure, for though but a woodman, he yet was known to be a person of
+superior rank, and a man universally respected for his great piety. After
+the common salutations, the Syaad stated the object of his visit, assuring
+the Kauzy he was actuated purely by good feelings towards him in the part
+he had undertaken;--being desirous only of preserving his soul from the
+evil that attended the unjust men of this world, who die without
+repentance and restitution to those whom they have injured. Then calling
+the stranger forward, he said with firmness of voice and manner, "Behold
+this man! he left money and jewels in your charge whilst he went on his
+duty to the pilgrimage; he comes now to demand his property, give back his
+chest of treasures without delay, honestly and justly, as you hope for
+mercy in a future state!"
+
+'The Kauzy answered, "I have it not, Syaad Harshim, you may believe me;
+this fellow wickedly raises the falsehood to injure me, and it is as much
+to his own dishonour as to my discredit. I beg, therefore, you will
+neither give credit to his base assertions, nor think so meanly of me; my
+station as Kauzy of this district should, methinks, screen me from such
+imputations."--"True," said Harshim, "the station you occupy in the world,
+and the place you hold as Kauzy, prevent suspicion from attaching to you;
+hence this poor man has not yet found redress to the justice of his claims.
+I would have you believe me sincerely your friend, in desiring to bring
+your heart to repentance, and thus only can your soul's safety be secured.
+I know you to have this man's property, and your own heart even now
+convicts you of the injustice you practise. Nothing is hidden from
+God;--reflect on the punishment prepared for the unrepenting hypocrite.
+Listen, whilst I relate to you my own convictions, or rather experience,
+of that terrible punishment which is prepared for the impenitent hardened
+sinner beyond the grave.
+
+'"I have been a woodman for several years, and by my daily labour have
+earned my coarse food. Some years since, I was sick and unable to pursue
+my usual occupation; my supply was thus cut off. Requiring temporary
+relief, I applied to a rich Banker of this city for a trifling loan; my
+request was promptly complied with, and I engaged to repay the sum by two
+pice each day upon again resuming my employment. By the mercy of God I
+recovered; and on the evening of each day, as I sold the wood my day's
+labour produced in the market, I paid the Banker two pice. On the very day,
+however, that the last two were to have been paid, the Banker died. Thus I
+remained his debtor still. Often had I thought of the circumstance that I
+was his debtor, and with real regret; yet the sum was small, and with this
+I became reconciled.
+
+'"Not long after his decease I was visited with a dream, important to all
+the world to know, and I therefore desire to make it public. Judgement was
+opened to my view; the beauty of heaven was displayed on one side, and the
+torments of hell on the other. My dream presented many people waiting
+their award, whom I had known in life, and amongst the number my creditor
+the Banker; he was standing on the brink of that fiery yawning gulf which
+is prepared for the wicked and unjust. His attendant angels produced the
+documents of their faithful keeping,--good and evil actions of every
+mortal are thus registered,--one exhibited a small blank book in which not
+one good deed had been recorded, and that presented by the other,
+containing the evils of his ways on earth, appeared to me an immense
+volume filled throughout.
+
+'"'Take him to his merited torments!' was pronounced in an awful tone of
+command.--'Have mercy! have pity!' cried the Banker, in a supplicating
+voice.--'Produce one claim for pity,' was heard.--The Banker in agony
+looked wildly round, as if in search of something he might urge in
+extenuation, when casting his eyes on me he exclaimed, 'There! oh, there
+is one! who when in trouble I relieved, and he is still my debtor!'
+
+'"In my dream this appeared too slender a benefit to draw forth the
+slightest remission of the punishments awarded to his deserts. 'Away with
+him!' was heard.--'Oh!' cried the Banker's soul, 'draw near to me, thou
+good, virtuous, and humble Woodman, that the reflected light of thy
+virtues may give one instant's ease to my present torture. Let me but
+touch the righteous Harshim, and I will depart to my just punishment with
+submission!'
+
+'"I was permitted to gratify the unhappy spirit, wondering at the same
+time what benefit he could derive from touching me. Advancing near the
+tortured soul he stretched forth his hand and touched me on the knee; it
+was like a firebrand; I drew back hastily and found my knee was scorched.
+'Return to men with warnings,' said the wretched spirit. 'Tell them of my
+unhappy state; tell them what are the tortures of the wicked; that touch
+you have received on your knee, is of the same nature my whole body
+suffers in eternal flames.'--The pain I suffered in my knee disordered my
+sleep; I awoke in agony, and here it is to this day," said the Woodman,
+untying a bandage from his knee. "Examine the place, and be warned, O
+Kauzy, by the terrible certainty I have brought from that Banker whom you
+knew, and who is now suffering for his injustice on earth. I have been
+lame from that night of my dream," continued Syaad Harshim, "but I shall
+rejoice in the pain, if the example influence one hardened sinner to
+repent, whilst repentance may avail."
+
+'During the recital of the dream, Syaad Harshim watched the countenance of
+the Kauzy, who tried in vain to hide the guilty changes of his face. The
+Syaad at last fixed his keen eyes on him, "Now, friend," said he, "it
+would be great folly to add guilt to guilt by farther subterfuge. I know
+the day, the hour, you ingeniously substituted a false key to this man's
+chest; I could tell you what you wickedly took out; the place where it is
+secreted, even, is not hidden from my knowledge; go, bring it from your
+wife's apartment; a little labour will remove it from the corner near the
+bedstead."
+
+'The Kauzy was now subdued by the commanding truths of the Syaad, and his
+heart being softened by the fearful relation of the Banker's torment, he
+sank to the earth with shame and remorse,--"I acknowledge my sin, thou
+holy man of truth;--forgive me!" he cried, "forgive me, oh my God! I am
+indeed repentant, and by this holy man's means I am brought to a sense of
+my guilt!" He then went to the women's apartment, brought out the chest
+and delivered it to the owner, entreating Syaad Harshim to forgive him.
+
+'The Syaad replied, "I have nothing to forgive, nor power to remit; my
+advice you have freely, and may it serve you! Seek pardon from God who
+loves to be sought, and whose mercy never faileth. He is not the God of
+revenge, where repentance is sincere; but He is the God of mercy to all
+who seek Him faithfully. His mercy is already extended to you, for He has
+given you time to repent:--but for His mercy, you had been taken to your
+punishment, whilst you had no thoughts of repentance in your guilty heart.
+Farewell! let me know by your future life, that Syaad Harshim's lost
+labour in the jungle of this day, has produced something to the better
+harvest--awakening one sinner to a sense of his danger."'
+
+Meer Hadjee Shaah has related to me many singular anecdotes of this Syaad
+Harshim, which are generally spoken of, and believed to be true by the
+sojourners at Nudghiff Usheruff. His memory is much respected by the
+Mussulmauns, and the acts of his life are registered with the veneration
+paid to saints, amongst people of more enlightened nations. They
+confidently assert, that whenever Syaad Harshim presented himself at the
+entrance to Nudghiff Usheruff, the gates, which are always kept locked,
+flew open to receive him.
+
+In proof that he disregarded worldly possessions, the following is related
+of him in the ancient works both of Arabia and Persia:--
+
+'The great conqueror, Nadir Shaah, on one occasion visited the shrine of
+Ali, with a vast retinue of his chiefs, courtiers, and followers. The King
+heard, whilst at Nudghiff Usheruff, of the sainted life led by the Woodman,
+Syaad Harshim, in that neighbourhood, and he felt disposed to tender a
+present of money and valuables, to induce the Syaad's prayer for his
+future prosperity. Accordingly, the King commanded trays to be filled from
+his Indian spoils, which were sent with a message, humbly couched,
+entreating the good Syaad would accept his offering of respect, and make
+prayers to God for him.
+
+'The trays were conveyed by servants of the King, who arrived at the
+Syaad's hut at the moment he was satisfying the demands of nature with a
+meal of coarse barley bread and pure water. "What is all this?" inquired
+the Syaad, on seeing the valuables before him. "An humble offering from
+the great Nadir Shaah," replied the messenger, "who entreats you will
+honour him by the acceptance of his presents, and offer your pious prayer
+for God's mercy in his behalf." "My prayers", said the Syaad, "I can
+promise shall be made duly and truly, but not my acceptance of his gifts.
+Take back these hateful, useless things! Tell Nadir Shaah, Syaad Harshim
+will not even touch them." The messenger tried persuasions without avail;
+he was constrained to return to his royal master, with his loaded trays.
+
+'No sooner were the King's servants out of sight, than the wife of Syaad
+Harshim vented her disappointment in no measured strain of anger towards
+her husband. "Here am I," said the old lady, "a very slave in consequence
+of our poverty, a very beggar in appearance, and my scanty meal of coarse
+bread is scarce sufficient to keep me in bodily strength; surely you ought
+to have remembered me, when the King's offering was before you--even if
+you liked not to accept it for yourself."--"I might indeed", he replied,
+"have done as you say, wife, had I known your sentiments sooner; but I
+believed you were as contented as myself with homely fare and honest
+labour; but be comforted, you shall have a share of the next offering made
+by the King to Syaad Harshim, provided your present inclination remains
+unchanged by time." This promise quieted the wife's angry humour, and
+peace was again restored between them.
+
+'"Wife," said the Syaad, "this al-kaulock[19] (Arab's coat of calico) of
+mine requires a little of thy labour: as I have now no other garment to
+change with, I trust you may please to wash it whilst I take my
+sleep;--one caution you must observe,--I have occasion for the water in
+which this dress is to be washed; preserve it carefully for me, my good
+wife;" and he laid him down on his mat to sleep. The wife, obedient to her
+husband's wishes, washed his dress, and took care to preserve the dirty
+water; when he awoke, she brought him the clean garment, and received his
+warm commendations for her diligence. She then produced the pan of dirty
+water, in which she had cleansed the garment, saying, "There, Syaad
+Harshim, I have done as you desired."--"Very good," replied her husband,
+"now you must farther oblige me by drinking it--you know there is nothing
+in this water but the sweat of my body produced by my daily labour." The
+wife, disgusted at the strange request of her husband, looked with
+amazement, and fancied he must have lost his senses. "What is this you
+require of me? would you poison your wife, O Syaad Harshim, with the filth
+from your skin, the accumulation of many days' labour in the jungles? art
+thou mad, to ask thy wife a request so unheard of?"
+
+'"Listen to me, wife," said the Syaad, in gentle terms; "you profess to
+love, honour, and respect me, as your faithful, lawful husband; pray can
+the dirt from my body be more offensive to your palate than the scum of
+Nadir Shaah, whom you only know by name? You would have accepted the
+filthy offerings of a cruel man, who plundered and sacrificed his victims
+to obtain the treasures he possesses;--you would not have scrupled to
+obtain your future sustenance by the coins of Nadir Shaah, gained as they
+were by the spilling of human blood? Is this your love for Syaad Harshim?"
+The wife threw herself at her husband's feet, when his speech was finished:
+"Pardon me, my dear husband! pardon my ignorance and self-love; I see
+myself disgraced by harbouring one wish for more than is gained by honest
+industry. No longer have I any desire for the gold of Nadir Shaah.
+Contented as yourself, my dear, good husband! I will continue to labour
+for the honest bread that sustains, nor ever again desire my condition to
+be changed."'
+
+The Woodman, Syaad Harshim, lived to a great age; many a tear hath fallen
+on his grave from the good pilgrims visiting the shrine of Ali, near which
+he was buried; and his resting place is reverenced to this day by the
+passing traveller of his own faith.
+
+
+[1] _Kafilah_.
+
+[2] The _burqa'_: see drawing in Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, p. 95.
+
+[3] Bokhara.
+
+[4] _The Origin of the Sikhs_, by H. Colebrooke, Esq., gives a faithful
+    picture of those warlike people. [The best account of their beliefs
+    is by M. Macauliffe, _The Sikh Religion_, Oxford, 1909.]
+
+
+[5]  Yahya. On the capture of Damascus by the Muhammadans, the
+    churches were equally divided between the Christians and their
+    conquerors. The great Cathedral of St. John was similarly divided,
+    and for eighty years the two religions worshipped under the same
+    roof.--Arnold, _The Preaching of Islam_, p. 50.
+
+[6] A vulgar corruption of Jame' Masjid, the Cathedral Mosque.
+
+[7] On the taboos attached to the sanctuary, see Burton, _Pilgrimage_,
+    i. 379 f.
+
+[8] At-Ta'if, meaning 'circumambulation'. When Adam settled at Mecca,
+    finding the country barren, he prayed to Allah to supply him with a
+    piece of fertile land. Immediately a mountain appeared, which, having
+    circumambulated the Ka'aba, settled itself down eastward of Mecca.
+    Hence it was called Kita min Sham, 'a piece of Syria,' whence it
+    came. (Burton, ii. 336.) 'Its fertile lands produce the fruits of
+    Syria in the midst of the Arabian desert' ( Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_,
+    vi. 255).
+
+[9] At Mecca are 'evident signs, with the standing place of Abraham; and
+    he who enters it is safe' _(Koran_, iii. 90). On the north side of
+    the Ka'aba, just by its door, is a slight hollow in the ground, lined
+    with marble. The spot is called Mi'jan, and it is supposed to be the
+    place where Abraham and Ishmael kneaded the chalk which they used in
+    building the Ka'aba: the stone, with the mark of Abraham's feet, is
+    shown.--Burckhardt, quoted by Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, p. 337;
+    Burton, ii. 311; Sale, _Preliminary Discourse_, p. 84.
+
+[10] The Asiatics, generally, have faith in certain properties of chemical
+    productions to alter the nature of the common to the precious metals.
+    I have often witnessed the anxious exertions of Natives in India, who
+    try all sorts of experiments in alchemy, expecting to succeed; but I
+    have never known any other issue from the many laborious efforts of
+    individuals than waste of time and property in these absurd schemes.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[11] One of the best-known versions of this famous tale is found in _The
+    Decameron_ of Boccaccio, Day 5, novel 9. It goes back to Buddhist
+    times, and is told of Hatim Tai, the model of Oriental
+    liberality. For numerous parallels, see A.C. Lee, _The Decameron of
+    Boccaccio, its Sources and Analogues_, 1909, pp. 170 ff.
+
+[12] _Labada_, 'a rain coat, wrapper'.
+
+
+[13] This is probably some local tradition, of which no record appears in
+    travellers' accounts of the Ka'aba.
+
+[14] On the north-west side of the Ka'aba is a water-spout, called
+    Mi'zabu'r-Rahmah, 'the spout of Mercy'. It is made of gold, and was
+    sent from Constantinople in A.D. 1573. It carries the rain-water from
+    the roof, and discharges it on the grave of Ishmael.--Hughes,
+    _Dictionary of Islam_, pp. 257, 337.
+
+[15] The Sharif, 'honourable,' is the local ruler of Mecca and the
+    Hajaz: see _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, xvii. 952; Burton,
+    _Pilgrimage_, ii. 3.
+
+[16] _As-Salamu-'alai-kum_, 'Peace be with you!'
+
+[17] Nadir Shah, born a shepherd, A.D. 1687, aided Shah Tahmasp
+    against Ashraf, leader of the Afghans, defeated him, and restored
+    his master in 1730. Afterwards he deposed Tahmasp, and raised his
+    infant son to the throne of Persia, under the title of 'Abbas III.
+    But he continued to rule the country, and on the death of 'Abbas in
+    1736 he became king. He marched on India in 1739, defeated the Emperor
+    Muhammad on the historic field of Panipat, sacked Delhi, and
+    perpetrated a horrible massacre. He returned to Persia laden with
+    spoil, but his tyranny excited the hostility of the nobles, and he was
+    assassinated in 1747, and buried at Mashhad.
+
+[18] Sayyid Hashim.
+
+[19] _Alkhalaq_, Turkish, 'a coat with sleeves'.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER X
+
+  The Zuckhaut (God's portion).--Syaads restricted the benefit of this
+  charity.--The Sutkah.--The Emaum's Zaumunee (protection).--The Tenths,
+  or Syaads' Due.--Mussulmauns attribute thanks to God only, for all
+  benefits conferred.--Extracts from the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'.--Mahumud's
+  advice.--His precepts tend to inculcate and encourage
+  charity.--Remarks on the benevolence of Mussulmauns.
+
+
+On the subject of Zuckhaut, commanded by Mahumud to his followers, I shall
+have little to remark;--the nature of the institute is intended to oblige
+mankind to share with the poor a due portion of those benefits they have
+received through the bounty of Divine Providence. Every Mussulmaun is
+expected by this law to set apart from his annual income one-fortieth part,
+denominated Zuckhaut (God's portion), for the sole benefit of the poor. I
+believe there are not many,--judging by what I have witnessed among the
+Mussulmaun population of Hindoostaun,--who do not expend a much larger
+portion of their yearly income in charitable donations, than the enjoined
+fortieth part.
+
+The poor Syaads are not allowed to receive any relief from 'the
+Zuckhaut'[1]; they being of the Prophet's blood, are not to be included
+with the indigent for whom these donations are generally set apart. The
+strict Mussulmaun of the Sheah sect usually deducts one-tenth[2] from
+whatever money comes into his possession as 'the Syaads' due', to whom it
+is distributed, as proper objects present themselves to his knowledge;
+much in the same way as the tribe of Levi are entitled to the tenth of the
+produce from their brethren of Israel by the Mosaic law.
+
+The Syaads are likewise restricted from accepting many other charitable
+offerings,--sutkah for instance--by which is meant the several things
+composing peace-offerings, offerings in atonement, &c. The better to
+explain this I must here describe some of the habits of the Mussulmaun
+population:--When any person escapes from a threatened danger, or accident,
+their friends send offerings of corn, oil, and money; all that is thus
+sent to the person preserved, must be touched by his hand and then
+distributed amongst the poor and needy.
+
+If any member of a family be ill, a tray is filled with corn, and some
+money laid on it: it is then placed under the bed of the sick person for
+the night; in the morning this is to be distributed amongst the poor. Some
+people cook bread, and place it in the same way with money under the bed
+of the sick. All these things are called Sutkah[3] in whatever form they
+are planned, which is done in a variety of ways; and, when distributed to
+the poor, are never to be offered to, nor allowed to be accepted by, the
+Syaad race. The scapegoat, an animal in good health and without blemish,
+is another offering of the Sutkah denomination: a Syaad is not allowed to
+be one of the number to run after the goat released from the sick chamber.
+
+When any one is going a journey, the friends send bands of silk or riband,
+in the folds of which are secured silver or gold coins; these are to be
+tied on the arm of the person projecting the journey, and such offerings
+are called 'Emaum Zaumunee',[4] or the Emaum's protection. Should the
+traveller be distressed on his journey, he may, without blame, make use of
+any such deposits tied on his arm, but only in emergencies; none such
+occurring, he is expected, when his journey is accomplished in safety, to
+divide all these offerings of his friends amongst righteous people. The
+Syaads may accept these gifts, such being considered holy,--paak[5] is the
+original word used, literally clean.
+
+They believe the Emaums have knowledge of such things as pertain to the
+followers of Mahumud and his descendants. Thus they will say, when
+desiring blessings and comforts for another person, 'Emaum Zaumunee,
+Zaumunee toom kero!'[6] may the Emaums protect you, and give you their
+safe support!
+
+The tenths, or Syaads' dues, are never appropriated to any other use than
+the one designed. Thus they evince their respect to the descendants of
+Mahumud; by these tenths the poorer race of Syaads are mainly supported;
+they rarely embark in trade, and never can have any share in banking, or
+such professions as would draw them into dealings of usury. They are
+chiefly employed as writers, moonshies,[7] maulvees, and moollahs, doctors
+of law, and readers of the Khoraun; they are allowed to enter the army, to
+accept offices of state; and if they possess any employment sufficient to
+support themselves and family, the true Syaad will not accept from his
+neighbours such charitable donations as may be of service to the poor
+brethren of his race. The Syaads, however poor, are seldom known to
+intrude their distresses, patiently abiding until relief be sent through
+the interposing power of divine goodness.
+
+Such is the way in which they receive the blessings showered by the
+orderings of the Almighty, that one never hears a Mussulmaun offer thanks
+to his earthly benefactor, in return for present benefits; but 'Shooghur
+Allah!'[8] all thanks to God! I was somewhat surprised when first
+acquainted with these people, that they accepted any kind of service done
+them with the same salutation as when first meeting in the morning, viz.
+salaam, and a bow. I inquired of the Meer if there was no word in
+Hindoostaunie that could express the 'Thank you!' so common to us in
+England? He bade me remark that the Mussulmauns return thanks to God
+whenever they receive a benefit from mortals, whom they consider but as
+the agents appointed by God to distribute His gifts. 'All thanks to God!'
+is repeated with every benefit received; and this follows every meal or
+cup of water as naturally, as to eat or to drink is preceded by 'Bis ma
+Allah!'[9]--In the name, or to the praise of God!
+
+Amongst the many choice things I have gleaned from the work so often
+quoted in my Letters, viz. 'Hyaatool Kaaloob', the following, through my
+Meer's aid in translation, may here be inserted.
+
+MAHUMUD'S ADVICE
+
+'Observe, ye faithful, there are five things most acceptable to God the
+Creator, from man, His creature:--
+
+1st. 'A generous gift, made when you have the greatest necessity yourself
+for that which you give away.
+
+2nd. 'All gifts that are free-will offerings of the heart, neither
+expecting nor desiring your bounty, should be rewarded, either by returns
+or acknowledgements.
+
+3rd. 'To be most humble, when in the enjoyment of the greatest prosperity.
+
+4th. 'To promote peace, when the reason for indulging your anger is most
+enticing.
+
+5th. 'To forgive freely from the heart, when the power to revenge is
+present with you.'
+
+You perceive a system of charitable feeling is inculcated by the laws of
+Mahumud; and in every-day practice it is found to be the prominent feature
+in their general habits. It is common with the meanest of the people to
+offer a share of their food to any one calling upon them at meal-time. I
+have seen this amiable trait of character in all classes of the people;
+and often on a river voyage, or a land journey, when the servants cook
+their dinner under a tree or by the bank of the river, if a dog, which
+they consider an unclean animal, advances within their reach, a portion of
+their food is thrown to him with that kindliness of feeling which induces
+them to share with the hungry, whatever gifts they receive from the Author
+of all good.[10] Except in seasons of famine, no one need despair of
+having sufficient to support nature, wherever the Mussulmauns congregate.
+I speak it to their credit, and in justice to their character.
+
+
+[1] See p. 67.
+
+[2] Known among Indian Musalmans as _dasaundh_, 'tithes'.
+
+[3] _Sadaqah_, used in the Koran (ii. 265) for almsgiving. In India the
+    term is applied to the custom by which money, clothes, grain, &c., are
+    waved over a patient, or only shown to him, and then given away to
+    beggars; or they are placed near the foot of a tree, on the bank of a
+    river, or where four roads meet, and are then supposed to carry away
+    the disease with them.--Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, p. 252.
+
+[4] _Imam zamini_, 'a gift to the guardian saint'. When about to
+    go on a journey, or when any misfortune befalls a person, a coin or
+    metal ring is tied up in a cloth coloured with turmeric, in the name
+    of the Imam Zamin, and worn on his left arm. When the traveller
+    reaches his destination, or gets rid of his affliction, it is taken
+    off, and its value, with some money in addition, is spent in food or
+    sweetmeats, which are offered in the name of the saint.--Jaffur
+    Shurreef, p. 182.
+
+[5] _Pak_.
+
+[6] _Imam Zamani, Zamani tum karo_.
+
+[7] _Munshi_, 'a writer, secretary'.
+
+[8] _Shukr Allah_.
+
+[9] _Bi'smi'llah_: the full form is
+    _bi'smi'llah'r-rahmani'r-rahim_, 'In the name of Allah,
+    the Compassionate, the Merciful!' These latter titles are omitted when
+    going into battle, or when slaughtering animals.
+
+[10] The Prophet ordered that when a dog drinks from a vessel, it must be
+    washed seven times, the first cleansing being with earth. But the dog
+    of the Seven Sleepers will be admitted into Heaven.--_Koran_,
+    xviii. 17.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XI
+
+  Mussulmaun festivals.--Buckrah Eade.--Ishmael believed to have been
+  offered in sacrifice by Abraham and not Isaac.--Descent of the
+  Mussulmauns from Abraham.--The Eade-gaarh.--Presentation of
+  Nuzzas.--Elephants.--Description of the Khillaut (robe of
+  honour).--Customs on the day of Buckrah Eade.--Nou-Roze (New Year's
+  Day).--Manner of its celebration.--The Bussund (Spring-colour).--The
+  Sah-bund.--Observances during this month.--Festival of the New
+  Moon.--Superstition of the Natives respecting the influence of the
+  Moon.--Their practices during an eclipse.--Supposed effects of the
+  Moon on a wound.--Medicinal application of lime in
+  Hindoostaun.--Observance of Shubh-burraat.
+
+
+An account of the Mussulmaun festivals, I imagine, deserves a Letter; for
+in many of them I have been able to trace, not only the habits and manners
+of the people with whom I was sojourning, but occasionally marks of their
+particular faith have been strongly developed in these observances, to
+most of which they attach considerable importance. Buckrah Eade, for
+instance, is a festival about as interesting to the Natives, as
+Christmas-day is to the good people of England; and the day is celebrated
+amongst all classes and denominations of Mussulmauns with remarkable zeal
+and energy.
+
+The particular event which gives rise to Buckrah Eade[1] is the well-known
+circumstance of Abraham offering his son in sacrifice to God. The
+Mussulmauns, however, insist that the son so offered was Ishmael, and not
+Isaac, as our Scriptures declare. I have before remarked that I had
+frequent arguments with the learned men of that persuasion on this subject,
+which provoked a minute investigation of their most esteemed authors, to
+decide between our opinions. The author of 'The Hyaatool Kaaloob' advances
+many authorities, which the Mussulmauns deem conclusive, all of whom
+declare that Ishmael was the son demanded and offered in sacrifice; and
+two only, I think, of the many names that author quotes, were disposed to
+doubt whether it was Isaac or Ishmael. An evident proof, I think, that on
+some former occasion there had existed a difference of opinion on this
+subject among men of their persuasion. The result of the present inquiry,
+however, is that they believe Ishmael was the offering and not Isaac;
+whilst I remain equally convinced of the correctness of our sacred book.
+
+The Mussulmauns, I should remark, as well as the Jews, trace their origin
+to Abraham, the former through Ishmael, and the latter through Isaac; and
+it is more than probable that to this circumstance may be attributed the
+decided prejudice of opinion, in favour of Ishmael being the person
+offered in sacrifice. Whether this be the case or not, these children of
+Abraham annually testify their reverence for their progenitor, and respect
+for his faith towards God, in the way most congenial to their particular
+ideas of honouring the memory of their forefathers.
+
+I have thus attempted to sketch the origin of the festival, it shall now
+be my task to describe the way in which the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun
+celebrate Buckrah Eade.
+
+On this day all classes of people, professing 'the faith' sacrifice
+animals, according to their circumstances; some offer up camels, others
+sheep and goats, lambs or kids. It is a day of religious veneration, and
+therefore by the pious prayers are added to sacrifice;--it is also a day
+of joyful remembrances, consequently one of festivity amongst all ranks of
+the Mussulmaun population.
+
+Kings, Princes, or Nuwaubs, with the whole strength of their
+establishments, celebrate the event, by going in great state to an
+appointed place, which is designated 'The Eade-Gaarh'[2] where the animals
+designed for immediate sacrifice are previously conveyed. On the arrival
+of the cavalcade at the Eade-gaarh, the head Moollah reads the form of
+prayer appointed for the occasion, and then presents the knife to the
+royal personage, who with his own hand sheds the blood of the camel he
+offers in sacrifice, repeating an impressive prayer as he presents the
+steel to the throat of the animal. The exact moment of the King's
+sacrifice is announced by signal, when a grand salute from the artillery
+and infantry commences the day's rejoicing.
+
+An account of the procession on these occasions may be interesting to my
+readers, though no description can give an adequate idea of its imposing
+appearance. I have witnessed the Buckrah Eade celebrations at Lucknow,
+where expense and good taste are neither wanted nor spared, to do honour
+to the great occasion.
+
+The several persons forming the King's suite, whether nobles or menials,
+together with the military, both horse and foot, are all dressed in their
+best apparel. The elephants have undergone a thorough cleansing in the
+river, their hides have been well oiled, which gives a jetty hue to the
+surface, and their heads painted with bright colours, according to the
+fancy of their keepers; their housings and trappings are the most costly
+and brilliant the possessors can procure, some with gold, others with
+silver howdahs (seats), and draperies of velvet or fine cloth embroidered
+and fringed with gold.
+
+The horses of individuals, and those of the irregular troops, are, on this
+occasion, caparisoned with embroidered horsecloths and silver ornaments,
+necklaces of silver or gold; or in the absence of these costly adornings,
+the less affluent substitute large coloured beads and tufts of variegated
+silk on their horses' necks. Many of the horses have stars and crescents
+painted upon the chest and haunches: the tail and mane are dyed red with
+mayndhie.[3]
+
+The procession is formed in the following order: Fifty camels, in pairs,
+carrying swivels, and each attended by two gunners and a camel-driver; the
+men dressed in clean white dresses, with turbans and sashes of red and
+green: the trappings of the camel are composed of broadcloth of the same
+colours. Next to these is a park of artillery, the men in new regimentals
+of blue, faced with red and yellow lace. Two troops of horse soldiers, in
+new regimentals, scarlet cloth unrurkas[4] (coats) and white trousers,
+with high-crowned caps of lambskin, similar to the Persian caps: these
+horsemen have black belts, and are armed with pistols in the holsters, a
+sabre and lance.
+
+Then follows a regiment of nujeebs[5] (foot soldiers), their jackets red,
+with small cap turban of black leather ornamented with the kirrich[6] or
+dirk (part of the armorial bearings of the House of Oude): their trousers
+reach no lower than the hams, where they are ornamented with black points
+turning upwards on the white, leaving the thighs and legs perfectly bare.
+The dunkah[7] (kettle drums) on a horse, richly ornamented with scarlet
+cloth drapery, embroidered and fringed with gold, the rider dressed in
+scarlet and gold, with a turban to correspond, both being ornamented with
+the royal insignia,--a fish.[8]
+
+The elephant carriages, containing first his Majesty and the Resident, the
+others conveying the Prime Minister and the favoured nobles of his
+Majesty's suite, form an impressive feature in the cortège, from their
+splendour and novelty. The King's carriage is composed chiefly of silver,
+open on every side, with a canopy of crimson velvet, embroidered and
+fringed with gold, the curtains and lining to correspond; this carriage is
+drawn by four elephants, exactly of one size (the rest have but two), each
+very richly attired in velvet and gold coverings. The King and his suite
+are very splendidly dressed in the Native costume. The chowries and
+afthaadah are flourished before him, and on each side; the royal carriage
+is guarded by the irregular horse in great numbers, and immediately
+followed by led horses, very richly caparisoned, their grooms neatly
+dressed in white, with turbans of red and green. To these succeed the
+royal naalkie,[9] a species of conveyance supported by bearers,
+constructed of beautifully wrought gold; the bearers in loose scarlet
+coats, embroidered with gold, bearing the royal insignia on their coats
+and turbans. A gold palkie, supported in the same style; an elegant state
+carriage, with eight black horses in hand, the coachman (a European)
+dressed in scarlet, with a cocked-hat and staff feather.
+
+
+Hurkaarahs (running messengers), chobdhaahs with gold and silver staffs,
+are seen on either side and in front of the King's carriage, reiterating
+the King's titles and honours as they proceed. Then follow the English
+gentlemen composing the King's suite, in their court dresses, on elephants.
+To them succeed the Native nobility, great officers of state, &c., on many
+elephants,--I should think more than fifty,--and the whole followed by
+military, both horse and foot. The procession has an imposing effect,
+particularly when viewed from an open space. The regiments have each their
+colours unfurled, and their bands of music playing English pieces. I have
+often thought if our theatrical managers could witness some of these
+splendid processions, they might profit by representing on the stage the
+grand exhibition of an Eastern monarch, which loses much of its splendour
+by my indifferent powers of description.
+
+After the ceremony at the Eade-gaarh has concluded, the King and his suite
+return in the same well-arranged order, and arriving at his palace, enters
+the throne-room, where being seated, he receives nuzzas in due form,
+presented in turn by every person belonging to the court, whether
+relations, nobles, courtiers, dependants, servants, or slaves; every
+person observing a proper etiquette in their approach to the throne, the
+inferiors keeping back until their superiors retire,--which each one does
+immediately after presenting his nuzza; thus confusion is prevented in the
+hall of audience.
+
+As a description of the ceremony of presenting nuzzas, on such occasions,
+may be acceptable to some of my friends, I will describe that which I
+witnessed at the Court of Oude.
+
+The King was seated on his throne of pure gold, dressed in a very costly
+habit of Persian velvet, embroidered with gold; on his neck, valuable
+haarhs (necklaces) of diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds, were
+suspended in many rows, reaching from the neck nearly to the waist.
+
+The throne is a flat surface, about two yards square, raised about two
+feet from the floor, upon three sides of it is a railing; a square canopy,
+supported by poles, is attached to the four corners of the throne, which,
+together with the poles, are formed of wood, and cased over with pure gold,
+into which are set precious stones of great value. The canopy and cushions,
+on which the King takes his seat, are of crimson velvet, very richly
+embroidered with gold and pearls; a deep fringe of pearls of a good size
+finishes the border of the canopy. The chattah is of corresponding costly
+materials (crimson velvet and gold), fringed also with red pearls.
+
+The King's crown is elegantly formed, richly studded with diamonds, and
+ornamented with handsome plumes of the birds of Paradise. Over his head
+was supported the velvet chattah. On either side of the throne stood a
+nobleman with chowries of peacock's-feathers in gold handles, which they
+kept waving continually over the King's person.
+
+To the right of the throne were gilt chairs with velvet seats placed for
+the accommodation of the Resident and his lady, who were accompanied by
+many English ladies and gentlemen standing, as also by the European
+gentlemen attached to the King's suite: the latter, in their court dresses
+of puce cloth, richly embroidered with gold, had a very good effect,
+mingled with the well-dressed lady-visitors of the Resident.
+
+To the left of the throne stood the Native gentlemen holding high offices
+in the Court of Oude, each richly dressed in the Asiatic costume.
+
+At the King's feet stood the Vizier (Prime Minister), whose business it is,
+on such occasions, to deposit the nuzzas on the throne after they have
+been accepted by his Majesty.
+
+As the company advanced the head Chamberlain announced the name and rank
+of each person in the presence of the King. The second Chamberlain
+directed such persons, after presenting the nuzza, the way they must
+retire from the hall.
+
+The nuzzas of the first nobility consisted of twenty-one gold mohurs[10];
+those of less exalted persons were proportioned to their rank and
+circumstances; whilst servants and slaves, with inferior dependants of the
+Court, tendered their humble tribute of respect in rupees of silver.
+
+The person presenting has the offering placed on a clean white folded
+kerchief; he advances with his head bowed low, until within ten paces of
+the throne; he then stands erect for a few seconds, with his hands folded
+and held forward, after which he bows his head very low three times, and
+each time places his open hand to his forehead,--this is called
+'salaaming'; this done, he advances to the foot of the throne, repeats the
+three salaams, then presents with both hands the nuzza on the kerchief,
+which the King touches with, his hand, and the Vizier receives and
+deposits with the collected heap by the side of his Majesty.
+
+When the ceremony of presenting nuzzas has concluded, the King rises and
+advances with the Resident to the centre of the audience hall, where the
+person in charge of the haarhs[11] is in attendance with several of these
+marks of distinction, one of which the King selects and places with his
+own hands over the head of the Resident; the Resident then takes one and
+places it on the King in a similar way. Should the Vizier be in favour at
+this time, he is invested with the haarh, both by his Majesty and the
+Resident; but if, unfortunately for him, he does not enjoy his royal
+master's confidence, he takes this opportunity of testifying his
+dissatisfaction by omitting the favour to his Vizier. The haarh is
+actually of very little value but as a badge of distinction peculiar to
+Native courts, to which the Natives attach so much importance, that I
+wonder not at their anxiety to be honoured with this distinguishing mark
+of the King's satisfaction.
+
+European visitors, both male and female, are generally adorned with haarhs
+on these occasions. The King then conducts the Resident to the
+entrance,--when taking leave, he pours otta[12] on his hands, with the
+'Khodah Afiz!'[13] (God be with you!) and sometimes out of compliment to
+the Resident, his Majesty offers otta also to each of the English visitors,
+as they pass him at the door.
+
+On these great court days, the Vizier's nuzza is usually of great
+value,--sometimes a lac of rupees has been presented, when the Vizier is
+much in favour, who is sure to receive ten times the value of his nuzza
+ere the day is passed. When this large sum is presented, the Minister has
+his one hundred bags (each containing a thousand rupees), covered with
+crimson silk, and tied with silver ribands, placed on each side the throne
+prior to the King's arrival; who, on seeing this proof of his faithful
+servant's attachment, condescends to embrace him in the presence of the
+assembled court--an honour of vast magnitude in the estimation of Natives.
+
+The King confers favour on, as well as receives homage from, his subjects,
+on the day of Buckrah Eade. On some, titles or other distinctions are
+conferred; to others presents, according to his good will and pleasure:
+many receive khillauts; and should there be an unfortunate omission, in
+the distribution of princely munificence, that person understands to his
+sorrow, that he is out of favour, without needing to be told so by word of
+mouth.
+
+The title of Khaun, Nuwaub, Rajah, or any other distinction conferred by
+the King, is accompanied by the dress of honour, and often by elephants,
+horses, or the particular kind of Native palkie which are alone used by
+princes and the nobility. The elephant is always given ready furnished
+with the several necessary appendages, as silver howdah, embroidered
+jhewls[14] (draperies), &c.; and the horse richly caparisoned for riding.
+
+The naalkie and palkie are vehicles conferred on Native gentlemen with
+their titles, which cannot be used by any persons than those who have
+received the grant from their Sovereign; and there is quite as much
+ambition to be thus distinguished in a Native Court, as may be traced
+amongst the aspirants for 'the orders' in the several European states.
+
+Though the naalkie and palkie are restricted to the use of privileged
+persons, all are allowed the services of the elephant. I knew a professed
+beggar, who made his diurnal tour through the city of Lucknow on one. A
+beggar, however, in Native estimation, is not the despicable creature he
+is in European opinion; a degree of veneration is always evinced towards
+men, who live on the casual bounty of their fellow mortals, and profess
+not to have either a worldly calling or other means of support. The beggar,
+I allude to, was called Shaah Jhee[15]; he had originally been a
+travelling mendicant, and made a visit to Lucknow, when the late King was
+a young man, whom he met by accident outside the town; and, I believe,
+without knowing to whom he was speaking, predicted some favourable
+circumstances which should attend him eventually; the young prince then
+disclosed himself to the beggar, and promised him if his predictions were
+verified, he would reward him in the way he wished. Shaah Jhee left the
+Oude district, and travelled over most parts of Hindoostaun. Returning
+after many years' absence to Lucknow, he found the prince seated on the
+throne of his ancestors, and watching for a favourable opportunity to
+present himself, made his claims to the sovereign, who, remembering the
+circumstance and his promise, conferred the required reward--to be allowed
+to demand five cowries daily from every shopkeeper in the city of Lucknow.
+The King added to this humble demand a house to reside in, and the
+elephant on which he went to collect his revenue. Eighty-five cowries
+(shells) are valued at one pice, or a halfpenny; yet so vast is this
+capital of Oude, that Shaah Jhee was in the receipt of a handsome daily
+allowance, by this apparently trifling collection.
+
+Most of the respectable gentlemen in Lucknow maintain an elephant for
+their own use, where it is almost as common to meet them as horses. Though
+most persons, I observe, avoid falling in with, the royal cortège, (which
+is always announced by the sound of the dunkah), unless they are disposed
+to court the King's observation; then they draw up their elephant, and
+oblige the animal to kneel down whilst the King passes on, the owner
+standing in his howdah to make salaams; others, I have seen, dismount in
+time, and stand in a humble posture, with the hands folded and the head
+bowed low, doing reverence and attracting his Majesty's notice as he
+passes on. These little acts of ceremonious respect are gratifying to the
+King, and are frequently the means of advancing the views of the subject
+to his favour.
+
+The khillauts, presented by the King, vary in the number of the articles
+composing the gift, as well as in the quality. The personal rank, and
+sometimes the degree of estimation in which the receiver is held, is
+defined by the value and number of an individual's khillaut. I have known
+some gentlemen tenacious to a foible, about the nature of the khillaut
+that could consistently be accepted; I have heard it even expressed, 'I
+shall be disgraced in the eyes of the world, if my khillaut has not the
+full complement usually conferred on men of my rank'. It is the honour
+they value, not the intrinsic worth of the articles, for it is no uncommon
+thing to find them distributing the dress of honour amongst their
+dependants, on the same day they have received it.
+
+The splendid articles composing khillauts are as follows: swords with
+embroidered belts, the handle and scabbard either enamelled or embossed
+silver, often set with precious stones; the most inferior have silver
+mountings and velvet scabbards; shields studded with silver; kirrich
+(dirk), the handle and sheath equally as rich as the swords; embroidered
+or gold cloth chupkunds[16] (coats); shawl-stuff labaadahs[17] (pelisses),
+trimmed with sable; turbans of shawl or muslin; ornaments for the turban
+of diamonds and emeralds, the inferior of paste; strings of pearls and
+emeralds for the neck; shawls, always in pairs, of more or less value;
+shawl-kerchiefs; shawl cummerbunds[18] (girdles); shawl lahaafs[19]
+(counterpanes); gold cloth, gold and silver muslins, and shawl stuff, in
+pieces, each being sufficient to form a dress; Benares silks, or rich
+satin for trousers; pieces of fine embroidered muslin for shirts. These
+are the usual articles of value given in khillauts to the most exalted
+favourites. In some instances the King confers one hundred and one pieces
+in a khillaut; in others seventy-five, and down to five articles, which is
+the lowest number given in this much-prized dress of honour. In a khillaut
+of five pieces, I have observed, generally, a coarser kind of gold cloth
+dress, a coloured muslin turban, a pair of coarse shawls, a coarse shawl
+romall[20] (kerchief), and a girdle. I have also observed, that the higher
+the numbers rise, the quality of the articles increased in value;
+consequently, when we hear of any one being invested with the highest
+number, we calculate that each piece is of the very best quality and
+fabric.
+
+When khillauts are conferred, the investiture usually takes place in the
+King's presence, who sometimes condescends to place one of the articles on
+the receiver with his own hands; at other times he merely touches the
+turban with his hand, and the individuals are clothed by the Prime
+Minister. After receiving the khillaut, each person approaches the throne
+and does homage to the King, presenting a nuzza in accordance with his
+rank, and the value of the khillaut.
+
+The Revenue Collectors and Zemindhaars[21] (landlords of farms) crowd to
+the Court on these days, to testify their respect and share in the honours
+distributed with a liberal hand. These persons may well be solicitous to
+receive this badge of distinction, which they find increases their
+influence over the Ryotts[22] (cultivators).
+
+On the morning of Buckrah Eade, the King gives a public breakfast at
+Lucknow, to the Resident and his suite, and to such of the Native nobility
+as are privileged to 'the chair'[23] at the royal banquets. The breakfast
+concluded, many varieties of sports commence, as elephant-fighting, tiger
+sports, &c.[24] The entertainment is got up with great magnificence,
+neither expense nor trouble being spared to render the festivities of the
+day conspicuous.
+
+After the Resident and his party have retired, the King returns to his
+private apartments, where the forms of state are thrown aside with the
+splendid robes; and the ease and comfort of real Asiatic life is again
+indulged in, without the parade so studiously observed in public, as being
+essential to the sovereign's dignity. The trammels of state must indeed be
+irksome to those who indulge in that sort of luxurious ease which forms
+the chief comfort of Native life.
+
+The evening at Court is passed by the King and his favourite courtiers,
+with music and the performances of dancing-girls; a variety of fire-work
+exhibitions; the witticisms of the Court-jesters, and such other
+amusements as are suited to Asiatic taste.
+
+The magnificent style of celebrating Buckrah Eade at Lucknow is perhaps
+unequalled by any other Native Court now existing in Hindoostaun. The
+rejoicings on this festival are not confined to the higher classes alone;
+but it is a period of equal interest to every individual of the Mussulmaun
+community. The custom of the Court is imitated by the subjects in their
+several grades, each striving to do honour to the day according to their
+ability. The religious classes add, to their usual Namaaz, the appointed
+prayer for the occasion of Buckrah Eade.
+
+The rich send presents of goats and sheep to their neighbours and to the
+poor, so that the meanest of the people are enabled to offer sacrifice and
+rejoice in the good things of which they partake: new suits of clothes are
+also distributed to the dependants of the family and to the poor. In short,
+on this day, there seems a spirit of benevolence abroad, that is even
+remarkable beyond the general generosity of their natural character, as
+all who have any thing to share will assuredly, on this occasion, impart a
+blessing to the needy, and gratify their friends and acquaintances.
+
+The bride and bridegroom elect exchange presents of goats, &c.; the tutor
+writes a copy of verses on the day, and presents it to his pupil; the
+pupil in return sends his tutor a dress and money to enable him to keep
+Eade with his family.
+
+The ladies dress in their most costly jewels and apparel to receive or pay
+visits. The children have their sports and amusements. Whenever I have
+entered a Native house on these days, all seemed cheerful and happy, and
+enjoying themselves in whatever way was most congenial to their particular
+tastes; 'every one must be cheerful (they say) on Buckrah Eade'.
+
+On this day, millions of animals are sacrificed in remembrance of
+Abraham's faith. I have often thought how striking is the similarity
+between the Mosaic and Mussulmaun institutes,--indeed my recollections of
+Scripture history have frequently been realized in the views I have had of
+the domestic habits of the Mussulmauns. They are forbidden the use of
+unclean animals; the swine is equally abominable to Mussulmauns as to the
+Jews; neither are they less scrupulous in discarding from their kitchen
+any kind of animal food prohibited by their laws, or which has not been
+killed by one of their faith. In this process the person, who is to slay,
+turns the animal's head towards Mecca, repeats the short appointed prayer,
+and with one plunge the animal has ceased to feel: they are expert in the
+art of despatching life, so that the animal's sufferings may not be
+protracted unnecessarily;--an amiable trait of character and worthy of
+imitation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+'Nou-Roze'[25] (New Year's Day) is a Festival of Eade of no mean
+importance in the estimation of Mussulmaun society.
+
+The exact period of commencing the Mussulmaun new year is the very moment
+of the sun's entering the sign Aries. This is calculated by those
+practical astronomers, who are in the service of most great men in Native
+cities;--I should tell you they have not the benefit of published
+almanacks as in England,--and according to the hour of the day or night
+when the sun passes into that particular sign, so are they directed in the
+choice of a colour to be worn in their garments on this Eade: if at
+midnight, the colour would be dark puce, almost a black; if at mid-day,
+the colour would be the brightest crimson. Thus to the intermediate hours
+are given a shade of either colour applicable to the time of the night or
+the day when the sun enters the sign Aries; and whatever be the colour to
+suit the hour of Nou-Roze, all classes wear the day's livery, from the
+King to the meanest subject in the city. The King, on his throne, sits in
+state to receive congratulations and nuzzas from his nobles, courtiers and
+dependants. 'Mabaarukh Nou-Roze!'[26] (May the New Year be fortunate!) are
+the terms of salutation exchanged by all classes of society, the King
+himself setting the example. The day is devoted to amusements, a public
+breakfast at the palace, sending presents, exchanging visits, &c.
+
+The trays of presents prepared by the ladies for their friends are
+tastefully set out, and the work of many days' previous arrangement. Eggs
+are boiled hard, some of these are stained in colours resembling our
+mottled papers; others are neatly painted in figures and devices; many are
+ornamented with gilding; every lady evincing her own peculiar taste in the
+prepared eggs for 'Nou-Roze'. All kinds of dried fruits and nuts,
+confectionary and cakes, are numbered amongst the necessary articles for
+this day's offering: they are set out in small earthen plates, lacquered
+over to resemble silver, on which is placed coloured paper, cut out in
+curious devices (an excellent substitute for vine leaves) laid on the
+plate to receive the several articles forming 'Nou-Roze' presents.
+
+Amongst the young people these trays are looked forward to with child-like
+anxiety. The ladies rival each other in their display of novelty and good
+taste, both in the eatables and the manner of setting them off with effect.
+
+The religious community have prayers read in their family, and by them it
+is considered both a necessary duty and a propitious commencement to bring
+in the new year by 'prayer and praises'.
+
+When it is known that the Nou-Roze will occur by daylight, the ladies have
+a custom of watching for the moment the year shall commence by a fresh
+rose, which being plucked from the stalk is thrown into a basin of water,
+the eye downwards. They say, this rose turns over of itself towards the
+sun at the very moment of that luminary passing into the sign Aries. I
+have often found them thus engaged; but I never could say I witnessed the
+actual accomplishment of their prediction.
+
+The Nou-Roze teems with friendly tokens between the two families of a
+bride and bridegroom elect, whose interchange of presents are also
+strictly observed. The children receive gifts from their elders; their
+nurses reap a harvest from the day; the tutor writes an ode in praise of
+his pupil, and receives gifts from the child's parents; the servants and
+slaves are regaled with dainties and with presents from the superiors of
+the establishment; the poor are remembered with clothes, money and food;
+the ladies make and receive visits; and the domenie attend to play and
+sing in the zeenahnah. In short, the whole day is passed in cheerful
+amusements, suited to the retirement of a zeenahnah and the habits of the
+people.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is a festival observed at Lucknow called Bussund[27] (spring-colour).
+I should remark here, that almost all the trees of India have perpetual
+foliage; as the season approaches for the new leaves to sprout, the young
+buds force off the old leaves; and when the trees are thus clothed in
+their first delicate foliage, there is a yellow tinge in the colour which
+is denominated Bussund (Spring). A day is appointed to be kept under this
+title, and then every one wears the Bussund colour: no one would be
+admitted at Court without this badge of the day. The elephants, horses and
+camels of the King, or of his nobles, are all ornamented with the same
+colour on their trappings.
+
+The King holds a Court, gives a public breakfast, and exhibits sports with
+ferocious animals. The amusements of this day are chiefly confined to the
+Court: I have not observed much notice taken of it in private life.
+
+The last month of the periodical rains is called Sahbaund.[28] There is a
+custom observed by the Mussulmaun population, the origin of which has
+never been clearly explained to me; some say it is in remembrance of the
+Prophet Elisha or Elijah, and commences the first Friday of Sahbaund, and
+is followed up every succeeding Friday through this concluding month of
+the rainy season.[29]
+
+This ceremony may have had its origin with devout persons willing to
+honour or to invoke the Prophet Elijah, who, as our Scripture informs us,
+'prayed, and the clouds gave no rain for the space of three years; and
+again he prayed and the heavens were opened to his prayer'. Or in that of
+Elisha parting the waters with the mantle of Elijah, after succeeding him
+in the Prophetic office, 2 Kings ii. 14; or a still more probable event,
+calculated to excite the pious to some such annual notice as is observed
+with these people, in the same chapter, the twentieth and following verses,
+where we find it said of Elisha, 'And he said, Bring me a new cruse, and
+put salt therein. And they brought it to him. And he went forth unto the
+spring of the waters, and cast the salt in there, and said, Thus saith the
+Lord, I have healed these waters; there shall not be from thence any more
+dearth or barren land. So the waters were healed unto this day, according
+to the saying of Elisha which he spake.'
+
+The learned men call it a zeenahnah, or children's custom; but it is
+common to see children of all ages amongst the males, partake of, and
+enjoy the festival with as much glee as the females or their juniors.
+
+A bamboo frame is formed to the shape of a Chinese boat: this frame-work
+is hidden by a covering of gold and silver tissue, silk, or coloured
+muslin, bordered and neatly ornamented with silver paper. In this light
+bark many lamps are secreted, of common earthenware. A procession is
+formed to convey the tribute, called 'Elias ky Kishtee[30]', to the river.
+The servants of the family, soldiers, and a band of Native music attend in
+due order of march: the crowd attracted by this childish play is immense,
+increasing as they advance through the several streets on the way to the
+river, by all the idlers of the place.
+
+The kishtee (boat) is launched amidst a flourish of trumpets and drums,
+and the shouts of the populace; the small vessel, being first well lighted,
+by means of the secreted lamps, moves down gently with the stream. When at
+a little distance, on a broad river, in the stillness of evening, any
+one--who did not previously know how these little moving bodies of light
+were produced--might fancy such fairy scenes as are to be met with in the
+well-told fables of children's books in happy England.
+
+This custom, though strongly partaking of the superstitious, is not so
+blameable as that which I have known practised by some men of esteemed
+good understanding, who having a particular object in view, which they
+cannot attain by any human stratagem or contrivance, write petitions to
+the Emaum Mhidhie on Fridays, and by their own hands commit the paper to
+the river, with as much reverence as if they thought him present in the
+water to receive it. The petition is always written in the same respectful
+terms, as inferiors here well know how to address their superiors; and
+every succeeding Friday the petition is repeated until the object is
+accomplished, or the petitioner has no further inducement to offer one.
+
+I have made particular inquiries whether such sensible people (as I have
+seen thus engaged) placed any dependence on this mode of petitioning. The
+only answer I have received, is, 'Those who think proper thus to petition,
+certainly believe that it will be effectual, if they persevere in it.'
+
+The New Moon is a festival in the family of every good Mussulmaun.[31]
+They date the new moon from the evening it first become visible, and not
+as we do--from the moment it changes. The event is announced in Native
+cities by firing salutes from the field-pieces of Kings, Nuwaubs, &c.
+
+Amongst the religious people there is much preparation in bathing and
+changing the dress against the evening the moon is expected to be visible,
+and when the guns have announced that it is visible, they have the Khoraun
+brought, which they open at the passage where Mahumud praises God for this
+particular blessing. A small looking glass is then brought, on which
+passage it is placed, and the book held in such a position that the moon
+may be first seen by the person reflected in the glass. They then repeat
+the prayer, expressly appointed for this occasion, and that done, the
+whole family rise and embrace each other, making salaams and reverence to
+their superiors and elders. The servants and slaves advance for the same
+purpose, and nothing is heard for some minutes, but 'May the new moon be
+fortunate!' reiterated from every mouth of the assembled family.
+
+I cannot answer for the motives which actuate the ignorant people to bow
+when they first see the new moon; but the pious Mussulmaun, I am assured,
+bows to the Creator for the visible blessing, and not to the object.
+
+The first eatables handed round to secure good luck and health throughout
+the month are sugar-candy and cheese. I fancy this is a mere zeenahnah
+custom, for I do not find the males so particular about eating this most
+extraordinary mixture as the females.
+
+The servants' wages are paid by the month, and in well-regulated families
+the first day of the moon is hailed by dependants and domestics with no
+small share of anxiety. Indeed, these people make the moon of much more
+importance in the regulation of domestic affairs than the inhabitants of
+more polished countries, for they attribute the influence of that planet
+over the inhabitants of the earth in many extraordinary ways. It may be
+deemed superstitious, but as my business is to relate the most material
+ceremonies among this people, I cannot well omit noticing some of their
+observances at this time.
+
+If any person is ill, and bleeding is the only good remedy to be pursued,
+the age of the moon is first discussed, and if it happens to be near the
+full, they are inflexibly resolute that the patient shall not lose blood
+until her influence is lessened. And should it happen at the commencement
+of the second quarter, or a few days after the full, the difficulty is to
+be overcome by deprecating the evil influence of the moon over the patient,
+by burning a brand of straw which is flourished about the sick person's
+head, who is brought out into the moon's presence for this important
+operation.[32] Many equally extraordinary things of this sort I have been
+obliged to witness in the zeenahnah.
+
+The full moon is deemed propitious for celebrating the marriage festivals.
+If this be not possible, care is always to be taken that the ceremony does
+not fall at the period when she is in the unfavourable sign; they say the
+happiness of the young couple depends on this being carefully avoided, as
+in the opinion of every Mussulmaun 'the moon in Scorpio' is unpropitious
+for any business of moment.[33]
+
+When a journey is contemplated the moon's age is the first consideration;
+indeed, the favourable signs of Madam Luna's movements are not only
+selected for commencing a journey, but for all undertakings of like
+importance;--whether to build, to write, to plant, to take medicine, &c.
+
+What will be said of the singular custom, 'drinking the moon at a
+draught'? A silver basin being filled with water is held in such a
+situation that the full moon may be reflected in it; the person to be
+benefited by this draught is required to look steadfastly at the moon in
+the basin, then shut his eyes and quaff the liquid at one draught.[34]
+This remedy is advised by medical professors in nervous cases, and also
+for palpitations of the heart. I have seen this practised, but I am not
+aware of any real benefit derived by the patient from the prescription.
+
+When the planet Venus is in conjunction with the moon, they say the time
+is most favourable to offer prayers to God for any particular object they
+may have in view. At this time they write charms or talismans to be worn
+by children. I remember having witnessed a gentleman thus occupied, who
+wrote little scraps in the Arabic character to distribute amongst the
+children of his friends, who wore them enclosed in silver cases on their
+arms.
+
+An eclipse of the moon is an event of great interest, both with the
+Mussulmaun and the Hindoo population, although they have very opposite
+ideas of the causes of an eclipse.
+
+Many of the notions entertained by the lower classes of Mussulmauns upon
+the nature of an eclipse are borrowed from the Hindoos.[34] Some think
+that it is caused by the anger of God towards the people of the earth;
+others say the moon is in debt, and many other equally odd conceits exist
+amongst the ignorant people, and among them only. Yet a sensation of awe
+is felt by most; and where is the intelligent creature who can view an
+eclipse or any other phenomenon of Nature without the same feeling of awe,
+although all are not equally ready to express the sensation?
+
+Loud cries from the mixed population, Mussulmauns and Hindoos, announce
+the commencement of an eclipse, whether it be of the sun or the moon. The
+voice of the Mussulmaun is distinguished by the Namaazies'[35] call to
+prayers--'Allah wo uckbaar![36] (God alone is great!) To this summons the
+faithful attend diligently, and they are generally occupied in the form of
+prayer appointed by Mahumud until the shadow has passed over the sun or
+moon eclipsed.
+
+The ladies prepare offerings of corn, oil, and money to be distributed
+amongst the poor. The gentlemen give presents to the needy. The astronomer
+who predicts to his royal or noble master the exact period of an eclipse,
+is rewarded, when it is over, with money, a dress, and a crescent of pure
+gold in some instances. A bride elect sends sutkah[38] to her intended
+husband, accompanied by a goat or kid, which must be tied to the leg of
+his bedstead during the continuance of an eclipse: these offerings are
+afterwards distributed in charity. Women expecting to become mothers are
+carefully kept awake during an eclipse, as they declare the infant's
+security depends on the mother being kept from sleep; they are not allowed
+to use a needle, scissors, knife, or any other instrument during an
+eclipse, for fear of drawing blood, which would be injurious at that
+period, both to the mother and child; neither are the animals in a similar
+state neglected; a mixture of cow-dung and drugs is rubbed over the belly
+of such animals, whether cows, sheep, goats, &c., and all these are
+securely housed until the planet is again resplendent: they fancy that
+both the animal and its young would be endangered by exposure during the
+time of the eclipse.
+
+The power of the moon on wounded persons is believed universally to be of
+dangerous tendency. I have heard many extraordinary relations by people
+who, as they tell me, have suffered from exposure to the moon whilst a
+wound was fresh. One person had received a severe sabre-cut on his arm;
+the place was sewed up by the barber (the only surgeon amongst the
+Natives), and being much exhausted he laid down to sleep in the open air.
+The moon was near the full, and after some hours' exposure to her
+influence he awoke in great agony; the barber examined the arm early in
+the morning and found the cut in a state of corruption, the sewing having
+burst; the wound was cleansed, and dressed with pounded camphor; the place
+eventually healed, and the man lived many years to tell his story, always
+declaring his belief that the moon had been the cause of his sufferings;
+he was the more certain of this as he dreamed whilst exposed to her
+influence, that a large black woman (an inhabitant of the moon) had
+wrestled with him, and hurt his wound.
+
+The usual application in India to a fresh wound is that of slacked lime. A
+man in our employ was breaking wood, the head of the hatchet came off, and
+the sharp edge fell with considerable force on the poor creature's foot;
+he bled profusely and fainted, lime was unsparingly applied, to the wound,
+the foot carefully wrapped up, and the man conveyed to his hut on a
+charpoy (bedstead), where he was kept quiet without disturbing the wound;
+at the end of a fortnight he walked about, and in another week returned to
+his labour.[39]
+
+Lime is an article of great service in the domestic economy of the Natives.
+I have experienced the good effects of this simple remedy for burns or
+scalds: equal proportions of lime, water, and any kind of oil, made into a
+thin paste, and immediately applied and repeatedly moistened, will
+speedily remove the effects of a burn; and if applied later, even when a
+blister has risen, the remedy never fails: I cannot say how it might act
+on a wound, the consequence of a neglected burn.
+
+The lime used with pawn by the natives of India is considered very
+beneficial to health; and they use it in great quantities, considering
+that they never eat pawn without lime, and the most moderate pawn eaters
+indulge in the luxury at least eight times in the course of the day. The
+benefit of lime is worth the consideration of the medical world--as a
+preventive in some climates, as a renovater in others.
+
+Shubh-burraat,[40] is the designation of one of the months of the
+Mussulmauns (you are aware their month is the duration of the moon). The
+night of the full moon Shubh-burraat is a period of great and interesting
+importance to the Mussulmaun people of every degree; for on this night
+they are persuaded the fate of every human being is fixed in heaven; and
+that whatever is to be their doom is then registered in the Book of Life.
+Those who are to retain health, life, prosperity, or any other blessing,
+and those who are to be visited by sickness, sorrows, adversity or death;
+in short, whatever is to occur throughout the year is on this night
+assuredly noted in heaven for each individual on earth.
+
+On this night they are instructed also to remember their friends and
+relatives who have been separated from them by death, and the injunction
+is followed up with much pious respect and marked veneration. Food is
+cooked and portioned out in the name of each departed object of their
+regard, over which the elder of the family,--if a Maulvee is not
+available,--reads a certain form of prayer called Fahteeah[41]; this done,
+each portion (if convenient) is conveyed to the several tombs wherein
+those friends are deposited; or if not convenient to send the food to the
+burying ground, it is distributed amongst the poor of the city and the
+suburbs; the beggars congregating in those places to indulge in the
+luxuries prepared to the memory of the dead. The food prepared on this
+occasion must not contain any animal food. Bread of various kinds, sweet
+rice, and meetah[42] (a mixture of sugar, ghee, and flour), are the usual
+dainties I have observed in these offerings. Fireworks are in universal
+request on the night of Shubh-burraat, which is required to be passed in
+wakefulness; and to this may be ascribed the never-varying custom of
+letting them off: it is an amusement these people take delight in at all
+times, and on this occasion most usefully, to keep them awake. The younger
+branches, at all events, derive this benefit from the pastime.
+
+The religious community make it a night of strict devotion; they offer
+prayers and intercessions for the souls of their departed friends, since
+they imagine that this period, of all others, is most favourable to prayer,
+as they believe the heart is more open to the throne of mercy, the prayer
+more effectual, and that the real penitent suing for pardon on the night
+of Shubh-burraat, is certainly heard and his sins forgiven.
+
+The Sheah sect attach still greater importance to this night, as the
+anniversary of the birth of Emaum Mhidhie.[43] They also remember Hasan
+and Hosein as martyrs; and in memory of their sufferings the zeearut[44]
+(circuit as at Mahurrum), is performed by walking round the ground in front
+of their apartments, repeating the burial service, with some trifling
+alterations; likewise the salaams to the Prophets and Emaums are duly
+performed during this night of fate.
+
+There is a singular opinion current amongst the Mussulmauns, that the
+trees hold converse at this momentous period.[45] The really pious
+characters amongst the Mussulmauns declare that they discountenance
+superstition in every way; but they strictly adhere to every habit or
+custom on record which was the practice of Mahumud and his family, the
+Emaums. Of course, they do not think the observances of Shubh-burraat are
+at all bordering on superstition, whatever may be thought of the practice
+by others.
+
+
+[1] See p. 78.
+
+[2] 'Idgah, the place where the rites of the 'Id festival are
+    conducted. It generally consists of a pavement, with a wall to the
+    west, facing east.
+
+[3] See p. 42.
+
+[4] _Angarkha_.
+
+[5] _Najib_, 'noble'; the half-disciplined militia of Native States.
+
+[6] _Kirch_, a straight thrusting sword.
+
+[7] See p. 48.
+
+[8] See p. 43.
+
+[9] _Nalki_, a kind of litter, the use of which was regarded as a
+    mark of dignity: see Sleeman, _Rambles_, p. 135.
+
+[10] A coin worth, about Rs. 16.
+
+[11] Haarh is a name given to any sort of ornament which we should
+    designate a necklace. The haarhs presented on these occasions at the
+    Oude court are composed of silver ribands very prettily platted and
+    confined at each division of plats by knobs covered with silver riband.
+    The prices of these haarhs are from five to twenty-five rupees each,
+    depending on the size. [_Author_.] See p. 62.
+
+[12] _'Itr_, essence of roses.
+
+[13]_Khuda hafiz_.
+
+[14] _Jhul_.
+
+[15] _Shahji_, 'my lord'.
+
+[16] _Chapkan_, the cassock-like frock, which is the usual dress of
+    respectable natives.
+
+[17] _Labada_, a sort of overcoat.
+
+[18] _Kamarband_, 'loin-band'.
+
+[19] _Lahaf_, a corruption of _ghilaf_, 'a wrapper'.
+
+[20] _Rumal_, 'face-wiper'.
+
+[21] _Zamindar_, 'a landowner'.
+
+[22] _Ra'iyat_.
+
+[23] Many native gentlemen are allowed to be seated in the king's presence
+    at court daily, but not at the banquet, which is a distinction
+    reserved only for the nobility and favourites. [_Author_.]
+
+[24] For an account of the animal fights before Lord W. Bentinck in 1831
+    see Mrs. F. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 176 ff.; W. Knighton,
+    _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 147 ff.
+
+[25] _Nauroz_. Specially a Persian feast: see Sir J. Malcolm, _History of
+    Persia_,[2] ii. 341 _n_., 404; S.G.W. Benjamin, _Persia and the
+    Persians_, p. 198; O.J. Wills, _The Land of the Lion and the Sun_, ed.
+    1891, p. 48.
+
+[26] _Nauroz mubarak_.
+
+[27] Basant or spring feast, held at the vernal equinox.
+
+[28] Sawan, the fourth month of the Hindu year, July-August.
+
+[29] The feast is held in honour of the mythical Khwaja Khizr, 'the
+    green one', a water spirit identified with the Prophet Elisha (see
+    Sale on _Koran_, xviii. 63). The launching of the little boats is,
+    in essence, a form of magic intended to carry away the evils which
+    menace the community, and to secure abundant rainfall.
+
+[30] _Ilyas ki kishti_.
+
+[31] This is known as Hilal.
+
+[32] The Semites, like other races, believed in the influence of the moon.
+    'The sun shall not strike thee by day, nor the moon by night' (Ps.
+    cxxi. 6). It was believed to cause blindness and epilepsy. Sir J.G.
+    Frazer has exhaustively discussed the question of the influence of the
+    moon. The harvest moon, in particular, brings fertility, and hears the
+    prayers of women in travail: the moon causes growth and decay, and she
+    is dangerous to children. Many practical rules are based on her
+    influence at the various phases (_The Golden Bough_[3] Part I, vol. ii,
+    p. 128; Part IV, vol. ii, p. 132 ff.).
+
+[33] 'The sixth house is Scorpio, which is that of slaves and servants,
+    and of diseases' (Abul Fazl, _Akbarnama_, tr. H. Beveridge, ii. 12).
+
+[34] Here the moon is supposed to exert a curative influence.
+
+[35] Hindus believe that during an eclipse the moon is being strangled by
+    a demon, Rahu. Cries are raised, drums and brazen pans are beaten
+    to scare him.
+
+[36] Properly the Mu'azzin or official summoner to prayer.
+
+[37] _Allahu akbar_.
+
+[38] All offerings of intercession or thanksgivings are denominated sutkah
+    [_Author_] (_sadaqah_, see p. 136).
+
+[39] Lime liniment, composed of equal parts of lime-water and a bland oil,
+    is recognized in surgical practice.
+
+[40] _Shab-i-bara'at_, 'the night of record', is a feast held on the
+    15th of the month Sha'ban, when a vigil is kept, with prayers and
+    illuminations. On this occasion service in memory of the deceased
+    ancestors of the family is performed. On this night the fortunes of
+    mortals during the coming year are said to be recorded in Heaven. See
+    p. 51.
+
+[41] Al-Fatihah, 'the opening one', the first chapter of the Koran.
+
+[42] _Mitha, mithai_, 'sweetmeats'.
+
+[43] Imam Mahdi, see pp. 72, 76.
+
+[44] _Ziyarat_, see p. 15.
+
+[45] Compare the oracular trees of the Greeks (Sir J.G. Frazer,
+    _Pausanias_, ii. 160). For legends of speaking trees in India,
+    W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India_,[2] ii. 89.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XII
+
+  The Zeenahnah.--Its interior described.--Furniture, decorations,
+  &c.--The Purdah (curtains).--Bedstead.--The Musnud (seat of
+  honour).--Mirrors and ornamental furniture disused.--Display on
+  occasions of festivity.--Observations on the Mussulmaun
+  Ladies.--Happiness in their state of seclusion.--Origin of secluding
+  females by Mahumud.--Anecdote.--Tamerlane's command prohibiting
+  females being seen in public.--The Palankeen.--Bearers.--Their
+  general utility and contentedness of disposition.--Habits peculiar
+  to Mussulmaun Ladies.--Domestic arrangements of a Zeenahnah.--Dinner
+  and its accompanying observances.--The Lota and Lugguns.--The
+  Hookha.--Further investigation of the customs adopted in Zeenahnahs.
+
+
+Before I introduce the ladies of a Mussulmaun zeenahnah to your notice, I
+propose giving you a description of their apartments.
+
+Imagine to yourself a tolerably sized quadrangle, three sides of which is
+occupied by habitable buildings, and the fourth by kitchens, offices,
+lumber rooms, &c.; leaving in the centre an open court-yard. The habitable
+buildings are raised a few steps from the court; a line of pillars forms
+the front of the building, which has no upper rooms; the roof is flat, and
+the sides and back without windows, or any aperture through which air can
+be received. The sides and back are merely high walls forming an enclosure,
+and the only air is admitted from the fronts of the dwelling-place facing
+the court-yard. The apartments are divided into long halls, the extreme
+corners having small rooms or dark closets purposely built for the
+repository of valuables or stores; doors are fixed to these closets, which
+are the only places I have seen with them in a zeenahnah or mahul[1]
+(house or palace occupied by females); the floor is either of beaten earth,
+bricks, or stones; boarded floors are not yet introduced.
+
+As they have neither doors nor windows to the halls, warmth or privacy is
+secured by means of thick wadded curtains, made to fit each opening
+between the pillars. Some zeenahnahs have two rows of pillars in the halls
+with wadded curtains to each, thus forming two distinct halls, as occasion
+may serve, or greater warmth be required: this is a convenient arrangement
+where the establishment of servants, slaves, &c., is extensive.
+
+The wadded curtains are called purdahs[2]; these are sometimes made of
+woollen cloth, but more generally of coarse calico, of two colours, in
+patchwork style, striped, vandyked, or in some other ingeniously contrived
+and ornamented way, according to their individual taste.
+
+Besides the purdahs, the openings between the pillars have blinds neatly
+made of bamboo strips, wove together with coloured cords: these are called
+jhillmuns or cheeks.[3] Many of them are painted green; others are more
+gaudy both in colour and variety of patterns. These blinds constitute a
+real comfort to every one in India, as they admit air when let down, and
+at the same time shut out flies and other annoying insects; besides which
+the extreme glare is shaded by them,--a desirable object to foreigners in
+particular.
+
+The floors of the halls are first matted with the coarse date-leaf matting
+of the country, over which is spread shutteringhies[4] (thick cotton
+carpets, peculiarly the manufacture of the Upper Provinces of India, wove
+in stripes of blue and white, or shades of blue); a white calico carpet
+covers the shutteringhie, on which the females take their seat.
+
+The bedsteads of the family are placed, during the day, in lines at the
+back of the halls, to be moved at pleasure to any chosen spot for the
+night's repose; often into the open courtyard, for the benefit of the pure
+air. They are all formed on one principle, differing only in size and
+quality; they stand about half-a-yard from the floor, the legs round and
+broad at bottom, narrowing as they rise towards the frame, which is laced
+over with a thick cotton tape, made for the purpose, and platted in
+checquers, and thus rendered soft, or rather elastic, and very pleasant to
+recline upon. The legs of these bedsteads are in some instances gold,
+silver gilt, or pure silver; others have enamel paintings on fine wood;
+the inferior grades have them merely of wood painted plain and varnished;
+the servants' bedsteads are of the common mango-wood without ornament, the
+lacing of these for the sacking being of elastic string manufactured from
+the fibre of the cocoa-nut.
+
+Such are the bedsteads of every class of people. They seldom have
+mattresses; a soojinee[5] (white quilt) is spread on the lacing, over
+which a calico sheet, tied at each corner of the bedstead with cords and
+tassels; several thin flat pillows of beaten cotton for the head,--a
+muslin sheet for warm weather, and a well wadded ruzzie[6] (coverlid) for
+winter, is all these children of Nature deem essential to their comfort in
+the way of sleeping. They have no idea of night dresses; the same suit
+that adorns a lady, is retained both night and day, until a change be
+needed. The single article exchanged at night is the deputtah,[7] and that
+only when it happens to be of silver tissue or embroidery, for which a
+muslin or calico sheet is substituted.
+
+The very highest circles have the same habits in common with the meanest,
+but those who can afford shawls of cashmere prefer them for sleeping in,
+when the cold weather renders them bearable. Blankets are never used
+except by the poorest peasantry, who wear them in lieu of better garments
+night and day in the winter season: they are always black, the natural
+colour of the wool. The ruzzies of the higher orders are generally made of
+silk of the brightest hues, well wadded, and lined with dyed muslin of
+assimilating colour; they are usually bound with broad silver ribands, and
+sometimes bordered with gold brocaded trimmings. The middling classes have
+fine chintz ruzzies, and the servants and slaves coarse ones of the same
+material; but all are on the same plan, whether for a queen or the meanest
+of her slaves, differing only in the quality of the material.
+
+The mistress of the house is easily distinguished by her seat of honour in
+the hall of a zeenahnah; a musnud[8] not being allowed to any other person
+but the lady of the mansion.
+
+The musnud carpet is spread on the floor if possible near to a pillar
+about the centre of the hall, and is made of many varieties of
+fabric,--gold cloth, quilted silk, brocaded silk, velvet, fine chintz, or
+whatever may suit the lady's taste, circumstances, or convenience. It is
+about two yards square, and generally bordered or fringed, on which is
+placed the all-important musnud. This article may be understood by those
+who have seen a lace-maker's pillow in England, excepting only that the
+musnud is about twenty times the size of that useful little article in the
+hands of our industrious villagers. The musnud is covered with gold cloth,
+silk, velvet, or calico, with square pillows to correspond, for the elbows,
+the knees, &c. This is the seat of honour, to be invited to share which,
+with the lady-owner, is a mark of favour to an equal or inferior: when a
+superior pays a visit of honour, the prided seat is usually surrendered to
+her, and the lady of the house takes her place most humbly on the very
+edge of her own carpet.
+
+Looking-glasses or ornamental furniture are very rarely to be seen in the
+zeenahnahs, even of the very richest females. Chairs and sofas are
+produced when English visitors are expected; but the ladies of Hindoostaun
+prefer the usual mode of sitting and lounging on the carpet; and as for
+tables, I suppose not one gentlewoman of the whole country has ever been
+seated at one; and very few, perhaps, have any idea of their useful
+purposes, all their meals being served on the floor, where dusthakhawns[9]
+(table-cloths we should call them) are spread, but neither knives, forks,
+spoons, glasses, or napkins, so essential to the comfortable enjoyment of
+a meal amongst Europeans. But those who never knew such comforts have no
+desire for the indulgence, nor taste to appreciate them.
+
+On the several occasions, amongst Native society, of assembling in large
+parties, as at births and marriages, the halls, although extensive, would
+be inadequate to accommodate the whole party. They then have awnings of
+white calico, neatly flounced with muslin, supported on poles fixed in the
+courtyard, and connecting the open space with the great hall, by wooden
+platforms which are brought to a line with the building, and covered with
+shutteringhie and white carpets to correspond with the floor-furniture of
+the hall; and here the ladies sit by day and sleep by night very
+comfortably, without feeling any great inconvenience from the absence of
+their bedsteads, which could never be arranged for the accommodation of so
+large an assemblage--nor is it ever expected.
+
+The usually barren look of these almost unfurnished halls is on such
+occasions quite changed, when the ladies are assembled in their various
+dresses; the brilliant display of jewels, the glittering drapery of their
+dress, the various expressions of countenance, and different figures, the
+multitude of female attendants and slaves, the children of all ages and
+sizes in their variously ornamented dresses, are subjects to attract both
+the eye and the mind of an observing visitor; and the hall, which when
+empty appeared desolate and comfortless, thus filled, leaves nothing
+wanting to render the scene attractive.
+
+The buzz of human voices, the happy playfulness of the children, the
+chaste singing of the domenies fill up the animated picture. I have
+sometimes passed an hour or two in witnessing their innocent amusements,
+without any feeling of regret for the brief sacrifice of time I had made. I
+am free to confess, however, that I have returned to my tranquil home with
+increased delight after having witnessed the bustle of a zeenahnah
+assembly. At first I pitied the apparent monotony of their lives; but this
+feeling has worn away by intimacy with the people, who are thus precluded
+from mixing generally with the world. They are happy in their confinement;
+and never having felt the sweets of liberty, would not know how to use the
+boon if it were to be granted them. As the bird from the nest immured in a
+cage is both cheerful and contented, so are these females. They have not,
+it is true, many intellectual resources, but they have naturally good
+understandings, and having learned their duty they strive to fulfil it. So
+far as I have had any opportunity of making personal observations on their
+general character they appear to me obedient wives, dutiful daughters,
+affectionate mothers, kind mistresses, sincere friends, and liberal
+benefactresses to the distressed poor. These are their moral
+qualifications, and in their religious duties they are zealous in
+performing the several ordinances which they have been instructed by their
+parents or husbands to observe. If there be any merit in obeying the
+injunctions of their Lawgiver, those whom I have known most intimately
+deserve praise, since 'they are faithful in that they profess'.
+
+To ladies accustomed from infancy to confinement this is by no means
+irksome; they have their employments and their amusements, and though
+these are not exactly to our taste, nor suited to our mode of education,
+they are not the less relished by those for whom they were invented. They
+perhaps wonder equally at some of our modes of dissipating time, and fancy
+we might spend it more profitably. Be that as it may, the Mussulmaun
+ladies, with whom I have been long intimate, appear to me always happy,
+contented, and satisfied with the seclusion to which they were born; they
+desire no other, and I have ceased to regret they cannot be made partakers
+of that freedom of intercourse with the world we deem so essential to our
+happiness, since their health suffers nothing from that confinement, by
+which they are preserved from a variety of snares and temptations; besides
+which, they would deem it disgraceful in the highest degree to mix
+indiscriminately with men who are not relations. They are educated from
+infancy for retirement, and they can have no wish that the custom should
+be changed, which keeps them apart from the society of men who are not
+very nearly related to them. Female society is unlimited, and that they
+enjoy without restraint.
+
+A lady whose friendship I have enjoyed from my first arrival in India,
+heard me very often speak of the different places I had visited, and she
+fancied her happiness very much depended on seeing a river and a bridge. I
+undertook to gain permission from her husband and father, that the treat
+might be permitted; they, however, did not approve of the lady being
+gratified, and I was vexed to be obliged to convey the disappointment to
+my friend. She very mildly answered me, 'I was much to blame to request
+what I knew was improper for me to be indulged in; I hope my husband and
+family will not be displeased with me for my childish wish; pray make them
+understand how much I repent of my folly. I shall be ashamed to speak on
+the subject when we meet.'
+
+I was anxious to find out the origin of secluding females in the
+Mussulmaun societies of Hindoostaun, as I could find no example in the
+Mosaic law, which appears to have been the pattern Muhumud followed
+generally in domestic habits. I am told by the best possible authority,
+that the first step towards the seclusion of females occurred in the life
+of Mahumud, by whose command the face and figure of women were veiled on
+their going from home, in consequence of some departure from strict
+propriety in one of his wives (Ayashur,[10] the daughter of Omir); she is
+represented to have been a very beautiful woman, and was travelling with
+Mahumud on a journey in Arabia.
+
+'The beautiful Ayashur, on her camel, was separated from the party; she
+arrived at the serai (inn, or halting-place) several hours after they had
+encamped, and declared that her delay was occasioned by the loss of a
+silver bangle from her ankle, which after some trouble she had discovered,
+and which she produced in a bruised state in testimony of her assertion.
+Mahumud was displeased, and her father enraged beyond measure at his
+daughter's exposing herself to the censure of the public, by allowing any
+thing to detach her from the party.' Mahumud assuaged Omir's anger by a
+command then first issued, 'That all females, belonging to the faithful,
+should be compelled to wear a close veil over their face and figure
+whenever they went abroad.'
+
+In Arabia and Persia the females are allowed to walk or ride out with a
+sort of hooded cloak, which falls over the face, and has two eye-holes for
+the purpose of seeing their way.[11] They are to be met with in the streets
+of those countries without a suspicion of impropriety when thus habited.
+
+The habit of strict seclusion, however, originated in Hindoostaun with
+Tamerlane the conqueror of India.
+
+When Tamerlane[12] with his powerful army entered India, he issued a
+proclamation to all his followers to the following purport, 'As they were
+now in the land of idolatry and amongst a strange people, the females of
+their families should be strictly concealed from the view of strangers';
+and Tamerlane himself invented the several covered conveyances which are
+to the present period of the Mussulmaun history in use, suited to each
+grade of female rank in society. And the better to secure them from all
+possibility of contamination by their new neighbours, he commanded that
+they should be confined to their own apartments and behind the purdah,
+disallowing any intercourse with males of their own persuasion even, who
+were not related by the nearest ties, and making it a crime in any female
+who should willingly suffer her person to be seen by men out of the
+prescribed limits of consanguinity.
+
+Tamerlane, it may be presumed, was then ignorant of the religious
+principles of the Hindoos. They are strictly forbidden to have intercourse
+or intermarry with females who are not strictly of their own caste or
+tribe, under the severe penalty of losing that caste which they value as
+their life. To this may be attributed, in a great degree, the safety with
+which female foreigners travel daak[13] (post) in their palankeens, from
+one point of the Indian continent to another, without the knowledge of
+five words of the Hindoostaunie tongue, and with no other servant or
+guardian but the daak-bearers, who carry them at the rate of four miles an
+hour, travelling day and night successively.
+
+The palankeen is supported on the shoulders of four bearers at once,--two
+having the front pole attached to the vehicle, and two supporting the pole
+behind. The four bearers are relieved every five or six minutes by other
+four, making the set of eight to each palankeen,--this set conveys their
+burden from eight to ten miles, where a fresh party are in waiting to
+relieve them, and so on to the extent of the projected journey; much in
+the same way as relays of horses are stationed for post-travelling in
+England. Perhaps the tract of country passed through may not present a
+single hut or habitation for miles together, often through jungles of
+gloomy aspect; yet with all these obstacles, which would excite fear or
+distrust in more civilized parts of the world, females travel in India
+with as perfect security from insult as if they were guarded by a company
+of sepoys, or a troop of cavalry.
+
+I am disposed to think that the invention of covered conveyances by
+Tamerlane first gave rise to the bearers. It seems so probable that the
+conqueror of the Hindoos should have been the first to degrade human
+nature, by compelling them to bear the burden of their fellow-creatures. I
+can never forget the first impression, on my mind, when witnessing this
+mode of conveyance on my landing at Calcutta; and although I am willing to
+agree that the measure is one of vast utility in this climate, and to
+acknowledge with gratitude the benefit I have derived by this personal
+convenience, yet I never seat myself in the palankeen or thonjaun[14]
+without a feeling bordering on self-reproach, as being one amongst the
+number to perpetuate the degradation of my fellow-mortals. They, however,
+feel nothing of this sentiment themselves, for they are trained from
+boyhood to the toil, as the young ox to the yoke. It is their business;
+the means of comfort is derived to them by this service; they are happy in
+the employment, and generally cheerful, and form a class of people in
+themselves respected by every other both for their services and for their
+general good behaviour. In the houses of foreigners they are the most
+useful amongst the whole establishment; they have charge of property, keep
+the furniture in exact order, prepare the beds, the lamps, and the candles,
+where wax is used. Tallow having beef-fat in its manufacture is an
+abomination, to the Hindoos, by whom it is considered unholy to slay, or
+even to touch any portion of the slaughtered cattle of their respect: for
+believing in transmigration, they affirm that these animals receive the
+souls of their departed relations. The bearers make the best of nurses to
+children, and contribute to the comfort of their employer by pulling the
+punkah night and day: in short, so necessary are these servants to the
+domestic economy of sojourners in the East, that their merits as a people
+must be a continual theme of praise; for I know not how an English
+establishment could be concluded with any degree of comfort without these
+most useful domestics. But I have allowed my pen to stray from the subject
+of female seclusion, and will here bring that part of my history to a
+close in very few words.
+
+Those females who rank above peasants or inferior servants, are disposed
+from principle to keep themselves strictly from observation; all who have
+any regard for the character or the honour of their house, seclude
+themselves from the eye of strangers, carefully instructing their young
+daughters to a rigid observance of their own prudent example. Little girls,
+when four years old, are kept strictly behind the purdah, and when they
+move abroad it is always in covered conveyances, and under the
+guardianship of a faithful female domestic, who is equally tenacious us
+the mother to preserve the young lady's reputation unblemished by
+concealing her from the gaze of men.
+
+The ladies of zeenahnah life are not restricted from the society of their
+own sex; they are, as I have before remarked, extravagantly fond of
+company, and equally as hospitable when entertainers. To be alone is a
+trial to which they are seldom exposed, every lady having companions
+amongst her dependants; and according to her means the number in her
+establishment is regulated. Some ladies of rank have from two to ten
+companions, independent of slaves and domestics; and there are some of the
+Royal family at Lucknow who entertain in their service two or three
+hundred female dependants, of all classes. A well-filled zeenahnah is a
+mark of gentility; and even the poorest lady in the country will retain a
+number of slaves and domestics, if she cannot afford companions; besides
+which they are miserable without society, the habit of associating with
+numbers having grown up with infancy to maturity: 'to be alone' is
+considered, with women thus situated, a real calamity.
+
+On occasions of assembling in large parties, each lady takes with her a
+companion besides two or three slaves to attend upon her, no one expecting
+to be served by the servants of the house at which they are visiting. This
+swells the numbers to be provided for; and as the visit is always for
+three days and three nights (except on Eades, when the visit is confined
+to one day), some forethought must be exercised by the lady of the house,
+that all may be accommodated in such a manner as may secure to her the
+reputation of hospitality.
+
+The kitchen and offices to the zeenahnah, I have remarked, occupy one side
+of the quadrangle; they face the great or centre hall appropriated to the
+assembly. These kitchens, however, are sufficiently distant to prevent any
+great annoyance from the smoke;--I say smoke, because chimneys have not
+yet been introduced into the kitchens of the Natives. The fire-places are
+all on the ground, something resembling stoves, each admitting one
+saucepan, the Asiastic style of cooking requiring no other contrivance.
+Roast or boiled joints are never seen at the dinner of a Native: a leg of
+mutton or sirloin of beef would place the hostess under all sorts of
+difficulties, where knives and forks are not understood to be amongst the
+useful appendages of a meal. The variety of their dishes are countless,
+but stews and curries are the chief; all the others are mere varieties.
+The only thing in the shape of roast meats, are small lean cutlets bruised,
+seasoned and cemented with pounded poppy-seed, several being fastened
+together on skewers: they are grilled or roasted over a charcoal fire
+spread on the ground, and then called keebaab,[15] which word implies,
+roast meat.
+
+The kitchen of a zeenahnah would be inadequate to the business of cooking
+for a large assembly; the most choice dishes only (for the highly favoured
+guests), are cooked by the servants of the establishment. The needed
+abundance required on entertaining a large party is provided by a regular
+bazaar cook, several of whom establish themselves in Native cities, or
+wherever there is a Mussulmaun population. Orders being previously given,
+the morning and evening dinners are punctually forwarded at the appointed
+hours in covered trays, each tray having portions of the several good
+things ordered, so that there is no confusion in serving out the feast on
+its arrival at the mansion. The food thus prepared by the bazaar cook
+(naunbye,[16] he is called), is plain boiled-rice, sweet-rice, kheer[17]
+(rice-milk), mautungun[18] (rice sweetened with the addition of preserved
+fruits, raisins, &c., coloured with saffron), sallons[19] (curries) of
+many varieties, some cooked with vegetables, others with unripe fruits
+with or without meat; pillaus of many sorts, keebaabs, preserves, pickles,
+chatnees, and many other things too tedious to admit of detail.
+
+The bread in general use amongst Natives is chiefly unleavened; nothing in
+the likeness of English bread is to be seen at their meals; and many
+object to its being fermented with the intoxicating toddy (extracted from
+a tree). Most of the Native bread is baked on iron plates over a charcoal
+fire. They have many varieties, both plain and rich, and some of the
+latter resembles our pastry, both in quality and flavour.
+
+The dinners, I have said, are brought into the zeenahnah ready dished in
+the Native earthenware, on trays; and as they neither use spoons or forks,
+there is no great delay in setting out the meal where nothing is required
+for display or effect, beyond the excellent quality of the food and its
+being well cooked. In a large assembly all cannot dine at the dustha-khawn
+of the lady-hostess, even if privileged by their rank; they are, therefore,
+accommodated in groups of ten, fifteen, or more, as may be convenient;
+each lady having her companion at the meal, and her slaves to brush off
+the intruding flies with a chowrie, to hand water, or to fetch or carry
+any article of delicacy from or to a neighbouring group. The slaves and
+servants dine in parties after their ladies have finished, in any retired
+corner of the court-yard--always avoiding as much as possible the presence
+of their superiors.
+
+Before any one touches the meal, water is carried round for each lady to
+wash the hand and rinse the mouth. It is deemed unclean to eat without
+this form of ablution, and the person neglecting it would he held unholy;
+this done, the lady turns to her meal, saying, 'Bis ma Allah!'--(In the
+name or to the praise of God!) and with the right hand conveys the food to
+her mouth, (the left is never used at meals)[20]; and although they
+partake of every variety of food placed before them with no other aid than
+their fingers, yet the mechanical habit is so perfect, that they neither
+drop a grain of rice, soil the dress, nor retain any of the food on their
+fingers. The custom must always be offensive to a foreign eye, and the
+habit none would wish to copy; yet every one who witnesses must admire the
+neat way in which eating is accomplished by these really 'children of
+Nature'.
+
+The repast concluded, the lota[21] (vessel with water), and the luggun[22]
+(to receive the water in after rinsing the hands and mouth), are passed
+round to every person, who having announced by the 'Shuggur Allah!'--All
+thanks to God!--that she has finished, the attendants present first the
+powdered peas, culled basun,[23]--which answers the purpose of soap in
+removing grease, &c., from the fingers,--and then the water in due course.
+Soap has not even yet been brought into fashion by the Natives, except by
+the washermen; I have often been surprised that they have not found the
+use of soap a necessary article in the nursery, where the only substitute
+I have seen is the powdered pea.
+
+Lotas and lugguns are articles in use with all classes of people; they
+must be poor indeed who do not boast of one, at least, in their family.
+They are always of metal, either brass, or copper lacquered over, or zinc;
+in some cases, as with the nobility, silver and even gold are converted
+into these useful articles of Native comfort.
+
+China or glass is comparatively but little used; water is their only
+beverage, and this is preferred, in the absence of metal basins, out of
+the common red earthen katorah[24] (cup shaped like a vase).
+
+China dishes, bowls, and basins, are used for serving many of the savoury
+articles of food in; but it is as common in the privacy of the palace, as
+well as in the huts of the peasantry, to see many choice things introduced
+at meals served up in the rude red earthen platter; many of the delicacies
+of Asiatic cookery being esteemed more palatable from the earthen flavour
+of the new vessel in which it is served.
+
+I very well remember the first few days of my sojourn at Lucknow, feeling
+something bordering on dissatisfaction, at the rude appearance of the
+dishes containing choice specimens of Indian cookery, which poured in (as
+is customary upon fresh arrivals) from the friends of the family I had
+become a member of. I fancied, in my ignorance, that the Mussulmaun people
+perpetuated their prejudices even to me, and that they must fear I should
+contaminate their china dishes; but I was soon satisfied on this point: I
+found, by experience, that brown earthen platters were used by the
+nobility from choice; and in some instances, the viand would have wanted
+its greatest relish if served in China or silver vessels. Custom
+reconciles every thing: I can drink a draught of pure water now from the
+earthen katorah of the Natives with as much pleasure as from a glass or a
+silver cup, and feel as well satisfied with their dainties out of an
+earthen platter, as when conveyed in silver or China dishes.
+
+China tea sets are very rarely found in the zeenahnah; tea being used by
+the Natives more as a medicine than a refreshment, except by such
+gentlemen as have frequent intercourse with the 'Sahib Logue' (English
+gentry), among whom they acquire a taste for this delightful beverage. The
+ladies, however, must have a severe cold to induce them to partake of the
+beverage even as a remedy, but by no means as a luxury.[25] I imagined
+that the inhabitants of a zeenahnah were sadly deficient in actual
+comforts, when I found, upon my first arrival in India, that there were no
+preparations for breakfast going forward: every one seemed engaged in pawn
+eating, and smoking the hookha, but no breakfast after the morning Namaaz.
+I was, however, soon satisfied that they felt no sort of privation, as the
+early meal so common in Europe has never been introduced in Eastern
+circles. Their first meal is a good substantial dinner, at ten, eleven, or
+twelve o'clock, after which follow pawn and the hookha; to this succeeds a
+sleep of two or three hours, providing it does not impede the duty of
+prayer;--the pious, I ought to remark, would give up every indulgence
+which would prevent the discharge of this duty. The second meal follows in
+twelve hours from the first, and consists of the same substantial fare;
+after which they usually sleep again until the dawn of day is near at hand.
+
+It is the custom amongst Natives to eat fruit after the morning sleep,
+when dried fruits, confectionery, radishes, carrots, sugar-cane, green
+peas, and other such delicacies, are likewise considered wholesome
+luxuries, both with the ladies and the children. A dessert immediately
+after dinner is considered so unwholesome, that they deem our practice
+extremely injudicious. Such is the difference of custom; and I am disposed
+to think their fashion, in this instance, would be worth imitating by
+Europeans whilst residing in India.
+
+I have been much amused with the curious inquiries of a zeenahnah family
+when the gardener's dhaullie is introduced. A dhaullie,[26] I must first
+tell you, is a flat basket, on which is arranged, in neat order, whatever
+fruit, vegetables, or herbs are at the time in season, with a nosegay of
+flowers placed in the centre. They will often ask with wonder--'How do
+these things grow?'--'How do they look in the ground?'--and many such
+child-like remarks have I listened to with pity, whilst I have relieved my
+heart by explaining the operations of Nature in the vegetable kingdom, a
+subject on which they are perfectly ignorant, and, from the habits of
+seclusion in which they live, can never properly be made to understand or
+enjoy.
+
+I have said water is the only beverage in general use amongst the
+Mussulmaun Natives. They have sherbet, however, as a luxury on occasions
+of festivals, marriages, &c. This sherbet is simply sugar and water, with
+a flavour of rose-water, or kurah[27] added to it.
+
+The hookha is almost in general use with females. It is a common practice
+with the lady of the house to present the hookha she is smoking to her
+favoured guest. This mark of attention is always to be duly appreciated;
+but such is the deference paid to parents, that a son can rarely be
+persuaded by an indulgent father or mother to smoke a hookha in their
+revered presence;--this praiseworthy feeling originates not in fear, but
+real genuine respect. The parents entertain for their son the most tender
+regard; and the father makes him both his companion and his friend; yet
+the most familiar endearments do not lessen the feeling of reverence a
+good son entertains for his father. This is one among the many samples of
+patriarchal life, my first Letter alluded to, and which I can never
+witness in real life, without feeling respect for the persons who follow
+up the patterns I have been taught to venerate in our Holy Scripture.
+
+The hookha, as an indulgence of a privilege, is a great definer of
+etiquette. In the presence of the King or reigning Nuwaub, no subject,
+however high he may rank in blood or royal favour, can presume to smoke.
+In Native courts, on state occasions, hookhas are presented only to the
+Governor-General, the Commander-in-Chief, or the Resident at his Court,
+who are considered equals in rank, and therefore entitled to the privilege
+of smoking with him; and they cannot consistently resist the intended
+honour. Should they dislike smoking, a hint is readily understood by the
+hookha-bahdhaar[28] to bring the hookha, charged with the materials,
+without the addition of fire. Application of the munall[29] (mouth-piece)
+to the month indicates a sense of the honour conferred.
+
+
+[1] _Mahall._
+
+[2] _Parda._
+
+[3] _Jhilmil, chiq,_ the Anglo-Indian 'chick'.
+
+[4] _Shatranji_, see p. 19.
+
+[5] _Sozani_ (_sozan_, 'a needle'), an embroidered quilt.
+
+[6] _Razai_, a counterpane padded with cotton.
+
+[7] _Dopatta_, a double sheet: see p. 26.
+
+[8] See p. 24.
+
+[9] _Dastarkhwan_, see p. 108.
+
+[10] 'Ayishah, daughter of Abubakr, third and best loved wife of the
+    Prophet, though she bore him no child. The tale of the scandal about
+    her is historical, but it is treated as a calumny (_Koran_, xxiv.
+    II, 22, with Sale's note).
+
+[11] Known as the _burqa_.
+
+[12] Amir Taimur, known as Taimur Lang, 'the lame', was born A.D.
+    1336; ascended the throne at Balkh, 1370; invaded India and captured
+    Delhi, 1398; died 1405, and was buried at Samarkand. There seems to be
+    no evidence that he introduced the practice of the seclusion of women,
+    an ancient Semitic custom, which, however, was probably enforced on
+    the people of India by the brutality of foreign invaders.
+
+[13] _Dak_.
+
+[14] See p. 32.
+
+[15] _Kabab_, properly, small pieces of meat roasted on skewers.
+
+
+[16] _Nanbai_, a baker of bread _(nan)_.
+
+[17] _Khir_, milk boiled with rice, sugar, and spices.
+
+[18] _Mutanjan_, a corruption of _muttajjan_, 'fried in a pan'; usually in
+    the form _mutanjan pulao_, meat boiled with rice, sugar, butter,
+    and sometimes pine-apples or nuts.
+
+[19] _Salan_, a curry of meat, fish, or vegetables.
+
+[20] The left hand is used for purposes of ablution.
+
+[21] The Musalman _lota_, properly called _badhna_, differs from
+    that used by Hindus in having a spout like that of a teapot.
+
+[22] _Lagan_, a brass or copper pan in which the hands are washed: also
+    used for kneading dough.
+
+[23] _Besan_, flour, properly that of gram (_chana_). The prejudice
+    against soap is largely due to imitation of Hindus, who believe
+    themselves to be polluted by fat. Arabs, after a meal, wash their
+    hands and mouths with soap (Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 257). Sir G.
+    Watt (_Economic Dictionary_, iii. 84 ff.) gives a long list of other
+    detergents and substitutes for soap.
+
+[24] _Katora_.
+
+[25] The prejudice against the use of tea has much decreased since this
+    book was written, owing to its cultivation in India. Musalmans and
+    many Hindus now drink it freely.
+
+[26] _Dali_, the 'dolly' of Anglo-Indians.
+
+[27] See p. 13.
+
+[28] _Huqqahbardar_.
+
+[29] _Munhnal_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIII
+
+  Plurality of wives.--Mahumud's motive for permitting this
+  privilege.--State of society at the commencement of the Prophet's
+  mission.--His injunctions respecting marriage.--Parents invariably
+  determine on the selection of a husband.--First marriages attended by
+  a public ceremony.--The first wife takes precedence of all
+  others.--Generosity of deposition evinced by the Mussulmaun
+  ladies.--Divorces obtained under certain restrictions.--Period of
+  solemnizing marriage.--Method adopted in choosing a husband or
+  wife.--Overtures and contracts of marriage, how regulated.--Mugganee,
+  the first contract.--Dress of the bride elect on this occasion.--The
+  ceremonies described as witnessed.--Remarks on the bride.--Present
+  from the bridegroom on Buckrah Eade.
+
+
+The Mussulmauns have permission from their Lawgiver to be pluralists in
+wives, as well as the Israelites of old.[1] Mahumud's motive for
+restricting the number of wives each man might lawfully marry, was, say
+his biographers, for the purpose of reforming the then existing state of
+society, and correcting abuses of long standing amongst the Arabians.
+
+My authority tells me, that at the period of Mahumud's commencing his
+mission, the Arabians were a most abandoned and dissolute people, guilty
+of every excess that can debase the character of man: drunkards,
+profligate, and overbearing barbarians, both in principle and action.
+Mahumud is said unvariedly to have manifested kindly feelings towards the
+weaker sex, who, he considered, were intended to be the companion and
+solace of man, and not the slave of his ungovernable sensuality or caprice;
+he set the best possible example in his own domestic circle, and
+instituted such laws as were then needed to restrain vice and promote the
+happiness of those Arabians who had received him as a Prophet. He forbade
+all kinds of fermented liquors, which were then in common use; and to the
+frequent intoxication of the men, were attributed their vicious habits,
+base pursuits, and unmanly cruelty to the poor females. Mahumud's code of
+laws relating to marriage restricted them to a limited number of wives;
+for at that period they all possessed crowded harems, many of the
+inhabitants of which were the victims of their reckless persecution; young
+females torn from the bosom of their families and immured in the vilest
+state of bondage, to be cast out upon the wide world to starvation and
+misery, whenever the base master of the house or tent desired to make room
+for a fresh supply, often the spoils of his predatory excursions.
+
+By the laws of Mahumud his followers are restrained from concubinage; they
+are equally restricted from forced marriages. The number of their wives
+must be regulated by their means of supporting them, the law strictly
+forbidding neglect, or unkind treatment of any one of the number his
+followers may deem it convenient to marry.
+
+At the period when Mahumud issued these necessary laws for the security of
+female comfort and the moral habits of the males, there existed a practice
+with the Arabs of forcing young women to marry against their inclination,
+adding, year by year, to the many wretched creatures doomed, for a time,
+to all the miseries of a crowded hut; and at last, when tired of their
+persons or unable to provide them with sustenance, turning them adrift
+without a home, a friend, or a meal. To the present day the law against
+forced marriages is revered, and no marriage contract can be deemed lawful
+without the necessary form of inquiry by the Maulvee, who, in the presence
+of witnesses, demands of the young lady, 'whether the contract is by her
+own free will and consent?' This, however, I am disposed to think, in the
+present age, is little else than a mere form of 'fulfilling the law' since
+the engagement is made by the parents of both parties, the young couple
+being passive subjects to the parental arrangement, for their benefit as
+they are assured. The young lady, from her rigid seclusion, has no prior
+attachment, and she is educated to be 'obedient to her husband'. She is
+taught from her earliest youth to look forward to such match as her kind
+parents may think proper to provide for her; and, therefore, can have no
+objection to accepting the husband selected for her by them. The parents,
+loving their daughter, and aware of the responsibility resting on them,
+are cautious in selecting for their girls suitable husbands, according to
+their particular view of the eligibility of the suitor.
+
+The first marriage of a Mussulmaun is the only one where a public display
+of the ceremony is deemed necessary, and the first wife is always
+considered the head of his female establishment. Although he may be the
+husband of many wives in the course of time, and some of them prove
+greater favourites, yet the first wife takes precedence in all matters
+where dignity is to be preserved. And when the several wives meet--each
+have separate habitations if possible--all the rest pay to the first wife
+that deference which superiority exacts from inferiors; not only do the
+secondary wives pay this respect to the first, but the whole circle of
+relations and friends make the same distinction, as a matter of course;
+for the first wife takes precedence in every way.
+
+Should the first wife fortunately present her husband with a son, he is
+the undisputed heir; but the children of every subsequent wife are equals
+in the father's estimation. Should the husband be dissolute and have
+offspring by concubines--which is not very common,--those children are
+remembered and provided for in the distribution of his property; and, as
+very often occurs, they are cherished by the wives with nearly as much
+care as their own children; but illegitimate offspring very seldom marry
+in the same rank their father held in society.
+
+The latitude allowed by 'the law' preserves the many-wived Mussulmaun from
+the world's censure; and his conscience rests unaccused when he adds to
+his numbers, if he cannot reproach himself with having neglected or
+unkindly treated any of the number bound to him, or their children. But
+the privilege is not always indulged in by the Mussulmauns; much depends
+on circumstances, and more on the man's disposition. If it be the happy
+lot of a kind-hearted, good man to be married to a woman of assimilating
+mind, possessing the needful requisites to render home agreeable, and a
+prospect of an increasing family, then the husband has no motive to draw
+him into further engagements, and he is satisfied with one wife. Many such
+men I have known in Hindoostaun, particularly among the Syaads and
+religious characters, who deem a plurality of wives a plague to the
+possessors in proportion to their numbers.
+
+The affluent, the sensualist, and the ambitious, are most prone to swell
+the numbers in their harem. With some men, who are not highly gifted
+intellectually, it is esteemed a mark of gentility to have several wives.
+
+There are some instances of remarkable generosity in the conduct of good
+wives (which would hardly gain credit with females differently educated),
+not necessary to the subject before me; but I may here add to the praise
+of a good wife among these people, that she never utters a reproach, nor
+gives evidence by word or manner in her husband's presence that she has
+any cause for regret; she receives him with undisguised pleasure, although
+she has just before learned that another member has been added to his
+well-peopled harem. The good and forbearing wife, by this line of conduct,
+secures to herself the confidence of her husband; who, feeling assured
+that the amiable woman has an interest in his happiness, will consult her
+and take her advice in the domestic affairs of his children by other wives,
+and even arrange by her judgment all the settlements for their marriages,
+&c. He can speak of other wives without restraint,--for she knows he has
+others,--and her education has taught her, that they deserve her respect
+in proportion as they contribute to her husband's happiness. The children
+of her husband are admitted at all times and seasons, without restraint or
+prejudice; she loves them next to her own, because they are her husband's.
+She receives the mothers of such children without a shade of jealousy in
+her manner, and delights in distinguishing them by favours and presents
+according to their several merits. From this picture of many living wives
+in Mussulmaun society, it must not be supposed I am speaking of women
+without attachment to their husbands; on the contrary, they are persons
+who are really susceptible of pure love, and the generosity of their
+conduct is one of the ways in which they prove themselves devoted to their
+husband's happiness. This, they say, was the lesson taught them by their
+amiable mother, and this is the example they would set for the imitation
+of their daughters.
+
+I do not mean to say this is a faithful picture of all the females of
+zeenahnah life. The mixture of good and bad tempers or dispositions is not
+confined to any class or complexion of people, but is to be met with in
+every quarter of the globe. In general, I have observed those females of
+the Mussulmaun population who have any claim to genteel life, and whose
+habits are guided by religious principles, evince such traits of character
+as would constitute the virtuous and thoroughly obedient wife in any
+country; and many, whom I have had the honour to know personally, would do
+credit to the most enlightened people in the world.
+
+Should the first wife prove a termagant or unfaithful--rare occurrences
+amongst the inmates of the harem,--the husband has the liberty of
+divorcing her by paying down her stipulated dowry. This dowry is an
+engagement made by the husband on the night of Baarraat[2] (when the
+bridegroom is about to take his bride from her parents to his own home).
+On which occasion the Maulvee asks the bridegroom to name the amount of
+his wife's dowry, in the event of separation; the young man is at liberty
+to name any sum he pleases. It would not prevent the marriage if the
+smallest amount were promised; but he is in the presence of his bride's
+family, and within her hearing also, though he has not yet seen her;--it
+is a critical moment for him, thus surrounded. Besides, as he never
+intends to separate from the lady, in the strict letter of the law, he
+cannot refrain from gratifying those interested in the honour he is about
+to confer by the value of the promised dowry, and, therefore, he names a
+very heavy sum, which perhaps his whole generation never could have
+collected in their joint lives. This sum would of itself be a barrier to
+divorce; but that is not the only object which influences the Mussulmaun
+generally to waive the divorce; it is because they would not publish their
+own disgrace, by divorcing an unfaithful or undutiful wife.
+
+If the first wife dies, a second is sought after on the same principle
+which guided the first--'a superior to head his house'. In this case there
+would be the same public display which marked the first wife's marriage;
+all the minor or secondary wives being introduced to the zeenahnah
+privately; they are in consequence termed Dhollie[3] wives, or brought
+home under cover.
+
+Many great men appear to be close imitators of King Solomon, with whose
+history they are perfectly conversant, for I have heard of the sovereign
+princes in Hindoostaun having seven or eight hundred wives at one time in
+their palaces. This is hearsay report only, and I should hope an
+exaggeration.[4]
+
+The first marriage is usually solemnized when the youth is eighteen, and
+the young lady thirteen, or fourteen at the most; many are married at an
+earlier age, when, in the opinion of the parents, an eligible match is to
+be secured. And in some cases, where the parents on both sides have the
+union of their children at heart, they contract them at six or seven years
+old, which marriage they solemnly bind themselves to fulfil when the
+children have reached a proper age; under these circumstances the children
+are allowed to live in the same house, and often form an attachment for
+each other, which renders their union a life of real happiness.
+
+There are to be found in Mussulmaun society parents of mercenary minds,
+who prefer giving their daughters in marriage as dhollie wives to noblemen
+or men of property, to the preferable plan of uniting them with a husband
+of their own grade, with whom the girl would most likely live without a
+rival in the mud-walled tenement; this will explain the facilities offered
+to a sovereign or nobleman in extending the numbers of his harem.
+
+Some parents excuse themselves in thus disposing of their daughters on the
+score of poverty, and the difficulty they find in defraying the expenses
+of a wedding: this I conceive to be one great error in the economy of the
+Mussulmaun people,--unnecessary expense incurred in their marriage
+ceremonies, which hampers them through life in their circumstances.
+Parents, however poor, will not allow their daughter to be conveyed from
+their home, where the projected union is with an equal, without a
+seemingly needless parade of music, and a marriage-portion in goods and
+chattels, if they have no fortune to give beside; then the expense of
+providing dinners for friends to make the event conspicuous, and the
+useless articles of finery for the girl's person, with many other ways of
+expending money, to the detriment of the parents' finances, without any
+very substantial benefit to the young couple. But this dearly-loved custom
+cannot be passed over; and if the parents find it impossible to meet the
+pecuniary demands of these ceremonies, the girl has no alternative but to
+live out her days singly, unless by an agent's influence she is accepted
+as a dhollie wife to some man of wealth.
+
+Girls are considered to have passed their prime when they number from
+sixteen to eighteen years; even the poorest peasant would object to a wife
+of eighteen.
+
+There has been the same difficulty to encounter in every age of Mussulmaun
+history in Hindoostaun; and in the darker periods of civilization, the
+obstacles to settling their daughters to advantage induced the villagers
+and the uneducated to follow the example of the Rajpoots, viz., to destroy
+the greater proportion of females at their birth. In the present age, this
+horrid custom is never heard of amongst any classes of the Mussulmaun
+population[5]; but by the Rajpoot Hindoos it is still practised, as one of
+their chiefs very lately acknowledged in the presence of a friend of mine.
+I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah declare that it was a common
+occurrence within his recollection, among the lower classes of the people
+in the immediate vicinity of Loodeeanah,[6] where he lived when a boy; and
+that the same practice existed in the Oude territory, amongst the
+peasantry even at a much later date. One of the Nuwaubs of Oude,--I think
+Asoof ood Dowlah,--hearing with horror of the frequent recurrence of this
+atrocity in the remote parts of his province, issued a proclamation to his
+subjects, commanding them to desist from the barbarous custom[7]; and, as
+an inducement to the wicked parents to preserve their female offspring
+alive, grants of land were to be awarded to every female as a
+marriage-portion on her arriving at a proper age.
+
+It is generally to be observed in a Mussulmaun's family, even at this day,
+that the birth of a girl produces a temporary gloom, whilst the birth of a
+boy gives rise to a festival in the zeenahnah. Some are wicked enough to
+say, 'It is more honourable to have sons than daughters', but I believe
+the real cause is the difficulty to be encountered in settling the latter
+suitably.
+
+The important affair of fixing upon a desirable match for their sons and
+daughters is the source of constant anxiety in the family of every
+Mussulmaun, from the children's earliest years to the period of its
+accomplishment.
+
+There is a class of people who make it the business of their lives to
+negotiate marriages. Both men and women of this description are of course
+ingeniously expert in the art of talking, and able to put the best
+colouring on the affair they undertake; they occupy every day of their
+lives in roving about from house to house, and, as they have always
+something entertaining to say, they generally gain easy admittance; they
+make themselves acquainted with the domestic affairs of one family in
+order to convey them to another, and so continue in their line of
+gossiping, until the economy of every person's house is familiar to all.
+The female gossip in her researches in zeenahnahs, finds out all the
+expectations a mother entertains for her marriageable sons or daughters,
+and details whatever she learns in such or such a zeenahnah, as likely to
+meet the views of her present hostess. Every one knows the object of these
+visits, and if they have any secret that the world may not participate in,
+there is due caution observed that it may not transpire before this Mrs.
+Gad-about.
+
+When intelligence is brought, by means of such agency, to the mother of a
+son who happens to be marriageable, that a lady of proper rank has a
+daughter to be sought, she consults with her husband, and further
+inquiries are instituted amongst their several friends, male and female;
+after due deliberation, the connexion being found desirable, the father
+will consult an omen before negotiations are commenced. The omen to decide
+the important step is as follows:--Several slips of paper are cut up, on
+half the number is written 'to be', on the other half, 'not to be'; these
+papers are mixed together and placed under the prayer-carpet. When the
+good Mussulmaun is preparing for his evening Namaaz he fails not in his
+devotions to ask for help and guidance in an affair of so much importance
+to the father as the happiness and well-being of his son. At the portion
+of the service when he bows down his head to God, he beseeches with much
+humility, calling on the great power and goodness of God to instruct and
+guide him for the best interest of his child; and then he repeats a short
+prayer expressive of his reliance on the wisdom of God, and his perfect
+submission to whatever may be His wise decree in this important business.
+The prayer concluded, he seats himself with solemn gravity on the
+prayer-carpet, again and again imploring Divine guidance, without which he
+is sure nothing good can accrue: he then draws one slip from under his
+carpet; if 'to be' is produced, he places it by his left side;--a second
+slip is drawn out, should that also bear the words 'to be' the business is
+so far decided. He then offers thanks and praises to God, congratulates
+his wife on the successful issue of the omen, and discusses those plans
+which appear most likely to further the prospects of their dearly-loved
+son. But should the second and third papers say 'not to be' he is assured
+in his heart it was so decided by 'that Wisdom which cannot err:' to whom
+he gives praise and glory for all mercies received at His hand: after this
+no overture or negotiation would be listened to by the pious father from
+the same quarter.[8]
+
+The omen, however, proving favourable, the affair is decided; and in order
+to gain the best possible information of the real disposition of all
+parties concerned, a confidential friend is sent to the zeenahnah of the
+young lady's mother to make her own observations on what passes within;
+and to ascertain, if possible, whether the report brought by the female
+agent was true or exaggerated; and finally, to learn if their son would be
+received or rejected as a suitor, provided advances were made.
+
+The female friend returns, after a day or two's absence, to the anxious
+parents of the youth, and details all she has seen or heard during her
+visit. The young lady may, perhaps, have been seen (this is not always
+conceded to such visitors), in which case her person, her manners, her
+apparent disposition, the hospitality and good breeding of the mother and
+other members of the zeenahnah, are described; and lastly, it is hinted
+that, all other things suiting, the young lady being yet disengaged, the
+projected offer would not be disagreeable to her parents.
+
+The father of the youth then resolves on sending a male agent in due form
+to negotiate a marriage, unless he happens to be personally acquainted
+with the girl's father; in which case the lady is desired to send her
+female agent on the embassy, and the father of the youth speaks on the
+subject in the meantime to the girl's father.
+
+A very intimate friend of mine was seeking for a suitable match for her
+son, and being much in her confidence, I was initiated in all the
+mysteries and arrangements (according to Mussulmaun rule) of the affair
+pending the marriage of her son.
+
+The young lady to be sought (wooed we should have it), had been described
+as amiable and pretty--advantages as much esteemed as her rank;--fortune
+she had none worth mentioning, but it was what is termed in Indian society
+a good and equal match. The overture was, therefore, to be made from the
+youth's family in the following manner:
+
+On a silver tray covered with gold brocade and fringed with silver, was
+laid the youth's pedigree, traced by a neat writer in the Persian
+character, on richly embossed paper ornamented and emblazoned with gold
+figures. The youth being a Syaad, his pedigree was traced up to Mahumud,
+in both paternal and maternal lines, and many a hero and Begum of their
+noble blood filled up the space from the Prophet down to the youthful Meer
+Mahumud, my friend's son.
+
+On the tray, with the pedigree, was laid a nuzza, or offering of five gold
+mohurs, and twenty-one (the lucky number) rupees; a brocaded cover,
+fringed with silver, was spread over the whole, and this was conveyed by
+the male agent to the young Begum's father. The tray and its contents are
+retained for ever, if the proposal is accepted: if rejected, the parties
+return the whole without delay, which is received as a tacit proof that
+the suitor is rejected: no further explanation is ever given or required.
+
+In the present instance the tray was detained, and in a few days after a
+female from their family was sent to my friend's house to make a general
+scrutiny of the zeenahnah and its inmates. This female was pressed to stay
+a day or two, and in that time many important subjects underwent
+discussion. The youth was introduced, and everything according with the
+views entertained by both parties, the fathers met, and the marriage, it
+was decided, should take place within a twelvemonth, when the young lady
+would have accomplished her thirteenth year.
+
+'Do you decide on having Mugganee[9] performed?' is the question proposed
+by the father of the youth to the father of the young maiden. In the
+present case it was chosen, and great were the preparations of my friend
+to do all possible honour to the future bride of her son.
+
+Mugganee is the first contract, by which the parties are bound to fulfil
+their engagement at an appointed time.
+
+The dress for a bride[10] differs in one material point from the general
+style of Hindoostaunie costume: a sort of gown is worn, made of silver
+tissue, or some equally expensive article, about the walking length of an
+English dress; the skirt is open in front, and contains about twenty
+breadths of the material, a tight body and long sleeves. The whole dress
+is trimmed very richly with embroidered trimming and silver riband; the
+deputtah (drapery) is made to correspond. This style of dress is the
+original Hindoo fashion, and was worn at the Court of Delhi for many
+centuries; but of late years it has been used only on marriage festivals
+amongst the better sort of people in Hindoostaun, except Kings or Nuwaubs
+sending khillauts to females, when this dress, called a jhammah,[11] is
+invariably one of the articles.
+
+The costly dresses for the present Mugganee my friend prepared at a great
+expense, and with much good taste; to which were added a ruby ring of
+great value, large gold ear-rings, offerings of money, the flower-garlands
+for the head, neck, wrists, and ankles, formed of the sweet-scented
+jessamine; choice confectionery set out in trays with the pawns and fruits;
+the whole conveyed under an escort of soldiers and servants with a band of
+music, from the residence of Meer Mahumud to that of his bride elect,
+accompanied by many friends of the family. These offerings from the youth
+bind the contract with the young lady, who wears his ring from that day to
+the end of her life.
+
+The poorer sort of people perform Mugganee by the youth simply sending a
+rupee in a silk band, to be tied on the girl's arm.
+
+Being curious to know the whole business of a wedding ceremony amongst the
+Mussulmaun people, I was allowed to perform the part of 'officiating
+friend' on this occasion of celebrating the Mugganee. The parents of the
+young lady having been consulted, my visit was a source of solicitude to
+the whole family, who made every possible preparation to receive me with
+becoming respect; I went just in time to reach the gate at the moment the
+parade arrived. I was handed to the door of the zeenahnah by the girl's
+father, and was soon surrounded by the young members of the family,
+together with many lady-visitors, slaves, and women-servants of the
+establishment. They had never before seen an English-woman, and the
+novelty, I fancy, surprised the whole group; they examined my dress,
+my complexion, hair, hands, &c., and looked the wonder they could not
+express in words. The young Begum was not amongst the gazing throng;
+some preliminary customs detained her behind the purdah, where it may
+be supposed she endured all the agony of suspense and curiosity by her
+compliance with the prescribed forms.
+
+The lady of the mansion waited my approach to the dulhaun[12] (great hall)
+with all due etiquette, standing to receive and embrace me on my advancing
+towards her. This ceremony performed, I was invited to take a seat on the
+musnud-carpet with her on the ground; a chair had been provided for me,
+but I chose to respect the lady's preference, and the seat on the floor
+suited me for the time without much inconvenience.
+
+After some time had been passed in conversation on such subjects as suited
+the taste of the lady of the house, I was surprised at the servants
+entering with trays, which they placed immediately before me, containing a
+full-dress suit in the costume of Hindoostaun. The hostess told me she had
+prepared this dress for me, and I must condescend to wear it. I would have
+declined the gaudy array, but one of her friends whispered me, 'The custom
+is of long standing; when the face of a stranger is first seen a dress is
+always presented; I should displease Sumdun Begum by my refusal;--besides,
+it would be deemed an ill omen at the Mugganee of the young Bohue[13] Begum
+if I did not put on the Native dress before I saw the face of the bride
+elect.' These I found to be weighty arguments, and felt constrained to
+quiet their apprehensions of ill-luck by compliance; I therefore forced
+the gold dress and the glittering drapery over my other clothes, at the
+expense of some suffering from the heat, for it was at the very hottest
+season of the year, and the dulhaun was crowded with visitors.
+
+This important point conceded to them, I was led to a side hall, where the
+little girl was seated on her carpet of rich embroidery, her face resting
+on her knees in apparent bashfulness. I could not directly ascertain
+whether she was plain, or pretty as the female agent had represented. I
+was allowed the privilege of decorating the young lady with the sweet
+jessamine guinahs,[14] and placing the ring on the forefinger of the right
+hand; after which, the ear-rings, the gold-tissue dress, the deputtah were
+all in their turn put on, the offering of money presented, and then I had
+the first embrace before her mother. She looked very pretty, just turned
+twelve. If I could have prevailed on her to be cheerful, I should have
+been much gratified to have extended my visit in her apartment, but the
+poor child seemed ready to sink with timidity; and out of compassion to
+the dear girl, I hurried away from the hall, to relieve her from the
+burden my presence seemed to inflict, the moment I had accomplished my
+last duty, which was to feed her with my own hand, giving her seven pieces
+of sugar-candy; seven, on this occasion, is the lucky number, I presume,
+as I was particularly cautioned to feed her with exactly that number of
+pieces.
+
+Returning to the assembly in the dulhaun, I would have gladly taken leave;
+but there was yet one other custom to be observed to secure a happy omen
+to the young people's union. Once again seated on the musnud with Sumdun
+Begum,[15] the female slaves entered with sherbet in silver basins. Each
+person taking sherbet is expected to deposit gold or silver coins in the
+tray; the sherbet-money at this house is collected for the bride; and when
+during the three days' performance of the marriage ceremony at the
+bridegroom's house sherbet is presented to the guests, the money collected
+there is reserved for him. The produce of the two houses is afterwards
+compared, and conclusions drawn as to the greatest portion of respect paid
+by the friends on either side. The poor people find the sherbet-money a
+useful fund to help them to keep house; but with the rich it is a mere
+matter to boast of, that so much money was collected in consequence of the
+number of visitors who attended the nuptials.
+
+After the Mugganee ceremony had been performed, and before the marriage
+was solemnized, the festival of Buckrah Eade occurred;--in the eleventh
+Letter you will find it remarked, the bride and bridegroom elect then
+exchange presents;--my friend was resolved her son's presents should do
+honour to both houses, and the following may give you an idea of an
+Eade-gift.
+
+Thirty-five goats and sheep of the finest breed procurable, which I
+succeeded in having sent in their natural dress, instead of being adorned
+with gold-cloth and painted horns: it was, however, with some persuasion
+the folly of this general practice was omitted in this instance.
+
+The guinah or garland, of flowers on a tray covered with brocade. The
+guinah are sweet-scented flowers without stalks, threaded into garlands in
+many pretty ways, with great taste and ingenuity, intermixed with silver
+ribands; they are formed into bracelets, necklaces, armlets, chaplets for
+the head, and bangles for the legs. There are people in Lucknow who make
+the preparing of guinahs a profitable business, as the population is so
+extensive as to render these flower-ornaments articles of great request.
+
+A tray filled with pawns, prepared with the usual ingredients, as lime,
+cuttie[16] (a bitter gum), betel-nut, tobacco, spices, &c.; these pawns
+are tied up in packets of a triangular form and covered with enamelled
+foil of many bright colours. Several trays of ripe fruits of the season,
+viz., kurbootahs[17] (shaddock), kabooza[18] (melons), ununas[19] (pine
+apple), guavers,[20] sherreefha[21] (custard-apple), kummeruck,[22]
+jarmun[23] (purple olives), orme[24] (mango), falsah,[25] kirhnee,[26]
+baer,[27] leechie,[28] ormpeach,[29] carounder,[30] and many other kinds
+of less repute.
+
+Confectionery and sweetmeats, on trays, in all the varieties of Indian
+invention; a full-dress suit for the young lady; and on a silver tray the
+youth's nuzza of five gold mohurs, and twenty-one rupees.
+
+The Eade offering of Meer Mahumud was escorted by servants, soldiers, and
+a band of music; and the young lady returned a present to the bridegroom
+elect of thirty-five goats and sheep, and a variety of undress skull-caps,
+supposed to be her own work, in spangles and embroidery. I may state here,
+that the Natives of India never go bare-headed in the house. The turban is
+always worn in company, whatever may be the inconvenience from heat; and
+in private life, a small skull-cap, often of plain white muslin, just
+covers the head. It is considered disgraceful in men to expose the head
+bare; removing the turban from the head of an individual would be deemed
+as insulting as pulling a nose in Europe.
+
+Whatever Eade or festival may occur between the Mugganee and the final
+celebration of nuptials, presents are always interchanged by the young
+bride and bridegroom; and with all such observances there is one
+prevailing custom, which is, that though there should be nothing at hand
+but part of their own gifts, the trays are not allowed to go back without
+some trifling things to keep the custom in full force.
+
+
+[1] The _Koran_ (iv. 3) allows Musalmans to marry 'by twos, or
+    threes, or fours'; but the passage has been interpreted in various
+    ways.
+
+[2] _Barat_.
+
+[3] _Duli_, 'the Anglo-Indian 'dhooly'. Such wives are so called
+    because they are brought to the houses of their husbands in an
+    informal way, without a regular marriage procession.
+
+[4] The King of Vijayanagar had twelve thousand wives: four thousand
+    followed him on foot and served in the kitchen; the same number
+    marched with him on horseback; the remainder in litters, and two or
+    three thousand of them were bound to burn themselves with his corpse
+    (Nicolo Conti, _India in the Fifteenth Century_, part iii, p. 6). In
+    Orissa a palm-leaf record states that one monarch died prematurely
+    just as he had married his sixty-thousandth wife, and a European
+    traveller speaks of a later prince who had four thousand ladies (Sir
+    W. Hunter, _Orissa_. ii, 132 f.). Manucci states that there were more
+    than thirty thousand women in the palace of Shah Jahan at Dheli,
+    and that he usually had two thousand women of different races in his
+    zenana (_Storia de Major_, i. 195, ii. 330). Tippoo Sultan of
+    Mysore married nine hundred women (Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_,
+    93).
+
+[5] There in evidence that infanticide did prevail among some Musalman
+    tribes. Where actual infanticide has disappeared, it has often been
+    replaced by neglect of female infants, except in those castes where,
+    owing to a scarcity of girls, they command a high price.--_Reports
+    Census of India_, 1911, i. 216 ff; _Panjab_, 1911, i. 231.
+
+[6] Ludhiana.
+
+[7] No record of this proclamation has been traced in the histories of the
+    time.
+
+[8] The bride is often selected by praying for a dream in sleep, by
+    manipulating the rosary, or by opening the _Koran_ at random, and
+    reading the first verse which comes under the eye. Another method is
+    to ascertain to which of the elements--fire, air, earth, water--the
+    initials of the names of the pair correspond. If these agree, it is
+    believed that the engagement will be prosperous.--Jaffur Shurreef,
+    _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 37.
+
+[9] _Mangni_, 'the asking'.
+
+[10] Compare the full account of brides' dress in Mrs. F. Parks,
+    _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 425.
+
+[11] _Jama_.
+
+[12] _Dalan_.
+
+[13] _Bahu_, properly a son's wife or daughter-in-law: commonly applied
+    to a bride or young wife.
+
+[14] Probably the _genda_ or French marigold (_Tagetes erecta_).
+
+[15] Sumdun is always the title of the bride's mamma; Bohue, that of the
+    young wife, and, therefore, my thus designating her here is premature.
+    [_Samdhan_ means a connexion by marriage. The mothers of bride and
+    bridegroom are _samdhan_ to each other.]
+
+[16] _Kuth, kuttha_, the gum of _Acacia catechu_.
+
+[17] The shaddock (_Citrus decumana_) is called _chakoira_; possibly
+    confused with the next.
+
+[18] _Kharbuzah, Cucumis melo_.
+
+[19] _Ananas, Ananassa saliva_.
+
+[20] Guava.
+
+[21] _Sharifah, Anona squamosa_.
+
+[22] _Kamrak, Averrhoa Carambola_.
+
+[23] _Jamun, jaman, Eugenia Jambolana_.
+
+[24] _Am, Mangifera indica_.
+
+[25] _Falsa, phalsa, Greuria asiatica_.
+
+[26] _Kirni, Canthium parviflorum_.
+
+[27] _Ber, Zizyphus Jujuba_.
+
+[28] _Lichi, Nephelium Lichi_.
+
+[29] Possibly some confusion between _um_, the mango, and _alu,
+    aru_, the peach.
+
+[30] _Karaunda, Carissa Carandas_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIV
+
+  Wedding ceremonies of the Mussulmauns.--The new or full moon
+  propitious to the rites being concluded.--Marriage settlements
+  unknown.--Control of the wife over her own property.--Three days and
+  nights occupied in celebrating the wedding.--Preparations previously
+  made by both families.--Ostentatious display on those occasions.--Day
+  of Sarchuck.--Customs on the day of Mayndhie.--Sending presents.--Day
+  of Baarraat.--Procession of the bridegroom to fetch the bride.--The
+  bride's departure to her new home.--Attendant ceremonies
+  explained.--Similarity of the Mussulmaun and Hindu
+  ceremonies.--Anecdote of a Moollah.--Tying the Narrah to the Moosul.
+
+
+When the young lady's family have made all the necessary arrangements for
+that important event (their daughter's nuptials), notice is sent to the
+friends of the intended bridegroom, and the gentlemen of both families
+meet to settle on what day the celebration is to take place. They are
+guided in the final arrangement by the state of the moon--the new or full
+moon has the preference; she must, however, be clear of Scorpio, which, as
+I have before stated, they consider the unfortunate sign.[1] There are
+some moons in the year considered very unpropitious to marry in. At
+Mahurrum, for instance, no emergency as to time or circumstance would
+induce the female party to consent to the marriage solemnities taking
+place. In Rumzaun they have scruples, though not equal to those which they
+entertain against fulfilling the contract in Mahurrum, the month of
+mourning.
+
+Marriage settlements are not known in Mussulmaun society. All contracts
+are made by word of mouth; and to their credit, honourable reliance is
+usually followed by honourable fulfilment of agreements. The husband is
+expected to be satisfied with whatever portion of his wife's fortune the
+friends may deem consistent or prudent to grant with their daughter. The
+wife is at liberty to keep under her own control any separate sum or
+allowance her parents may be pleased to give her, over and above the
+marriage portion granted to the husband with his wife.[2]
+
+The husband rarely knows the value of his wife's private property unless,
+as sometimes happens, the couple in after years have perfect confidence in
+each other, and make no separate interests in worldly matters.
+Occasionally, when the married couple have not lived happily together, the
+wife has been known to bury her cash secretly; and perhaps she may die
+without disclosing the secret of her treasure to any one.
+
+In India the practice of burying treasure is very common with females,
+particularly in villages, or where there are fears entertained of robbers.
+There is no difficulty in burying cash or other treasure, where the ground
+floors of the houses are merely beaten earth--boarded floors, indeed, are
+never seen in Hindoostaun--in the houses of the first classes of Natives
+they sometimes have them bricked and plastered, or paved with marble.
+During the rainy season I have sometimes observed the wooden tuckht[3] (a
+portable platform) in use with aged or delicate females, on which they
+make their seats from fear of the damp from the mud floor; but they
+complain that these accommodations are not half so comfortable as their
+ordinary seat.
+
+The division of personal property between married people has the effect of
+rendering the wife much more independent than the married lady of other
+countries. The plan is a judicious one in the existing state of Mussulmaun
+society, for since the husband could at his pleasure add other wives, the
+whole property of the first wife might be squandered on these additions.
+In the middling classes of society, and where the husband is a religious
+person, this division of property is not so strictly maintained; yet every
+wife has the privilege, if she chooses to exercise it, of keeping a
+private purse, which the good wife will produce unasked to meet her
+husband's emergencies; and which the good husband is never known to demand,
+however great may be his necessities. There are many traits of character
+in the Mussulmaun world that render them both amiable and happy, wherever
+politeness of behaviour is brought to bear. I have seen some bright
+examples of forbearance and affectionate solicitude in both sexes, which
+would do honour to the most refined societies of the civilized world.
+
+The marriage ceremony occupies three days and nights:--The first is called,
+Sarchuck;[4] the second, Mayndhie;[5] and the third, Baarraat,[6] (fate or
+destiny is the meaning of this word).
+
+I am not aware that three days are required to accomplish the nuptials of
+the young couple in any other society of Mussulmauns distinct from those
+of Hindoostaun. Judging by similar usages among the Hindoo population, I
+am rather disposed to conjecture that this is one of the customs of the
+aborigines, imitated by the invaders, as the outward parade and publicity
+given to the event by the Mussulmauns greatly resemble those of the
+surrounding Hindoos.
+
+There are no licences granted, nor any form of registry kept of marriages.
+Any person who is acquainted with the Khoraun may read the marriage
+ceremony, in the presence of witnesses if it be possible; but they usually
+employ a professed Moollah or Maulvee, in consideration of such persons
+being the most righteous in their lives; for they make this engagement a
+religious, as well as a civil contract.[7]
+
+The day being fixed, the elders, male and female, of the two families,
+invite their several relatives, friends, and acquaintances to assemble,
+according to their means and convenience for entertaining visitors. The
+invitations are written in the Persian character on red paper, describing
+the particular event which they are expected to honour. During the week
+previous to Sarchuck, both families are busily engaged in sending round to
+their several friends trays of ready-cooked dinners. Rich and poor share
+equally on these occasions; the reason assigned for which is, that the
+persons' nuptials may be registered in the minds of those who partake of
+the food, who in the course of time, might otherwise forget that they had
+ever heard of the young couple's nuptials.
+
+The mother of Bohue Begum actively employed the intervening time, in
+finishing her preparations for the young lady's departure from the
+parental roof with suitable articles, which might prove the bride was not
+sent forth to her new family without a proper provision. There is
+certainly too much ostentation evinced on these occasions; but custom,
+prided custom, bids defiance to every better argument; and thus the mother,
+full of solicitude that her daughter should carry with her evident marks
+of parental affection, and be able to sustain her rank in life, loads her
+child with a profusion of worldly goods. The poorest people, in this
+instance, imitate their superiors with a blameable disregard to
+consequences. Many parents among the lower orders incur heavy debts to
+enable them to make a parade at their children's wedding, which proves a
+source of misery to themselves as long as they live.
+
+It may be presumed the Sumdun Begum prepared more suits of finery than her
+daughter could wear out for years. A silver bedstead with the necessary
+furniture, as before described; a silver pawn-dawn,[8] round, and shaped
+very like a modern spice-box in England; a silver chillumchee[9]
+(wash-hand basin), and lota (water-jug with a spout, nearly resembling an
+old-fashioned coffee-pot); a silver luggun[10] (spittoon); silver
+surraie[11] (water-bottle); silver basins for water; several dozens of
+copper saucepans, plates and spoons for cooking; dishes, plates, and
+platters in all variety needful for the house, of metal or of stone. China
+or glass is rarely amongst the bride's portion, the only articles of glass
+I remember to have seen was the looking-glass for the bride's toilette,
+and that was framed and cased in pure silver. Stone dishes are a curious
+and expensive article, brought from Persia and Arabia, of a greenish
+colour, highly polished; the Natives call them racaab-puttie,[12] and
+prefer them to silver at their meals, having an idea that poisoned food
+would break them; and he who should live in fear of such a calamity, feels
+secure that the food is pure when the dish of this rare stone is placed
+before him perfect.
+
+Amongst the various articles sent with the bride to her new home is the
+much prized musnud, cushions and carpet to correspond; shutteringhies, and
+calico carpets, together with the most minute article used in Native
+houses, whether for the kitchen, or for the accommodation of the young
+lady in her apartments; all these are conveyed in the lady's train when
+she leaves her father's house to enter that of her husband. I am afraid my
+descriptions will be deemed tediously particular, so apt are we to take
+the contagion of example from those we associate with; and as things
+unimportant in other societies are made of so much consequence to these
+people, I am in danger of giving to trifles more importance than may be
+agreeable to my readers.
+
+On the day of Sarchuck the zeenahnahs of both houses are completely filled
+with visitors of all grades, from the wives and mothers of noblemen, down
+to the humblest acquaintance of the family. To do honour to the hostess,
+the guests appear in their best attire and most valuable ornaments.
+
+A wedding in the family of a respectable Mussulmaun is very often the
+medium of reconciling long standing estrangements between friends. Human
+nature has the same failings in every climate; there will be some who
+entertain jealousies and envyings in all societies, but a wedding with
+these people is a perfect peace-maker, since none of the invited can
+consistently stay away; and in such an assembly, where is the evil mind to
+disturb harmony, or recur to past grievances?
+
+The day of Sarchuck is the first time the young lady receives the
+appellation of Dullun,[13] at which time also the bridegroom is designated
+Dullha.[14] Dullun is kept in strict confinement, in a dark room or closet,
+during the whole three days' merriment going forward under the parental
+roof; whilst the bridegroom is the most prominent person in the assembly
+of the males, where amusements are contrived to please and divert him, the
+whole party vieing in personal attentions to him. The ladies are occupied
+in conversation and merriment, and amused with the native songs and music
+of the dominie, smoking the hookha, eating pawn, dinner, &c. Company is
+their delight, and time passes pleasantly with them in such an assembly.
+
+The second day, Mayndhie, is one of bustle and preparation in the Sumdun
+Begum's department; it is spent in arranging the various articles that are
+to accompany the bride's Mayndhie, which is forwarded in the evening to
+the bridegroom with great parade.
+
+It is so well known that I need hardly mention the fact, that the herb
+mayndhie[15] is in general request amongst the natives of India, for the
+purpose of dyeing the hands and feet; it is considered by them an
+indispensable article to their comfort, keeping those members cool and a
+great ornament to the person.
+
+Long established custom obliges the bride to send mayndhie on the second
+night of the nuptials to the bridegroom; and, to make the event more
+conspicuous, presents proportioned to the means of the party accompany the
+trays of prepared mayndhie.
+
+The female friends of the bride's family attend the Mayndhie procession in
+covered conveyances, and the male guests on horses, elephants, and in
+palkies; trains of soldiers, servants, and bands of music swell the
+procession (among people of distinction) to a magnitude inconceivable to
+those who have not visited the Native cities of Hindoostaun, or witnessed
+the parade of a marriage ceremony.
+
+Amongst the bride's presents with mayndhie, may be noticed every thing
+requisite for a full-dress suit for the bridegroom, and the etceteras of
+his toilette; confectionery, dried fruits, preserves, the prepared pawns,
+and a multitude of trifles too tedious to enumerate, but which are
+nevertheless esteemed luxuries with the Native young people, and are
+considered essential to the occasion. One thing I must not omit, the
+sugar-candy, which forms the source of amusement when the bridegroom is
+under the dominion of the females in his mother's zeenahnah. The artush
+bajie,[16] (fireworks) sent with the presents, are concealed in flowers
+formed of the transparent uberuck:[17] these flowers are set out in frames,
+called chumund,[18] and represent beds of flowers in their varied forms
+and colours; these in their number and gay appearance have a pretty effect
+in the procession, interspersed with the trays containing the dresses, &c.
+All the trays are first covered with basket-work raised in domes, and over
+these are thrown draperies of broadcloth, gold-cloth, and brocade, neatly
+fringed in bright colours.
+
+The Mayndhie procession having reached the bridegroom's house, bustle and
+excitement pervade through every department of the mansion. The gentlemen
+are introduced to the father's hall; the ladies to the youth's mother, who
+in all possible state is prepared to receive the bride's friends.
+
+The interior of a zeenahnah has been already described; the ladies crowd
+into the centre hall to witness, through the blinds of bamboo, the
+important process of dressing the young bridegroom in his bride's presents.
+The centre purdah is let down, in which are openings to admit the hands
+and feet; and close to this purdah a low stool is placed. When all these
+preliminary preparations are made, and the ladies securely under cover,
+notice is sent to the male assembly that, 'Dullha is wanted'; and he then
+enters the zeenahnah court-yard, amidst the deafening sounds of trumpets
+and drums from without, and a serenade from the female singers within. He
+seats himself on the stool placed for him close to the purdah, and obeys
+the several commands he receives from the hidden females, with childlike
+docility. The moist mayndhie is then tied on with bandages by hands he
+cannot see, and, if time admits, one hour is requisite to fix the dye
+bright and permanent on the hands and feet. During this delay, the hour is
+passed in lively dialogues with the several purdahed dames, who have all
+the advantage of seeing though themselves unseen; the singers occasionally
+lauding his praise in extempore strains, after describing the loveliness
+of his bride, (whom they know nothing about), and foretelling the
+happiness which awaits him in his marriage, but which, in the lottery, may
+perhaps prove a blank. The sugar-candy, broken into small lumps, is
+presented by the ladies whilst his hands and feet are fast bound in the
+bandages of mayndhie; but as he cannot help himself, and it is an omen of
+good to eat the bride's sweets at this ceremony, they are sure he will try
+to catch the morsels which they present to his mouth and then draw back,
+teasing the youth with their banterings, until at last he may successfully
+snap at the candy, and seize the fingers also with the dainty, to the
+general amusement of the whole party and the youth's entire satisfaction.
+
+The mayndhie supposed to have done its duty, the bandages are removed; his
+old unnah,[19] the nurse of his infancy (always retained for life),
+assists him with water to wash off the leaves, dries his feet and hands,
+rubs him with otta,[20] robes him in his bride's presents, and ornaments
+him with the guinah. Thus attired he takes leave of his tormentors, sends
+respectful messages to his bride's family, and bows his way from their
+guardianship to the male apartment, where he is greeted by a flourish of
+trumpets and the congratulations of the guests, many of whom present
+nuzzas and embrace him cordially.
+
+The dinner is introduced at twelve amongst the bridegroom's guests, and
+the night passed in good-humoured conviviality, although the strongest
+beverage at the feast consists of sugar and water sherbet. The
+dancing-women's performances, the display of fireworks, the dinner, pawn,
+and hookha, form the chief amusements of the night, and they break up only
+when the dawn of morning approaches.
+
+The bride's female friends take sherbet and pawn after the bridegroom's
+departure from the zeenahnah, after which they hasten away to the bride's
+assembly, to detail the whole business of their mission.
+
+I have often heard the ladies complain, that the time hangs very heavy on
+their hands whilst the party have gone to perform Mayndhie, until the
+good ladies return with their budget of particulars. Hundreds of questions
+are then put to them by the inquisitive dames, how the procession passed
+off?--whether accident or adventure befel them on the march?--what remarks
+were made on the bride's gifts?---but most of all they want to know, how
+the bridegroom looked, and how he behaved under their hands? The events of
+the evening take up the night in detailing, with the occasional
+interruptions of dinner, pawn, and sherbet; and so well are they amused,
+that they seldom feel disposed to sleep until the crowing of the cock
+warns them that the night has escaped with their diversified amusements.
+
+The eventful Baarraat arrives to awaken in the heart of a tender mother
+all the good feelings of fond affection; she is, perhaps, about to part
+with the great solace of her life under many domestic trials; at any rate,
+she transfers her beloved child to another protection. All marriages are
+not equally happy in their termination; it is a lottery, a fate, in the
+good mother's calculation. Her darling child may be the favoured of Heaven
+for which she prays; she may be, however, the miserable first wife of a
+licentious pluralist; nothing is certain, but she will strive to trust in
+God's mercy, that the event prove a happy one to her dearly-loved girl.
+
+I have said the young bride is in close confinement during the days of
+celebrating her nuptials; on the third she is tormented with the
+preparations for her departure. The mayndhie must be applied to her hands
+and feet, the formidable operations of bathing, drying her hair, oiling
+and dressing her head, dyeing her lips, gums, and teeth with antimony,
+fixing on her the wedding ornaments, the nut (nose-ring) presented by her
+husband's family: the many rings to be placed on her fingers and toes, the
+rings fixed in her ears, are all so many new trials to her, which though a
+complication of inconveniences, she cannot venture to murmur at, and
+therefore submits to with the passive meekness of a lamb.
+
+Towards the close of the evening, all this preparation being fulfilled,
+the marriage portion is set in order to accompany the bride. The guests
+make their own amusements for the day; the mother is too much occupied
+with her daughter's affairs to give much of her time or attention to them;
+nor do they expect it, for they all know by experience the nature of a
+mother's duties at such an interesting period.
+
+The bridegroom's house is nearly in the same state of bustle as the
+bride's, though of a very different, description, as the preparing for the
+reception of a bride is an event of vast importance in the opinion of a
+Mussulmaun. The gentlemen assemble in the evening, and are regaled with
+sherbet and the hookha, and entertained with the nuutch-singing and
+fireworks until the appointed hour for setting out in the procession to
+fetch the bride to her new home.
+
+The procession is on a grand scale; every friend or acquaintance, together
+with their elephants, are pressed into the service of the bridegroom on
+this night of Baarraat. The young man himself is mounted on a handsome
+charger, the legs, tail, and mane of which are dyed with mayndhie, whilst
+the ornamental furniture of the horse is splendid with spangles and
+embroidery. The dress of the bridegroom is of gold-cloth, richly trimmed
+with a turban to correspond, to the top of which is fastened an immense
+bunch of silver trimming, that falls over his face to his waist, and
+answers the purpose of a veil,[21] (this is in strict keeping with the
+Hindoo custom at their marriage processions). A select few of the females
+from the bridegroom's house attend in his train to bring home the bride,
+accompanied by innumerable torches, with bands of music, soldiers, and
+servants, to give effect to the procession. On their arrival at the gate
+of the bride's residence, the gentlemen are introduced to the father's
+apartments, where fireworks, music, and singing, occupy their time and
+attention until the hour for departure arrives.
+
+The marriage ceremony is performed in the presence of witnesses, although
+the bride is not seen by any of the males at the time, not even by her
+husband, until they have been lawfully united according to the common form.
+
+In the centre of the hall, in the zeenahnah, a tuckht (platform) six feet
+square is placed, on which the musnud of gold brocade is set. This is the
+bride's seat when dressed for her nuptials; she is surrounded by ladies
+who bear witness to the marriage ceremony. The purdahs are let down, and
+the Maulvee, the bridegroom, the two fathers, and a few male friends are
+introduced to the zeenahnah court-yard, with a flourish of trumpets and
+deafening sounds of drums. They advance with much gravity towards the
+purdahs, and arrange themselves close to this slender partition between
+the two sexes.
+
+The Maulvee commences by calling on the young maiden by name, to answer to
+his demand, 'Is it by your own consent this marriage takes place
+with ----?' naming the person who is the bridegroom; the bride answers,
+'It is by my consent.' The Maulvee then explains the law of Mahumud, and
+reads a certain chapter from that portion of the Khoraun which binds the
+parties in holy wedlock.[22] He then turns to the young man, and asks him
+to name the sum he proposes as his wife's dowry. The bridegroom thus
+called upon, names ten, twenty, or perhaps a hundred lacs of rupees; the
+Maulvee repeats to all present the amount proposed, and then prays that
+the young couple thus united may be blessed in this world and in eternity.
+All the gentlemen then retire, except the bridegroom, who is delayed, as
+soon as this is accomplished, entering the hall until the bride's guests
+have retreated into the side rooms: as soon as this is accomplished he is
+introduced into the presence of his mother-in-law and her daughter by the
+women servants. He studiously avoids looking up as he enters the hall,
+because, according to the custom of this people, he must first see his
+wife's face in a looking-glass, which is placed before the young couple,
+when he is seated on the musnud by his bride. Happy for him if he then
+beholds a face that bespeaks the gentle being he hopes Fate has destined
+to make him happy; if otherwise he must submit; there is no untying the
+sacred contract.
+
+Many absurd customs follow this first introduction of the bride and
+bridegroom. When the procession is all formed, the goods and chattels of
+the bride are loaded on the heads of the carriers; the bridegroom conveys
+his young wife in his arms to the chundole (covered palankeen), which is
+in readiness within the court, and the procession moves off in grand style,
+with a perpetual din of noisy music until they arrive at the bridegroom's
+mansion.
+
+The poor mother has perhaps had many struggles with her own heart to save
+her daughter's feelings during the preparation for departure; but when the
+separation takes place the scene is affecting beyond description. I never
+witnessed anything to equal it in other societies: indeed, so powerfully
+are the feelings of the mother excited, that she rarely acquires her usual
+composure until her daughter is allowed to revisit her, which is generally
+within a week after her marriage.
+
+P.S.--I have remarked that, in important things which have nothing to do
+with the religion of the Mussulmauns, they are disposed to imitate the
+habits of the Hindoos; this is more particularly to be traced in many of
+their wedding customs.
+
+In villages where there are a greater proportion of Hindoos than
+Mussulmauns the females of the two people mix more generally than is
+usually allowed in cities or large towns; and it is among this mingled
+population that we find the spirit of superstition influencing the female
+character in more marked manner than it does in more populous places,
+which the following anecdote, will illustrate. The parties were known to
+the person who related the circumstance to me.
+
+'A learned man, a moollah[23] or head-teacher and expounder of the
+Mahumudan law, resided in a village six koss (twelve miles English)
+distant from Lucknow, the capital of Oude. This moollah was married to a
+woman of good family, by whom he had a large progeny of daughters. He
+lived in great respect, and cultivated his land with success, the produce
+of his farm not only supporting his own family, but enabling the good
+moollah to distribute largely amongst the poor, his neighbours, and the
+passing traveller. A hungry applicant never left his door without a meal
+of the same wholesome, yet humble fare, which formed his own daily
+sustenance. Bread and dhall he preferred to the most choice delicacies, as
+by this abstemious mode of living, he was enabled to feed and comfort the
+afflicted with the residue of his income.
+
+'This moollah was one of the most pious men of the age, and alive to the
+interests of his fellow-mortals, both temporal and eternal. He gave
+instruction gratis to as many pupils as chose to attend his lectures, and
+desired to acquire from his matured knowledge an introduction to the
+points of faith, and instruction in the Mussulmaun laws. Numbers of young
+students attended his hall daily, to listen to the expounding of the rules
+and maxims he had acquired by a long life devoted to the service of God,
+and his duty to mankind. In him, many young men found a benefactor who
+blended instruction with temporal benefits; so mild and persuasive were
+this good moollah's monitions, that he lived in the affection, venerations
+and respect of his pupils, as a fond father in the love of his children.
+
+'The wife of this good man managed the domestic affairs of the family,
+which were very little controlled by her husband's interference. On an
+occasion of solemnizing the nuptials of one of their daughters, the wife
+sent a message to the moollah, by a female slave, requiring his immediate
+presence in the zeenahnah, that he might perform his allotted part in the
+ceremony, which, as elder of the house, could not be confided to any other
+hands but his. This was to "tie the naarah to the moosul".[24]
+
+'The moollah was deeply engaged in expounding to his pupils a difficult
+passage of the Khoraun when the slave entered and delivered her message.
+"Coming", he answered, without looking at the messenger, and continued his
+exposition.
+
+'The good woman of the house was in momentary expectation of her husband's
+arrival, but when one hour had elapsed, her impatience overcame her
+discretion, and she dispatched the slave a second time to summon the
+moollah, who, in his anxiety to promote a better work, had forgotten the
+subject of tying the naarah to the moosul. The slave again entered the
+hall, and delivered her lady's message; he was then engaged in a fresh
+exposition, and, as before, replied "coming", but still proceeding with
+his subject as if he heard not the summons.
+
+'Another hour elapsed, and the wife's ordinary patience was exhausted; "Go
+to your master, slave!" she said with authority in her voice and manner;
+"go ask your master from me, whether it is his intention to destroy the
+peace of his house, and the happiness of his family. Ask him, why he
+should delay performing so important a duty at this ceremony, when his own
+daughter's interest and welfare are at stake?"
+
+'The slave faithfully conveyed the message, and the moollah, finding that
+his domestic peace depended on submitting to the superstitious notions of
+his wife, accompanied the slave to the zeenahnah without further delay.
+
+'The moollah's compliance with the absurd desires of his wife surprised
+the students, who discussed the subject freely in his absence. He having
+always taught them the folly of prejudice and the absurdity of
+superstition, they could not, comprehend how it was the moollah had been
+led to comply with a request so much at variance with the principles he
+endeavoured to impress upon them.
+
+'On his return, after a short absence, to his pupils, he was about to
+re-commence the passage at which he had left off to attend his wife's
+summons; one of the young men, however, interrupted him by the inquiry,
+"Whether he had performed the important business of tying the naarah to the
+moosul?"--"Yes," answered the moollah, very mildly, "and by so doing I
+have secured peace to my wife's disturbed mind."--"But how is it, reverend
+Sir," rejoined the student, "that your actions and your precepts are at
+variance? You caution us against every species of superstition, and yet
+that you have in this instance complied with one, is very evident."--"I
+grant you, my young friend," said the moollah, "that I have indeed done so,
+but my motive for this deviation is, I trust, correct. I could have argued
+with you on the folly of tying the naarah to the moosul, and you would
+have been convinced by my arguments; but my wife, alas! would not listen
+to anything but the custom--the custom of the whole village. I went with
+reluctance, I performed the ceremony with still greater; yet I had no
+alternative if I valued harmony in my household: this I have now secured
+by my acquiescence in the simple desire of my wife. Should any evil
+accident befall my daughter or her husband, I am spared the reproaches
+that would have been heaped upon me, as being the cause of the evil, from
+my refusal to tie the naarah to the moosul. The mere compliance with this
+absurd custom, to secure peace and harmony, does not alter my faith; I
+have saved others from greater offences, by my passive obedience to the
+wishes of my wife, who ignorantly places dependance on the act, as
+necessary to her daughter's welfare."
+
+'The students were satisfied with his explanation, and their respect was
+increased for the good man who had thus taught them to see and to cherish
+the means of living peaceably with all mankind, whenever their actions do
+not tend to injure their religious faith, or infringe on the principles of
+morality and virtue.'
+
+
+[1] See p. 158.
+
+[2] For the right of the bride to her private property, see N.E.B. Baillie,
+    _Digest of Moohummudan Law_ (1875), 146 ff.
+
+[3] _Takht._
+
+[4] _Sachaq_, the fruits and other gifts carried in procession in
+  earthen pots ornamented with various devices.--Jaffur Shurreef,
+  _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 73.
+
+[5] _Menhdi_.
+
+[6] _Barat, barat_: meaning 'bridegroom's procession'.
+
+[7] Among the Khojas of West India a person from the lodge to which the
+    parties belong recites the names of the Panjtan-i-pak, the five
+    holy ones--Muhammad, 'Ali, Fatimah, Hasan, Husain--with the
+    invocation: 'I begin the wedding of ---- with ----, to wed as did
+    Fatimah, the bright-faced Lady (on whom be peace!) with the Lord and
+    Leader, the Receiver of the Testament of the Chosen and Pure, the Lord
+    'Ali, the son of Abu-Talib.'--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii,
+    45.
+
+[8] _Pandan_.
+
+[9] _Chilamchi_.
+
+[10] _Lagan_.
+
+[11] _Surahi_.
+
+[12] _Rikab_, 'a cup'; _patthari_, 'made of stone'. China dishes are
+    also supposed to betray poison: see J. Fryer, _A New Account of East
+    India and Persia_ (Hakluyt Society's edition), i. 87.
+
+[13] _Dulhin_.
+
+[14] _Dulha_.
+
+[15] _Menhdi_: the henna plant, _Lawsonia alba_.
+
+[16] _Atishbazi_, fire-play.
+
+[17] _Abrak_, talc.
+
+[18] _Chaman_, a flower-bed.
+
+[19] _Anna_.
+
+[20] Otto, _'itr_ of roses.
+
+[21] 'The dress of the bridegroom consisted entirely of cloth of gold;
+    and across his forehead was bound a sort of fillet made of an
+    embroidery of pearls, from which, long strings of gold hung down all
+    over his face to his saddle-bow; and to his mouth he kept a red silk
+    handkerchief closely pressed to prevent devils entering his
+    mouth.'--Mrs. F. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 438 f. This
+    fillet is called _sihra_, and it is intended to avert the influence
+    of the Evil Eye and of demons.
+
+
+[22] The officiating Mulla or Qazi lifts the bridegroom's veil,
+    makes him gargle his throat three times with water, and seating him
+    facing Mecca, requires him to repeat a prayer to Allah for forgiveness
+    (_istighfarullah_); the four Qul, or chapters of the _Koran_
+    commencing with the word _qul_, 'say' (cix, cxii, cxiii, cxiv); the
+    Kalima or Creed: 'There is no deity but Allah: Muhammad is the
+    Apostle of Allah'; the Articles of Belief (_Sifat-i-iman_) in
+    Allah, his Angels, the Scriptures, the Prophets, the Resurrection,
+    and Day of Judgement. His absolute decree and predestination of Good
+    and Evil; the Prayer of Obedience, said standing
+    (_du'a'l-qunut_). If he be illiterate, the meaning of all these
+    should be explained to him.--Jafnir Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 86.
+
+[23] Mulla.
+
+[24] The naarah is a cord of many threads dyed red and yellow; the moosul
+    the heavy beam in use where rice is to be cleansed from the husks. The
+    custom is altogether of Hindoo origin. [_Author_.] [When the condiment
+    (_ubtan_), made of the flour of gram, mixed with oil and perfumes,
+    which is rubbed on the bride and bridegroom, is being ground, the
+    handle of the hand-mill is smeared with sandalwood paste, powder of a
+    kind of nut ( _Vangueira spinosa_), and some betel leaves; betel-nuts
+    wrapped in a piece of new red cloth are tied to it. Then seven women,
+    whose husbands are living, sit down to grind the condiment. Some raw
+    rice is put in a red cloth, and with a parcel of betel-leaf is tied to
+    the mill-handle with a thread (_nara_). Women pretend to beat it,
+    and sing a marriage song. The rite is a form of fertility magic. The
+    handle of the mill here represents the rice-pounder (_musal_) in
+    the rite described in the text.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part i, 101;
+    part ii, 163 f.[7]]
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XV
+
+  On the birth and management of children in Hindoostaun.--Increase of
+  joy on the birth of a Son.--Preference generally shown to male
+  children.--Treatment of Infants.--Day of Purification.--Offerings
+  presented on this occasion to the child.--The anniversary of the
+  birthday celebrated.--Visit of the father to the Durgah.--Pastimes of
+  boys.--Kites.--Pigeons.--The Mhogdhur.--Sword-exercise.--The Bow and
+  Arrows.--The Pellet-bow.--Crows.--Sports of Native
+  gentlemen.--Cock-fighting.--Remarks upon horses, elephants, tigers,
+  and leopards.--Pigeon-shooting.--Birds released from captivity on
+  particular occasions.--Reasons for the extension of the royal
+  clemency in Native Courts.--Influence of the Prime Minister in the
+  administration of justice.
+
+
+The bustle of a wedding in the family of a Mussulmaun having subsided, and
+the bride become familiar with her new relatives, the mother also
+reconciled to the separation from her child by the knowledge of her
+happiness,--for they are allowed frequent intercourse,--the next important
+subject which fills their whole hearts with hope and anxiety, is the
+expected addition to the living members of the family. Should this occur
+within the first year of their union, it is included in the catalogue of
+'Fortune's favours', as an event of no small magnitude to call forth their
+joy and gratitude. Many are the trifling ceremonies observed by the
+females of this uneducated people, important in their view to the
+well-being of both mother and infant, but so strongly partaking of
+superstition that time would be wasted in speaking of them; I will
+therefore hasten to the period of the infant's birth, which, if a boy, is
+greeted by the warmest demonstrations of unaffected joy in the houses both
+of the parents of the bride and bridegroom. When a female child is born,
+there is much less clamourous rejoicing at its birth than when a son is
+added to honour the family;[1] but the good mother will never be
+dissatisfied with the nature of the gift, who can appreciate the source
+whence she receives the blessing. She rests satisfied that unerring Wisdom
+hath thus ordained, and bows with submission to His decree. She desires
+sons only as they are coveted by the father, and procure for the mother
+increased respect from the world, but she cannot actually love her infant
+less because it is a female.
+
+The birth of a son is immediately announced by a discharge of artillery,
+where cannon are kept; or by musketry in the lower grades of the Native
+population, even to the meanest peasant, with whom a single match-lock
+proclaims the honour as effectually as the volley of his superiors. The
+women say the object in firing at the moment the child is born, is to
+prevent his being startled at sounds by giving him so early an
+introduction to the report of muskets; but in this they are evidently
+mistaken, since we never find a musket announcing the birth of a female
+child.[2] They fancy there is more honour attached to a house where are
+many sons. The men make them their companions, which in the present state
+of Mussulmaun society, girls cannot be at any age. Besides which, so great
+is the trouble and anxiety in getting suitable matches for their daughters,
+that they are disposed to be more solicitous for male than female children.
+
+Amongst the better sort of people the mother very rarely nourishes her own
+infant; and I have known instances, when a wet-nurse could not be procured,
+where the infant has been reared by goals' milk, rather than the good lady
+should be obliged to fatigue herself with her infant. The great objection
+is, that in Mussulmaun families nurses are required to be abstemious in
+their diet, by no means an object of choice amongst so luxurious a people.
+A nurse is not allowed for the first month or more to taste animal food,
+and even during the two years--the usual period of supporting infancy by
+this nourishment--the nurse lives by rule both in quality and quantity of
+such food only as may be deemed essential to the well-being of the child.
+
+The lower orders of the people benefit by their superiors' prejudices
+against nursing, and a wet-nurse once engaged in a family becomes a member
+of that house to the end of her days, unless she chooses to quit it
+herself.
+
+On the fourth day after the birth of a son, the friends of both families
+are invited to share in the general joy testified by a noisy assembly of
+singing-women, people chattering, smell of savoury dishes, and constant
+bustle; which, to any other females in the world would be considered
+annoyances, but in their estimation are agreeable additions to the
+happiness of the mother, who is in most cases screened only by a curtain
+from the multitude of noisy visitors assembled to rejoice on the important
+event. I could not refrain, on one of these occasions, remarking on the
+injudicious arrangement at such a time, when I thought quiet was really
+needed to the invalid's comfort. The lady thought otherwise; she was too
+much rejoiced at this moment of her exaltation to think of quiet; all the
+world would know she was the mother of a son; this satisfied her for all
+that she suffered from the noisy mirth and increased heat arising from the
+multitude of her visitors, who stayed the usual time, three days and
+nights. The ladies, however, recover their strength rapidly. They are
+attended by females in their time of peril, and with scarcely an instance
+of failure. Nature is kind. Science has not yet stepped within the
+confines of the zeenahnah. All is Nature with these uneducated females,
+and as they are under no apprehension, the hour arrives without terror,
+and passes over without weakening fears. They trust in God, and suffer
+patiently. It may be questioned, however, whether their pains at that
+juncture equal those of females in Europe. Their figure has never been
+tortured by stays and whalebone; indeed, I do not recollect having met
+with an instance of deformity in the shape of any inhabitant of a
+zeenahnah.
+
+On the ninth day the infant is well bathed,--I cannot call any of its
+previous ablutions a bath,[3]--then its little head is well oiled, and the
+fillet thrown aside, which is deemed necessary from the first to the ninth
+day. The infant from its birth is laid in soft beaten cotton, with but
+little clothing until it has been well bathed, and even then the dress
+would deserve to be considered more as ornamental covering than useful
+clothing; a thin muslin loose shirt, edged and bordered with silver
+ribands, and a small skull-cap to correspond, comprises their dress.
+Blankets, robes, and sleeping-dresses, are things unknown in the nursery
+of a zeenahnah. The baby is kept during the month in a reclining position,
+except when the nurse receives it in her arms to nourish it; indeed for
+many months the infant is but sparingly removed from its reclining
+position. They would consider it a most cruel disturbance of a baby's
+tranquillity, to set it up or hold it in the arms, except for the purpose
+of giving it nourishment.
+
+The infant's first nourishment is of a medicinal kind, composed of
+umultass[4](cassia), a vegetable aperient, with sugar, and distilled water
+of aniseed; this is called gootlie,[5] and the baby has no other food for
+the first three days, after which it receives the nurse's aid. After the
+third day a small proportion of opium is administered, which practice is
+continued daily until the child is three or four years old.
+
+The very little clothing on infants in India would of itself teach the
+propriety of keeping them in a reclining position, as the mere natural
+strength of the poor baby has nothing to support it by the aid of bandages
+or clothing. The nurse receives the baby on a thin pillow of calico
+quilted together, called gooderie;[6] it is changed us often us required,
+and is the only method as yet introduced amongst the Natives to secure
+cleanliness and comfort to their infants. In the cold season, when the
+thermometer may range from forty-five to fifty, the method of inducing
+warmth is by means of cotton or wadded quilts; flannel, as I have said
+before, they know not the use of. The children, however, thrive without
+any of those things we deem essential to the comfort of infancy, and the
+mamma is satisfied with the original customs, which, it may be supposed,
+are (without a single innovation) unchanged since the period of Abraham,
+their boasted forefather.
+
+On the fortieth day after the infant's birth, the same rites are observed
+as by the Jews (with the exception of circumcision), and denominated, as
+with them, the Day of Purification. On this day the infant is submitted to
+the hands of the barber, who shaves the head, as commanded by their law.
+The mother bathes and dresses in her most costly attire. Dinner is cooked
+for the poor in abundance. Friends and relatives call on the mother to
+present nuzzas and offerings, and to bring presents to the child, after
+the manner of the wise men's offerings, so familiar to us in our
+Scriptures. The offerings to the child are often costly and pretty;
+bangles and various ornaments of the precious metals. The taawees[7] of
+gold and silver are tablets on which engraved verses from the Khoraun are
+inscribed in Arabic characters; these are strung on cords of gold thread,
+and suspended, when the child is old enough to bear their weight, over one
+shoulder, crossing the back and chest, and reaching below the hip on the
+opposite side; they have a remarkably good effect with the rich style of
+dressing Native children. In some of the offerings from the great people
+are to be observed precious stones set in necklaces, and bangles for the
+arms and ankles. All who visit at these times take something for the baby;
+it would be deemed an omen of evil in any one neglecting to follow this
+immemorial custom; not that they are avaricious, but that they are anxious
+for their infant's prosperity, which these tributes are supposed to
+indicate.[8]
+
+The mother thus blessed with a darling son is almost the idol of the new
+family she has honoured; and when such a person happens to be an agreeable,
+prudent woman, she is likely to remain without a rival in her husband's
+heart, who has no inducement to add dhollie[9] wives to his establishment
+when his home is made happy to him by the only wife who can do him honour
+by the alliance.
+
+The birthday of each son in a family is regularly kept. The term used for
+the occasion is Saul-girrah[10]--derived, from saul, a year, girrah, to
+tie a knot. The custom is duly maintained by tying a knot on a string kept
+for the purpose by the mother, on the return of her boy's birthday. The
+girls' years are numbered by a silver loop or ring being added yearly to
+the gurdonie,[11] or silver neck-ring. These are the only methods of
+registering the ages of Mussulmaun children.
+
+The Saul-girrah is a day of annual rejoicing through the whole house of
+which the boy is a member; music, fireworks, toys, and whatever amusement
+suits his age and taste, are liberally granted to fill up the measure of
+his happiness; whilst his father and mother have each their assemblies to
+the fullest extent of their means. Dinner is provided liberally for the
+guests, and the poor are not neglected, whose prayers and blessings are
+coveted by the parents for their offspring's benefit; and they believe the
+blessings of the poor are certain mediations at the throne of mercy which
+cannot fail to produce benefits on the person in whose favour they are
+invoked.
+
+The boy's nurse is on all occasions of rejoicing the first person to be
+considered in the distribution of gifts; she is, indeed, only second in
+the estimation of the parents to the child she has reared and nourished;
+and with the child, she is of more consequence even than his natural
+parents. The wet-nurse, I have said, is retained in the family to the end
+of her days, and whatever children she may have of her own, they are
+received into the family of her employer without reserve, either as
+servants or companions, and their interest in life regarded and watched
+over with the solicitude of relations, by the parents of the boy she has
+nursed.
+
+At seven years old the boys are circumcised, as by their law directed. The
+thanksgiving when the child is allowed to emerge from confinement, gives
+rise to another jubilee in the family.
+
+At Lucknow we see, almost daily, processions on their way to the Durgah
+(before described),[12] where the father conveys the young Mussulmaun to
+return thanks and public acknowledgements at the sainted shrine. The
+procession is planned on a grand scale, and all the male friends that can
+be collected attend in the cavalcade to do honour to so interesting an
+occasion.
+
+When the prayer and thanksgiving have been duly offered in the boy's name
+at the Durgah, money is distributed amongst the assembled poor; and on the
+way home, silver and copper coins are thrown to the multitude who crowd
+around the procession. The scrambling and tumult on these occasions can
+only be relished by the Natives, who thus court popularity; but they
+rarely move in state without these scenes of confusion following in their
+train. I have witnessed thousands of people following the King's train, on
+his visiting the Durgah at Lucknow, when his Majesty and his Prime
+Minister scattered several thousands of rupees amongst the populace. The
+noise was deafening, some calling blessings on the King, others
+quarrelling and struggling to force away the prize from the happy one who
+had caught, in the passing shower, a rupee or two in his drapery. Some of
+the most cunning secure the prize in their mouths to save themselves from
+the plunderer; some are thrown down and trampled under foot; the sandy
+soil, however, renders their situation less alarming than such a calamity
+would be in London, but it is altogether a scene of confusion sufficient
+to terrify any one, except those who delight in their ancient customs
+without regarding consequences to individuals.
+
+The amusements of boys in India differ widely from the juvenile sports of
+the English youth; here there are neither matches at cricket nor races;
+neither hoops nor any other game which requires exercise on foot. Marbles
+they have, and such other sports as suit their habits and climate, and can
+be indulged in without too much bodily exertion. They fly kites at all
+ages. I have seen men in years, even, engaged in this amusement, alike
+unconscious that they were wasting time, or employing it in pursuits
+fitted only for children. They are flown from the flat roofs of the houses,
+where it is common with the men to take their seat at sunset. They are
+much amused by a kind of contest with kites, which is carried on in the
+following manner. The neighbouring gentlemen, having provided themselves
+with lines, previously rubbed with paste and covered with pounded glass,
+raise their kites, which, when brought in contact with each other by a
+current of air, the topmost string cuts through the under one, when down
+falls the kite, to the evident amusement of the idlers in the streets or
+roadway, who with shouts and hurrahs seek to gain possession of the toy,
+with as much avidity as if it were a prize of the greatest value: however,
+from the numerous competitors, and their great zeal to obtain possession
+of it, it is usually torn to pieces. Much skill is shown in the endeavours
+of each party to keep his string uppermost, by which he is enabled to cut
+that of his adversary's kite.
+
+The male population are great pigeon-fanciers, and are very choice in
+their breed, having every variety of the species they can possibly procure;
+some are brought from different parts of the world at an enormous expense.
+Each proprietor of a flock of pigeons knows his own birds from every other.
+They are generally confined in bamboo houses erected on the flat roofs of
+the mansions, where at early dawn and at sunset the owner takes his
+station to feed his pets and give them a short airing. Perhaps a
+neighbour's flock have also emerged from their cages at the same time,
+when mingling in the circuit round and round the buildings (as often
+happens), one or more from one person's flock will return home with those
+of another; in which case, they are his lawful prize for ever, unless his
+neighbour wishes to redeem the captives by a price, or by an exchange of
+prisoners. The fortunate holder, however, of such prize makes his own
+terms, which are perhaps exorbitant, particularly if he have any ill-will
+against the proprietor, or the stray pigeon happen to be of a peculiarly
+rare kind.[13] Many are the proofs of good breeding and civility, elicited
+on such occasions between gentlemen; and many, also, are the perpetuated
+quarrels where such a collision of interests happens between young men of
+bad feelings, or with persons having any previous dislike to each other.
+
+The chief out-door exercise taken by the youth of India, is an occasional
+ride on horseback or the elephant. They do not consider walking necessary
+to health; besides which, it is plebeian, and few ever walk who can
+maintain a conveyance. They exercise the moghdhur[14] (dumb-bell) as the
+means of strengthening the muscles and opening the chest. These moghdhurs,
+much resembling the club of Hercules, are used in pairs, each weighing
+from eight to twenty pounds; they are brandished in various ways over the
+head, crossed behind, and back again, with great ease and rapidity by
+those with whom the art has become familiar by long use. Those who would
+excel in the use of the moghdhurs practise every evening regularly; when,
+after the exercise, they have their arms and shoulders plastered with a
+moist clay, which they suppose strengthens the muscles and prevents them
+from taking cold after so violent an exercise. The young men who are
+solicitous to wield the sabre with effect and grace, declare this practice
+to be of the greatest service to them in their sword exercise: they go so
+far as to say, that they only use the sword well who have practised the
+moghdhur for several years.
+
+At their sword exercise, they practise 'the stroke' on the hide of a
+buffalo, or on a fish called rooey,[15] the scales of which form an
+excellent coat of mail, each being the size of a crown-piece, and the
+substance sufficient to turn the edge of a good sabre. The fish is
+produced alive from the river for this purpose; however revolting as the
+practice may appear to the European, it does not offend the feelings of
+the Natives, who consider the fish incapable of feeling after the first
+stroke; but, as regards the buffalo, I am told the most cruel inflictions
+have been made, by men who would try their blade and their skill on the
+staked animal without mercy.
+
+The lance is practised by young men of good family as an exercise; and by
+the common people, as the means of rendering them eligible to the Native
+military service of India. It is surprising to witness the agility of some
+of the Natives in the exercise of the lance; they are generally good
+horsemen, and at full speed will throw the lance, dismount to recover it,
+and remount, often without stirrups, with a celerity inconceivable. I have
+seen them at these exercises with surprise, remembering the little
+activity they exhibit in their ordinary habits.
+
+The Indian bow and arrow has greatly diminished as a weapon of defence in
+modern times; but all practise the use of the bow, as they fancy it opens
+the chest and gives ease and grace to the figure; things of no trifling
+importance with the Mussulmaun youth. I have seen some persons seated
+practising the bow, who were unable to bear the fatigue of standing; in
+those cases, a heavy weight and pulley are attached to the bow, which
+requires as much force in pulling as it would require to send an arrow
+from sixty to a hundred yards from the place they occupy.[16]
+
+The pellet-bow is in daily use to frighten away the crows from the
+vicinity of man's abode; the pellets are made of clay baked in the sun,
+and although they do not wound they bruise most desperately. Were it not
+for this means of annoying these winged pests, they would prove a perfect
+nuisance to the inhabitants, particularly within the confines of a
+zeenahnah, where these impudent birds assemble at cooking-time, to the
+great annoyance of the cooks, watching their opportunity to pounce upon
+anything they may incautiously leave uncovered. I have often seen women
+placed as watchers with the pellet-bow, to deter the marauders the whole
+time dinner was preparing in the kitchen. The front of these cooking-rooms
+are open to the zeenahnah court-yard, neither doors, windows, nor curtains
+being deemed necessary, where the smoke has no other vent than through the
+open front into the court-yard.
+
+The crows are so daring that they will enter the yard, where any of the
+children may be taking their meals (which they often do in preference to
+eating them under the confinement of the hall), and frequently seize the
+bread from the hands of the children, unless narrowly watched by the
+servants, or deterred by the pellet-bow. And at the season of building
+their nests, these birds will plunder from the habitations of man,
+whatever may be met with likely to make a soft lining for their nests;
+often, I am told, carrying off the skull-cap from the children's heads,
+and the women's pieces of calico or muslin from their laps when seated in
+the open air at work.
+
+Many of the Natives are strongly attached to the brutal practice of
+cock-fighting; they are very choice in their breed of that gallant bird,
+and pride themselves on possessing the finest specimens in the world. The
+gay young men expend much money in these low contests: the birds are
+fought with or without artificial spurs, according to the views of the
+contending parties.[17] They have also a small bird which they call 'the
+buttaire',[18] a species of quail, which I hear are most valiant
+combatants; they are fed and trained for sport with much care and
+attention. I am told these poor little birds, when once brought to the
+contest, fight until they die. Many are the victims sacrificed to one
+mornings amusement of their cruel owners, who wager upon the favourite
+bird with a spirit and interest equal to that which may be found in more
+polished countries among the gentlemen of the turf.
+
+Horse-racing has very lately been introduced at Lucknow, but I fancy the
+Natives have not yet acquired sufficient taste for the sport to take any
+great delight in it. As long as it is fashionable with European society,
+so long it may be viewed with comparative interest by the few. But their
+views of the breed and utility of a stud differ so much from those of a
+European, that there is but little probability of the sport of
+horse-racing ever becoming a favourite amusement with them,[19] When they
+are disposed to hunt, it is always on elephants, both for security and to
+save fatigue.
+
+A horse of the finest temper, form, or breed, one that would be counted
+the most perfect animal by an English connoisseur, would be rejected by a
+Native if it possessed the slightest mark by them deemed 'unfortunate'. If
+the legs are not all of a colour, the horse is not worthy; if an unlucky
+turn of the hair, or a serpentine wave of another colour appears on any
+part of the animal, it is an 'omen of ill-luck' to the possessor, and must
+not be retained on the premises. A single blemish of the sort would be
+deemed by a Native gentleman as great a fault in an otherwise perfect
+animal, as if it could only move on three legs. The prejudice is so
+strongly grounded in their minds to these trifling marks, that they would
+not keep such horses in their stables one hour, even if it belonged to
+their dearest friend, fearing the evil consequences that might befall
+their house.[20]
+
+The swiftness of a good English hunter would be no recommendation to a
+Native gentleman; he rides for pleasant exercise and amusement, and the
+pace therefore never exceeds the gentlest canter of an English lady's
+jennet. Many of their horses are trained to a pace I have never remarked
+in other countries; it is more than a walk but not quite a canter, the
+steps are taken very short, and is, I am assured, an agreeable exercise to
+the rider. I was once in possession of a strong hill pony, whose walk was
+as quick as the swiftest elephant; very few horses could keep up with him
+at a trot. The motion was very easy and agreeable, particularly suited to
+invalids in that trying climate.
+
+The Native method of confining horses in their sheds or stables appears
+somewhat remarkable to a European. The halter is staked in the ground, and
+the two hind legs have a rope fastened to each; this is also staked in the
+ground behind. The ropes are left sufficiently long to allow of the animal
+lying down at his pleasure.
+
+The food of horses is fresh grass, brought from the jungles daily, by the
+grass-cutters, who are kept solely for this purpose. In consequence of
+these men having to walk a distance of four or more miles before they
+reach the jungles, and the difficulty of finding sufficient grass when
+there, one man cannot procure more grass in a day than will suffice for
+one horse; the consequence is, that if a gentleman keep twenty horses,
+there are forty men to attend them; viz., twenty grooms, and as many
+grass-cutters. The grass of India, excepting only during the rainy season,
+is burnt up by the heat of the sun, in all exposed situations. In the
+jungles and forests of mango-trees, wherever there is any shade, the men
+search for grass, which is of a different species to any I have seen in
+Europe, called doob-grass,[21] a dwarf creeper, common throughout India;
+every other kind of grass is rejected by the horse; they would rather eat
+chaff in the absence of the doob-grass. The refuse of the grass given for
+food, answers the purpose of bedding; for in India straw is never brought
+into use, but as food for the cows, buffaloes, and oxen. The nature of
+straw is friable in India, perhaps induced by climate by the wise ordering
+of Divine Providence, of which indeed a reflecting mind must be convinced,
+since it is so essential an article for food to the cattle where grass is
+very scarce, excepting only during the season of rain.
+
+When the corn is cut, the whole produce of a field is brought to one open
+spot, where the surface of the ground is hard and smooth; the oxen and
+their drivers trample in a continued circuit over the whole mass, until
+the corn is not only threshed from the husks, but the straw broken into
+fine chaff. They winnow it with their coarse blankets, or chuddahs[22]
+(the usual wrapper of a Native, resembling a coarse sheet), and house the
+separate articles in pits, dug in the earth, close to their habitations.
+Such things as barns, granaries, or stacks, are never seen to mark the
+abode of the Native farmers as in Europe.
+
+An invading party could never discover the deposits of corn, whilst the
+Natives chose to keep their own secret. This method of depositing the corn
+and chaff in the earth, is the only secure way of preserving these
+valuable articles from the encroachment of white ants, whose visits to the
+grain are nearly as destructive, and quite as much dreaded, as the flights
+of locusts to the green blades.
+
+The corn in general use for horses, sheep, and cattle, in called gram;[23]
+the flavour resembles our field pea much more than grain. It is produced
+on creepers, with pods; and bears a pretty lilac blossom, not unlike peas,
+or rather vetches, but smaller; the grain, however, is as large as a pea,
+irregularly shaped, of a dark brown skin, and pale yellow within. There
+are several other kinds of grain in use amongst the Natives for the use of
+cattle; one called moat,[24] of an olive green colour. It is considered
+very cooling in its nature, at certain seasons of the year, and is greatly
+preferred both for young horses and for cows giving milk.
+
+Horses are subject to an infectious disease, which generally makes its
+appearance in the rainy season, and therefore called burrhsaatie.[25] Once
+in the stable, the disorder prevails through the stud, unless timely
+precautions are taken to prevent them being infected--removal from the
+stable is the most usual mode adopted--so easy is the infection conveyed
+from one animal to the other, that if the groom of the sick horse enters
+the stable of the healthy they rarely escape contagion. It is a tedious
+and painful disorder and in nine cases out of ten the infected animal
+either dies, or is rendered useless for the saddle. The legs break out in
+ulcers, and, I am informed, without the greatest care on the part of the
+groom, he is also liable to imbibe the corruption; if he has any cut or
+scratch on his hands, the disease may be received as by inoculation.
+
+The Natives have the greatest aversion to docked-tailed horses, and will
+never permit the animals to be shorn of the beauty with which Nature has
+adorned them, either in length or fulness; besides which, they think it a
+barbarous want of taste in those who differ from them, though they fancy
+Nature is improved when the long tail and mane of a beautiful white Arab
+are dyed with mayndhie; his legs, up to the knees, stained with the same
+colour, and divers stars, crescents, &c., painted on the haunches, chest,
+and throat of the pretty gentle creature.[26]
+
+When the horses are looking rough, the Natives feed them with a mixture of
+coarse brown sugar and ghee, which they say gives sleekness to the skin,
+and improves the constitution of the horse. When their horses grow old,
+they boil the gram with which they feed them, to make it easy of digestion;
+very few people, indeed, give corn at any age to the animal unsoaked, as
+they consider it injudicious to give dry corn to horses, which swells in
+the stomach of the animal and cannot digest: the grain swells exceedingly
+by soaking, and thus moistened, the horse requires less water than would
+be necessary with dry corn.
+
+The numberless Native sports I have heard related in this country would
+take me too long to repeat at present; describe them I could not, for my
+feelings and views are at variance with the painful tortures inflicted on
+the brute creation for the perverted amusements of man, consisting of many
+unequal contests, which have sickened me to think they were viewed by
+mortals with pleasure or satisfaction. A poor unoffending antelope or stag,
+perhaps confined from the hour of its quitting its dam in a paddock,
+turned out in a confined space to the fury of a cheetah[27] (leopard) to
+make his morning's repast. Tigers and elephants are often made to combat
+for the amusement of spectators; also, tigers and buffaloes, or alligators.
+The battle between intoxicated elephants is a sport suited only for the
+cruel-hearted, and too often indulged. The mahouts[28] (the men who sit as
+drivers on the neck of the elephant) have frequently been the victims of
+the ignoble amusement of their noble masters; indeed, the danger they are
+exposed to is so great, that to escape is deemed a miracle. The
+fighting-elephants are males, and they are prepared for the sport by
+certain drugs mixed up with the wax from the human ear. The method of
+training elephants for fighting must be left to abler hands to describe. I
+have passed by places where the animal was firmly chained to a tree, in
+situations remote from the population of a city, as danger is always
+anticipated from their vicinity; and when one of these infuriated beasts
+break from their bonds, serious accidents often occur to individuals
+before they can again be secured.
+
+Amongst the higher classes tigers and leopards are retained for field
+sports, under the charge of regular keepers. In many instances these wild
+inhabitants of the jungle are tamed to the obedience of dogs, or other
+domestic animals. I have often seen the young cubs sucking the teats of a
+goat, with which they play as familiarly as a kitten with its mother. A
+very intimate acquaintance of ours has several tigers and leopards, which
+are perfectly obedient to his command; they are led out by their keepers
+night and morning, but he always feeds them with his own hands, that he
+may thereby make them obedient to himself, when he sports in the jungles,
+which he often does with success, bringing home stags and antelopes to
+grace the board, and distribute amongst his English friends.
+
+The tigers and cheetahs are very generally introduced after breakfast,
+when Native noblemen have European visitors. I remember on one of these
+occasions, these animals were brought into the banqueting-room, just as
+the self-performing cabinet organ had commenced a grand overture. The
+creatures' countenances were terrifying to the beholder, and one in
+particular could with great difficulty be reined in by his keepers. The
+Natives are, however, so accustomed to the society of tigers, that they
+smiled at my apprehension of mischief. I was only satisfied when they were
+forced away from the sounds that seemed to fill them with wonder, and
+perhaps with rage.
+
+Pigeon-shooting is another amusement practised among the sporting men of
+Hindoostaun. I, of course, allude to the Mussulmauns, for most Hindoos
+hold it criminal to kill a crow, or even the meanest insect; and I have
+known them carry the principle of preserving life to the minutest insects,
+wearing crape or muslin over their mouths and noses in the open air,
+fearing a single animalcule that floats in the air should be destroyed by
+their breath. For the same reason, these men have every drop of water
+strained through muslin before it is used either for drinking or for
+cooking.[29]
+
+There are people who make it a profitable means of subsistence to visit
+the jungles with nets, in order to collect birds, as pigeons, parrots,
+minas, &c.; these are brought in covered baskets to the towns, where they
+meet with a ready sale.
+
+Many a basket have I delighted in purchasing, designing to rescue the
+pretty creatures from present danger. I am annoyed whenever I see birds
+immured in cages. If they could be trained to live with us, enjoying the
+same liberty, I should gladly court society with these innocent creatures;
+but a bird confined vexes me, my fingers itch to open the wicket and give
+the prisoner liberty. How have I delighted in seeing the pretty variegated
+parrots, minas, and pigeons fly from the basket when opened in my verandah!
+I have sometimes fancied in my evening walk that I could recognize the
+birds again in the gardens and grounds, which had been set at liberty in
+the morning by my hand.
+
+The good ladies of India, from whom I have copied the practice of giving
+liberty to the captive birds, although different motives direct the action,
+believe, that if a member of their family is ill, such a release
+propitiates the favour of Heavenly mercy towards them.[30] A sovereign
+(amongst the Mussulmauns) will give liberty to a certain number of
+prisoners, confined in the common gaol, when he is anxious for the
+recovery of a sick member of his family; and so great is the merit of
+mercy esteemed in the creature to his fellow-mortal, that the birth of a
+son, a recovery from severe illness, accession to the throne, &c., are the
+precursors to royal clemency, when all prisoners are set at liberty whose
+return to society may not be deemed cruelty to the individual, or a
+calamity to his neighbours. I may here remark, the Mussulmaun laws do not
+allow of men being confined in prison for debt.[31] The government of Oude
+is absolute, yet to its praise be it said, during the first eight years of
+my sojourn I never heard of but one execution by the King's command; and
+that was for crimes of the greatest enormity, where to have been sparing
+would have been unjust.[32] In cases of crime such as murder, the nearest
+relative surviving is appealed to by the court of justice; if he demand
+the culprit's life, the court cannot save him from execution. But it is
+rarely demanded; they are by no means a revengeful people generally; there
+are ambitious, cruel tyrants to be found, but these individuals are
+exceptions to the mass of the people. Examples of mercy set by the King in
+all countries have an influence upon his subjects; and here the family of
+a murdered man, if poor, is maintained by the guilty party or else
+relieved by royal munificence, as the case may require. Acts of oppression
+may sometimes occur in Native States without the knowledge even, and much
+less by the command, of the Sovereign ruler, since the good order of the
+government mainly depends on the disposition of the Prime Minister for the
+time being. There is no check placed in the constitution of a Native
+government between the Prime Minister and his natural passions. If cruel,
+ambitious, or crafty, he practises all his art to keep his master in
+ignorance of his daily enormities; if the Prime Minister be a
+virtuous-minded person, he is subjected to innumerable trials, from the
+wiles of the designing and the ambitious, who strive by intrigue to root
+him from the favour and confidence of his sovereign, under the hope of
+acquiring for themselves the power they covet by his removal from office.
+
+
+[1] When, a boy is born, the midwife, in order to avert the Evil Eye and
+    evil spirits, says: 'It is only a girl blind of one eye!' If a girl is
+    born, the fact is stated, because she excites no jealousy, and is thus
+    protected from spirit attacks.
+
+[2] This is intended to scare evil spirits, but has become a mere form of
+    announcing the joyful event.
+
+[3] After the first bath pieces of black thread are tied round the child's
+    wrist and ankle as protection.
+
+[4] _Amaltas, Cassia fistula_
+
+[5] The purgative draught (_guthl_) is usually made of aniseed,
+    myro-bolans, dried red rose leaves, senna, and the droppings of mice
+    or goats.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii, 153.
+
+[6] _Gudri_.
+
+[7] _Ta'awiz_.
+
+[8] Among the Khojahs of Bombay a stool is placed near the mother's bed,
+    and as each, of the female relatives comes in she strews a little rice
+    on the stool, lays on the ground a gold or silver anklet as a gift for
+    the child, and bending over mother and baby, passes her hands over
+    them, and cracks her finger-joints against her own temples, in order
+    to take all their ill luck upon herself.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part
+    ii, 45.
+
+[9] _Duli_: see p. 184.
+
+[10] _Salgirah_ or _barasganth_, 'year-knot'.
+
+[11] _Gardani_.
+
+[12] P. 36.
+
+[13] The Mahomedans are very keen on breeding pigeons in large numbers;
+    they make them fly all together, calling out, whistling, and waving
+    with a cloth fastened to the end of a stick, running and making
+    signals from the terraced roofs, with a view of encouraging the
+    pigeons to attack the flock of some one else.... Every owner is
+    overjoyed in seeing his own pigeons the most dexterous in misleading
+    their opponents.'--Manucci, _Storia do Mogor_, i. 107 f.
+
+[14] _Mugdar_.
+
+[15] _Rohu_, a kind of carp, _Labeo rohita_.
+
+[16] The use of the bow and arrow has now disappeared in northern India,
+    and survives only among some of the jungle tribes.
+
+[17] A curious relic of the custom of cock-fighting at Lucknow survives in
+    the picture by Zoffany of the famous match between the Nawab
+    Asaf-ud-daula and Col. Mordaunt in 1786. The figures in the picture are
+    portraits of the celebrities at the Court of Oudh, whose names are
+    given by Smith, _Catalogue of British Mezzotint Portrait_, i. 273.
+
+[18] _Bater, Coturnix communis_.
+
+[19] Lucknow is now an important racing centre, and the Civil Service Cup
+    for ponies has been won several times by native gentlemen.
+
+[20] The feather or curl is one of the most important marks. If it faces
+    towards the head, this is a horse to buy; if it points towards the
+    tail, it is a 'female snake' (_sampan_), a bad blemish, as is a
+    small star on the forehead. A curl at the bottom of the throat is very
+    lucky, and cancels other blemishes. A piebald horse or one with five
+    white points, a white face and four white stockings, is highly valued.
+    The European who understands the rules can often buy an 'unlucky'
+    horse at a bargain.
+
+[21] _Dub, Cynodon Dactylon_.
+
+[22] _Chadar._
+
+[23] _Cicer arietinum_: the word comes from Port, _grão_, a grain.
+
+[24] _Moth_, the aconite-leaved kidney-bean, _Phaseolus aconitifolius_.
+
+[25] _Barsati_ from _barsat_, the rainy season; a pustular
+    eruption breaking out on the head and fore parts of the body.
+
+[26] The Native gentleman's charger, with his trained paces, his
+    henna-stained crimson mane, tail, and fetlocks, is a picturesque sight
+    now less common than it used to be.
+
+[27] _Chita_, the hunting leopard. _Felis jubata_.
+
+[28] _Mahawat_, originally meaning 'a high officer'.
+
+[29] This specially applies to the Jain ascetics, who keep a brush to
+    remove insects from their path, and cover their mouths with linen.
+
+[30]  A common piece of imitative magic: as the bird flies away it carries
+    the disease with it. The practice of releasing prisoners when the King
+    or a member of his family was sick, or as a thanksgiving on recovery,
+    was common.--Sleeman, _Journey_, ii. 41.
+
+[31] This is incorrect. Imprisonment for debt is allowed by Muhammadan
+    Law.--Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 82.
+
+[32] This gives a too favourable account of the administration of justice
+    in Oudh. 'A powerful landlord during the Nawabi could evict a
+    tenant, or enhance his rent, or take away his wife from him, or cut
+    his head off, with as much, or as little, likelihood of being called
+    to account by Na zim or Chakladar for one act as for another'
+    (H.C. Irwin, _The Garden of India_, 258). Gen. Sleeman points out that
+    Musalmans wore practically immune from the death penalty,
+    particularly if they happened to kill a Sunni. A Hindu, consenting
+    after conviction to become a Musalman, was also immune (_Journey
+    Through Oudh_, i. 135). Executions used constantly to occur in Lucknow
+    under Nasir-ud-din (W. Knighton, _Private Life of an Eastern
+    King_, 104).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVI
+
+  Remarks on the trades and professions of Hindoostaun.--The
+  Bazaars.--Naunbye (Bazaar cook).--The Butcher, and other
+  trades.--Shroffs (Money-changers).--Popular cries in Native
+  cities.--The articles enumerated and the venders of them
+  described.--The Cuppers.--Leechwomen.--Ear-cleaners.--Old
+  silver.--Pickles.--Confectionery.--Toys.--Fans.--Vegetables and
+  fruit.--Mangoes.--Melons.--Melon-cyder.--Fish.--Bird-catcher.--The
+  Butcher-bird, the Coel, and Lollah.--Fireworks.--Parched
+  corn.--Wonder-workers.--Snakes.--Anecdote of the Moonshie and the
+  Snake-catcher.--The Cutler.--Sour curds.--Clotted
+  cream.--Butter.--Singular process of the Natives in making
+  butter.--Ice.--How procured in India.--Ink.--All writing dedicated to
+  God by the Mussulmauns.--The reverence for the name of God.--The
+  Mayndhie and Sulmah.
+
+
+The various trades of a Native city in Hindoostaun are almost generally
+carried on in the open air. The streets are narrow, and usually unpaved;
+the dukhauns[1] (shops) small, with the whole front open towards the
+street; a tattie[2] of coarse grass forming an awning to shelter the
+shopkeeper and his goods from the weather. In the long lines of dukhauns
+the open fronts exhibit to the view the manufacturer, the artisan, the
+vender, in every variety of useful and ornamental articles for general use
+and consumption. In one may be seen the naunbye[3] (bazaar cook) basting
+keebaubs[3] over a charcoal fire on the ground with one hand, and beating
+off the flies with a bunch of date-leaves in the other; beside him may be
+seen assistant cooks kneading dough for sheermaul[3] or other bread, or
+superintending sundry kettles and cauldrons of currie, pillau, matunjun,[3]
+&c., whilst others are equally active in preparing platters and trays, in
+order to forward the delicacies at the appointed hour to some great
+assembly.
+
+The shop adjoining may probably be occupied by a butcher, his meat exposed
+for sale in little lean morsels carefully separated from every vestige of
+fat[4] or skin; the butcher's assistant is occupied in chopping up the
+coarser pieces of lean meat into mince meat.[5] Such shops as these are
+actually in a state of siege by the flies; there is, however, no remedy
+for the butcher but patience; his customers always wash their meat before
+it is cooked, so he never fails to sell even with all these disadvantages.
+But it is well for the venders of more delicate articles when neither of
+these fly-attracting emporiums are next door neighbours, or immediately
+opposite; yet if it even should be so, the merchant will bear with
+equanimity an evil he cannot control, and persuade his customers for
+silver shoes or other ornamental articles, that if they are not tarnished
+a fly spit or two cannot lessen their value.
+
+The very next door to a working goldsmith may be occupied by a weaver of
+muslin; the first with his furnace and crucible, the latter with his loom,
+in constant employ. Then the snake-hookha manufacturer,[6] opposed to a
+mixer of tobacco, aiding each other's trade in their separate articles.
+The makers and venders of punkahs of all sorts and sizes, children's toys,
+of earth, wood, or lakh; milk and cream shops; jewellers, mercers,
+druggists selling tea, with other medicinal herbs. The bunyah[7]
+(corn-dealer) with large open baskets of sugar and flour, whose whiteness
+resembles each other so narrowly, that he is sometimes suspected of mixing
+the two articles by mistake, when certain sediments in sherbet indicate
+adulterated sugar.
+
+It would take me too long were I to attempt enumerating all the varieties
+exposed in a Native street of shops. It may be presumed these people make
+no mystery of their several arts in manufacturing, by their choice of
+situation for carrying on their trades. The confectioner, for instance,
+prepares his dainties in despite of dust and flies, and pass by at what
+hour of the day you please, his stoves are hot, and the sugar simmering
+with ghee sends forth a savour to the air, inviting only to those who
+delight in the delicacies he prepares in countless varieties.
+
+
+The most singular exhibitions in these cities are the several shroffs[8]
+(money-changers, or bankers), dispersed in every public bazaar, or line of
+shops. These men, who are chiefly Hindoos, and whose credit may perhaps
+extend throughout the continent of Asia for any reasonable amount, take
+their station in this humble line of buildings, having on their right and
+left, piles of copper coins and cowries.[9] These shroffs are occupied the
+whole day in exchanging pice for rupees or rupees for pice, selling or
+buying gold mohurs, and examining rupees; and to all such demands upon him
+he is entitled to exact a regulated per centage, about half a pice in a
+rupee. Small as this sum may seem yet the profits produce a handsome
+remuneration for his day's attention, as many thousands of rupees may have
+passed under his critical eye for examination, it being a common practice,
+both with shopkeepers and individuals, to send their rupees to the shroff
+for his inspection, always fearing imposition from the passers of base
+coin. These shroffs transact remittances to any part of India by
+hoondies,[10] which are equivalent to our bills of exchange, and on which
+the usual demand is two and a half per cent at ninety days, if required
+for any distant station.
+
+The European order is here completely reversed, for the shopkeeper sits
+whilst the purchasers are compelled to stand. The bazaar merchant is
+seated on the floor of his dukhaun, near enough to the open front to
+enable him to transact business with his customers, who, one and all,
+stand in the street to examine the goods and to be served; let the weather
+be bad or good, none are admitted within the threshold of the dukhaun. In
+most places the shops are small, and look crowded with the articles for
+sale, and those where manufactories are carried on have not space to spare
+to their customers.
+
+Very few gentlemen condescend to make their own purchases; they generally
+employ their confidential domestic to go to market for them; and with the
+ladies their women servants are deputed. In rich families it is an office
+of great trust, as they expend large sums and might be much imposed upon
+were their servants faithless. The servants always claim dustoor[11]
+(custom) from the shopkeepers, of one pice for every rupee they lay out;
+and when the merchants are sent for to the houses with their goods, the
+principal servant in the family is sure to exact his dustoor from the
+merchant; and this is often produced only after a war of words between the
+crafty and the thrifty.
+
+The diversity of cries from those who hawk about their goods and wares in
+streets and roadways, is a feature in the general economy of the Natives
+not to be overlooked in my brief description of their habits. The
+following list of daily announcements by the several sonorous claimants on
+the public attention, may not be unacceptable with their translated
+accompaniments.
+
+'Seepie wallah deelie sukha'[12] (Moist or dry cuppers).--Moist and dry
+cupping is performed both by men and women; the latter are most in request.
+They carry their instruments about with them, and traverse all parts of
+the city. The dry cupping is effected by a buffalo's horn and resorted to
+by patients suffering under rheumatic pains, and often in cases of fever,
+when to lose blood is either inconvenient on account of the moon's age, or
+not desirable by reason of the complaint or constitution of the patient.
+
+'Jonk, or keerah luggarny wallie'[13] (The woman with leeches).--Women
+with leeches attend to apply the required remedy, and are allowed to take
+away the leeches after they have done their office. These women by a
+particular pressure on the leech oblige it to disgorge the blood, when
+they immediately place it in fresh water; by this practice the leeches
+continue healthy, and may be brought to use again the following day if
+required.
+
+'Kaan sarf kerna wallah'[14] (Ear-cleaner).--The cleansing of ears is
+chiefly performed by men, who collecting this article make great profits
+from the sale of it, independent of the sums obtained from their employers.
+It is the chief ingredient in use for intoxicating elephants previous to
+the furious contests so often described as the amusement of Native Courts.
+
+'Goatah chandnie bickhow'[15] (Sell your old silver trimmings).--The
+several articles of silver trimmings are invariably manufactured of the
+purest metal without any alloy, and when they have served their first
+purposes the old silver procures its weight in current rupees.
+
+'Tale kee archah wallah'[16] (Oil pickles).--The method of pickling in oil
+is of all others in most request with the common people, who eat the
+greasy substance as a relish to their bread and dhall. The mustard-oil
+used in the preparation of this dainty is often preferred to ghee in
+curries.
+
+The better sort of people prefer water pickle, which is made in most
+families during the hot and dry weather by a simple method; exposure to
+the sun being the chemical process to the parboiled carrots, turnips,
+radishes, &c., immersed in boiling water, with red pepper, green ginger,
+mustard-seed, and garlic. The flavour of this water pickle is superior to
+any other acid, and possesses the property of purifying the blood.
+
+'Mittie wallah'[17] (Man with sweetmeats).--The many varieties of
+sweetmeats, or rather confectionery, in general estimation with the
+natives, are chiefly composed of sugar and ghee, prepared in countless
+ways, with occasional additions of cocoa-nut, pistachias, cardimuns,
+rose-water, &c., and constantly hawked about the streets on trays by men.
+
+'Kallonie wallah'[18] (Man with toys).--Toys of every kind, of which no
+country in the world I suppose exhibits greater variety, in wood, lakh,
+uberuck[19] (tulk), paper, bamboo, clay, &c., are constantly cried in the
+streets and roadways of a Native city.
+
+'Punkah wallah'[20] (Vender of fans).--The punkahs are of all descriptions
+in general use, their shape and material varying with taste and
+circumstances, the general form resembling hand-screens: they are made for
+common use of date-leaf, platted as the common mats are; some are formed
+of a single leaf from the tor[21]-tree, large or small, the largest would
+cover a tolerable sized round table; many have painted figures and devices,
+and from their lightness may be waved by children without much labour. I
+have seen very pretty punkahs made of sweet-scented flowers over a frame
+of bamboo. This, however, is a temporary indulgence, as the flowers soon
+lose their fragrance.
+
+'Turkaaree', 'Mayvour'[22] (The first is vegetables; the last,
+fruit).--Vegetables of every kind and many sorts of fruits are carried
+about by men and women, who describe the name and quality of the articles
+they have to sell. It would occupy too large a space to enumerate here the
+several productions, indigenous and foreign, of the vegetable world in
+India. The Natives in their cookery, use every kind of vegetable and fruit
+in its unripe state. Two pounds of meat is in general all that is required
+to form a meal for twenty people, and with this they will cook several
+dishes by addition of as many different sorts of vegetables.
+
+Herbs, or green leaves, are always denominated saag,[23] these are
+produced at all seasons of the year, in many varieties; the more
+substantial vegetables, as potatoes, turnips, carrots, &c., are called
+turkaaree.
+
+The red and green spinach is brought to the market throughout the year,
+and a rich-flavoured sorrel, so delicious in curries, is cultivated in
+most months. Green peas, or, indeed, vegetables in general, are never
+served in the plain way in which we see them at our tables, but always in
+stews or curries. The green mango is used invariably to flavour their
+several dishes, and, at the proper season, they are peeled, cut, and dried
+for the year's consumption. They dislike the acid of the lemon in their
+stews, which is never resorted to when the green mango or tamarind can be
+procured.
+
+The fruits of India in general estimation with the Natives are the mango
+and the melon. Mangoes are luscious and enticing fruit; the Natives eat
+them to an excess when they have been some hours soaked in water, which,
+they say, takes away from the fruit its detrimental quality; without this
+preparatory precaution those who indulge in a feast of mango are subject
+to fevers, and an increase of prickly heat, (a fiery irritable rash, which
+few persons are exempt from, more or less, in the hot weather); even biles,
+which equally prevail, are less troublesome to those persons who are
+careful only to eat mangoes that have been well soaked in water. The
+Natives have a practice, which is common among all classes, and therefore
+worthy the notice of foreigners, of drinking milk immediately after eating
+mangoes. It should be remembered that they never eat their fruit after
+dinner, nor do they at any time indulge in wine, spirits, or beer.
+
+The mango in appearance and flavour has no resemblance to any of the
+fruits of England; they vary in weight from half an ounce to half a seer,
+nearly a pound; the skin is smooth, tough, and of the thickness of leather,
+strongly impregnated with a flavour of turpentine; the colour, when ripe,
+is grass green, or yellow in many shades, with occasional tinges and
+streaks of bright red; the pulp is as juicy as our wall-fruit, and the
+kernel protected by a hard shell, to which fine strong silky fibres are
+firmly attached. The kernel of the mango is of a hot and rather offensive
+flavour; the poor people, however, collect it, and when dried grind it
+into flour for bread, which is more wholesome than agreeable; in seasons
+of scarcity, however, it is a useful addition to the then scanty means of
+the lower orders of the people. The flavour of the fruit itself differs so
+much, that no description can be given of the taste of a mango--even the
+fruit of one tree vary in their flavour. A tope (orchard) of mango-trees
+is a little fortune to the possessor, and when in bloom a luxurious resort
+to the lovers of Nature.
+
+The melon is cultivated in fields with great ease and little labour, due
+care always being taken to water the plants in their early growth. The
+varieties are countless, but the kind most esteemed, and known only in the
+Upper Provinces, are called chitlahs,[24] from their being spotted green
+on a surface of bright yellow; the skin is smooth and of the thickness of
+that of an apple; the fruit weighing from half-a-pound to three pounds.
+The flavour may be compared to our finest peaches, partaking of the same
+moist quality, and literally melting in the mouth.
+
+The juice of the melon makes a delicious cider; I once tried the
+experiment with success. The Natives being prohibited from the use of all
+fermented liquors, I was induced by that consideration to be satisfied
+with the one experiment; but with persons who are differently situated the
+practice might be pursued with very little trouble, and a rich beverage
+produced, much more healthy than the usual arrack that is now distilled,
+to the deterioration of the health and morals of the several classes under
+the British rule, who are prone to indulge in the exhilarating draughts of
+fermented liquors.
+
+At present my list of the indigenous vegetables of India must be short; so
+great, however, is the variety in Hindoostaun, both in their quality and
+properties, and so many are the benefits derived from their several uses
+in this wonderful country, that at some future time I may be induced to
+follow, with humility, in the path trodden by the more scientific
+naturalists who have laboured to enrich the minds of mankind by their
+researches.
+
+The natives are herbalists in their medical practice. The properties of
+minerals are chiefly studied with the view to become the lucky discoverer
+of the means of transmuting metals; seldom with reference to their
+medicinal qualities. Quicksilver, however, in its unchanged state, is
+sometimes taken to renew the constitution.[25] One gentleman, whom I well
+knew, commenced with a single grain, increasing the number progressively,
+until his daily close was the contents of a large table-spoon; he
+certainly appeared to have benefited by the practice, for his appetite and
+spirits were those of a man at thirty, when he had counted eighty years.
+
+'Muchullee'[26] (Fish).--Fish of several kinds are caught in the rivers
+and tanks; the flavour I can hardly describe, for, since I knew the
+practice of the Hindoos of throwing their dead bodies into the rivers the
+idea of fish as an article of food was too revolting to my taste. The
+Natives, however, have none of these qualms; even the Hindoos enjoy a
+currie of fish as a real delicacy, although it may be presumed some of
+their friends or neighbours have aided that identical fish in becoming a
+delicacy for the table.
+
+There are some kinds of fish forbidden by the Mussulmaun law, which are,
+of course, never brought to their kitchens, as the eel, or any other fish
+having a smooth skin;[27] all sorts of shell-fish are likewise prohibited
+by their code. Those fish which have scales are the only sort allowable to
+them for food.
+
+The rooey[28] is a large fish, and in Native families is much admired for
+its rich flavour; the size is about that of a salmon, the shape that of a
+carp; the flesh is white, and not unlike the silver mullet. The scales of
+this fish are extremely useful; which, on a tolerable sized fish, are in
+many parts as large as a crown-piece, and of a substance firmer than horn.
+It is not uncommon to see a suit of armour formed of these scales, which,
+they affirm, will turn the edge of the best metal, and from its lightness,
+compared with the chain armour, more advantageous to the wearer, though
+the appearance is not so agreeable to the eye.
+
+'Chirryah wallah'[29] (Bird-man).--The bird-catcher cries his live birds
+fresh caught from the jungles: they seldom remain long on hand. I have
+before described the practice of letting off the birds, in cases of
+illness, as propitiatory sacrifices. The Natives take delight in petting
+talking-birds, minas and parrots particularly; and the bull-bull,[30] the
+subzah,[31] and many others for their sweet songs.
+
+The numberless varieties of birds I have seen in India, together with
+their qualities, plumage, and habits, would occupy too much of my time at
+present to describe. I will here only remark a few of the most singular as
+they appeared to me. The butcher-bird,[32] so called from its habit, is
+known to live on seeds; yet it caters for the mina and others of the
+carnivorous feathered family, by collecting grasshoppers, which they
+convey in the beak to the thorny bushes, and there fix them on sharp
+thorns, (some of which are nearly two inches in length), and would almost
+seem to have been formed by Nature for this use only. The mina[33] follows
+his little friend's flight as if in the full assurance of the feast
+prepared for him.
+
+The coel[34] is a small black bird, of extreme beauty in make and plumage;
+this bird's note is the harbinger of rain, and although one of the
+smallest of the feathered race, it is heard at a considerable distance.[35]
+The coel's food is simply the suction from the petals of sweet-scented
+flowers.
+
+The lollah,[36] known to many by the name of haverdewatt, is a beautiful
+little creature, about one-third the size of a hedge sparrow. The great
+novelty in this pretty bird is, that the spots of white on its brown
+plumage change to a deep red at the approach of the rainy season; the
+Natives keep them by dozens in cages with a religious veneration, as their
+single note describes one of the terms in use to express an attribute of
+the Almighty.
+
+But enough--I must hasten to finish my list of popular cries by the Indian
+pedlars, who roar out their merchandize and their calling to the inmates
+of dwellings bounded by high walls, whose principal views of the works of
+Nature and art are thus aided by those casual criers of the day.
+
+'Artush-baajie'[37] (Fireworks).--Fireworks are considered here to be very
+well made, and the Native style much extolled by foreigners; every year
+they add some fresh novelty to their amusing pastime. They are hawked
+about at certain seasons, particularly at the Holie[38] (a festival of the
+Hindoos,) and the Shubh-burraat[39] of the Mussulmauns. Saltpetre being
+very reasonable, fireworks are sold for a small price. Most of the
+ingenious young men exercise their inventive powers to produce novelties
+in fireworks for any great season of rejoicing in their families.
+
+'Chubbaynee'[40] (Parched corn).--The corn of which we have occasionally
+specimens in English gardens, known by the name of Indian corn, is here
+used as a sort of intermediate meal, particularly amongst the labouring
+classes, who cook but once a day, and that when the day's toil is over.
+This corn is placed in a sort of furnace with sand, and kept constantly
+moved about. By this process it is rendered as white as magnesia, crisp,
+and of a sweet flavour; a hungry man could not eat more than half-a-pound
+of this corn at once, yet it is not as nutritious as barley or wheat. I
+have never heard that the Natives use this corn for making bread.
+
+'Tumaushbeen'[41] (Wonder-workers).--This call announces the rope-dancers
+and sleight-of-hand company; eating fire, swallowing pen-knives, spinning
+coloured yarn through the nose, tricks with cups and balls, and all the
+arts of the well-known jugglers. I have seen both men and women attached
+to these travelling companies perform extraordinary feats of agility and
+skill, also most surprising vaultings, by the aid of bamboos, and a
+frightful method of whirling round on the top of a pole or mast. This pole
+is from twenty to thirty feet high; on the top is a swivel hook, which
+fastens to a loop in a small piece of wood tied fast to the middle of the
+performer, who climbs the pole without any assistance, and catches the
+hook to the loop; at first he swings himself round very gently, but
+increasing gradually in swiftness, until the velocity is equal to that of
+a wheel set in motion by steam. This feat is sometimes continued for ten
+or fifteen minutes together, when his strength does not fail him; but it
+is too frightful a performance to give pleasure to a feeling audience.
+
+'Samp-wallah'[42] (Snake-catchers).--These men blow a shrill pipe in
+addition to calling out the honourable profession of snake-catcher. I
+fancy it is all pretence with these fellows; if they catch a snake on the
+premises, it is probably one they have let loose secretly, and which they
+have tutored to come and go at the signal given: they profess to draw
+snakes from their hiding-place, and make a good living by duping the
+credulous.
+
+The best proof I can offer of the impositions practised by these men on
+the weakness and credulity of their neighbours, may be conveyed in the
+following anecdote, with which I have been favoured by a very intelligent
+Mussulmaun gentleman, on whom the cheat was attempted during my residence
+in his neighbourhood at Lucknow.
+
+'Moonshie Sahib,[43] as he is familiarly called by his friends, was absent
+from home on a certain day, during which period his wife and family
+fancied they heard the frightful sound of a snake, apparently as if it was
+very near to them in the compound (court-yard) of the zeenahnah. They were
+too much alarmed to venture from the hall to the compound to satisfy
+themselves or take steps to destroy the intruder if actually there. Whilst
+in this state of mental torture it happened (as they thought very
+fortunately) that a snake-catcher's shrill pipe was heard at no great
+distance, to whom a servant was sent; and when the ladies had shut
+themselves up securely in their purdahed apartment, the men servants were
+desired to introduce the samp-wallahs into the compound, to search for and
+secure this enemy to their repose.
+
+'The snake-catcher made, to all appearance, a very minute scrutiny into
+every corner or aperture of the compound, as if in search of the reptile's
+retreat; and at last a moderate sized snake was seen moving across the
+open space in an opposite direction to the spot they were intent on
+examining. The greatest possible satisfaction was of course expressed by
+the whole of the servants and slaves assembled; the lady of the house was
+more than gratified at the reported success of "the charmers" and sent
+proofs of her gratitude to the men in a sum of money, proportioned to her
+sense of the service rendered on the occasion; the head samp-wallah placed
+the snake in his basket, (they always carry a covered basket about with
+them) and they departed well satisfied with the profits of this day's
+employment.
+
+'The Moonshie says, he returned home soon after, and listened to his
+wife's account of the event of the morning, and her warm commendation of
+the skilful samp-wallahs; but although the servants confirmed all the lady
+had told her husband of the snake-charmers' diligence, still he could not
+but believe that these idle fellows had practised an imposition on his
+unwary lady by their pretended powers in charming the snake. But here it
+rested for the time; he could not decide without an opportunity of
+witnessing the samp-wallahs at their employment, which he resolved to do
+the next convenient opportunity.
+
+'As might have been anticipated, the very same snake-catcher and his
+attendant returned to the Moonshie's gateway a very few days after their
+former success; Moonshie Sahib was at home, and, concealing his real
+intentions, he gave orders that the two men should be admitted; on their
+entrance, he said to them, "You say you can catch snakes; now, friends, if
+any of the same family remain of which you caught one the other day in
+this compound, I beg you will have the civility to draw them out from
+their hiding-places."[44]
+
+'The Moonshie watched the fellows narrowly, that they might not have a
+chance of escaping detection, if it was, as he had always suspected, that
+the snakes are first let loose by the men, who pretend to attract them
+from their hiding-places. The two men being bare-headed, and in a state of
+almost perfect nudity (the common usage of the very lowest class of Hindoo
+labourers), wearing only a small wrapper which could not contain, he
+thought, the least of this class of reptiles, he felt certain there could
+not now be any deception.
+
+'The samp-wallah and his assistant, pretending to search every hole and
+crevice of the compound, seemed busy and anxious in their employment,
+which occupied them for a long time without success. Tired at last with
+the labour, the men sat down on the ground to rest; the pipe was resorted
+to, with which they pretend to attract the snake; this was, however,
+sounded again and again, without the desired effect.
+
+'From the apparent impossibility of any cheat being practised on him, the
+Moonshie rather relaxed in his strict observance of the men: he had turned
+his back but for an instant only, when the two fellows burst out in an
+ecstasy of delight, exclaiming, "They are come! they are come!"--and on
+the Moonshie turning quickly round, he was not a little staggered to find
+three small snakes on the ground, at no great distance from the men, who,
+he was convinced, had not moved from the place. They seemed to have no
+dread of the reptiles, and accounted for it by saying they were
+invulnerable to the snakes' venom; the creatures were then fearlessly
+seized one by one by the men, and finally deposited in their basket.
+
+'"They appear very tame," thought the Moonshie, as he observed the men's
+actions: "I am outwitted at last, I believe, with all my boasted vigilance;
+but I will yet endeavour to find them out.--Friend," said he aloud, "here
+is your reward," holding the promised money towards the principal; "take
+it, and away with you both; the snakes are mine, and I shall not allow you
+to remove them hence."
+
+'"Why, Sahib," replied the man, "what will you do with the creatures? they
+cannot be worth your keeping; besides, it is the dustoor[45] (custom); we
+always have the snakes we catch for our perquisite."--"It is of no
+consequence to you, friend, how I may dispose of the snakes," said the
+Moonshie; "I am to suppose they have been bred in my house, and having
+done no injury to my people, I may be allowed to have respect for their
+forbearance; at any rate, I am not disposed to part with these guests, who
+could have injured me if they would."
+
+'The principal samp-wallah, perceiving it was the Moonshie's intention to
+detain the snakes, in a perfect agony of distress for the loss he was
+likely to sustain, then commenced by expostulation, ending with threats
+and abuse, to induce the Moonshie to give them up; who, for his part, kept
+his temper within bounds, having resolved in his own mind not to be
+outwitted a second time; the fellow's insolence and impertinent speeches
+were, therefore, neither chastised nor resented. The samp-wallah strove to
+wrest the basket from the Moonshie's strong grasp, without succeeding; and
+when he found his duplicity was so completely exposed, he altered his
+course, and commenced by entreaties and supplications, confessing at last,
+with all humility, that the reptiles were his own well-instructed snakes
+that he had let loose to catch again at pleasure. Then appealing to the
+Moonshie's well-known charitable temper, besought him that the snakes
+might be restored, as by their aid he earned his precarious livelihood.
+
+'"That they are yours, I cannot doubt," replied the Moonshie, "and,
+therefore, my conscience will not allow me to detain them from you; but
+the promised reward I of course keep back. Your insolence and duplicity
+deserve chastisement, nevertheless I promise to forgive you, if you will
+explain to me how you managed to introduce these snakes."
+
+'The man, thankful that he should escape without further loss or
+punishment, showed the harmless snakes, which, it appears, had been
+deprived of their fangs and poison, and were so well instructed and docile,
+that they obeyed their keeper as readily as the best-tutored domestic
+animal. They coiled up their supple bodies into the smallest compass
+possible, and allowed their keeper to deposit them each in a separate bag
+of calico, which was fastened under his wrapper, where it would have been
+impossible, the Moonshie declares, for the quickest eye to discover that
+anything was secreted.'
+
+'Sickley ghur'[46] (Cutler and knife-grinder).--These most useful artisans
+are in great request, polishing articles of rusty steel, giving a new edge
+to the knives, scissors, razors, or swords of their employer, in a
+masterly manner, for a very small price.
+
+'Dhie cuttie'[47] (Sour curds).--This article is in great request by
+scientific cooks, who use it in many of their dainty dishes. The method of
+making sour curd is peculiarly Indian: it is made of good sweet milk, by
+some secret process which I could never acquire, and in a few hours the
+whole is coagulated to a curd of a sharp acidity, that renders it equally
+useful with other acids in flavouring their curries. The Natives use it
+with pepper, pounded green ginger, and the shreds of pumpkins or radishes,
+as a relish to their savoury dishes, in lieu of chatnee; it is considered
+cooling in its quality, and delicious as an accompaniment to their
+favourite viands.
+
+'Mullie'[48] (Clotted cream).---This article is much esteemed by the
+Natives. I was anxious to know how clotted cream could be procured at
+seasons when milk from the cow would be sour in a few hours, and am told
+that the milk when brought in fresh from the dairy is placed over the fire
+in large iron skillets; the skin (as we call it on boiled milk) is taken
+off with a skimmer, and placed in a basket, which allows all the milk to
+be drained from it; the skin again engendered on the surface is taken off
+in the same way, and so they continue, watching and skimming until the
+milk has nearly boiled away. This collection of skin is the clotted cream
+of Hindoostaun.
+
+'Mukhun'[49] (Butter).--Butter is very partially used by the Natives; they
+use ghee, which is a sort of clarified butter, chiefly produced from the
+buffalo's milk. The method of obtaining butter in India is singular to a
+European. The milk is made warm over the fire, then poured into a large
+earthen jar, and allowed to stand for a few hours. A piece of bamboo is
+split at the bottom, and four small pieces of wood inserted as stretchers
+to these splits. A leather strap is twisted over the middle of the bamboo,
+and the butter-maker with this keeps the bamboo in constant motion; the
+particles of butter swimming at the top are taken off and thrown into
+water, and the process of churning is resumed; this method continues until
+by the quantity collected, these nice judges have ascertained there is no
+more butter remaining in the milk. When the butter is to be sold, it is
+beaten up into round balls out of the water. When ghee is intended to be
+made, the butter is simmered over a slow fire for a given time, and poured
+into the ghee pot, which perhaps may contain the produce of the week
+before they convey it to the market for sale; in this state the greasy
+substance will keep good for months, but in its natural state, as butter,
+the second day it is offensive to have it in the room, much less to be
+used as an article of food.
+
+'Burruff wallah'[50] (The man with ice).--The ice is usually carried about
+in the evening, and considered a great indulgence by the Natives. The
+ice-men bring round both iced creams, and sherbet ices, in many varieties;
+some flavoured with oranges, pomegranates, pine-apple, rose-water, &c.
+
+They can produce ices at any season, by saltpetre, which is here abundant
+and procured at a small price; but strange as it may appear, considering
+the climate, we have regular collections of ice made in January, in most
+of the stations in the Upper Provinces, generally under the
+superintendence of an English gentleman, who condescends to be the
+comptroller. The expenses are paid by subscribers, who, according to the
+value of their subscription, are entitled to a given quantity of ice, to
+be conveyed by each person's servant from the deposit an hour before
+day-break, in baskets made for the purpose well wadded with cotton and
+woollen blankets; conveyed home, the basket is placed where neither air
+nor light can intrude. Zinc bottles, filled with pure water, are placed
+round the ice in the basket, and the water is thus cooled for the day's
+supply, an indulgence of great value to the sojourners in the East.
+
+The method of collecting ice is tedious and laborious, but where labour is
+cheap and the hands plenty the attempt has always been repaid by the
+advantages. As the sun declines, the labourers commence their work; flat
+earthen platters are laid out, in exposed situations, in square
+departments, upon dried sugar-cane leaves very lightly spread, that the
+frosty air may pass inside the platters. A small quantity of water is
+poured into the platter; as fast as they freeze their contents are
+collected and conveyed, during the night, to the pit prepared for the
+reception of ice. The rising sun disperses the labourers with the ice, and
+they seek their rest by day, and return again to their employ; as the lion,
+when the sun disappears, prowls out to seek his food from the bounty of
+his Creator. The hoar frost seldom commences until the first of January,
+and lasts throughout that month.
+
+'Roshunie'[51] (Ink).---Ink, that most useful auxiliary in rendering the
+thoughts of one mortal serviceable to his fellow-creatures through many
+ages, is here an article of very simple manufacture. The composition is
+prepared from lampblack and gum-arabic; how it is made, I have yet to
+learn.
+
+The ink of the Natives is not durable; with a wet sponge may be erased the
+labour of a man's life. They have not yet acquired the art of printing,[52]
+and as they still write with reeds instead of feathers, an ink, permanent
+as our own, is neither agreeable nor desirable.
+
+There is one beautiful trait in the habits of the Mussulmauns: when about
+to write they not only make the prayer which precedes every important
+action of their lives, but they dedicate the writing to God, by a
+character on the first page, which, as in short-hand writing, implies the
+whole sentence.[53] A man would be deemed heathenish amongst Mussulmauns,
+who by neglect or accident omitted this mark on whatever subject he is
+about to write.
+
+Another of their habits is equally praiseworthy:--out of reverence for
+God's holy name (always expressed in their letters) written paper to be
+destroyed is first torn and then washed in water before the whole is
+scattered abroad; they would think it a sinful act to burn a piece of
+paper on which that Holy name has been inscribed. How often have I
+reflected whilst observing this praiseworthy feature in the character of a
+comparatively unenlightened people, on the little respect paid to the
+sacred writings amongst a population who have had greater opportunities of
+acquiring wisdom and knowledge.[54]
+
+The culpable habit of chandlers in England is fresh in my memory, who
+without a scruple tear up Bibles and religious works to parcel out their
+pounds of butter and bacon, without a feeling of remorse on the sacrilege
+they have committed.
+
+How careless are children in their school-days of the sacred volume which
+contains the word of God to His creatures. Such improper uses, I might say
+abuses, of that Holy Book, would draw upon them the censure of a people
+who have not benefited by the contents, but who nevertheless respect the
+volume purely because it speaks the word 'of that God whom they worship'.
+
+'Mayndhie' (A shrub).--The mayndhie and its uses have been so fully
+explained in the letters on Mahurrum, that I shall here merely remark,
+that the shrub is of quick growth, nearly resembling the small-leafed
+myrtle; the Natives make hedge-rows of it in their grounds, the blossom is
+very simple, and the shrub itself hardy: the dye is permanent.
+
+'Sulmah.'[55]--A prepared permanent black dye, from antimony. This is used
+with hair-pencils to the circle of the eye at the root of the eye-lashes
+by the Native ladies and often by gentlemen, and is deemed both of service
+to the sight and an ornament to the person. It certainly gives the
+appearance of large eyes, if there can be any beauty in altering the
+natural countenance, which is an absurd idea, in my opinion. Nature is
+perfect in all her works; and whatever best accords with each feature of a
+countenance I think she best determines; I am sure that no attempt to
+disguise or alter Nature in the human face ever yet succeeded, independent
+of the presumption in venturing to improve that which in His wisdom, the
+Creator has deemed sufficient.
+
+It would occupy my pages beyond the limits I can conveniently spare to the
+subject, were I to pursue remarks on the popular cries of a Native city to
+their fullest extent; scarcely any article that is vended at the bazaars,
+but is also hawked about the streets. This is a measure of necessity
+growing out of the state of Mussulmaun society, by which the females are
+enabled to purchase at their own doors all that can be absolutely
+requisite for domestic purposes, without the obligation of sending to the
+markets or the shops, when either not convenient, or not agreeable. And
+the better to aid both purchasers and venders, these hawkers pronounce
+their several articles for sale, with voices that cannot fail to impress
+the inhabitants enclosed within high walls, with a full knowledge of the
+articles proclaimed without need of interpreters.
+
+
+[1] _Dukan_.
+
+[2] _Tatti_.
+
+[3] See pp. 57, 173, 174.
+
+[4] The fat of meat is never eaten by the Natives, who view our joints
+of meat with astonishment, bordering on disgust. [_Author_.]
+
+[5] Many Hindoostaunie dishes require the meat to be finely minced.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[6] Known as _gargarasaz_.
+
+[7] Baniya.
+
+[8] _Sarraf_.
+
+[9]: Cowries are small shells imported from the Eastern isles, which pass
+    in India as current coin, their value fluctuating with the price of
+    corn, from, sixty to ninety for one pice. [_Author_.]
+
+[10] _Hundi_.
+
+[11] _Dasturi_.
+
+[12] _Sipiwala gila sukha_.
+
+[13] _Jonk_, a leech; _kira_, a worm, _laganewali_.
+
+[14] _Kan saf karnewala_: more usually _Kanmailiya,
+    kan_, the ear; _maila_, dirt.
+
+[15] _Gota, chandni bikau_, silver lace to sell! The dealer is
+    _Gota, kinari farosh_.
+
+[16] _Tel ka acharwala_.
+
+[17] _Mithaiwala_.
+
+[18] _Khilaunewala_.
+
+[19] _Abrak_, talc.
+
+[20] _Pankahwala_.
+
+[21] _Tar_, the palmyra palm.
+
+[22] _Tarkari, mewa_.
+
+[23] _Sag_.
+
+[24] _Chitra_, spotted, speckled.
+
+[25] Quicksilver is used by Native physicians as the first of alternative
+    tonics.
+
+[26] _Machhli_.
+
+[27] Being considered to be like snakes.
+
+[28] _Rohu_, a kind of carp, _Labeo rohita_.
+
+[29] _Chiryawala_.
+
+[30] _Bulbul, Daulias hafizi_, the true Persian nightingale.
+
+[31] _Sabza, sabzak_, green bird, usually a jay, _coracias_.
+
+[32] A shrike, one of the _laniadae_.
+
+[33] _Maina_, a starling, _Aeridotheres tristis_.
+
+[34] The black cuckoo, _Eudynamys orientalis_.
+
+[35] The note of the bird at night, detested by Anglo-Indians, gives it
+    the name of the brain-fever bird.
+
+[36] _Lal, Estrelda amandava_, the avadavat, is so called because it
+    was brought to Europe from Ahmadabad.
+
+[37] _Atishbazi_, fire-play.
+
+[38] Holi, the spring festival of the Hindus, at which bonfires are
+    lighted, coloured water thrown about, and much obscenity is practiced.
+
+[39] See p. 161.
+
+[40] _Chabena, chabeni_, what is munched or chewed (_chabna_).
+
+[41] _Tamashawala: tamashabin_, a spectator of wonders.
+
+[42] _Sampwala_.
+
+[43] 'Mr. Secretary.'
+
+[44] It is generally believed snakes do not live apart from their species;
+    if one is destroyed in a house, a second is anticipated and generally
+    discovered. [_Author_.]
+
+[45] _Dastur, dasturi_, the percentage appropriated on purchase
+    by servants.
+
+[46] _Saiqalgar_, corrupted into _sikligar_, a polisher.
+
+[47] _Dahi khatai_. There is no mystery about the preparation.
+    Milk is boiled and soured by being poured into an earthen vessel in
+    which curds have previously been kept. Sometimes, but less frequently,
+    an acid or rennet is added to precipitate the solid ingredients of the
+    milk.
+
+[48] _Malai_.
+
+[49] _Makkhan_.
+
+[50] _Burfwala_.
+
+[51] _Roshanai_, 'brightness', made of lampblack, gum-arabic, and
+    aloe juice. Elaborate prescriptions are given by Jaffur Shurreef
+    (_Qanoon-e-Islam_ 150 f.).
+
+[52] Lithography and printing are now commonly done by natives.
+
+[53] Letters usually begin with, the invocation,
+    _Bi'-smi'illahi'r-rahmani'r-rahim_, 'In the name of Allah,
+    the Compassionate, the Merciful.' The monogram 'I' is often
+    substituted, as being the initial of Allah, and the first letter of
+    the alphabet.
+
+[54] If the Koran were wrapped in a skin and thrown into fire, it would
+    not burn, say the Traditions (Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 521).
+    Compare the care taken by the Chinese to save paper on which writing
+    appears (J.H. Gray, _China_, i. 178).
+
+[55] _Surma_, a black ore of antimony, a tersulphide found in the
+    Panjab, often confused by natives with galena, and most of that
+    sold in bazars is really galena. It is used as a tonic to the nerves
+    of the eye, and to strengthen the sight.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVII
+
+  Seclusion of Females.--Paadshah Begum.--The Suwaarree.--Female
+  Bearers.--Eunuchs.--Rutts.--Partiality of the Ladies to Large
+  retinues.--Female Companions.--Telling the Khaunie.--Games of the
+  Zeenahnah.--Shampooing.--The Punkah.--Slaves and
+  slavery.--Anecdote.--The Persian Poets.--Fierdowsee.--Saadie, his
+  'Goolistaun'.--Haafiz.--Mahumud Baarkur.--'Hyaatool
+  Kaaloob'.--Different manner of pronouncing Scripture names...Page 248
+
+
+The strict seclusion which forms so conspicuous a feature in the female
+society of the Mussulmauns in India, renders the temporary migration of
+ladies from their domicile an event of great interest to each individual
+of the zeenahnah, whether the mistress or her many dependants be
+considered.
+
+The superior classes seldom quit their habitation but on the most
+important occasions; they, therefore, make it a matter of necessity to
+move out in such style as is most likely to proclaim their exalted station
+in life. I cannot, perhaps, explain this part of my subject better than by
+giving a brief description of the suwaarree[1] (travelling retinue) of the
+Paadshah Begum[2] which passed my house at Lucknow on the occasion of her
+visit to the Durgah of Huzerut Abas Ali Kee, after several years strictly
+confining herself to the palace.
+
+By Paadshah is meant 'King';--Begum, 'Lady.' The first wife of the King is
+distinguished by this title from every other he may have married; it is
+equivalent to that of 'Queen' in other countries. With this title the
+Paadshah Begum enjoys also many other marks of royal distinction; as, for
+instance, the dunkah (kettle-drums) preceding her suwaarree; a privilege,
+I believe, never allowed by the King to any other female of his family.
+The embroidered chattah (umbrella); the afthaadah (embroidered sun); and
+chowries of the peacock's feathers, are also out-of-door distinctions
+allowed only to this lady and the members of the royal family. But to my
+description:--
+
+First, in the Paadshah Begum's suwaarree I observed a guard of cavalry
+soldiers in full dress, with their colours unfurled; these were followed
+by two battalions of infantry, with their bands of music and colours. A
+company of spearmen on foot, in neat white dresses and turbans, their
+spears of silver, rich and massive. Thirty-six men in white dresses and
+turbans, each having a small triangular flag of crimson silk, on which
+were embroidered the royal arms (two fish and a dirk of a peculiar shape).
+The staffs of these flags are of silver, about three feet long; in the
+lower part of the handle a small bayonet is secreted, which can be
+produced at will by pressure on a secret spring. Next followed a full band
+of music, drums, fifes, &c.; then the important dunkah, which announces to
+the public the lady's rank: she is enclosed within the elevated towering
+chundole, on each side of which the afthaadah and chowries are carried by
+well-dressed men, generally confidential servants, appointed to this
+service.
+
+The chundole is a conveyance resembling a palankeen, but much larger and
+more lofty; it is, in fact, a small silver room, six feet long, five broad,
+and four feet high, supported by the aid of four silver poles on the
+shoulders of twenty bearers. These bearers are relieved every quarter of a
+mile by a second set in attendance: the two sets change alternately to the
+end of the journey. The bearers are dressed in a handsome royal livery of
+white calico made to sit close to the person; over which are worn scarlet
+loose coats of fine English broad-cloth, edged and bordered with gold
+embroidery: on the back of the coat a fish is embroidered in gold. Their
+turbans correspond in colour with the coats; on the front of the turban is
+fixed diagonally a fish of wrought gold, to the tail of which a rich gold
+tassel is attached; this readies to the shoulder of the bearer, and gives
+a remarkable air of grandeur to the person.
+
+The chundole is surrounded by very powerful women bearers, whose business
+it is to convey the vehicle within the compound (court-yard) of the
+private apartments, or wherever men are not admitted at the same time with
+females. Chobdhaars and soota-badhaars walk near the chundole carrying
+gold and silver staffs or wands, and vociferating the rank and honours of
+the lady they attend with loud voices the whole way to and from the Durgah.
+These men likewise keep off the crowds of beggars attracted on such
+occasions by the known liberality of the ladies, who, according to
+established custom, make distributions to a large amount, which are
+scattered amongst the populace by several of the Queen's eunuchs, who walk
+near the chundole for that purpose.
+
+The chief of the eunuchs followed the Queen's chundole on an elephant,
+seated in a gold howdah; the trappings of which were of velvet, richly
+embroidered in gold; the eunuch very elegantly dressed in a suit of
+gold-cloth, a brilliant turban, and attired in expensive shawls. After the
+eunuch, follow the Paadshah Begum's ladies of quality, in covered
+palankeens, each taking precedence according to the station or the favour
+she may enjoy; they are well guarded by soldiers, spearmen, and chobdhaars.
+Next in the train, follow the several officers of the Queen's household,
+on elephants, richly caparisoned. And, lastly, the women of inferior rank
+and female slaves, in rutts (covered carriages) such as are in general use
+throughout India. These rutts are drawn by bullocks, having bells of a
+small size strung round their neck, which as they move have a novel and
+not unpleasing sound, from the variety of tones produced. The rutt is a
+broad-wheeled carriage, the body and roof forming two cones, one smaller
+than the other, covered with scarlet cloth, edged, fringed, and bordered
+with gold or amber silk trimmings. The persons riding in rutts are seated
+on cushions placed flat on the surface of the carriage (the Asiatic style
+of sitting at all times) and not on raised seats, the usual custom in
+Europe. The entrance to these rutts is from the front, like the tilted
+carts of England, where a thick curtain of corresponding colour and
+material conceals the inmates from the public gaze; a small space is left
+between this curtain and the driver, where one or two women servants are
+seated as guards, who are privileged by age and ugliness to indulge in the
+liberty of seeing the passing gaiety, and of enjoying, without a screen,
+the pure air; benefits which their superiors in rank are excluded from at
+all ages.
+
+In the Paadshah Begum's suwaarree, I counted fifty of these Native
+carriages, into each of which from four to six females are usually crowded,
+comprising the members of the household establishment of the great lady;
+such as companions, readers of the Khoraum, kaawauses[3] (the higher
+classes of female-slaves), muggalanie[4] (needle-women), &c. This will
+give you a tolerable idea of the number and variety of females attached to
+the suite of a lady of consequence in India. The procession, at a walking
+pace, occupied nearly half an hour in passing the road opposite to my
+house: it was well conducted, and the effect imposing, both from its
+novelty and splendour.
+
+A lady here would be the most unhappy creature existing, unless surrounded
+by a multitude of attendants suitable to her rank in life. They have often
+expressed surprise and astonishment at my want of taste in keeping only
+two women servants in my employ, and having neither a companion nor a
+slave in my whole establishment; they cannot imagine anything so stupid as
+my preference to a quiet study, rather than the constant bustle of a
+well-filled zeenahnah.
+
+Many of the Mussulmaun ladies entertain women companions, whose chief
+business is to tell stories and fables to their employer, while she is
+composing herself to sleep; many of their tales partake of the romantic
+cast which characterizes the well-remembered 'Arabian Nights'
+Entertainments', one story begetting another to the end of the collection.
+When the lady is fairly asleep the story is stayed, and the companion
+resumes her employment when the next nap is sought by her mistress.
+
+Amongst the higher classes the males also indulge in the same practice of
+being talked to sleep by their men slaves; and it is a certain
+introduction with either sex to the favour of their employer, when one of
+these dependants has acquired the happy art of 'telling the khaunie'[5]
+(fable) with an agreeable voice and manner. The more they embellish a tale
+by flights of their versatile imaginations, so much greater the merit of
+the rehearser in the opinion of the listeners.
+
+The inmates of zeenahnahs occasionally indulge in games of chance: their
+dice are called chowsah (four sides), or chuhsah[6] (six sides); these
+dice are about four inches long and half an inch thick on every side,
+numbered much in the same way as the European dice. They are thrown by the
+hand, not from boxes, and fall lengthways.
+
+They have many different games which I never learned, disliking such modes
+of trifling away valuable time; I am not, therefore, prepared to describe
+them accurately. One of their games has a resemblance to draughts, and is
+played on a chequered cloth carpet, with red and white ivory cones.[7]
+They have also circular cards, six suits to a pack, very neatly painted,
+with which they play many (to me) indescribable games; but oftener, to
+their credit be it said, for amusement than for gain. The gentlemen,
+however, are not always equally disinterested; they frequently play for
+large sums of money. I do not, however, find the habit so general with the
+Natives as it is with Europeans. The religious community deem all games of
+chance unholy, and therefore incompatible with their mode of living. I am
+not aware that gaming is prohibited by their law in a direct way,[8] but
+all practices tending to covetousness are strictly forbidden; and, surely,
+those who can touch the money called 'winnings' at any game, must be more
+or less exposed to the accusation of desiring other men's goods.
+
+Shampooing has been so often described as to leave little by way of
+novelty for me to remark on the subject; it is a general indulgence with
+all classes in India, whatever may be their age or circumstances. The
+comfort derived from the pressure of the hands on the limbs, by a clever
+shampooer, is alone to be estimated by those who have experienced the
+benefits derived from this luxurious habit, in a climate where such
+indulgences are needed to assist in creating a free circulation of the
+blood, which is very seldom induced by exercise as in more Northern
+latitudes. Persons of rank are shampooed by their slaves during the hours
+of sleep, whether it be by day or by night; if through any accidental
+circumstance the pressure is discontinued, even for a few seconds only,
+the sleep is immediately broken: such is the power of habit.
+
+The punkah (fan) is in constant use by day and night, during eight months
+of the year. In the houses of the Natives, the slaves have ample
+employment in administering to the several indulgences which their ladies
+require at their hands; for with them fixed punkahs have not been
+introduced into the zeenahnah:[9] the only punkah in their apartments is
+moved by the hand, immediately over or in front of the person for whose
+use it is designed. In the gentlemen's apartments, however, and in the
+houses of all Europeans, punkahs are suspended from the ceiling, to which
+a rope is fastened and passed through an aperture in the wall into the
+verandah, where a man is seated who keeps it constantly waving, by pulling
+the rope, so that the largest rooms, and even churches, are filled with
+wind, to the great comfort of all present.
+
+The female slaves, although constantly required about the lady's person,
+are nevertheless tenderly treated, and have every proper indulgence
+afforded them. They discharge in rotation the required duties of their
+stations, and appear as much the objects of the lady's care as any other
+people in her establishment. Slavery with them is without severity; and in
+the existing state of Mussulmaun society, they declare the women slaves to
+be necessary appendages to their rank and respectability. The liberal
+proprietors of slaves give them suitable matches in marriage when they
+have arrived at a proper age, and even foster their children with the
+greatest care; often granting them a salary, and sometimes their freedom,
+if required to make them happy. Indeed, generally speaking the slaves in a
+Mussulmaun's house must be vicious and unworthy, who are not considered
+members of the family.
+
+It is an indisputable fact that the welfare of their slaves is an object
+of unceasing interest with their owners, if they are really good
+Mussulmauns; indeed, it is second only to the regard which they manifest
+to their own children.
+
+Many persons have been known, in making their will, to decree the liberty
+of their slaves. They are not, however, always willing to accept the boon.
+'To whom shall I go?'--'Where shall I meet a home like my master's house?'
+are appeals that endear the slave to the survivors of the first proprietor,
+and prove that their bondage has not been a very painful one. It is an
+amiable trait of character amongst the Mussulmauns, with whom I have been
+intimate, and which I can never forget, that the dependence of their
+slaves is made easy; that they enjoy every comfort compatible with their
+station; and that their health, morals, clothing, and general happiness,
+are as much attended to as that of their own relatives. But slavery is a
+harsh term between man and man, and however mitigated its state, is still
+degrading to him. I heartily trust there will be a time when this badge of
+disgrace shall be wiped away from every human being. He that made man,
+designed him for higher purposes than to be the slave of his fellow-mortal;
+but I should be unjust to the people of India, if I did not remark, that
+having the uncontrolled power in their hands, they abstain from the
+exercise of any such severity as has disgraced the owners of slaves in
+other places, where even the laws have failed to protect them from cruelty
+and oppression. Indeed, wherever an instance has occurred of unfeeling
+conduct towards these helpless beings, the most marked detestation has
+invariably been evinced towards the authors by the real Mussulmaun.
+
+I have heard of a very beautiful female slave who had been fostered by a
+Native lady of high rank, from her infancy. In the course of time, this
+female had arrived to the honour of being made the companion of her young
+master, still, however, by her Begum's consent, residing with her lady,
+who was much attached to her. The freedom of intercourse, occasioned by
+the slave's exaltation, had the effect of lessening the young creature's
+former respect for her still kind mistress, to whom she evinced some
+ungrateful returns for the many indulgences she had through life received
+at her hands. The exact nature of her offences I never heard, but it was
+deemed requisite, for the sake of example in a house where some hundreds
+of female slaves were maintained, that the lady should adopt some such
+method of testifying her displeasure towards this pretty favourite, as
+would be consistent with her present elevated station. A stout silver
+chain was therefore made, by the Begum's orders, and with this the slave
+was linked to her bedstead a certain number of hours every day, in the
+view of the whole congregated family of slaves. This punishment would be
+felt as a degradation by the slave; not the confinement to her bedstead,
+where she would perhaps have seated herself from choice, had she not been
+in disgrace.
+
+'Once a slave, and always a slave,' says Fierdowsee the great poet of
+Persia; but this apophthegm was in allusion to the 'mean mind' of the King
+who treated him scurvily after his immense labour in that noble work, 'The
+Shah Namah.' I have a sketch of Fierdowsee's life, which my husband
+translated for me; but I must forbear giving it here, as I have heard the
+whole work itself is undergoing a translation by an able Oriental scholar,
+who will doubtless do justice both to 'The Shah Namah' and the character
+of Fierdowsee, who is in so great estimation with the learned Asiatics.[10]
+
+The Mussulmauns quote their favourite poets with much the same freedom
+that the more enlightened nations are wont to use with their famed authors.
+The moral precepts of Saadie[11] are often introduced with good effect,
+both in writing and speaking, as beacons to the inexperienced.
+
+Haafiz[12] has benefited the Mussulmaun world by bright effusions of
+genius, which speak to successive generations the wonders of his
+extraordinary mind. He was a poet of great merit; his style is esteemed
+superior to the writers of any other age; and, notwithstanding the world
+is rich with the beauties of his almost inspired mind, yet, strange as it
+may appear, he never compiled a single volume. Even in the age in which he
+lived his merit as a poet was in great estimation; but he never thought of
+either benefit or amusement to the world or to himself beyond the present
+time. He wrote the thoughts of his inspired moments on pieces of broken
+pitchers or pans, with charcoal; some of his admirers were sure to follow
+his footsteps narrowly, and to their vigilance in securing those scraps
+strewed about, wherever Haafiz had made his sojourn, may to this day be
+ascribed the benefit derived by the public from his superior writings.
+Saadie, however, is the standard favourite of all good Mussulmauns; his
+'Goolistaun'[13] (Garden of Roses), is placed in the hands of every youth
+when consigned to the dominion of a master, as being the most worthy book
+in the Persian language for his study, whether the beauty of his diction
+or the morality of his subjects be considered.
+
+The 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'[14] (Enlightener of the Heart), is another Persian
+work, in prose, by Mirza Mahumud Baakur, greatly esteemed by the learned
+Mussulmauns. This work contains the life and acts of every known prophet
+from the Creation, including also Mahumud and the twelve Emaums. The
+learned Maulvee, it appears, first wrote it in the Arabic language, but
+afterwards translated it into Persian, with the praiseworthy motive of
+rendering his invaluable work available to those Mussulmauns who were not
+acquainted with Arabic.
+
+I have some extracts from this voluminous work, translated for me by my
+husband, which interested me on account of the great similarity to our
+Scripture history; and if permitted at some future time, I propose
+offering them to the public in our own language, conceiving they may be as
+interesting to others as they have been to me.
+
+The Persian and Arabic authors, I have remarked, substitute Y for J in
+Scripture names; for instance, Jacob and Joseph are pronounced Yaacoob and
+Yeusuf.[15] They also differ from us in some names commencing with A, as
+in Abba, which they pronounce Ubba (Father); for Amen, they say Aameen[16]
+(the meaning strictly coinciding with ours); for Aaron, Aaroon; for Moses,
+Moosa.[17] I am told by those who are intimate with both languages, that
+there is a great similarity between the Hebrew and Arabic. The passage in
+our Scripture 'Eloi, Eloi, lama sabaethani,' was interpreted to me by an
+Arabic scholar, as it is rendered in that well-remembered verse in the
+English translation.
+
+
+[1] _Sawari_.
+
+[2] The Padshah Begam was the widow of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar,
+    King of Oudh. On his death, in 1837, she contrived a plot to place his
+    putative son, Munna Jan, on the throne. After a fierce struggle in
+    the palace, the revolt was suppressed by the Resident, Colonel Low,
+    and his assistants, Captains Paton and Shakespear. The pair were
+    confined in the Chunar Fort till their deaths. See the graphic
+    narrative by Gen. Sleeman (_Journey Through Oudh_, ii. 172 ff.); also
+    H.C. Irwin (_The Garden of India_, 127 f.); Mrs. F. Parks (_Wanderings
+    of a Pilgrim_, ii. 114).
+
+[3] _Khawass_, 'distinguished': special attendants.
+
+[4] _Mughlani_, a Moghul woman: an attendant in a zenana, a
+    sempstress.
+
+[5] _Kahani_.
+
+[6] _Chausa, chhahsa_, not to be found in Platt's _Hindustani
+    Dictionary_.
+
+[7] The game of Pachisi, played on a cloth marked in squares: see
+    _Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii, 173.
+
+[8] Gambling is one of the greater sins.--Sale, _Koran: Preliminary
+    Discourse_, 89; Sells, _Faith of Islam_, 155.
+
+[9] Fixed punkahs were introduced early in the nineteenth century.--Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_, 744.
+
+[10] Firdausi, author of the Shahnama, died A.D. 1020 or 1025,
+    aged 89 years. An abridged translation, to which reference is made, by
+    J. Atkinson, was published in 1832. It has since been translated by
+    A.G. and E. Warner (1905), and by A. Rogers (1907).
+
+[11] Shaikh Sa'di, born at Shiraz A.D. 1175, died 1292, aged 120
+    lunar years. His chief works are the _Gulistan_ and the _Bostan_.
+
+[12] Khwaja Hafiz, Shams-ud-din Muhammad, author of the
+    Diwan Hafiz, died at Shiraz A.D. 1389, where his tomb at
+    Musalla is the scene of pilgrimage; see E.G. Browne, _A Year amongst
+    the Persians_, 280 f.
+
+[13] _Gulistan_.
+
+[14] See p. 77.
+
+[15] Ya'qub, Yusuf.
+
+[16] _Amin_.
+
+[17] Harun, Musa.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVIII
+
+  Evils attending a residence in India.--Frogs.--Flies.--Blains.--
+  Musquitoes.--The White Ant.--The Red Ant.--Their destructive
+  habits.--A Tarantula.--Black Ants.--Locusts.--Superstition of the
+  Natives upon their appearance.--The Tufaun, or Haundhie
+  (tempest).--The rainy season.--Thunder and lightning.--Meteors.--
+  Earthquakes.--A city ruined by them.--Reverence of the Mussulmauns
+  for saints.--Prickly heat.--Cholera Morbus.--Mode of
+  Treatment.--Temperance the best remedy.--Recipe.
+
+
+A residence in India, productive as it may be (to many) of pecuniary
+benefits, presents, however, a few inconveniences to Europeans independent
+of climate,--which, in the absence of more severe trials, frequently
+become a source of disquiet, until habit has reconciled, or reflection
+disposed the mind to receive the mixture of evil and good which is the
+common lot of man in every situation of life. I might moralise on the duty
+of intelligent beings suffering patiently those trials which human
+ingenuity cannot avert, even if this world's happiness were the only
+advantage to be gained; but when we reflect on the account we have to give
+hereafter, for every thought, word, or action, I am induced to believe,
+the well-regulated mind must view with dismay a retrospect of the past
+murmurings of which it has been guilty. But I must bring into view the
+trials of patience which our countrymen meet while in India, to those who
+have neither witnessed nor [Transcriber's note: illegible] them; many of
+them present slight, but living, op[Transcriber's note: illegible] those
+evils with which the Egyptians were visited for their impiety to Heaven.
+
+Frogs, for instance, harmless as these creatures are in their nature,
+occasion no slight inconvenience to the inhabitants of India. They enter
+their house in great numbers and, without much care, would make their way
+to the beds, as they do to the chambers; the croaking during the rainy
+season is almost deafening, particularly towards the evening and during
+the night. Before the morning has well dawned, these creatures creep into
+every open doorway, and throughout the day secrete themselves under the
+edges of mattings and carpets, to the annoyance of those who have an
+antipathy to these unsightly looking creatures.
+
+The myriads of flies which fill the rooms, and try the patience of every
+observer of nice order in an English establishment, may bear some likeness
+to the plague which was inflicted on Pharaoh and his people, as a
+punishment for their hardness of heart. The flies of India have a property
+not common to those of Europe, but very similar to the green fly of Spain:
+when bruised, they will raise a blister on the skin, and, I am told, are
+frequently made use of by medical gentlemen as a substitute for the
+Spanish fly.[1]
+
+If but one wing or leg of a fly is by any accident dropped into the food
+of an individual, and swallowed, the consequence is an immediate
+irritation of the stomach, answering the purpose of a powerful emetic. At
+meals the flies are a pest, which most people say they abhor, knowing the
+consequences of an unlucky admission into the stomach of the smallest
+particle of the insect. Their numbers exceed all calculation; the table is
+actually darkened by the myriads, particularly in the season of the
+periodical rains. The Natives of India use muslin curtains suspended from
+the ceiling of their hall at meal times, which are made very full and long,
+so as to enclose the whole dinner party and exclude their tormentors.
+
+The biles or blains, which all classes of people in India are subject to,
+may be counted as amongst the catalogue of Pharaoh's plagues. The most
+healthy and the most delicate, whether Europeans or Natives, are equally
+liable to be visited by these eruptions, which are of a painful and
+tedious nature. The causes inducing these biles no one, as yet, I believe,
+has been able to discover, and therefore a preventive has not been found.
+I have known people who have suffered every year from these attacks, with
+scarce a day's intermission during the hot weather.[2]
+
+The musquitoes, a species of gnat, tries the patience of the public in no
+very measured degree; their malignant sting is painful, and their attacks
+incessant; against which there is no remedy but patience, and a good gauze
+curtain to the beds. Without some such barrier, foreigners could hardly
+exist; certainly they never could enjoy a night's repose. Even the mere
+buzzing of musquitoes is a source of much annoyance to Europeans: I have
+heard many declare the bite was not half so distressing as the sound. The
+Natives, both male and female, habitually wrap themselves up so entirely
+in their chuddah[3] (sheet) that they escape from these voracious insects,
+whose sounds are so familiar to them that it may be presumed they lull to,
+rather than disturb their sleep.
+
+The white ant is a cruel destroyer of goods: where it has once made its
+domicile, a real misfortune may be considered to have visited the house.
+They are the most destructive little insects in the world doing as much
+injury in one hour as a man might labour through a long life to redeem.
+These ants, it would seem, have no small share of animosity to ladies'
+finery, for many a wardrobe have they demolished, well filled with
+valuable dresses and millinery, before their vicinity has even been
+suspected, or their traces discovered. They destroy beams in the roofs of
+houses, chests of valuable papers, carpets, mats, and furniture, with a
+dispatch which renders them the most formidable of enemies, although to
+appearance but a mean little insect.
+
+There is one season of the year when they take flight, having four
+beautiful transparent wings; this occurs during the periodical rains, when
+they are attracted by the lights of the houses, which they enter in
+countless numbers, filling the tables, and whilst flitting before the
+lights disencumber themselves of their wings. They then become, to
+appearance, a fat maggot, and make their way to the floors and walls,
+where it is supposed they secrete themselves for a season, and are
+increasing in numbers whilst in this stage of existence. At the period of
+their migration in search of food, they will devour any perishable
+materials within their reach. It is probable, however, that they first
+send out scouts to discover food for the family, for the traces of white
+ants are discovered by a sort of clay-covered passage, formed as they
+proceed on their march in almost a direct line, which often extends a
+great distance from their nest.
+
+To mark the economy of ants has sometimes formed a part of my amusements
+in Hindoostaun.[4] I find they all have wings at certain seasons of the
+year; and more industrious little creatures cannot exist than the small
+red ants, which are so abundant in India. I have watched them at their
+labours for hours without tiring; they are so small that from eight to
+twelve in number labour with great difficulty to convey a grain of wheat
+or barley; yet these are not more than half the size of a grain of English
+wheat. I have known them to carry one of these grains to their nest at a
+distance of from six hundred to a thousand yards; they travel in two
+distinct lines over rough or smooth ground, as it may happen, even up and
+down steps, at one regular pace. The returning unladen ants invariably
+salute the burthened ones, who are making their way to the general
+storehouse; but it is done so promptly that the line is neither broken nor
+their progress impeded by the salutation.
+
+I was surprised one morning in my breakfast parlour to discover something
+moving slowly up the wall; on approaching near to examine what it was, I
+discovered a dead wasp, which the khidmutghar[5] (footman) had destroyed
+with his chowrie during breakfast, and which, falling on the floor, had
+become the prize of my little friends (a vast multitude), who were
+labouring with their tiny strength to convey it to their nest in the
+ceiling. The weight was either too great, or they had quarrelled over the
+burthen,--I know not which,--but the wasp fell to the ground when they had
+made more than half the journey of the wall; the courageous little
+creatures, however, were nothing daunted, they resumed their labour, and
+before evening their prize was safely housed.
+
+These ants are particularly fond of animal food. I once caught a tarantula;
+it was evening, and I wished to examine it by daylight. I placed it for
+this purpose in a recess of the wall, under a tumbler, leaving just
+breathing room. In the morning I went to examine my curiosity, when to my
+surprise it was dead and swarming with red ants, who had been its
+destroyers, and were busily engaged in making a feast on the (to them)
+huge carcass of the tarantula.
+
+These small creatures often prove a great annoyance by their nocturnal
+visits to the beds of individuals, unless the precaution be taken of
+having brass vessels, filled with water, to each of the bed-feet; the only
+method of effectually preventing their approach to the beds. I was once
+much annoyed by a visit from these bold insects, when reclining on a couch
+during the extreme heat of the day. I awoke by an uneasy sensation from
+their bite or sting about my ears and face, and found they had assembled
+by millions on my head; the bath was my immediate resource. The Natives
+tell me these little pests will feed on the human body if they are not
+disturbed: when any one is sick there is always great anxiety to keep them
+away.
+
+The large black ant is also an enemy to man; its sharp pincers inflict
+wounds of no trifling consequence; it is much larger than the common fly,
+has long legs, is swift of foot, and feeds chiefly on animal substances. I
+fancy all the ant species are more or less carnivorous, but strictly
+epicurean in their choice of food, avoiding tainted or decomposed
+substances with the nicest discrimination. Sweetmeats are alluring to them;
+there is also some difficulty in keeping them from jars of sugar or
+preserves; and when swallowed in food, are the cause of much personal
+inconvenience.
+
+I have often witnessed the Hindoos, male and female, depositing small
+portions of sugar near ants' nests, as acts of charity to commence the day
+with;[6] and it is the common opinion with the Natives generally, that
+wherever the red ants colonize prosperity attends the owners of that house.
+They destroy the white ants, though the difference in their size is as a
+grain of sand to a barley-corn; and on that account only may be viewed
+rather as friends than enemies to man, provided by the same Divine source
+from whence all other benefits proceed.
+
+The locusts, so familiar by name to the readers of Scripture, are here
+seen to advantage in their occasional visits. I had, however, been some
+years in India before I was gratified by the sight of these wonderful
+insects; not because of their rarity, as I had frequently heard of their
+appearance and ravages, but not immediately in the place where I was
+residing, until the year 1825, which the following memorandum made at the
+time will describe.
+
+On the third of July, between four and five o'clock in the afternoon, I
+observed a dusky brown cloud bordering the Eastern horizon, at the
+distance of about four miles from my house, which stands on an elevated
+situation; the colour was so unusual that I resolved on inquiring from my
+oracle, Meer Hadjee Shaah, to whom I generally applied for elucidations of
+the remarkable, what such an appearance portended. He informed me it was a
+flight of locusts.
+
+I had long felt anxious to witness those insects, that had been the food
+of St. John in the Desert, and which are so familiar by name from their
+frequent mention in Scripture; and now that I was about to be gratified, I
+am not ashamed to confess my heart bounded with delight, yet with an
+occasional feeling of sympathy for the poor people, whose property would
+probably become the prey of this devouring cloud of insects before the
+morning's dawn. Long before they had time to advance, I was seated in an
+open space in the shade of my house to watch them more minutely. The first
+sound I could distinguish was as the gentlest breeze, increasing as the
+living cloud approached; and as they moved over my head, the sound was
+like the rustling of the wind through the foliage of many pepul-trees.[7]
+
+It was with a feeling of gratitude that I mentally thanked God at the time
+that they were a stingless body of insects, and that I could look on them
+without the slightest apprehension of injury. Had this wondrous cloud of
+insects been the promised locust described in the Apocalypse, which shall
+follow the fifth angel's trumpet; had they been hornets, wasps, or even
+the little venomous musquito, I had not then dared to retain my position
+to watch with eager eyes the progress of this insect family as they
+advanced, spreading for miles on every side with something approaching the
+sublime, and presenting a most imposing spectacle. So steady and orderly
+was their pace, having neither confusion nor disorder in their line of
+march through the air, that I could not help comparing them to the
+well-trained horses of the English cavalry.[8] 'Who gave them this order
+in their flight?' was in my heart and on my tongue.
+
+I think the main body of this army of locusts must have occupied thirty
+minutes in passing over my head, but my attention was too deeply engrossed
+to afford me time to consult my time-piece. Stragglers there were many,
+separated from the flight by the noises made by the servants and people to
+deter them from settling; some were caught, and, no doubt, converted into
+currie for a Mussulmaun's meal. They say it is no common delicacy, and is
+ranked among the allowed animal food.
+
+The Natives anticipate earthquakes after the visitation or appearance of
+locusts. They are said to generate in mountains, but I cannot find any one
+here able to give me an authentic account of their natural history.
+
+On the 18th of September, 1825, another flight of these wonderful insects
+passed over my house in exactly a contrary direction from those which
+appeared in July, viz. from the West towards the East. The idea struck me
+that they might be the same swarm, returning after fulfilling the object
+of their visit to the West: but I have no authority on which to ground my
+supposition. The Natives have never made natural history even an amusement,
+much less a study, although their habits are purely those of Nature; they
+know the property of most herbs, roots, and flowers, which they cultivate,
+not for their beauty, but for the benefit they render to man and beast.[9]
+
+I could not learn that the flight had rested anywhere near Futtyghur, at
+which place I was then living. They are of all creatures the most
+destructive to vegetation, licking with their rough tongue the blades of
+grass, the leaves of trees, and green herbage of all kinds. Wherever they
+settle for the night, vegetation is completely destroyed; and a day of
+mournful consequences is sure to follow their appearance in the poor
+farmer's fields of green com.
+
+But that which bears the most awful resemblance to the visitations of God's
+wrath on Pharaoh and the Egyptians, is, I think, the frightful storm of
+wind which brings thick darkness over the earth at noonday, and which
+often occurs from the Tufaun or Haundhie,[10] as it is called by the
+Natives. Its approach is first discerned by dark columns of yellow clouds,
+bordering the horizon; the alarm is instantly given by the Natives, who
+hasten to put out the fires in the kitchens, and close the doors and
+windows in European houses, or with the Natives to let down the purdahs.
+No sound that can be conceived by persons who have not witnessed this
+phenomenon of Nature, is capable of conveying an idea of the tempest. In a
+few minutes total darkness is produced by the thick cloud of dust; and the
+tremendous rushing wind carries the fine sand, which produces the darkness,
+through every cranny and crevice to all parts of the house; so that in the
+best secured rooms every article of furniture is covered with sand, and
+the room filled as with a dense fog: the person, dresses, furniture, and
+the food (if at meal times), are all of one dusky colour; and though
+candles are lighted to lessen the horror of the darkness, they only tend
+to make the scene of confusion more visible.
+
+Fortunately the tempest is not of very long continuance. I have never
+known it to last more than half an hour; yet in that time how much might
+have been destroyed of life and property, but for the interposing care of
+Divine mercy, whose gracious Providence over the works of His hand is seen
+in such seasons as these! The sound of thunder is hailed as a messenger of
+peace; the Natives are then aware that the fury of the tempest is spent,
+as a few drops of rain indicate a speedy termination; and when it has
+subsided they run to see what damage has been done to the premises without.
+It often occurs, that trees are torn up by their roots, the thatched
+houses and huts unroofed, and, if due care has not been taken to quench
+the fires in time, huts and bungalows are frequently found burnt, by the
+sparks conveyed in the dense clouds of sand which pass with the rapidity
+of lightning.
+
+These tufauns occur generally in April, May, and June, before the
+commencement of the periodical rains. I shall never forget the awe I felt
+upon witnessing the first after my arrival, nor the gratitude which filled
+my heart when the light reappeared. The Natives on such occasions gave me
+a bright example: they ceased not in the hour of peril to call on God for
+safety and protection; and when refreshed by the return of calm, they
+forgot not that their helper was the merciful Being in whom they had
+trusted, and to whom they gave praise and thanksgiving.
+
+The rainy season is at first hailed with a delight not easily to be
+explained. The long continuance of the hot winds,--during which period
+(three months or more) the sky is of the colour of copper, without the
+shadow of a cloud to shield the earth from the fiery heat of the sun,
+which has, in that time, scorched the earth and its inhabitants, stunted
+vegetation, and even affected the very houses--renders the season when the
+clouds pour out their welcome moisture a period which is looked forward to
+with anxiety, and received with universal joy.
+
+The smell of the earth after the first shower is more dearly loved than
+the finest aromatics or the purest otta. Vegetation revives and human
+nature exults in the favourable shower. As long as the novelty lasts, and
+the benefit is sensibly felt, all seem to rejoice; but when the intervals
+of clouds without rain occur, and send forth, as they separate, the bright
+glare untempered by a passing breeze, poor weak human nature is too apt to
+revolt against the season they cannot control, and sometimes a murmuring
+voice is heard to cry out, 'Oh, when will the rainy season end!'
+
+The thunder and lightning during the rainy season are beyond my ability to
+describe. The loud peals of thunder roll for several minutes in succession,
+magnificently, awfully grand. The lightning is proportionably vivid, yet
+with fewer instances of conveying the electric fluid to houses than might
+be expected when the combustible nature of the roofs is considered; the
+chief of which are thatched with coarse dry grass. The casualties are by
+no means frequent; and although trees surround most of the dwellings, yet
+we seldom hear of any injury by lightning befalling them or their
+habitations. Fiery meteors frequently fall; one within my recollection was
+a superb phenomenon, and was visible for several seconds.
+
+The shocks from earthquakes are frequently felt in the Upper Provinces of
+India;[11] I was sensible of the motion on one occasion (rather a severe
+one), for at least twenty seconds. The effect on me, however, was attended
+with no inconvenience beyond a sensation of giddiness, as if on board ship
+in a calm, when the vessel rolls from side to side.
+
+At Kannoge, now little more than a village in population, between Cawnpore
+and Futtyghur, I have rambled amongst the ruins of what formerly was an
+immense city, but which was overturned by an earthquake some centuries
+past. At the present period numerous relics of antiquity, as coins, jewels,
+&c., are occasionally discovered, particularly after the rains, when the
+torrents break down fragments of the ruins, and carry with the streams of
+water the long-buried mementos of the riches of former generations to the
+profit of the researching villagers, and to the gratification of curious
+travellers, who generally prove willing purchasers.[12]
+
+I propose giving in another letter the remarks I was led to make on
+Kannoge during my pleasant sojourn in that retired situation, as it
+possesses many singular antiquities and contains the ashes of many holy
+Mussulmaun saints. The Mussulmauns, I may here observe, reverence the
+memory of the good and the pious of all persuasions, but more particularly
+those of their own faith. I have sketches of the lives and actions of many
+of their sainted characters, received through the medium of my husband and
+his most amiable father, that are both amusing and instructive; and
+notwithstanding their particular faith be not in accordance with our own,
+it is only an act of justice to admit, that they were men who lived in the
+fear of God, and obeyed his commandments according to the instruction they
+had received; and which, I hope, may prove agreeable to my readers when
+they come to those pages I have set apart for such articles.
+
+My catalogue of the trying circumstances attached to the comforts which
+are to be met with in India are nearly brought to a close; but I must not
+omit mentioning one 'blessing in disguise' which occurs annually, and
+which affects Natives and Europeans indiscriminately, during the hot winds
+and the rainy season: the name of this common visitor is, by Europeans,
+called 'the prickly heat'; by Natives it is denominated 'Gurhum dahnie'[13]
+(warm rash). It is a painful irritating rash, often spreading over the
+whole body, mostly prevailing, however, wherever the clothes screen the
+body from the power of the air; we rarely find it on the hands or face. I
+suppose it to be induced by excessive perspiration, more particularly as
+those persons who are deficient in this freedom of the pores, so essential
+to healthiness, are not liable to be distressed by the rash; but then they
+suffer more severely in their constitution by many other painful attacks
+of fever, &c. So greatly is this rash esteemed the harbinger of good
+health, that they say in India, 'the person so afflicted has received his
+life-lease for the year'; and wherever it does not make its appearance, a
+sort of apprehension is entertained of some latent illness.
+
+Children suffer exceedingly from the irritation, which to scratch is
+dangerous. In Native nurseries I have seen applications used of pounded
+sandal-wood, camphor, and rose-water; with the peasantry a cooling earth,
+called mooltanie mittee,[14] similar to our fuller's-earth, is moistened
+with water and plastered over the back and stomach, or wherever the rash
+mostly prevails; all this is but a temporary relief, for as soon as it is
+dry, the irritation and burning are as bad as ever.
+
+The best remedy I have met with, beyond patient endurance of the evil, is
+bathing in rain-water, which soothes the violent sensations, and
+eventually cools the body. Those people who indulge most in the good
+things of this life are the greatest sufferers by this annual attack. The
+benefits attending temperance are sure to bring an ample reward to the
+possessors of that virtue under all circumstances, but in India more
+particularly; I have invariably observed the most abstemious people are
+the least subject to attacks from the prevailing complaints of the country,
+whether fever or cholera, and when attacked the most likely subjects to
+recover from those alarming disorders.
+
+At this moment of anxious solicitude throughout Europe, when that awful
+malady, the cholera, is spreading from city to city with rapid strides,
+the observations I have been enabled to make by personal acquaintance with
+afflicted subjects in India, may be acceptable to my readers; although I
+heartily pray our Heavenly Father may in His goodness and mercy preserve
+our country from that awful calamity, which has been so generally fatal in
+other parts of the world.
+
+The Natives of India designate cholera by the word 'Hyza', which with them
+signifies 'the plague'. By this term, however, they do not mean that
+direful disorder so well known to us by the same appellation; as, if I
+except the Mussulmaun pilgrims, who have seen, felt, and described its
+ravages on their journey to Mecca, that complaint seems to be unknown to
+the present race of Native inhabitants of Hindoostaun. The word 'hyza', or
+'plague', would be applied by them to all complaints of an epidemic or
+contagious nature by which the population were suddenly attacked, and
+death ensued. When the cholera first appeared in India (which I believe
+was in 1817), it was considered by the Natives a new complaint.[15]
+
+In all cases of irritation of the stomach, disordered bowels, or severe
+feverish symptoms, the Mussulmaun doctors strongly urge the adoption of
+'starving out the complaint'. This has become a law of Nature with all the
+sensible part of the community; and when the cholera first made its
+appearance in the Upper Provinces of Hindoostaun, those Natives who
+observed their prescribed temperance were, when attacked, most generally
+preserved from the fatal consequences of the disorder.
+
+On the very first symptom of cholera occurring in a member of a Mussulmaun
+family, a small portion of zahur morah[16] (derived from zahur, poison;
+morah, to kill or destroy, and thence understood as an antidote to poison,
+some specimens of which I have brought with me to England) moistened with
+rosewater, is promptly administered, and, if necessary, repeated at short
+intervals; due care being taken to prevent the patient from receiving
+anything into the stomach, excepting rosewater, the older the more
+efficacious in its property to remove the malady. Wherever zahur morah was
+not available, secun-gebeen[17] (syrup of vinegar) was administered with
+much the same effect. The person once attacked, although the symptoms
+should have subsided by this application, is rigidly deprived of
+nourishment for two or three days, and even longer if deemed expedient;
+occasionally allowing only a small quantity of rose-water, which they say
+effectually removes from the stomach and bowels those corrupt adhesions
+which, in their opinion, is the primary cause of the complaint.
+
+The cholera, I observed, seldom attacked abstemious people; when, however,
+this was the case, it generally followed a full meal; whether of rice or
+bread made but little difference, much I believe depending on the general
+habit of the subject; as among the peasantry and their superiors the
+complaint raged with equal malignity, wherever a second meal was resorted
+to whilst the person had reason to believe the former one had not been
+well digested. An instance of this occurred under my own immediate
+observation in a woman, the wife of an old and favourite servant. She had
+imprudently eaten a second dinner, before her stomach, by her own account,
+had digested the preceding meal. She was not a strong woman, but in
+tolerable good health; and but a few hours previous to the attack I saw
+her in excellent spirits, without the most remote appearance of
+indisposition. The usual applications failed of success, and she died in a
+few hours. This poor woman never could be persuaded to abstain from food
+at the stated period of meals; and the Natives were disposed to conclude
+that this had been the actual cause of her sufferings and dissolution.
+
+In 1821 the cholera raged with even greater violence than on its first
+appearance in Hindoostaun; by that time many remedies had been suggested,
+through the medium of the press, by the philanthropy and skill of European
+medical practitioners, the chief of whom recommended calomel in large
+doses, from twenty to thirty grains, and opium proportioned to the age and
+strength of the patient. I never found the Natives, however, willing to
+accept this as a remedy, but I have heard that amongst Europeans it was
+practised with success. From a paragraph which I read in the Bengal papers,
+I prepared a mixture that I have reason to think, through the goodness of
+Divine Providence, was beneficial to many poor people who applied for it
+in the early stages of the complaint, and who followed the rule laid down
+of complete abstinence, until they were out of danger from a relapse, and
+even then for a long time to be cautious in the quantity and digestible
+quality of their daily meal. The mixture was as follows:
+
+Brandy, one pint; oil or spirit of peppermint, if the former half an
+ounce--if the latter, one ounce; ground black pepper, two ounces; yellow
+rind of oranges grated, without any of the white, one ounce; these were
+kept closely stopped and occasionally shook, a table-spoonful administered
+for each dose, the patient well covered up from the air, and warmth
+created by blankets or any other means within their power, repeating the
+close as the case required.
+
+Of the many individuals who were attacked with this severe malady in our
+house very few died, and those, it was believed, were victims to an
+imprudent determination to partake of food before they were
+convalescent,--individuals who never could be prevailed on to practise
+abstemious habits, which we had good reason for believing was the best
+preventive against the complaint during those sickly seasons. The general
+opinion entertained both by Natives and Europeans, at those awful periods,
+was, that the cholera was conveyed in the air; very few imagined that it
+was infectious, as it frequently attacked some members of a family and the
+rest escaped, although in close attendance--even such as failed not to pay
+the last duties to the deceased according to Mussulmaun custom, which
+exposed them more immediately to danger if infection existed;--yet no
+fears were ever entertained, nor did I ever hear an opinion expressed
+amongst them, that it had been or could be conveyed from one person to
+another.
+
+Native children generally escaped the attack, and I never heard of an
+infant being in the slightest degree visited by this malady. It is,
+however, expedient, to use such precautionary measures as sound sense and
+reason may suggest, since wherever the cholera has appeared, it has proved
+a national calamity, and not a partial scourge to a few individuals; all
+are alike in danger of its consequences, whether the disorder be
+considered infectious or not, and therefore the precautions I have urged
+in India, amongst the Native communities, I recommend with all humility
+here, that cleanliness and abstemious diet be observed among all classes
+of people.
+
+In accordance with the prescribed antidote to infection from scarlet fever
+in England, I gave camphor (to be worn about the person) to the poor in my
+vicinity, and to all the Natives over whom I had either influence or
+control; I caused the rooms to be frequently fumigated with vinegar or
+tobacco, and labaun[18] (frankincense) burnt occasionally. I would not,
+however, be so presumptuous to insinuate even that these were preventives
+to cholera, yet in such cases of universal terror as the one in question,
+there can be no impropriety in recommending measures which cannot injure,
+and may benefit, if only by giving a purer atmosphere to the room
+inhabited by individuals either in sickness or in health. But above all
+things, aware that human aid or skill can never effect a remedy unaided by
+the mercy and power of Divine Providence, let our trust be properly placed
+in His goodness, 'who giveth medicine to heal our sickness', and humbly
+intreat that He may be pleased to avert the awful calamity from our shores
+which threatens and disturbs Europe generally at this moment.
+
+Were we to consult Nature rather than inordinate gratifications, we should
+find in following her dictates the best security to health at all times,
+but more particularly in seasons of prevailing sickness. Upon the first
+indications of cholera, I have observed the stomach becomes irritable, the
+bowels are attacked by griping pains, and unnatural evacuations; then
+follow sensations of faintness, weakness, excessive thirst, the pulse
+becomes languid, the surface of the body cold and clammy, whilst the
+patient feels inward burning heat, with spasms in the legs and arms.
+
+In the practice of Native doctors, I have noticed that they administer
+saffron to alleviate violent sickness with the best possible effect. A
+case came under my immediate observation, of a young female who had
+suffered from a severe illness similar in every way to the cholera; it was
+not, however, suspected to be that complaint, because it was not then
+prevailing at Lucknow: after some days the symptoms subsided, excepting
+the irritation of her stomach, which, by her father's account, obstinately
+rejected everything offered for eleven days. When I saw her, she was
+apparently sinking under exhaustion; I immediately tendered the remedy
+recommended by my husband, viz. twelve grains of saffron, moistened with a
+little rose-water; and found with real joy that it proved efficacious;
+half the quantity in doses were twice repeated that night, and in the
+morning the patient was enabled to take a little gruel, and in a
+reasonable time entirely recovered her usual health and strength.
+
+I have heard of people being frightened into an attack of cholera by
+apprehending the evil: this, however, can only occur with very weak minds,
+and such as have neglected in prosperity to prepare their hearts for
+adversity. When I first reached India, the fear of snakes, which I
+expected to find in every path, embittered my existence. This weakness was
+effectually corrected by the wise admonitions of Meer Hadjee Shaah, 'If
+you trust in God, he will preserve you from every evil; be assured the
+snake has no power to wound without permission.'
+
+
+[1] The _Cantharis resicatoria_ is imported into India for use in blisters.
+    But there is a local substitute, _mylabris_, of which there are
+    several varieties (Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, ii. 128, v. 309).
+
+[2] The reference is perhaps to what is known as the Dehli Boil, a form
+    of oriental sore, like the Biskra Button, Aleppo Evil, Lahore and
+    Multan Sore (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_, 302); possibly only to
+    hot-weather boils.
+
+[3] _Chadar_.
+
+[4] For a good account of the ways of Indian ants, see M. Thornton,
+    _Haunts and Hobbies of an Indian Official,_ 2 ff.
+
+[5] _Khidmatgar_.
+
+[6] The habit of laying sugar near ants' nests is a piece of fertility
+    magic, and common to Jains and Vishnu-worshippers; see J. Fryor, _A
+    New Account of East India and Persia_, Hakluyt Society ed., I, 278.
+
+[7] _Pipal, Ficus religiosa_.
+
+[8] An esteemed friend has since referred me to the second chapter of the
+    prophet Joel, part of the seventh and eighth verses, as a better
+    comparison. [_Author._]
+
+[9] The variety of locust seen in India is _acridium peregrinum_, which is
+    said to range throughout the arid region from Algeria to N.W. India.
+    They have extended as far south as the Kistna District of Madras (Watt,
+    _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part i, 154).
+
+[10] _Tufan_, storm, _andhi_, darkness.
+
+[11] Earthquakes tend generally to be more frequent in the regions of
+    extra-peninsular India, where the rocks have been more recently folded,
+    than in the more stable Peninsula. Serious earthquakes have occurred
+    recently in Assam, June, 1897, and in Kangra, Panjab, April,
+    1907. (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1907, i. 98 f.)
+
+[12] Kanauj, in the Farrukhabad District, United Provinces of Agra
+    and Oudh. The ruin of the great city was due to attacks by Mahmud
+    of Ghazni, A.D. 1019, and by Shihab-ud-din, Muhammad Ghori,
+    in 1194.
+
+[13] _Garm dahani_, hot inflammation, prickly heat.
+
+[14] _Multani mitti_, 'Multan Earth', a soft, drab-coloured
+    saponaceous earth, like fuller's earth, used in medicine and for
+    cleansing the hair.
+
+[15] Cholera (_haiza_) was known to the Hindus long before the arrival of
+    the Portuguese, who first described it (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 586
+    ff.). The attention of English physicians was first seriously called
+    to it in 1817, when it broke out in the Jessore District of Bengal,
+    and in the camp of Marquess Hastings in the Datiya State, Central
+    India. (See Sleeman, _Rambles_, 163, 232.)
+
+[16] _Zahr-mohra_, 'poison vanguard': the bezoar stone, believed to be
+    an antidote to poison (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 90 f.).
+
+[17] _Sikanjabin_, oxymel, vinegar, lime-juice, or other acid, mixed
+    with sugar or honey.
+
+[18] _Loban_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIX
+
+  Kannoge.--Formerly the capital of Hindoostaun.--Ancient
+  castle.--Durability of the bricks made by the aborigines.--Prospect
+  from the Killaah (castle).--Ruins.--Treasures found therein.--The
+  Durgah Baallee Peer Kee.--Mukhburrahs.--Ancient Mosque.--Singular
+  structure of some stone pillars.--The Durgah Mukdoom
+  Jhaunneer.--Conversions to the Mussulmaun Faith.--Anecdote.--Ignorance
+  of the Hindoos.--Sculpture of the Ancients.--Mosque inhabited by
+  thieves.--Discovery of Nitre.--Method of extracting it.--Conjectures
+  of its produce.--Residence in the castle.--Reflections.
+
+
+Kannoge, now comparatively a Native village, situated about midway between
+Cawnpore and Futtyghur, is said to have been the capital of Hindoostaun,
+and according to Hindoo tradition was the seat of the reigning Rajahs two
+thousand years prior to the invasion of India by the Sultaun Timoor. If
+credit be given to current report, the Hindoos deny that the Deluge
+extended to India[1] as confidently as the Chinese declare that it never
+reached China.
+
+These accounts I merely state as the belief of the Hindoos, and those
+the least educated persons of the population. The Mussulmauns, however,
+are of a different opinion; the account they give of the Deluge
+resembles the Jewish, and doubtless the information Mahumud has conveyed
+to his followers was derived from that source.
+
+Some of the people are weak enough to conjecture that Kannoge was founded
+by Cain.[2] It bears, however, striking features of great antiquity, and
+possesses many sufficient evidences of its former extent and splendour to
+warrant the belief that it has been the capital of no mean kingdom in ages
+past. The remarks I was enabled to make during a residence of two years at
+Kannoge may not be deemed altogether uninteresting to my readers, although
+my descriptions may be 'clouded with imperfections'. I will not, therefore,
+offer any useless apologies for introducing them in my present Letter.
+
+Kannoge, known as the oldest capital of the far-famed kingdom of
+Hindoostaun, is now a heap upon heap of ruins, proclaiming to the present
+generation, even in her humility, how vast in extent and magnificent in
+style she once was, when inhabited by the rulers of that great empire. The
+earth entombs emblems of greatness, of riches, and of man's vain-glorious
+possessions; buildings have been reared by successive generations on
+mounds which embowelled the ruined mansions of predecessors.
+
+The killaah[3] (castle) in which during two years we shared an abode with
+sundry crows, bats, scorpions, centipedes, and other living things, was
+rebuilt about seven hundred years ago, on the original foundation which,
+as tradition states, has continued for more than two thousand years. The
+materials of which the walls are constructed are chiefly bricks.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that the bricks of ancient manufacture in India
+give evidence of remarkable durability, and are very similar in quality to
+the Roman bricks occasionally discovered in England. At Delhi I have met
+with bricks that have been undoubtedly standing six or seven centuries;
+and at Kannoge, if tradition speak true, the same articles which were
+manufactured upwards of two thousand years ago, and which retain the
+colour of the brightest red, resemble more the hardest stone than the
+things we call bricks of the present day. After the minutest examination
+of these relics of ancient labour, I am disposed to think that the clay
+must have been more closely kneaded, and the bricks longer exposed to the
+action of fire than they are by the present mode of manufacturing them;
+and such is their durability, that they are only broken with the greatest
+difficulty.
+
+The killaah was originally a fortified castle, and is situated near the
+river Kaullee Nuddie,[4] a branch or arm of the Ganges, the main stream of
+which flows about two miles distant. During the periodical rains, the
+Ganges overflows its banks, and inundates the whole tract of land
+intervening between the two rivers, forming an extent of water more
+resembling a sea than a river.
+
+At the time we occupied the old castle, scarcely one room could be called
+habitable; and I learned with regret after the rains of 1826 and 1827,
+which were unusually heavy, that the apartments occupied since the
+Honourable East India Company's rule by their taasseel-dhaars,[5]
+(sub-collectors of the revenue), were rendered entirely useless as a
+residence.
+
+The comfortless interior of that well-remembered place was more than
+compensated by the situation. Many of my English acquaintance, who
+honoured me by visits at Kannoge, will, I think, agree with me, that the
+prospect from the killaah was indescribably grand. The Ganges and the
+Kaullee Nuddee were presented at one view; and at certain seasons of the
+year, as far as the eye could reach, their banks, and well-cultivated
+fields, clothed in a variety of green, seemed to recall the mind to the
+rivers of England, and their precious borders of grateful herbage. Turning
+in another direction, the eye was met by an impenetrable boundary of
+forest trees, magnificent in growth, and rich in foliage; at another
+glance, ruins of antiquity, or the still remaining tributes to saints; the
+detached villages; the sugar plantations; the agriculturists at their
+labour; the happy peasantry laden with their purchases from the bazaars;
+the Hindoo women and children, bearing their earthen-vessels to and from
+the river for supplies of water:--each in their turn formed objects of
+attraction from without, that more than repaid the absence of ordinary
+comforts in the apartment from which they were viewed. The quiet calm of
+this habitation, unbroken by the tumultuous sounds of a city, was so
+congenial to my taste, that when obliged to quit it, I felt almost as much
+regret as when I heard that the rains had destroyed the place which had
+been to me a home of peaceful enjoyment.
+
+The city of Kannoge has evidently suffered the severities of a shock from
+an earthquake: the present inhabitants cannot tell at what period this
+occurred, but it must have been some centuries since, for the earth is
+grown over immense ruins, in an extensive circuit, forming a strong but
+coarse carpet of grass on the uneven mounds containing the long-buried
+mansions of the great. The rapid streams from the periodical rains forcing
+passages between the ruins, has in many places formed deep and frightful
+ravines, as well as rugged roads and pathways for the cattle and the
+traveller.
+
+After each heavy fall of rain, the peasantry and children are observed
+minutely searching among the ruins for valuables washed out with the loose
+earth and bricks by the force of the streams, and, I am told, with
+successful returns for their toil; jewels, gold and silver ornaments,
+coins of gold and silver, all of great antiquity, are thus secured; these
+are bought by certain merchants of the city, by whom they are retailed to
+English travellers, who generally when on a river voyage to or from the
+Upper Provinces, contrive, if possible, to visit Kannoge to inspect the
+ruins, and purchase curiosities.
+
+There is a stately range of buildings at no great distance from the
+killaah (castle), in a tolerable state of preservation, called 'Baallee
+Peer Kee Durgah'.[6] The entrance is by a stone gateway of very superior
+but ancient workmanship, and the gates of massy wood studded with iron. I
+observed that on the wood framework over the entrance, many a stray
+horseshoe has been nailed, which served to remind me of Wales, where it is
+so commonly seen on the doors of the peasantry.[7] I am not aware but that
+the same motives may have influenced the two people in common.
+
+To the right of the entrance stands a large mosque, which, I am told, was
+built by Baallee himself; who, it is related, was a remarkably pious man
+of the Mussulmaun persuasion, and had acquired so great celebrity amongst
+his countrymen as a perfect durweish, as to be surnamed peer[8] (saint).
+The exact time when he flourished at Kannoge, I am unable to say; but
+judging from the style of architecture, and other concurring circumstances,
+it must have been built at different periods, some parts being evidently
+of very ancient structure.
+
+There are two mukhburrahs,[9] within the range, which viewed from the main
+road, stand in a prominent situation: one of these mukhburrahs was built
+by command, or in the reign (I could not learn which), of Shah Allumgeer
+[10] over the remains of Ballee Peer; and the second contains some of the
+peer's immediate relatives.
+
+From the expensive manner in which these buildings are constructed, some
+idea may be formed of the estimation this pious man was held in by his
+countrymen. The mausoleums are of stone, and elevated on a base of the
+same material, with broad flights of steps to ascend by. The stone must
+have been brought hither from a great distance, as I do not find there is
+a single quarry nearer than Delhi or Agra. There are people in charge of
+this Durgah who voluntarily exile themselves from the society of the world,
+in order to lead lives of strict devotion and under the imagined presiding
+influence of the saint's pure spirit; they keep the sanctuary from
+pollution, burn lamps nightly on the tomb, and subsist by the occasional
+contributions of the charitable visitors and their neighbours.
+
+Within the boundary of the Durgah, I remarked a very neat stone tomb, in
+good preservation: this, I was told, was the burying-place of the Kalipha
+[11] (head servant) who had attended on and survived Baallee Peer; this man
+had saved money in the service of the saint, which he left to be devoted
+to the repairs of the Durgah; premising that his tomb should be erected
+near that of his sainted master, and lamps burned every night over the
+graves, which is faithfully performed by the people in charge of the
+Durgah.
+
+After visiting the ruins of Hindoo temples, which skirt the borders of the
+river in many parts of the district of Kannoge, the eye turns with
+satisfaction to the ancient mosques of the Mussulmauns, which convey
+conviction to the mind, that even in the remote ages of Hindoostaun, there
+have been men who worshipped God; whilst the piles of mutilated stone
+idols also declare the zealous Mussulmaun to have been jealous for his
+Creator's glory. I have noticed about Kannoge hundreds of these broken or
+defaced images collected together in heaps (generally under trees), which
+were formerly the objects to which the superstitious Hindoos bowed in
+worship, until the more intelligent Mussulmauns strayed into the recesses
+of the deepest darkness to show the idolaters that God could not be
+represented by a block of stone.
+
+In a retired part of Kannoge, I was induced to visit the remains of an
+immense building[12], expecting the gratification of a fine prospect from
+its towering elevation; my surprise, however, on entering the portal drove
+from my thoughts the first object of my visit.
+
+The whole building is on a large scale, and is, together with the gateway,
+steps, roof, pillars, and offices, composed entirely of stone: from what I
+had previously conceived of the ancient Jewish temples, this erection
+struck me as bearing a strong resemblance. It appears that there is not
+the slightest portion of either wood or metal used in the whole
+construction; and, except where some sort of cement was indispensable, not
+a trace of mortar is to be discovered in the whole fabric. The pillars of
+the colonnade, which form three sides of the square, are singular piles of
+stone, erected with great exactness in the following order:--
+
+A broad block of stone forms the base; on the centre is raised a pillar of
+six feet by two square, on this rests a circular stone, resembling a
+grindstone, on which is placed another upright pillar, and again a
+circular, until five of each are made to rest on the base to form a pillar;
+the top circulars or caps are much larger than the rest; and on these the
+massy stone beams for the roof are supported. How these ponderous stones
+forming the whole roof were raised, unacquainted as these people ever have
+been with machinery, is indeed a mystery sufficient to impress on the
+weak-minded a current report amongst the Natives, that the whole building
+was erected in one night by supernatural agency, from materials which had
+formerly been used in the construction of a Hindoo temple, but destroyed
+by the zeal of the Mussulmauns soon after their invasion of Hindoostaun.
+
+The pillars I examined narrowly, and could not find any traces of cement
+or fastening; yet, excepting two or three which exhibit a slight curve,
+the whole colonnade is in a perfect state. The hall, including the
+colonnade, measures one hundred and eighty feel by thirty, and has
+doubtless been, at some time or other, a place of worship, in all
+probability for the Mussulmauns, there being still within the edifice a
+sort of pulpit of stone evidently intended for the reader, both from its
+situation and construction; this has sustained many rude efforts from the
+chisel in the way of ornament not strictly in accordance with the temple
+itself; besides which, there are certain tablets engraved in the Persian
+and Arabic character, which contain verses or chapters from the Khoraun;
+so that it may be concluded, whatever was the original design of the
+building, it has in later periods served the purposes of a mosque.
+
+In some parts of this building traces exist to prove that the materials of
+which it has been formed originally belonged to the Hindoos, for upon many
+of the stones there are carved figures according with their mythology;
+such stones, however, have been placed generally upside down, and attempts
+to deface the graven figures are conspicuous,--they are all turned inside,
+whilst the exterior appearance is rough and uneven. It may be presumed
+they were formerly outward ornaments to a temple of some sort, most likely
+a 'Bootkhanah'[13] (the house for idols).
+
+I have visited the Durgah, called Mukhdoom Jhaaunneer[14], situated in the
+heart of the present city, which is said to have been erected nearly a
+thousand years ago, by the order of a Mussulmaun King; whether of
+Hindoostaun or not, I could not learn. It bears in its present dilapidated
+state, evidences both of good taste and superior skill in architecture, as
+well as of costliness in the erection, superior to any thing I expected to
+find amongst the ancient edifices of Hindoostaun.
+
+The antique arches supporting the roof, rest on pillars of a good size;
+the whole are beautifully carved. The dome, which was originally in the
+centre of this pavilion, has been nearly destroyed by time; and although
+the light thus thrown into the interior through the aperture, has a good
+effect, it pained me to see this noble edifice falling to decay for the
+want of timely repairs. Notwithstanding this Durgah is said to have been
+built so many years, the stone-work, both of the interior and exterior, is
+remarkably fresh in appearance, and would almost discredit its reputed age.
+The walls and bastions of the enclosure appear firm on their foundations;
+the upper part only seems at all decayed.
+
+The side rooms to the Durgah, of which there are several on each side of
+the building, have all a fretwork of stone very curiously cut, which
+serves for windows, and admits light and air to the apartments, and
+presents a good screen to persons within; this it should seem was the only
+contrivance for windows in general use by the ancient inhabitants of
+Hindoostaun; and even at the present day (excepting a few Native gentlemen
+who have benefited by English example), glazed windows are not seen in any
+of the mansions in the Upper Provinces of India.
+
+I noticed that in a few places in these buildings, where the prospect is
+particularly fine, small arches were left open, from whence the eye is
+directed to grand and superb scenery, afforded by the surrounding country,
+and the remains of stately buildings. From one of these arches the killaah
+is seen to great advantage, at the distance of two miles: both the Durgah
+and the killaah are erected on high points of land. I have often, whilst
+wandering outside the killaah, looked up at the elevation with sensations
+of mistrust, that whilst doing so it might, from its known insecure state,
+fall and bury me in its ruins; but viewing it from that distance, and on a
+level with the Durgah, the appearance was really gratifying.
+
+At Kannoge are to be seen many mukhburrahs, said to have been erected over
+the remains of those Hindoos who at different periods had been converted
+to the Mussulmaun faith. This city, I am informed, has been the chosen
+spot of righteous men and sainted characters during all periods of the
+Mussulmaun rule in Hindoostaun, by whose example many idolators were
+brought to have respect for the name of God, and in some instances even to
+embrace the Mahumudan faith. Amongst the many accounts of remarkable
+conversions related to me by the old inhabitants of that city, I shall
+select one which, however marvellous in some points, is nevertheless
+received with full credit by the faithful of the present day:--
+
+'A very pious Syaad took up his residence many hundred years since at
+Kannoge, when the chief part of the inhabitants were Hindoos, and, as
+might be expected, many of them were Brahmins. He saw with grief the state
+of darkness with which the minds of so many human beings were imbued, and
+without exercising any sort of authority over them, he endeavoured by the
+mildest persuasions to convince these people that the adoration they paid
+to graven images, and the views they entertained of the river Ganges
+possessing divine properties, were both absurd and wicked.
+
+'The Syaad used his best arguments to explain to them the power and
+attributes of the only true God; and though his labours were unceasing,
+and his exemplary life made him beloved, yet for a long period all his
+endeavours proved unsuccessful. His advice, however, was at all times
+tendered with mildness, his manners so humble, and his devotion so
+remarkable, that in the course of time the people flocked around him,
+whenever he was visible, to listen to his discourse, which generally
+contained some words of well-timed exhortation and kind instruction. His
+great aim was directed towards enlightening the Brahmins, by whom, he was
+aware, the opinions of the whole population were influenced, and to whom
+alone was confined such knowledge as at that remote period was conveyed by
+education.
+
+'Ardently zealous in the great work he had commenced, the Syaad seemed
+undaunted by the many obstacles he had to contend with. Always retaining
+his temper unruffled, he combined perseverance with his solicitude, and
+trusted in God for a happy result in His good time. On an occasion of a
+great Hindoo festival the population of the then immense city were
+preparing to visit the Ganges, where they expected to be purified from
+their sins by ablution in that holy river, as they term it. The Ganges, at
+that period, I understand, flowed some miles distant from the city.
+
+'The Syaad took this occasion to exhort the multitude to believe in God;
+and after a preliminary discourse, explaining the power of Him whom he
+alone worshipped, he asked the people if they would be persuaded to follow
+the only true God, if His power should be demonstrated to them by the
+appearance of the river they adored flowing past the city of Kannoge,
+instead of, as at that moment, many miles distant. Some of his auditory
+laughed at the idea, and derided the speaker; others doubted, and asked
+whether the God whom the Mussulmauns worshipped possessed such power as
+the Syaad had attributed to Him; many Brahmins, however, agreed to the
+terms proposed, solemnly assuring the holy man he should find them
+converts to his faith if this miracle should be effected by the God he
+worshipped.
+
+'It is related that the Syaad passed the whole day and night in devout
+prayers; and when the morning dawned the idolators saw the river Ganges
+flowing past the city in all the majesty of that mighty stream.[15] The
+Brahmins were at once convinced, and this evidence of God's power worked
+the way to the conversion of nearly the whole population of Kannoge.'
+
+The number of the inhabitants may be supposed to have been immensely great
+at the period in question, as it is related that on the occasion of their
+conversion the Brahmins threw away the cords which distinguish them from
+other castes of Hindoos, (each cord weighing about a drachm English),
+which when collected together to be consigned to the flames, were weighed,
+and found to be upwards of forty-five seers; a seer in that province being
+nearly equal to two pounds English.[16]
+
+The Brahmins, it will be recollected, form but a small portion of that
+community, and are the priesthood of the Hindoos, very similar in their
+order to the Levites among the children of Israel.
+
+There are still remaining traces of monuments erected over the remains of
+converted Hindoos, which have been particularly pointed out to me by
+intelligent men, from whom I have received information of that great work
+which alone would render Kannoge a place of interest without another
+object to attract the observation of a reflecting mind.
+
+Notwithstanding that the Ganges continues to water the banks of Kannoge,
+and that other proofs exist of idolatry having ceased for a considerable
+time to disgrace the inhabitants, it is still partially occupied by
+Hindoos, who retain the custom of their forefathers according to the
+original, whether descendants of the converted, or fresh settlers is not
+in my power to determine; but I may remark, without prejudice, from what I
+have been enabled to glean in conversation with a few Hindoos of this city,
+that they have a better idea of one over-ruling Supreme power than I have
+ever been able to find elsewhere in the same class of people.
+
+I was much interested with an old blacksmith, who was employed at the
+killaah. On one occasion I asked him what views he entertained of the
+Source from whence all good proceeds--whether he believed in God? He
+replied promptly, and as if surprised that such a doubt could exist, 'Yes,
+surely; it is to Allah (God) the supreme, I am indebted for my existence;
+Allah created all things, the world and all that is in it: I could not
+have been here at this moment, but for the goodness of Allah!'
+
+There are amongst them men of good moral character, yet in a state of
+deplorable ignorance, a specimen of which may be here noticed in a person
+of property employed in the service of Government, at the killaah; he is
+of the caste denominated Burghutt[17],--one of the tribe which professes
+so great reverence for life, as to hold it sinful to destroy the meanest
+reptile or insect; and, therefore, entirely abstain from eating either
+fish, flesh, or fowl:--yet, when I pressed for his undisguised opinion, I
+found that he not only denied the existence of God, but declared it was
+his belief the world formed itself.
+
+I was induced to walk three miles from the killaah, on a cool day in
+December, to view the remains of a piece of sculpture of great antiquity.
+I confess myself but little acquainted with Hindoo mythology, and
+therefore my description will necessarily be imperfect. The figure of
+Luchmee is represented in relief, on a slab of stone eight feet by four,
+surrounded by about a hundred figures in different attitudes. Luchmee, who
+is of course the most prominent, is figured with eight arms; in his right
+hands, are sabres, in his left, shields; his left foot upon the hand of a
+female, and the right on a snake.[18] This figure is about four feet high,
+and finely formed, standing in a martial attitude; his dress (unlike that
+of the modern Hindoo) is represented very tight, and, altogether, struck
+me as more resembling the European than the Asiatic: on his head I
+remarked a high-crowned military cap without a peak: the feet were bare.
+There can be no doubt this figure is emblematical; the Hindoos, however,
+make it an object of their impure and degrading worship.
+
+I could not help expressing my surprise on finding this idol in such
+excellent condition, having had so many samples throughout Kannoge of the
+vengeance exercised by Mussulmaun zeal, on the idols of the Hindoos. My
+guide assured me, that this relic of antiquity had only been spared from
+the general destruction of by-gone periods by its having been buried,
+through the supposed influence of unconverted venerating Brahmins; but
+that within the last thirty years it had been discovered and dug out of
+the earth, to become once more an ornament to the place. My own ideas lead
+me to suppose that it might have been buried by the same convulsion of the
+earth which overturned the idolatrous city.
+
+I observed that a very neat little building, of modern date, was erected
+over this antiquity, and on inquiry found that the Hindoos were indebted
+to the liberality of a lady for the means of preserving this relic from
+the ravages of the seasons.
+
+There is in the same vicinity a second piece of mythological sculpture, in
+a less perfect state than Luchmee, the sabred arm of which has been struck
+off, and the figure otherwise mutilated by the zealous Mussulmauns, who
+have invariably defaced or broken the idols wherever they have been able
+to do so with impunity. On a platform of stone and earth, near this place,
+a finely-formed head of stone is placed, which my guide gravely assured me
+was of very ancient date, and represented Adam, the father of men!
+
+I heard with pain during my sojourn at Kannoge, that the house of God had
+been made the resort of thieves; a well-known passage of Scripture struck
+me forcibly when the transaction was related.
+
+I have before stated that the mosque is never allowed to be locked or
+closed to the public. Beneath the one I am about to speak of (a very
+ancient building near to Baallee Peer's Durgah), is a vaulted suite of
+rooms denominated taarkhanah[19], intended as a retreat from the intense
+heat of the day; such as is to be met with in most great men's residences
+in India. In this place, a gang of thieves from the city had long found a
+secure and unsuspected spot wherein to deposit their plunder. It happened,
+however, that very strict search was instituted after some stolen property
+belonging to an individual of Kannoge; whether any suspicions had been
+excited about the place in question, I do not recollect, but thither the
+police directed their steps, and after removing some loose earth they
+discovered many valuable articles,--shawls, gold ornaments, sabres, and
+other costly articles of plunder. It is presumed,--for the thieves were
+not known or discovered,--that they could not possibly be Mussulmauns,
+since the very worst characters among this people hold the house of God in
+such strict veneration, that they, of all persons, could not be suspected
+of having selected so sacred a place to deposit the spoils of the
+plunderer.
+
+The process of obtaining nitre from the earth is practised at Kannoge by
+the Natives in the most simple way imaginable, without any assistance from
+art. They discover the spot where nitre is deposited by the small white
+particles which work through the strata of earth to the surface. When a
+vein is discovered, to separate the nitre from the earth, the following
+simple method is resorted to:--large troughs filled with water are
+prepared, into which the masses of earth containing nitre are thrown; the
+earth is allowed to remain undisturbed for some time, after which it is
+well stirred, and then allowed to settle; the water by this means becomes
+impregnated with the nitre, and is afterwards boiled in large iron pans,
+from which all the dirt is carefully skimmed, until the water is
+completely evaporated, and the nitre deposited in the pans.
+
+I know not how far the admixture of animal bodies with the soil may tend
+to produce this article, but it is a fact, that those places which bear
+the strongest proofs of having received the bodies of both men and beasts,
+produce it in the greatest abundance.[20]
+
+The retirement of Kannoge afforded me so many pleasant ways of occupying
+time, that I always look back to the period of my sojourn at the old
+killaah with satisfaction. The city is sufficiently distant from the
+killaah to leave the latter within reach of supplies, without the
+annoyance of the bustle and confusion inseparable from a Native city. In
+my daily wanderings a few peasantry only crossed my path; the farmers and
+citizens were always attentive, and willing to do us such kind offices as
+we at any time required. They respected, I may say venerated my husband;
+and I must own that my feelings oblige me to remember with gratitude the
+place and the people whence I drew so many benefits.
+
+Here I could indulge in long walks without incurring the penalty of a
+departure from established custom, which in most well-populated parts of
+Hindoostaun restrains European ladies from the exercise so congenial to
+their health and cherished habits. Should any English-woman venture to
+walk abroad in the city of Lucknow, for instance,--to express their most
+liberal opinion of the act,--she would be judged by the Natives as a
+person careless of the world's opinion. But here I was under no such
+constraint; my walks were daily recreations after hours of quiet study in
+the most romantic retirement of a ruined killaah, where, if luxury
+consists in perfect satisfaction with the objects by which we are
+surrounded, I may boast that it was found here during my two years'
+residence.
+
+
+[1] This is incorrect. Hindu traditions refer to a deluge, in which Manu,
+    with the help of a fish, makes a ship, and fastening her cable to the
+    fish's horn, is guided to the mountain, and then he, alone of human
+    beings, is saved.--J. Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_, part ii (1860),
+    p. 324.
+
+[2] This is merely a stupid folk etymology, comparing Kanauj with Cain.
+
+[3] _Qil'a_.
+
+[4] Kali Nadi, 'black stream', a corruption of the original
+    name, Kalindi.
+
+[5] _Tahsildar_.
+
+[6] In the southern centre of the ruined citadel stand the tombs of
+    Bala Pir and his son, Shaikh Mahdi. Shaikh Kabir,
+    commonly called Bala Pir, is said to have been the tutor of
+    the brother Nawabs, Dalel and Bahadur Khan. The former
+    ruled Kanauj in the time of Shah Jahan (A.D. 1628-1651), and
+    died after his deposition in 1666.--A. Führer, _Monumental Antiquities
+    and Inscriptions of the N.W. Provinces and Oudh_, 1891, p. 80.
+
+[7]  Horseshoes are often nailed on the gates of the tombs of Musalman
+    saints, as at the mosque of Fatehpur Sikri.
+
+[8] _Pir_, 'a saint, a holy man'.
+
+[9] _Maqbara_, 'a sepulchre'.
+
+[10] The Emperor Aurangzeb, A.D. 1658-1707.
+
+[11] Khalifah, Caliph, one of the terms which have suffered degradation,
+    often applied to cooks, tailors, barbers, or other Musalman
+    servants.
+
+[12] This may be the building known as Sita ki Rasoi, the kitchen
+    of Sita, heroine of the Ramayana epic. It is described and
+    drawn by Mrs. F. Parks (_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 143).
+
+[13] Butkhana.
+
+[14] The tomb of the Saint Sa'id Shaikh Makhdum Jahaniya
+    Jahangasht of Multan (A.D. 1308-81). Führer, _op. cit._, p. 81.
+
+[15] Many saints are credited with the power of changing the courses of
+    rivers: see instances in W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of
+    N. India_, 2nd ed., ii. 218.
+
+[16] This may be a variant of the story that after the capture of Chitor,
+    Akbar weighed 74-1/2 _man_ (8 lbs. each) of cords belonging to the
+    slain Rajputs.--J. Tod, _Annals of Rajasthan_, 1884, i. 349.
+
+[17] The name has not been traced. The reference is to Jains, who are
+    specially careful of animal life.
+
+[18] If this is a male figure it cannot represent the goddess Lakshmi.
+    Mrs. Parks (_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 144) speaks of images of
+    Rama and his brother Lakshmana, one of which may possibly be that
+    referred to in the text.
+
+[19] _Tahkhana_, an underground cellar.
+
+
+[20] This account is fairly correct. 'Although active saltpetre is met
+    with under a variety of conditions, they all agree in this particular,
+    that the salt is formed under the influence of organic matter.'--(G.
+    Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part ii, 431 _ff_).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XX
+
+  Delhi.--Description of the city.--Marble hall--The Queen's Mahul
+  (palace).--Audience with the King and Queen.--Conversation with
+  them.--Character of their Majesties.--Visit to a
+  Muckburrah.--Soobadhaars.--The nature of the office.--Durgah of Shah
+  Nizaam ood deen.--Tomb of Shah Allum.--Ruins in the vicinity of Delhi.
+  --Antique pillars (Kootub) .--Prospect from its galleries.--Anecdotes
+  of Juangheer and Khareem Zund...Page 289
+
+
+My visit to Delhi, once the great capital of Hindoostaun, and the
+residence of the great Sultauns, has made impressions of a lasting kind,
+and presented a moral lesson to my mind, I should be sorry to forget in
+after years; for there I witnessed the tombs of righteous men in perfect
+repair after the lapse of many centuries, standing in the midst of the
+mouldering relics of kings, princes, and nobles, many of whose careers, we
+learn from history, was comparatively of recent date; yet, excepting in
+one solitary instance of Shah Allum's grave, without so much of order
+remaining as would tell to the passing traveller the rank of each
+individual's mausoleum, now either entirely a ruin or fast mouldering to
+decay.
+
+The original city of Delhi presents to view one vast extent of ruins;
+abounding in mementos of departed worth, as well as in wrecks of greatness,
+ingenuity, and magnificence. Why the present city was erected or the
+former one deserted, I cannot venture an opinion, neither can I remember
+correctly in what reign the royal residence was changed; but judging from
+the remnants of the old, I should imagine it to have been equally
+extensive with the modern Delhi. A part of the old palace is still
+standing, whither the present King, Akbaar Shah,[1] occasionally resorts
+for days together, attracted perhaps by sympathy for his ancestors, or by
+that desire for change inherent in human nature, and often deemed
+essential to health in the climate of Hindoostaun.
+
+The city of Delhi is enclosed by a wall; the houses, which are generally
+of brick or red stone, appear to good advantage, being generally elevated
+a story or two from the ground-floor, and more regularly constructed than
+is usual in Native cities. Mosques, mukhburrahs, and emaum-baarahs, in all
+directions, diversify the scene with good effect; whilst the various shops
+and bazaars, together with the outpourings of the population to and from
+the markets, give an animation to the whole view which would not be
+complete without them.
+
+The palace occupies an immense space of ground, enclosed by high walls,
+and entered by a gateway of grand architecture. On either side the
+entrance I noticed lines of compact buildings, occupied by the military,
+reaching to the second gateway, which is but little inferior in style and
+strength to the grand entrance; and here again appear long lines of
+buildings similarly occupied. I passed through several of these formidable
+barriers before I reached the marble hall, where the King holds his durbar
+(court) at stated times; but as mine was a mere unceremonious visit to the
+King and Queen, it was not at the usual hour of durbar, and I passed
+through the hall without making any particular observations, although I
+could perceive it was not deficient in the costliness and splendour suited
+to the former greatness of the Indian empire.
+
+After being conveyed through several splendid apartments, I was conducted
+to the Queen's mahul[2] (palace for females), where his Majesty and the
+Queen were awaiting my arrival. I found on my entrance the King seated in
+the open air in an arm chair enjoying his hookha; the Queen's musnud was
+on the ground, close by the side of her venerable husband. Being
+accustomed to Native society, I knew how to render the respect due from an
+humble individual to personages of their exalted rank. After having left
+my shoes at the entrance and advanced towards them, my salaams were
+tendered, and then the usual offering of nuzzas, first to the King and
+then to the Queen, who invited me to a seat on her own carpet,--an honour
+I knew how to appreciate from my acquaintance with the etiquette observed
+on such occasions.
+
+The whole period of my visit was occupied in very interesting conversation;
+eager inquiries were made respecting England, the Government, the manners
+of the Court, the habits of the people, my own family affairs, my husband's
+views in travelling, and his adventures in England, my own satisfaction
+as regarded climate, and the people with whom I was so immediately
+connected by marriage;--the conversation, indeed, never flagged an instant,
+for the condescending courtesy of their Majesties encouraged me to add to
+their entertainment, by details which seemed to interest and delight them
+greatly.
+
+On taking leave his Majesty very cordially shook me by the hand, and the
+Queen embraced me with warmth. Both appeared, and expressed themselves,
+highly gratified with the visit of an English lady who could explain
+herself in their language without embarrassment, or the assistance of an
+interpreter, and who was the more interesting to them from the
+circumstance of being the wife of a Syaad; the Queen indeed was particular
+in reminding me that 'the Syaads were in a religious point of view, the
+nobles of the Mussulmauns, and reverenced as such far more than those
+titled characters who receive their distinction from their fellow-mortals'.
+
+I was grieved to be obliged to accept the Queen's parting present of an
+embroidered scarf, because I knew her means were exceedingly limited
+compared with the demands upon her bounty; but I could not refuse that
+which was intended to do me honour at the risk of wounding those feelings
+I so greatly respected. A small ring, of trifling value, was then placed
+by the Queen on my finger, as she remarked, 'to remind me of the giver.'
+
+The King's countenance, dignified by age, possesses traces of extreme
+beauty; he is much fairer than Asiatics usually are; his features are
+still fine, his hair silvery white; intelligence beams upon his brow, his
+conversation gentle and refined, and his condescending manners hardly to
+be surpassed by the most refined gentleman of Europe. I am told by those
+who have been long intimate with his habits in private, that he leads a
+life of strict piety and temperance, equal to that of a durweish[3] of his
+faith, whom he imitates in expending his income on others without
+indulging in a single luxury himself.
+
+The Queen's manners are very amiable and condescending; she is reported to
+be as highly gifted with intellectual endowments as I can affirm she is
+with genuine politeness.
+
+I was induced to visit the mukhburrah of the great-great-grandfather of the
+present King of Oude,[4] who, at his death,--which occurred at Delhi, I
+believe,--was one of the Soobadhaars[5] of the sovereign ruler of India.
+This nobleman, in his time, had been a staunch adherent to the descendants
+of Timoor, and had been rewarded for his fidelity by public honours and
+the private friendship of the King. The monument erected over his remains,
+is in a costly style of magnificence, and in the best possible condition,
+standing in the centre of a flower-garden which is enclosed by a stone
+wall, with a grand gateway of good architecture. The mukhburrah is
+spacious, and in the usual Mussulmaun style of building mausoleums; viz.,
+a square, with a dome, and is ascended by a flight of broad steps. This
+building stands about three miles from the city, in a good situation to be
+seen from the road. I was told that the family of Oude kept readers of the
+Khoraun in constant attendance at the mukhburrah; and I observed several
+soldiers, whose duty it was to guard the sacred spot, at the expense of
+the Oude government.
+
+In explanation of the word Soobadhaar, it may not be uninteresting to
+remark in this place, that when the government of Hindoostaun flourished
+under the descendants of Timoor, Soobadhaars were appointed over districts,
+whose duty, in some respects, bore resemblance to that of a Governor; with
+this difference, that the soobadhaaries were gifts, not only for the life
+of the individuals, but to their posterity for ever, under certain
+restrictions and stipulations which made them tributary to, and retained
+them as dependants of, the reigning sovereign:--as for instance, a certain
+annual amount was to be punctually transferred to the treasury at Delhi;
+the province to be governed by the same laws, and the subjects to be under
+the same control in each Soobadhaarie as those of the parent sovereignty;
+the revenue exacted in the very same way,; each Soobadhaar was bound to
+retain in his employ a given number of soldiers, horse and foot, fully
+equipped for the field, with perfect liberty to employ them as occasion
+served in the territory which he governed, whether against refractory
+subjects, or encroachments from neighbouring provinces; but in any
+emergency from the Court at Delhi, the forces to be, at all times, in
+readiness for the Sultaun's service at a moment's notice.
+
+The gift of a Soobadhaarie was originally conferred on men who had
+distinguished themselves, either in the army, or in civil capacities, as
+faithful friends and servants of the Sultaun. In the course of time, some
+of these Soobadhaars, probably from just causes, threw off their strict
+allegiance to their Sovereign, abandoned the title of Soobadhaar, and
+adopted that of Nuwaub in its stead, either with or without the consent of
+the Court of Delhi.
+
+As it is not my intention to give a precise history of the Indian empire,
+but merely to touch on generalities, I have confined my remarks to a brief
+explanation of the nature of this office; and will only add, that whilst
+the Soobadhaars (afterwards the Nuwaubs) of Oude swayed over that
+beautiful province under these titles, they continued to send their usual
+nuzzas to the King of Delhi, although no longer considered under his
+dominion; thus acknowledging his superiority, because inferiors only
+present nuzzas. But when Ghauzee ood deen Hyder was created King of Oude,
+he could no longer be considered tributary to the House of Timoor, and the
+annual ceremony of sending a nuzza, I understood, was discontinued. The
+first King of Oude issued coins from his new mint almost immediately after
+his coronation, prior to which period the current money of that province
+bore the stamp of Delhi.[6]
+
+Shah Nizaam ood deen[7] was one of the many Mussulmaun saints, whose
+history has interested me much. He is said to have been dead about five
+hundred years, yet his memory is cherished by the Mussulmauns of the
+present day with veneration unabated by the lapse of years, thus giving to
+the world a moral and a religious lesson, 'The great and the ambitious
+perish, and their glory dieth with them; but the righteous have a name
+amongst their posterity for ever.'
+
+I was familiar with the character of Nizaam ood deen long prior to my
+visit at the Court of Delhi, and, as maybe supposed, it was with no common
+feeling of pleasure I embraced the opportunity of visiting the mausoleum
+erected over the remains of that righteous man.
+
+The building originally was composed of the hard red stone, common to the
+neighbourhood of Delhi, with an occasional mixture of red bricks of a very
+superior quality; but considerable additions and ornamental improvements
+of pure white marble have been added to the edifice, from time to time, by
+different monarchs and nobles of Hindoostaun, whose pious respect for the
+memory of the righteous Shah Nizaam ood deen is testified by these
+additions, which render the mausoleum at the present time as fresh and
+orderly as if but newly erected.
+
+The style of the building is on the original, I might say, only plan of
+Mussulmaun mukhburrahs--square, with a cupola. It is a beautiful structure
+on a scale of moderate size. The pavements are of marble, as are also the
+pillars, which are fluted and inlaid with pure gold; the ceiling is of
+chaste enamel painting (peculiarly an Indian art, I fancy,) of the
+brightest colours. The cupola is of pure white marble, of exquisite
+workmanship and in good taste; its erection is of recent date, I
+understand, and the pious offering of the good Akbaar Shah, who, being
+himself a very religions personage, was determined out of his limited
+income to add this proof of his veneration for the sainted Nizaam to the
+many which his ancestors had shown.[8]
+
+The marble tomb enclosing the ashes of Shah Nizaam ood deen is in the
+centre of the building immediately under the cupola; this tomb is about
+seven feet long by two, raised about a foot from the pavement; on the
+marble sides are engraved chapters from the Khoraun in the Arabic
+character, filled up with black; the tomb itself has a covering of very
+rich gold cloth, resembling a pall.
+
+This tranquil spot is held sacred by all Mussulmauns. Here the sound of
+human feet are never heard; 'Put off thy shoes', being quite as strictly
+observed near this venerated place, as when the mosque and emaum-baarah
+are visited by 'the faithful'; who, as I have before remarked, whenever a
+prayer is about to be offered to God, cast off their shoes with scrupulous
+care, whether the place chosen for worship be in the mosque, the abode of
+men, or the wilderness.
+
+I was permitted to examine the interior of the mausoleum. The calm
+stillness, which seemed hardly earthly; the neatness which pervaded every
+corner of the interior; the recollection of those virtues, which I so
+often heard had distinguished Shah Nizaam's career on earth, impressed me
+with feelings at that moment I cannot forget; and it was with reluctance I
+turned from this object to wander among the surrounding splendid ruins,
+the only emblems left of departed greatness; where not even a tablet
+exists to mark the affection of survivors, or to point to the passing
+traveller the tomb of the monarch, the prince, or the noble,--except in
+the instance of Shah Allum,--whilst the humble-minded man's place of
+sepulture is kept repaired from age to age, and still retains the
+freshness of a modern structure in its five hundredth year.
+
+There are men in charge of Shah Nizaam ood deen's mausoleum who lead
+devout lives, and subsist on the casual bounties gleaned from the
+charitable visitors to his shrine. Their time is passed in religious
+duties, reading the Khoraun over the ashes of the saint, and keeping the
+place clean and free from unholy intrusions. They do not deem this mode of
+existence derogatory; for to hold the situation of darogahs, or keepers of
+the tombs of the saints, who are held in universal veneration amongst
+Mussulmauns, is esteemed an honourable privilege.
+
+In this sketch of my visit to the tombs at Delhi, I must not omit one very
+remarkable cemetery, which, as the resting place of the last reigning
+sovereign of Hindoostaun, excited in me no small degree of interest,
+whilst contrasting the view it exhibited of fallen greatness, with the
+many evidences of royal magnificence.
+
+The tomb I am about to describe is that erected over the remains of Shah
+Allum;[9] and situated within view of the mausoleum of the righteous
+plebeian, Shah Nizaam. It is a simple, unadorned grave; no canopy of
+marble, or decorated hall, marks here the peaceful rest of a monarch, who
+in his life-time was celebrated for the splendour of his Court; a small
+square spot of earth, enclosed with iron railings, is all that remains to
+point to posterity the final resting place of the last monarch of
+Hindoostaun. His grave is made by his favourite daughter's side, whose
+affection had been his only solace in the last years of his earthly
+sufferings; a little masonry of brick and plaster supports the mound of
+earth over his remains, on which I observed the grass was growing,
+apparently cultured by some friendly hand. At the period of my visit, the
+solitary ornament to this last terrestrial abode of a King was a luxuriant
+white jessamine tree, beautifully studded with blossoms, which scented the
+air around with a delightful fragrance, and scattered many a flower over
+the grave which it graced by its remarkable beauty, height, and luxuriance.
+The sole canopy that adorns Shah Allum's grave is the rich sky, with all
+its resplendent orbs of day and night, or clouds teeming with beneficent
+showers. Who then could be ambitious, vain, or proud, after viewing this
+striking contrast to the grave of Shah Nizaam? The vain-glorious humbled
+even in the tomb;--the humble minded exalted by the veneration ever paid
+to the righteous.
+
+I was persuaded to visit the ruins of antiquity which are within a morning'
+s drive of Delhi. Nothing that I there witnessed gave me so much pleasure
+as the far-famed Kootub, a monument or pillar, of great antiquity, claimed
+equally by the Hindoo and Mussulmaun as due to their respective periods of
+sovereign rule. The site is an elevated spot, and from the traces of
+former buildings, I am disposed to believe this pillar, standing now erect
+and imposing, was one of the minarets of a mosque, and the only remains of
+such a building, which must have been very extensive, if the height and
+dimensions of the minaret be taken as a criterion of the whole.[10]
+
+This pillar has circular stairs within, leading to galleries extending all
+round, at stated distances, and forming five tiers from the first gallery
+to the top, which finishes with a circular room, and a canopy of stone,
+open on every side for the advantage of an extensive prospect. Verses from
+the Khoraun are cut out in large Arabic characters on the stones, which
+form portions of the pillar from the base to the summit in regular
+divisions; this could only be done with great labour, and, I should
+imagine, whilst the blocks of stone were on the level surface of the earth,
+which renders it still more probable that it was a Mussulmaun erection.
+
+The view from the first gallery was really so magnificent, that I was
+induced to ascend to the second for a still bolder extent of prospect,
+which more than repaid me the task. I never remember to have seen so
+picturesque a panorama in any other place. Some of my party, better able
+to bear the fatigue, ascended to the third and fourth gallery. From them I
+learned that the beauty and extent of the view progressively increased
+until they reached the summit, from whence the landscape which fell
+beneath the eye surpassed description.
+
+On the road back to Delhi, we passed some extensive remains of buildings,
+which I found on inquiry had been designed for an observatory by Jhy
+Sing,[11]--whose extraordinary mind has rendered his name conspicuous in
+the annals of Hindoostaun,--but which was not completed while he lived. It
+may be presumed, since the work was never finished, that his countrymen
+either have not the talent, or the means to accomplish the scientific plan
+his superior mind had contemplated.
+
+At the time I visited Delhi, I had but recently recovered from a serious
+and tedious illness; I was therefore ill-fitted to pursue those researches
+which might have afforded entertaining material for my pen, and must, on
+that account, take my leave of this subject with regret, for the present,
+and merely add my acknowledgments to those kind friends who aided my
+endeavours in the little I was enabled to witness of that remarkable place,
+which to have viewed entirely would have taken more time and better health
+than I could command at that period. I could have desired to search out
+amongst the ruined mausoleums for those which contain the ashes of
+illustrious characters, rendered familiar and interesting by the several
+anecdotes current in Native society, to many of which I have listened with
+pleasure, as each possessed some good moral for the mind.
+
+It is my intention to select two anecdotes for my present Letter, which
+will, I trust, prove amusing to my readers; one relates to Jhaungeer,[12]
+King of India; the other to Kaareem Zund, King of Persia. I am not aware
+that either has appeared before the public in our language, although they
+are so frequently related by the Natives in their domestic circles. If
+they have not, I need hardly apologise for introducing them, and on the
+other hand, if they have before been seen, I may plead my ignorance of the
+circumstance in excuse for their insertion here.
+
+I have already noticed that, among the true Mussulmauns, there are no
+religious observances more strictly enforced than the keeping the fast of
+Rumzaun, and the abstaining from fermented liquors. It is related, however,
+that 'A certain king of India, named Jhaungeer, was instructed by his
+tutors in the belief, that on the day of judgment, kings and rulers will
+not have to answer either for the sin of omission or commission, as
+regards these two commands; but that the due administration of justice to
+the subjects over whom they are placed, will be required at the hands of
+every king, ruler, or governor, on the face of the earth.
+
+'Jhaungeer was determined to walk strictly in the path which he was
+assured would lead him to a happy eternity; and, therefore, in his reign
+every claim of justice was most punctiliously discharged. Each case
+requiring decision was immediately brought to the foot of the throne; for
+the King would not allow business of such importance to his soul's best
+interest to be delegated to the guardianship of his Vizier, or other of
+his servants; and in order to give greater facility to complainants of
+every degree, the King invented the novel contrivance of a large bell,
+which was fixed immediately over his usual seat on the musnud, which bell
+could be sounded by any one outside the palace gate, by means of a stout
+rope staked to the ground. Whenever this alarum of justice was sounded in
+the King's ear, he sent a trusty messenger to conduct the complainant into
+his presence.[13]
+
+'One day, upon the bell being violently rung, the messenger was commanded
+to bring in the person requiring justice. When the messenger reached the
+gate, he found no other creature near the place but a poor sickly-looking
+ass, in search of a scanty meal from the stunted grass, which was dried up
+by the scorching sun, and blasts of hot wind which at that season
+prevailed. The man returned and reported to the King that there was no
+person at the gate.
+
+'The King was much surprised at the singularity of the circumstance, and
+whilst he was talking of the subject with his nobles and courtiers, the
+bell was again rung with increased violence. The messenger being a second
+time despatched, returned with the same answer, assuring the King that
+there was not any person at or within sight of the gate. The King,
+suspecting him to be a perverter of justice, was displeased with the man,
+and even accused him of keeping back a complainant from interested motives.
+It was in vain the messenger declared himself innocent of so foul a crime;
+a third time the bell rang, "Go," said the King to his attendants, "and
+bring the supplicant into my presence immediately!" The men went, and on
+their return informed the King that the only living creature near the gate
+was an ass, poor and manged, seeking a scanty meal from the parched blades
+of grass. "Then let the ass be brought hither!" said the King; "perhaps
+_he_ may have some complaint to prefer against his owner."
+
+'The courtiers smiled when the ass was brought into the presence of the
+monarch, who upon seeing the poor half-starved beast covered with sores,
+was at no loss for a solution of the mysterious ringing at the bell, for
+the animal not finding a tree or post against which he could rub himself,
+had made use of the bell-rope for that purpose.
+
+"Enquire for the owner of the ass!" commanded the King, "and let him be
+brought before me without delay!" The order promptly given, was as readily
+obeyed; and the hurkaarahs (messengers, or running footmen) in a short
+time introduced a poor Dhobhie[14] (washerman) who had owned the ass from a
+foal. The plaintiff and defendant were then placed side by side before the
+throne, when the King demanded, "Why the sick ass was cast out to provide
+for itself a precarious subsistence?" The Dhobhie replied, "In truth, O
+Jahaum-punah![15] (Protector or Ruler of the World), because he is grown
+old and unserviceable, afflicted with mange, and being no longer able to
+convey my loads of linen to the river, I gave him his liberty."
+
+'"Friend," said the King, "when this thine ass was young and healthy,
+strong and lusty, didst thou not derive benefits from his services? Now
+that he is old, and unable from sickness to render thee further benefits,
+thou hast cast him from thy protection, and sent him adrift on the wide
+world; gratitude should have moved thee to succour and feed so old and
+faithful a servant, rather than forsake him in his infirmities. Thou hast
+dealt unjustly with this thy creature; but, mark me, I hold thee
+responsible to repair the injury thou hast done the ass. Take him to thy
+home, and at the end of forty days attend again at this place, accompanied
+by the ass, and compensate to the best of thy power, by kind treatment,
+for the injury thou hast done him by thy late hard-hearted conduct."
+
+'The Dhobhie, glad to escape so well, went away leading the ass to his
+home, fed him with well-soaked gram (grain in general use for cattle), and
+nicely-picked grass, sheltered him from the burning sun, poured healing
+oil into his wounds, and covered his back to keep off the flies; once a
+day he bathed him in the river. In short, such expedients were resorted to
+for the comfort and relief of the ass, as were ultimately attended with
+the happiest effects.
+
+'At the expiration of the forty days, the Dhobhie set off from his home to
+the palace, leading his now lively ass by a cord. On the road the
+passers-by were filled with amazement and mirth, at the manners and
+expressions of the Dhobhie towards his led ass. "Come along,
+brother!--Make haste, son!--Let us be quick, father!--Take care, uncle!"
+
+'"What means the old fool?" was asked by some; "does he make his ass a
+relation?"--"In truth," replied the Dhobhie, "my ass is a very dear old
+friend, and what is more, he has been a greater expense to me than all my
+relations latterly: believe me, it has cost me much care and pains to
+bring this ass into his present excellent condition." Then relating the
+orders of the King, and his own subsequent treatment of the beast, the
+people no longer wondered at the simple Dhobhie's expressions which had
+prompted them at first to believe he was mad.
+
+'The King, it is related, received the Dhobhie graciously, and commended
+and rewarded him for his careful attention to the animal; which in his
+improved condition became more useful to his master than he had ever been,
+through the King's determination to enforce justice even to the brute
+creation.'
+
+The second anecdote, translated for me by the same kind hand, is often
+related, with numerous embellishments, under the title of 'Khareem
+Zund'.[16]
+
+'Khareem Zund ruled in Persia. One day he was seated in the verandah of
+his palace smoking his hookha, and, at the same time, as was his frequent
+practice, overlooking the improvements carried on by masons and labourers,
+under the superintendence of a trusty servant. One of the labourers, who
+was also named Khareem, had toiled long, and sought to refresh himself
+with a pipe. The overseer of the work, seeing the poor man thus engaged,
+approached him in great wrath, rated him severely for his presumption in
+smoking whilst he stood in the presence of his sovereign, and striking him
+severely with a stick, snatched the pipe from the labourer and threw it
+away. The poor wretch cared not for the weight of the blow so much as for
+the loss of his pipe: his heart was oppressed with the weight of his
+sorrows, and raising his eyes to Heaven he cried aloud, "Allah
+Khareem!"[17] (God is merciful!), then lowering his eyes, his glance
+rested on the King, "App Khareem!" (thou art named merciful!), from whom
+withdrawing his eyes slowly he looked at his own mean body, and added,
+"Myn Khareem!" (I am called merciful!).
+
+'The King, who had heard the labourer's words, and witnessed with emotion
+the impressive manner of lifting his eyes to Heaven, had also seen the
+severity of the overseer to the unoffending labourer; he therefore
+commanded that the man should be brought into his presence without delay,
+who went trembling, and full of fear that his speech had drawn some heavy
+punishment on his head.
+
+'"Sit down," said the King.--"My sovereign pardon his slave!" replied the
+labourer.--"I do not jest; it is my pleasure that you sit down," repeated
+the King; and when he saw his humble guest seated, he ordered his own
+silver hookha to be brought and placed before the poor man, who hesitated
+to accept the gracious offer; but the King assured him in the kindest
+manner possible it was his wish and his command. The labourer enjoyed the
+luxury of a good hookha, and by the condescending behaviour of the King
+his composure gradually returned.
+
+'This King, who it would seem delighted in every opportunity that offered
+of imparting pleasure and comfort to his subjects of all ranks and degrees,
+seeing the labourer had finished his second chillum[18] (contents of a
+pipe) told him he had permission to depart, and desired him to take the
+hookha and keep it for his sake. "Alas, my King!" said the labourer, "this
+costly silver pipe will soon be stolen from me; my mud hut cannot safely
+retain so valuable a gift; the poor mazoor[19] inhabits but a chupha (or
+coarse grass-roofed) hut."--"Then take materials from my store-houses to
+build a house suited to your hookha," was the order he received from the
+King; "and let it be promptly done! I design to make you one of my
+overseers; for _you_, Khareem, have been the instrument to rouse _me_ to
+be Khareem (merciful); and I can now approach Allah with increased
+confidence. Who is the only true Khareem!"'
+
+
+[1] Akbar Shah II, King of Delhi, A.D. 1806-37.
+
+[2] _Mahall_.
+
+[3] _Darvesh_, 'a religious mendicant'.
+
+[4] Mansur 'Ali Khan, Safdar Jang, Nawab of Oudh
+    (A.D. 1739-56), his successors being--his son, Shuja-ud-daula
+    (1756-75); his son, Asaf-ud-daula (1775-97); his reputed son Wazir
+    'Ali (1797-8); Sa'a dat 'Ali Khan, half-brother of
+    Asaf-ud-daula (1798-1814); his son, Ghazi-ud-din Haidar
+    (1814-37). The tomb of Safdar Jang is near that of the Emperor
+    Humayun. 'This tomb in one of the last great Muhammadan
+    architectural efforts in India, and for its age it deserves perhaps
+    more commendation than is usually accorded to it. Though the general
+    arrangement of the tomb in the same as that of the Taj, it was not
+    intended to be a copy of the latter' (H.C. Fanshawe, _Delhi Past and
+    Present_, 1902, 246 f., with a photograph). For a different
+    appreciation, see Sleeman, _Rambles_, p. 507.
+
+[5] _Subahdar_, the Viceroy or Governor of a Subah or Province of
+    the Moghul Empire.
+
+[6] Ghazi-ud-din announced his independence of Delhi under the
+    advice of his Minister, Agha Mir.
+
+[7] Shaikh Nizam-ud-din. Auliya, one of the noblest disciples of
+    Shaikh Farid-ud-din Shakkarganj; born at Budaun, A.D. 1236,
+    died at Delhi, 1325.
+
+[8] The entrance to the Dargah was built by Firoz Shah, and bears
+    the date A.D. 1378. The structure over the tomb has been rebuilt by
+    many pious donors, and little of the original work is left (Fanshawe,
+    op. cit., 235 ff.; Sleeman, _Rambles_, 490 ff., 507).
+
+[9] Shah 'Alam II, King of Delhi, A.D. 1759-1806. 'Three royal graves
+    in the little court to the south side of the mosque lie within a
+    single marble enclosure--that on the last is the resting-place of
+    Akbar Shah II (died 1837 A.D.); the next to it is that of Shah
+    Alam II (died 1806), and then beyond an empty space, intended for
+    the grave of Bahadur Shah, [the last King of Delhi], buried at
+    Rangoon, comes the tomb of Shah Alam Bahadur Shah, a plain
+    stone with grass on it' (Fanshawe, 281 f.; Sleeman, _Rambles_, 500).
+
+[10] Qutb, 'the polar star'. The pillar, 238 feet in height, was begun by
+    Qutb-ud-di Aibak (A.D. 1206-10), and there are inscriptions of
+    Altamsh or Iltutmish, his son-in-law. It is entirely of Muhammadan
+    origin, and was primarily intended to serve as a minaret to
+    Qutb-ud-din's mosque adjoining it; but its name refers to the saint
+    Qutb-ud-din, buried close by. (Fanshawe, 265 ff.; Sleeman,
+    _Rambles_, 492 ff.)
+
+[11] This observatory was built by Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur (A.D.
+    1693-1743) in 1724. He also erected similar observatories at Benares,
+    Multan, Ujjain, and Jaipur (Fanshawe, 247).
+
+[12] Jahangir, eldest son of the Emperor Akbar, reigned A.D. 1605-27.
+
+[13] 'The first order that I issued was for the setting up of a Chain of
+    Justice, so that if the Officers of the Courts of Justice should fail
+    in the investigation of the complaints of the oppressed, the injured
+    person might come to this chain and shake it, and so give notice of
+    their wrongs. I ordered that the chain should be made of pure gold,
+    and be thirty _gaz_ [yards] long, with sixty bells upon it. The
+    weight of it was four Hindustani _mans_ [8 lb.] of 'Irak.
+    One end was firmly attached to a battlement of the fort of Agra, the
+    other to a stone column on the bank of the river' (_Memoirs of
+    Jahangir_ in Sir H.M. Elliot, _History of India_, vi. 284). It
+    does not appear that this silly contrivance was ever used, and it was
+    meant only for parade. Raja Anangpal had already set up a
+    similar bell at Delhi (ibid. vi. 262, iii. 565).
+
+[14] _Dhobi_.
+
+[15] _Jahan-panah_.
+
+
+[16] Karim Khan, of the Zand tribe, defeated the Afghans and
+    secured the Kingdom of Fars or Southern Persia, with his capital at
+    Shiraz. He died at an advanced age, A.D. 1779 (Sir J. Malcolm,
+    _History of Persia_, 1829, ii. 58 ff.).
+
+[17] _Allah Karim, Ap Karim, Main Karim_.
+
+
+[18] _Chilam_, the clay bowl of a water-pipe: its contents.
+
+[19] _Mazdur_, a day labourer.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXI
+
+  Natural Productions of India.--Trees, shrubs, plants, fruits,
+  &c.--Their different uses and medicinal qualities.--The Rose.--Native
+  medical practice.--Antidote to Hydrophobia.--Remedy for the venom of
+  the Snake.--The Chitcherah (Inverted thorn).--The Neam-tree.--The
+  Hurrundh (Castor-tree).--The Umultass (Cassia-tree).--The
+  Myrtle.--The Pomegranate.--The Tamarind.--The Jahmun.--The
+  Mango.--The Sherrefah.--White and red Guavers.--The Damascus Fig.--The
+  Peach, and other Fruits.--The Mahdhaar (Fire-plant).--The Sirrakee and
+  Sainturh (Jungle-grass).--The Bamboo, and its various uses
+  enumerated.
+
+
+In Europe we are accustomed to cultivate the rose merely as an ornament of
+the garden. This is not the case with my Indian acquaintance; they
+cultivate the rose as a useful article, essential to their health, and
+conducive to their comfort.
+
+The only rose I have ever seen them solicitous about is the old-fashioned
+'hundred-leaf' or cabbage-rose'.[1] Where-ever a Mussulmaun population
+congregate these are found planted in enclosed fields. In the month of
+September, the rose trees are cut down to within eight inches of the
+surface of the earth, and the cuttings carefully planted in a sheltered
+situation for striking, to keep up a succession of young trees. By the
+first or second week in December the earliest roses of the season are in
+bloom on the new wood, which has made its way from the old stock in this
+short period. Great care is taken in gathering the roses to preserve every
+bud for a succession. A gardener in India is distressed when the Beeby
+Sahibs[2] (English ladies) pluck roses, aware that buds and all are
+sacrificed at once. I shall here give a brief account of the several
+purposes to which the rose is applied.
+
+Rose-water is distilled in most Mussulmaun families as a medicine and an
+indispensable luxury. For medicine, it is administered in all cases of
+indigestion and pains of the stomach or bowels,--the older the rose-water
+the more effectual the remedy. I have been accustomed to see very old
+rose-water administered in doses of a wine-glass full, repeated frequently,
+in cases of cholera morbus and generally with good effect, when the
+patient has applied the remedy in time and due care has been observed in
+preventing the afflicted person from taking any other liquid until the
+worst symptoms have subsided. This method of treatment may not accord with
+the views of professional men generally; however, I only assert what I
+have repeatedly seen, that it has been administered to many members of my
+husband's family with the best possible effect. On one occasion, after
+eating a hearty dinner, Meer Hadjee Shaah was attacked with cholera;
+rose-water was administered, with a small portion of the stone called zahur
+morah. In his agony, he complained of great thirst, when rose-water was
+again handed to him, and continued at intervals of half-an-hour during the
+day and part of the night. In the morning, the pain and symptoms had
+greatly subsided; he was, notwithstanding, restrained from taking any
+liquid or food for more than forty-eight hours, except occasionally a
+little rose-water; and when his Native doctors permitted him to receive
+nourishment, he was kept on very limited portions of arrow-root for
+several days together. At the end of about eight days (the fever having
+been entirely removed) chicken-broth was allowed, and at first without
+bread; solids, indeed, were only permitted when all fears of a relapse had
+ceased, and even then but partially for some time, fearing the
+consequences to the tender state of the bowels. Such persons as are
+abstemious and regard the quality of their daily food are most likely to
+recover from the attack of this awful scourge. Very young children are
+rarely amongst the sufferers by cholera; the adults of all classes are
+most subject to it in India; indeed, I do not find the aged or the
+youthful, either male or female, preponderate in the number attacked; but
+those who live luxuriously suffer most. Amongst the Natives, it is
+difficult to prevail on them to forego their usual meals, particularly
+amongst the lower orders: if they feel rather inconvenienced by heartburns
+or other indications of a disordered stomach, they cannot resist eating
+again and again at the appointed hours, after which strong symptoms of
+cholera usually commence. I never heard of one case occurring after a good
+night's rest, but invariably after eating, either in the morning or the
+evening.
+
+My remarks have drawn me from my subject, by explaining the supposed
+medicinal benefits of rose-water, which as a luxury is highly valued in
+India. It is frequently used by the Natives in preparing their sweet
+dishes, is added to their sherbet, sprinkled over favoured guests, used to
+cleanse the mouth-piece of the hookha, and to cool the face and hands in
+very hot weather. Although they abstain from the use of rose-water,
+externally and internally, when suffering from a cold,--they fancy
+smelling a rose will produce a cold, and I have often observed in India,
+that smelling a fresh rose induces sneezing,[3]--yet, at all other times,
+this article is in general use in respectable Mussulmaun families. Dried
+rose-leaves and cassia added to infusions of senna, is a family medicine
+in general request.
+
+The fresh rose-leaves are converted by a very simple process into a
+conserve, which is also used as a medicine; it is likewise an essential
+article, with other ingredients, in the preparation of tobacco for their
+luxurious hookha.
+
+A syrup is extracted from the fresh rose, suited admirably to the climate
+of India as an aperient medicine, pleasant to the taste and mild in its
+effects. A table-spoon full is considered a sufficient dose for adults.
+
+The seed of the rose is a powerful astringent, and often brought into use
+in cases of extreme weakness of the bowels. The green leaves are
+frequently applied pounded as a cold poultice to inflamed places with much
+the same effect as is produced in England from golard-water.[4]
+
+The oil or otta of roses is collected from the rose-water when first
+distilled. Persons intending to procure the otta, have the rose-water
+poured into dishes while warm from the still: this remains undisturbed
+twenty-four hours, when the oily substance is discovered on the surface as
+cream on milk; this is carefully taken off, bottled, the mouth closed with
+wax, and then exposed to the burning rays of the sun for several days. The
+rose-water is kept in thin white glass bottles, and placed in baskets for
+a fortnight, either on the roofs of houses or on a grass-plot; or wherever
+the sun by day and the dew by night may be calculated on, which act on the
+rose-water and induce that fragrant smell so peculiar to that of India.
+
+I have elsewhere remarked that the Native medical practice is strictly
+herbal; minerals are strongly objected to as pernicious in after
+consequences, although they may prove effectual in removing present
+inconvenience. Quicksilver[5] is sometimes resorted to by individuals, but
+without the sanction of their medical practitioners. They have no notion
+of the anatomy of the human body, beyond a few ideas suggested in the old
+Grecian school of medicine, in favour of which they are strongly
+prejudiced. They, however, are said to perform extraordinary cures by
+simple treatment, many cases of severe fever occurred under my own
+observation, which were removed, I really believe, by strict attention to
+diet, or rather starving the enemy from its strong hold, than by any of
+the medicines administered to the patients. If any one is attacked by
+fever, his medical adviser inquires the day and the hour it commenced, by
+which he is guided in prescribing for the patient. On the borehaun[6]
+(critical days) as the third, fifth, and seventh, after the fever
+commences, nothing could induce the medical doctor to let blood or
+administer active medicines; there only remains then for the patient to be
+debarred any kind of food or nourishment, and that duly observed, the
+fever is often thrown off without a single dose of medicine. By three or
+four days of most strict abstinence, and such simple nourishment as the
+thinnest gruel or barley water,--the latter made from the common field
+barley, very sparingly allowed, the patient is rendered convalescent.
+
+The Natives of India profess to have found an antidote to, and cure for,
+hydrophobia in the reetah[7] berry, described as a saponaceous nut. I have
+never seen a case of hydrophobia, but it is by no means uncommon, I
+understand. They always advise that the person bitten by a rabid animal,
+should have the limb promptly tied up with a bandage above and below the
+bite; the wound, as speedily as possible, to be seared with a red-hot iron,
+and a few doses of the reetah berry with a portion of soap administered.
+The berry is well known for its good property in cleansing and softening
+the hair, for which purpose it is generally found in the bathing-rooms
+both of the European and Native ladies.
+
+The Native remedy for snake bites, is called neellah tootee[8] (blue
+vitrol): if from eight to twelve grains be administered in ghee or butter
+immediately after the bite is received, the happiest results will follow.
+A person in our family was bitten by a snake, but neglected to apply for
+the remedy for more than half an hour after the accident, when his own
+expressions were, that 'he suffered great uneasiness in his body, and his
+faculties seemed darkened;' half a masha, about eight grains of blue stone,
+was now given in ghee. In a few hours he was apparently quite well again,
+and for several days he found no other inconvenience than a slight
+numbness in the hand which had been bitten by the snake.
+
+This person had occasion soon after to leave home, and had exerted himself
+unusually by walking, when he found the same symptoms of uneasiness return;
+he hurried to a house where he was known, and requested to be supplied
+with a certain quantity of blue stone without delay. He had sense enough
+remaining to explain for what purpose he required it, when the person
+applied to objected to furnish him with the poisonous article. The remedy,
+however, was ultimately procured, taken, and in a few hours he was
+recovered sufficiently to return home. He never found the symptoms return
+again to my recollection.
+
+The chitcherah[9] (inverted thorn), is a shrub common to India, which
+bears small grains not unlike rice; these seeds are poisonous in their
+natural state, but when properly prepared with a portion of
+urzeez[10]--(tin), it becomes a useful medicine; and in particular cases
+of scrofula, which have resisted all other remedies offered by the medical
+practitioners, the Natives tell me this has proved an effectual remedy;
+and my informant, a Native doctor, assures me that three doses, of three
+grains each, is all he finds necessary to give his patient in scrofula
+cases.
+
+The chitcherah in its green state is resorted to as a remedy for the sting
+of scorpions: when applied to the wound, which is often much inflamed and
+very painful, the cure is prompt. The scorpion runs from this shrub when
+held to it, as if it were frightened: many people declare scorpions are
+never met with in the grounds where the chitcherah grows.
+
+The neam-tree[11] is cultivated near the houses of Natives generally, in
+the Upper Provinces, because, as they affirm, it is very conducive to
+health, to breathe the air through the neam-trees. This tree is not very
+quick of growth, but reaches a good size. When it has attained its full
+height, the branches spread out as luxuriantly as the oak and supplies an
+agreeable shelter from the sun. The bark is rough; the leaves long, narrow,
+curved, pointed, and with saw teeth edges; both the wood and leaves
+partake of the same disagreeable bitter flavour. The green leaves are used
+medicinally as a remedy for biles; after being pounded they are mixed with
+water and taken as a draught; they are also esteemed efficacious as
+poultices and fomentations for tumours, &c. The young twigs are preferred
+by all classes of the Natives for tooth-brushes.
+
+The hurrundh,[12] or castor-tree, is cultivated by farmers in their
+corn-fields throughout Hindoostaun. This tree seldom exceeds in its growth
+the height of an English shrub. The bark is smooth; the leaf, in shape,
+resembles the sycamore, but of a darker green. The pods containing the
+seed grow in clusters like grapes, but of a very different appearance, the
+surface of each pod being rough, thorny, and of a dingy red cast when ripe.
+The seed produces the oil, which is in common use as a powerful medicine,
+for men and animals. In remote stations, where any difficulty exists in
+procuring cocoa-nut oil, the castor oil is often rendered useful for
+burning in lamps; the light, however, produced by it is very inferior to
+the oil of cocoa-nut. The green leaves are considered cooling to wounds or
+inflamed places, and therefore used with ointment after the
+blister-plaster is removed.
+
+As I have seen this tree growing in corn-fields, I may here remark that
+the farmer's motives for cultivating it originate in the idea that his
+crops are benefited by a near vicinity to the hurrundh. It is also very
+common to observe a good row of the plant called ulsee[13](linseed),
+bordering a plantation of wheat or barley: they fancy this herb preserves
+the blade healthy, and the corn from blight.
+
+The umultass[14] (cassia) is a large and handsome forest tree, producing
+that most useful drug in long dark pods, several inches long, which hang
+from the branches in all directions, giving a most extraordinary
+appearance to the tree. The seed is small and mixed with the pulp, which
+dissolves in water, and is in general use with the Natives as a powerful
+and active medicine in bilious cases. I am not, however, aware that the
+seed possesses any medicinal property: it certainly is not appropriated to
+such cases in Hindoostaun.
+
+Myrtle-trees,[15] under many different names, and of several kinds, are
+met with in India, of an immense size compared with those grown in Europe.
+They are cultivated for their known properties, rather than as mere
+ornaments to the garden. The leaves, boiled in water, are said to be of
+service to the hair; the root and branches are considered medicinal.
+
+The pomegranate-tree[16] may be ranked amongst the choicest beauties of
+Asiatic horticulture; and when its benefits are understood, no one wonders
+that a tree or two is to be seen in almost every garden and compound of
+the Mussulmaun population in India.
+
+The finest fruit of this sort is brought, however, from Persia and Cabul,
+at a great expense; and from the general estimation in which it is held,
+the merchants annually import the fruit in large quantities. There are two
+sorts, the sweet and the acid pomegranate, each possessing medicinal
+properties peculiar to itself. Sherbet is made from the juice, which is
+pressed out, and boiled up with sugar or honey to a syrup; thus prepared
+it keeps good for any length of time, and very few families omit making
+their yearly supply, as it constitutes a great luxury in health, and a
+real benefit in particular disorders. The Natives make many varieties of
+sherbet from the juices of their fruits, as the pine-apple, falsah,[17]
+mango, or any other of the same succulent nature, each having properties
+to recommend it beyond the mere pleasantness of its flavour.
+
+An admirer of Nature must be struck with the singular beauty of the
+pomegranate-tree, so commonly cultivated in India. The leaves are of a
+rich dark green, very glossy, and adorned at the same time with every
+variety of bud, bloom, and fruit, in the several stages of vegetation,
+from the first bud to the ripe fruit in rich luxuriance, and this in
+succession nearly throughout the year. The bright scarlet colour of the
+buds and blossoms seldom vary in their shades; but contrasted with the
+glossy dark green foliage, the effect excites wonder and admiration. There
+is a medicinal benefit to be derived from every part of this tree from its
+root upwards, each part possessing a distinct property, which is employed
+according to the Native knowledge and practice of medicine.
+
+Even the falling blossoms are carefully collected, and when made into a
+conserve, are administered successfully in cases of blood-spitting.
+
+The tamarind-tree may often be discovered sheltering the tomb of revered
+or sainted characters; but I am not aware of any particular veneration
+entertained towards this tree by the general population of India, beyond
+the benefit derived from the medicinal properties of the fruit and the
+leaves.[18]
+
+The ripe fruit, soaked in salt and water, to extract the juices, is
+strained, and administered as a useful aperient; and from its quality in
+cleansing the blood, many families prefer this fruit in their curries to
+other acids. From the tamarind-tree, preserves are made for the affluent,
+and chatnee for the poor, to season their coarse barley unleavened cakes,
+which form their daily meal, and with which they seem thoroughly contented.
+
+From what cause I know not, but it is generally understood that vegetation
+does not thrive in the vicinity of the tamarind-tree. Indeed, I have
+frequently heard the Natives account for the tamarind being so often
+planted apart from other trees, because they fancy vegetation is always
+retarded in their vicinity.
+
+The jahmun-tree[19] is also held in general estimation for the benefit of
+the fruit, which, when ripe, is eaten with salt, and esteemed a great
+luxury, and in every respect preferable to olives. The fruit, in its raw
+state, is a powerful astringent, and possesses many properties not
+generally known out of Native society, which may excuse my mentioning them
+here. The fruit, which is about the size and colour of the damson-plum,
+when ripe is very juicy, and makes an excellent wine, not inferior in
+quality to port. The Natives, however, are not permitted by their law to
+drink wine, and therefore this property in the fruit is of no benefit to
+them; but they encourage the practice of extracting the juice of jahmun
+for vinegar, which is believed to be the most powerful of all vegetable
+acids. The Native medical practitioners declare, that if by accident a
+hair has been introduced with food into the stomach, it can never digest
+of itself, and will produce both pain and nausea to the individual. On
+such occasions they administer jahmun vinegar, which has the property of
+dissolving any kind of hair, and the only thing they are aware of that
+will. Sherbet is made of this vinegar, and is often taken in water either
+immediately after dinner, or when digestion is tardy.
+
+The skin of the jahmun produces a permanent dye of a bright lilac colour,
+and with the addition of urzeez (tin), a rich violet. The effect on wool I
+have never tried, but on silks and muslins the most beautiful shades have
+been produced by the simplest process possible, and so permanent, that the
+colour resisted every attempt to remove it by washing, &c.[20]
+
+The mango-tree stands pre-eminently high in the estimation of the Natives,
+and this is not to be wondered at when the various benefits derived from
+it are brought under consideration. It is magnificent in its growth, and
+splendid in its foliage, and where a plantation of mango-trees, called 'a
+tope', is met with, that spot is preferred by travellers on which to pitch
+their tent. The season of blooming is about February and March; the
+aromatic scent from the flowers is delightful, and the beautiful
+clustering of the blossoms is not very unlike the horse-chestnut in
+appearance and size, but branching horizontally. The young mangoes are
+gathered for preserves and pickles before the stone is formed; the
+full-grown unripe fruit is peeled, split, and dried, for seasoning curries,
+&c. The ripe fruit spoken of in a former Letter requires no further
+commendation, neither will it admit of comparison with any European fruits.
+The kernels, when ripe, are often dried and ground into flour for bread in
+seasons of scarcity. The wood is useful as timber for doors, rafters, &c.,
+and the branches and leaves for fuel; in short, there is no part of the
+whole tree but is made useful in some way to man.
+
+The sherrefah[21] (custard-apple) is produced on a very graceful tree, not,
+however, of any great size; the blossom nearly resembles that of the
+orange in colour and shape; the fruit ripens in the hottest months, and is
+similar in flavour to well-made custards. The skin is of a dusky pea-green
+rough surface, in regular compartments; each division or part containing a
+glossy black seed covered with the custard. This seed is of some utility
+amongst the lower order of Natives who have occasion to rid themselves of
+vermin at the expense of little labour; the seed is pounded fine and when
+mixed in the hair destroys the living plague almost instantly. The same
+article is often used with a hair-pencil to remove a cataract of the eye
+(they have no idea of surgical operations on the eye). There is one thing
+worthy of remark in this tree and its fruit, that flies are never known to
+settle on either; ants of every description feed on the fruit without
+injury, so that it cannot be imagined there is anything poisonous to
+insects, generally, in the quality of the fruit; yet, certain it is, the
+sherrefah is equally obnoxious to flies as the seed is destructive to
+vermin. The leaves and tender twigs are considered detrimental to health,
+if not actually poisonous to cattle.
+
+The guaver,[23] white and red, are produced in the Upper Provinces; but
+the fruit is seldom so fine as in the Bengal district. The strong aromatic
+smell and flavour of this fruit is not agreeable to all tastes; in size
+and shape it resembles the quince.
+
+The Damascus fig ripens well, and the fruit is superior to any I have met
+with in other countries. The indigenous fig-tree of Hindoostaun is one of
+the objects of Hindoo veneration. It has always been described to me by
+those Natives, as the sacred burbut,[24]--why? they could not explain. The
+fruit is very inferior.
+
+The peach is cultivated in many varieties, and every new introduction
+repays the careful gardener's skill by a rich and beautiful produce. They
+have a flat peach,[24] with a small round kernel (a native of China), the
+flavour of which is delicious, and the tree prolific.
+
+I may here remark, that all those trees we are accustomed in Europe to
+designate wall-fruit, are in India pruned for standards. The only fruit
+allowed to trail on frames is the vine, of which they have many choice
+varieties; one in particular, of late introduction from Persia, has the
+remarkable peculiarity of being seedless, called 'Ba daanah'[25] (without
+seeds); the fruit is purple, round, and sweet as honey.
+
+Peach, nectarine, and apricot trees, are cut down early in February, much
+in the same way as willows are docked in England: the new wood grows
+rapidly, and the fruit is ready for the table in the month of June. A tree
+neglected to be pruned in this way annually, would the first year yield
+but little, and that indifferent fruit, the tree become unhealthy, and, in
+most cases, never again restored to its former vigour.
+
+Apple-trees are found chiefly in the gardens of Europeans; they are not
+perhaps as yet understood by Native gardeners, or it may be the climate is
+not favourable to them; certain it is, that the apples produced in
+Hindoostaun are not to be compared with those of other countries. Singular
+as it may seem, yet I have never met with more than one species of apple
+in my visits to the gardens of India. I have often fancied a fresh
+importation of English apple-trees would be worth the trouble of the
+transfer.[26]
+
+The apple-trees grow tall and slender, the blossoms break out on the top
+of each branch in a cluster; the fruit, when ripe, is about the size of
+small crabs, and shaped like golden-pippins, without any acidity, but the
+sweetness rather resembles turnips than the well-flavoured apple. In the
+bazaars are to be met with what is called apple-preserve, which, however,
+is often a deception,--turnips substituted for apples.
+
+Mulberries are indigenous, and of several varieties. The Native gardeners,
+however, take so little pains to assist or improve the operations of
+Nature, that the mulberry here is seldom so fine as in other countries.
+The common sort is produced on an immense tree with small leaves; the
+berry is long, and when ripe, of a yellow-green, very much resembling
+caterpillars in colour and form.
+
+Plum-trees would thrive in Hindoostaun if introduced and cultivated,[27]
+since the few, chiefly the bullace-plum, I have seen, produce tolerably
+good fruit.
+
+Cherries, I have never observed; they are known, however, by the name of
+'glass'[28] to the travelling Natives, who describe them as common to
+Cashmire, Cabul, and Persia.
+
+Gooseberries and currants are not known in India, but they have many good
+substitutes in the falsah, American sorrel, puppayah,[29] and a great
+variety of Chinese fruits--all of which make excellent tarts, preserves,
+and jellies. Strawberries and raspberries repay their cultivation in the
+Upper Provinces: they thrive well with proper care and attention.
+
+The melon I have described elsewhere as an indigenous fruit greatly valued
+by the Natives, who cultivate the plant in the open fields without much
+trouble, and with very little expense; the varieties are countless, and
+every year adds to the number amongst the curious, who pride themselves on
+novelty in this article of general estimation.
+
+The pine-apple requires very little pains to produce, and little demand on
+art in bringing it to perfection. The Bengal climate, however, suits it
+better than the dry soil of the Upper Provinces. I have frequently heard a
+superstitious objection urged by the Natives against this fruit being
+planted in their regular gardens; they fancy prosperity is checked by its
+introduction, or to use their own words,--'It is unfortunate to the
+proprietor of the garden.'
+
+There is a beautiful shrub, called by the Natives, mahdhaar, or
+arg,[30]--literally, fire-plant,--met with in the Upper Provinces of India,
+inhabiting every wild spot where the soil is sandy, as generally as the
+thistle on neglected grounds in England.
+
+The mahdhaar-plant seldom exceeds four feet in height, the branches spread
+out widely, the leaves are thick, round, and broad; the blossom resembles
+our dark auricula. When the seed is ripe, the pod presents a real treat to
+the lover of Nature. The mahdhaar pod may be designated a vegetable bag of
+pure white silk, about the size of large walnuts. The skin or bag being
+removed, flat seeds are discovered in layers over each other, resembling
+scales of fish; to each seed is affixed very fine white silk, about two
+inches long; this silk is defended from the air by the seed; the texture
+greatly resembles the silky hair of the Cashmire goat. I once had the
+mahdhaar silk collected, spun, and wove, merely as an experiment, which
+answered my full expectation: the article thus produced might readily be
+mistaken for the shawl stuff of Cashmire.[31]
+
+The stalks of mahdhaar, when broken, pour out a milky juice at all seasons
+of the year, which falling on the skin produces blisters. The Natives
+bring this juice into use both for medicine and alchymy in a variety of
+ways.
+
+The mahdhaar, as a remedy for asthma, is in great repute with the Natives;
+it is prepared in the following way:--The plants are collected, root,
+stalks, and leaves, and well dried by exposure to the sun; they are then
+burnt on iron plates, and the ashes thrown into a pan of water, where they
+remain for some days, until the water has imbibed the saline particles; it
+is then boiled in an iron vessel, until the moisture is entirely absorbed,
+and the salt only left at the bottom. The salt is administered in
+half-grain doses at the first, and increasing the quantity when the
+patient has become accustomed to its influence: it would be dangerous to
+add to the quantity suddenly.[32]
+
+Another efficient remedy, both for asthma and obstinate continuance of a
+cough, is found in the salt extracted from tobacco-leaves, by a similar
+process, which is administered with the like precaution, and in the same
+quantities.
+
+The sirrakee and sainturh[33] are two specimens of one genus of
+jungle-grass, the roots of which are called secundah,[34] or khus-khus,[35]
+and are collected on account of their aromatic smell, to form thatch
+tatties, or screens for the doors and windows; which being kept constantly
+watered, the strong wind rushing through the wet khus-khus is rendered
+agreeably cool, and produces a real luxury at the season of the hot winds,
+when every puff resembles a furnace-heat to those exposed to it by
+out-of-door occupation.
+
+This grass presents so many proofs of the beneficent care of Divine
+Providence to the creatures of His hand, that the heart must be
+ungratefully cold which neglects praise and thanksgiving to the Creator,
+whose power and mercy bestows so great a benefit. The same might be justly
+urged against our insensibility, if the meanest herb or weed could speak
+to our hearts, each possessing, as it surely does, in its nature a
+beneficial property peculiar to itself. But here the blessing is brought
+home to every considerate mind, since a substitute for this article does
+not appear to exist in India.
+
+I have seen the sainturh stalks, on which the bloom gracefully moves as
+feathers, sixteen feet high. The sirrakee has a more delicate blossom,
+finer stalk, and seldom, I believe, exceeds ten feet; the stalk resembles
+a reed, full of pith, without a single joint from the shoot upwards; the
+colour is that of clean wheat straw, but even more glossy. The blossom is
+of a silky nature possessing every variety of shade, from pure white to
+the rainbow's tints, as viewed in the distance at sunrise; and when
+plucked the separated blossoms have many varieties of hue from brown and
+yellow, to purple.
+
+The head or blossom is too light to weigh down the firm but flexible stalk;
+but as the wind presses against each patch of grass, it is moved in a mass,
+and returns to its erect position with a dignity and grace not to be
+described.
+
+I have watched for the approaching season of the blooming sirrakee with an
+anxiety almost childish; my attention never tired with observing the
+progressive advances from the first show of blossom, to the period of its
+arriving at full perfection; at which time, the rude sickle of the
+industrious labourer levels the majestic grass to the earth for domestic
+purposes. The benefits it then produces would take me very long to
+describe.
+
+The sirrakee and sainturh are stripped from the outward sheltering blades,
+and wove together at the ends; in this way they are used for bordering
+tatties, or thatched roofs; sometimes they are formed into screens for
+doors, others line their mud-huts with them. They are found useful in
+constructing accommodations after the manner of bulk-heads on boats for
+the river voyagers, and make a good covering for loaded waggons. For most
+of these purposes the article is well suited, as it resists moisture and
+swells as the wet falls on it, so that the heaviest rain may descend on a
+frame of sirrakee without one drop penetrating, if it be properly placed
+in a slanting position.
+
+I cannot afford space to enumerate here the variety of purposes which this
+production of Nature is both adapted for and appropriated to; every part
+of the grass being carefully stored by the thrifty husbandman, even to the
+tops of the reed, which, when the blossom is rubbed off, is rendered
+serviceable, and proves an excellent substitute for that useful invention,
+a birch-broom. The coarse parent grass, which shelters the sirrakee, is
+the only article yet found to answer the purposes for thatching the
+bungalows of the rich, the huts of the poor, the sheds for cattle, and
+roofs for boats. The religious devotee sets up a chupha-hut,[36] without
+expense,--(all the house he requires,)--on any waste spot of land most
+convenient to himself, away from the busy haunts of the tumultuous world,
+since bamboo and grass are the common property of all who choose to take
+the trouble of gathering it from the wilderness. And here neither rent or
+taxes are levied on the inhabitant, who thus appropriates to himself a
+home from the bounteous provision prepared by Divine goodness for the
+children of Nature.
+
+This grass is spontaneous in its growth, neither receiving or requiring
+aid from human cultivation. It is found in every waste throughout
+Hindoostaun, and is the prominent feature of the jungle, into which the
+wild animals usually resort for shelter from the heat of the day, or make
+their covert when pursued by man, their natural enemy.
+
+The beneficence of Heaven has also exacted but little labour from the
+husbandman of India in procuring his daily provision. Indeed the actual
+wants of the lower order of Natives are few, compared with those of the
+same class in England; exertion has not, therefore, been called forth by
+necessity in a climate which induces habits of indulgence, ease, and quiet;
+where, however it may have surprised me at first, that I found not one
+single Native disposed to delight in the neat ordering of a flower-garden,
+I have since ascertained it is from their unwillingness to labour without
+a stronger motive than the mere gratification of taste.[37] Hence the
+uncultivated ground surrounding the cottages in India, which must
+naturally strike the mind of strangers with mingled feelings of pity and
+regret, when comparing the cottages of the English peasantry with those of
+the same classes of people in Hindoostaun.
+
+The bamboo presents to the admirer of Nature no common specimen of her
+beautiful productions; and to the contemplating mind a wide field for
+wonder, praise, and gratitude. The graceful movements of a whole forest of
+these slender trees surpass all description; they must be witnessed in
+their uncultivated ground, as I have seen them, to be thoroughly
+understood or appreciated, for I do not recollect wood scenery in any
+other place that could convey the idea of a forest of bamboo.
+
+The bamboos are seen in clusters, striking from the parent root by suckers,
+perhaps from fifty to a hundred in a patch, of all sizes; the tallest in
+many instances exceed sixty feet, with slender branches, and leaves in
+pairs, which are long, narrow, and pointed. The body of each bamboo is
+hollow and jointed, in a similar way to wheat stalks, with bands or knots,
+by which wonderful contrivance both are rendered strong and flexible,
+suited to the several designs of creative Wisdom. The bamboo imperceptibly
+tapers from the earth upwards. It is the variety of sizes in each cluster,
+however, which gives grace and beauty to the whole as they move with every
+breath of air, or are swayed by the strong wind.
+
+Where space allows the experiment, the tallest bamboo may be brought down
+to a level with the earth, without snapping asunder. In the strong tempest
+the supple bamboo may be seen to bow submissively,--as the self-subdued
+and pliant mind in affliction,--and again rear its head uninjured by the
+storm, as the righteous man 'preserved by faith' revives after each trial,
+or temptation.
+
+The wood of the bamboo is hard, yet light, and possesses a fine grain,
+though fibrous. The outward surface is smooth and highly polished by
+Nature, and the knot very difficult to penetrate by any other means than a
+saw. The twigs or branches are covered with sharp thorns, in all
+probability a natural provision to defend the young trees from herbaceous
+animals. I have heard of the bamboo blossoming when arrived at full age;
+this I have, however, never seen, and cannot therefore presume to
+describe.[38]
+
+In the hollow divisions of the bamboo is found, in small quantities, a
+pure white tasteless substance, called tawurshear,[39] which as a medicine
+is in great request with the Native doctors, who administer it as a
+sovereign remedy for lowness of spirits, and every disease of the heart,
+such as palpitations, &c. The tawurshear when used medicinally is pounded
+fine, and mixed up with gold and silver leaf, preserved quinces and apples,
+and the syrup of pomegranates, which is simmered over a slow fire until it
+becomes of the consistence of jam. It is taken before meals by the patient.
+
+The bamboo is rendered serviceable to man in a countless variety of ways,
+both for use and ornament. The chuphas (thatched-roofs) of huts, cottages,
+or bungalows, are all constructed on frames of bamboo, to which each layer
+of grass is firmly fixed by laths formed of the same wood.
+
+The only doors in poor people's habitations are contrived from the same
+materials as the roof: viz., grass on bamboo frames, just sufficient to
+secure privacy and defend the inmates from cold air, or the nightly
+incursions of wolves and jackals. For the warm weather, screens are
+invented of split bamboos, either fine or coarse, as circumstances permit,
+to answer the purpose of doors, both for the rich and poor, whenever the
+house is so situated that these intruders may be anticipated at night.
+
+The bamboo is made useful also in the kitchen as bellows by the aid of the
+cook's breath; in the stable, to administer medicine to horses; and to the
+poor traveller, as a deposit for his oil, either for cooking or his lamp.
+To the boatman as sculls, masts, yards, and poles; besides affording him a
+covering to his boat, which could not be constructed with any other wood
+equally answering the same varied purpose of durability and lightness.
+
+The carriers (generally of the bearer caste), by the help of a split
+bamboo over the shoulder, convey heavy loads suspended by cords at each
+end, from one part of India to the other, many hundred miles distant. No
+other wood could answer this purpose so well; the bamboo being remarkably
+light and of a very pliant nature lessens the fatigue to the bearer,
+whilst almost any wood sufficiently strong to bear the packages would fret
+the man's shoulder and add burden to burden. The bearers do not like to
+carry more than twelve seer (twenty-four pounds) slung by ropes at each
+end of their bamboo for any great distance; but, I fear, they are not
+always allowed the privilege of thinking for themselves in these matters.
+
+When a hackery[40] (sort of waggon) is about to be loaded with of corn or
+goods, a railing is formed by means of bamboos to admit the luggage; thus
+rendering the waggon itself much lighter than if built of solid wood, an
+object of some moment, when considering the smallness of the cattle used
+for draught, oxen of a small breed being in general use for waggons, carts,
+ploughs, &c. I have never seen horses harnessed to any vehicle in India,
+except to such gentlemen's carriages as are built on the English principle.
+
+The Native carriages of ladies and travellers are indebted to the bamboo
+for all the wood used in the construction of the body, which is merely a
+frame covered with cloth, shaped in several different ways,--some square,
+others double cones, &c.
+
+Baskets of every shape and size, coarse or fine, are made of the split
+bamboo; covers for dinner trays, on which the food is sent from the
+kitchen to the hall; cheese-presses, punkahs, and screens, ingeniously
+contrived in great varieties; netting-needles and pins, latches and bolts
+for doors; skewers and spits; umbrella sticks, and walking canes; toys in
+countless ways, and frames for needle-work.
+
+A long line of etceteras might here be added as to the number of good
+purposes to which the bamboo is adapted and appropriated in Native economy;
+I must not omit that even the writing-paper on which I first practised the
+Persian character was manufactured from the bamboo, which is esteemed more
+durable, but not so smooth as their paper made from cotton. The young
+shoots of bamboo are both pickled and preserved by the Natives, and
+esteemed a great luxury when produced at meals with savoury pillaus, &c.
+
+I am told, a whole forest of bamboo has sometimes been consumed by fire,
+ignited by their own friction in a heavy storm, and the blaze fanned by
+the opposing wind; the devouring element, under such circumstances, could
+be stayed only when there ceased to be a tree to feed the flame.
+
+
+[1] The Indian rose-water is made principally from _Rosa damascena_ about
+    Ghazipur in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It has no
+    medicinal value, but is used as a vehicle for other mixtures (Watt,
+    _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part i. 560 ff.).
+
+[2] _Bibi Sahiba_. 'On the principle of the degradation of titles
+    which is general, this word in application to European ladies has been
+    superseded  by the hybrid _Mem Sahib_ or Madam Sahib, though it
+    is often applied to European maid-servants or other Englishwomen of
+    that rank of life' (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 78).
+
+[3] It is one of the flowers which produce pollen catarrh. Pope's
+    suggestion that a man with a hypersensitive nervous system might 'die
+    of a rose in aromatic pain', is not an impossible contingency.
+
+[4] Goulard water, named after Thomas Goulard, a French surgeon: a
+    solution of sub-acetate of lead, used as a lotion in cases of
+    inflammation (_New English Dictionary, s.v._).
+
+[5] P. 235.
+
+[6] Not in Platts' _Hindustani Dictionary_: probably _barhan_,
+    increasing.
+
+[7] _Ritha_, the berry of the soap-nut tree, _Sapindus trifoliatus_
+    or _mukorossi_. (Watt, _Economic Dict_., vol. vi, part ii, 468.)
+
+[8] _Nila tutiya_, copper sulphate: used as an emetic in cases
+    of poisoning, but not now recognized as a remedy for snake-bite.
+
+[9] _Chichra, Achryanthes aspera_ (Watt, i. 81).
+
+[10] _Arziz_.
+
+[11] _Nim, Melia Azadirachta_. The belief that it is a prophylactic
+    against fever and cholera is held even by some Europeans
+    (Watt, v. 217).
+
+[12] _Arand, Ricinus communis_.
+
+[13]  Alsi, _Linum usitatissimum._
+
+[14] _Amaltas, Cassia fistula_. The pulp of the fruit and the root-bark
+    form the most useful domestic medicine, a simple purgative.
+
+[15] _Myrtus communis_.
+
+[16] _Punica Granatum_. The best varieties of the fruit come from
+    Afghanistan and Persia.
+
+[17] _Phalsa, falsa, Grewia asiatica_.
+
+[18] The shade of the tree is supposed to be unhealthy to men, animals,
+    and plants, as it is believed to be haunted by spirits, and it is
+    worshipped on a day known as 'Tamarind Eleventh'.
+
+[19] See p. 194.
+
+[20] Watt, however, writes: 'Tin is a highly important metal in dyeing as
+    practised in Europe, but in this respect is apparently unknown to the
+    natives of India.' (Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, vol. vi, part iv, 60.)
+
+[21] _Sharifa, Anona squamosa_.
+
+[22] Guava.
+
+[23] _Bargat_, the banyan-tree.
+
+[24] _Pyrus persica_.
+
+[25] _Be-danah._
+
+[26] Excellent apples are now grown on the lower Himalayas.
+
+[27] _Prunus communis_ grows in the lower Himalayas and as far down as
+    Saharanpur, but the fruit is inferior.
+
+[28] The sweet or wild cherry, _Prunus avium_, is called _gilas_ in the
+    Hills.
+
+[29] _Papaiya_, the papau tree, _Carica papaya_, has the curious
+    property of making meat tender, if placed near it.
+
+[30] _Madar, ak._ The latter term is derived from Sanskrit _arka_,
+    'the sun', on account of the fiery colour of its flowers.
+
+[31] The plant yields a silk cotton from the seeds and a rich white bass
+    fibre from the bark, both likely to be of commercial value (Watt, ii.
+    38 ff.)
+
+[32] Used in equal proportions with black pepper, the fresh blossoms are a
+    useful and cheap remedy for asthma, hysteria, and epilepsy (_ibid_. ii.
+    44 ff).
+
+[33] _Sirki_ is the upper portion of the blossoming stem, and
+    _sentha_ the lower portion of the reed grass _Saccharum ciliare_
+    (_ibid_. vi, part ii, 2.)
+
+[34] _Sarkanda_ is the Panjab name for the grass _Saccharum
+    arundinaceum_, but it is also applied to _Saccharum ciliare_ in last
+    note (_ibid_. vi, part ii, 1 f.).
+
+[35] _Khaskhas_, used for screens, is the root of the grass _Andropogon
+    muricatus_ (_ibid_. i, 245 ff.)
+
+[36] _Chhappar_.
+
+[37] This is true of the higher class Musalmans; but there were
+    splendid gardens in the palaces of the Moghul Emperors: see C.M.
+    Villiers Stuart, _The Gardens of the Great Mughals_, 1913.
+
+[38] The subject of the flowering of the bamboo has been investigated by
+    Sir G. Watt, who writes: 'A bamboo may not flower before it has
+    attained a certain age, but its blossoming is not fixed so arbitrarily
+    that it cannot be retarded or accelerated by climatic influences. It
+    is an undoubted fact that the flowering of the bamboo is decided by
+    causes which bring about famine, for the providential supply of food
+    from this source has saved the lives of thousands of persons during
+    several of the great famines of India.' Hence the provision of the
+    edible seeds by the extension of bamboo cultivation has been
+    recommended as a means of mitigating distress (_Economic Dictionary_,
+    vol. i, 373 ff., 386).
+
+[39] _Tabashir_, bamboo manna, is a siliceous substance found in the
+    joints of the bamboo: considered cooling, toxic, aphrodisiac and
+    pectoral, but as a medicinal agent it is inert (_ibid_. i. 384, Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 887).
+
+[40] A bullock carriage, Hindustani _chhakra_ (Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 407 f.).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXII
+
+  Monkeys.--Hindoo opinions of their Nature.--Instances of their
+  sagacity.--Rooted animosity of the Monkey tribe to the
+  snake.--Cruelty to each other when maimed.--The female remarkable for
+  affection to its young.--Anecdotes descriptive of the belief of the
+  Natives in the Monkey being endowed with reason.--The Monkeys and the
+  Alligator.--The Traveller and the Monkeys.--The Hindoo and the
+  Monkey.
+
+
+The Natives of India, more particularly the Hindoos, are accustomed to pay
+particular attention to the habits of the varied monkey race, conceiving
+them to be connecting links in the order of Nature between brutes and
+rational creatures; or, as some imagine and assert, (without any other
+foundation than conjecture and fancy), that they were originally a race of
+human beings, who for their wicked deeds have been doomed to perpetuate
+their disgrace and punishment to the end of time in the form and manner we
+see them, inhabiting forests, and separated from their superior man.
+
+I have had very few opportunities of acquainting myself with the general
+principles of the Hindoo belief, but I am told, there are amongst them
+those who assert that one of their deities was transformed to a particular
+kind of monkey, since designated Hummoomaun,[1] after the object of their
+adoration; whence arises the marked veneration paid by Hindoos of certain
+sects to this class of monkeys.
+
+The Natives firmly believe the whole monkey race to be gifted with reason
+to a certain extent, never accounting for the sagacity and cunning they
+are known to possess by instinctive habits; arguing from their own
+observations, that the monkeys are peaceable neighbours, or inveterate
+enemies to man, in proportion as their good will is cultivated by kindness
+and hospitality, or their propensity to revenge roused by an opposite line
+of conduct towards them.
+
+The husbandman, whose land is in the vicinity of a forest, and the abode
+of monkeys, secures safety to his crops, by planting a patch of ground
+with that species of grain which these animals are known to prefer. Here
+they assemble, as appetite calls, and feast themselves upon their own
+allotment; and, as if they appreciated the hospitality of the landlord,
+not a blade is broken, or a seed destroyed in the fields of corn to the
+right and left of their plantation. But woe to the farmer who neglects
+this provision; his fields will not only be visited by the marauders, but
+their vengeance will be displayed in the wasteful destruction of his
+cultivation. This undoubtedly looks more like reason than instinct; and if
+credit could be given to half the extraordinary tales that are told of
+them, the monkeys of India might justly be entitled to a higher claim than
+that of instinct for their actions.
+
+Monkeys seem to be aware that snakes are their natural enemies. They never
+advance in pursuit of, yet they rarely run from a snake; unless its size
+renders it too formidable an object for their strength and courage to
+attack with anything like a prospect of success in destroying it. So great
+is the animosity of the monkey race to these reptiles, that they attack
+them systematically, after the following manner:--
+
+When a snake is observed by a monkey, he depends on his remarkable agility
+as a safeguard from the enemy. At the most favourable opportunity he
+seizes the reptile just below the head with a firm grasp, then springs to
+a tree, if available, or to any hard substance near at hand, on which he
+rubs the snake's head with all his strength until life is extinct; at
+intervals smelling the fresh blood as it oozes from the wounds of his
+victim. When success has crowned his labour, the monkey capers about his
+prostrate enemy, as if in triumph at the victory he has won; developing,
+as the Natives say, in this, a striking resemblance to man.
+
+Very few monkeys, in their wild state, ever recover from inflicted wounds;
+the reason assigned by those who have studied their usual habits is, that
+whenever a poor monkey has been wounded, even in the most trifling way,
+his associates visit him by turns, when each visitor, without a single
+exception, is observed to scratch the wound smartly with their nails. A
+wound left to itself might be expected to heal in a short time, but thus
+irritated by a successive application of their sharp nails, it inflames
+and increases. Mortification is early induced by the heated atmosphere,
+and death rapidly follows.
+
+The monkeys' motives for adding to their neighbour's anguish, is accounted
+for by some speculators on the score of their aversion to the unnatural
+smell of blood; or they are supposed to be actuated by a natural
+abhorrence to the appearance of the wound, not by any means against the
+wounded; since in their domestic habits, they are considered to be
+peaceable and affectionate in their bearings towards each other. The
+strong will exercise mastery over the weak where food is scarce, but, in a
+general way, they are by no means quarrelsome or revengeful amongst
+themselves. They are known to hold by each other in defending rights and
+privileges, if the accounts given by credible Natives be true, who add
+that a whole colony of monkeys have been known to issue forth in a body to
+revenge an injury sustained by an individual of their tribe; often firing
+a whole village of chupha-roofs, where the aggressor is known to be a
+resident, who in his anger may have maimed or chastised one of their
+colony.
+
+The female monkey is remarkable for her attachment to her progeny, which
+she suckles until it is able to procure food for its own sustenance. When
+one of her young dies, the mother is observed to keep it closely encircled
+in her arms, moaning piteously with true maternal feelings of regret, and
+never parting with it from her embrace until the dead body becomes an
+offensive mass: and when at last she quits her hold, she lays it on the
+ground before her, at no great distance, watching with intense anxiety the
+dead body before her, which she can no longer fold in her embrace, until
+the work of decomposing has altered the form of the creature that claimed
+her tender attachment. What an example is here given to unnatural mothers
+who neglect or forsake their offspring!
+
+I shall here insert a few anecdotes illustrative of the opinions of the
+Natives on the subject of monkeys being possessed of reasoning faculties.
+They shall be given exactly as I have received them, not expecting my
+readers will give to them more credit than I am disposed to yield to most
+of these tales; but as they are really believed to be true by the Natives
+who relate them, I feel bound to afford them a place in my work, which is
+intended rather to describe men as they are, than men as I wish to see
+them.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Muttra is an immense jungle or forest, where
+monkeys abound in great numbers and variety. Near a village bordering this
+forest, is a large natural lake which is said to abound with every sort of
+fish and alligators. On the banks of this lake are many trees, some of
+which branch out a great distance over the water. On these trees monkeys
+of a large description, called Lungoor,[2] gambol from spray to spray in
+happy amusement: sometimes they crowd in numbers on one branch, by which
+means their weight nearly brings the end of the bough to the surface of
+the water; on which occasion it is by no means unusual for one or more of
+their number to be lessened.
+
+Whether the monkeys told their thoughts or not, my informant did not say,
+but the retailers of this story assert, that the oldest monkey was aware
+that his missing brethren had been seized by an alligator from the branch
+of the tree, whilst they were enjoying their amusement. This old monkey,
+it would seem, resolved on revenging the injury done to his tribe, and
+formed a plan for retaliating on the common enemy of his race.
+
+The monkeys were observed by the villagers, for many successive days,
+actively occupied in collecting the fibrous bark of certain trees, which
+they were converting into a thick rope. The novelty of this employment
+surprised the peasants and induced them to watch daily for the result.
+When the rope was completed, from sixty to seventy of the strongest
+monkeys conveyed it to the tree: having formed a noose at one end with the
+nicest care, the other end was secured by them to the overhanging arm of
+the tree. This ready, they commenced their former gambols, jumping about
+and crowding on the same branch which had been so fatal to many of their
+brethren.
+
+The alligator, unconscious of the stratagem thus prepared to secure him,
+sprang from the water as the branch descended but instead of catching the
+monkey he expected, he was himself caught in the noose; and the monkeys
+moving away rather precipitately, the alligator was drawn considerably
+above the surface of the water. The more he struggled the firmer he was
+held by the noose; and here was his skeleton to be seen many years after,
+suspended from the tree over the water, until time and the changes of
+season released the blanched bones from their exalted situation, to
+consign them to their more natural element in the lake below.
+
+On one occasion, a Hindoo traveller on his way to Muttra, from his place
+of residence, drew down the resentment of the monkeys inhabiting the same
+forest, by his inattention to their well-known habits. The story is told
+as follows:--
+
+'The man was travelling with all his worldly wealth about his person: viz.,
+fifty gold mohurs, (each nearly equal to two pounds in value[3]), and a
+few rupees, the savings of many a year's hard service, which were secreted
+in the folds of his turban; a good suit of clothes on his back; a few gold
+ornaments on his neck and arms; and a bundle of sundries and cooking
+vessels.
+
+'The Hindoo was on foot, without companions, making his way towards the
+home of his forefathers, where he hoped with his little treasury to be
+able to spend his remaining years in peace with his family and friends,
+after many years' toil and absence from his home. He stopped near to the
+lake in question, after a long and fatiguing march, to rest himself
+beneath the shade of the trees, and cook his humble meal of bread and
+dhall. I ought here, perhaps, to say, that this class of Natives always
+cook in the open air, and, if possible, near a river, or large body of
+water, for the purpose of bathing before meals, and having water for
+purifying their cooking utensils, &c.
+
+'The man having undressed himself, and carefully piled his wardrobe
+beneath the tree he had selected for shelter, went to the lake and bathed;
+after which he prepared his bread, and sat himself down to dine. As soon
+as he was comfortably seated, several large monkeys advanced and squatted
+themselves at a respectful distance from him, doubtless expecting to share
+in the good things he was enjoying. But, no: the traveller was either too
+hungry or inhospitable, for he finished his meal, without tendering the
+smallest portion to his uninvited visitors, who kept their station
+watching every mouthful until he had finished.
+
+'The meal concluded, the traveller gathered his cooking vessels together
+and went to the bank of the lake, in order to wash them, as is customary,
+and to cleanse his mouth after eating; his clothes and valuables were left
+securely under the tree as he imagined,--if he thought at all about
+them,--for he never dreamed of having offended the monkeys by eating all
+he had cooked, without making them partakers. He was no sooner gone,
+however, than the monkeys assembled round his valuables; each took
+something from the collection; the oldest among them having secured the
+purse of gold, away they ran to the tree over the very spot where the man
+was engaged in polishing his brass vessels.
+
+The Hindoo had soon completed his business at the lake, and unconscious of
+their movements, he had returned to the tree, where to his surprise and
+sorrow, he discovered his loss. Nearly frantic, the Hindoo doubted not
+some sly thief had watched his motions and removed his treasures, when he
+heard certain horrid yells from the monkeys which attracted his attention:
+he returned hastily to the lake, and on looking up to the tree, he
+discovered his enemies in the monkeys. They tantalized him for some time
+by holding up the several articles to his view, and when the old monkey
+shook the bag of gold, the poor man was in an agony; they then threw the
+whole into the lake, the coins, one by one, were cast into the deep water,
+where not a shadow of hope could be entertained of their restoration, as
+the lake was deep and known to be infested with alligators.
+
+'The man was almost driven mad by this unlooked-for calamity, by which he
+was deprived of the many comforts his nursed treasure had so fairly
+promised him for the remainder of life. He could devise no plan for
+recovering his lost valuables, and resolved on hastening to the nearest
+village, there to seek advice and assistance from his fellow-men; where
+having related his unfortunate adventures, and declaring he had done
+nothing to anger the creatures, he was asked if he had dined, and if so,
+had he given them a share? He said, he had indeed cooked his dinner, and
+observed the monkeys seated before him whilst he dined, but he did not
+offer them any.
+
+'"That, that, is your offence!" cried the villagers in a breath; "who
+would ever think of eating without sharing his meal with men or with
+animals? You are punished for your greediness, friend."--"Be it so," said
+the traveller; "I am severely used by the brutes, and am now resolved on
+punishing them effectually in return for the ill they have done me."
+
+'He accordingly sold the gold ornaments from his arms and neck, purchased
+a quantity of sugar, ghee, flour, and arsenic, returned to his old
+quarters, prepared everything for cooking, and, in a short time, had a
+large dish filled with rich-looking cakes, to tempt his enemies to their
+own ruin.
+
+'The feast was prepared in the presence of the assembled multitude of
+monkeys. The Hindoo placed the dish before his guests, saying, "There, my
+lords! your food is ready!" The old monkey advanced towards the dish, took
+up a cake, raised it to his nose, and then returning it to the dish,
+immediately ran off, followed by the whole of his associates into the
+thick jungle.
+
+'The man began to despair, and thought himself the most unlucky creature
+existing; when, at length, he saw them returning with augmented numbers;
+he watched them narrowly, and observed each monkey had a green leaf in his
+paw, in which he folded a cake and devoured the whole speedily. The man
+expected of course to see them sicken immediately, for the quantity of
+arsenic he had used was sufficient, he imagined to have killed twenty
+times their number. But, no: his stratagem entirely failed; for the leaf
+they had provided themselves was an antidote to the poison put into their
+food. The traveller thus sacrificed even that little which would have
+carried him on his journey, had he been satisfied with his first loss; but
+the Hindoo cherished a revengeful disposition, and thereby was obliged to
+beg his way to his family.'
+
+The next monkey story is equally marvellous, the Natives believe that it
+actually occurred; I am disposed, however, to think all these stories were
+originally fables to impress a moral upon the ignorant.
+
+'Near a small town in the province of Oude there is a jungle of some
+extent, inhabited by monkeys. A certain man of the Hindoo class, residing
+in the town, resolved upon enjoying himself one day with a bottle of
+arrack he had procured by stealth, and since it is well known that spirits
+or fermented liquors are prohibited articles in the territories governed
+by Mussulmaun rulers, the man betook himself with his treat to the
+neighbouring jungle, where in private he might drink the spirit he loved,
+and escape the vigilance of the police.
+
+'Arriving at a convenient spot, the Hindoo seated himself under a tree,
+prepared his hookha, drew from his wrapper the bottle of spirits, and a
+small cup he had provided; and if ever he knew what happiness was in his
+life, this moment was surely his happiest.
+
+'He drank a cup of his liquor, smoked his hookha with increased relish,
+and thought of nothing but his present enjoyment. Presently he heard the
+sound of rustling in the trees, and in a few minutes after, a fine sturdy
+monkey, of the Lungoor tribe, placed himself very near to him and his
+bottle.
+
+'The Hindoo was of a lively temper, and withal kindly disposed towards the
+living, though not of his own species. Having a cake of dry bread in his
+waistband, he broke off a piece and threw it to his visitor; the monkey
+took the bread and sniffed at the cup. "Perhaps you may like to taste as
+well as to smell," thought the Hindoo, as he poured out the liquor into
+the cup, and presented it to his guest.
+
+'The monkey raised the cup with both paws to his mouth, sipped of its
+contents, winked his eyes, appeared well satisfied with the flavour, and
+to the surprise of the Hindoo, finished the cup, which was no sooner done,
+than away he sprang up the tree again.
+
+'"Had I known you would run away so soon, my guest, I should have spared
+my arrack;" thought the Hindoo. But the monkey quickly returned to his old
+position, threw down a gold mohur to his entertainer, and sat grinning
+with apparent satisfaction. The Hindoo, astonished at the sight of gold,
+thought to repay his benefactor by another cup of spirits, which he placed
+before the monkey, who drank it off, and again mounted the tree, and
+shortly returned with a second gold mohur.
+
+'Delighted with the profit his arrack produced, the Hindoo drank sparingly
+himself, for each time the monkey took a cup, a gold mohur was produced,
+until the man counted eight of these valuable coins on his palm. By this
+time, however, the monkey was completely overcome by the strength of his
+potations, and lay apparently senseless before the Hindoo, who fancied now
+was his turn to mount the tree, where he found, on diligent search, in a
+hollow place, a small bag of gold mohurs, with which he walked off,
+leaving the monkey prostrate on the earth.
+
+'The Hindoo determined on going some distance from his home, in a
+different direction, fearing his secret treasure might be the means of
+drawing him into difficulties amongst the people of his own town, who had
+probably been robbed by the monkey at some previous period.
+
+'In the meanwhile the monkey is supposed to have recovered from his stupor,
+and the next morning on discovering his loss, he set up a horrid yell,
+which brought together all his fellow-inhabitants of the jungle; and some
+neighbouring villagers saw an immense number of monkeys of all sorts and
+sizes, collected together in a body. The story runs that this army of
+monkeys was headed by the one who had recovered from his drunken fit, and
+that they marched away from the jungle in pursuit of the robber.
+
+'Their first march was to the adjacent village, where every house was
+visited in turn by the monkeys, without success; no one ever venturing to
+obstruct or drive away the intruders, fearing their resentment. After
+which they sallied out of the village to the main road, minutely looking
+for footsteps, as a clue, on the sandy pathway; and by this means
+discovering the track of the Hindoo, they pursued the road they had
+entered throughout the day and night. Early in the morning of the
+following day, the monkeys advanced to the serai (inn, or halting place
+for travellers) soon after the Hindoo himself had quitted it, who had
+actually sojourned there the previous night.
+
+'On the road, when the horde of monkeys met any traveller, he was detained
+by them until the chief of them had scrutinized his features, and he was
+then liberated on finding he was not the person they were in pursuit of.
+After having marched nearly forty miles from their home, they entered one
+of the halting places for travellers, where the Hindoo was resting after
+his day's journey.
+
+'The monkey having recognized the robber, immediately grasped him by the
+arm, and others entering, the frightened robber was searched, the purse
+discovered in his wrapper, which the chief monkey angrily seized, and then
+counted over its contents, piece by piece. This done, finding the number
+correct, the monkey selected eight pieces, and threw them towards the
+Hindoo; and distributing the remaining number of gold mohurs amongst the
+monkeys, who placed each his coin in the hollow of his cheek, the whole
+body retired from the serai to retrace their steps to the jungle.'
+
+
+[1] Hanuman, the divine monkey of the Ramayana epic, who helped
+    Rama to recover his abducted wife, Sita.
+
+[2] _Langur, Semnopithecus entellus_.
+
+[3] Now worth a little more than a sovereign.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXIII
+
+  The Soofies.--Opinion of the Mussulmauns concerning Solomon.--The
+  Ood-ood.--Description of the Soofies and their sect.--Regarded with
+  great reverence.--Their protracted fasts.--Their opinion esteemed by
+  the Natives.--Instance of the truth of their predictions.--The Saalik
+  and Majoob Soofies.--The poets Haafiz and Saadie.--Character and
+  attainments of Saadie.--His 'Goolistaun'.--Anecdotes descriptive of
+  the origin of that work.--Farther remarks on the character and
+  history of Saadie.--Interesting anecdotes illustrative of his virtues
+  and the distinguishing characteristics of the Soofies.
+
+
+The life of King Solomon, with all his acts, is the subject of many an
+author's pen, both in the Arabic and Persian languages; consequently the
+learned Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun are intimately acquainted with his
+virtues, his talent, and the favour with which he was visited by the great
+goodness of the Almighty. In the course of my sojourn amongst them, I have
+heard many remarkable and some interesting anecdotes relating to Solomon,
+which the learned men assure me are drawn from sources of unquestionable
+authority.
+
+They affirm that the wisdom of Solomon not only enabled him to search into
+the most hidden thoughts of men, and to hold converse with them in their
+respective languages, but that the gift extended even to the whole brute
+creation; by which means he could hold unlimited converse, not only with
+the animate, as birds, beasts, and fish, but with inanimate objects, as
+shrubs, trees, and, indeed, the whole tribe of vegetable nature; and,
+further, that he was permitted to discern and control aerial spirits, as
+demons, genii, &c.
+
+The pretty bird, known in India by the name of Ood-ood,[1] is much
+regarded by the Mussulmauns, as by their tradition this bird was the
+hurkaarah of King Solomon; and entrusted with his most important
+commissions whenever he required intelligence to be conveyed to or from a
+far distant place, because he could place greater confidence in the
+veracity of this bird, and rely on more certain dispatch, than when
+entrusting his commands to the most worthy of his men servants.
+
+The ood-ood is beautifully formed, has a variegated plumage of black,
+yellow, and white, with a high tuft of feathers on its head, through which
+is a spear of long feathers protruding directly across the head for
+several inches, and is of the woodpecker species. The princes, Nuwaubs,
+and nobility of Hindoostaun, keep hurkaarahs for the purpose of conveying
+and obtaining intelligence, who are distinguished by a short spear, with a
+tuft of silk or worsted about the middle of the handle, and the tail of
+the ood-ood in the front of their turban, to remind them of this bird,
+which they are expected to imitate both in dispatch and fidelity. I am
+told, these men (from their early training) are enabled to run from fifty
+to sixty miles bare-footed, and return the same distance without halting
+on the same day.
+
+The religious devotees of the Mussulmaun persuasion, who are denominated
+Soofies,[1] are conjectured, by many, to have a similar gift with Solomon
+of understanding the thoughts of other men. By some it is imagined that
+Solomon was the first Soofie; by others, that Ali, the husband of Fatima,
+imparted the knowledge of that mystery which constitutes the real Soofie.
+I am acquainted with some Natives who designate the Soofies 'Freemasons'
+but I imagine this to be rather on account of both possessing a secret,
+than for any similarity in other respects, between the two orders of
+people.
+
+My business, however, is to describe. The Soofies then are, as far as I
+can comprehend, strictly religious men, who have forsaken entirely all
+attachment to earthly things, in their adoration of the one supreme God.
+They are sometimes found dwelling in the midst of a populous city, yet,
+even there they are wholly detached from the world, in heart, soul, and
+mind, exercising themselves in constant adoration of, and application to
+God; occasionally shutting themselves up for several weeks together in a
+hut of mud, thatched with coarse grass, with scarce sufficient provision
+to support the smallest living animal, and water barely enough to moisten
+their parched lips during the weeks thus devoted to solitary retirement
+and prayer.
+
+When these recluses can no longer support their self-inflicted privation,
+they open the door of their hut, a signal anxiously watched for by such
+persons as have a desire to meet the eye of the holy man, of whom they
+would inquire on some (to them) interesting matter; probably regarding
+their future prospects in the world, the cause of the ill-health and
+prospects of recovery of a diseased member of their family, or any like
+subject of interest to the inquirer.
+
+The Soofie, I am told, does not approve of being thus teased by the
+importunities of the thronging crowd, who beset his threshold the instant
+his door is heard to open. Being weak in body, after the fatigue of a
+protracted fast of weeks together, his replies to the questions (preferred
+always with remarkable humility) are brief and prompt; and the Natives
+assure me dependence may always be placed on the good Soofie's reply being
+strictly the words of truth. On this account, even if the oracle's reply
+disappoint the hopes of the questioner, he retires without a murmur, for
+then he knows the worst of his calamity, and if God orders it so, he must
+not complain, because Infinite Wisdom cannot err, and the holy man will
+assuredly speak the truth.
+
+The practice so long prevailing in Europe of visiting the cunning man, to
+have the hidden mysteries of fate solved, occurred to my recollection when
+I first heard of this custom in India.
+
+'Will my son return from his travels during my lifetime?'--was the inquiry
+of a truly religious man, whom I knew very intimately, to one of the
+professed Soofie class, on his emerging from his hut. The reply was as
+follows:--'Go home!--be happy;--comfort your heart;--he is coming!' By a
+singular coincidence it happened, that the following day's daak produced a
+letter, announcing to him that his son was on his way returning to his
+home and his father, who had for some years despaired of ever again seeing
+his son in this life.
+
+It is needless to say, that the veneration shown to this Soofie was much
+increased by the singular coincidence, because the person who consulted
+him was a man of remarkable probity, and not given to indulge in idle
+conversations with the worldly-minded of that city.
+
+There are many men in this country, I am told, who make Soofieism their
+profession, but who are in reality hypocrites to the world, and their
+Maker: actuated sometimes by the love of applause from the multitude, but
+oftener, I am assured, by mercenary motives. A Soofie enjoying public
+favour may, if he choose, command any man's wealth who gives credit to his
+supposed power. All men pay a marked deference to his holy character, and
+few would have the temerity to withhold the desired sum, however
+inconvenient to bestow, should the demand be made by one professing to be
+a Soofie.
+
+The real Soofie is, however, a very different character, and an object of
+deserved veneration, if only for the virtue of perfect content with which
+his humble mind is endued: respect cannot be withheld by the reflecting
+part of the world, when contemplating a fellow-creature (even of a
+different faith) whose life is passed in sincere devotion to God, and
+strictly conforming to the faith he has embraced. My Native friends inform
+me,--and many reprobate the notion,--that the Soofies believe they resolve
+into the Divine essence when their souls are purified from the animal
+propensities of this life by severe privations, fervent and continual
+prayer, watchings, resisting temptations, and profound meditation in
+solitude. When they have acquired the perfection they aim at, and are
+really and truly the perfect Soofie, they rarely quit the hut they have
+first selected for their retirement, and into which no one ever attempts
+to intrude, without the Soofie commands it. He enjoys the universal
+respect and veneration of all classes of people; he has no worldly rewards
+to bestow, yet there are servants always ready to do him any kindness,
+amongst the number of his admirers who flock to catch but a glimpse of the
+holy man, and fancy themselves better when but the light of his
+countenance has beamed upon them. Proudly pre-eminent, in his own eyes, is
+the one amongst the multitude who may be so far honoured as to be allowed
+to place a platter of food before the Soofie, when the imperative demands
+of Nature prevail over his self-inflicted abstinence.
+
+Some Soofies shut themselves in their hut for a few days, and others for
+weeks together, without seeing or being seen by a human being. Their
+general clothing is simply a wrapper of calico, and their only furniture a
+coarse mat. They are said to be alike insensible to heat or cold, so
+entirely are their hearts weaned from the indulgence of earthly comforts.
+
+I must explain, however, that there are two classes of the professedly
+devout Soofies, viz. the Saalik, and the Majoob.[3] The true Saalik
+Soofies are those who give up the world and its allurements, abstain from
+all sensual enjoyments, rarely associate with their fellow-men, devote
+themselves entirely to their Creator, and are insensible to any other
+enjoyments but such as they derive from their devotional exercises.
+
+The Majoob Soofies have no established home nor earthly possessions; they
+drink wine and spirits freely, when they can obtain them. Many people
+suppose this class have lost the possession of their reason, and make
+excuse for their departure from the law on that score. Both classes are
+nevertheless in great respect, because the latter are not deemed guilty of
+breaking the law, since they are supposed to be insensible of their
+actions whilst indulging in the forbidden juice of the grape.
+
+Haafiz,[4] the celebrated poet of Persia, it is related, was a Soofie of
+the Majoob class, he lived without a thought of providing for future
+exigencies, accepted the offerings of food from his neighbour, drank wine
+freely when offered to him, and slept under any shed or hovel he met with,
+as contented as if he was in the palace of a king.
+
+Saadie,[5] the Persian poet, was, during the latter years of his life, a
+Saalik Soofie of the most perfect kind. Many of the inspirations of his
+pen, however, were written in that part of his life which was devoted to
+the world and its enjoyments; yet most of these indicate purity of thought
+in a remarkable degree. Saadie's life was subject to the most
+extraordinary vicissitudes; he possessed an independent mind, scorning
+every allurement of wealth which might tend to shackle his principles. He
+is said to have repeatedly rejected offers of patronage and pecuniary
+assistance from many noblemen, whilst he still loved the world's
+enticements, declaring he never could submit to confine himself to
+attendance on an earthly master for any lengthened period. His wit,
+pleasing deportment, and polite manners, together with the amiable
+qualities of his heart, rendered him a general favourite, and they who
+could boast most intimacy with Saadie were the most honoured by the world;
+for, though but the poor Saadie, he shed a lustre over the assemblies of
+the great and noble in birth or station, by his brilliant mind.
+
+The 'Goolistaun'[6] of Saadie has been so often eulogized, as to render it
+unnecessary for me to add a single word in commendation of its style and
+morality; but I will here take leave to insert an anecdote translated for
+me by my husband, in allusion to the incident which prompted Saadie to
+write that work, under the title of 'Goolistaun' (Garden of Roses). I will
+also here remark, that in the principal cities of Persia, the Mussulmauns
+of that age were not equally rigid in their observance of the law
+interdicting the use of fermented liquors, as are those of the present day
+in Hindoostaun. Many young men among the higher orders indulged freely in
+the 'life-inspiring draught', as they were wont to call the juice of the
+grape.
+
+'Shiraaz was the abode and the presumptive birth-place of Saadie. In his
+early years he was led by a love of society to depart from the rigid
+customs of his forefathers, and with the wild youth of his acquaintance to
+indulge freely in nightly potations of the forbidden juice of the grape.
+He had long delighted his friends and favourites by sharing in their
+nocturnal revels, and adding by his wit and pleasantry to the mirthful
+moments as they flew by unheeded.
+
+'At a particular season of the year, a convivial party were accustomed to
+assemble in a garden of roses, from midnight to the rising sun, to indulge
+in the luxury of wine during that refreshing season; as to receive the
+first scent from the opening roses as they expand with the dawn of the
+morning, constituted a delight, proverbially intoxicating, amongst the
+sons of Persia. Saadie composed many airs for the occasion, and gifted by
+Nature with a voice equalled only by his wit, he sang them with a melody
+so sweet as to render him almost the idol of his companions.
+
+'At one of these seasons of enjoyment, the festival was prepared by his
+circle of friends as usual, but Saadie delayed his visit. The whole party
+were lost in surprise and regret at an absence as unexpected as deplored.
+Some time was passed in fruitless conjecture on the cause of his delay,
+and at last it was agreed that a deputation from his well-beloved
+associates should go in quest of their favourite. They accordingly went,
+and knocked at the door of his room, which they found was securely
+fastened within. The poet inquired "Who is it that disturbs my repose, at
+this hour, when all good subjects of the King should be at rest?"--"Why,
+Saadie, Saadie!" they replied, "it is your friends and associates, your
+favourites!--have you forgotten our enjoyments and this season of bliss?
+Come, come, open the door, Saadie! away with us! our revels await your
+presence. Nothing gives enjoyment to our party until you add your smiles
+to our mirth."
+
+'"Let me alone," replied Saadie; "enjoy your pastime, if such it be to ye;
+but for me, I am heartily ashamed of my late wanton pursuits. I have
+resolved on mending my ways, whilst yet I have time; and be ye also wise,
+my friends; follow Saadie's example. Go home to your beds, and forsake the
+sinful habits of the world!"
+
+'"Why Saadie, what aileth thee! art thou mad?--or has the study of
+philosophy drawn thee from thy former self, whilst yet thine hairs are jet
+with youth? These reflections of thine will suit us till far better when
+time hath frosted our beards. Come, come, Saadie, away with us! let not
+the precious moments escape in this unprofitable converse. You must come,
+Saadie; our hearts will break without you!"
+
+'"Nay, nay," responded Saadie, "my conscience smites me that I have erred
+too long. It suits not my present temper to join in your mirth."--"Open
+the door to us at any rate," sounded from the many voices without; "speak
+to us face to face, our dear and well-beloved friend! let us have
+admission, and we will argue the subject coolly."--Saadie's good-nature
+could not resist the appeal, the door was unbarred, and the young men
+entered in a body.
+
+'"We have all wickedly broken the law of the faithful," said Saadie to his
+guests; and he tried to reason with his unreasonable favourites, who, on
+their part, used raillery, bantering, argument, and every power of speech,
+to turn Saadie from his steady purpose of now fulfilling the law he had
+wilfully violated. They effected nothing in moving him from his purpose,
+until one of the young men, to whom Saadie was much attached, spoke
+tenderly to him of the affection both himself and friends entertained for
+him, adding, "It is written in our law, that if a Mussulmaun be guilty of
+any sin, however great, (and all kinds of sin are therein enumerated), and
+he afterwards sincerely repents before God, with fasting and prayer, his
+sins shall be forgiven. Now you, Saadie, who are deeply versed in the way
+of wisdom, and better acquainted with the words of the Khoraun than any
+other man on earth, tell me, is there in that holy book a promise made of
+forgiveness for that man who breaks the hearts of his fellow-creatures?
+With us there are many hearts so devotedly attached to you, that must
+assuredly burst the bonds of life by your complete and sudden desertion of
+them, so that not one sin but many shall be hurled by their deaths on your
+conscience, to be atoned for how you may."
+
+'Saadie loved them all too dearly to resist their persevering proofs of
+affection, and he suffered himself, after a little more argument, to be
+led forth to the scene of their revels, where, however, he argued strongly
+on the impropriety of their habits and refused to be tempted by the
+alluring wine. He then promised to prepare for them a never-fading garden
+of roses which should last with the world; every leaf of which, if plucked
+with attention, should create a greater and more lasting bliss about their
+hearts than the best wine of Shiraaz, or the most refined aromatic had
+hitherto conveyed to their sensual appetites.'
+
+After the evening in question, Saadie abstained from all participation in
+the revels of his friends, and devoted his hours to retirement that he
+might accomplish the 'Goolistaun' he had pledged himself to cultivate for
+their more substantial benefit and perpetual enjoyment. The simplicity,
+elegance, purity of style, and moral precepts conveyed in this work, prove
+the author to have been worthy the respect with which his name has been
+reverenced through all ages, and to this day, by the virtuously disposed
+his work is read with unabated interest.
+
+Saadie did not remain very long at Shiraaz after his conversion, nor did
+he settle any where for any long period. The Persian writers assert that
+he disliked the importunities of the world, which, sensible of his merits
+as a poet and companion, constantly urged him to associate with them. He,
+therefore, lived a wandering life for many years, carefully concealing his
+name, which had then become so celebrated by his writings, that even
+beyond the boundaries of Persia his fame was known.
+
+As his manner of life was simple, his wants were few; he depended solely
+on the care of Divine Providence for his daily meal, avoiding every thing
+like laying by from to-day's produce for the morrow's sustenance. He
+considered that provision alone acceptable, which the bounty of Divine
+Providence daily provided for his need, by disposing the hearts of others
+to tender a suitable supply. In fact, he is said to have been of opinion
+that the store laid up by men for future exigencies lessened the
+delightful feeling of dependance on the bounty of God, who faileth not,
+day by day, to provide for the birds and beasts of the forest with equal
+care as for the prince on his throne; he would say, 'I shall be tempted to
+forget from whom my bread is received, if I have coins in my purse to
+purchase from the vender. Sweet is the daily bread granted to my prayers
+and dependance on the sole Giver of all good!'
+
+To illustrate the necessity of perfect content, he relates, in his
+writings, the following interesting anecdote:--'I was once travelling on
+foot, where the roads were rugged, my shoes worn out, and my feet cut by
+the stones. I was desirous of pursuing my journey quickly, and secretly
+mourned that my feet pained me, and that my shoes were now rendered
+useless; often wishing, as I stepped with caution, that I possessed the
+means of replenishing these articles so useful to a traveller.
+
+'With these feelings of dissatisfaction, I approached the spot where a
+poor beggar was seated, who, by some calamity, had been deprived of both
+his feet. I viewed this sad object with much commiseration, for he was
+dependant on the kindness of his fellow-beggars to convey him daily to
+that public spot, where the passing traveller, seeing his misery, might be
+induced to bestow upon him a few coins to provide for his subsistence.
+"Alas! alas!" said I, "how have I suffered my mind to be disturbed because
+my feet pained me, and were shoeless. Ungrateful being that I am! rather
+ought I to rejoice with an humble heart, that my gracious Benefactor hath
+granted me the blessing of feet, and sound health. Never let me again
+murmur or repine for the absence of a luxury, whilst my real wants are
+amply supplied."'
+
+One of my objects in detailing the anecdotes of Saadie in this place, is
+to give a more correct idea of the Soofie character of that particular
+class called Saalik, to which he ultimately belonged.
+
+The next translation from the life of Saadie will show how beautifully his
+well-tempered spirit soared above those difficulties which the common mind
+would have sunk under. His fame, his superior manners, were of that rare
+kind, that distance from his birth-place could be no obstacle to his
+making friends, if he chose to disclose his name in any city of Asia.
+
+I have no dates to guide me in placing the several anecdotes in their
+proper order; this, however, will be excused, as I do not pretend to give
+his history.
+
+'On one occasion, Saadie was journeying on foot, and being overtaken by
+the Arabs, (who, or a party of, it may be presumed, were at war with
+Persia), he was taken prisoner, and conveyed by them, with many others, to
+Aleppo. The prisoners, as they arrived, were all devoted to the public
+works (fortifying the city), and obliged to labour according to their
+ability.
+
+'Saadie, unused to any branch of mechanical labour, could only be employed
+in conveying mortar to the more scientific workmen. For many months he
+laboured in this way, degrading as the employment was, without a murmur,
+or a desire that his fate had been otherways ordained. Hundreds of men
+then living in Aleppo would have been proud of the honour and the good
+name they must have acquired from the world, by delivering the Poet from
+his thraldom, had they known he was amongst them, a slave to the Arabs;
+for Saadie was revered as a saint by those who had either read his works,
+or heard of his name, extolled as it was for his virtues. But Saadie
+placed his trust in God alone, and his confidence never for an instant
+forsook him; he kept his name concealed from all around him, laboured as
+commanded, and was contented.
+
+'Many months of degrading servitude had passed by, when one day, it so
+happened that a rich Jew merchant, who had formerly lived at Shiraaz, and
+there had been honoured by the regard of the idolized Saadie, visited
+Aleppo, on his mercantile concerns. Curiosity led him to survey the
+improvements going on in the city; and passing the spot where Saadie was
+then presenting his load of mortar to the mason, he thought he recognized
+the Poet, yet deemed it impossible that he should be engaged in so
+degrading an employment, who was the object of universal veneration in
+Persia. Still the likeness to his former friend was so striking, that he
+felt no trifling degree of pleasure, whilst contemplating those features
+whose resemblance recalled the image of that holy man who was so dear to
+him, and brought back to his recollection many delightful hours of
+friendly converse, which at Shiraaz had cheated time of its weight, and
+left impressions on his heart to profit by during life.
+
+'"I will talk with this man," thought the Jew; "surely he must be related
+to my friend; the face, the form, the graceful manner, and even in that
+rude garb and occupation, he so strongly resembles my friend, that I
+cannot doubt he must be of the same kindred."
+
+'Drawing near to Saadie, the Jew accosted him with, "Who are you,
+friend,--and whence do you come?" Saadie's voice dispelled every doubt of
+the Jew, their eyes met, and in a few seconds they were clasped in each
+other's warm embrace, the Jew lamenting, in terms of warm sympathy, the
+degradation of the immortalized poet, and sainted man; whilst he in turn
+checked his friend's murmurings, by expressing his conviction that the
+wisdom of God knew best how to lead his confiding servants to himself,
+declaring his present occupation did not render him discontented.
+
+'The Jew went without delay to the superintendant of the public works, and
+inquired the sum he would be willing to receive in lieu of the labourer
+whom he desired to purchase, carefully avoiding the name of Saadie lest
+the ransom should be proportioned to the real value of such a slave. The
+man agreed to take one hundred and ten pieces of silver (each in value
+half a dollar). The sum was promptly paid, and the Jew received an order
+to take away his purchase when and wherever he pleased. He lost no time in
+possessing himself of his treasured friend, conveyed him to the city,
+where he clothed him in apparel better suited to his friend, and on the
+same day Saadie accompanied the benevolent Israelite to his country
+residence, some miles distant from the city of Aleppo.
+
+'Arrived here, Saadie enjoyed uninterrupted peace of mind for a long
+season, his heart bounding with gratitude to God, who had, he felt assured,
+worked out his deliverance from slavery and its consequences; and as may
+be supposed from such a heart, Saadie was truly sensible of the benevolent
+Jew's kindness, with whom he was constrained to remain a considerable time,
+for the Jew indeed loved him as a brother, and always grieved at the bare
+probability that they might ever again be separated; and desiring to
+secure his continuance with him during their joint lives, he proposed that
+Saadie should accept his only daughter in marriage with a handsome dowry.
+
+'Saadie resisted his friend's offer for some time, using arguments which,
+instead of altering his friend's purpose, only strengthened the desire to
+secure this amiable man as the husband of his daughter. Saadie assured him
+he was sensible of the offence his friend might give to the opinions of
+his people, by the proposal of uniting his daughter to a man of another
+faith, and that their prejudices would bring innumerable evils on his good
+name by such an alliance. "No," said Saadie, "I cannot consent to such a
+measure. I have already been a great trouble to you, if not a burden; let
+me depart, for I cannot consent to draw down on the head of my friend the
+censures of his tribe, and, perhaps, in after-time, disappointments. I
+have, indeed, no desire to marry; my heart and mind are otherways engaged."
+
+'The friends often discussed the subject ere Saadie gave way to the
+earnest solicitations of the Jew, to whose happiness the grateful heart of
+Saadie was about to be sacrificed when he reluctantly consented to become
+the husband of the young Jewess. The marriage ceremony was performed
+according to the Jewish rites, when Saadie was overpowered with the
+caresses and munificence of his friend and father-in-law.
+
+'A very short season of domestic peace resulted to him from the alliance.
+The young lady had been spoiled by the over-indulgence of her doating
+parent, her errors of temper and mind having never been corrected. Proud,
+vindictive, and arrogant, she played the part of tyrant to her meek and
+faultless husband. She strove to rouse his temper by taunts, revilings,
+and indignities that required more than mortal nature to withstand
+replying to, or bear with composure.
+
+'Still Saadie went on suffering in silence; although the trials he had to
+endure undermined his health, he never allowed her father to know the
+misery he had entailed on himself by this compliance with his well-meant
+wishes; nor was the secret cause of his altered appearance suspected by
+the kind-hearted Jew, until by common report his daughter's base behaviour
+was disclosed to the wretched father, who grieved for the misfortunes he
+had innocently prepared for the friend of his heart.
+
+'Saadie, it is said, entreated the good Jew to allow of a divorce from the
+Jewess, which, however, was not agreed to; and when his sufferings had so
+increased that his tranquillity was destroyed, fearing the loss of reason
+would follow, he fled from Aleppo in disguise and retraced his steps to
+Shiraaz, where in solitude his peace of mind was again restored, for there
+he could converse with his merciful Creator and Protector uninterrupted by
+the strife of tongues.'
+
+
+[1] _Hudhud_, the lapwing, hoopoe. In the Koran (xxvii. 20, with Sale's
+    note) the bird is described as carrying a letter from Solomon to the
+    Queen of Sheba. On another occasion, when Solomon was lost in the
+    desert, he sent it to procure for him water for ablution.
+
+[2] The term _sufi_, derived from _suf_, 'wool', in allusion to
+    the garments worn by them, was applied in the second century of Islam
+    to men or women who adopted the ascetic or quietistic way of life. See
+    Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 608 ff.: D.B. Macdonald, _The
+    Development of Muslim Theology_, 1903: E.G. Browne, _A Year Amongst
+    the Persians_, 1893.
+
+[3] If a Sufi becomes, by devotion, attracted to God, he is called
+    _Salik-i-majzub_, 'an attracted devotee': if he practises
+    complete devotion, but is not influenced by the special attraction of
+    God, he is called _Salik_, 'a devotee' (Hughes, _Dictionary of
+    Islam_, 612: Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 197).
+
+[4] See p. 255.
+
+[5] See p. 255.
+
+[6] Gulistan.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXIV
+
+  The Soofies continued.--Eloy Bauxh.--Assembly of Saalik
+  Soofies.--Singular exhibition of their zeal.--Mystery of Soofeism.--The
+  terms Soofie and Durweish explained.--Anecdote of Shah Sherif.--Shah
+  Jee and the Paltaan.--Dialogue on death between Shah Jee and his
+  wife.--Exemplary life of his grandson.--Anecdote of a Mussulmaun
+  lady.--Reflections on modern Hindoos.--Anecdotes of Shah ood Dowlah
+  and Meer Nizaam...Page 348
+
+
+My last Letter introduced the Soofies to your notice, the present shall
+convey a further account of some of these remarkable characters who have
+obtained so great celebrity among the Mussulmauns of India, as to form the
+subjects of daily conversation. I have heard some rigid Mussulmauns
+declare they discredit the mysterious knowledge a Soofie is said to
+possess, yet the same persons confess themselves staggered by the singular
+circumstances attending the practice of Soofies living in their vicinity,
+which they have either witnessed or heard related by men whose veracity
+they cannot doubt; amongst the number I may quote an intimate acquaintance
+of my husband's, a very venerable Syaad of Lucknow, who relates an
+anecdote of Saalik Soofies, which I will here introduce.
+
+'Meer Eloy Bauxh,[1] a Mussulmaun of distinguished piety, who has devoted
+a long life to the service of God, and in doing good to his fellow-men,
+tells me, that being curious to witness the effect of an assembly of
+Saalik Soofies, he went with a party of friends, all equally disposed with
+himself to be amused by the eccentricities of the Soofies, whose practice
+they ridiculed as at least absurd,--to speak in no harsher terms of their
+pretended supernatural gifts.
+
+'This assembly consisted of more than a hundred persons, who by agreement
+met at a large hall in the city of Lucknow, for the purpose of
+"remembering the period of absence", as they term the death of a highly
+revered Soofie of their particular class. The room being large, and free
+admittance allowed to all persons choosing to attend the assembly, Meer
+Eloy Bauxh and his party entered, and seated themselves in a convenient
+place for the more strict scrutiny of the passing-scene.
+
+'The service for the occasion began with a solemn strain by the musical
+performers, when one of the inspired Soofies commenced singing in a voice
+of remarkable melody. The subject was a hymn of praise to the great
+Creator, most impressively composed in the Persian language. Whilst the
+Soofie was singing, one of the elders in particular,--though all seemed
+sensibly affected by the strain,--rose from his seat, in what the Soofies
+themselves call, "the condition changed," which signifies, by what I could
+learn, a religious ecstasy. This person joined in the same melody which
+the other Soofie had begun, and at the same time accompanied the music by
+capering and sobbing in the wildest manner imaginable. His example had the
+effect of exciting all the Soofies on whom his eyes were cast to rise also
+and join him in the hymn and dance.
+
+'The singularity of this scene seemed, to Meer Eloy Bauxh and his party,
+so ludicrous that they could not refrain from laughing in an audible
+manner, which attracted the attention of the principal Soofie engaged in
+the dance, who cast his eyes upon the merry party, not, however,
+apparently in anger. Strange as he confesses it to be,--and even now it
+seems more like a dream than a reality,--at the moment he met the eye of
+the Soofie, there was an instant glow of pure happiness on his heart, a
+sensation of fervent love to God, which he had never before felt, in his
+most devout moments of prayer and praise; his companions were similarly
+affected, their eyes filled with tears, their very souls seemed elevated
+from earth to heaven in the rapture of their songs of adoration, which
+burst forth from their lips in unison with the whole Soofie assemblage.
+
+'Before they had finished their song of praise, which lasted a
+considerable time, the chief of the Soofie party sunk exhausted on the
+carpet, whilst the extraordinary display of devotion continued in full
+force on the whole assembly, whether Soofies or mere visitors, for many
+minutes after the principal devotee had fallen to the floor. Water was
+then procured, and animation gradually returned to the poor exhausted
+devotee, but with considerable delay. Meer Eloy Bauxh says he waited until
+the Soofie was perfectly restored to sense, and saw him taken to his place
+of abode; he then returned to his own home to meditate on the events of a
+day he never can forget.'
+
+Soofeism, it appears, (by the accounts I have received,) is a mystery; the
+secret of which can only be imparted by the professor to such persons as
+have been prepared for its reception, by a course of religious instruction.
+No one can be initiated into the mystery who has not first renounced all
+worldly vanities and ambitious projects--who is not sincerely repentant of
+past offences--who has not acquired perfect humility of heart, and an
+entire resignation to the Divine Will--a lively faith in God, and a firm
+determination to love and serve Him, from a conviction, 'That God alone is
+worthy to be served, loved, and worshipped by His creatures.' Thus
+prepared, the person is to receive instruction from a Calipha, (head or
+leader of the Soofies), who directs the pupil in certain exercises of the
+heart, which constitute the secrets of their profession. What these
+exercises are, I am not competent to give an opinion, but judging by the
+way a real Soofie conducts himself, it may be presumed his practices are
+purely religious; for I am assured that he is devoted to all good ways;
+that he carefully avoids worldly vanities, and every species of temptation
+and alluring gratification of the senses; that he is incessant in prayer,
+and in fasting severe; free from all prejudice, as regards the belief or
+persuasion of other men, so long as they worship God alone; regarding all
+mankind as brothers, himself the humblest of the race; claiming no merit
+for the ascendancy he has acquired over earthly wishes, he gives glory
+alone to God, whom he loves and worships.
+
+All the Durweish are of the Mussulmaun persuasion. Many are devout
+Durweish, who are, nevertheless, unacquainted with the mystery of Soofeism;
+and, to use their own words, (by which the Natives distinguish them),
+'Every real Soofie is undoubtedly a Durweish, but all Durweishes are not
+Soofies,' although their lives may be devoted much in the same holy way,
+both in the practice of religion and abstinence from worldly enjoyments;
+and if the writers on these subjects may be believed, many wonderful cures
+have been effected by the prayers of the devout Durweish.
+
+There are some pretenders, I am told, who put themselves forth to the
+world in the character of a Durweish, who are not, in fact, entitled to
+the appellation,--hypocritical devotees, who wear the outward garb of
+humility, without the feeling of that inward virtue which is the
+characteristic principle of the true Durweish. The distinction between the
+real and the pretended Durweish, may be illustrated by the following
+anecdote which I have received from the mouth of Meer Hadjee Shaah:--
+
+'In the last century,' he says, 'there lived at or near Delhi, a very
+pure-minded Durweish, named Shah Sherif ood deen Mah-mood,[2] (he was
+known in his latter years by several of my aged acquaintance at Lucknow,
+and his son and grandson both lived, at different periods, in that city).
+This person forsook the world whilst in the prime of manhood, and devoted
+himself to prayer, fasting, and good deeds. He was esteemed the most
+humble-minded of human beings, and his devotion to his Maker sincere and
+ardent. His principal abode was Delhi, where his wife and children also
+resided, to whom he was tenderly attached; yet so tempered were his
+affections, that he never allowed any earthly endearments to interfere
+with his devotions, or to separate him from his love to his Creator.
+
+'It was announced by the Soofies and Durweish, that on a certain day a
+festival or assembly of holy men would meet for the service of God, at the
+Jummah musjud[3] (Friday mosque), situated in the city of Delhi.
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen was disposed to attend the meeting, which consisted
+of the heads or superiors of several classes of the religious, with their
+disciples and followers. At this meeting, as was expected, were assembled
+the Soofies, Durweish, and religious mendicants of all ranks and
+conditions, from those clothed in gold-cloth and brocade, down to the
+almost naked Faakeer;[4] and amongst the latter number may be classed the
+humble-minded Shah Sherif ood deen. A small wrapper girt about his loins
+by a girdle of black wool spun into small ropes, and a similar article
+wound round his head, with a coarse white sheet over his shoulders for his
+summer apparel; and a black blanket to shelter his naked limbs from the
+cold winter, formed his sole wardrobe.
+
+'This holy man took his station in the most humble spot of the assembly,
+"sitting amongst the shoes" of the more esteemed or more aspiring
+personages. As there was nothing remarkable in his appearance, he remained
+unobserved, or unnoticed by the multitude present. Many of the assembly
+made great display of their right to pre-eminence, by the costliness of
+their robes, the splendour of their equipage, and the number of their
+servants; striving to command respect, if possible, by their superior
+external habiliments.
+
+'This meeting had been convened to celebrate the death of one of their
+order, which had occurred some years prior. After prayers had been read,
+suited to the occasion, a poor man, whose very appearance might excite
+compassion, addressed the heads of the devotees with folded hands,
+beseeching them, who were accounted so truly holy in their lives, to offer
+up a prayer for him who had so long suffered severe affliction, by reason
+of his neck and face being drawn awry, from a paralytic attack, or some
+like calamity. The sufferer said, "I am a poor merchant, and have a large
+family dependant altogether on my personal exertions for support; but,
+alas! this illness prevents me from attending to the business of life. I
+am wasting both in body and in substance through this grievous affliction."
+
+'The sick man's address was heard by the whole assembly in silence; many
+present, both Soofies and Durweish, were really pious men, and were
+willing to allow the person who seemed to be the head of this assembly, to
+intercede in behalf of the sufferer. To him they all looked, expecting he
+would commence a prayer in which they might join; but he, it is suspected,
+conscious of his own duplicity in assuming only the character of a Soofie
+without the virtues, was anxious to dismiss the supplicant, with a promise
+that prayer should certainly be made for him in private, adding, "This is
+not a proper season for your application; it is disrespectful to disturb
+our meeting with your requests; we came not here to listen to your
+importunities, but on more important, business."
+
+'"True, my Lord," answered the afflicted man; "I am sensible of all you
+say; but, I do assure you, private prayer has been tried for my relief by
+many individuals of your holy profession, and I have still to mourn my
+calamity. I thought when so many holy persons were assembled together, the
+united prayer--in accordance with our Prophet's commands--offered up at
+this time, would certainly be received at the throne of Mercy. I entreat
+then, at the hands of this venerable assembly, the aid I require."
+
+'The pretended Soofie looked haughtily on the sick man, and bade him
+retire to his home; he should have a prayer offered, he might depend, but
+it must be in private. The sufferer was still importunate, and urged every
+argument he could command, to induce the inexorable Soofie to allow the
+present assembly to offer a prayer on the spot for his recovery; but
+nothing he could urge availed with the proud Soofie, who at length grew
+angry even to the use of bitter words.
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen observed in silence the scene before him; at length
+he ventured (in the most respectful terms) to suggest to the heads of the
+assembly the propriety of vouchsafing the poor man's request; and hinted
+that, the prayer of some one more pure of heart than the rest might
+effectually reach the throne of Mercy in behalf of the supplicant.
+
+'"And pray," said the leader, rising haughtily, "who gave you leave to
+suggest or recommend to your superiors in knowledge and virtue? Is not our
+determination sufficient, that you, insignificant being! should presume to
+teach us what we ought to do?--you can know nothing of the Durweish's
+powerful prayers, nor the mystery of a Soofie's holy calling."
+
+'"I am, indeed, a very ignorant and unworthy creature," replied Shah
+Sherif, "and acknowledge my great presumption in daring to speak before so
+many of my superiors in knowledge and virtue; but we are told in our
+hudeeths (true speech) that the prayers of many hearts may prevail in a
+good cause, whilst singly offered the same prayer might fail," The proud
+Soofie's anger seemed to increase as the Durweish spoke; he bade him keep
+silence, and reviled him with many bitter words, which the good Shah
+received with his usual humility and forbearance. At length, the Shah
+looked attentively at the Soofie, who had thus rebuked and insulted him,
+and said, "I will believe, Sir, you are the Soofie you aspire to be
+thought among your fellow-men, if you will immediately offer up your
+single prayer, by which the suffering man may be relieved; for we know
+such prayers have been answered by the gracious Giver of all good."
+
+'"What do you know of the powerful prayer of the Soofie?" replied the
+proud man, "I suspect you to be an impostor in your humble exterior."--"No,
+" said the Shah, "I am but a poor beggar, and a humble, the very humblest
+servant of God."--"You pretend to much humility," retorted the Soofie,
+"suppose we see one of your miraculous works in answer to your prayer; it
+would please us to witness what you can do."
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen raised his eyes to Heaven, his heart went with his
+prayer, and in a dignified manner he stretched forth his hand towards the
+afflicted person. The man was instantly restored; then drawing his hand
+into a direct line with the proud Soofie, and pointing his finger to him,
+he said, "What more, friend, dost them now require of me? The man's
+affliction is removed, but the power which is delegated to me rests still
+on my finger; command me, to whom shall I present it; to you, or any one
+of your people?"
+
+'The proud Soofie hung his head abashed and confounded, he had not power
+to answer. The Shah observed his confusion and said, "It is not well to
+pray for relief to one poor weak fellow-creature, and then to afflict
+another; to the mountain's retreat, I will consign this malady." Then
+shaking his hand as if to relieve himself from a heavy weight, he uttered
+in a solemn tone, "Go to the mountains!" and resumed that humble seat he
+had first chosen with a smile of composure beaming on his countenance.'
+This miracle is actually believed by the Natives to be true.
+
+Shah Sherif ood deen, say the people who know him, spent the principal
+part of each day and night in silent prayer and meditation; no one ever
+ventured to intrude within his small sanctuary, but hundreds of people
+would assemble outside the building, in front of which he occasionally sat
+for an hour, but scarcely ever conversed with any one of his visitors.
+During the time he was thus seated, he generally raised his eyes once or
+twice, and looked round on the faces of his audience. It was generally
+remarked, that no one could meet the eye of Shah Jee--that familiar
+appellation by which he was known--without an indescribable sensation of
+reverential awe, which irresistibly compelled them to withdraw their eyes.
+The talismanic power of Shah Jee's eyes had become proverbial throughout
+the city of Delhi. A certain Pattaan,[5] however, of warlike appearance, a
+man remarkable for his bravery, declared amongst his associates that he
+would certainly out-stare Shah Jee, if ever they met, which he was
+resolved should be the very first opportunity; he accordingly went with
+his companions at a time when this Durweish was expected to appear in
+public.
+
+The Pattaan was seated on the floor with many other people; when the Shah
+issued from his sanctuary, the people rose to make their salaams, which
+Shah Jee either did not, or would not observe, but seated himself
+according to his custom on the mat which had been spread for him; where,
+his eyes fixed on the ground, he seemed for some time to be wholly
+absorbed in silent meditation. At length, raising his head, he turned his
+face to the long line of spectators, saluting with his eyes each person in
+the row, until he came to the Pattaan, who, according to his vow, kept his
+large eyes fixed on the Durweish. Shah Jee went on with his survey, and a
+second time cast a glance along the whole line, not omitting the Pattaan
+as before, whose gaze, his companions observed, was as firmly settled on
+the Durweish as at the first. A third time the eyes of the Shah went round
+the assembly and rested again on the Pattaan.
+
+Observing the immoveable eyes of their Pattaan acquaintance, the visitors
+smiled at each other, and secretly gave him credit for a piety and
+pureness of heart which he was not before supposed to be blessed with;
+'How else,' said they, 'would he have been able to withstand the
+penetrating glance of the revered Durweish.' Shah Jee rose from his seat,
+and retired, thus giving to the company a signal for their departure from
+the place.
+
+The associates of the Pattaan congratulated him on his success, and
+inquired by what stratagem he had so well succeeded in fulfilling his
+promise; but his eyes being still fixed in a wild stare, he replied not to
+his questioners. They rallied him, and tried by a variety of means to
+dissolve his reverie; but the Pattaan was insensible, all the boasted
+energies of his mind having forsaken him. His friends were now alarmed at
+his abstractedness, and with considerable difficulty removed him from the
+place to his own home, where his family received him, for the first time,
+with grief, as he was their whole stay and support, and the kind head of a
+large family.
+
+The Pattaan continued staring in the same state throughout the night and
+following day, talking wildly and incoherently. 'The Pattaan is paid for
+his presumption,' said some; others recommended application to be made to
+the Durweish, Shah Jee, who could alone remove the calamity. The wife and
+mother, with many female dependants, resolved on pleading his case with
+the benevolent Shah Jee; but as access to him would be difficult, they
+conceived the idea of making their petition through the agency of the wife
+of the Durweish, to whom they accordingly went in a body at night, and
+related their distress, and the manner in which they supposed it to have
+originated, declaring, in conclusion, that as the excellent Durweish had
+been pleased to cast this affliction on their guardian, they must become
+slaves to his family, since bread could no longer be provided by the
+labour of him who had hitherto been their support.
+
+The wife of the Durweish comforted the women by kind words, desiring them
+to wait patiently until her dear lord could be spoken with, as she never
+ventured to intrude on his privacy at an improper moment, however urgent
+the necessity. After a few hours' delay, passed with impatient feeling by
+the group of petitioning females, they were at length repaid by the voice
+of Shah Jee. His wife going to the door of his apartment, told him of the
+circumstance attending the Pattaan, and the distressed condition of the
+females of his family, who came to supplicate his aid in restoring their
+relative to reason; adding, 'What commands will you be pleased to convey
+by me? What remedy do you propose for the suffering Pattaan?'
+
+The Durweish answered, 'His impure heart, then, could not withstand the
+reflected light. Well, well! tell the poor women to be comforted, and as
+they desire to have the Pattaan restored to his former state, they need
+only purchase some sweetmeats from the bazaar, which the man being induced
+to eat, he will speedily be restored to his wonted bodily and mental
+powers.'
+
+Upon hearing the commands of Shah Jee, the women speedily departed,
+ejaculating blessings on the Durweish, his wife, and family. On their
+return they purchased the sweetmeats and presented them to the Pattaan,
+who devoured them with eagerness, and immediately afterwards his former
+senses returned, to the no small joy of his family circle. They inquired
+of him, what had been the state of his feelings during the time he was in
+that insensible state from which he was now happily relieved? He replied,
+that the first gaze of the Durweish had fixed his eyes so firmly that he
+could by no means close or withdraw them from the object; the second
+glance detached his thoughts from every earthly vanity or wish; and that
+the third look from the same holy person, fixed him in unspeakable joys,
+transports pure and heavenly, which continued until he had eaten the
+sweetmeats they had presented, with a kind intention, he had no doubt, but
+which nevertheless, must be ever regretted by him whilst life remained;
+for no earthly joy could be compared with that which he had experienced in
+his trance.
+
+The Durweish Shah Sherif ood deen, was asked by some one why he had
+selected the bazaar sweetmeats as a remedy in the Pattaan's case? He
+answered, 'Because I knew the man's heart was corrupt. The light which had
+been imparted to him could alone be removed by his partaking of the
+dirtiest thing mortals hold good for food, and surely there cannot be any
+thing more dirty than the bazaar sweetmeats, exposed as they are to the
+flies and dust of the city; and how filthily they are manufactured
+requires not my aid in exposing.'
+
+This Durweish is said,--and believed by the good Mussulmaun people I have
+conversed with,--to have foreseen the hour when he should be summoned from
+this life into eternity; and three weeks prior to the appointed time, he
+endeavoured to fortify the minds of his wife and family, to bear with
+resignation that separation he had been warned should take place. He
+assembled his affectionate relatives on the occasion, and thus addressed
+them, 'My dear family, it is the will of God that we should part; on such
+a day (mentioning the time), my soul will take flight from its earthly
+mansion. Be ye all comforted, and hereafter, if ye obey God's holy law, ye
+shall meet me again in a blessed eternity.'
+
+As may be supposed, the females wept bitterly; they were distressed,
+because the good Durweish had ever been kind, indulgent, affectionate, and
+tender in all the relative situations he held amongst them. He tried many
+soothing arguments to comfort and console them for some hours, but without
+in the least reducing their grief, or moderating their bewailings: they
+could not, and would not be comforted.
+
+'Well,' said the Durweish, 'since the separation I have predicted causes
+you all so much sorrow, it would be better, perhaps, that we part not. I
+have thought of another method to avoid the pangs of separation; I will
+offer my prayers this night to the gracious Giver of all good, that He may
+be pleased to permit ye all to bear me company in death.'
+
+'Oh! stay your prayer!' said the wife of the Durweish; 'this must not be;
+for if we all die at once, who will perform the funeral rites, and deposit
+our bodies in the earth?' The Durweish smiled at his wife's objection, and
+answered, 'This is of no consequence to us, dear wife: the body may be
+likened to a garment that is thrown off when old; the soul having worn its
+earthly covering for a season, at the appointed time shakes off the
+perishable piece of corruption, to enter into a purer state of existence.
+It matters not if the body have a burial or not; the soul takes no
+cognizance of the clay it has quitted. Yet, if it be a matter of great
+consideration with you, be assured that many pious men and Durweish, whose
+respect we have enjoyed in life, will not fail to give decent interment to
+the remains of those they have loved and respected.'
+
+This for a moment baffled the wife in her argument; but presently she
+persuasively urged that her daughters were all young, that they had as yet
+seen but little of this world, and therefore it would be cruel to take
+them away so soon; they must desire to see more of this life ere they
+entered on another state of existence. 'Oh, my wife,' said the Durweish,
+'you reason badly; this life hath no joys to be compared with those which
+the righteous man's hopes lead him to expect in the world beyond the grave.
+I will assuredly make my promised prayer, if I find a semblance of
+remaining grief upon separating from me at the appointed time, for our
+removal to perfect happiness.'
+
+'No, no!' was cried by all the assembled family; 'do let us remain a
+little longer here, we are not in a hurry to quit this world.'--'Well,
+well, be satisfied then,' responded the Durweish, 'if such is your desire;
+and hereafter let me not hear a sigh or a murmur from one of you, for my
+appointed time is drawing to a close; if you will not accompany me, let me,
+at least, depart in peace.'
+
+The people who relate this (and I have heard the anecdote from many) add,
+that the Durweish Shah Sherif ood deen Mah-mood died at the close of the
+third week, and on the day and hour he had predicted.
+
+A grandson of this Durweish I have been writing about is still living in
+India, remarkable for a very retentive memory and propriety of life. I
+have not met with this gentleman during my residence in India, but have
+often heard his name mentioned with respect by Meer Hadjee Shaah who knew
+him well. He says that this Syaad, when but a boy, learned the whole
+Khoraun by heart[6] in the short space of forty days; he adds, that this
+person is exemplary in his life, and in his habits and manners humble;
+that he is truly a servant of God; rejects the mystic tenets of Soofieism;
+possesses an enlightened mind, and is a Moollah or Doctor of the
+Mussulmaun law. I have heard many singular anecdotes of his life, proving
+his disregard for riches, honours, and the vain pursuits of the
+worldly-minded. If I recollect right, he once was engaged in the
+confidential office of Moonshie to a highly talented gentleman at Fort
+William, from which employment he retired and took up his abode for some
+time at Lucknow; from whence, it was said, he went to Hydrabaad, where, it
+is probable, he may still be found in the exercise of a religious course
+of life. His name is respected by all the good men of his own persuasion,
+with whom I have been most intimately acquainted.
+
+Conceiving the subject may be interesting to my friends, I will not offer
+any apology for introducing to your notice a female character of great
+merit, whose death occurred during my residence in the vicinity of her
+abode. I was induced to make memorandums of the circumstances which
+brought the knowledge of her virtues more immediately before the public.
+
+Maulvee Meer Syaad Mahumud[7] succeeded, on the death of his father, in
+1822, to the exalted position amongst Mussulmauns of head leader and
+expounder of the Mahumudan law in the city of Lucknow; he is a person of
+unassuming manners and extreme good sense, is an upright, honest-hearted,
+religious man, meriting and receiving the respect and good opinion of all
+his countrymen capable of appreciating the worthiness of his general
+deportment. He is esteemed the most learned person of the present age
+amongst Asiatic scholars; and occupies his time in study and devotion, and
+in giving gratuitous instruction to youth, at stated hours, in those laws
+which he makes his own rule of life. Neither is the good Maulvee's fame
+confined to the city in which he sojourns, as may be gathered from the
+following anecdote, which exhibits the upright principles of this worthy
+man, at the same time that it discloses the character of a very amiable
+female, whose charity was as unbounded as her memory is revered in
+Furrukhabaad.
+
+'The late Nuwaub of Furrukhabaad[8] was first married to a lady of birth
+and good fortune, Villoiettee Begum,[9] by whom he was not blessed with a
+son; but he had other wives, one of whom bore him an heir, who at the
+present time enjoys the musnud of his father.
+
+'Villoiettee Begum was beautiful in person, and possessed a heart of the
+most benevolent and rare kind; her whole delight was centred in the
+exercises of those duties which her religion inculcated; she spent much of
+her time in prayer, in acquiring a knowledge of the Khoraun, in acts of
+kindness to her fellow-creatures, and in strict abstinence.
+
+'It was her unvaried custom at meals before she touched a morsel herself,
+to have twelve portions of food, selected from the choicest viands
+provided for her use, set apart for as many poor people; and when they had
+been served, she humbly and sparingly partook of the meal before her. She
+was possessed of great wealth, yet never expended any portion of it in the
+extravagances of dress; indeed, so humble was her appearance, that she
+might have been mistaken for the meanest of her slaves or domestics. It
+was her usual custom, whenever she purchased new clothing for her own wear,
+to lay in a large store for the poor; and it is affirmed, by those who
+were long intimate with the family, that a supplicant was never known to
+pass her door without relief. She even sought out, with the aid of a
+faithful domestic, the modest poor who were restrained by their feelings
+from intruding their necessities; and her liberal donations were
+distributed in so kind a manner, that even the pride of birth could never
+feel distressed when receiving her charitable assistance.
+
+'This lady was much attached to the duties of her religion, and delighted
+in acquiring instruction from righteous persons of her own faith. She
+showered favours on all the poor who were reported to live in the fear of
+God; indeed, such was the liberality, benevolence, and unvaried charity of
+this good lady, that the news of her death was received by hundreds of
+people as their greatest earthly calamity. The example of this lady's
+character is the more enhanced by reflecting on the retired way in which
+she was reared and lived, restrained by the customs of her people within
+the high walls of a zeenahnah, without the advantages of a liberal
+education or the immediate society of intelligent people. She seems, by
+all accounts, to have been a most perfect pattern of human excellence.
+
+'In forming her will (Villoiettee Begum had been a widow several years
+before her death), she does not appear to have wished a single thing to be
+done towards perpetuating her name,--as is usual with the great, in
+erecting lofty domes over the deposited clay of the Mussulmaun,--but her
+immense wealth was chiefly bequeathed in charitable gifts. The holy and
+the humble were equally remembered in its distribution. She had been
+acquainted with the virtues of the good Maulvee of Lucknow, to whom she
+left a handsome sum of money for his own use, and many valuable articles
+to fit up the Emaum-baarah for the service of Mahurrum, with a, desire
+that the same should be conveyed to him as soon after her death as
+convenient. Her vakeel (agent) wrote to Meer Syaad Mahumud very soon after
+the lady's death, to apprise him of the bequest Villoiettee Begum had
+willed to him, and at the same time forwarded the portable articles to him
+at Lucknow.
+
+'The Maulvee was much surprised, and fancied there must be some mistake in
+the person for whom this legacy was intended, as the lady herself was
+entirely unknown to him, and an inhabitant of a station so remote from his
+own residence as not likely ever to have heard of him. He, however,
+replied to the vakeel, and wrote also to a gentleman in the neighbourhood,
+desiring to have a strict inquiry instituted before he could venture to
+accept the riches of this lady's bounty, presuming that even if he was the
+person alluded to in her will, that the Begum must have intended him as
+her almoner to the poor of Lucknow. The good, upright Maulvee acted on the
+integrity of his heart and desired a strict scrutiny might be instituted
+into the will of the deceased, which was accordingly made, and he was
+assured in reply, that Villoiettee Begum had been long acquainted with his
+worth, and in her liberal bequest she had decidedly intended the money for
+his sole use and benefit, in testimony of her respect for his virtuous
+character. The Maulvee again wrote and requested to be informed by those
+most intimate with the Begum's way of life, whether she had left
+unperformed any of the duties incumbent on a member of the faithful, as
+regards zuckhaut[10], pilgrimage, the fast, &c.? which not having
+accomplished, and having ample means, he felt himself bound, in the
+situation he held, to devote her legacy to the purpose of such duties by
+proxy (which their law commands) in her name. He was in reply assured that
+the good Begum had not omitted any part of her duty; she had regularly
+applied zuckhaut, duly performed the fast, had paid the expenses for poor
+pilgrims to Mecca (her substitutes); and not until all the scruples of the
+just Maulvec had been removed would he hear of, or accept the Begum's
+legacy.'
+
+The anecdote I have now given will serve to illustrate the character of
+some good people of Hindoostaun of the present day; indeed, the veneration
+and respect paid by all classes to those men who lead religious lives, is
+but little changed from the earlier pages of the Mussulmaun history. I
+have just met with a Durweish anecdote, of former times, that may be worth
+transcribing, as I have received it from Meer Hadjee Shaah, whose aid I am
+so much indebted to for subjects with which to amuse my friends.
+
+'Shaah ood Dowlah[11] was a Durweish who flourished in the reign of King
+Shah Jaluui at Delhi, but whose fame is known throughout India to the
+present day. The Durweish was remarkable for his activity of body. It is
+related, that he was often to be seen at prayer in Delhi, and in three
+hours after he had transported himself eighty miles oil without any
+visible assistance but his own personal activity on foot. This
+extraordinary rapidity of movement rendered him an object of veneration;
+and the general belief was, that he was highly favoured of Heaven, and
+gifted with supernatural power; the life he led was purely religious, with
+a total disregard of earthly riches.
+
+'The King, Shah Jahan, was a very sensible person, and a great admirer of
+all that is counted good and excellent in his fellow-men; he was
+particularly friendly to such men as the Durweish, or others who devoted
+their lives to religious exercises. He had often heard of Shah ood Dowlah,
+without ever meeting with him, and on hearing of some singular acts of
+this Durweish, he was desirous of seeing him, and gave orders accordingly
+to his Minister, that messengers should be sent in search of the holy man,
+but as often as they appeared before the Durweish's hut he was invisible;
+this statement even added to the King's curiosity. On a certain day the
+King was seated on the story of his palace which overlooked the town and
+the outskirts beyond the walls, in conversation with his Minister and
+favourites, when the Durweish was espied at no great distance standing on
+the broadway; which, when the King knew, he desired messengers might be
+dispatched to convey the holy man to his presence. "Your royal will shall
+be obeyed", replied the Minister; "but your Majesty must be aware that the
+extent of the circuit from the palace to the outer gate is so great that
+long before a slave can get to that road, Shah ood Dowlah will be beyond
+the reach of our summons. With all due submission to your Majesty's better
+judgement, would it not be more prudent to call him from hence, and
+persuade him to ascend the wall in a basket suspended to a rope." The King
+agreed, and the Durweish was hailed. "Our King, the Protector of the World,
+commands Shah ood Dowlah's attendance?"--The Durweish, looking up at the
+summoner, inquired, "Where is the King?"--"In this apartment," he was
+answered.--"How am I to get near him? he is too far off: an old man does
+not well to climb."--"Wait a minute", replied the servant, "your
+conveyance shall be prepared."
+
+'In a few minutes the basket descended from the upper story, by a strong
+rope, well secured against the probability of accident. The Durweish,--who
+was covered with a chudha[12], or sheet, to keep him from giddiness in the
+ascent,--seated himself firmly in the basket, and the servants drew him up
+in safety. He was immediately conveyed to the King's apartment; who,
+contrary to precedent, rose at his entrance to receive this respected and
+much-desired guest.
+
+'"Pray be seated, my friend", said the King, leading him to the most
+honoured part of the royal carpet. The Durweish obeyed without a moment's
+hesitation, to the astonishment of the Vizier, nobles, courtiers, &c., who
+had never before seen a human being seated in the King's presence, not
+even one of the most exalted of the nobles. "I have long desired this
+happiness," said the King to the Durweish, "that I might converse with you.
+"--"Your Majesty is very gracious to the poor Durweish", was responded. "I
+hear much of your great virtue and good life," said the King, "from the
+world, my subjects."--"They do but flatter the poor Durweish," was his
+reply; adding, "none can tell what passes in my heart, when they view only
+my face. I am but a poor Durweish."
+
+'"I have many questions to ask you," said the King, "which I hope to have
+resolved from your own mouth; but, first, I beg to be informed, what
+methods you have used in order to acquire that command over selfish
+feelings, which is displayed in your intercourse with the world? and by
+what means you have become so enlightened in the ways pleasing to God?"
+
+'The Durweish with a smile of pleasure, and in language calm as respectful,
+answered in the following words:--"Your Majesty, the Protector of the
+World, was desirous of becoming personally known to the very meanest of
+your subjects, the poor Durweish; the opportunity arrived, and you
+condescended to let down a line of rope to assist your poor subject in the
+ascent to your presence. With equal condescension you have seated me by
+your side; and I, the poor Durweish, feel a due sense of the honour
+conferred on me. Had I been anxious to gain admittance to the Protector of
+the World, many would have been the difficulties to surmount; your castle
+is well guarded, your gates innumerable to be passed ere this place could
+be reached, and who would have aided the poor Durweish's wishes? But your
+Majesty had the will, and the power to effect that will; whilst I, who had
+neither, might have exerted myself for ages without effect. Such then, O
+King! is the way God draws those whom He wills unto Him. He sees into the
+hidden recesses of the human heart, and knows every working of mortal
+minds; He has no difficulty to surmount; for to whom in His mercy He
+grants evidence of His love, He draws them to Himself in heart, in soul,
+in mind, with infinitely less effort than thou hast exerted to draw my
+mortal body within thy palace. It is God who in love and mercy throws the
+line to man; happy that soul who accepts the offered means, by which he
+may ascend!"'
+
+Meer Nizaam ood deen[13] lived many years at Lucknow, where he was much
+esteemed by the religious men of the time; some who survived him have
+frequently entertained me with anecdotes of that respected Durweish. Out
+of the many I have heard detailed by them, I have selected for this place
+a few of the most interesting:--
+
+A certain King of Delhi (whose name has escaped my recollection) having
+heard of the remarkable piety of this Durweish, expressed a great desire
+to see him, and the message was conveyed by a confidential person,
+instructed to say to the holy man, that his presence was solicited as a
+favour at Court. The person intrusted with the royal message, remarked to
+Meer Nizaam, when he had agreed to accompany him, that his mean apparel
+was not suited to appear in the presence of majesty, and offered to
+provide him with a superior dress.
+
+The Durweish looked steadily in the face of the proposer, and addressed
+him, 'Friend! know you not, that clad in these very garments you deride, I
+make my daily prayers to Him who is the Creator and Lord of the whole
+earth, and all that therein is? If I am not ashamed to appear in the
+presence of my God thus habited, canst thou think I shall deem it needful
+to change my garments for one who is, at best but the creature of my
+Creator? Thinkest thou I would pay more deference to my fellow-man than I
+have done to my God? No, no; be assured the clothes I wear will not be
+changed for earthly visits.'
+
+This Durweish had a mind and heart so entirely devoted to his Creator, and
+was so thoroughly purified from earthly vanity, that his every wish was
+granted as soon as it had been formed in his heart, says one of his many
+admirers, Meer Eloy Bauxh[14]; who, in proof that he was so gifted, relates
+the following anecdote which I give in his own words:--
+
+'One day I was conversing with the Durweish, Meer Nizaam, when he told me
+he could bring me to his door, from my own home, at any hour or time he
+pleased. I was a little wavering in my belief of his power to do so, and
+offered some remarks that indicated my doubts. "Well," said he in reply,
+"you shall be convinced, my friend, ere long, I promise you."
+
+'A few evenings after this conversation had been held, I was seated on my
+charpoy, in meditation,--my usual practice after the evening namaaz,--when
+a sudden impulse seized my mind, that I must immediately go off to the
+Durweish who lived at the opposite extremity of this large city (Lucknow).
+I prepared to set out, and by the time I was ready, the rain burst forth
+in torrents from the over-charged clouds. Still the impulse was so strong
+that I cared not for this impediment even, which under ordinary
+circumstances would have deterred me from venturing out on a dark evening
+of storm; I wrapped myself up in my labaadah[15], took a stick and
+umbrella, and sallied forth in great haste. On reaching the outer gate of
+my premises, the strong, feeling that had impelled me to proceed, vanished
+from my mind, and I was as strongly urged by an opposite impulse to retire
+again within my own habitation, where, if I reasoned at all, it was on the
+unusual changeableness of my fixed resolution, for I never thought about
+the subject of the Durweish's prediction at the time.
+
+'Some few days after this, I paid Meer Nizaam a visit, and after our usual
+embrace and salutations were over, he said to me, "Well, my friend, are
+you convinced by this time, that I have the power to bring you to me
+whenever I wish, by the preparations you made for coming on the evening of
+such a day?" (mentioning the time and hour accurately).
+
+'"I remember well my desire to visit you, but why was I deterred from my
+purpose?" I asked. The Durweish replied, "Out of pure compassion for the
+fatigue and pains it would have given you, had you come so far on such a
+night of rain and tempest. My pity for you altered my wishes, and thereby
+your purposes. I only wished you to be convinced, and perhaps you are so
+now."'
+
+Meer Eloy Bauxh often speaks of this circumstance, and declares he has
+full confidence that the Durweish in question possessed the power of
+influencing the minds of others, or attracting them by his wishes to
+appear before him.
+
+'This Durweish was once applied to by a Mussulmaun, who went regularly for
+many days in succession, to watch a favourable moment for soliciting
+advice and assistance in his then uneasy state of mind. The Mussulmaun's
+name was Hummoon[16], since designated Shah, a native of the Upper
+Provinces of Hindoostaun, in the Lahore district. Hummoon occasionally
+passing near the river, had frequently observed, amongst, the number of
+Hindoo women, on their way to and from the place of bathing, one young
+female whose charms riveted his attention. He sometimes fancied that the
+girl smiled on him; but aware of the strong prejudices of her caste, which
+prohibits intercourse even, much less marriage, with men of another
+persuasion, he loved therefore without hope; yet he could not resist, as
+the opportunity offered, of again and again watching for a glance at the
+beautiful Hindoo whose person had won his entire affections. Not a word
+had ever passed between them, but he fancied she sometimes returned his
+looks of love in her smiles.
+
+'The passion of Hummoon increased daily; he could with difficulty restrain
+himself within the prescribed bounds; he longed to address her, and in
+vain puzzled his imagination for the proper means to adopt, for he knew
+the edict of her caste had placed a barrier between them of an
+insurmountable nature. For months he endured all the torments of his
+perplexing state, and at last resolved on applying to the good Durweish
+for advice and assistance, whose famed powers had been long the subject of
+admiration among the Mussulmauns.
+
+Hummoon went daily to the threshold of the Durweish, and seated himself
+among the many who, like him, had some favour to ask of the holy man, at
+the propitious moment when he chose to be visible and disposed to look
+round upon his petitioning visitors. All waited for a look with the most
+intense anxiety (for a Durweish does not always notice his courtiers), and
+happy did he deem himself who was encouraged by the recognition of his eye,
+to offer his petition by word of mouth. Many such applicants had been
+favoured by the Durweish, yet Hummoon visited daily without being noticed
+by the holy man. At length, however, a look of inquiry was given to the
+almost despairing Hummoon; thus encouraged, he folded his hands, and bent
+them forward in a supplicating attitude, told his distresses as briefly as
+the subject would permit, and concluded his tale of sorrow, by entreating
+the Durweish would instruct him in the exercise of some prayer by which he
+might be made happy with the object of his love.
+
+'The Durweish listened attentively to Hummoon's tale; and more, he pitied
+him, for he felt at all times a due proportion of sympathy for the misery
+of his fellow-creatures, and the singularity of Hummoon's case affected
+him. He told him he could teach the way to become deserving of having his
+wishes in this world granted to him, but more he could not answer for; but
+it would take him a considerable time to practise the devotions necessary
+to his future peace, which were of the heart, not the mere repetition of a
+prayer by the lips. Hummoon readily assured the Durweish, he was willing
+to be guided by his advice and instruction; adding, that he would
+patiently persevere for any length of time necessary, so that at last his
+object might be accomplished.
+
+'Hummoon commenced under the tuition of the Durweish the practice of
+devotional exercises. He forsook (as was required of him) all vain
+pursuits, worldly desires, or selfish gratifications; day and night was
+devoted to religious study and prayer, and such was the good effect of his
+perseverance and progressive increase of faith, that at the end of some
+few months he had entirely left off thinking of the first object of his
+adoration, his whole heart and soul being absorbed in contemplation of,
+and devotion to, his Creator. At the end of a year, no trace or
+remembrance of his old passion existed; he became a perfect Durweish,
+retired to a solitary place, where under the shade of trees he would sit
+alone for days and nights in calm composure, abstracted from every other
+thought but that of his God, to whom he was now entirely devoted.'
+
+I am told that this Durweish, Hummoon Shah, is still living
+in the Lahore province, a pattern of all that is excellent in
+virtue and devotion.
+
+
+[1] Mir Ilahi Bakhsh.
+
+[2] Shah Sharif-ud-din, Mahmud.
+
+[3] Jame' Masjid, the Congregational mosque.
+
+[4] Faqir, a poor man, one poor in the sight of God.
+
+[5] Pathan, a frontier tribe, many of which reside in British India.
+
+[6] Such a person is called Hafiz.
+
+[7] Maulavi Mir Sayyid Muhammad.
+
+[8] Early in the eighteenth century Farrukhabad, now a district of
+    this name in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, became an
+    independent State during the decay of the Moghul Empire. The line of
+    Nawabs was founded by Muhammad Khan, an Afghan of the Bangash
+    tribe. It was annexed by Oudh in 1749 and ceded to the British in 1801,
+    on which event the Nawab ceased to be independent. The last Nawa
+    b joined the rebels in the mutiny of 1857.
+
+[9] Wilayati Begam, the foreign lady.
+
+[10] See p. 67.
+
+[11] Shah-ud-daula.
+
+[12] _Chadar_.
+
+[13] Mir Nizam-ud-din.
+
+[14] Mir Ilahi Bakhsh.
+
+[15] _Labada_, a rain-coat.
+
+[16] Hamun.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXV
+
+  Mussulmaun Devotees.--The Chillubdhaars.--Peculiar mode of
+  worship.--Propitiatory offerings.--Supposed to be invulnerable to
+  fire.--The Maadhaars or Duffelees.--Character of the
+  founder.--Pilgrimage to his tomb.--Females afflicted on visiting
+  it.--Effects attributed to the violation of the sanctuary by a
+  foreigner.--Superstition of the Natives.--Anecdote of Sheikh Suddoo
+  and the Genii.--The way of the world exemplified, a Khaunie
+  (Hindoostaunie fable).--Moral fable.--The King who longed for
+  fruit...Page 370
+
+
+There are many classes of men amongst the Mussulmauns, who either abjure
+the world or seem to do so, independent of those denominated Durweish;--
+such us the religions mendicants, &c., who have no earthly calling, and
+derive their subsistence from the free-will offerings of their neighbours,
+or the bounty of the rich, who from respect for their humble calling, and
+a hope of benefit from their prayers, or rather from the veneration of
+Mussulmauns towards such of their faith as have renounced the world for
+the service of God.
+
+The Chillubdhaars[1] are a well-known class of wanderers; their founder
+was a Syaad, Ahmud Kaabeer,[2] of whom many wonderful things are related
+sufficient to impress on the weak mind a belief in his supernatural
+ascendancy. His presumed powers are said to have been chiefly instrumental
+in curing the sick or in removing temporal afflictions; but his effectual
+prayers in behalf of people in difficulty, they say, surpassed those of
+any other of the whole tribes of devotees that have at any age existed.
+His admirers and followers speak of him as having been invulnerable to
+fire. In his lifetime he had forty disciples or pupils constantly with him;
+at his death these forty separated, each in the course of time
+accumulating his forty pupils, after the pattern of their founder, who
+also eventually became leaders, and so on, until at the present time, it
+is conjectured, there are few places in Asia exempt from one or more
+detachments of these Chillubdhaar practical beggars who are much admired
+by the weak; and although they profess the same tenets and rules of life
+with their founder, Syaad Ahmud Kaabeer, yet, I believe, no one gives the
+Chillubdhaars of the present period credit for possessing either the
+virtues or the power of that man who set them so many bright examples;
+nevertheless, they are applied to on emergencies by the ignorant and the
+credulous of the present day, courted by the weak, and tolerated by all.
+
+They all practise one plan whenever called upon to remove the difficulty
+of any person who places sufficient confidence in their ability. On such
+occasions, a young heifer, two years old, is supplied by the person having
+a request to make, after which a fire of charcoal is made in an open space
+of ground, and the animal sacrificed according to Mussulmaun form. The
+tender pieces of meat are selected, spitted, and roasted over the fire, of
+which when cooked, all present are requested to partake. Whilst the meat
+is roasting, the Chillubdhaars beat time with a small tambourine to a song
+or dirge expressive of their love and respect to the memory of the
+departed saint, their founder and patron, and a hymn of praise to the
+Creator.
+
+The feast concluded, whilst the fire of charcoal retains a lively heat,
+these devotees commence dancing, still beating their tambourines and
+calling out with an audible voice, 'There is but one God!--Mahumud is the
+Prophet of God!' Then they sing in praise of Ali, the descendants of the
+Prophet, and, lastly, of Syaad Ahmud Kaabeer their beloved saint. Each
+then puts his naked foot in the fire: some even throw themselves upon
+it,--their associates taking care to catch them before they are well
+down,--others jump into the fire and out again instantly; lastly, the whole
+assembly trample and kick the remaining embers about, whilst a spark
+remains to be quenched by this means.[3] These efforts, it is pretended,
+are sufficient to remove the difficulties of the persons supplying
+the heifer and the charcoal.
+
+These mendicants live on public favour and contributions; they wear
+clothes, are deemed harmless, never ask alms, but are always willing to
+accept them, and have no laws of celibacy, as is the case with some
+wandering beggars in India, who are naked except the wrapper; sometimes
+they settle, making fresh converts, but many wander from city to city,
+always finding people disposed to administer to their necessities. They
+are distinguished from other sects, by each individual carrying a small
+tambourine, and wearing clothing of a deep buff colour.
+
+There are another set of wandering mendicants, who are called Madhaar[4]
+beggars, or the Duffelees,[5] by reason of the small hand-drum they carry
+with them. These are the disciples of the sainted Maadhaar, whose tomb is
+visited annually by little short of a million of people, men, women, and
+children, at a place called Muckunpore, about twenty koss from Cawnpore.
+
+Maadhaar was esteemed in his lifetime a most perfect Durweish, and his
+admirers speak of the power he then possessed as still existing; in that
+his pure spirit at stated periods hovers near his last earthly remains,
+where the common people make a sort of pilgrimage to entreat his influence
+in their behalf. A mayllah[6] (fair) is the consequence of this annual
+pilgrimage, which continues, I think, seventeen days in succession, and
+brings together, from many miles distant, the men of business, the
+weak-minded, and the faithful devotees of every class in the Upper
+Provinces.
+
+From the respect paid to the memory of Maadhaar, and the expected
+influence of his spirit at the shrine, the ignorant people bring their
+sons to receive the saint's blessing on their tender years. The man of
+business also presents himself before it, desirous to insure a share of
+success at the fair, and ultimate prosperity at home. The devotee visits
+the shrine from a desire to increase in true wisdom by the reflected light
+of the Maadhaar Durweish's purer spirit. Women having made vows to visit
+the shrine, come to fulfil it at this period, if their hopes be realized
+in the birth of a son; and others to entreat his influence that their
+daughters may be suitably married; in short, all who assemble at this
+mayllah have some prayer to offer, or acknowledgments to make, for they
+depend on the abundant power and influence of the saint's spirit to supply
+their several wants or desires.
+
+At the shrine of this saint, a descendant, or as is suspected often in
+such cases, a pretended relative, takes his station to collect, with all
+the appearance of sanctity and humility, the nuzzas offered at the shrine
+of Maadhaar. The amount so collected is enormous, if credit be given to
+the reports in circulation; for all visitors are expected to present an
+offering, and most of the pilgrims do it for conscience sake. I knew a
+Mussulmaun who went from curiosity to this mayllah; he was accosted rather
+rudely as he was quitting the tomb, without leaving a nuzza; he told the
+guardian of the tomb he had presented the best nuzza he possessed, in a
+prayer for the soul of the departed; (as commanded every Mussulmaun should
+offer when drawing near the tomb of one of his own faith).
+
+I have conversed with a remarkably devout person, on the numerous
+extraordinary stories related of Maadhaar's life, and the subsequent
+influence of his tomb. He told me that women can never, with safety to
+themselves, enter the mausoleum containing his ashes; they are immediately
+seized with violent pains as if their whole body was immersed in flames of
+fire. I spoke rather doubtingly on this subject, upon which he assured me
+that he had known instances of one or two women who had imprudently defied
+the danger, and intruded within the mausoleum, when their agony was
+extreme, and their sufferings for a long time protracted, although they
+eventually recovered.
+
+Another still more remarkable circumstance has been related to me by the
+Natives, for the truth of which I cannot venture to vouch, although I have
+no reason to doubt the veracity of the narrators.
+
+'A party of foreigners, encamped near the fair, wished to see what was
+going on at this far-famed mayllah, and for the purpose of gratifying
+their curiosity, halted on a certain day in the vicinity of the Durgah,
+when the place was much thronged by the various pilgrims to that shrine.
+The party dined in their tent, but drank more wine than was consistent
+with propriety, and one was particularly overcome. When they sallied forth,
+at the close of the day, to visit this saint's tomb, their approach was
+observed by the keepers, who observing how very unfit the strangers
+appeared to enter the sanctuary of other men's devotions,--the hallowed
+ground that was by them respected,--the head-keeper very civilly advanced
+as they moved towards the entrance, requesting that they would desist from
+entering in their apparent condition, contrary to the rules of the place
+and people. The convivial party then drew back, without contesting the
+point, excepting the one most disguised in liquor, who asserted his right
+to enter wherever and whenever he thought good, nor would he be controlled
+by any man in India.
+
+'The keepers spoke very mildly to the tipsy foreigner, and would have
+persuaded him he was doing wrong, but he was not in a state to listen to
+any argument dissuading him from his determined purpose; they warned him
+that a severe punishment must follow his daring, as he pushed past them
+and reeled into the mausoleum, triumphing at his success. He had
+approached the tomb, when he was immediately seized with trembling, and
+sank senseless on the floor; his friends without, observing his situation,
+advanced and were assisted by the keepers in removing the apparently
+inanimate body to the open air: water was procured, and after considerable
+delay, returning symptoms of life were discovered. When able to speak, he
+declared himself to be on the eve of death, and in a few short hours he
+breathed his last.' The unhappy man may have died of apoplexy.
+
+The ignorant part of the population of Hindoostaun hold a superstitious
+belief in the occasional visitations of the spirit of Sheikh Suddoo.[7] It
+is very common to hear the vulgar people say if any one of their friends
+is afflicted with melancholy, hypochondria, &c., 'Ay, it is the spirit of
+Sheikh Suddoo has possessed him.' In such cases the spirit is to be
+dislodged from the afflicted person by sweetmeats, to be distributed among
+the poor; to which is added, if possible, the sacrifice of a black goat. I
+am not quite sure that the night blindness, with which the lower orders of
+Natives are frequently attacked, has not some superstitious allusion
+attached to it; but the only remedy I have ever heard prescribed for it is,
+that the patient should procure the liver of a young kid, which must be
+grilled over the fire, and eaten by the afflicted person. The story of
+this Sheikh Suddoo, which is often related in the zeenahnahs of the
+Mussulmauns, is as follows:--
+
+'Sheikh Suddoo was a very learned man, but a great hypocrite, who passed
+days and nights in the mosque, and was fed by the charitable, his
+neighbours, from such viands as they provided daily for the poor traveller,
+and those men who forsake the world. The Sheikh sometimes wandered into a
+forest seldom penetrated by the foot of man, where, on a certain day, he
+discovered a copper cup, curiously engraved with characters which he tried
+in vain with all his learning to decipher. The Sheikh returned with the
+cup to the mosque, regretting that the characters were unknown to him; but
+as he had long desired to have a good-sized lamp, he fancied from the
+peculiar shape of his prize, that it would answer the very purpose, and
+the same night he exultingly prepared his charaagh[8] (a light) in the
+engraved vessel.
+
+'The moment he had ignited one wick, he was surprised by the appearance of
+a figure, resembling a human being, standing before him, "Who art thou,"
+he demanded, "intruding at this hour on the privacy of a
+hermit?"--"I come", replied the figure, "on the summons from your lamp.
+That vessel, and whoever possesses it, has four attendants, one of whom
+you see before you, your slave. We are Genii, and can only be summoned by
+the lighting up of the vessel now before you; the number of your slaves
+will be in due attendance, always guided by as many wicks as it may be
+your pleasure to light up for our summons. Demand our attendance, at any
+hour you please, we are bound to obey."
+
+'The Sheikh inquired if he or his companions possessed any power. "Power",
+replied the Genii, "belongs to God alone, the Creator of all things
+visible and invisible; but by His permission we are enabled to perform, to
+a certain extent, any reasonable service our master requires."
+
+'The Sheikh soon put their abilities to the test, and satisfied himself
+that these agents would aid and assist him in raising his character with
+the world (for he coveted their praise), "They would", he thought,
+"assuredly believe he was a pious Durweish, when he could convince them by
+a ready compliance with their requests, which must seem to follow his
+prayers, and which he should be able to further now by the aid of the
+Genii."
+
+'The pretended holy man employed his attendant Genii fully; many of his
+demands on their services were difficult, and too often revolting to them;
+yet whilst he retained the lamp in his possession, they were bound to obey
+his commands. He once heard of a king's daughter, who was young and
+beautiful; he therewith summoned the Genii, and required that they should
+convey the princess to him. They reluctantly obeyed his command, and the
+princess was the Sheikh's unwilling companion in the mosque. On another
+occasion, he desired the Genii to bring without delay, to the ground in
+front of his present abiding place, a very curious mosque situated many
+leagues distant, the stones of which were so nicely cemented together,
+that no trace of the joining could be discovered. The Genii received this
+command with regret, but they were obliged to obey, and departed from the
+Sheikh's presence to execute his unworthy orders.
+
+'It happened that the mosque which the Sheikh coveted was the retreat of a
+righteous man, who had separated from the world to serve his God,
+venerable in years and devout in his duties. The Genii commenced their
+labour of removing the mosque; the good man who was at his devotions
+within, fancied an earthquake was shaking the building to its foundation,
+but as he trusted in God for preservation, he breathed a fervent prayer as
+he remained prostrate before Him.
+
+'The shaking of the mosque continued, and he was inspired by a sudden
+thought that induced him to believe some supernatural agency was employed
+against the holy house; he therefore called out, "Who and what are ye, who
+thus sacrilegiously disturb the house of God!" The Genii appeared, and
+made known to what order of beings they belonged, whose servants they were,
+and the purpose of their mission.
+
+'"Begone this instant!" replied the pious man, with a tone of authority
+that deprived them of strength: "a moment's delay, and I will pray that
+you be consumed by fire! Know ye not that this is a mosque, holy, and
+erected wherein to do service to the great and only God? Would Sheikh
+Suddoo add to his enormities by forcing the house of God from its
+foundation? Away, ye servants of the wicked Sheikh, or meet the fire that
+awaits you by a moment's further delay!"
+
+'The Genii fled in haste to their profane employer, whose rage was
+unbounded at their disobedience, as he termed their return without the
+mosque; he raved, stormed, and reviled his slaves in bitter sarcasms, when
+they, heartily tired of the Sheikh's servitude, caught up the copper
+vessel, and, in his struggle to resist the Genii, he was thrown with
+violence on the ground, when his wicked soul was suddenly separated from
+his most impure body.'
+
+This story receives many alterations and additions, agreeable to the
+talent and the inclination of the person relating it in Native society;
+but as there once was a person on whose history it has been founded, they
+do not denominate it fabulous or khaunie.[9] The following, which I am
+about to copy from a translation of my husband's, is really a mere fable;
+and, however trifling and childish it may appear, I feel bound to insert
+it, as one among those things which serves to illustrate the character of
+the people I have undertaken to describe; merely adding, that all these
+fables prove an unceasing entertainment in the zeenahnah, with females who
+cannot themselves read, either for amusement or instruction:--
+
+'A certain man was travelling on horseback through an immense forest; and
+when he came to a particular spot, he observed fire consuming some bushes,
+in the centre of which was a monstrous large snake. The Snake was in
+danger of being destroyed by the flames, so he called to the Traveller, in
+a voice of despair--"Oh! good Sahib, save me, or I perish!"[10]
+
+'The Traveller was a very tender-hearted creature, prone to pity the
+painful sufferings of every living creature, whether man or animal; and
+therefore began to devise some scheme for liberating the Snake from the
+devouring flames. His horse's corn bag, which was made of leather, hung
+dangling by a rope from the crupper; this, he thought, would be the best
+thing he could offer to the distressed Snake. Accordingly, holding fast by
+the rope, he threw the bag towards the flames, and desired the Snake to
+hasten into it, who immediately accepted the offered aid, and the
+Traveller drew him out of his perilous situation.
+
+'No sooner was the Snake released from danger, than, ungrateful for the
+services he had received from the Traveller, he sprang towards him, with
+the purpose of wounding his deliverer. This, however, he failed to
+accomplish, for the Traveller drew back in time to escape the attack; and
+demanded of his enemy his reasons for such base ingratitude, saying--"Have
+I not saved your life by my prompt assistance? What a worthless reptile
+art thou! Is this thy mode of rewarding benefits?"--"Oh!" said the Snake,
+"I am only imitating the way of the world; who ever thinks of returning
+good for good? No, no! every benefit received by the creature of this
+world is rewarded to the donor by an ungrateful return. I tell you, good
+Traveller, I am only following the example set me in the way of the world."
+
+'"I shall not take your word for it," said the Traveller in reply; "but if
+I can be convinced that what you say is true, you shall be welcome to bite
+me."--"Agreed," said the Snake; and off they set together in search of
+adventures.
+
+'The first object they met was a large Pepul-tree[11] whose branches spread
+out an inviting shelter to the weary traveller to repose under, without
+rent or tax. The Pepul-tree was asked, "Whether it was consistent with the
+way of the world for the Snake to try to wound the man who had preserved
+him from destruction."
+
+'The Pepul-tree replied, "To follow in the way of the world, I should say
+the Snake was justified. A good return is never now-a-days tendered for a
+benefit received by mere worldlings, as I can bear witness by my own
+sufferings. Listen to my complaint:--Here in this solitary jungle, where
+neither hut nor mansion is to be found, I spread forth my well-clothed
+branches,--a welcome shelter to the passing traveller from the burning
+heat of the noontide sun, or the deluge poured out from the over-charged
+cloud;---under my cover they cook their meal, and my falling leaves supply
+them with fuel, as also with a bed on which they may recline their weary
+limbs. Think you, when they have thus profited by the good I have done
+them, that they are grateful for my services?--Oh, no! the ingrates
+despoil the symmetry of my form, break off my branches with violence, and
+trudge off triumphantly with the spoil which may serve them for fuel for
+cooking at their next stage. So you see the Snake is right; he has but
+followed the way of the world."
+
+'The Snake exultingly led the way in search of other proofs by which he
+should be justified. They fell in with a man who was by occupation a
+camel-driver. The Man being made acquainted with the point at issue,
+desired to be heard, as he could prove by his own tale that the Snake's
+ingratitude was a true picture of the way of the world:--"I was the sole
+proprietor of a very fine strong camel, by whose labour I earned a
+handsome competence for each day's provision of myself and family, in
+conveying goods and sometimes travellers from place to place, as my good
+fortune served me. On a certain day, returning home through an intricate
+wood, I drew near to a poor blind man who was seated on the ground
+lamenting his hard fate. Hearing my camel's feet advance, he redoubled his
+cries of distress, calling loudly for help and assistance. His piteous
+cries won upon the tender feelings of my heart; so I drew near to inquire
+into his situation, he told me with tears and sobs, that he was travelling
+on foot from his home to visit his relations at the next town; that he had
+been attacked by robbers, his property taken from him by violence, and
+that the boy, his guide, was forced from him by the banditti as a slave;
+and here, added the blind man, must I perish, for I can neither see my way
+home, nor search for food; in this lone place my friends will never think
+to seek me, and my body will be the feast for jackals ere the morning
+dawns.
+
+'"The poor man's story made so deep an impression on my mind, that I
+resolved on assisting him; accordingly my camel was made to kneel down, I
+seated the blind man safely on my beast, and set off with him to the city
+he called his home. Arrived at the city gates, I lowered my camel, and
+offered to assist the poor man in descending from his seat; but, to my
+astonishment, he commenced abusing me for my barefaced wickedness,
+collected a mob around us, by his cries for help from his persecutor,
+declared himself the master of the camel, and accused me of attempting to
+rob him now as I had done his brother before.
+
+'"So plausible was his speech--so apparently innocent and just his
+demands--that the whole collected populace believed I was actually
+attempting to defraud the blind man of his property, and treated me in
+consequence with great severity. I demanded to be taken before the Kauzy
+of the city. 'Yes yes,' said the blind man, 'we will have you before the
+Kauzy'; and away we went, accompanied by the crowd who had espoused the
+blind man's cause against me.
+
+'"The blind man preferred his claim, and advocated his own cause with so
+many arguments of apparent justice, that I was not allowed a voice in the
+business; and in the end I was sentenced to be thrust out of the city as a
+thief and vagabond, with a threat of still greater punishment if I dared
+to return. Here ends my sad tale; and you may judge for yourself, oh,
+Traveller! how truly the Snake has proved to you that he follows but the
+way of the world!"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+'As they pursued their way in search of further conviction, they met a Fox,
+whose wisdom and sagacity was consulted on the important question. Having
+heard the whole history with becoming gravity, the Fox addressed the
+Traveller:--"You can have no good reason to suppose, Mr. Traveller, that
+in your case there should be any deviation from the general rule. I have
+often been obliged to suffer the vilest returns from friends whom I have
+been active to oblige; but I am rather curious to see the way you effected
+the release of the Snake from the fire, for I will candidly confess myself
+so stupid as not clearly to understand the description you have both
+attempted to give. I shall judge the merits of the case better if I see it
+performed."
+
+'To this proposal the Snake and Traveller agreed: and when the corn bag
+was thrown towards the Snake, he crept into it as before. The Fox then
+called out to the Traveller "Draw quickly!" he did so, and the Snake was
+caught by a noose in the cord which the Fox had contrived unperceived, by
+which the Snake was secured fast round the middle. "Now," said the Fox,
+"bruise your enemy, and thus relieve the world of one base
+inhabitant!"'[12]
+
+This fable is frequently enlarged and embellished by the reciter to a
+considerable extent, by introducing many different objects animate and
+inanimate, to elucidate the question before the Fox arrives, who is
+generally brought in to moral the fable.
+
+I trust to be excused for transcribing the following moral fable which was
+translated from the Persian by my husband for my amusement, bearing the
+title of 'The King who longed for an unknown fruit:'--
+
+'A certain King was so great a tyrant, that his servants and subjects
+dreaded each burst of anger, as it were the prelude to their own
+annihilation. The exercise of his will was as absolute as his power; he
+had only to command, and obedience followed, however difficult or
+inconvenient to the people who served under him.
+
+'This tyrant dreamed one night that he was eating fruit of an
+extraordinary flavour and quality. He had never in his whole life seen
+fruit of the kind, neither had he heard such described by travellers; yet
+when he ruminated on the subject in the morning he was resolved to have
+fruit of the same sort his dream presented, or his people should suffer
+for his disappointment.
+
+'The King related his dream, and with it his commands to his Vizier, his
+courtiers, and attendants, that fruit of the same description should be
+brought before him within seven days; in default of which he vowed
+solemnly that death should be the portion of his Vizier, his courtiers,
+and servants. They all knew the King meant to be obeyed, by the
+earnestness of his manner, and they trembled under the weight of his
+perplexing orders; each, therefore, was speedily engaged in the
+all-important search. The whole empire was canvassed, and all the business
+of the Court was suspended to satisfy the whim of the Monarch, without
+avail; terror and dismay marked the countenance of the whole city--for
+certain death awaited these servants of the Court--and there was but now
+one day left to their hopes. The city, the suburbs, the provinces, had
+been searched; disappointment followed from every quarter, and the
+threatened party gave up their hearts to despair.
+
+'A certain Durweish, knowing the consternation of the people, and feeling
+pity for their unmerited sufferings, sent for the Vizier privately. "I am
+not", said the Durweish, "by any means anxious to please the vanity and
+silly wishes of your master, the King, but I do hear with pity the state
+of despair you and your fellows are reduced to, by the unsuccessful
+results of your search after the fruit, and the certain consequences which
+are to follow your failure."
+
+'Then giving the Vizier a fragment of a broken pitcher, on which was
+ciphered unknown characters, he told him to take it with him to a certain
+tomb, situated in the suburbs of the royal city, (directing him to the
+spot with great exactness), and casting the fragment on the tomb, to
+follow the directions he would there receive; he further desired him to be
+secret, to go alone, and at midnight.
+
+'The now hope-inspired Vizier went as desired at midnight, and cast the
+fragment on the tomb, which instantly opened to him. He then descended a
+flight of steps, from the foot of which, at a little distance, he first
+espied a light not larger than a taper, but which increased as he went on
+until the full splendour of noonday succeeded. Proceeding with confidence,
+revived hope cheered his heart, anticipating that by success so many lives
+besides his own would be preserved through his humble endeavours; and that
+life would be more than doubly dear, as the prospect of losing the gift
+had embittered the last few days so severely.
+
+'The Vizier passed on courageously through halls, corridors, and
+apartments of magnificent structure, decorated and furnished in the most
+perfect style of elegant neatness. Everything he saw bore marks of
+splendour. The King's palace was then remembered in all its costliness, to
+be as much inferior to the present scene as could be detected by the
+lapidary's correct eye, when comparing the diamond with the pebble.
+
+'He was perfectly entranced as he gazed on the emerald gate, through which
+he had to pass to enter a garden of luxuriant beauty, where every shrub,
+plant, flower, and fruit teemed with richness. In the centre of a walk an
+old man was seated in a chair of burnished gold, clad in the costume of
+the country, who seemed to be engaged in breathing the sweet odours by
+which he was surrounded with a calm and tranquil countenance of joy. "I
+know your business," said the possessor of this paradise, to the Vizier as
+he advanced towards him; "you are come to obtain fruit from this tree,
+which bows its branches to the earth with the weight and number of its
+burden. Take one only; this is the fruit your master's dream pictured to
+his fancy."
+
+'Full of joy at the prospect of release from the dreaded anger of his
+royal master, the Vizier hastily plucked the fruit, and retreated by the
+way he came, without waiting to inquire what the old man meant by an
+exclamation he uttered at parting, which at the time seemed of lesser
+import than he afterwards imagined; but "Alas, the world" was recalled to
+his memory on his way back to the palace, and haunted his mind so strongly
+that he became restless and uneasy, even after the King had conferred
+honours and favours innumerable on him for his successful efforts in
+procuring that fruit which had never before been seen by any creature on
+earth but by the King, and by him only in a dream. "Alas, the world!" was
+like a dark envelope over every attempt to be cheerful; an impenetrable
+cloud seemed to pervade the Vizier's mind; he could think of nothing but
+the parting words of the old man, and his own folly in not inquiring his
+meaning.
+
+'The Vizier at last went to the same Durweish who had befriended him in
+his hour of need, and related to him the obstacle to his enjoyment of the
+blessings and honours which had crowned his success, and hoped from this
+holy-minded man to ascertain the meaning of that perplexing sentence,
+"Alas, the world!" The Durweish could not, or would not explain the old
+man's meaning; but willing to do the Vizier all possible service, he
+proposed giving him again the necessary passport to the inhabitant of the
+garden.
+
+'The fragment of a pitcher was again traced with the mystic characters,
+and with this in his hand the Vizier at midnight sought the tomb, where he
+found as easy access as on the former occasion. Everything he saw seemed
+doubly beautiful to his imagination since his former visit. He entered by
+the emerald gate and found the old man enjoying the magnificent and
+sense-devouring scene, with as much delight as mortals are wont to show
+when content fills the heart of man.
+
+'"I know your second errand, my friend," said the old man, "and am quite
+as willing to oblige you as on your first visit. Know then, Vizier, that
+whilst an inhabitant of earth, I followed the humble occupation of a
+village barber; by shaving and paring nails I earned my daily bread, and
+maintained my family. Sometimes I collected ten pice in my day of labour
+from house to house, and if twelve crowned my efforts I was fortunate.
+
+'"Many years passed over my head in this way, when one day I was less
+successful in my calling, and but half my usual earnings was all I had
+gained. On my way home I was ruminating on the scantiness of the meal
+likely to be procured by five pice for my family of seven people; the
+season was one of such great scarcity, that ten pice on other days had
+been of late barely sufficient to procure our daily food; and even with
+twelve we thought our wants had been but inadequately supplied. I went on
+grieving,--more for my family than myself, it is true,--and could have
+cried at the thought of the small portion of bread and dhall I should see
+allotted to each individual dependant on me.
+
+'"In my progress towards home, whilst regretting my poverty, I saw an
+unfortunate beggar, whose earnest entreaty seemed to make no impression on
+those who passed him by; for, in truth, when money is scarce and corn dear,
+people's hearts grow somewhat cold to the distresses of those who have no
+claim by kindred ties. But with me it was otherways: my scantiness seemed
+to make me more tender to the sorrows of my fellow-creatures. Poor soul,
+said I to myself, thou art starving, and no one gives ear to thy
+complaints; now if I take home this scanty produce of my day's labour, it
+will not give a meal to all my household; besides, they dined with me
+tolerably well yesterday. We shall not starve by one day's fasting;
+to-morrow Divine Providence may send me in the way of more bearded men
+than I have met to-day. I am resolved this poor man shall have the
+benefit of a good meal for once, which he supplicates for in the name of
+God.
+
+'"I then went to the beggar and threw the five pice into his upheld
+wrapper. 'There, brother,' said I, 'it is all I have; go, make yourself
+happy in a good meal, and remember me in your prayers.' 'May Heaven give
+you plenty in this world and bless your soul in the next!' was his only
+response. That prayer was heard, for during my further sojourn on earth
+abundance crowned my board; and here, it is unnecessary to remark on the
+bounties by which you perceive I am surrounded.
+
+'"That I said _Alas, the world!_ was from the reflection that I did but
+one act of real charity whilst I remained in it, and see what an abundance
+rewards me here. Had I known how such things are rewarded hereafter, I
+should have been more careful to have embraced the passing opportunities,
+while I walked with my fellow-man on earth. That I said, _Alas, the
+world_! to you, was an intended admonition to mankind; to convince them of
+the blessings bestowed in this world of bliss eternal, in reward for every
+proper use to which the benefits they received in their probationary state
+of existence may have been devoted. Go, friend! and profit by the example
+I present of heavenly rewards! Persevere in a course of practical charity
+in that world you still inhabit; and secure, whilst you may, the blessed
+rewards of eternity!"'
+
+
+[1] This term does not appear in the ordinary dictionaries or Census
+    reports. Sir C. Lyall, with much probability, suggests that the
+    correct form is Chalapdar, 'a cymbal player'.
+
+
+[2] A saint, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir, is buried at Bijaimandil, Delhi.
+    T.W. Beale, _Oriental Biographical Dictionary, s.v._
+
+[3] Fire-walking is practised by many Musalman devotees. In a case
+    recorded on the NW. frontier, a fakir and other persons walked
+    through a fire-trench and showed no signs of injury; others came out
+    with blistered feet and were jeered at as unorthodox Musalmans; a
+    young Sikh, shouting his Sikh battle-cry, performed the feat, and as
+    he escaped uninjured, a riot was with difficulty prevented.--T.L.
+    Pennell, _Among the Wild Tribes of the Afghan Frontier_, 1909, p. 37,
+    See M.L. Dames, 'Ordeals by Fire in the Punjab' (_Journal
+    Anthropological Society, Bombay_, vol. iv). The subject is fully
+    discussed by Sir J. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_[3], part vii, vol. ii,
+    1913, pp. 5 ff.
+
+[4] Madari fakirs, who take their names from Badi-ud-din Madar
+    Shah, a disciple of Shaikh Muhammad Taifuri Bastami, who
+    died A.D. 1434 at the ago of 124 years, and is buried at Makanpur in
+    the Cawnpur District, where an annual fair is held at his tomb. On the
+    anniversary of his death food is offered here, and amulets
+    _(baddhi)_ are hung round the necks of children. Some light a
+    charcoal fire, sprinkle ground sandalwood on it, and jumping into it,
+    tread out the embers with their feet, shouting out _dam Madar_, 'by
+    the breath of Madar!' the phrase being regarded as a charm against
+    snake-bite and scorpion stings. After the fire-walk the feet of the
+    performers are washed and are found to be uninjured. Others vow a
+    black cow, sacrifice it, and distribute the meat to beggars. The rite
+    is of Hindu origin, and Hindus believe that the saint is an
+    incarnation of their god Lakshmana.--Jaffur Sharreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_,
+    158 f.: W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the NW. P. and Oudh_, iii.
+    397 ff.
+
+[5] Dafali, from _daf_, a drum.
+
+[6] _Mela_.
+
+[7] Shaikh Saddu is the special saint of women. His name was
+    Muhi-ud-din, and he lived at Amroha or Sambhal, in the United
+    Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Some unorthodox Musalmans offer food in
+    the name, and hold a session, in which a female devotee becomes
+    possessed. A woman who wants a child says to her: 'Lady! I offer my
+    life to you that I may have a child', whereupon the devotee gives her
+    betel which she has chewed, or sweets, and this is supposed to bring
+    about the desired result (Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 184 f: W.
+    Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, i. 204). In
+    Bihar it is said that he had a lamp with four wicks, on lighting
+    which, four Jinns appeared, and he used them for the purpose of
+    debauchery. Finally, another Jinn slew him. People become possessed in
+    his name, and when summoned in cases of illness or trouble, announce
+    that a goat or a cock must be sacrificed to the saint (_Census Report,
+    Bengal_, 1901, i. 180).
+
+[8] _Chiragh_, an earthenware cup in which a wick is lighted.
+
+[9] _Kahani_, a folk-tale.
+
+[10] This tale comes from the Nala-Damayanti Saga. Nala finds a snake
+    in danger of death from a jungle fire, saves it, and is bitten by the
+    reptile, in the forehead, which causes him to become weak, deformed,
+    and black in colour. The snake turns out to be the King Snake,
+    Karkotaka. He says to Nala: 'I gave you this bite for your good, as
+    you will soon learn, in order that your deformity may conceal you in
+    carrying out your plans' (C.H. Tawney, _Katha-saral-Sagara_, i.
+    564 f.: C.H. Bompas, _Folklore of the Santal Parganas_, 149 ff.).
+
+[11] _Pipal, Ficus religiosa_.
+
+[12] A common Indian folk-tale. In one of the most common versions the
+    jackal tricks the ungrateful tiger, and induces him to go back to his
+    cage.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXVI
+
+  Superstition of the Natives.--Fair annually kept by Hindoos.--Supposed
+  practice of witchcraft by an old woman.--Assaulted by an infuriated
+  populace.--Rescued by a Native gentleman.--He inquires their reasons
+  for persecuting her.--Is instrumental in appeasing their
+  malignity.--Endeavours to remove their prejudice.--Proneness of
+  Asiatics to superstition.--Opinion of a Mussulmaun on the influence
+  of evil spirits.--Account of a woman possessed by an evil
+  spirit.--Dialogue with her during the paroxysms of her
+  affliction.--Means used for her recovery.--Further allusions to the
+  false notions of the Natives respecting supernatural agency...Page 387
+
+
+All the Natives of Hindoostaun appear to me to be, more or less, tinctured
+with superstitious notions, which, in many instances, are so grafted in
+their nature as to resist every attempt made to root out by arguments the
+folly of this great weakness.
+
+I hope to be forgiven for introducing in this Letter a few anecdotes and
+occurrences, which may illustrate that faulty side of the character of a
+people who have not derived those advantages which are calculated to
+displace superstition from the mind of man;--in a word, they are strangers
+to that Holy volume which teaches better things.
+
+A fair had been held at Lucknow one afternoon, not immediately within our
+view, but the holiday folks passed our house on the road to and from the
+scene of action. This fair or mayllah is visited by all ranks and classes
+of Natives; but it is strictly a Hindoo festival annually kept up in
+remembrance of the celebrated Kornea,[1] of Hindoo mythologic celebrity,
+who according to their tradition, when but a child, on a certain day
+killed with his slender arm a great tyrant, the giant Khaunce. Had there
+ever existed a suspicion that the Hindoos sprang from any of the tribes of
+Israel, I should have imagined the event they celebrate might have
+reference to the act of David, who with his single arm destroyed Goliath
+of Gath. This, however, can hardly be supposed, although the similarity is
+remarkably striking.
+
+The figure of Khaunce is made up of bamboo and paper, representing a human
+being of gigantic stature, and bearing a most fierce countenance, with
+some certain appendages, as horns, tail, &c., to render the figure more
+disgusting. It is placed near the bank of the river Goomtie, in a
+conspicuous situation, for the wonder and admiration of some, the terror
+of the weak, and the satisfaction of the believers in the fabled story of
+Kornea and his supposed supernatural power.
+
+Kornea is represented by a little boy, dressed in costly apparel, who is
+conveyed in grand procession, seated on an elephant, and surrounded by
+attendants on horseback, with bands of music and a multitude of followers,
+through the principal streets of the city to the chosen spot where Khaunce
+is placed to be attacked by the child.
+
+When the farce is properly prepared for the attack, the child, I am
+told,--for I have never seen the ceremony,--takes aim from his
+well-ornamented bow, and with a single arrow sends the monstrous giant
+into the river, whilst the shouts of the multitude declare the victory of
+Kornea, and the destruction of the enemy to the repose of mankind. The
+figure, I should have remarked, is made up of parts merely placed on each
+other, so that the force of an arrow is sufficient to dislodge the lofty
+erection as readily as a pack of cards in a mimic castle may be levelled
+by a breath. The mayllah concludes when the floating members of the figure
+have glided with the stream out of sight.
+
+A party of poor weak-minded mortals, pedestrians, but by their dress
+respectable people, returning from this day's mayllah when the evening was
+well advanced, suddenly halted near my house; my attention was soon
+aroused by violent screams, and exclamations of 'Seize her! seize her! she
+is eating my heart!' accompanied by all those indications of fear and pain,
+that did not fail to excite my sympathy; for I could not comprehend what
+was the matter and imagined the poor man had been wounded by the hand of
+an assassin.
+
+A crowd quickly assembled, and a great bustle ensued; I was really alarmed,
+and the tumult of voices continuing for some minutes, we distinctly heard
+the loud cries of a coarse female voice who seemed to be in great danger
+of losing her life by the rough treatment of a lawless rabble; this
+induced a Native gentleman of our family to venture out, to ascertain if
+possible the cause of the excitement, and also to endeavour to assuage the
+angry feelings of the turbulent party. His appearance amongst them
+produced the desired effect, they were silenced by his command; and when
+the man whose alarming screams had first assailed us, was brought before
+him, he found that he was a man of great respectability amongst the
+shop-keepers of the city, with a child of four years old in his arms, or
+rather I should say the child was seated astride on his father's hip, the
+arm encircling the child's body, as is the general manner of nursing
+amongst all classes of the Natives.
+
+On being questioned as to the cause of his raising the tumult, he declared
+that he was walking quietly on the roadway with his party, when the old
+woman (who was in custody) had touched him as he passed, when immediately
+his heart sickened, and he was sensible she had bewitched him, for she was
+still devouring his heart and feasting on his vitals.[2] 'I will certainly
+kill her!' he added, 'if she does not restore me to myself and my child
+likewise!'--'When was your child attacked?'--'About four days since,'
+answered the angry father.
+
+'Good man!' replied my friend; 'you must be under the influence of
+delusion, since you told me just now, the woman is a stranger to you, and
+that you never saw her before; how could she have bewitched your child
+then four days ago? I am sure weakening fears or illness has taken
+possession of your better feelings; the poor creature looks not like one
+who possesses the power you ascribe to her.'
+
+The old woman threw herself at the feet of my friend, and implored his
+protection, reiterating her gratitude to him as her preserver from the
+fury of an angry populace, who had already beaten her with slippers on her
+head, as a prelude to their future harsh intentions towards her. She
+stretched out her hands to touch him and bless him, as is the custom with
+the lower orders of women to their superior of either sex, but the
+multitude insisted she should not be allowed to let her unhallowed hands
+fall on the good Mussulmaun gentleman; in a second was to be heard the
+invocations of Hindoos and Mussulmauns, on their several sources of
+supreme aid, to save the gentleman from her power, for all the mob felt
+persuaded the old woman was a witch.
+
+'Be assured you are mistaken, I, at least, have no fears that her touch
+can harm me;' responded my friend. 'Exercise your reason--is she not a
+human being like ourselves? True she is old and ugly, but you are really
+wicked in accusing and ill-treating the poor wretch.' They were silenced
+for a few minutes, then declared she must be a witch, for her feet were
+crooked, she was desired to exhibit them, and they were found to be
+perfectly good straight feet.
+
+My friend inquired of the old woman who she was; she answered, 'A poor
+mazoorie[3] (corn-grinder), my husband and my sons are grass-cutters, our
+abode is in the serai (inn for travellers), we are poor, but honest
+people.' 'You see, Sir,' said my friend to the accusing person, 'your own
+weak fears have imposed upon your mind. This woman cannot have done you any
+injury; let her depart quietly to her home without farther annoyance.'
+
+'No!' replied the accuser, 'she must satisfy me she is not a witch, or
+worse than that, by allowing me to pluck a few hairs from her head.'--'
+What benefit do you propose to yourself by this measure?'--'Why I shall
+relieve myself from her power over me, by possessing hairs plucked from
+her head, on which my friends will exercise certain prayers, and thus the
+craft she has used to bewitch me will be dissolved, and I shall be
+restored to myself again.'[4]
+
+Willing as my friend was to get the poor woman released from the hands of
+the accusing party, and finding reason or argument of no avail in turning
+them from their purpose to detain her, the terms were acceded to on the
+one part, provided the woman herself was willing to comply, to which, when
+she was asked, she replied, 'I am not the wretched creature my accuser
+imagines, and therefore can have no objection, on condition that I may be
+allowed afterwards to return to my home in peace.'
+
+The poor old head was now in danger of being plucked of its white hairs by
+the surrounding crowd, whose extravagant desire to possess the, to them,
+invaluable specific against witchcraft--for they still believed she was
+actually a witch--led them to overlook humanity and feeling; but the
+peacemaker's voice was again heard, commanding the crowd to desist, and
+they should all be gratified, when the scissors he had sent a servant to
+fetch, might enable them to possess the prize without inflicting pain on
+the poor persecuted woman.
+
+Whilst this was in agitation, and before the scissors were used, several
+well-armed soldiers, attracted by the appearance of a riot, had made their
+way to the scene of contention, who recognizing the old woman as the
+mother and wife of their three grass-cutters, immediately took the poor
+old soul under their protection, and conveyed her safely from her
+tormentors. My friend was very well satisfied to resign his charge to
+their guardianship, and not a little pleased that he had been instrumental
+in preserving a fellow-creature from the lawless hands of the foolishly
+superstitious of his countrymen.
+
+It is lamentable to witness how powerful an ascendancy superstition sways
+over the minds of Asiatics generally. The very wisest, most learned, most
+religious, even, are more or less tinctured with this weakness; and, I may
+add, that I have hardly met with one person entirely free from the opinion
+that witchcraft and evil agency are in the hands of some, and often
+permitted to be exercised on their neighbours. The truly religious people
+declare to me, that they only are preserved from such calamities who can
+place their whole reliance on the power and goodness of God alone; Who,
+they are persuaded, will never suffer His faithful servants to be
+persecuted by the evil one in any shape, or under any mysterious agency.
+Perfect dependance on Divine Providence is the Mussulmaun's only safeguard,
+for they declare it to be their belief that evil agency exists still, as
+it did in the first ages of the world. Faith and trust in God can alone
+preserve them; when that fails, or if they have never learned to rely on
+Him for protection, they are necessarily exposed to the influence of that
+evil agency by which so many have suffered both in body and soul amongst
+their country-people.
+
+The return of our friend, with the explanation of the scene I had
+witnessed from my window, led me to inquire very minutely into the opinion
+and general belief of the Mussulmauns on such subjects. A sensible, clever
+gentleman of that persuasion then present, told me that there could be no
+doubt witchcraft was often practised in Lucknow, detailing things he had
+often heard, about the wicked amongst human beings who practised muntah[5]
+(incantations); and perhaps would have explained the motives and the
+acquired power if I had been disposed to listen. I inquired of my friend,
+as he had always appeared a religious person, whether he really believed
+in magic, genii, evil agency, &c. He told me, that he did believe
+certainly that such things still existed; but he added, 'such power can
+only work on the weak or the wicked, for that heart whose dependance is
+wholly fixed on God, has a sure protection from every evil, whether of man
+or spirit. You have in your sacred book a full and ample delineation of
+the works of magic, in the period of Moses, and also of Saul. In later
+periods you have proofs of greater weight with you, where Christ cast out
+devils and gave the same power to His disciples. My opinion,' he added,
+'will not alter yours, nor do I wish it; neither would I argue or dispute
+with you on subjects become obsolete in the enlightened world of which you
+are a member, but as far as my own individual opinion is concerned, it is
+my belief that all things are possible to the Almighty power and will of
+God. And I see no right we have either to inquire why, or to dispute about
+the motives by which His wisdom permits the weak to be afflicted for a
+season, or the wicked to be punished in this life.'
+
+I inquired if he had ever witnessed any of the strange events I
+continually heard his people speak of, as having occurred in their
+neighbourhood, such as people possessed with unclean spirits, sufficient
+to confirm his belief in their probability. He replied, 'I have not only
+witnessed but have, under Divine Providence, been the instrument to convey
+relief to several different women, who suffered from being possessed by
+evil spirits.' He then related the following, which I copy from the notes
+I took at the time of his relation:--
+
+'When I was a very young man, my mind was bent on inquiring into the truth
+of the generally believed opinion, that some righteous men of our faith
+had power granted to them to remove evil spirits from their victims. I
+took the advice of a certain venerable person, who was willing to impart
+his knowledge to me. Preparatory to my own practice, I was instructed to
+forsake the haunts of man, and give myself wholly to prayer. Accordingly I
+absented myself from my home, family, and friends, and led the life you
+would call a hermit's; my food was simply herbs and fruits, and
+occasionally an unleavened cake of my own preparing, whilst the nearest
+tank of water supplied me with the only beverage I required; my clothing a
+single wrapper of calico; my house a solitary chupha (a thatch of coarse
+grass tied over a frame of bamboo), and this placed on the margin of a
+wood, where seldom the feet of man strayed to interfere with, or disturb
+my devotion. My days and nights were given to earnest prayer; seeking God
+and offering praises with my mouth to Him, constituted my business and my
+delight for nearly two whole years, during which time my friends had
+sought me in vain, and many a tear I fear was shed at the uncertain fate
+of one they loved so well in my father's house.'
+
+'The simplicity of my mode of life, added to the veneration and respect
+always paid to the Durweish's character, raised me in the opinion of the
+few who from time to time had intruded on my privacy, to ask some boon
+within my limits to give as a taawise[6] (talisman), which is in fact a
+prayer, or else one of the names or attributes of God, in such a character
+as best suited the service they required; for you must be told, in the
+Mussulmaun faith, we count ninety-nine different names or titles to the
+great merciful Creator and only true God. In many cases the taawise I had
+so given, had been supposed by the party receiving them, to have been
+instrumental in drawing down upon them the favour of God, and thus having
+their difficulties removed; this induced others influenced by their report,
+to apply to me, and at last my retirement was no longer the hermit's cell,
+but thronged as the courtyard of a king's palace. My own family in this
+way discovered my retreat, they urged and prevailed on me to return
+amongst them, and by degrees to give up my abstemious course of life.
+
+'The fame of my devotion, however, was soon conveyed to the world; it was
+a task to shake off the entreaties of my poor fellow-mortals who gave me
+more credit for holiness of life than I felt myself deserving of. Yet
+sympathy prevailed on me to comfort when I could, although I never dared
+to think myself deserving the implicit confidence they placed in me.
+
+'On one occasion I was induced, at the urgent entreaties of an old and
+valued friend, to try the effects of my acquired knowledge in favour of a
+respectable female, whose family, and her husband in particular, were in
+great distress at the violence of her sufferings. They fancied she was
+troubled by a demon, who visited her regularly every eighth day; her
+ravings when so possessed endangered her health, and destroyed the
+domestic harmony of the house.
+
+'The day was fixed for my visit, and the first exercise of my acquirements;
+even then I had doubts on my mind whether the demons so often quoted did
+really exist, or were but the disordered wanderings of imagination; and if
+they did exist, I still was doubtful as to the extent of my knowledge
+being sufficient to enable me to be the instrument for effecting the
+desired benefit. Trusting faithfully, however, in God's help, and desiring
+nothing but His glory, I commenced my operations. The woman was seated on
+a charpoy (bedstead) behind a wadded curtain, which hid her from my view.
+Respectable females, you are aware, are not allowed to be seen by any
+males except very near relatives. I took my seat opposite the curtain with
+the husband of the suffering woman, and entered into conversation with him
+on general subjects.
+
+'I soon heard the wild speeches of the woman, and my heart fully
+sympathized in her sufferings. After preparing the sweet-scented flowers
+for my purpose (it is believed all aerial beings feed on the scent of
+flowers), fire was brought in a chafing-dish, at my request, and a copper
+plate was placed on this fire, on which I strewed my prepared flowers
+mixed up with drugs. Instantly the demon became furious in the woman,
+calling out to me, "Spare me! spare me!"
+
+'I should remark that the woman was so entirely hidden by the curtain as
+to leave it beyond a doubt that she could not see what I was doing on the
+other side, but she seemed, by the instinct of the evil spirit which
+possessed her, to be thoroughly acquainted with the nature of my visit,
+and the exertion I was making by prayer, for her release from the intruder.
+The women attending her, her friends and relatives, had no power to
+restrain her in the violence of her paroxysms; she tore the curtain with
+more than human force, and it gave way, leaving her and the other women
+exposed to my gaze.
+
+'I would, from modesty, have retired, but her husband, having confidence
+in my ability to help his afflicted wife, whom he loved most tenderly,
+entreated me not to retire, but to think of the woman as my own sister.
+The woman, or rather the demon in the woman, told me what I was going to
+do was not withheld from her knowledge, desiring me immediately to leave
+the place.
+
+'"Who are you?" I inquired.--"I am the spirit of an old woman, who once
+inhabited this house;" was answered by a coarse harsh voice.--"Why have
+you dared to possess yourself of this poor female? she never could have
+done you any injury."--"No," was answered, "not the female, but her
+husband has taken possession of this house, and I am here to torment him
+for it, by visiting his wife."
+
+'"Do you know that I am permitted to have power to destroy you in this
+fire?"--"Yes, but I hope you will shew mercy; let me escape and I will
+flee to the forest."--"I cannot agree to this, you would then, being at
+liberty, fasten yourself on some other poor mortal, who may not find one
+to release him from your tyranny; I shall destroy you now;" and I was
+actually preparing my methods for this purpose, when the screaming became
+so violent, the poor woman's agony so terrific, that I dreaded her instant
+death from the present agony of her ravings.
+
+'"How am I to know you are what you represent yourself to be?" said I,
+trying the softest manner of speech; (the poor victim appeared at ease
+immediately).--"Ask me any question you please," was replied, apparently
+by the woman, "and I will answer you." I rose and went into the front
+entrance of the house, which is divided from the zeenahnah by a high wall,
+as are all our Mussulmaun houses, and returned with something closely
+concealed in my hand. I asked, "What is enclosed in my clenched hand?"--"A
+piece of charcoal," was the prompt reply. It was so in truth; I could no
+longer doubt.
+
+'Another of the party was sent to the outer house; and, again I inquired,
+"What is in this person's hand?"--"Grains of corn."--"Of what
+nature?"--"Wheat." The hand was opened, and the contents were really as
+was said;--confirming to all present, if they had ever doubted, that the
+poor woman was possessed by the demon, as I have before represented.
+Nearly two hours were spent in the most singular conversations, which,
+whilst they amused me exceedingly, convinced me by my own observations of
+the truth of that which I had but imperfectly believed before these trials.
+
+'"I will certainly destroy you in this fire, unless you give me ample
+assurances that you will never again annoy or torment this poor
+inoffensive woman;" and, as I presented my preparation, the screams, the
+cries of "Spare me! oh, spare me this fiery torment!" were repeated with
+redoubled force. I asked, "What is your belief?"--"I believe in one God,
+the Creator of all things;" was promptly answered.--"Then away to the
+forest, the boon you first craved from me, nor again venture to return to
+this house."
+
+'The instant my command was given, the woman was calm, her reason restored
+immediately; her shame and confusion were beyond expressing by words, as
+she awoke from what she termed a dream of heavy terror that had
+overpowered her. The appearance of a strange man,--herself but half clad,
+for in the moments of raving she had torn off parts of her clothing,
+leaving the upper part of her person entirely uncovered--nearly deprived
+her again of returning reason; her husband's presence, however, soothed
+her mind; but it was some time before her confusion was sufficiently
+banished to enable her to converse freely with me. In answer to the
+questions I asked of her, she replied that she had not the least
+recollection of what had occurred. She fancied herself overpowered by a
+dreadful dream which had agitated her greatly, though she could not
+recollect what was the nature of that dream. I ordered some cooling
+beverage to be prepared for my patient, and recommending rest and quiet,
+took my leave, promising to visit her again in my professional character,
+should any return of the calamity render my visit necessary. The whole
+family heaped blessings and prayers on my head for the benefit they
+believed I had been the instrument of Providence in rendering to their
+house.
+
+'This was my first attempt at the practice I had been instructed in; and,
+you may believe, I was gratified with the success with which my endeavours
+had been crowned. For several months the lady continued quite well, when
+some symptoms of irritability of temper and absence of mind warned her
+husband and family of approaching danger upon which, they urged and
+entreated my second visit. I went accompanied by several friends who were
+curious to witness the effect expected to be produced by my prayer. It
+appeared the poor woman was more calm on my first entrance, than when _I_
+had previously visited her; but after repeating my form of prayer, the
+most violent ravings followed every question I put to her.
+
+'Many hours were spent in this way. The replies to my questions were
+remarkable; she always answered, as if by the spirit with which she was
+possessed. I demanded, "Why have you dared to return to this poor
+creature? do you doubt my ability to destroy you?" The reply was, "had no
+power to fix myself again on the woman, until you entered the house, but I
+have hovered over her."--I said, "I do not believe that you are the soul
+of a deceased old woman as you represent yourself to be; perhaps you may
+wish to convince me, by answering the questions that will be made by me
+and my friends." The several questions were then put and answered in a way
+that surprised all present.
+
+Afterwards, I said, "You professed when here on a former occasion, to
+believe in God. Answer me now, to what sect of people did you
+belong?"--"Sheikh," was the reply, "and I believe in one God of mercy and
+of truth,"'--"Then you are my brother,'" I said, rising, and holding out
+my hand to the woman, "we will shake hands."---"No, No!" replied the woman,
+with great agitation and terror, "I beseech you not to touch me; the fire
+which I dread would then torment me more than I could bear. I would
+willingly shake hands with all here present, that would give me no pain,
+but with you the case is different; one touch of yours would destroy me
+immediately. Not to prolong my story, at the husband's earnest entreaty,
+the evil soul was destroyed by the practice I had learned, and the poor
+woman, restored to health and peace, was no more troubled by her enemy."
+
+When this story was related, I fancied it a mere fable of the relator's
+brain to amuse his audience; but on a more intimate acquaintance with him,
+I find it to be his real opinion that he had been instrumental in the way
+described, in removing evil spirits from the possessed; nor could I ever
+shake his confidence by any argument brought forward for that purpose
+during many years of intimate acquaintance; which is the more to be
+regretted as in all other respects he possesses a very superior and
+intelligent mind, and as far as _I_ could judge of his heart by his life,
+always appeared to be a really devout servant of God.
+
+It is not surprising that the strongly grounded persuasion should be too
+deeply rooted to give way to my feeble efforts; time, but more especially
+the mercy of Divine goodness extended to them, will dissolve the delusion
+they are as yet fast bound by, as it has in more enlightened countries,
+where superstition once controlled both the ignorant and the scholar, in
+nearly as great a degree as it is evident it does at this day the people
+of India generally. Here the enlightened and the unenlightened are so
+strongly persuaded of the influence of supernatural evil agency, that if
+any one is afflicted with fits, it is affirmed by the lookers on, of
+whatever degree, that the sick person is possessed by an unclean spirit.
+
+If any one is taken suddenly ill, and the doctor cannot discover the
+complaint, the opinion is that some evil spirit has visited the patient,
+and the holy men of the city are then applied to, who by prayer may draw
+down relief for the beloved and suffering object. Hence arises the number
+of applications to the holy men for a written prayer, called taawise (
+talisman) which the people of that faith declare will not only preserve
+the wearer from the attacks of unclean spirits, genii, &c., but these
+prayers will oblige such spirits to quit the afflicted immediately on
+their being placed on the person. The children are armed from their birth
+with talismans; and if any one should have the temerity to laugh at the
+practice, he would be judged by these superstitious people as worse than a
+heathen.
+
+
+[1] Kanhaiya, a name of the demigod Krishna, whom Kansa, the wicked King
+    of Mathura, tried to destroy. For the miracle-play of the
+    destruction of Kansa by Krishna and his brother Balarama, see Prof.
+    W. Ridgeway, _The Origin of Tragedy_, 140, 157, 190. The author seems
+    to refer to the Ramlila festival.
+
+[2] For cases of witches sucking out the vitals of their victims, see
+    W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India_, ii. 268 ff.
+
+[3] _Mazdurni_, a day labourer.
+
+[4] On the efficacy of shaving or plucking out hair from a witch in order
+    to make her incapable of bewitching people, see W. Crooke, _Popular
+    Religion and Folklore of N. India_[2], ii. 250 f.
+
+[5] _Mantra_.
+
+[6] _Ta'wiz_, see p. 214.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXVII
+
+  Memoir of the life of Meer Hadjee Shah.--His descent.--Anecdote of a
+  youthful exploit.--His predilection for the army.--Leaves his home to
+  join the army of a neighbouring Rajah.--Adventures on the way.--Is
+  favourably received and fostered by the Rajah.--His first pilgrimage
+  to Mecca.--Occurrences during his stay in Arabia.--Description of a
+  tiger-hunt.--Detail of events during his subsequent pilgrimages.--The
+  plague.--Seizure by pirates.--Sketch of the life of Fatima, an
+  Arabian lady.--Relieved from slavery by Meer Hadjee Shah.--He marries
+  her.--Observations on the piety of his life.--Concluding
+  remarks...Page 400
+
+
+The name of Meer Hadjee Shah has so often occurred in my Letters, that I
+feel persuaded a brief sketch of his life may be acceptable here, more
+particularly as that venerated man presented to my immediate observation a
+correct picture of the true Mussulmaun. I can only regret my inability to
+do justice to the bright character of my revered father-in-law, whose
+conduct as a devout and obedient servant to his Maker, ruled his actions
+in every situation of life, and to whom my debt of gratitude is boundless,
+not alone for the affectionate solicitude invariably manifested for my
+temporal comforts, but for an example of holy living, which influences
+more than precept. This much valued friend of mine was the mouth of wisdom
+to all with whom he conversed, for even when intending to amuse by
+anecdotes, of which his fund was inexhaustible, there was always a moral
+and religious precept attached to the relation, by which to benefit his
+auditor, whilst he riveted attention by his gentle manners and
+well-selected form of words.
+
+Before we met, I had often heard him described by his dutiful son, but
+with all that affection had prompted him to say of his father, I was not
+prepared to expect the dignified person I found him,--a perfect model of
+the patriarchs of old to my imagination, nor could I ever look at him
+through our years of intimacy, without associating him in my mind with
+Abraham, the father of his people.
+
+His form was finely moulded, his height above six feet, his person erect,
+even in age, his fine cast of countenance beamed with benevolence and
+piety, and his dark eye either filled with tears of sympathy or
+brightening with joy, expressed both superior intelligence and intensity
+of feeling. His venerable flowing beard gave a commanding majesty to the
+figure before me, whilst his manners were graceful as the most polished
+even of European society. Raising his full eyes in pious thankfulness to
+God (whose mercy had thus filled his cup of earthly happiness to the brim),
+he embraced us both with a warmth of pressure to his throbbing heart, that
+pronounced more than his words, the sincerity of our welcome. Never have I
+forgotten the moment of our meeting. The first impression lasted through
+our long acquaintance, for he proved indeed a real solace during my
+pilgrimage in a strange land.
+
+The subject of my present Letter, Meer Mahumud Hadjee Shah, was a native
+of Loodeeanah,[1] the capital city of the Punjaab territory, so called
+from the five rivers which water that tract of country, and derived from
+punje (five), aab (water). He descended through a long line of pure Syaad
+blood, from Mahumud, many of his ancestors having been remarkable for
+their holy lives, and his grandsire in particular, a singularly devout
+Durweish, of whom are related in the family many interesting incidents and
+extraordinary escapes from peril which distinguished him as a
+highly-favoured mortal. On one occasion, when attacked by a ravenous tiger,
+his single blow with a sabre severed the head from the carcase: the sabre
+is still retained in the family with veneration, as the instrument by
+which the power and goodness of God was manifested to their sire.
+
+The father of Meer Hadjee Shah was a Kauzy (Judge) of the city of
+Loodeeanah, a man greatly admired for his extensive knowledge of the
+Mahumudan law, respected for his general worthiness, and venerated for his
+holy life. He had a large family, of whom the subject before me was the
+eldest son; his father designed to instruct and prepare him as his
+successor in the same honourable employment, whenever old age or
+infirmities should render his own retirement from the office necessary.
+But,--as the son always regretted when talking over the circumstance, with
+becoming remorse that his mind was differently swayed,--through an
+enterprising spirit he preferred the adventurous to the more sober calling
+for which his father had originally destined him.
+
+To illustrate the temper of his youth, his often repeated anecdote of an
+event which occurred when he was but twelve years old may here be
+presented:--
+
+'After our hours of study, boys of my own age were allowed to meet
+together for exercise and amusement, without the controlling presence of
+our Maulvees (tutors). Many an enterprising feat had been performed during
+our hours of play, but none that has impressed me with so keen a
+remembrance of my youthful follies as the one I am about to relate. We had
+long observed the wild pigeons, which owned not any earthly master, take
+refuge for the night in an old and dilapidated well outside the town; a
+plan was laid between my companions and myself to possess ourselves of
+some of these pigeons, and one evening we assembled by agreement to put
+our project in force.
+
+'A strong rope was procured, to which we fastened a piece of board, so as
+to form a seat; a bag was provided, into which the game was to be
+deposited as fast as it was caught; and a thick stick, with which to
+ascertain in the holes the situation of each pigeon, which was to be
+seized by the neck when thus discovered. Everything was arranged when,
+"Who will be lowered first?" was inquired by the head of our party. Meer
+Mahumud was not a little pleased when it was suggested, that he was the
+bravest boy among them; and with a proud feeling of ecstasy my young heart
+bounded whilst I seated myself on the board and was lowered from the
+summit for several yards down the well, my young companions holding fast
+the rope outside from which I was suspended; the bag conveniently slung
+across my left shoulder, with the open mouth in front, to enable me to
+deposit my gleanings without delay.
+
+'I had collected several pigeons in this way; and, at last, my stick was
+presented to search in a new aperture, where it seemed to be resisted by
+something more than the soft feathers of a bird; fearless as I was, my
+young hand was thrust into the hole, and I caught at something with a firm
+grasp, which at once convinced me could not be a pigeon; but I resolved
+not to part from my prize very readily, and drawing my hand and arm from
+the hole with great difficulty (putting all my youthful strength and
+energy to the task), I discovered my prize was a living snake of rather a
+large size.
+
+'Fearful to announce the nature of my present prisoner to the youngsters,
+at whose mercy I then was, lest they, through terror, should let the rope
+go, and thus precipitate me to the bottom of the well, I called out, "Draw
+up! draw up quickly! delay not, brothers!" and I was soon brought to the
+mouth of the well with the snake coiled round my arm, and firmly grasped
+just under the head, so that it could not extricate itself or injure me.
+The boys soon assisted me off the top of the well, and brought pieces of
+stone, with which they bruised the snake's head until I was relieved from
+its pressure on my arm by its death. I should remark, that I had presence
+of mind to rub the head against the wall on my ascent, which had
+considerably lessened the snake's pressure on my arm, and I believe it was
+more than half dead before I had reached the top.
+
+'My arm pained me dreadfully, but still my greatest agony was for fear my
+father should hear of my exploit, which I felt convinced would not only
+excite his present anger, but be the means of preventing my having another
+opportunity of enjoying the society and amusements of my young companions.
+Strict secrecy was therefore enjoined by my command upon the whole party;
+and returning to my home, I thought to disguise my real feelings by
+seeking repose instead of the evening dinner which was prepared for me. My
+affectionate mother had no suspicion that I was ill, although she was much
+distressed that play had destroyed the appetite of her son. I had dozed
+for some hours, when the agony of my arm awoke me as from an uneasy dream;
+I could hardly recollect the last evening's adventure, for my mind seemed
+much bewildered. My groans, however, brought my mother to my bed-side,
+whose tender care was exercised in fomenting my arm, which she found much
+swollen and inflamed.
+
+'The secret of my enterprize was never divulged by me until the news of my
+sudden illness was reported in the neighbourhood; when some of my young
+friends told the tale, and it was conveyed by one of the gossiping old
+women, of the city to the zeenahnah of my mother. My arm was for a long
+period rendered useless, and I was under the care of doctors for many
+months; the whole skin peeled off, and left me cause for remembering the
+circumstance, although it did not cure me of that preference for
+enterprize, which afterwards drew me from my home to visit other places,
+and to search for new adventures. Often did I remonstrate with my father
+on the subject of my future profession: how often did I declare my
+disinclination to pursue those studies (deemed essential to fit me for the
+office I was in due time to be appointed to), and avow my predilection for
+a military life!'
+
+At that period of Indian History, the Punjaab district was disturbed by
+the depredations of the Mahrattas.[2] Hordes of those lawless banditti
+were in the habit of frequent encroachments on the Mussulmaun possessions,
+committing frightful enormities in their predatory excursions against
+towns and villages, spreading terror and desolation wherever they
+approached. On this account military ardour was encouraged by the heads of
+families, and the youth of respectable Mussulmauns were duly instructed in
+the use of defensive weapons, as a measure of prudence by which they were
+enabled, whenever called upon, to defend the lives and property of their
+neighbours as well as of their individual families.
+
+In describing this period of his life, I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shah
+confess with remorse, that he was wont to pay far greater attention to his
+military instructors than to the Maulvee's lectures on law or other dry
+subjects of books, as he then often thought them, and at fourteen years
+old he was perfect master of the sabre, spear, matchlock, and the bow;
+able even then to defend himself against an enemy, or take the palm of
+victory, when practising those arts with the youth of his own standing.
+
+At seventeen, his love of enterprize drew him from the calm study of his
+tutors under the parental roof, to seek amongst strangers employment
+better suited to his inclination. His early adventures were attended with
+many vicissitudes and trials, which would (however interesting to those
+who have loved him) appear tedious to the general reader; I shall,
+therefore, but digress occasionally with such anecdotes as maybe generally
+interesting. One which presents him in the early part of his career
+amongst strangers in a position which marks the bravery of his youth, I
+shall take the liberty of introducing in his own words:--
+
+'After a good night's repose, I was desirous of pursuing my march, and
+prepared to take leave of my hospitable entertainer (a Kauzy of the
+village), from whom I had received the utmost attention and civility. This
+kind-hearted man was unwilling to allow of my journeying alone, and
+insisted that two of his menservants should accompany me that day's march
+at least. I had no fears, nor much to lose beside my life, and for some
+time resisted the offer, but without avail. The men therefore accompanied
+me, and after six hours' walk, I prevailed on them to take refreshment and
+rest at the serai of the village, through which we had to pass, with leave
+to retrace their way home afterwards with my duty to their master.
+
+'Released from their guardianship, I felt my own independence revive, and
+bounded on as lively as the antelope, full of hope that I might yet reach
+the Rajah's territory by nightfall, who, I had heard, was willing to give
+employment to the enterprising youth of Loodeeanah, in the army he was
+then raising. I must have walked since the morning near twenty koss (forty
+miles) without food or water; but I neither felt hunger nor fatigue, so
+deeply was my heart engaged in the prospect of a military life. At length
+hunger awakened me to a sense of my forlorn condition, for I had left home
+without a coin in my possession; and although I passed through many
+inhabited villages where relief would have been gladly tendered, if I had
+only applied for it, yet my pride forbade the humble words of supplicating
+for a meal; hungry as I was, death even would have been preferable at that
+time to breathing out a want amongst strangers.
+
+'I was overjoyed on approaching a cultivated tract of country to find a
+field of wheat, ripe for the harvest, evincing the great Creator's
+bountiful hand, and hesitated not, without a scruple, to possess myself of
+an occasional handful as I passed along, rubbing the ears and eating as I
+went, to save that time I deemed so precious; for my anxiety to reach the
+Rajah and employment, increased as the day advanced. I had traversed near
+thirty koss on foot, scarcely having halted since the dawning day; this to
+a young man who had been through life indulged by the luxury of a horse
+for exercise, whilst under the parental roof, may be imagined to have been
+no trifling undertaking. But buoyant youth, filled with hopes of honour
+and preferment is regardless of those difficulties which must subdue the
+indolent or less aspiring spirit.
+
+'At the extremity of a large field through which I had to pass, my eye
+rested on a man with two oxen, certain indications, I imagined, of a well
+of water being adjacent for the purpose of irrigation, towards whom I
+approached sufficiently near to inquire if a draught of pure water could
+be obtained for a thirsty traveller. The sturdy farmer-looking man seemed
+to view me with scrutiny, without deigning to reply; my question was
+repeated with civility, but no answer was given, and I then fancied his
+looks foreboded no good meaning; he held in his hand a large heavy stick
+studded at the top with iron rings (in common use with the lower orders of
+people as a weapon of defence against robbers, tigers, wolves, or
+reptiles), but as I stood far enough off to be out of immediate danger of
+a sudden attack, if such was premeditated, the surly look of his
+countenance gave me little concern until he called out in a commanding
+tone, "Youngster! off with your garments; lay down those bow and arrows
+instantly, or I will fell you to the earth with this staff that is in my
+hand!" which he raised in a position to prove himself in earnest.
+
+'My surprise was great, but it did not put me off my guard, and I replied
+with courage, that his insolent demand would not meet with a willing
+compliance; I was able to defend myself, young as I was, against his
+treacherous intentions on an unoffending traveller; and I prepared my bow
+in the expectation that he would either be deterred, or leave me no
+alternative but to use it in self-defence. Two arrows were promptly
+prepared, one placed in my bow, the other in my girdle, as he advanced
+repeating his demand, with the countenance of a ruffian, and his club
+elevated; he no doubt fancied that the bow was a plaything in the hand of
+a mere ignorant stripling. I warned him repeatedly not to advance, or my
+bow should teach him that my young arm was well instructed.
+
+'He however dared my vengeance, and advanced still nearer, when seeing I
+had no alternative, I aimed at his legs, not desiring to revenge but to
+deter my enemy; the arrow entered his thigh, passing completely through:
+he was astonished and stood like a statue. I then desired him to throw
+down his club, with which I walked away, or rather ran a sufficient
+distance to relieve myself from further expectation of annoyances from my
+enemy or the villagers.
+
+'Much time had been spent in that contest, which had left me the victor; I
+waited not however to witness his further movements, but with hastened
+steps in half an hour I reached the Rajah's palace. Several soldiers were
+guarding outside the gate, where stood, as is usual, charpoys for their
+use, on one of which, uninvited, I seated myself, fatigued by my long and
+unusual exercise. The men with great civility offered me water and their
+hookha, and when refreshed I answered their many inquiries, founded very
+naturally on my appearance, my youth, and travelling without an attendant.
+
+'I frankly told them that the Rajah's famed liberality had drawn me from
+Loodeeanah to seek employment as a soldier under his command. One of my
+new acquaintance recommended my immediately going into the palace, where
+the Rajah was seated in Durbar (holding his Court) for the express purpose
+of receiving applicants for the army now raising, under the expectation of
+a hostile visit from the Sikhs. I followed my guide through several
+avenues and courts until we arrived at the Baarah Daree[3] (twelve doors),
+or state apartments.'
+
+I must, however, here abstain from following Meer Hadjee Shah through the
+whole detail of his intimacy with the Rajah, which continued for some
+years, and by whom he was fostered as a favourite son; he accompanied the
+Rajah to the field against the Sikhs, whose singular habits and manners,
+both in battle and in their domestic circle, he has often amused his
+friends by relating.
+
+His first pilgrimage to Mecca was undertaken whilst a very young man,
+travelling the whole way by land, and enduring many trials and hardships
+in what he deemed 'The road of God'. On one occasion he was beset by
+wolves whilst on foot; but as he always confessed his preservation was by
+the power and goodness of Divine Providence, so in the present instance
+the wolves even ran from the blows of his staff, howling to their dens.
+
+During his stay in Arabia, when on his pilgrimage, his funds were
+exhausted, and he had no knowledge of a single individual from whom he
+could condescend to borrow, but as he always put his sole trust in God, a
+way was made for his returning prosperity in rather a singular and
+unexpected manner.
+
+A rich Begum, the widow of a wealthy Arab merchant, had long suffered from
+a severe illness, and had tried every medical prescription within her
+reach without relief. On a certain night she dreamed that a Syaad pilgrim
+from India, who had taken up his abode at the serai outside the town,
+possessed a medicine which would restore her to health. She had faith in
+her dream, and sent a polite message to the Syaad, who was described
+minutely by the particulars of her dream. Meer Hadjee Shah attended the
+summons, but assured the lady who conversed with him, that he was not
+acquainted with medicine; true, he had a simple preparation, which enabled
+him to benefit a fellow pilgrim, when by circumstances no better adviser
+could be found: he then offered her the powder, giving directions how to
+use it, and left her. In the evening a handsome dinner was conveyed by
+this lady's orders to Meer Hadjee Shah, which he accepted with gratitude
+to God, and for several days this was repeated, proving a sensible benefit
+to him, and to others equally destitute of the means of present provision,
+who were abiding at the serai.
+
+In the course of a week he was again summoned to attend the Begum, who was
+entirely cured of her long illness, which she attributed solely to the
+medicine he had left with her, and she now desired to prove her gratitude
+by a pecuniary compensation. He was too much gratified at the efficacy of
+his simple remedy, to require further recompense than the opportunity he
+had enjoyed of rendering himself useful to a fellow-creature, and would
+have refused the reward tendered, but the lady had resolved not to be
+outdone in generosity; and finding how he was circumstanced by another
+channel, she made so many earnest appeals, that he at last consented to
+accept as much as would defray his expenses for the journey to the next
+place he was on the point of embarking for, where he expected to meet with
+his Indian friends, and a supply of cash.
+
+On one occasion, he was exposed to danger from a tiger, but, to use his
+own words, 'as my trust was placed faithfully in God, so was I preserved
+by Divine favour'. The anecdote relative to that event, I cannot pass over,
+and therefore I relate it, as near as I recollect, in his own words:--'I
+was at Lucknow during the reign of the Nuwaub, Shujah ood Dowlah,[4] who
+delighted much in field sports; on one occasion it was announced that he
+intended to hunt tigers, and orders were issued to the nobility and his
+courtiers, requiring their attendance on elephants, to accompany him on a
+certain day. The preparations were made on a grand scale, and excited a
+lively interest throughout the city. I had never been present at a tiger
+hunt, and I felt my usual ambition to share in the adventures of that day
+too irresistible to be conquered by suggestions of prudence; and
+accordingly I went, on horseback, accompanied by a friend about my own age,
+falling into the rear of the Nuwaub's cavalcade which was far more
+splendid than any thing I had before witnessed, the train of elephants
+richly caparisoned, on which were seated in their gold or silver howdahs,
+the whole strength of the Court in rich dresses.
+
+'The hunting party had penetrated the jungle a considerable distance
+before a single trace of a tiger could be discovered, when, at length it
+was announced to the Nuwaub that the sheekaarees[5] (huntsmen) had reason
+to believe one at least was concealed in the high grass near which the
+party approached. The order was then given to loosen the led buffaloes,
+and drive them towards the grass which concealed the game, a practice at
+that time common with Native sportsmen to rouse the ferocious animal, or
+to attract him, if hungry, from his lurking place; but it seemed as if the
+buffaloes were scared by the number of elephants, for with all the goading
+and whipping, which was dealt to them unsparingly, they could not be
+pressed into the service for which they were provided.
+
+'The Nuwaub was remarkable for bravery, and prided himself on his
+successful shot; he therefore caused his elephant to advance to the edge
+of the high grass, that he might have the satisfaction of the first fire,
+when the animal should be roused. Some delay in this, induced the Nuwaub
+to order the dunkah-wallah (kettle-drummer) on horseback to be guarded on
+each side by soldiers with drawn sabres, to advance in front and beat his
+drums. The first sounds of the dunkah roused the tiger: this being
+instantly perceived, the horsemen wheeled round, and were in a second or
+two cleared from danger. The tiger sprang towards the elephant, but was
+instantly thrown back by her trunk to a good distance, the Nuwaub taking
+aim at the same instant, fired and slightly wounded the animal, only
+however sufficiently to add to its former rage.
+
+'My friend and myself were at this time (attracted by our eagerness to
+witness the sports) not many paces from the spot, when perceiving our
+dangerous position, retreat was the thought of the moment with us both: my
+friend's horse obeyed the signal, but mine was petrified by fear; no
+statue ever stood more mute and immoveable; for a second I gave myself up
+for lost, but again my heart was lifted up to the only Power whence safety
+proceeds, and drawing my sabre as the tiger was springing towards me (the
+same sabre which had been the instrument of safety to my grandsire in a
+like danger) as my arm was raised to level the blow, the animal curved his
+spring as if in fear of the weapon, brushed close to my horse's nose, and
+then stuck its sharp talons in the neck of another horse on which a
+Pattaan soldier was seated: his horse plunged, kicked, threw his rider on
+the ground with a violence that left him senseless, his open sabre falling
+on the handle, which, like a miracle, was forced into the earth leaving
+the point upwards in a slanting position, just clearing his neck by a few
+inches.
+
+'The tiger turned on the man with fury and wide-extended jaw, but was met
+by the sabre point, and the Pattaan's red turban, which fell at the
+instant; the tiger endeavouring to extricate himself from the entanglement,
+the sabre entered deeper through his jaw, from which he had but just
+released himself, when a ball from the Nuwaub's rifle entered his side and
+he slank into the grass, where he was followed and soon dispatched.'
+
+In his travels Meer Hadjee Shah had often been exposed to the dangerous
+consequences of the plague; but (as he declares), he was always preserved
+from the contagion through the same protecting care of Divine Providence
+which had followed him throughout his life. He has been often in the very
+cities where it raged with awful violence, yet neither himself nor those
+who were of his party, were ever attacked by that scourge. On one occasion,
+he was, with a large party of pilgrims, halting for several days together
+at a place called Bundah Kungoon[6] (the word Bundah implies the
+sea-shore), preparatory to commencing their projected journey to Shiraaz;
+he relates, that the mules and camels were provided, and even the day fixed
+for their march; but, in consequence of a dream he had been visited with,
+he was resolved to change his course, even should his fellow-travellers
+determine on pursuing their first plan, and thereby leave him to journey
+alone in an opposite direction.
+
+He made his new resolution known to the pilgrims, and imparted to them the
+dream, viz., 'Go not to Shiraaz, where thou shalt not find profit or
+pleasure, but bend thy steps towards Kraabaallah. His companions laughed
+at his wild scheme, and as their minds were fixed on Shiraaz, they would
+have persuaded Meer Hadjee Shah to accompany them; but, no, his dream
+prevailed over every other argument, and he set out accompanied by two
+poor Syaads and fifteen mendicant pilgrims, embarking at Kungoon on a
+small vessel for Bushire, which by a favourable wind they reached on the
+third day. Here they first learned the distressing intelligence that the
+plague had raged with frightful consequences to the population; and during
+their few days' sojourn at Busserah, he says, many victims fell by that
+awful visitation. The city itself was in sad disorder, business entirely
+suspended, and many of the richer inhabitants had fled from the scene of
+terror and dismay. No accommodation for travellers within his means could
+be procured by Meer Hadjee Shah, and he was constrained to set out on foot
+with his companions, after providing themselves with provisions for a few
+days.
+
+Unused to walk any great distance of late, and the effects of the short
+voyage not being entirely removed, he grew weary ere the first day's march
+was ended; 'But here', he says, 'I found how kind my Creator was to me,
+who put it into the hearts of my companions to take it by turns to carry
+me, until we arrived within sight of Feringhee Bargh[7] (Foreigners'
+Garden), where we found many of the healthy inhabitants from Bushire had,
+with permission, taken refuge, some in tents, others without a shelter;
+and in their haste to flee from danger, had forsaken all their possessions,
+and neglected provision for present comfort; a change of garments even had
+been forgotten in their haste to escape from the pestilential city.
+
+'Never', he says, 'shall I forget the confusion presented at this place
+nor the clamorous demands upon us, whom they esteemed religious men, for
+our prayers and intercessions that the scourge might be removed from them.
+I could not help thinking and expressing also, "How ready weak mortals are
+to supplicate for God's help when death or affliction approaches their
+threshold, who in prosperity either forget Him entirely or neglect to seek
+Him or to obey His just commands."
+
+'The next day our march led us to the vicinity of a large populated town.
+We halted near a plantation of date-trees, and one of our mendicant
+pilgrims was dispatched with money to purchase bread and dates for our
+sustenance, with instructions to conceal, if possible, our numbers and our
+halting-place, fearing that the inhabitants might assail us with stones if
+it were suspected that we came from the infected city. The quantity of
+food, however, required for so large a party excited suspicion, but our
+preservation was again secured by Divine interference.
+
+'A Dirzy[9] from the city visited our resting-place, and finding we were
+pilgrims, asked permission to travel with us to Kraabaallah, which was
+readily agreed to, and when a host of men were observed issuing from the
+town, this man, who was an inhabitant, ran towards them, explained that we
+were all healthy men, and interested several Arab-Syaads to come forward
+and befriend me and my party, which they readily assented to on finding
+that brother Syaads were in danger. The Kauzy of the town hearing all the
+particulars attending us, came to the spot which we had selected for our
+halt, presented his nuzza of twenty-one dinars to me, entreated pardon for
+the intended assault he had in ignorance authorized, obliged me to accept
+his proffered civilities, and we remained several days in the enjoyment of
+hospitality in that town, where we had at first such strong reasons to
+anticipate violence and persecution; but this could not be whilst the arm
+of the Lord was raised to shelter His confiding servants. To Him be the
+praise and the glory for every preservation I have been favoured with! and
+many were the perils with which I was surrounded in my walk through life,
+yet, always safely brought through them, because I never failed putting my
+trust in His mercy and protection who alone could defend me.'
+
+On one occasion of his pilgrimage to Mecca, Meer Hadjee Shah, with all his
+companions on board a trading ship, off the coast of Arabia, were attacked
+by pirates, and taken prisoners; but, as he always declared, the goodness
+of Divine Providence again preserved him and those with him from the hands
+of their enemies. In the event in question, he undertook to speak for all
+his party to the Arab chief, before whom they were taken prisoners, and
+having a thorough knowledge of the Arabic language, he pleaded their joint
+cause so effectually, that the chief not only liberated the whole party,
+but forced presents upon them in compensation for their inconvenient
+detention.
+
+The most interesting, if not the most remarkable incident which occurred
+to Meer Hadjee Shah in his journey through life, remains to be told. The
+story has been so often related by his own lips, that I think there will
+be little difficulty in repeating it here from memory. It may be deemed
+prolix, yet I should not do justice by a farther abridgement.
+
+
+
+FATIMA'S HISTORY
+
+'Fatima was the daughter of Sheikh Mahumud,[9] an Arab, chief of a tribe,
+dwelling in the neighbourhood of Yumen, who was a wealthy man, and much
+esteemed amongst his people. His wife died when Fatima, their only child,
+was but six years old, and two years after her father also was taken from
+this world, leaving his whole estate and possessions to his daughter, and
+both to the guardianship of his own brother, Sheikh ----, who was tenderly
+attached to the little girl, and from whom she received the fostering care
+of parental solicitude.
+
+'This uncle was married to a lady of no very amiable temper, who seized
+every opportunity of rendering the orphan daughter of his brother as
+comfortless as possible, but her uncle's affection never slackened for an
+instant, and this consoled her whenever she had trials of a domestic
+nature to distress her meek spirit.
+
+'When Fatima had reached her sixteenth year, an eligible match being
+provided by her uncle, it was intended to be immediately solemnized; for
+which purpose her uncle went over to Yumen to make preparations for the
+nuptials, where he expected to be detained a few days; leaving with his
+niece the keys of all his treasuries, whether of money or jewels.
+
+'On the very day of his departure from home, a brother of his wife's
+arrived at the mansion, and required, in Fatima's presence, a loan of five
+hundred pieces of silver. This could only be obtained by Fatima's consent,
+who firmly declared her resolution not to betray the trust her uncle had
+reposed in her. The wife was severe in her censures on her husband's
+parsimony, as she termed his prudence, and reviled Fatima for being the
+favoured person in charge of his property. This woman in her rage against
+the unoffending girl, struck her several times with violence. Situated as
+their residence was, apart from a single neighbour, she feared to stay
+during her uncle's absence, and left the house not knowing exactly where
+to seek a temporary shelter; but recollecting a distant relation of her
+mother's resided at Bytool Faakere,[10] no great distance off (within a
+walk as she imagined), she left her home without further reflection,
+unattended by a single servant.
+
+'When within a mile of her destined place of refuge, she was observed by a
+party of Bedouin robbers, who descended from their hill to arrest her
+progress, by whom she was conveyed to their retreat, almost in a state of
+insensibility from terror and dismay. Arriving at their hut, however, she
+was cheered by the sight of females, one of whom particularly struck her
+as being very superior to her companions, and in whose countenance
+benevolence and pity seemed to indicate a sympathizing friend in this hour
+of severe trial. The women were desired to relieve the prisoner Fatima of
+her valuables, which were, in accordance with their station, very costly
+both in pearls and gold ornaments.
+
+'Fatima overheard, during the night, some disputes and debates between the
+robbers, about the disposal of her person, one of whom was single, and
+declared his willingness to marry the girl, and so retain her with them;
+but Fatima had, when she was seized, recognized his countenance, having
+seen him before, and knew that his connexions lived in the town of Bytool
+Faakere, which she had unguardedly declared. The robbers, therefore,
+dreaded detection if her life was spared; they were not by nature
+sanguinary, but in this case there seemed no medium between their
+apprehension and the death of Fatima.
+
+'The female, however, who had at first sight appeared so amiable and
+friendly, fulfilled the poor girl's impressions, by strenuously exerting
+her influence, and eventually prevailed, in saving the orphan Fatima from
+the premeditated sacrifice of life; and as no better arrangement could be
+made to secure the robbers from detection, it was at length agreed she
+should be sold to slavery. This decided on, the swiftest camel in their
+possession was prepared at an early hour, a few short minutes only being
+allowed to Fatima, to pour out her gratitude to God, and express her
+acknowledgements to her humane benefactress, when she was mounted on the
+camel's back, with the husband of that kind-hearted female.
+
+'With the prospect of continued life, poor Fatima ceased to feel acute
+agony, and bore the fatigue of a whole day's swift riding without a murmur,
+for the Bedouin's behaviour was marked with respect. Towards the evening,
+as they drew near to a large town, the Bedouin halted by the margin of a
+forest, and the long night was passed in profound silence, with no other
+shelter than that which the forest afforded; and at the earliest dawn the
+march was again resumed, nor did he slacken his speed, until they were in
+sight of Mocha, where he designed to dispose of his victim. She was there
+sold to a regular slave-merchant, who was willing to pay the price
+demanded when he saw the beautiful face and figure of the poor girl,
+expecting to make a handsome profit by the bargain.
+
+'The Bedouin made his respectful obedience and departed in haste, leaving
+poor Fatima in almost a state of stupor from fatigue. Left however to
+herself in the slave-merchant's house, she seemed to revive, and again to
+reflect on the past, present, and future. Her escape from death called
+forth grateful feelings, and she felt so far secure that the wretch who
+had bought her, had an interest in her life, therefore she had no further
+fear of assassination. But then she reverted to her bonds; painful indeed
+were the reflections, that she who had been nobly born, and nursed in the
+lap of luxury, should find herself a slave, and not one friendly voice to
+soothe her in her bondage. She resolved however (knowing the privilege of
+her country's law) to select for herself a future proprietor.
+
+'Her resolution was soon put to the test; she was summoned to appear
+before a fisherman, who had caught a glimpse of her fine figure as she
+entered Mocha, and who desired to purchase her to head his house. The poor
+girl summoned all her courage to meet this degrading offer with dignity. A
+handsome sum was offered by the fisherman, as she appeared before him to
+reject the proposal. "Here is your new master, young lady," said the
+slave-merchant; "behave well, and he will marry you."
+
+Fatima looked up, with all her native pride upon her brow; "He shall never
+be my master!" she replied, with so much firmness, that (astonished as
+they were) convinced the bargainers that Fatima was in earnest. The
+merchant inquired her objection, us she had betrayed no unwillingness to
+be sold to him; she answered firmly, whilst the starting tear was in her
+eye, "My objection to that man is our inequality: I am of noble birth. My
+willingness to become your slave, was to free me from the hands of those
+who first premeditated my murder; and sooner than my liberty should be
+sold to the creature I must detest, this dagger", as she drew one from her
+vest, "shall free me from this world's vexations".
+
+'This threat settled the argument, for the slave-merchant calculated on
+the loss of three hundred dinars he had paid to the Bedouin; and Fatima,
+aware of this, without actually intending any violence to herself, felt
+justified in deterring the slave-merchant from further importunities.
+Several suitors came to see, with a view to purchase the beautiful Arab of
+noble birth, but having acted so decidedly in the first instance, the
+merchant felt himself obliged to permit her to refuse at will, and she
+rejected all who had made their proposal.
+
+'Meer Hadjee Shah, in the fulfilment of his promise to his wife at parting,
+to take home a slave for her attendant, happening at that time to be
+passing through Mocha, inquired for a slave-merchant: he was conducted to
+the house where Fatima was still a prisoner with many other less noble,
+but equally unhappy females. Fatima raised her eyes as he entered the hall;
+she fancied by his benevolent countenance that his heart must be kind; she
+cast a second glance and thought such a man would surely feel for her
+sufferings and be a good master. His eye had met hers, which was instantly
+withdrawn with unaffecting modesty; something prepossessed him that the
+poor girl was unhappy, and his first idea was pity, the second her
+liberation from slavery, and, if possible, restoration to her friends.
+
+'When alone with the slave-merchant, Meer Hadjee Shah inquired the price
+he would take for Fatima. "Six hundred pieces of silver (dinars),"[11] was
+the reply.--"I am not rich enough," answered the pilgrim; "salaam, I must
+look elsewhere for one:" and he was moving on.---"Stay," said the merchant,
+"I am anxious to get that girl off my hands, for she is a stubborn subject,
+over whom I have no control; I never like to buy these slaves of high
+birth, they always give me trouble. I paid three hundred dinars to the
+Bedouin for her, now if she will agree to have you for her master (which I
+very much doubt, she has so many scruples to overcome), you shall add
+fifty to that sum, and I will be satisfied."
+
+'They entered the hall a second time together, when the merchant addressed
+Fatima. "This gentleman desires to purchase you; he is a Syaad of India,
+not rich, he says, but of a high family, as well as a descendant of the
+Emaums."--"As you will," was all the answer Fatima could make. The money
+was accordingly paid down, and the poor girl led away from her
+prison-house, by the first kind soul she had met since she quitted her
+benefactress in the Bedouins' retreat.
+
+'Fatima's situation had excited a lively interest in the heart of Meer
+Hadjee Shah, even before he knew the history of those sufferings that had
+brought her into bondage, for he was benevolent, and thought she seemed
+unhappy; he wanted no stronger inducement than this to urge him to release
+her. Many a poor wretched slave had been liberated through his means in a
+similar way, whilst making his pilgrimages; and in his own home I have had
+opportunities of seeing his almost paternal kindness invariably exercised
+towards his slaves, some of whom he has, to my knowledge, set at liberty,
+both male and female, giving them the opportunity of settling, or leaving
+them to choose for themselves their place of future servitude.
+
+'But to return to Fatima. On taking her to his lodgings, he tried to
+comfort her with the solicitude of a father, and having assured her she
+was free, inquired where her family resided, that she might be forwarded
+to them. The poor girl could scarce believe the words she heard were
+reality and not a dream; so much unlooked for generosity and benevolence
+overpowered her with gratitude, whilst he addressed her as his daughter,
+and explained his motives for becoming her purchaser, adding, "Our laws
+forbid us to make slaves of the offspring of Mussulmauns of either sex;
+although be it confessed with sorrow, unthinking men do often defy the law,
+in pursuance of their will; yet I would not sell my hopes of heaven for
+all that earth could give. I again repeat, you are free; I am not rich,
+but the half of my remaining funds set apart to take me to my home in
+India, shall be devoted to your service, and without any delay I will
+arrange for your return to Yumen, under safe convoy" (and seeing she was
+about to express her gratitude to him): "Forbear, as you respect me, a
+single word of acknowledgement; if any thanks are due, it is to that good
+Providence who hath preserved you from greater evils, to Whom be offered
+also my humble praises, that through His mercy my steps were directed
+through Mocha, at such a time as this, when an unprotected female required
+fatherly protection."
+
+'Fatima was in tears during this speech of her true friend, and when he
+paused, she said, "Heaven, indeed, sent you to my aid; you seem like a
+guardian angel. Much, much I fear to be separated from one so pious and so
+bountiful. May I not again be thrown into similar scenes to those your
+generosity has been exercised to release me from? Who but yourself and my
+own dear uncle could ever feel that lively interest for my preservation?"
+
+'Meer Hadjee Shah would willingly have conveyed the poor girl to her uncle'
+s residence near Yumen, had it been possible; but his arrangements were
+made to sail by an Arab ship to Bombay, which if many days postponed would
+detain him nearly another year from India, where he was aware his return
+was expected by his wife and family; and he was not willing to give them
+cause for uneasiness, by any further delay; he however went out to make
+inquiries at Mocha for some safe means of getting Fatima conveyed to her
+uncle.
+
+'In the meantime she resolved in her mind the several circumstances
+attending her actual situation in the world, and before the next morning
+had well dawned, she had resolved on urging her kind protector to take her
+with him to India, before whom she appeared with a more tranquil
+countenance than he had yet witnessed. When they were seated, he said,
+"Well, Fatima, I propose to devote this day to the arrangement of all
+things necessary for your comfort on your journey home, and to-morrow
+morning the kaarawaun[12] sets out for Yumen, where I heartily pray you
+may be conducted in safety, and meet your uncle in joy. Have no fears for
+your journey, put your entire trust in God, and never forget that your
+safety and liberation were wrought out by His goodness alone."
+
+'"Huzerut[13] (revered Sir)," she replied, "I have weighed well the
+advantages I should derive by being always near to you, against the
+prospects of my home and wealth in Arabia, which I am resolved to
+relinquish if you accede to my proposal. Let me then continue to be your
+slave, or your servant, if that term is more agreeable to my kind master.
+Slavery with a holy master is preferable to freedom with wealth and
+impiety. You must have servants, I will be the humblest and not the least
+faithful in my devoted services."
+
+'The pious man was surprised beyond measure; he attempted to dissuade her,
+and referred to his wife and children in India. "Oh! take me to them," she
+cried with energy; "I will be to them all you or they can desire," This
+arrangement of Fatima's was rather perplexing to him; her tears and
+entreaties, however, prevailed over his preference, and he quieted her
+agitation by agreeing to take her to India with him.
+
+'After maturely weighing all the circumstances of the voyage by sea, and
+the long journey by land from Bombay to Lucknow, he came to the
+determination of giving Fatima a legal claim to his protection, and
+thereby a security also from slanderous imputations either against her or
+himself, by marrying her before they embarked at Mocha; and on their
+arrival at Lucknow, Fatima was presented to his first wife as worthy her
+sympathy and kindness, by whom she was received and cherished as a dear
+sister. The whole family were sincerely attached to the amiable lady
+during the many years she lived with them in Hindoostaun. Her days were
+passed in piety and peace, leaving not an instance to call forth the
+regrets of Meer Hadjee Shah, that he had complied with her entreaties in
+giving her his permanent protection. Her removal from this life to a
+better was mourned by every member of the family with equal sorrow as when
+their dearest relative ceased to live.'
+
+It is my intention (if I am permitted), at some future period, to write a
+more circumstantial account of Meer Hadjee Shah's adventures through life,
+than my present limits allow. In the meantime, however, I must satisfy
+myself by a few remarks founded on a personal observation and intimacy
+during the last eleven years of his eventful life. His example and precept
+kept pace with each other, 'That this world and all its vanities, were
+nothing in comparison with acquiring a knowledge of God's holy will, and
+obeying Him, in thought, in word, and deed.'
+
+He was persuaded by the tenets of his religion that by exercising the body
+in the pilgrimage to Mecca, the heart of man was enlightened in the
+knowledge and love of God. He found by obeying the several duties of the
+religion he professed, and by enduring the consequent trials and
+privations of a pilgrimage without regard to any feelings of selfish
+gratification or indulgent ease, that, his nature being humbled, his love
+to God was more abundant.
+
+His law commanded him to fast at stated periods, and although he was
+turned of seventy when I first saw him, yet he never failed, as the season
+of Rumzaun approached, to undergo the severity of that ordinance day by
+day during the full period of thirty days; and it was even a source of
+uneasiness to my venerated friend, when, two years prior to his decease,
+his medical friends, aided by the solicitude of his family, urged and
+prevailed on him to discontinue the duty, which by reason of his age was
+considered dangerous to health, and perhaps to life. Prayer was his
+comfort; meditation and praise his chief delight. I never saw him
+otherways than engaged in some profitable exercise, by which he was
+drawing near to his Creator, and preparing himself for the blessedness of
+eternity, on which his soul relied.
+
+During our eleven years' constant intercourse, I can answer for his early
+diligence; before the day had dawned his head was bowed in adoration to
+his Maker and Preserver. At all seasons of the year, and under all
+circumstances, this duty was never omitted. Even in sickness, if his
+strength failed him, his head was bowed on a tray of earth, to mark his
+dutiful recollection of the several hours appointed for prayer. The
+Psalmist's language has often been realized to my view, in him, 'Seven
+times a day do I praise thee, O Lord,' and 'at midnight I will rise to
+give thanks unto Thee,' when witnessing his undeviating observance of
+stated prayer duties; and when those duties were accomplished, even his
+amusements were gleaned from devotional works, visits of charity, and acts
+of benevolence. I never saw him idle; every moment was occupied in prayer
+or in good works. His memory was retentive, and every anecdote he related
+was a lesson calculated to lead the mind of his auditor to seek, trust,
+and obey God, or to love our neighbour as ourselves.
+
+The many hours we have passed in profitable discourses or readings from
+our Holy Scripture and the lives of the Prophets have left on my memory
+lasting impressions.
+
+I was, at first, surprised to find Meer Hadjee Shah so well acquainted
+with the prominent characters of our Scripture history, until the source
+from whence his knowledge had been enlarged was produced and read aloud by
+my husband every evening to our family party. The 'Hyaatool Kaaloob' (a
+work before alluded to) occupied us for a very long period, each passage
+being verbally translated to me by my husband.
+
+When that work was finished, our Holy Scripture was brought forward, which,
+as I read, each passage was again translated by my husband, either in
+Persian or Hindoostaunic, as best suited the understanding of our party at
+the time. So interesting was the subject, that we have been five or six
+hours at, a time engaged without tiring or even remembering the flight of
+those moments which were devoted, I trust, so beneficially to us all.
+
+Meer Hadjee Shah's views of worldly enjoyments resembled the Durweish's in
+principle; for he thought it unworthy to heap up riches, to swell his
+wardrobe, or to fare on sumptuous diet; but his delight consisted in
+sharing the little he could at any time command with those who needed it.
+He possessed an intelligent mind, highly cultivated by travel, and a heart
+beaming with tenderness and universal charity: so tempered were his
+affections by a religious life, that the world was made but a place of
+probation to him whilst looking forward with joy to the promises of God in
+a happy eternity. His purity of heart and life has often realized to my
+imagination that 'Israelite in whom (our Redeemer pronounced) there was no
+guile.'
+
+I must here draw my Letters to a conclusion, with many an anxious wish
+that my gleanings in the society of the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun may
+afford profitable amusement to my friends and to those persons who may
+honour my work with a perusal, humbly trusting that the people whose
+character, manners, habits, and religion, I have taken upon me to pourtray,
+may improve in their opinion by a more intimate acquaintance.
+
+In my attempt to delineate the Mussulmauns, I have been careful to speak
+as I have found them, not allowing prejudice to bias my judgment, either
+on the side of their faults or virtues. But I deem it incumbent to state,
+that my chief intimacy has been confined to the most worthy of their
+community; and that the character of a true Mussulmaun has been my aim in
+description. There are people professing the faith without the principle,
+it is true; but such persons are not confined to the Mussulmaun persuasion;
+they are among every class of worshippers, whether Jew or Gentile
+throughout the world.
+
+Of my long sojourn in the society of the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun, I
+need here but remark, that I was received amongst them without prejudice,
+and allowed the free usage of my European habits and religious principles
+without a single attempt to bias or control me; that by respecting their
+trifling prejudices as regards eating and drinking, their esteem and
+confidence were secured to me; and that by evincing Christian charity,
+(which deters the possessor from proud seeming), I believe, I may add,
+their affection for me was as sincere, as I trust it will be lasting.
+
+It may be regretted, with all my influence, that I have not been the
+humble instrument of conversion. None can lament more than myself that I
+was not deemed worthy to convince them of the necessity, or of the
+efficacy of that great Atonement on which my own hopes are founded. Yet
+may I not, without presumption, hope my sojourn, with reference to a
+future period, may be the humble means of good to a people with whom I had
+lived so many years in peace? I must for many reasons be supposed to
+entertain a lively interest in their welfare, and an earnest desire for
+their safety, although at the present moment I can distinguish but one
+advantage accruing from our intimacy, namely, that they no longer view the
+professors of Christianity as idolaters. They have learned with surprise
+that the Christian religion forbids idolatry,--thus the strong barrier
+being sapped, I trust it may be thrown down by abler servants of our Lord;
+for the Mussulmauns are already bound by their religion to love and
+reverence Christ as the Prophet of God: may the influence of his Holy
+Spirit enlighten their understandings to accept Him as their Redeemer!
+
+Like the true Christian, they are looking forward to that period when
+Jesus Christ shall revisit the earth, and when all men shall be of one
+faith. How that shall be accomplished, they do not pretend to understand,
+but still they faithfully believe it, because it has been declared by an
+authority they reverence, and deem conclusive. Often, during my
+acquaintance with these people, have I felt obliged to applaud their
+fidelity, although, in some points, I could not approve of the subject on
+which it was displayed--their zeal at Mahurrum, for instance, when they
+commemorate the martyrdom of the grandchildren of their Prophet,--I have
+thought 'had they been favoured with the knowledge we possess, what
+zealous Christians would these people be, who thus honour the memory of
+mere holy men.'
+
+The time, I trust, is not very far distant when not one nation in the
+whole world shall be ignorant of the Saviour's efficacy, and His
+willingness to receive all who cast their burden at the foot of His cross.
+My heart's desire for the people I have dwell amongst is that which St.
+Paul in the Epistle to the Romans declares to be his prayer to God for
+Israel, 'that they might be saved!' and I know not any way in which I
+could better testify my regard for the Mussulmauns collectively, or my
+gratitude individually, than by recommending the whole of the tenth
+chapter of the Romans to the serious consideration of those persons who
+possess such influence, us that the gospel of peace may be preached to
+them effectually by well-chosen and tried servants of our Lord, who are
+duly prepared both in heart and speech, to make known the glad tidings to
+their understandings that 'God so loved the world, that He gave His only
+begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish, but have
+everlasting life;' that 'If any man sin we have an Advocate with the
+Father, Jesus Christ the righteous;' and that 'He is the propitiation for
+our sins: and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world.'
+
+Should the view I have conscientiously given of their character be the
+humble means of removing prejudice from the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun, so
+that they may be sought and won by brotherly kindness, my humble heart
+will rejoice that my labours, as an observer and detailer, have been
+successful through the merciful orderings of Divine Providence.
+
+
+[1] Ludhiana, a city, not the capital of the Panjab: 'the land of
+    five rivers' _(panj-ab)._
+
+[2] Under the Peshwas, Baji Rao I and Balaji Rao
+    (A.D. 1720-61) the incursions of the Mahrattas extended as far north
+    as the Panjab.
+
+[3] _Barahdari_, a room nominally with twelve doors.
+
+[4] Shuja-ud-daula, son of Mansur 'Ali Khan, Safdar Jang,
+    Governor of Oudh: born A.D. 1731; succeeded his father, 1753. He was
+    present at the battle of Panipat in 1761: became Wazir of the
+    Emperor Shah 'Alam: defeated by the British at the battle of
+    Buxar, 1764: died at Faizabad, then his seat of government, 1775.
+
+[5] _Shikari_.
+
+[6] Bandar [harbour] Kangun, a port on the west side of the Persian
+    Gulf, about 100 miles west of Gombroon.
+
+[7] Firangi Bagh, Franks' Garden.
+
+[8] Darzi, a tailor.
+
+[9] Shaikh Muhammad.
+
+[10] Baitu'l-faqir, 'house of a holy man'.
+
+[11] _Dinar_, Lat. _denarius_, a coin of varying value: see Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 317 f.
+
+[12] _Karwan_, a caravan.
+
+[13] _Hazrat_.
+
+
+
+THE END
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS
+
+USED IN PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
+
+
+Arnold, T.W. _The Preaching of Islam_, London, 1896.
+
+Beale, T.W. _An Oriental Biographical Dictionary_, London, 1894.
+
+Burton, Sir R.F. _The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night_, 12 vols.,
+London, 1894.
+
+Burton, Sir R.F. _A Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Mecca_, 2 vols.,
+London, 1893.
+
+Crooke, W. _The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_,
+2 vols., Westminster, 1896.
+
+Fanshawe, H.C. _Delhi Past and Present_, London, 1902.
+
+Fazalalullah Lutfullah, 'Gujarat Musalmans', in _Bombay Gazetteer_,
+ix, part ii, Bombay, 1899.
+
+Führer, A. _The Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions of the
+North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, Allahabad, 1891.
+
+Irwin, H.C. _The Garden of India_, London, 1880.
+
+Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam, or the Customs of the Mussulmans of
+India_, trans. G.A. Herklots, Madras, 1863.
+
+_Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh_, 3 vols., Lucknow, 1877.
+
+Hughes, T.P. _A Dictionary of Islam_, London, 1885.
+
+[Knighton, W.] _The Private Life of an Eastern King_, London, 1855.
+
+_Koran, The_, trans. J.M. Rodwell, Everyman's Library, London, _n.d._;
+by G. Sale, London, 1844.
+
+Lane, E.W. _An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern
+Egyptians_, 2 vols., 5th ed., London, 1871.
+
+_Mishcat-ul Masabih_, by Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah, trans. A.N.
+Matthews, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1809-10.
+
+Ockley, S. _History of the Saracens_, London, 1848.
+
+Parks, F. _Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque_, 2 vols.,
+London, 1852.
+
+Polly, Col. Sir L. _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from
+Oral Tradition_, 2 vols., London, 1879.
+
+Sell, E. _The Faith of Islam_, Madras, 1880.
+
+Sleeman, Major-Gen. Sir W.H. _A Journey through the Kingdom of
+Oudh, in 1849-1850_, 2 vols., London, 1858.
+
+Sleeman, Major-Gen. Sir W.H. _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian
+Official_, ed. V.A. Smith, 2 vols., Westminster, 1893.
+
+Watt, Sir G. _A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_, 6 vols.,
+Calcutta, 1889-93.
+
+Yule, Col. H., Burnell, A.C. _Hobson-Jobson_, 2nd ed., London, 1903.
+
+       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Aameen, Ameen, Ami, Amen
+Aaroon, Aaron
+Abass Ali, 'Abbas, nephew of Husain;
+  Abass Ali Huzerut ke Durgah, Hazrat 'Abbas 'Ali ki dargah
+Ablution
+Aboubuker, Abubakr, the Caliph
+Abraham, sacrifice of Ishmael;
+  his title
+Abstinence during the Muharram festival
+Adam, his burial-place;
+  his title;
+  image of
+Affrine Khaun, Afrin Khan, a eunuch
+Afthaadah, _aftabgir_, a sun-shade
+Agha Mir, minister in Oudh
+Ahmud Kaabeer, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir, a saint
+Akbhar Shah, Akbar Shah II, King of Delhi
+Akbar, the Moghul Emperor, his capture of Chitor
+Alchemy
+Aleppo
+Alexandria, alleged destruction of the library at
+Ali, 'Ali, son-in-law of Muhammad;
+  murder of;
+  imparted knowledge to the Sufis
+Ali Reezah, Ar-Raza
+Ali Ul Hoodah, 'Ali ul Huda
+Al-kauloek, _alkhalaq_, a coat with sleeves
+Allah Khareem, Al-Karim, 'the generous one'
+Allah wo uckbaar, _Allah u akbar_, 'God is most great'
+Alligators, caught by monkeys
+Allum, _'alam_, a standard
+Allumgeer, 'Alamgir, the Emperor Aurangzeb
+Al Mauss Ali Khaun, Almas 'Ali Khan, a eunuch
+Almsgiving at the Muharram festival
+Alrouschid, Harun-al-Rashid, the Caliph
+Amulets for children
+Amusements of children
+Angels, the attendant
+Animal, fights at the Court of Oudh;
+  mode of slaughtering by Musalmans;
+  life, sanctity of
+Antelopes, hunted by leopards
+Ants;
+  sugar laid near their nests;
+  white
+Apples
+Arg, _arka_, the fire plant
+Arms, polishers of
+Arrack, _'araq,_ spirits
+Artoojee, _ustadji_, a teacher
+Artush-baajie, _atishbazi_, fireworks
+'Ashura, the last day of the Muharram festival
+Asof ood Duolah, Nawab Asaf-ud-daula;
+  his proclamation against infanticide
+Asthma, a cure for
+Astrology
+Ausmaun, 'Usman, the Caliph
+Ausur namaaz, _'asr ki namaz_, prayer at the third watch of the day
+Ayah, _aya_, a nurse
+Ayashur, Ayishah, wife of Muhammad
+
+Baalee Peer, Bala Pir
+Baaraat, _barat_. the procession of the bridegroom
+Baarah Daree, _barahdari_ a room with twelve doors
+Babool, _babul_, the tree _acacia arabica_
+Bacherkaunie, _baqirkhani_, a kind of bread
+Ba daanah, _bedanah_, seedless grapes
+Baer, _ber_, the tree _Zizyphus Jujuba_
+Bahadhoor, _bahadur_, 'a champion', a title of honour
+Baittee, _beti_, a daughter
+Bamboos,
+  uses of;
+  flowering of;
+  set on fire by friction
+Banner of Husain (see ALLUM)
+Bareheaded people not allowed in a house
+Basun, _besan_, pulse flour
+Bazars described
+Beards worn by Musalmans;
+  dyeing of
+Bearer caste, the
+Bedspreads
+Bedsteads
+Beeby Sahib, _bibi sahiba_, an English lady
+Beggar, a famous, in Lucknow
+Begum, _begam_, a title of a Sayyid lady
+Biles and blains
+Birds,
+  catchers of;
+  released in time of sickness
+Birth rites,
+  scanty rejoicings at birth of a girl;
+  gun-firing;
+  nursing,;
+  first dose of medicine;
+  bathing of child;
+  forty days' impurity after childbirth;
+  gifts made to the child;
+  birthday celebrations;
+  circumcision;
+  child carried to the Dargah
+Bis ma Allah, _bi'smi'llah_, 'in the name of Allah'
+Bleeding, procedure at
+Blistering, flies used for
+Blood-spitting; cure for
+Blue stone, a remedy for snakebites
+Boats set adrift in honour of Khwaja Khizr
+Bodice, the
+Bohue Begum, _Bahu Begum_, a daughter-in-law
+Bootkhanah, _butkhanah_, an idol temple
+Borehaun, _burhan_, the critical days of fever
+Bows and arrows, use of
+Brahmanical cords burnt
+Bread, varieties of
+Bricks, ancient
+Bride,
+  the peculium of;
+  modes of selecting;
+  dress of
+Bridegroom, veil worn by
+Brushes for hair and teeth
+Buckaria, Bokhara
+Buckrah Eade, the _baqarah id_, festival;
+  gifts sent at
+Budgerow, a kind of boat
+Bull-bull, _bulbul_, the nightingale
+Bundah Kungoon, Bandar Kangun
+Bunyah, Baniya, a corn merchant
+Buraq, the animal on which Muhammad flew to Mecca
+Burbut, _bargat_, the banyan tree
+Burghutt, caste, regard for animal life
+Burial rites, purification after touching the corpse; see DEATH.
+Burkhundhar, _barqandaz_, a man armed with a matchlock
+Burqa', a woman's veil
+Burrhsaatie, _barsati_ a disease of horses
+Burruff wallah, _barfwala_ a seller of ice
+Bushire, a town on the Persian Gulf
+Bussorah, Basra, a town on the Shatt el Arab in Asiatic Turkey
+Bussund, _basant_, the spring festival
+Butcher bird, the
+Butchers
+Buttaire, _bater_, a quail
+Butter sellers
+Buttooah, _batua_, ornamented bag
+Bytool Faakere, _baitu'l-faqir,_ 'the house of a holy man'
+
+Cain, reputed founder of Kanauj
+Caliphas, _khalifah_, of Shi'ahs and Sunnis;
+  a head of a trade or profession
+Camphor, used in treating cholera;
+  in burial rites
+Cardimun, the cardamom
+Cards, the game of
+Carounder, _karaunda, Carissa Carandas_
+Castanets, see CHUCKIE
+Catechu, used with betel
+Cattle, slaughter of, objected to by Hindus
+Chaff, thrown on the head in mourning
+Chain at the Ka'bah;
+  of justice, put up by Jahangir
+Chair, right to use
+Chapaatie, _chapata_, a griddle cake
+Charaagh, _chiragh_, a lamp
+Charity, a religious duty;
+  among Musalmans
+Charpoy, _charpai_, a kind of bed
+Chatnee, _chatni_, a kind of relish
+Chattah, _chhata_, an umbrella
+Cheek, _chiq_, a door screen
+Cheetah, _chita_, a hunting leopard
+Cherries
+Children, fasting of
+Chillum, _chilam_, the bowl of a water-pipe, the tobacco used to
+fill it
+Chillumchee, _chilamchi_, a wash-hand basin
+Chilubdhaar, _chalapdar_, a cymba player
+China vessels, use of
+Chirrya wallah, _chiryawala_, a bird-catcher
+Chitcherah, _chichra_, the _Achryanthes aspera_ tree
+Chitlah, _chitra_, a kind of melon
+Chobdhaah, Chobdhaar, _chobdar_, a mace-bearer
+Chokeedhar, _chaukidar_, a watchman
+Cholera;
+  cures for
+Chowrie, Chowry, _chauri_, a yak tail fan
+Chowsah, _chausa_, four-sided, of dice
+Chubbaynee, _chabena_, parched grain
+Chuckie, Chuckee, _charkhi_, a kind of castanets;
+  _chakki_, a grindstone
+Chuddah, Chudha, _chadar_, a sheet
+Chuhsah, _chhahsa_, six-sided, of dice
+Chumund, _chaman_, a flower bed
+Chundole, _chandol_, a kind of sedan chair
+Chupha, _chhappar_, a thatched shed
+Chupkund, _chapkan_, a kind of coat
+Cider, made from melon juice
+Circumcision
+Clepsydra, used to mark time
+Cloak, hooded, worn by women
+Cock-fighting
+Coel, _koil_, a kind of cuckoo
+Concubinage
+Confectioners
+Cookery, in Musalman families
+Cooking, prohibited in the house of mourning
+Cord, Brahmanical, burned
+Cossum, Qasim, nephew of Husain;
+  model of his tomb taken in procession
+Courtie, _kurti_, a woman's jacket
+Cowry shells
+Cream sellers
+Cries of hawkers
+Crown of the King of Oudh
+Crows, impudence of
+Cummerbund, _kamarband_, a waist-cloth, girdle
+Cuppers
+Curd sellers.
+Currants
+Currie, _karhi_
+Cutlers
+Cuttie, _khatai_, soured milk;
+  kath, gum used with pan
+
+Daak, _dak_, the letter post
+Daaood, Daud, David, his mother's prayer
+Dacca cloths
+Damascus fig, the
+Dancing, considered degrading;
+  women
+Dates, eating of
+Dead, food for the;
+  period of mourning for
+Death rites
+Debt, imprisonment for, said to be forbidden
+Decca, Dacca
+Delhi described
+Deluge, said not to be known in India
+Deputtah, _dopatta_, a double sheet
+Devotees, Musalman.
+Dhall, _dal_, pulse
+Dhaullie, _dali_, a basket of fruit and vegetables
+Dhie, _dahi_, curds
+Dhie mudgelluss, _dah majlis_, the ten days of the Muharram festival
+Dhobie, _dhobi_, a washerman
+Dholle, _dhol_, a drum
+Dhollie, a 'dooly', a litter;
+  wives
+Dhome, a drum
+Dhull Dhull, Duldul, the mule of Muhammad
+Dhurzie, darzi, the tailor caste
+Diamonds
+Dice, games played with
+Dimishk, Dimashq, Damascus
+Dinar, _dinar_, denarius, a coin
+Dinners provided in time of mourning
+Dirzy; see DHURZIE
+Divination in selecting a bride
+Divorce
+Dog, an impure animal
+Domenie, Domni, a singing woman
+Dooar prayer, _du'a_, supplication
+Doob grass, _dub, Cynodon Dactylon_
+Dowry of bride, how fixed
+Draughts, the game of
+Dress, not changed during the Muharram festival;
+  of a bride
+Duffelee, _dafali_, the drummer caste
+Dukhaun, _dukan_, a shop
+Dulhaun, _dalan_, the hall, entrance of a house
+Dullha, _dulha_, a bridegroom
+Dullun, _dulhin_, a bride
+Dunkah, _danka_, a kettle-drum;
+  dunkah wallah, _dankawala,_ a drummer
+Dunyah, _dhaniya_, coriander
+Durbar, _darbar_, a court
+Durgah, _dargah_, a saint's shrine;
+  processions to, at Lucknow
+Durwaun, _darwan_, a doorkeeper
+Durweish, _darvesh_ a beggar, a religious mendicant;
+  pretenders to the title
+Dustha-khawn, _dastarkhwan_, a table-cloth
+Dustoor, _dastur_, custom,
+  the percentages on purchases taken by native servants
+Dust-storms
+
+Eade, _'Id_, a festival;
+  eade-gaarh, _'Idgah_,
+  the place where the festival rites are performed
+Ear cleaners
+Earrings
+Earwax, human, administered to elephants
+Earthquakes;
+  follow a flight of locusts;
+  Kanauj damaged by
+Eclipse observances
+Eggs sent at the Nauroz festival
+Elephant trained to march in time;
+  carriages drawn by;
+  beggar riding on;
+  etiquette on meeting the king
+Elias ky kishtee, _Ilyas ki kishti_,
+  boats set adrift in honour of Khwaja Khizr
+Elijah, Elisha, the prophet
+Emaum, _Imam_, leaders of the faithful;
+  Jaffur Saadick, Ja'far as-Sadiq
+Emaum baarah, _Imambara_,
+  the place where the Muharram rites are performed
+Emaum zamunee, _imam zamini_,
+  a charm to secure safety in a journey
+English women not visiting the Lucknow bazar
+Esaee, _'Isa 'l-Masih_, Jesus Christ, the Messiah
+Eshaa namaaz, _salatu 'l-'Isha_, the night prayer
+Etiquette in the zenanah;
+  at the Court of Oudh
+Eunuchs, their power in the Court of Oudh;
+  tale of a pilgrim
+Eve, the grave of
+Execution of criminals
+Exercise, modes of, used by young men
+Exorcism of evil spirits
+Eyes decorated with antimony
+
+Faakeer, _faqir_, a beggar, holy man
+Fahteeah, _al Fatihah_, the first chapter of the Koran
+Falsah, _phalsa, falsa_, the fruit _Grewia asiatica_
+Fasting;
+  exemptions from
+Fat, not eaten by Musalmans
+Fatima, Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad;
+  an Arab girl purchased
+Feringhee Bargh, _Farangi Bagh_, 'the Franks' Garden
+Fierdowsee, Firdausi, the poet;
+  translations of;
+  on slavery
+Fig, the
+Fire, jumping into, and walking through
+Fireworks at the Shab-i-Bara'at festival;
+  see ARTUSH-BAAJIE
+Firing guns at the birth of a boy
+Fish, use of;
+  varieties prohibited for use as food;
+  a symbol at the Court of Oudh
+Flags, in use at the Court of Oudh
+Flies, inconvenience from;
+  a variety which produces blisters
+Flower gardens, neglect of;
+  in Moghul palaces
+Flowers, scent of, the food of aerial spirits
+Folk tales, told in the zenanah;
+  tale reciters;
+  tale of Daaood;
+  of the Prophet;
+  of pilgrims;
+  of a charitable Arab;
+  of Syaad Harshim;
+  of a saint changing the course of a river;
+  of an ungrateful snake;
+  of a king who longed for a fruit
+Food, for the dead;
+  not cooked in a house of mourning;
+  lawful for Musalmans
+Fraught, Furat, the river Euphrates
+Friday, the Musalman Sabbath
+Frogs
+Fruit, use of;
+  sellers of
+Furniture in the zenanah
+Furrukhabaad, Farrukhabad, Nawab of
+
+Gabriel, the Angel;
+  inspires the Koran
+Games played by boys;
+  in the zenanah
+Gaming prohibited
+Genii, the Jinn
+Ghauzee ood deen, Ghazi-ud-diu, King of Oudh
+Ghee, _ghi_, clarified butter
+Ghurrie, _ghari_, a space of about twenty minutes
+Glass, _gilas_, a cherry
+Glass, vessels, use of;
+  use in windows
+Goatah chandnie, _gola chandni_, lace
+Goattur, _gota_, a substitute for betel, at the Muharram
+God, ninety-nine names of
+Golard, Goulard water
+Gooderie, _gudri_, a quilt
+Goolbudden, _gulbadan_, a silk fabric
+Goolistaun, Gulistan of Sa'adi
+Goomtie, the river Gumti
+Gooseberries
+Gootlie, _guthli_, the first dose given to a baby
+Grain, threshing and winnowing of
+Gram, a kind of chick pea, _Cicer arietinum_
+Green, the colour preferred by Sayyids;
+  symbolizing Hasan
+Greengrocers
+Grief, exhibition of, at the Muharram festival
+Guaver, the guava fruit
+Guinah, _genda_, the marigold
+Gurdonie, _gardani_, a neck ring
+Gurhum dahnie, _garm dahani_ prickly heat
+
+Haafiz, Hafiz, the Persian poet
+Haarh, _har_, a necklace;
+  see HARRH
+Hackery, _chhakra_, a bullock carriage
+Hadge, _hajj_, pilgrimage to holy places
+Hadjee, _hajji_, a pilgrim
+Hafiz, a man who has learned the Koran by heart
+Hafsah, the wife of Muhammad
+Hair, mode of dressing;
+  let loose at the Muharram festival;
+  not shaven in mourning
+Hand, spread, a symbol;
+  left, not used in eating
+Harrh, _har_, a necklace;
+  see HAARH
+Harshim Syaad, Sayyid Hashim, tale of
+Hasan, the martyr;
+  Hasan ul Ushkeree, Hasan al-Askari
+Hatim Tai
+Haundhee, _audhi_, a dust storm
+Haverdewatt. avadavat, the bird _estrelda amadara_;
+  see LOLLAH
+Heifer, sacrifice of
+Herbs used in cooking
+Hindu gods, images of
+Holie, the Holi festival
+Hookha, _huqqah_, the water-pipe;
+  etiquette in use of;
+  makers of 'snakes' for
+Horse racing at Lucknow
+Horses, food of;
+  use of heel ropes;
+  marks on;
+  paces of;
+  shoes fixed on doors;
+  tails and legs dyed;
+  tails not docked;
+  use of in carriages
+Hosein, Husain, the martyr;
+  disposal of his head
+Howdah, _haudah_, a seat fixed on an elephant
+Hudeeth, _hadis_, the sayings of the Prophet
+Hummoomaun, the monkey god Hanuman
+Hummoon Shah, Hamun Shah
+Hurkaarah, _harkara_, a footman, messenger
+Hurrh, al-Hurr, the Shami leader
+Hurrundh, _arand_, the castor-oil plant
+Hurth Maaree, the scene of the slaughter of the martyrs
+Husbandmen, life of
+Huzerut, _hazrat_, a title of respect
+Hydrabaad, Hyderabad
+Hydrophobia, a cure for
+Hyza, _haiza_, cholera
+
+Ibrahim, son of the Prophet;
+  Ibraahim Mukhaun, Ibrahim Makan,
+  'the place of Abraham', at Mecca
+Ice-making
+Idolatry prohibited to Musalmans
+Infanticide among Musalmans
+Ink-making
+Ishmael, son of the Prophet;
+  sacrifice of
+Islaaim, Islam
+
+Ja'adah poisons Hasan
+Jaffur Saadick, the Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq
+Jahaun-punah, _jahan panah_, a title of honour, 'asylum of the world'
+Jahmun, Jamun, _jaman, jamun_, the fruit _Eugenia Jambolana_;
+  see JARMUN
+Jains, their tenderness for animal life
+Jarmun, see JAHMUN
+Jaullie, _jali_, netting
+Jeddah
+Jerusalem, pilgrimage to
+Jessamine tree, the
+Jesus Christ, the Musalman title of;
+  His Nativity;
+  His Coming
+Jewellery, craving of women for;
+  put aside at the Muharram festival
+Jhaawn namaaz, _ja'e namaz_, a prayer carpet
+Jhammah, _jama_, a long gown
+Jhaumdanie, _jamdani_, an ornamented bag
+Jhanngeer, the Emperor Jahangir, his chain of justice
+Jhewl, _jhul_, the trappings of an elephant
+Jhillmun, _jhilmil_, venetian shutters for doors and windows
+Jhy Singh, Raja Jai Singh, his observatories
+Jillewdhar, _jilaudur_, an attendant on a man of rank
+Jinn, the
+Joel, the Prophet
+Jonk, a leech
+Joshun, _joshan_, an ornament worn by women on the upper arm
+Judee, Mount
+Jugglers
+Jumma musjid, Jumna musjid, _Jame' masjid_, a congregational mosque
+Justice, administration of in Oudh
+
+Kaabah, _Ka'bah_, the holy place at Mecca;
+  water spout at
+Kaanaut, _qanat_, the side walls of a tent
+Kaarawaun, _kawan_, a caravan
+Kaareem Zund, Karim Khan Zand, anecdote of;
+  see KHAREEM ZUND
+Kaarjil, _kajal_, lampblack applied to the eyes
+Kaawaus, _khawass_, a special female attendant
+Kabooza, _kharbuzah_, the melon
+Kalipha, _khalifah_, a Caliph, head servant;
+  see CALIPHA
+Kallonie wallah, _khilauniwala_, a toy-seller
+Kannoge, the city of Kanauj;
+  founded by Cain;
+  destroyed by an earthquake
+Katorah, _katora_, a shallow drinking cup
+Kauflaah, _kafilah_, a caravan
+Kaullie Nuddee, the Kali Nadi river
+Kauzy, _Qazi_, a Musalman law officer
+Keebaab, _kabab_, pieces of meat roasted on skewers
+Keerah, _kira_, a leech
+Ketcherie, _khichri_, rice cooked with pulse and spices
+Kettledrum, the;
+  see DUNKAH
+Khadijah, wife of the Prophet
+Khareem Zund;
+  see KAAREEM ZUND
+Khaun, _khan_, 'lord', a title of honour
+Khaunce, Kansa, King of Mathura
+Khaunie, a folk tale
+Kheer, _khir_, milk boiled with rice
+Khidmutghar, _khidmatgar_, a table servant
+Khillaut, _khil'at,_ a robe of honour
+Khodah Afiz, _Khuda hafiz_, 'God be your Protector!'
+Khoraan, the Koran, Qur'an;
+  its history;
+  not to be translated;
+  taught to girls;
+  its doctrine regarding women;
+  passages of, inscribed as amulets;
+  learnt by heart;
+  readers of
+Khus-khus, _khaskhas_,
+  the fragrant root of the grass _Andropogon muricatus_
+Khusru Parviz, King of Persia
+Khwaja Khizr, the saint
+Kiblaah, _qiblah_, the direction assumed in prayer
+Killaah, _qal'a qil'a_, a fort
+Kirhnee, _kirni_, the fruit _Canthium parviflorum_
+Kirrich, _kirch_, a straight thrusting sword
+Kishtee, _kishti_, a boat
+Kitchens in the zenanah
+Kite-flying
+Knife-grinders
+Koofah, the city Kufah
+Kootub, the Qutb Minar pillar at Delhi
+Kornea, Kanhaiya, Krishna
+Koss, _kos_, a measure of distance, about two miles
+Kraabaalah, Kerbela, Karbala, the holy city
+Kuffin, _kafn_, a coffin, winding-sheet
+Kummeruck, _kamrak_, the  fruit _Averrhoa Carambola_
+Kungoon, Bandar Kangun in the Persian Gulf
+Kurah, _kora_, aloe water
+Kurbootah, _kharbuza_, the shaddock fruit
+Kutcher, _khichar_, rice boiled with pulse and spices
+
+Labaadah, Labaadh, _labada_, a rain-coat
+Labaun, _loban_, frankincense;
+  see LAHBAUN
+Ladies, European, not visiting bazars;
+  Musalman, conversation of
+Lahaaf, _lahaf_, a quilt
+Lahbaun, see LABAUN
+Lampblack, applied to the eyes
+Lance, exercises with the
+Leopards trained for sport
+Leech vendors
+Leechie, _lichi_, the fruit _Nephelium Lichi_
+Left hand used for ablution, not for eating with
+Letters, dedicated to God
+Licenses for marriage unknown
+Lights burned before the Taziahs
+Lime, applied to wounds
+Liquors, fermented, prohibited to Musalmans
+Locusts;
+  used for food
+Lollah, _lal_, the bird _Estrelda amandava_;
+  see HAVERDEWATT
+Loodocanah, the city and district Ludhiana
+Looking-glasses in zenanahs;
+  bride's face first seen in
+Lota, a brass water-vessel
+Luchmee, Lakshmana, image of
+Luggun, _lagan_ a washing pan
+Lungoor, _langur_, the ape _Semnopithecus entellus_
+
+
+Mabaaruck Now-Rose, _Nauroz mubarak_
+Maccurrub, _muqarrab_, angel messengers
+Madhaar, Madar, the saint
+Magic, to bring rain;
+  to cause fertility
+Mahana, _miyana_, a kind of litter
+Mahdhaar, _madar_, the tree _Calotropis gigantea_
+Mahout, _mahawat_, an elephant driver
+Mahrattas, raids of in the Panjab
+Mahul, _mahall_ the seraglio
+Mahummud, Muhammad, the Prophet, his mission;
+  his title;
+  tales regarding;
+  fixes Friday as the Sabbath;
+  laws of the pilgrimage;
+  his rules of conduct;
+  laws regarding polygamy
+Mahummud Baakur, Muhammad Baqir
+Mahurrum, the Muharram festival;
+  date of;
+  ornaments laid aside at;
+  immense expenditure on;
+  second day observances;
+  fifth day observances;
+  last day observances;
+  clothes given away;
+  inauspicious for marriages;
+  objected to by Sunnis
+Majoob Soofies, _majzub_, 'abstracted'
+Mango tree, the
+Marriage, forced, prohibited;
+  age for;
+  settlements unknown;
+  service;
+  exorbitant expenditure on
+Matchmakers
+Matunjun, _muttajjan_, meat boiled with sugar and spices;
+  see MATUNJUN
+Maulvee, _maulavi,_ a doctor of the law
+Mautunjun, see MATUNJUN
+Mayllah, _mela_, a fair, a religious assemblage
+Mayndhie, _mendhi_,
+  the shrub _Lawsonia alba_, apllied to hands and feet;
+  smeared on bride and bridegroom;
+  procession of;
+  sent to bridegroom by bride;
+  smeared on horses;
+  rite at marriage
+Mayvour, _mewa_, fruit
+Mazoor, Mazoorie, _mazdur, mazdurni_, a day labourer
+Meals, among Musalmans
+Meat, use of by Musalmans
+Mecca, the holy city;
+  the Holy House;
+  life held sacred at;
+  Black Stone at;
+  see KAABAH
+Medicine, native system of
+Medina, the holy city
+Meer, _mir_, a title of Sayyids
+Meer Eloy Bauxh, Mir Ilahi Bakhsh
+Meer Hadjee Shah, Mir Haji Shah, his life;
+  character;
+  makes his own winding sheet;
+  listens to the reading of the Bible;
+  views on fasting;
+  tea drinking;
+  describes the Hajj;
+  describes Mecca;
+  life at Ludhiana;
+  adventure with a snake;
+  adventures with tiger;
+  his pilgrimage to Arabia;
+  cures an Arab lady;
+  attacked by pirates;
+  purchases Fatimah, an Arab girl
+Meer Hasan Ali, husband of the authoress
+Meer Hasan Ali, Mrs., the authoress
+Meer Nizaam ood deen, Mir Nizam-ud-din
+Meer Syaad Mahumud, Mir Sayyid Muhammad
+Meetah, meettah, _mitha, mithai_, sweet, sweetmeats
+Melons,
+  cider made from the juice
+Metals transformed into gold
+Mhembur, _minbar, mimbar_, the pulpit of a mosque
+Mhidie, al Mahdi, 'the Directed One';
+  signs of his coming;
+  his birthday
+Mina, _maina_, the bird _Gracula religiosa_
+Minerals, medicinal use of
+Missee, _missi_, a preparation for staining the teeth
+Mittie wallah, _mithaiwala_, a sweetmeat vendor
+Moat, _moth_, the aconite-leaved kidney bean
+Mocha, Mokha, a port on the Red Sea
+Moghdhur, _mugdar_, a sort of dumb-bell or club used in athletic exercises
+Mohur, a gold coin
+Monkeys;
+  and alligators;
+  affection for their offspring;
+  and snakes;
+  wounded;
+  and treasure;
+  use of antidotes for poison
+Moollakhaut, _mulaqat_, a mourning assemblage
+Mooltanie mittee, _multani mitti_, fuller's earth
+Moon, new, festival at;
+  influence of;
+  when full auspicious;
+  drinking the;
+  influence on wounds
+Moonkih, Munkar, Munkir, the Recording Angel
+Moonshie, _munshi_, a writer, secretary
+Moosa, Musa, Moses;
+  Musa al-Kazim, the Caliph
+Moosul, _musal_, a pestle used for husking rice
+Mortem, _matam_, mourning
+Moses, Musalman title of;
+  tale regarding
+Moslem, Muslim, cousin of Husain
+Mosque, absence of decoration in;
+  caretakers of;
+  at Kanauj;
+  pollution of
+Mosquitoes
+Mourning, dress worn during the Muharram festival;
+  chaff thrown on the head;
+  head and feet left bare;
+  for forty days after a death;
+  shaving forbidden during
+Muchullee, _machhli_, fish
+Mucka Beg
+Muckunpore, Makanpur
+Mudgeluss, _majlis_, a mourning assembly
+Muggalanie, _Mughlani_, a Moghul woman, a needlewoman
+Mugganee, _mangni_, the marriage engagement
+Muggrib, _maghrib ki namaz_, sunset prayer
+Mukburrah, Mukhburrah, _maqbarah_, a mausoleum
+Mukhdoom Jhaunneer, Makhdum Jahaniya Jahangasht, the saint
+Mukhun, _makkhan_, butter
+Mulberries
+Mullie, _malai_, cream
+Munall, _munhnal_, a pipe mouth-piece
+Muntah, _mantra_, spells, incantations
+Murdanah, _mardanah_, the men's quarters in a house
+Murseeah, _marsiyah_, a funeral elegy;
+  see MUSSEEAH
+Musheroo, _mashru_, silk cloth permitted to be worn at prayer
+Mushukh, _mashk_, a skin water-bag
+Music in the zenanah
+Musnud, _masnad_ a pile of cushions, a throne
+Musseah, Musseeah;
+  see MURSEEAH
+Mustaches
+Myriam, Maryam, the Virgin Mary
+Myrtle, the tree
+
+Naalkie, _nalki_, a kind of litter
+Naarah, _nara_, a string
+Nadir Shaah, Nadir Shah, King of Persia
+Najoom, najoomee, _nujumi_, an astrologer
+Nala and Damayanti, tale of
+Namaaz, _namaz_, the daily liturgical prayer of Musalmans
+Namaazie, _namazi_, one given to prayer, a devotee,
+  one who calls the people to prayer
+Nativity of Jesus Christ, observed by Musalmans
+Naunbye, _nanbai_, a bazar baker
+Nautch woman;
+  Nautchunee, _nachni_, a dancer
+Neam, _nim_, the tree _Melia Azadirachta_;
+  see NEEM
+Neellah tootee, _nila tutiya_, blue vitriol, medicinal use of
+New Moon festival, the
+New Year's Day, see NOU-ROSE
+Nitre, manufacture of
+Nizaam ood deen, Nizam-ud-din, the saint
+Noah, Musalman title of;
+  his place of burial;
+  ark of, where rested
+Nose-rings;
+  see NUT
+Nou-Rose, _nauroz_ the New Year's Day festival
+Nudghiff Usheruff, Nejef, Mashhad 'Ali
+Nujeeb, _najib_, a class of infantry
+Nusseer ood Deen Hyder, Nasir-ud-din Haidar, King of Oudh
+Nut, Nutt, _nath_, a nose-ring
+Nuwaub, _nawab_, 'a deputy', title of the rulers of Oudh
+Nuzza, _nazr, nazar_, an offering from an inferior to a superior
+Nykee, Nakir, the Recording Angel
+
+Omens, at Nauroz festival;
+  used in selecting a bride;
+  at marriage
+Omir, 'Umar, the second Caliph;
+  said to have destroyed the Alexandrian library
+Ood-ood, _hudhud_, the lapwing, hoopoe
+Oostardie, _ustadi_, a teacher;
+  see ARTOOJEE
+Orme, _am_, the mango
+Orme peach, the peach
+Ornaments, use of by women;
+  see JEWELLERY
+Otta, _'itr,_ otto of roses
+Oudh, administration of justice in the Nawabi;
+  Nawabs and Kings of
+
+Paadishah Begum, Padshah Begam, the
+Paak, _pak_, pure
+Pachisi, the game
+Paidshah, _padshah_, a King
+Palace, the, at Delhi
+Palkie, _palki_, the common palanquin
+Pallungh, _palang_, a kind of bed
+Paper, written, objection to burning;
+  made of bamboo
+Pataan, one of the Pathan tribe
+Pawn, _pan_, betel leaf;
+  not used during the Muharram festival
+Pawndawn, _pandan,_ a box to hold betel leaf
+Peach, the
+Pearls
+Pedigrees of Sayyids carefully kept
+Peer, _pir_, a Musalman saint or holy man
+Pellet bow, use of the
+Pepul, _pipal_, the sacred fig tree, _Ficus religiosa_
+Pickles, use of, and sale
+Pigeon flying;
+  shooting
+Pilgrims, regulations for;
+  cloak worn by
+Pillau, _pilau_, meat or fowl boiled with rice and spices
+Pineapple, the;
+  see UNANAS
+Plague, an outbreak of
+Plums
+Poison detected by means of dishes
+Polygamy;
+  among Indian kings
+Pomegranate, the
+Prayer, the call to;
+  'opening of difficulties';
+  carpet;
+  times of, how announced
+Prickly heat
+Printing, not practised in Lucknow
+Prisoners released to effect a cure of the sick or as a thank-offering
+Punkah, _pankah_, a kind of fan;
+  punkah wala, _punkah wala_, a fan-seller
+Pappayah, _papaiya_, the papaw tree, _Carica Papaya_
+Purdah, _pardah_, a screen to conceal ladies
+Purrh, _pahar_, a watch, a measure of time
+Pyjaamah, _paejama_, drawers;
+  stuff used in making
+
+Quail fighting
+Quicksilver, use of in medicine
+
+Racaab puttie, _rikab patthari_, a stone plate
+Rain magic
+Rainy season, the
+Rajpoots, Rajputs, infanticide among
+Raspberries
+Ravenscroft, G., murder of
+Red, the Sunni colour;
+  of Husain
+Reetah, _ritha_ the soapnut, use of in medicine
+Resident at Lucknow, the
+Resurrection, doctrine of the
+Ricketts, Mordaunt, Resident at Lucknow
+Right hand used in eating
+River, course of changed by a saint
+Romall, _rumal_, a handkerchief
+Rooey, _rohu_ the carp fish
+Rope-dancing
+Roses;
+  smelling of, causes colds and sneezing;
+  rose water;
+  syrup, seeds, oil, uses of
+Roshunie, _roshanai_, ink
+Rozedhaar, _rozadar_, one who keeps a fast
+Rumzaun, Ramazan, Ramzan, the festival
+Rutt, _rath_, a bullock carriage
+Ruzzie, _razai_ a quilt
+Ryott, _ra'iyat_ a subject, a cultivator
+
+Saabeel, _sabil_,
+  the place where sherbet is distributed at the Muharram festival
+Saadie, Shaikh S'adi, the Persian poet
+Saag, _sag,_ herbs of various kinds used in cooking
+Saalik, _salik_, a devotee, a kind of Sufi
+Saatarah, _sitara_, a guitar
+Sabbath, the, among Musalmans
+Sacrifice of animals at the Bakrah 'Id festival
+Safdar Jang, Nawab of Oudh, tomb of
+Sahbaund, Sawan, the fourth Hindu month
+Sahib Logue, Sahib Log, Europeans
+Saints' tombs at Kanauj
+Sainturh, _sentha_ the grass _Saccharum ciliare_;
+  see SECUNDAH
+Sakeena Koobraah, Sakina Kibriya, daughter of Husain
+Salaam-oon-ali khoon, _salam 'alai-kum_, 'Peace be with thee'
+Sallon, _salan_, a curry of meat, fish, or vegetables
+Sampwalla, _sampwala_, a snake-charmer
+Sarchuk, _saachaq_, fruits, &c., carried in procession at a marriage
+Saulgirrah, _salgirah_, the knot tied to mark a birthday
+Scales, the, doctrine of
+Scapegoat, released in times of sickness
+Scorpio, moon of, inauspicious
+Scorpions, mode of repelling
+Seclusion of womem, origin of the custom
+Secundah, _sarkanda_,
+  roots of the grass _Saccharum ciliare_, used for mats and screens;
+  see SAINTURH
+Secungebeen, _sikanjabin_, oxymel, vinegar
+Seepie wallah deelie sukha,
+  _sipi wala gila sukha_, moist or dry cuppers
+Seer, _scr_, a weight of about two pounds
+Serai, _sarai_, a native inn
+Seur, _suar_ a hog, a term of abuse
+Seven, a lucky number
+Shaah Jhee, Shahji, a beggar
+Shaah Nudghiff, Shah Najaf, a shrine at Lucknow
+Shaah ood Dowlah, Shah-ud-daula, a darvesh
+Shah Allum, Shah 'Alam II, King of Delhi, his grave
+Shah Allumgeer, Shah 'Alamgir, the Emperor Aurangzeb
+Shah Jahan, the Moghul Emperor
+Shahjee, see SHAH SHERIF OOD DEEN
+Shahnama, the poem by Firdausi
+Shah Nizaam ood deen, Shaikh Nizam ud-din Auliya, the saint
+Shah Sherif ood deen Mahmood,
+  Shah Sharif ud-din Mahmud, a darvesh
+Shampooing
+Shaving, discontinued during mourning
+Shawm, Sham, Syria
+Shawmie, Shami, a native of Syria
+Sheah, Shiah, the Musalman sect;
+  quarrels with Sunnis at the Muharram;
+  their numbers compared with those of Sunnis;
+  the creed of
+Sheah-maul, _shirmal_, a kind of bread; see SHEERMAUL
+Sheekaree, _shikari_, a huntsman
+Sheermaul, _shirmal_, a kind of bread; see SHEAH-MAUL
+Sheikh Mahumud, Shaikh Muhammad
+Sherbet, _sharbat_, a drink, how made;
+  distributed at the Muharram festival;
+  payment for at marriages
+SHERREFAH, SHERREEFHA, _sharifah_, the custard apple
+Sheruff, Sharif, the governor of Mecca
+Shimeear, Shimar, the chief agent in the murder of Husain
+Shiraaz, Shiraz, a city in Persia
+Shoes removed in sacred places and in houses;
+  varieties of
+Shooghur Allah, see SHUGGUR ALLAH
+Shopkeepers, mode of doing business
+Shroff, _sarraf_, a moneychanger
+Shroud, the burial
+Shubh-burraat, _Shab-i-bara'at_, the night of record, a festival
+Shubnum, _shabnam_, 'dew', a kind of fine cloth
+Shuggur Allah, _shukr Allah_,
+  'Praise be to God!'; see SHOOGHUR ALLAH
+Shujah ood Dowlah, Shuja ud-daula, Nawab of Oudh
+Shutteringhie, _shatranji_, a striped floor-cloth
+Sickley ghur, _saikalgar_, a polisher of arms
+Sickness, attributed to spirits
+Sikhs, the;
+  campaign against
+Silk, wearing of
+Sin, repentance of
+Singing women
+Siraat, _sirat_, the bridge over which the soul passes
+Sirrakee, _sirki_, the reed _Saccharum
+  ciliare_, used for mats, &c
+Sita ki Rasoi, a building at Kanauj
+Slaves, domestic, condition of;
+  female in the zenanah;
+  liberated by or on the death of the owner;
+  property of reverting to the master
+Snake charmers, deception practised by
+Snakes, superstitions regarding;
+  and monkeys;
+  tale of an ungrateful;
+  an adventure with
+Soap, substitutes for
+Society of Musalman ladies
+Solomon, King, tale of;
+  the first Sufi
+Soobadhaar, _subahdar_, a native officer, a viceroy
+Soobadhaarie, _subahdari_, a province under a viceroy
+Soobhoo namaaz, _namaz-i-subh_, the dawn prayer
+Soofy, Sufi, a sect of Musalmans;
+  consulted to solve mysteries;
+  pretenders to piety;
+  assemblage of with singing and dancing;
+  principles of
+Soojinee, _sozani_, a quilted cloth
+Soonie, Sunni, the Musalman sect;
+  rulers at Mecca
+Soota-badhaar, _Soutabardar_, a mace-bearer;
+  see SOTA-BADHAAH
+Sota-badhaah; see SOOTA-BADHAAR
+Spinach, varieties and uses of
+Spirits, evil, exorcism of
+Starvation, a cure for disease
+Stockings, wearing of in the zenanah
+Stone dishes
+Strawberries
+Subzah, _sabzah_, a song bird
+Suffee Ali, Safiya 'Ilah, a title of Adam
+Sulleed, _tharid_, a kind of bread
+Sulmah, _surma_, antimony applied to the eyes
+Sumdun Begum, _samdhan begum_, a connexion by marriage
+Surraie, _surahi_, a long-necked water flagon
+Surringhee, _sarangi_, a sort of violin
+Sutkah, _sadaqah_, offerings of intercession
+Suwaaree, _sawari_, an equipage, escort
+Sweetmeats, sellers of;
+  given to a man in a state of ecstasy,
+Swine, held abominable by Musalmans
+Sword exercises
+Syaad, Sayyid, a class of Musalmans;
+  their origin;
+  care used and difficulty in making marriage engagements;
+  respect paid to;
+  dues received by
+Syaad Ahmad Kaabeer, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir,
+Syaad Harshim, Sayyid Hashim
+
+Taaif, Ta'if, a fertile tract near Mecca,
+Taarkhanah, _tahkhanah_, an underground room,
+Taaseel-dhaar, _tahsildar_, a native collector of revenue,
+Taaweez, taawize, _ta'wiz_, an amulet, talisman,
+Tahujjoot, _namaz-i-tahajjud_, prayer after midnight,
+Tale kee archah wallah,
+  _Tel ka acharwala_, a seller of oil pickles,
+Talismans; see TAAWEEZ
+Tamarind tree, the, vegetation beneath it dying,
+Tamerlane, Taimur Lang, introduces seclusion of women,
+Tarantula, the,
+Tattle, _tatti_, a screen, a device for cooling rooms,
+Tawurshear, _tabashir_, a substance found in bamboos,
+Tazia, _ta'ziya_,
+  a model tomb carried in procession at the Muharram festival;
+  not peculiar to India;
+  not used by Sunnis;
+  burial of,
+Tea, use of,
+Teeth, cleaning of, 59
+Thonjaun, _tamjhan_, _thamjhan_, a kind of litter,
+Throne, of the King of Oudh,
+Tigers, tamed, wandering about the house;
+  adventure with,
+Time, Musalman division of;
+  measured by a clepsydra,
+Timoor, Taimur, his invasion of India,
+Tin, use of in dyeing and in medicine,
+Tithes,
+Toddy,
+Toothbrushes,
+Tope, a grove of trees,
+Tor, _tar_, the palm tree, _Borassus flabelliformis_,
+Toy sellers,
+Trades in Lucknow,
+Travellers excused from fasting,
+Treasure, burying of,
+Trees, speaking on the Mahdi's birthday,
+Tuckht, _takht_, a wooden platform on which men sit and sleep,
+Tufaun, _tufan_, a storm,
+Tumaushbeen, _tamashabin_, 'a spectator of wonders',
+Tundhie, _thandi_, a cooling draught taken at the breaking of a fast,
+Turkaarie, _tarkari_, vegetables
+
+Uberuck, _abrak_, talc, mica,
+Ulsee, _alsi_, linseed, _Linum usitatissimum_,
+Umbrella, a mark of dignity,
+Umultass, _amaltas_,
+  the Indian laburnum, _Cassia fistula_, use in medicine,
+Ungeeah, _angiya_, an under-jacket or bodice,
+Ungeel, _injil_, Evangel, the Gospels,
+Unnah, _anna_, a nurse,
+Unrurkha, _angarkha_, a long tunic,
+Ununas, _ananas_, the pineapple, _Ananassa sativa_,
+Urzees, _arziz_, tin, used in medicine and dyeing,
+Usury, forbidden
+
+Vakeel, _wakil_, an agent
+Vazeefah, _wazifah_, a passage read from the Koran
+Vegetables, use of as food
+Veil, worn by a bridegroom
+Venus, the conjunction of
+Vermicelli, used in the times of fasting
+Villoiettee Begum, Wilayati begam, 'the foreign lady'
+Vizier, _wazir_, the prime minister at the Court of Oudh
+
+Walking barefoot, a sign of mourning
+Wax from the human ear administered to elephants
+White ants
+Widows, dress of;
+  reduced numbers of;
+  marriage of
+Window glass, scarcity of
+Witch, tale of a;
+  hair plucked from the head of;
+  has crooked feet;
+  sucking out the vitals of a victim
+Witchcraft, general belief in
+Wives, prescribed number of;
+  large numbers of married
+Women, belief that they do not possess souls;
+  seclusion of
+Wounds, treatment of
+
+Yaacoob, Ya'qub, Jacob
+Yeusuf, Yusuf, Joseph
+Yieyah, Yahya, St. John
+Yoube, Aiyub, Job
+Yumen, Yemen in Arabia
+Yuzeed, Yazid, second Caliph of the house of Umaiyah
+
+Zahur morah, _zahr mohra_, the bezoar stone
+Zarbund, _zerband_, a waist string
+Zechareah, Zachariah
+Zeearut, _ziyarah, ziyarat_, a visit to a shrine
+Zeenahnah, the zenanah, described
+Zemindhaar, _zamindar_, a landowner
+Zohur namaaz, _salatu-'z-zuhr_, mid-day prayer
+Zuckhaut, _zakat_, alms for the poor
+Zynool auberdene, Az-zainu'l-'abidin
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSSULMAUNS OF
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Observations on the Mussulmauns of India, by
+Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali, et al, Edited by W. Crooke
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Observations on the Mussulmauns of India
+
+Author: Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali
+
+Release Date: August 7, 2004  [eBook #13127]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSSULMAUNS OF
+INDIA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Allen Siddle and Project Gutenberg Distributed
+Proofreaders from images provided by the Million Book Project
+
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSSULMAUNS OF INDIA
+
+Descriptive of Their Manners, Customs, Habits and Religious Opinions
+Made During a Twelve Years' Residence in Their Immediate Society
+
+by
+
+MRS. MEER HASSAN ALI
+
+Second Edition, Edited with Notes and an Introduction by W. Crooke
+
+1917
+
+
+
+
+WITH SENTIMENTS OF GRATITUDE
+AND PROFOUND RESPECT
+THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE HUMBLY DEDICATED,
+WITH PERMISSION,
+
+TO HER ROYAL HIGHNESS
+THE PRINCESS AUGUSTA;
+
+BY HER ROYAL HIGHNESS'S
+MOST OBEDIENT,
+FAITHFULLY ATTACHED,
+AND VERY HUMBLE SERVANT,
+
+B. MEER HASSAN ALI.
+
+[1832.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
+
+In the present reprint the text of the original edition of this work has
+been reproduced without change, even the curious transliterations of the
+vernacular words and phrases having been preserved. The correct forms of
+these, so far as they have been ascertained, have been given in the Notes
+and in the Index-Glossary. I have added an Introduction containing an
+account of the authoress based on the scanty information available, and I
+have compiled some notes illustrating questions connected with Islam
+and Musalman usages. I have not thought it necessary to give detailed
+references in the notes, but a list of the works which have been used will
+be found at the end of the text. As in other volumes of this series, the
+diacritical marks indicating the varieties of the sound of certain letters
+in the Arabic and Devanagari alphabets have not been given: they are
+unnecessary for the scholar and serve only to embarrass the general reader.
+
+I have to acknowledge help from several friends in the preparation of this
+edition. Mr. W. Foster, C.I.E., has supplied valuable notes from the India
+Office records on Mir Hasan 'Ali and his family; Dr. W. Hoey, late
+I.C.S., and Mr. L.N. Jopling, I.C.S., Deputy-Commissioner, Lucknow, have
+made inquiries on the same subject. Mr. H.C. Irwin, late I.C.S., has
+furnished much information on Oudh affairs in the time of the Nawabi.
+Sir C.J. Lyall, K.C.S.I, C.I.E., and Professor E.G. Browne, M.A., have
+permitted me to consult them on certain obscure words in the text.
+
+W. CROOKE.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Very little is known about the authoress of this interesting book. She is
+reticent about the affairs of her husband and of herself, and inquiries
+recently made at Lucknow, at the India Office, and in other likely
+quarters in England, have added little to the scanty information we
+possess about her.
+
+The family of her husband claimed to be of Sayyid origin, that is to say,
+to be descended from the martyrs, Hasan and Husain, the sons of Fatimah,
+daughter of the Prophet, by her marriage with her cousin-german, 'Ali.
+The father-in-law of the authoress, Mir Haji Shah, of whom she
+speaks with affection and respect, was the son of the Qazi, or
+Muhammadan law-officer, of Ludhiana, in the Panjab. During his
+boyhood the Panjab was exposed to raids by the Mahrattas and incursions of
+the Sikhs. He therefore abandoned his studies, wandered about for a time,
+and finally took service with a certain Raja--where she does not tell
+us--who was then raising a force in expectation of an attack by the Sikhs.
+He served in at least one campaign, and then, while still a young man,
+made a pilgrimage thrice to Mecca and Kerbela, which gained him the title
+of Haji, or pilgrim. While he was in Arabia he fell short of funds,
+but he succeeded in curing the wife of a rich merchant who had long
+suffered from a serious disease. She provided him with money to continue
+his journey. He married under romantic circumstances an Arab girl named
+Fatimah as his second wife, and then went to Lucknow, which, under the
+rule of the Nawabs, was the centre in Northern India of the Shi'ah
+sect, to which he belonged. Here he had an exciting adventure with a tiger
+during a hunting party, at which the Nawab, Shuja-ud-daula, was
+present. He is believed to have held the post of Peshnamaz, or 'leader
+in prayer', in the household of the eunuch, Almas 'Ali Khan, who
+is referred to by the authoress.
+
+His son was Mir Hasan 'Ali, the husband of the authoress. The
+tradition in Lucknow is that he quarrelled with his father and went to
+Calcutta, where he taught Arabic to some British officers and gained a
+knowledge of English. We next hear of him in England, when in May 1810 he
+was appointed assistant to the well-known oriental scholar, John
+Shakespear, professor of Hindustani at the Military College, Addiscombe,
+from 1807 to 1830, author of a dictionary of Hindustani and other
+educational works. Mention is made of two cadets boarding with Mir
+Hasan 'Ali, but it does not appear from the records where he lived.
+After remaining at the College for six years he resigned his appointment
+on the ground of ill-health, with the intention of returning to India. He
+must have been an efficient teacher, because, on his resignation, the East
+India Company treated him with liberality. He received a gift of L50 as a
+reward for his translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, and from the
+Court minutes it appears that on December 17, 1816, it was resolved to
+grant him 100 guineas to provide his passage and L100 for equipment.
+Further, the Bengal Government was instructed to furnish him on his
+arrival with means to reach his native place, and to pay him a pension of
+Rs. 100 _per mensem_ for the rest of his life.[1]
+
+A tradition from Lucknow states that he was sent to England on a secret
+mission, 'to ask the Home authorities to accept a contract of Oudh direct
+from Nasir-ud-din Haidar, who was quite willing to remit the money
+of contract direct to England instead of settling the matter with the
+British Resident at Lucknow'. It is not clear what this exactly means. It
+may be that the King of Oudh, thinking that annexation was inevitable, may
+have been inclined to attempt to secure some private arrangement with the
+East India Company, under which he would remain titular sovereign, paying
+a tribute direct to the authorities in England, and that he wished to
+conduct these negotiations without the knowledge of the Resident at
+Lucknow. There does not seem to be independent evidence of this mission of
+Mir Hasan 'Ali, and we are told that it was, as might have been
+expected, unsuccessful.
+
+No mention is made of his wife in the official records, and I have been
+unable to trace her family name or the date and place of her marriage.
+Mir Hasan 'Ali and his wife sailed for Calcutta, and travelled to
+Lucknow via Patna. She tells little of her career in India, save that she
+lived there for twelve years, presumably from 1816 to 1828, and that
+eleven years of that time were spent in the house of her father-in-law at
+Lucknow. In the course of her book she gives only one date, September 18,
+1825, when her husband held the post of Tahsildar, or sub-collector
+of revenue, at Kanauj in the British district of Farrukhabad. No
+records bearing on his career as a British official are forthcoming.
+Another Lucknow tradition states that on his arrival at the Court of Oudh
+from England he was, on the recommendation of the Resident, appointed to a
+post in the King's service on a salary of Rs. 300 per annum. Subsequently
+he fell into disgrace and was obliged to retire to Farrukhabad with
+the court eunuch, Nawab Mu'tamad-ud-daula, Agha Mir.
+
+With the restoration of Agha Mir to power, Hasan 'Ali returned
+to Lucknow, and was granted a life pension of Rs. 100 _per mensem_ for his
+services as Darogha at the Residency, and in consideration of his
+negotiations between the King and the British Government or the East India
+Company.
+
+From the information collected at Lucknow it appears that he was known as
+Mir Londoni, 'the London gentleman', and that he was appointed
+Safir, or Attache, at the court of King Ghazi-ud-din Haidar,
+who conferred upon him the title of Maslaha-ud-daula, 'Counsellor of
+State'. By another account he held the post of Mir Munshi, head
+native clerk or secretary to the British Resident.
+
+One of the most influential personages in the court of Oudh during this
+period was that stormy petrel of politics, Nawab Hakim Mehndi. He
+had been the right-hand man of the Nawab Sa'adat Ali, and on the
+accession of his son Ghazi-ud-din Haidar in 1814 he was dismissed on
+the ground that he had incited the King to protest against interference in
+Oudh affairs by the Resident, Colonel Baillie. The King at the last moment
+became frightened at the prospect of an open rupture with the Resident.
+Nawab Hakim Mehndi was deprived of all his public offices and of
+much of his property, and he was imprisoned for a time. On his release he
+retired into British territory, and in 1824 he was living in magnificent
+style at Fatehgarh. In that year Bishop Heber visited Lucknow and received
+a courteous letter from the Nawab inviting him to his house at
+Fatehgarh. He gave the Bishop an assurance 'that he had an English
+housekeeper, who knew perfectly well how to do the honours of his
+establishment to gentlemen of her own nation. (She is, in fact, a singular
+female, who became the wife of one of the Hindustani professors at
+Hertford, now the Hukeem's dewan,[2] and bears, I believe, a very
+respectable character.)' The authoress makes no reference to Hakim
+Mehndi, nor to the fact that she and her husband were in his employment.
+
+The cause of her final departure from India is stated by W. Knighton in a
+highly coloured sketch of court life in the days of King Nasir-ud-daula,
+_The Private Life of an Eastern King_, published in 1855. 'Mrs. Meer
+Hassan was an English lady who married a Lucknow noble during a visit to
+England. She spent twelve years with him in India, and did not allow him
+to exercise a Moslem's privilege of a plurality of wives. Returning to
+England afterwards on account of her health, she did not again rejoin
+him.'[3] The jealousy between rival wives in a polygamous Musalman
+household is notorious. 'A rival may be good, but her son never: a rival
+even if she be made of dough is intolerable: the malice of a rival is
+known to everybody: wife upon wife and heartburnings'--such are the common
+proverbs which define the situation. But if her separation from her
+husband was really due to this cause, it is curious that in her book she
+notes as a mark of a good wife that she is tolerant of such arrangements.
+'She receives him [her husband] with undisguised pleasure, although she
+has just before learned that another member has been added to his
+well-peopled harem. The good and forbearing wife, by this line of conduct,
+secures to herself the confidence of her husband, who, feeling assured
+that the amiable woman has an interest in his happiness, will consult her
+and take her advice in the domestic affairs of his children by other wives,
+and even arrange by her judgement all the settlements for their marriages,
+&c. He can speak of other wives without restraint--for she knows he has
+others--and her education has taught her that they deserve her respect in
+proportion as they contribute to her husband's happiness.'[4]
+
+It is certainly noticeable that she says very little about her husband
+beyond calling him in a conventional way 'an excellent husband' and 'a
+dutiful, affectionate son'. There is no indication that her husband
+accompanied her on her undated visit to Delhi, when she was received in
+audience by the King, Akbar II, and the Queen, who were then living in a
+state of semi-poverty. She tells us that they 'both appeared, and
+expressed themselves, highly gratified with the visit of an English lady,
+who could explain herself in their language without embarrassment, or the
+assistance of an interpreter, and who was the more interesting to them
+from the circumstance of being the wife of a Syaad'.[5]
+
+From inquiries made at Lucknow it has been ascertained that Mir
+Hasan 'Ali had no children by his English wife. By one or more native
+wives he had three children: a daughter, Fatimah Begam, who married a
+certain Mir Sher 'Ali, of which marriage one or more descendants
+are believed to be alive; and two sons, Mir Sayyid 'Ali or Miran
+Sahib, said to have served the British Government as a Tahsildar,
+whose grandson is now living at Lucknow, and Mir Sayyid Husain, who
+became a Risaldar, or commander of a troop, in one of the Oudh
+Irregular Cavalry Regiments. One of his descendants, Mir Agha 'Ali
+Sahib, possesses some landed property which was probably acquired by
+the Risaldar. After the annexation of Oudh Mir Hasan 'Ali is
+said to have been paid a pension of Rs. 100 _per mensem_ till his death in
+1863.
+
+It is also worthy of remark that she carefully avoids any reference to the
+palace intrigues and maladministration which prevailed in Oudh during the
+reigns of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar and Nasir-ud-din Haidar, who
+occupied the throne during her residence at Lucknow. She makes a vague
+apology for the disorganized state of the country: 'Acts of oppression may
+sometimes occur in Native States without the knowledge even, and much less
+by the command of, the Sovereign ruler, since the good order of the
+government mainly depends on the disposition of the Prime Minister for the
+time being'[6]--a true remark, but no defence for the conduct of the weak
+princes who did nothing to suppress corruption and save their subjects
+from oppression.
+
+Little is known of the history of Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali after her
+arrival in England. It has been stated that she was attached in some
+capacity to the household of the Princess Augusta, who died unmarried on
+September 22, 1840.[7] This is probable, because the list of subscribers
+to her book is headed by Queen Adelaide, the Princess Augusta, and other
+ladies of the Royal Family. She must have been in good repute among
+Anglo-Indians, because several well-known names appear in the list: H.T.
+Colebrooke, G.C. Haughton, Mordaunt Ricketts and his wife, and Colonel J.
+Tod.
+
+The value of the book rests on the fact that it is a record of the
+first-hand experiences of an English lady who occupied the exceptional
+position of membership of a Musalman family. She tells us nothing of
+her friends in Lucknow, but she had free access to the houses of
+respectable Sayyids, and thus gained ample facilities for the study of the
+manners and customs of Musalman families. Much of her information on
+Islam was obtained from her husband and his father, both learned,
+travelled gentlemen, and by them she was treated with a degree of
+toleration unusual in a Shi'ah household, this sect being rigid and
+often fanatical followers of Islam. She was allowed to retain a firm
+belief in the Christian religion, and she tells us that Mir Haji
+Shah delighted in conversing on religious topics, and that his happiest
+time was spent in the quiet of night when his son translated to him the
+Bible as she read it.[8]
+
+Her picture of zenana life is obviously coloured by her frank admiration
+for the people amongst whom she lived, who treated her with respect and
+consideration. It is thus to some extent idyllic. At the same time, it may
+be admitted that she was exceptionally fortunate in her friends. Her
+sketch may be usefully compared with that of Mrs. Fanny Parks in her
+charming book, _The Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque_.
+Mrs. Parks had the advantage of having acquired a literary knowledge of
+Hindustani, while Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, to judge from the way in
+which she transliterates native words, can have been able to speak little
+more than a broken patois, knew little of grammar, and was probably unable
+to read or write the Arabic character. Colonel Gardner, who had wide and
+peculiar experience, said to Mrs. Parks: 'Nothing can exceed the quarrels
+that go on in the zenana, or the complaints the begams make against each
+other. A common complaint is "Such a one has been practising witchcraft
+against me". If the husband make a present to one wife, if it be only a
+basket of mangoes, he must make the same exactly to all the other wives to
+keep the peace. A wife, when in a rage with her husband, if on account of
+jealousy, often says, "I wish I were married to a grass-cutter," i.e.
+because a grass-cutter is so poor that he can only afford to have one
+wife.'[9] Mrs. Parks from her own experience calls the zenana 'a place of
+intrigue, and those who live within four walls cannot pursue a straight
+path; how can it be otherwise, when so many conflicting passions are
+called forth?'[10] She adds that 'Musalmani ladies generally forget
+their learning when they grow up, or they neglect it. Everything that
+passes without the four walls is repeated to them by their spies; never
+was any place so full of intrigue, scandal, and chit-chat as a zenana.'[11]
+When she visited the Delhi palace she remarks: 'As for beauty, in a whole
+zenana there may be two or three handsome women, and all the rest
+remarkably ugly.'[12] European officers at the present day have no
+opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of the conditions of zenana life;
+but from the rumours that reach them they would probably accept the views
+of Mrs. Parks in preference to those of Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali.
+
+Though her opinions on the life of Musalman ladies is to some extent
+open to criticism, and must be taken to apply only to the exceptional
+society in which she moved, her account of the religious feasts and fasts,
+the description of the marriage ceremonies and that of the surroundings of
+a native household are trustworthy and valuable. Some errors, not of much
+importance and probably largely due to her imperfect knowledge of the
+language, have been corrected in the notes of the present edition. It must
+also be understood that her knowledge of native life was confined to that
+of the Musalmans, and she displays no accurate acquaintance with the
+religion, life or customs of the Hindus. The account in the text displays
+a bias in favour of the Shi'ah sect of Musalmans, as contrasted with
+that of the Sunnis. For a more impartial study of the question the
+reader is referred to Sir W. Muir, _Annals of the Early Caliphate, The
+Caliphate_, and to Major R.D. Osborn, _Islam under the Khalifs of Baghdad_.
+
+
+[1] Col. H.M. Vibart, _Addiscombe_, pp. 39, 41, 42.
+
+[2] _Diwan_, chief agent, manager.
+
+[3] p. 208.
+
+[4] p. 182.
+
+[5] p. 290.
+
+[6] p. 227.
+
+[7] _Calcutta Review_, ii. 387.
+
+[8] pp. 80, 422.
+
+[9] Vol. i, pp. 230, 453.
+
+[10] i. 391.
+
+[11] i. 450.
+
+[12] ii. 215.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+INTRODUCTORY LETTER
+
+
+LETTER I
+
+  Introductory Remarks.--The characteristic simplicity of manners
+  exhibited in Native families.--Their munificent charity.--The Syaads.
+  Their descent, and the veneration paid to them.--Their pride of
+  birth.--Fast of Mahurrum.--Its origin.--The Sheahs and
+  Soonies.--Memorandum of distances.--Mount Judee (Judea), the
+  attributed burying-place of Adam and Noah.--Mausoleum of Ali.--Tomb
+  of Eve.--Meer Hadjee Shah.
+
+
+LETTER II
+
+  Celebration of Mahurrum.--The Tazia.--Mussulmaun Cemeteries.--An
+  Emaum-baarah.--Piety of the ladies.--Self-inflicted abstinence and
+  privations endured by each sex.--Instances of the devotional zeal of
+  the Mussulmauns.--Attempted infringement on their religious
+  formalities.--The Resident at Lucknow.--Enthusiastic ardour of the
+  poor.--Manner of celebrating the Mahurrum in opposition to the
+  precepts of the Khoraun.--Mosque and Emaum-baarah contrasted.--The
+  supposition of Mussulmauns practising idolatry confuted.
+
+
+LETTER III
+
+  Continuation of Mahurrum.--Consecration of Banners.--Durgah at
+  Lucknow.--Its origin explained.--Regarded with peculiar
+  veneration.--The Nuwaub vows to build a new one.--Its
+  description.--Procession to the Durgah.--Najoomies.--Influence
+  possessed and practised by them.--Eunuchs.--Anecdotes of some having
+  attained great honours and wealth.--Presents bestowed upon them
+  generally revert to the donor.--Rich attire of male and female
+  slaves...Page 32
+
+
+LETTER IV
+
+  Mahurrum concluded.--Night of Mayndhie.--Emaum-baarah of the King of
+  Oude.--Procession to Shaah Nudghiff.--Last day of
+  Mahurrum.--Chattahs.--Musical instruments.--Zeal of the Native
+  gentlemen.--Funeral obsequies over the Tazia at
+  Kraabaallah.--Sentiments of devout Mussulmauns.--The fast followed by
+  acts of charity.--Remarks on the observance of Mahurrum...Page 42
+
+
+LETTER V
+
+  Time.--How divided in Hindoostaun.--Observances after
+  Mahurrum--Luxuries and enjoyments resumed.--Black dye used by the
+  ladies.--Their nose-ring.--Number of rings worn in their ears.--Mode
+  of dressing their hair.--Aversion to our tooth-brushes.--Toilet of
+  the ladies.--The Pyjaamahs.--The Ungeeah (bodice).--The Courtie.--The
+  Deputtah.--Reception of a superior or elder amongst the
+  ladies.--Their fondness for jewels.--Their shoes.--The state of
+  society amongst the Mussulmaun ladies.--Their conversational
+  endowments.--Remark upon the fashion and duty of beards...Page 55
+
+
+LETTER VI
+
+  The Mussulmaun religion.--Sectarians.--Their difference of
+  faith.--History of the Soonies.--The Caliphas Omir, Osman, Aboubuker,
+  &c.--Mahumud's parting charge to Ali.--Omir's jealousy of Ali.--The
+  Khoraun.--How compiled.--The Calipha Omir held in detestation.--Creed
+  of the Sheahs.--Funeral service.--Opinions of the Mussulmauns
+  respecting the Millennium.--The foundation of their faith
+  exhibited.--Sentiments of the most devout followers of
+  Mahumud.--Bridge of Sirraat, the Scales, &c., explained.--Emaum
+  Mhidhie.--Prophecy of his reappearance.--Its early fulfilment
+  anticipated.--Discourse with Meer Hadjee Shaah on this
+  subject...Page 66
+
+
+LETTER VII
+
+  Namaaz (daily prayer).--The Mussulmaun prayers.--Their different
+  names and times.--Extra prayer-service.--The Mosque.--Ablutions
+  requisite previous to devotion.--Prostrations at prayers.--Mosque
+  described.--The Mussulmaun's Sabbath.--Its partial observance.--The
+  amusements of this life not discontinued on the Sabbath.--Employment
+  of domestics undiminished on this day.--Works of importance then
+  commenced.--Reasons for appropriating Friday to the Sabbath.--The
+  Jews opposed to Mahumud.--The Prophet receives instructions from the
+  angel Gabriel.--Their import and definition.--Remarks of a
+  Commentator on the Khoraun.--Prayer of intercession.--Pious
+  observance of Christmas day by a Native Lady.--Opinions entertained
+  of our Saviour.--Additional motives for prayer.--David's Mother's
+  prayer.--Anecdote of Moses and a Woodcutter.--Remarks upon the piety
+  and devotion of the female Mussulmauns...Page 82
+
+
+LETTER VIII
+
+  The Fast of Rumzaun.--Motives for its strict observance.--Its
+  commencement and duration.--Sentiments of Meer Hadjee Shaah on the
+  day of fasting.--Adherence of the females to the observing this
+  fast.--How first broken.--Devout persons extend the term to forty
+  days.--Children permitted to try their zeal.--Calamitous effects of
+  the experiment.--Exemptions from this duty.--Joyful termination of
+  the fast.--Celebration of Eade on the last day.--The
+  Nuzza.--Nautchwomen and Domenie.--Surprise of the Natives at European
+  dancing.--Remarks on their Music.--Anecdotes of Fatima.--The
+  Chuckee...Page 98
+
+
+LETTER IX
+
+  The Hadje (Pilgrimage to Mecca).--Commanded to be performed by
+  Mahumud.--Eagerness of both, sexes to visit the Prophet's
+  tomb.--Qualifications requisite for the undertaking.--Different
+  routes from India to Mecca.--Duties of the pilgrims at the Holy
+  House.--Mecca and its environs.--Place of Abraham.--The
+  Bedouins.--Anecdote of a devotee and two pilgrims.--A Bedouin Arab
+  and the travellers to Mecca.--The Kaabah (Holy
+  House).--Superstitious regard to a chain suspended there.--Account of
+  the gold water-spout.--Tax levied on pilgrims visiting the tomb of
+  Mahumud by the Sheruff of Mecca.--Sacred visit to the tombs of Ali,
+  Hasan, and Hosein.--The importance attached to this duty.--Travellers
+  annoyed by the Arabs.--An instance recorded.--The Nudghiff
+  Usheruff.--Anecdotes of Syaad Harshim...Page 112
+
+
+LETTER X
+
+  The Zuckhaut (God's portion).--Syaads restricted the benefit of this
+  charity.--The Sutkah.--The Emaum's Zaumunee (protection).--The Tenths,
+  or Syaads' Due.--Mussulmauns attribute thanks to God only, for all
+  benefits conferred.--Extracts from the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'.--Mahumud's
+  advice.--His precepts tend to inculcate and encourage
+  charity.--Remarks on the benevolence of Mussulmauns...Page 135
+
+
+LETTER XI
+
+  Mussulmaun festivals.--Buckrah Eade.--Ishmael believed to have been
+  offered in sacrifice by Abraham and not Isaac.--Descent of the
+  Mussulmauns from Abraham.--The Eade-gaarh.--Presentation of
+  Nuzzas.--Elephants.--Description of the Khillaut (robe of
+  honour).--Customs on the day of Buckrah Eade.--Nou-Roze (New Year's
+  Day).--Manner of its celebration.--The Bussund (Spring-colour).--The
+  Sah-bund.--Observances during this month.--Festival of the New
+  Moon.--Superstition of the Natives respecting the influence of the
+  Moon.--Their practices during an eclipse.--Supposed effects of the
+  Moon on a wound.--Medicinal application of lime in
+  Hindoostaun.--Observance of Shubh-burraat.
+
+
+LETTER XII
+
+  The Zeenahnah.--Its interior described.--Furniture, decorations,
+  &c.--The Purdah (curtains).--Bedstead.--The Musnud (seat of
+  honour).--Mirrors and ornamental furniture disused.--Display on
+  occasions of festivity.--Observations on the Mussulmaun
+  Ladies.--Happiness in their state of seclusion.--Origin of secluding
+  females by Mahumud.--Anecdote.--Tamerlane's command prohibiting
+  females being seen in public.--The Palankeen.--Bearers.--Their
+  general utility and contentedness of disposition.--Habits peculiar to
+  Mussulmaun Ladies.--Domestic arrangements of a Zeenahnah.--Dinner
+  and its accompanying observances.--The Lota and Lugguns.--The
+  Hookha.--Further investigation of the customs adopted in
+  Zeenahnahs...Page 163
+
+
+LETTER XIII
+
+  Plurality of wives.--Mahumud's motive for permitting this
+  privilege.--State of society at the commencement of the Prophet's
+  mission.--His injunctions respecting marriage.--Parents invariably
+  determine on the selection of a husband.--First marriages attended by
+  a public ceremony.--The first wife takes precedence of all
+  others.--Generosity of disposition evinced by the Mussulmaun
+  ladies.--Divorces obtained under certain restrictions.--Period of
+  solemnizing marriage.--Method adopted in choosing a husband or
+  wife.--Overtures and contracts of marriage, how regulated.--Mugganee,
+  the first contract.--Dress of the bride elect on this occasion.--The
+  ceremonies described as witnessed.--Remarks on the bride.--Present
+  from the bridegroom on Buckrah Eade... Page 179
+
+
+LETTER XIV
+
+  Wedding ceremonies of the Mussulmauns.--The new or full moon
+  propitious to the rites being concluded.--Marriage settlements
+  unknown.--Control of the wife over her own property.--Three days and
+  nights occupied in celebrating the wedding.--Preparations previously
+  made by both families.--Ostentatious display on these occasions.--Day
+  of Sarchuck.--Customs on the day of Mayndhie.--Sending Presents.--Day
+  of Baarraat.--Procession of the bridegroom to fetch the bride.--The
+  bride's departure to her new home.--Attendant ceremonies
+  explained.--Similarity of the Mussulmaun and Hindoo
+  ceremonies.--Anecdote of a Moollah.--Tying the Narrah to the
+  Moosul...Page 195
+
+
+LETTER XV
+
+  On the birth and management of children in Hindoostaun.--Increase of
+  joy on the birth of a Son.--Preference generally shown to male
+  children.--Treatment of Infants.--Day of Purification.--Offerings
+  presented on this occasion to the child.--The anniversary of the
+  birthday celebrated.--Visit of the father to the Durgah.--Pastimes of
+  boys.--Kites.--Pigeons.--The Mhogdhur.--Sword-exercise.--The Bow and
+  Arrows.--The Pellet-bow.--Crows.--Sports of Native
+  gentlemen.--Cock-fighting.--Remarks upon horses, elephants, tigers,
+  and leopards.--Pigeon-shooting.--Birds released from captivity on
+  particular occasions.--Reasons for the extension of the royal
+  clemency in Native Courts.--Influence of the Prime Minister in the
+  administration of justice...Page 210
+
+
+LETTER XVI
+
+  Remarks on the trades and professions of Hindoostaun.--The
+  Bazaars.--Naunbye (Bazaar cook).--The Butcher, and other
+  trades.--Shroffs (Money-changers).--Popular cries in Native
+  cities.--The articles enumerated and the venders of them
+  described.--The Cuppers.--Leechwomen.--Ear-cleaners.--Old
+  silver.--Pickles.--Confectionery.--Toys.--Fans.--Vegetables and
+  fruit.--Mangoes.--Melons.--Melon-cyder.--Fish.--Bird-catcher.--The
+  Butcher-bird, the Coel, and Lollah.--Fireworks.--Parched
+  corn.--Wonder-workers.--Snakes.--Anecdote of the Moonshie and the
+  Snake-catcher.--The Cutler.--Sour curds.--Clotted
+  cream.--Butter.--Singular process of the Natives in making
+  butter.--Ice.--How procured in India.--Ink.--All writing dedicated to
+  God by the Mussulmauns.--The reverence for the name of God.--The
+  Mayndhie and Sulmah...Page 228
+
+
+LETTER XVII
+
+  Seclusion of Females.--Paadshah Begum.--The Suwaarree.--Female
+  Bearers.--Eunuchs.--Rutts.--Partiality of the Ladies to Large
+  retinues.--Female Companions.--Telling the Khaunie.--Games of the
+  Zeenahnah.--Shampooing.--The Punkah.--Slaves and
+  slavery.--Anecdote.--The Persian Poets.--Fierdowsee.--Saadie, his
+  'Goolistaun'.--Haafiz.--Mahumud Baarkur.--'Hyaatool
+  Kaaloob'.--Different manner of pronouncing Scripture names...Page 248
+
+
+LETTER XVIII
+
+  Evils attending a residence in India.--Frogs.--Flies.--Blains.--
+  Musquitoes.--The White Ant.--The Red Ant.--Their destructive
+  habits.--A Tarantula.--Black Ants.--Locusts.--Superstition of the
+  Natives upon their appearance.--The Tufaun, or Haundhie
+  (tempest).--The rainy season.--Thunder and lightning.--Meteors.--
+  Earthquakes.--A city ruined by them.--Reverence of the Mussulmauns
+  for saints.--Prickly heat.--Cholera Morbus.--Mode of
+  Treatment.--Temperance the best remedy.--Recipe...Page 258
+
+
+LETTER XIX
+
+  Kannoge.--Formerly the capital of Hindoostaun.--Ancient
+  castle.--Durability of the bricks made by the aborigines.--Prospect
+  from the Killaah (castle).--Ruins.--Treasures found therein.--The
+  Durgah Baallee Peer Kee.--Mukhburrahs.--Ancient Mosque.--Singular
+  structure of some stone pillars.--The Durgah Mukdoom
+  Jhaunneer.--Conversions to the Mussulmaun Faith.--Anecdote.--Ignorance
+  of the Hindoos.--Sculpture of the Ancients.--Mosque inhabited by
+  thieves.--Discovery of Nitre.--Method of extracting it.--Conjectures
+  of its produce.--Residence in the castle.--Reflections...Page 274
+
+
+LETTER XX
+
+  Delhi.--Description of the city.--Marble hall--The Queen's Mahul
+  (palace).--Audience with the King and Queen.--Conversation with
+  them.--Character of their Majesties.--Visit to a
+  Muckburrah.--Soobadhaars.--The nature of the office.--Durgah of Shah
+  Nizaam ood deen.--Tomb of Shah Allum.--Ruins in the vicinity of Delhi.
+  --Antique pillars (Kootub).--Prospect from its galleries.--Anecdotes
+  of Juangheer and Khareem Zund...Page 289
+
+
+LETTER XXI
+
+  Natural Productions of India.--Trees, shrubs, plants, fruits,
+  &c.--Their different uses and medicinal qualities.--The Rose.--Native
+  medical practice.--Antidote to Hydrophobia.--Remedy for the venom of
+  the Snake.--The Chitcherah (Inverted thorn).--The Neam-tree.--The
+  Hurrundh (Castor-tree).--The Umultass (Cassia-tree).--The
+  Myrtle.--The Pomegranate.--The Tamarind.--The Jahmun.--The
+  Mango.--The Sherrefah.--White and red Guavers.--The Damascus Fig.--The
+  Peach, and other Fruits.--The Mahdhaar (Fire-plant).--The Sirrakee and
+  Sainturh (Jungle-grass).--The Bamboo, and its various uses
+  enumerated...Page 304
+
+
+LETTER XXII
+
+  Monkeys.--Hindoo opinions of their Nature.--Instances of their
+  sagacity.--Rooted animosity of the Monkey tribe to the
+  snake.--Cruelty to each other when maimed.--The female remarkable for
+  affection to its young.--Anecdotes descriptive of the belief of the
+  Natives in the Monkey being endowed with reason.--The Monkeys and the
+  Alligator.--The Traveller and the Monkeys.--The Hindoo and the
+  Monkey...Page 324
+
+
+LETTER XXIII
+
+  The Soofies.--Opinion of the Mussulmauns concerning Solomon.--The
+  Ood-ood.--Description of the Soofies and their sect.--Regarded with
+  great reverence.--Their protracted fasts.--Their opinion esteemed by
+  the Natives.--Instance of the truth of their predictions.--The Saalik
+  and Majoob Soofies.--The poets Haafiz and Saadie.--Character and
+  attainments of Saadie.--His 'Goolistaun'.--Anecdotes descriptive of
+  the origin of that work.--Farther remarks on the character and
+  history of Saadie.--Interesting anecdotes illustrative of his virtues
+  and the distinguishing characteristics of the Soofies...Page 331
+
+
+LETTER XXIV
+
+  The Soofies continued.--Eloy Bauxh.--Assembly of Saalik
+  Soofies.--Singular exhibition of their zeal.--Mystery of Soofeism.--The
+  terms Soofie and Durweish explained.--Anecdote of Shah Sherif.--Shah
+  Jee and the Paltaan.--Dialogue on death between Shah Jee and his
+  wife.--Exemplary life of his grandson.--Anecdote of a Mussulmaun
+  lady.--Reflections on modern Hindoos.--Anecdotes of Shah ood Dowlah
+  and Meer Nizaam...Page 348
+
+
+LETTER XXV
+
+  Mussulmaun Devotees.--The Chillubdhaars.--Peculiar mode of
+  worship.--Propitiatory offerings.--Supposed to be invulnerable to
+  fire.--The Maadhaars or Duffelees.--Character of the
+  founder.--Pilgrimage to his tomb.--Females afflicted on visiting
+  it.--Effects attributed to the violation of the sanctuary by a
+  foreigner.--Superstition of the Natives.--Anecdote of Sheikh Suddoo
+  and the Genii.--The way of the world exemplified, a Khaunie
+  (Hindoostaunie fable).--Moral fable.--The King who longed for
+  fruit...Page 370
+
+
+LETTER XXVI
+
+  Superstition of the Natives.--Fair annually kept by Hindoos.--Supposed
+  practice of witchcraft by an old woman.--Assaulted by an infuriated
+  populace.--Rescued by a Native gentleman.--He inquires their reasons
+  for persecuting her.--Is instrumental in appeasing their
+  malignity.--Endeavours to remove their prejudice.--Proneness of
+  Asiatics to superstition.--Opinion of a Mussulmaun on the influence
+  of evil spirits.--Account of a woman possessed by an evil
+  spirit.--Dialogue with her during the paroxysms of her
+  affliction.--Means used for her recovery.--Further allusions to the
+  false notions of the Natives respecting supernatural agency...Page 387
+
+
+LETTER XXVII
+
+  Memoir of the life of Meer Hadjee Shah.--His descent.--Anecdote of a
+  youthful exploit.--His predilection for the army.--Leaves his home to
+  join the army of a neighbouring Rajah.--Adventures on the way.--Is
+  favourably received and fostered by the Rajah.--His first pilgrimage
+  to Mecca.--Occurrences during his stay in Arabia.--Description of a
+  tiger-hunt.--Detail of events during his subsequent pilgrimages.--The
+  plague.--Seizure by pirates.--Sketch of the life of Fatima, an
+  Arabian lady.--Relieved from slavery by Meer Hadjee Shah.--He marries
+  her.--Observations on the piety of his life.--Concluding
+  remarks...Page 400
+
+
+INDEX...Page 427
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY LETTER
+
+
+Actuated by a sense of duty to the people with whom twelve years of my
+life were passed on terms of intimacy and kindness, I was induced to write
+the principal number of the following Letters as faithful sketches of the
+Manners, Customs, and Habits of a people but little known to the European
+reader. They were at first designed merely for the perusal of private
+friends; who, viewing them with interest, recommended my bringing them
+before the public, considering that the information they contained would
+be acceptable from its originality, as presenting a more familiar view of
+the opinions and the domestic habits of the Mussulmaun community of
+Hindoostaun than any hitherto presented through other channels.
+
+I have found (and I believe many will coincide with me in the opinion)
+that it is far easier to think with propriety than to write our thoughts
+with perspicuity and correctness; but when the object in view is one which
+conscience dictates, the humblest effort of a female pen advances with
+courage; and thus influenced, I venture to present my work to the public,
+respectfully trusting they will extend their usual indulgence to a first
+attempt, from the pen of a very humble scribe, more solicitous for
+approbation than applause.
+
+The orthography of Asiatic words may differ in some instances in my pages
+from those of other writers--this, however, is from error, not design, and
+may be justly attributed to my own faulty pronunciation.
+
+I have inserted in these Letters many anecdotes and fables, which at the
+first view, may be considered as mere nursery tales. My object, however,
+will I trust plead my excuse: they are introduced in order to illustrate
+the people whom I have undertaken to describe; and, primarily strengthened
+by the moral tendency of each anecdote or fable selected for my pages, I
+cannot but consider them as well suited to the purpose.
+
+Without farther apology, but with very great deference, I leave these
+imperfect attempts to the liberality of my readers, acknowledging with
+gratitude the condescending patronage I have been honoured with, and
+sincerely desiring wherever anticipations of amusement or information from
+my observations have been formed, that the following pages may fulfil
+those expectations, and thus gratify my wish to be in the smallest degree
+useful in my generation.
+
+[B. MEER HASSAN ALI]
+
+
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS, ETC.
+
+LETTER I
+
+  Introductory Remarks.--The characteristic simplicity of manners
+  exhibited in Native families.--Their munificent charity.--The
+  Syaads.--Their descent, and the veneration paid to them.--Their pride
+  of birth.--Fast of Mahurrum.--Its origin.--The Sheahs and
+  Soonies.--Memorandum of distances.--Mount Judee (Judea), the
+  attributed burying-place of Adam and Noah.--Mausoleum of Ali.--The
+  tomb of Eve.--Meer Hadjee Shaah.
+
+
+I have promised to give you, my friends, occasional sketches of men and
+manners, comprising the society of the Mussulmauns in India. Aware of the
+difficulty of my task, I must entreat your kind indulgence to the
+weaknesses of a female pen, thus exercised for your amusement, during my
+twelve years' domicile in their immediate society.
+
+Every one who sojourns in India for any lengthened period, will, I believe,
+agree with me, that in order to promote health of body, the mind must be
+employed in active pursuits. The constitutionally idle persons, of either
+sex, amongst Europeans, are invariably most subject to feel distressed by
+the prevailing annoyances of an Indian climate: from a listless life
+results discontent, apathy, and often disease. I have found, by experience,
+the salutary effects of employing time, as regards, generally, healthiness
+of body and of mind. The hours devoted to this occupation (tracing remarks
+for the perusal of far distant friends) have passed by without a murmur or
+a sigh, at the height of the thermometer, or the length of a day during
+the season of hot winds, or of that humid heat which prevails throughout
+the periodical rains. Time flies quickly with useful employment in all
+places; in this exhausting climate every one has to seek amusement in
+their own resources, from sunrise to sunset, during which period there is
+no moving from home for, at least, eight months out of the twelve. I have
+not found any occupation so pleasant as talking to my friends, on paper,
+upon such subjects as may admit of the transfer for their acceptance--and
+may I not hope, for their gratification also?
+
+The patriarchal manners are so often pictured to me, in many of the
+every-day occurrences exhibited in the several families I have been most
+acquainted with in India, that I seem to have gone back to that ancient
+period with my new-sought home and new friends. Here I find the master and
+mistress of a family receiving the utmost veneration from their slaves and
+domestics, whilst the latter are permitted to converse and give their
+opinions with a freedom (always respectful), that at the first view would
+lead a stranger to imagine there could be no great inequality of station
+between the persons conversing. The undeviating kindness to aged servants,
+no longer capable of rendering their accustomed services; the remarkable
+attention paid to the convenience and comfort of poor relatives, even to
+the most remote in consanguinity; the beamings of universal charity; the
+tenderness of parents; and the implicit obedience of children, are a few
+of those amiable traits of character from whence my allusions are drawn,
+and I will add, by which my respect has been commanded. In their
+reverential homage towards parents, and in affectionate solicitude for the
+happiness of those venerated authors of their existence, I consider them
+the most praiseworthy people existing.
+
+On the spirit of philanthropy exhibited in their general charity, I may
+here remark, that they possess an injunction from their Lawgiver, 'to be
+universally charitable'.[1] This command is reverenced and obeyed by all
+who are his faithful followers. They are persuaded that almsgiving
+propitiates the favour of Heaven, consequently this belief is the inducing
+medium for clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, supporting the weak,
+consoling the afflicted, protecting the fatherless, sheltering the
+houseless traveller, and rendering the ear and the heart alive to the
+distresses of the poor in all situations. A good Mussulmaun never allows
+the voice to pass unheeded where the suppliant applies, 'In the name of
+God', or 'For the love of God'.
+
+I have often been obliged to hear the Mussulmauns accused of an
+ostentatious display of their frequent acts of charity. It may be so in
+some instances; human nature has failings common to all complexions. Pride
+may sometimes open the purse of the affluent to the poor man's petition;
+but when the needy benefit by the rich, it is unjust to scrutinize the
+heart's motive, where the act itself alleviates the present sufferings of
+a fellow-creature.
+
+Imposition is doubtless often practised with success by the indolent, who
+excite the good feelings of the wealthy by a tale of woe; the sin rests
+with him who begs unworthily, not with him who relieves the supposed
+distresses of his poorer neighbour. The very best of human beings will
+acknowledge they derive benefits from the bounty of their Maker, not
+because they are deserving, but that 'He is merciful'.
+
+I shall have occasion to detail in my Letters some of the Mussulmaun
+observances, festivals, &c., which cannot be accomplished without feeding
+the poor; and, in justice to their general character, be it acknowledged,
+their liberality is not confined to those stated periods.
+
+The Syaads[2] (Meers[3]) are descendants from Mahumud, the acknowledged
+Prophet and Lawgiver of the Mussulmauns; and, as might be expected, are
+peculiar objects of respect and favour amongst the true believers (as
+those who hold their faith are designated). 'The poor Syaad's family' are
+the first to be considered when the rich have determined on dispensing
+gifts in charity. The Syaads, however, are under peculiar restrictions as
+regards the nature of those gifts which they are permitted to accept.
+Money obtained by unlawful means, as forbidden in the Khoraun[4] (usury
+for instance[5]), is deemed polluted, and must neither be offered to, nor
+accepted by, these 'children of the Prophet'.
+
+The Syaads are the Lords of Mussulmaun society, and every female born to
+them is a Lady (Begum[6]). Heralds' offices they have none, but genealogy
+is strictly kept in each Mussulmaun family, who can boast the high
+privilege of bearing the Prophet's blood in their veins. The children of
+both sexes are taught, from the time of their first speaking intelligibly,
+to recount their pedigree, up to Hasan, or Hosein, the two sons of Ali, by
+his cousin Fatima, the daughter of their Prophet: this forms a striking
+part of their daily education, whilst they continue in their mother's
+zeenahnah[7] (lady's apartment); and, from the frequent repetition, is so
+firmly fixed in the memory, that they have no difficulty in tracing their
+pedigree whenever called upon to do so, unaided by the manuscript
+genealogy kept with care in the parental treasury.
+
+This method of retaining lineage is not always a check against impostors;
+many have taken upon themselves the honourable distinction of the Syaad,
+without having the slightest claim to the title; but when the cheat is
+discovered such persons are disgraced, and become aliens to the
+respectable. So many advantages are enjoyed by Syaads, that it is not
+surprising there should be some, which have no right, anxious to be
+numbered with those who are truly the Mussulmaun lords; though such men
+are taught to believe that, by the usurpation, they shut themselves out
+from the advantages of their Prophet's intercession at the great day of
+judgment.
+
+The Syaads are very tenacious in retaining the purity of their race
+unsullied, particularly with respect to their daughters; a conscientious
+Syaad regards birth before wealth in negotiations for marriage: many a
+poor lady, in consequence of this prejudice, lives out her numbered days
+in single blessedness, although--to their honour be it told--many
+charitably disposed amongst the rich men of the country have, within my
+recollection of Indian society, granted from their abundance sufficient
+sums to defray the expenses of a union, and given the marriage portion,
+unsolicited, to the daughters of the poorer members of this venerated race.
+A Syaad rarely speaks of his pecuniary distresses, but is most grateful
+when relieved.
+
+I am intimately acquainted with a family in which this pride of birth
+predominates over every advantage of interest. There are three unmarried
+daughters, remarkable for their industrious habits, morality, and strict
+observance of their religious duties; they are handsome, well-formed women,
+polite and sensible, and to all this they add an accomplishment which is
+not by any means general amongst the females of Hindoostaun, they have
+been taught by their excellent father to read the Khoraun in Arabic--it is
+not allowed to be translated,[8]--and the Commentary in Persian. The fame
+of their superiority has brought many applications from the heads of
+families possessing wealth, and desirous to secure for their sons wives so
+eminently endowed, who would waive all considerations of the marriage
+dowry, for the sake of the Begum who might thus adorn their untitled house.
+All these offers, however, have been promptly rejected, and the young
+ladies themselves are satisfied in procuring a scanty subsistence by the
+labour of their hands. I have known them to be employed in working the
+jaullie[9] (netting) for courties[10] (a part of the female dress), which,
+after six days' close application, at the utmost could not realize three
+shillings each; yet I never saw them other than contented, happy, and
+cheerful,--a family of love, and patterns of sincere piety.
+
+The titles and distinctions conferred by sovereigns, or the Hon. East
+India Company in India, as Khaun,[11] Bahadhoor,[12] Nuwaub,[13] &c., are
+not actually hereditary honours, though often presumed on, and indulged in,
+by successors. The Syaads, on the contrary, are the Meers and Begums
+(nobility) throughout their generations to the end of time, or at any rate,
+with the continuance of the Mussulmaun religion.
+
+Having thus far explained the honourable distinction of the Syaads, I
+propose giving you some account of the Mahurrum,[14] a celebrated mourning
+festival in remembrance of their first martyrs, and which occupies the
+attention of the Mussulmauns annually to a degree of zeal that has always
+attracted the surprise of our countrymen in India; some of whom, I trust,
+will not be dissatisfied with the observations of an individual, who
+having spent many years of her life with those who are chief actors in
+these scenes, it may be expected, is the better able to explain the nature
+of that Mahurrum which they see commemorated every year, yet many, perhaps,
+without comprehending exactly why. Those strong expressions of grief--the
+sombre cast of countenance,--the mourning garb,--the self-inflicted
+abstinence, submitted to by the Mussulmaun population, during the ten days
+set apart for the fulfilment of the mourning festival, all must have
+witnessed who have been in Hindoostaun for any period.
+
+I must first endeavour to represent the principal causes for the observance
+of Mahurrum; and for the information of those who have witnessed its
+celebration, as well as for the benefit of others who have not had the same
+opportunity, describe the manner of celebrating the event, which occurred
+more than twelve hundred years ago.
+
+Hasan and Hosein were the two sons of Fatima and Ali, from whom the whole
+Syaad race have generated; Hasan was poisoned by an emissary of the
+usurping Calipha's;[15] and Hosein, the last sad victim of the family to
+the King Yuzeed's[16] fury, suffered a cruel death, after the most severe
+trials, on the plains of Kraabaallah,[17] on the tenth day of the Arabian
+month Mahurrum; the anniversary of which catastrophe is solemnized with
+the most devoted zeal.
+
+This brief sketch constitutes the origin of the festival; but I deem it
+necessary to detail at some length the history of that period, which may
+the better explain the motives assigned by the Mussulmauns, for the deep
+grief exhibited every year, as the anniversary of Mahurrum returns to
+these faithful followers of their martyred leaders, Hasan and Hosein, who,
+with their devoted families, suffered innocently by the hands of the
+guilty.
+
+Yuzeed, the King of Shawm,[18] it appears, was the person in power,
+amongst the followers of Mahumud, at that early period of Mussulmaun
+history. Of the Soonie sect,[19] his hatred to the descendants of Mahumud
+was of the most inveterate kind; jealousy, it is supposed, aided by a very
+wicked heart, led him to desire the extirpation of the whole race,
+particularly as he knew that, generally, the Mussulmaun people secretly
+desired the immediate descendants of their Prophet to be their rulers.
+They were, however, intimidated by Yuzeed's authority; whilst he, ever
+fearing the possibility of the Syaads' restoration to their rights,
+resolved, if possible, on sacrificing the whole family, to secure himself
+in his illegal power.
+
+Ali had been treacherously murdered through the contrivances of the
+usurping Calipha; after his death, the whole family removed from Shawm,
+the capital, to Medina, where they lived some years in tranquillity,
+making many converts to their faith, and exercising themselves in the
+service of God and virtuous living. Unostentatious in their habits and
+manners, they enjoyed the affection of their neighbours, their own good
+name increasing daily, to the utter dismay of their subtle enemy.
+
+In the course of time, the devout people of Shawm, being heartily tired of
+Yuzeed's tyrannical rule, and fearing the true faith would be defamed by
+the excesses and abuses of power committed by him, they were desirous of
+calling to their aid a leader from the Prophet's family, who would secure,
+in its original purity, the performance of that religion which Mahumud had
+taught. Some thousands of respectable Mussulmauns, it is related, signed a
+petition to Hosein, requesting his immediate presence at Shawm, in order,
+as the petition stated, 'that the religion his grandsire taught might be
+supported and promoted'; and declaring 'the voluptuousness and infamy of
+Yuzeed's life to be so offensive and glaring, that the true faith was
+endangered by his vicious examples'; and entreating him to accept his
+lawful rights as 'Emaum'[20] (Leader of the Faithful).
+
+Hosein received the petition, but declined accepting the proposed
+restitution of his family's rights at that time; yet he held out hopes in
+his reply, that he might eventually listen to their entreaties, should he
+be convinced his presence was essential to their welfare; and, as a
+prelude to this, he sent his cousin Moslem,[21] on whom he could rely, to
+make personal observation of the real state of things at Shawm; expecting
+to learn, from his matured knowledge, the real causes of complaint, and
+the wishes of the people, and by whose report he would be guided, as to
+his final acceptance or rejection of the proposed measure for his becoming
+their leader.
+
+Moslem, accompanied by his two sons, mere youths, left Medina on this
+important mission, and having accomplished the tedious march without
+accident or interruption, he delivered Hosein's letters to those persons
+of consequence in Shawm, who were at the head of the party petitioning his
+appearance there, and who proffered their influence and support for the
+recovery of the rights and privileges so long withheld from the
+descendants of Mahumud.
+
+Moslem was kindly greeted by them, and multitudes flocked to his quarters,
+declaring Hosein the lawful leader of true Mussulmauns. Elated with these
+flattering indications, he too promptly despatched his messengers to
+Hosein, urging his immediate return to Shawm.
+
+In the mean time, and long before the messengers could reach Medina,
+Yuzeed, learning the state of things in the capital, was seriously alarmed
+and greatly enraged; he issued orders for the seizure of Moslem and his
+children, and desiring to have them brought to his presence, offered
+immense sums of money for their capture. The friends of Moslem, however,
+succeeded, for a time, in secreting his person from King Yuzeed's
+emissaries, trusting the darkness of night would enable him to escape. But
+the slaves and dependants of the tyrant being despatched into all quarters
+of the city, Moslem's retreat was eventually discovered; and, through the
+influence of a purse of gold, his person was given up to the King's
+partizans.
+
+The unfortunate agent of Hosein had confided the charge of his two sons to
+the Kauzy[22] of the city, when the first report reached him of the tyrant
+Yuzeed's fury. This faithful Kauzy, as the night advanced, intended to get
+the poor boys conveyed to the halting place of a Kaarawaun,[23] which he
+knew was but a few miles off, on their route for Medina. The guide, to
+whom the youths were intrusted, either by design or mistake, took the
+wrong road; and, after wandering through the dreary night, and suffering
+many severe trials, they were taken prisoners by the cruel husband of a
+very amiable female, who had compassionately, at first, given them shelter
+as weary travellers only; but, on discovering whose children they were,
+she had secreted them in her house. Her husband, however, having
+discovered the place of their concealment, and identified them as the sons
+of Moslem, cruelly murdered the innocent boys for the sake of the reward
+offered for their heads. In his fury and thirst for gold, this wicked
+husband of the kind-hearted woman spared not his own wife and son, who
+strove by their united efforts, alternately pleading and resisting, to
+save the poor boys from his barbarous hands.
+
+This tragic event is conveyed into pathetic verse, and as often as it is
+repeated in the families of the Mussulmauns, tears of fresh sympathy are
+evinced, and bewailings renewed. This forms the subject for one day's
+celebration during Mahurrum; the boys are described to have been most
+beautiful in person, and amiable in disposition.
+
+After enduring ignominy and torture, and without even being brought to
+trial, Moslem was cast from a precipice, by Yuzeed's orders, and his life
+speedily terminated, to glut the vengeance of the tyrant King.
+
+As the disastrous conclusion of Moslem's mission had not reached the ear
+of Hosein, he, elated with the favourable reception of his cousin, and the
+prospect of being received at Shawm in peace and good will, had without
+delay commenced his journey, accompanied by the females of his family, his
+relations, and a few steady friends who had long devoted themselves to his
+person and cause. The written documents of that remarkable period notice,
+that the whole party of Hosein, travelling from Medina towards Shawm,
+consisted only of seventy-two souls: Hosein having no intention to force
+his way to the post of leader, had not deemed it necessary to set out with
+an army to aid him, which he undoubtedly might have commanded by his
+influence with the people professing 'the Faith'.
+
+Yuzeed, in the mean time, having by his power destroyed Moslem and the two
+youths his sons, and receiving positive intelligence that Hosein had
+quitted Medina to march for Shawm, as his fears suggested, with an army of
+some magnitude, he ordered out an immense force to meet Hosein on the way,
+setting a price on his head, and proclaiming promises of honours and
+rewards, of the most tempting nature, to the fortunate man who should
+succeed in the arduous enterprise.
+
+The first detachment of the Shawmies (as they are designated in the
+manuscript of Arabia), under a resolute chief named Hurrh,[24] fell in
+with Hosein's camp, one day's march beyond the far-famed ground, amongst
+Mussulmauns, of Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree,[25] as it was originally
+called.
+
+Hurrh's heart was subdued when he entered the tent of the peaceable Hosein,
+in whose person he discovered the exact resemblance of the Prophet; and
+perceiving that his small camp indicated a quiet family party journeying
+on their way, instead of the formidable force Yuzeed's fears had
+anticipated, this chief was surprised and confounded, confessed his shame
+to Hosein that he had been induced to accept the command of the force
+despatched against the children of the Prophet, and urged, in mitigation
+of his offences, that he had long been in Yuzeed's service, whose
+commission he still bore; but his heart now yearning to aid, rather than
+persecute the Prophet's family, he resolved on giving them an opportunity
+to escape the threatened vengeance of their bitterest enemy. With this
+view, he advised Hosein to fall with his party into the rear of his force,
+until the main body of the Shawmies had passed by; and as they were then
+on the margin of a forest, there to separate and secrete themselves till
+the road was again clear, and afterwards to take a different route from
+the proposed one to Shawm.
+
+Hosein felt, as may be supposed, grateful to his preserver; and, following
+his directions, succeeded in reaching the confines of Kraabaallah
+unmolested.
+
+The ancient writings of Arabia say, Mahumud had predicted the death of
+Hosein, by the hands of men professing to be of 'the true faith', at this
+very place Kraabaallah, or Hurth Maaree.
+
+Hosein and his family having concluded their morning devotions, he first
+inquired and learned the name of the place on which their tents were
+pitched, and then imparted the subject of his last night's dream, 'that
+his grandsire had appeared to him, and pronounced that his soul would be
+at peace with him ere that day closed'. Again he fell on his knees in
+devout prayer, from which he rose only to observe the first warnings of an
+approaching army, by the thick clouds of dust which darkened the horizon;
+and before the evening closed upon the scene, Hosein, with every male of
+his small party capable of bearing arms, had been hurried to their final
+rest. One son of Hosein's, insensible from fever at the time, was spared
+from the sacrifice, and, with the females and young children, taken
+prisoners to the King's palace at Shawm.
+
+The account given by historians of this awful battle, describes the
+courage and intrepidity of Hosein's small band, in glowing terms of praise;
+having fought singly, and by their desperate bravery 'each arm (they say)
+levelled his hundreds with their kindred dust ere his own gave way to the
+sway of death'.
+
+Amongst the number of Hosein's brave defenders was a nephew, the son of
+Hasan: this young man, named Cossum,[26] was the affianced husband of
+Hosein's favourite daughter, Sakeena Koobraah;[27] and previous to his
+going to the combat on that eventful day, Hosein read the marriage lines
+between the young couple, in the tent of the females. I mention this here,
+as it points to one particular part of the celebration of Mahurrum, which
+I shall have occasion to mention in due order, wherein all the outward
+forms of the wedding ceremony are strictly performed, annually.
+
+During the whole of this terrible day, at Kraabaallah, the family party of
+Hosein had been entirely deprived of water; and the river Fraught[28]
+(Euphrates) being blockaded by their enemies, they suffered exceedingly
+from thirst. The handsome Abass,[29] another nephew of Hosein, and his
+standard-bearer, made many efforts to procure water for the relief of the
+almost famishing females; he had, at one attempt, succeeded in filling the
+mushukh,[30] when, retreating from the river, he was discovered by the
+enemy, was pursued and severely wounded, the mushukh pierced by arrows,
+and the water entirely lost ere he could reach the camp.
+
+In remembrance of this privation of the sufferers at Kraabaallah, every
+good Mussulmaun, at Mahurrum, distributes sherbet in abundance, to all
+persons who choose to accept this their favourite beverage (sugar and
+water, with a little rosewater, or kurah,[31] to flavour it); and some
+charitable females expend large sums in milk, to be distributed in the
+public streets; for these purposes, there are neat little huts of
+sirrakee[32] (a reed, or grass, resembling bright straw) erected by the
+road side of the Mussulmauns' houses; they are called saabeels,[33] where
+the red earthen cups of milk, sherbet, or pure water are seen ranged in
+rows, for all who choose to call for drink.
+
+Hosein, say their historians, was the last of the party who suffered on
+the day of battle; he was surrounded in his own camp--where, by the usage
+of war, at that time, they had no right to enter--and when there was not
+one friendly arm left to ward the blow. They relate 'that his body was
+literally mangled, before he was released from his unmerited sufferings'.
+He had mounted his favourite horse, which, as well as himself, was pierced
+by arrows innumerable; together they sank on the earth from loss of blood,
+the cowardly spearmen piercing his wounded body as if in sport; and whilst,
+with his last breath, 'Hosein prayed for mercy on his destroyers,
+Shimeear[34] ended his sufferings by severing the already prostrate head
+from the mutilated trunk'.--'Thus they sealed (say those writers) the
+lasting disgrace of a people, who, calling themselves Mussulmauns, were
+the murderers of their Prophet's descendants.'
+
+This slight sketch gives but the outline of those events which are every
+year commemorated amongst the zealous followers of Ali, the class
+denominated Sheahs.
+
+The Mussulmaun people, I must here observe, are divided into two distinct
+sects, viz. the Sheahs and the Soonies. The former believe Ali and his
+descendants were the lawful leaders after Mahumud; the latter are
+persuaded that the Caliphas, as Aboubuker, Omir, &c., were the leaders to
+be accredited 'lawful'; but of this I shall speak more fully in another
+Letter.
+
+Perhaps the violence of party spirit may have acted as an inducement to
+the Sheahs, for the zealous annual observance of this period, so
+interesting to that sect; whatever the motive, we very often find the two
+sects hoard up their private animosities and dislikes until the return of
+Mahurrum, which scarcely ever passes over, in any extensively populated
+city of Hindoostaun, without a serious quarrel, often terminating in
+bloodshed.[35]
+
+I could have given a more lengthened account of the events which led to
+the solemnization of this fast, but I believe the present is sufficient to
+explain the motives by which the Mussulmauns are actuated, and my next
+Letter must be devoted to the description of the rites performed upon the
+celebration of these events in India.
+
+P.S. I have a memorandum in my collection which may here be copied as its
+proper place.
+
+From Mecca, 'The Holy City', to Medina the distance is twelve stages (a
+day's march is one stage, about twenty miles of English measurement). From
+Medina to Kraabaallah there are twenty-one stages; this distance is
+travelled only by those who can endure great difficulties; neither water
+nor provisions are to be met with on the whole journey, excepting at one
+halt, the name of which is Shimmaar. From Kraabaallah to Koofah is two
+stages.
+
+In the vicinity of Koofah[36] stands Mount Judee[37] (Judea), on which is
+built, over the remains of Ali, the mausoleum called Nudghiff Usheruff.[38]
+On this Mount, it is said, Adam and Noah were buried. Ali being aware of
+this, gave directions to his family and friends, that whenever his soul
+should be recalled from earth, his mortal remains were to be deposited
+near those graves venerated and held sacred 'by the faithful'. The ancient
+writers of Arabia authorise the opinion that Ali's body was entombed by
+the hands of his sons, Hasan and Hosein, who found the earth open to
+receive their sire, and which closed immediately on his remains being
+deposited.
+
+Here, too, it is believed Noah's ark rested after the Deluge. When
+pilgrims to Mecca make their zeearut[39] (all sacred visits are so called)
+to this Mount, they offer three prayers, in memory of Adam, Noah, and All.
+
+The grave of Eve is also frequently visited by pilgrims, which is said to
+be situated near Jeddah; this, however, is not considered an indispensable
+duty, but, as they say, prompted by 'respect for the Mother of men'.[40]
+
+These remarks, and many others of an interesting nature, I have been
+favoured with from the most venerable aged man I ever knew, Meer Hadjee
+Shaah,[41] the revered father of my excellent husband; who having
+performed the Hadje[42] (pilgrimage) three several times, at different
+periods of his eventful life--returning after each pilgrimage to his home
+in Lucknow--and being a person of strict veracity, with a remarkably
+intelligent mind and retentive memory, I have profited largely by his
+information, and derived from it both amusement and instruction, through
+many years of social intercourse. When he had numbered more than eighty
+years he dwelt with hope on again performing the Hadje, where it was his
+intention to rest his earthly substance until the great day of restitution,
+and often expressed his wishes to have me and mine to share with him the
+pilgrimage he desired to make. But this was not allowed to his prayer; his
+summons arrived rather unexpectedly to those who loved and revered him for
+virtues rarely equalled; happily for him, his pure soul was prepared to
+meet his Creator, in whose service he had passed this life, with all
+humility, and in whose mercy alone his hopes for the future were centred.
+
+
+[1] 'Whatsoever alms ye shall give, of a truth God knoweth it.... Give ye
+    your alms openly? it is well. Do ye conceal them and give them to the
+    poor? This, too, will be of advantage to you, and will do away your
+    sins: and God is cognizant of your actions' (_Koran_, ii. 274-5).
+
+[2] _Sayyid_, 'lord', 'chief, the class of Musalmans who claim descent
+    from Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet, and 'Ali, his
+    cousin-german and adopted son; they are divided into two branches
+    descended from Hasan and Husain, sons of 'Ali and Fatimah.
+
+[3] _Mir_, a contraction of _Amir_, 'lord'.
+
+[4] _Koran, Qur'an_.
+
+[5] 'They who swallow down usury shall arise in the resurrection only as
+    he ariseth whom Satan hath infected by his touch' (_Koran_, ii.
+    276). But this is rather theory than practice, and many ingenious
+    methods are adopted to avoid the prohibition.
+
+[6] _Begam_, feminine of _Beg_, 'lord', used to denote a Sayyid lady, like
+    Khanam among Pathans.
+
+[7] Here, as elsewhere, _zenanah, zananah_, Persian _zan_, 'woman'.
+
+[8] This is incorrect. The Koran has been translated into various
+    languages, but the translation is always interlineary with the
+    original text. In Central Asia the Musalman conquerors allowed the
+    Koran to be recited in Persian, instead of Arabic, in order that it
+    might be intelligible to all (Arnold, _The Preaching of Islam_, 183).
+
+[9] _Jali_.
+
+[10] _Kurti_, a loose, long-sleeved jacket of muslin or net, among rich
+    women embroidered on the neck and shoulders with gold, and draped down
+    to the ankles in full, loose folds. It is made of red or other
+    light-coloured fabrics for girls and married women; dark blue, bronze,
+    or white for old ladies; bronze or black for widows.
+
+[11] _Khan_, 'lord', 'prince', specially applied to persons of Mughal
+    or Pathan descent.
+
+[12] _Bahadur_, 'champion', a Mongol term; see Yule,
+     _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 48 ff.
+
+[13] _Nawab_, 'a deputy, delegate': the Anglo-Indian Nabob (ibid.,
+    610 ff.).
+
+[14] _Muharram_, 'that which is forbidden', the first month of the
+    Musalman year, the first ten days of which are occupied with this
+    mourning festival.
+
+[15] By his wife Ja'dah, who was suborned to commit the deed by Yazid.
+
+[16] Yazid, son of Mu'awiyah, the second Caliph of the house of
+    Umaiyah, who reigned from A.D. 679 to 683. Gibbon (_Decline and Fall_,
+    ed. W. Smith, vi. 278) calls him 'a feeble and dissolute youth'.
+
+[17] Kerbala, Karbala, a city of Iraq, 50 miles south-west of Baghdad,
+    and about 6 miles from the Euphrates.
+
+[18] Syria.
+
+[19] _Sunni_, Ahlu's-Sunnah, 'one of the Path', a traditionalist. The
+    Sunnis accept the first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Usman,
+    'Ali, as the rightful successors of Muhammad, and follow the six
+    authentic books of the traditions. The Shi'ahs, 'followers' of
+    'Ali, maintain that he was the first legitimate Imam or Caliph,
+    i.e. successor of the Prophet. For a full account of the martyrdom of
+    Husain see Simon Ockley, _History of the Saracens_ (1848), 287 ff.;
+    Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_ (1879), Preface,
+    v ff.
+
+[20] _Imam._
+
+[21] Muslim.
+
+[22] _Qazi_, a Muhammadan law officer.
+
+[23] _Karwan_, a caravan.
+
+[24] al-Hurr.
+
+[25] This term is obscure. Jaffur Shurreef (_Qanoon-e-Islam_, 107) says
+    the plain of the martyrdom was called 'Mareea'. For 'Hurth' Prof. E.G.
+    Browne suggests _hirth_, 'a ploughed field', or _ard_, 'land'. Sir C.
+    Lyall suggests Al-hirah, the old Arabian capital which stood near
+    the site of the later Kufah.
+
+[26] Qasim.
+
+[27] Sakinah, Hebrew Shechinah; Koobraah, _Kibriya_, 'noble'.
+
+[28] The Euphrates is called in Sumerian _pura-num_, 'Great water', whence
+    Purat, Purattu in Semitic Babylonian; Perath in Hebrew; Frat or
+    Furat in Arabic.
+
+[29] 'Abbas, son of 'Ali.
+
+[30] _Mashk_, _Mashak_, the Anglo-Indian Mussuck, a leathern skin for
+    conveying water, in general use amongst Musalmans at this day in
+    India; it is composed of the entire skin of a goat, properly prepared.
+    When filled with water it resembles a huge porpoise, on the back of
+    the beeshtie [Bhishti] (water-carrier). [_Author._]
+
+[31] _Kora_, the fresh juice of _Aloe vera_, said to be cathartic and
+    cooling.
+
+[32] _Sirki_ (_Saccharum ciliare_).
+
+[33] _Sabil_: see Burton, _Pilgrimage_, Memorial ed., i. 286.
+
+[34] Shimar, whose name now means 'contemptible' among Shi'ahs.
+
+[35] This statement is too wide. 'Among Muhammadans themselves there is
+    very little religious discussion, and Sunnis and Shi'ahs, who
+    are at such deadly feud in many parts of Asia, including the Punjab
+    and Kashmir, have, in Oudh, always freely intermarried' (H.C. Irwin,
+    _The Garden of India_, 45).
+
+[36] Kufah, four miles from Najaf, the capital of the Caliph 'Ali,
+    which fell into decay when the government was removed to Baghdad.
+
+[37] Confused with Al-judi, Mt. Ararat, on which the Ark
+    rested.--_Koran_, xi. 46.
+
+[38] Najaf al Sharif, or Mashhad 'Ali, 50 miles south of Karbala,
+    the tomb and shrine of 'Ali.
+
+[39] _Ziyarat_, 'visitation', especially to the tomb of the Prophet or
+    that of a Muhammadan saint. The pilgrim says, not 'I have visited the
+    Prophet's tomb', but 'I have visited the Prophet'. (Burton,
+    _Pilgrimage_, i. 305.)
+
+[40] The grave is said to be nine yards long: according to others, much
+    longer. See the flippant remark of Burton, ibid., ii. 273 ff.
+
+[41] Mir Haji Shah.
+
+[42] _Hajj_, 'setting out'.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER II
+
+  Celebration of Mahurrum.--The Tazia.--Mussulmaun Cemeteries.--An
+  Emaum-baarah.--Piety of the ladies.--Self-inflicted abstinence and
+  privations endured by each sex.--Instances of the devotional zeal of
+  the Mussulmauns.--Attempted infringement on their religious
+  formalities.--The Resident at Lucknow.--Enthusiastic ardour of the
+  poor.--Manner of celebrating the Mahurrum in opposition to the
+  precepts of the Khoraun.--Mosque and Emaum-baarah contrasted.--The
+  supposition of Mussulmauns practising idolatry confuted.
+
+
+My former Letter prepares you for the celebration of Mahurrum, the
+observance of which is at this time going forward here (at Lucknow) with
+all that zealous emulative spirit and enthusiasm which I have before
+remarked the Mussulmaun population of India entertain for their Emaums
+(leaders), and their religion.
+
+This annual solemn display of the regret and veneration they consider due
+to the memory of departed excellence, commences on the first day of the
+Moon (Mahurrum). The Mussulmaun year has twelve moons; every third year
+one moon is added, which regulation, I fancy, renders their years, in a
+chronological point of view, very nearly equal with those of Europe. Their
+day commences and ends when the stars are first visible after sunset.
+
+The first day of Mahurrum invariably brings to my recollection the
+strongly impressed ideas of 'The Deserted Village'. The profound quiet and
+solemn stillness of an extensively populated native city, contrasted with
+the incessant bustle usual at all other times, are too striking to
+Europeans to pass by unheeded. This cessation of the animated scene,
+however, is not of long duration; the second day presents to the view vast
+multitudes of people parading backwards and forwards, on horseback, in
+palkies, and on foot, through the broad streets and roadways, arrayed in
+their several mourning garbs, speeding their way to the Emaum-baarahs[1]
+of the great men, and the houses of friends, to pay the visit of respect
+(zeearut), wherever a Tazia is set up to the remembrance of Hasan and
+Hosein.
+
+The word Tazia[2] signifies grief. The term is applied to a representation
+of the mausoleum at Kraabaallah, erected by their friends and followers,
+over the remains of Hasan and Hosein. It is formed of every variety of
+material, according to the wealth, rank, or preference, of the person
+exhibiting, from the purest silver down to bamboo and paper, strict
+attention being always paid to preserve the model of Kraabaallah, in the
+exact pattern with the original building. Some people have them of ivory,
+ebony, sandal-wood, cedar, &c., and I have seen some beautifully wrought
+in silver filigree. The handsomest of the kind, to my taste, is in the
+possession of his Majesty the King of Oude, composed of green glass, with
+brass mouldings, manufactured in England (by whom I could not learn). All
+these expensive Tazias are fixtures, but there are temporary ones required
+for the out-door ceremony, which, like those available to the poor and
+middling classes, are composed of bamboo frames, over which is fixed
+coloured uberuck[3] (lapis specularum, or tulk); these are made in the
+bazaar, of various sizes and qualities, to suit the views of purchasers,
+from two rupees to two hundred each.
+
+The more common Tazias are conveyed in the procession on the tenth day,
+and finally deposited with funeral rites in the public burial-grounds, of
+which there are several outside the town. These cemeteries are denominated
+Kraabaallah,[4] and the population of a large city may be presumed on by
+the number of these dispersed in the suburbs. They do not bury their dead
+in the vicinity of a mosque, which is held too sacred to be allowed the
+pollution. Any one having only touched a dead body, must bathe prior to
+entering the mosque, or performing their usual prayer-service at
+home;--such is the veneration they entertain for the name of God.
+
+The opulent people of Mussulmaun society have an Emaum-baarah erected in
+the range of buildings exclusively denominated murdanah[5] (men's abode).
+The habitation of all Mussulmauns being composed of separate departments
+for the males and the females, communicating by private entrances, as will
+be explained hereafter.
+
+The Emaum-baarah is a sacred place, erected for the express purpose of
+commemorating Mahurrum; the founder not unfrequently intends this also as
+the mausoleum for himself and family. But we generally find Mukhburrahs[6]
+(mausoleums) built in conspicuous situations, for the remains of kings,
+princes, nobles, and sainted persons. Of the latter, many are visited, at
+stated periods, by the multitude, with religious veneration, the
+illiterate attaching considerable importance to the annual pilgrimage to
+them; and where--to secure the influence of the particular saint's spirit,
+in furthering their views--mothers present their children, in numbers
+beyond all calculation; and each having something to hope for who visits
+the shrine, presents offerings of money and sweetmeats, which become the
+property of the person in charge of the tomb, thus yielding him a
+profitable sinecure, in proportion as the saint is popular amongst the
+ignorant.
+
+An Emaum-baarah is a square building, generally erected with a cupola top,
+the dimensions guided by the circumstances of the founder. The floor is
+matted with the date-leaf mats, in common use in India, on which is spread
+a shutteringhie[7] (cotton carpet), and over this a clean white calico
+covering, on which the assembled party are seated, during the several
+periods of collecting together to remember their leaders: these meetings
+are termed Mudgelluss[8] (mourning assemblies). It would be esteemed
+indecorous or disrespectful to the Emaums, if any one in error called
+these assemblies Moollakhaut,[9] the usual term for mere worldly visiting.
+
+The Tazia is placed against the wall on the side facing Mecca, under a
+canopy of rich embroidery. A reading-desk or pulpit (mhembur[10]) is
+placed in a convenient situation, for the reader to face Mecca, and his
+voice to be heard by the whole assembly of people; it is constructed of
+silver, ivory, ebony, &c. to correspond with the Tazia, if possible: the
+steps are covered sometimes with gold-cloth, or broad-cloth of black, or
+green,[11] if a Syaad's property, being the colour worn by that race for
+mourning. The shape of a mhembur is a flight of steps with a flat top,
+without any railing or enclosed place; the reader, in his recitings,
+occasionally sitting on the steps, or standing, as may be most convenient
+to himself.
+
+On the walls of the Emaum-baarah, mirrors and looking-glasses are fixed in
+suitable situations to give effect to the brilliant display of light, from
+the magnificent chandeliers suspended from the cupola and cornices. The
+nobles and the wealthy are excited with a desire to emulate each other in
+the splendour of their display on these occasions;--all the mirrors, glass,
+lustres, chandeliers, &c. are brought together to this place, from their
+several stations in the mansion; and it is due to them to admit the effect
+to be often imposingly grand, and the blaze of light splendid. I have
+frequently been reminded in these scenes of the visionary castles conjured
+to the imagination, whilst reading 'The Arabian Nights' Entertainments'.
+
+On each side the Tazia--the whole length of the wall--banners are ranged,
+in great variety of colour and fabric; some of them are costly and
+splendid. I have seen many constructed of the richest embroidery, on silk
+grounds, of gold and silver, with massy gold fringes, cords, and tassels;
+the staff is cased with gold or silver, worked into figures of birds and
+other animals, in every variety; the top of which has a crest, in some a
+spread hand,[12] in others a sort of plume, and not unfrequently a crest
+resembling a grenade, formed of the precious metals, and set with stones
+of great value.
+
+On the base of the Tazia the several articles are placed conceived likely
+to have been used by Hosein at Kraabaallah; a turban of gold or silver
+tissue, a splendid sword and belt, the handle and hilt set with precious
+stones, a shield, the Arabian bow and arrows. These ancient emblems of
+royalty are indispensable in order to do honour to Hosein, in the view
+they take of his sovereign right to be the head or leader of the true
+Mussulmauns. Wax lights, red and green, are also placed in great numbers
+about its base, in silver or glass candlesticks; and censers of gold and
+silver, burning incense perpetually during Mahurrum. Many other minor
+tributes to the Emaums are discovered near the Tazia, as choice fruits and
+garlands of sweet-scented flowers, the offerings of ladies of the family
+to their relative's Tazia.
+
+Amongst the poorer classes of the people an equal proportion of zealous
+spirit is evinced; and according to their several abilities, so they
+commemorate the period, interesting alike to all. Those who cannot compass
+the real splendour of an Emaum-baarah, are satisfied with an imitative one
+in the best hall their habitation affords; and, where mirrors and
+chandeliers are not available, they are content to do honour to the Emaums
+with lamps of uberuck, which in truth are pleasing substitutes at a small
+price: these lamps are made in a variety of pretty shapes, curiously
+painted, and ingeniously ornamented with cut paper; they burn oil in them,
+and, when well arranged, and diversified with their wonted taste, produce
+a good light, and pleasing effect.
+
+The banners of Hosein, in the houses of the poor, are formed of materials
+according to their humble means, from tinsel imitations down to dyed
+muslin; and a similar difference is to be perceived in their selection of
+the metal of which their crests are made.
+
+Mourning assemblies are held in the Emaum-baarahs twice every day during
+Mahurrum; those of the evening, however, are the most attractive, and have
+the fullest attendance of visitors. The master of the house, at the
+appointed hour, takes his seat on the floor near the pulpit, surrounded by
+the males of his family and intimate friends, and the crowd of strangers
+arrange themselves--wherever there is sitting room--without impeding the
+view of the Tazia.
+
+One of the most popular Maulvees[13] of the age is engaged to recite the
+particular portion appointed for each day, from the manuscript documents,
+called Dhie Mudgelluss,[14] in the Persian language. This work is in ten
+parts and contains a subject for each day's service, descriptive of the
+life and sufferings of the Emaums, their friends, and children,
+particularly as regards the eventful period of Mahurrum in which they were
+engaged. It is, I am assured, a pathetic, fine composition, and a faithful
+narrative of each particular circumstance in the history of their leaders,
+the heroic bravery of their friends, &c. They are particularly anxious to
+engage an eloquent reader for this part of the performance, who by his
+impressive manner compels his hearers to sympathise in the affecting
+incidents which are recited by him.
+
+I have been present when the effect produced by the superior oratory and
+gestures of a Maulvee has almost terrified me, the profound grief, evinced
+in his tears and groans, being piercing and apparently sincere. I have
+even witnessed blood issuing from the breast of sturdy men, who beat
+themselves simultaneously as they ejaculated the names 'Hasan!'
+'Hosein!'[15] for ten minutes, and occasionally during a longer period, in
+that part of the service called Mortem.[16]
+
+The portion of Dhie Mudgelluss concluded, sherbet is handed round to the
+assembly; and as they voluntarily abstain from luxuries at this season, a
+substitute for pawn[17]--the green leaf in general use amongst the
+natives--has been introduced, consisting of dried coffee, cocoa-nut shreds,
+betel-nut, cardimuns,[18] dunyah,[19] and a proportionate quantity of
+tobacco-leaf and lime; these are mixed together and handed to the
+visitors, on small silver trays. The hookha[20] is introduced to the
+superiors of the assembly; you are perhaps aware that inferiors do not
+smoke in the presence of superiors without their command or permission.
+
+This ceremony terminated, the Murseeah[21] is chanted, by several
+well-practised voices, with good effect. This part of the service is,
+perhaps, the most impressive, as the very ignorant, even, can comprehend
+every word,--the Murseeah being in the Hindoostanic tongue, a poetical
+composition of great merit, and embracing all the subjects they meet to
+commemorate. The whole assembly rise up afterwards, and, as with one voice,
+recount the names of the lawful leaders after Mahumud, entreating
+blessings and peace to their souls. They then repeat the names of the
+hated usurpers (Caliphas), on whose memory they invoke curses, &c. Mortem
+follows, beating of breasts in unison with the voices, and uttering the
+names of Hasan and Hosein; this performance concludes each day's
+Mudgelluss, either of the morning or evening.
+
+The ladies celebrate the returning season of Mahurrum with as much spirit
+and zeal as the confinement, in which they exist, can possibly admit of.
+There are but few, and those chiefly princesses, who have Emaum-baarahs at
+command, within the boundary of the zeenahnah; the largest and best
+apartment in their establishment is therefore selected for the purpose of
+an Emaum-baarah, into which none but females are admitted, excepting the
+husband, father, son, or brother, of the lady; who having, on this
+occasion, full liberty to invite her female acquaintance, those who are
+her nearest male relatives even are not admitted until previous notice is
+given, in order that the female guests may secrete themselves from the
+sight of these relatives of their hostess.
+
+In commemorating this remarkable event in Mussulmaun history, the
+expressions of grief, manifested by the ladies, are far greater, and
+appear to me more lasting than with the other sex; indeed, I never could
+have given credit to the extent of their bewailings, without witnessing,
+as I have done for many years, the season for tears and profound grief
+return with the month of Mahurrum. In sorrowing for the martyred Emaums,
+they seem to forget their private griefs; the bereavement of a beloved
+object even is almost overlooked in the dutiful remembrance of Hasan and
+Hosein at this period; and I have had opportunities of observing this
+triumph of religious feeling in women, who are remarkable for their
+affectionate attachment to their children, husbands, and parents;--they
+tell me, 'We must not indulge selfish sorrows of our own, whilst the
+Prophet's family alone have a right to our tears'.
+
+The religious zeal of these people is evinced, likewise, in a stern,
+systematic, line of privations, during the period of Mahurrum; no one is
+obliged by any law or command; it is voluntary abstinence on the part of
+each individual--they impose it on themselves, out of pure pity and
+respect for their Emaums' well-remembered sufferings. Every thing which
+constitutes comfort, luxury, or even convenience at other times, on these
+occasions are rigidly laid aside. The pallungh and the charpoy[22] (the
+two descriptions of bedsteads in general use), on which the females love
+to lounge for some hours in the day and night, are removed from their
+standings, and, in lieu of this comfort, they take their rest on a common
+date mat, on the floor. The musnud,[23] and all its cushioned luxuries,
+give place, on this occasion, to the simply matted floor. The indulgence
+in choice dainties, at other times so necessary to their happiness, is now
+foregone, and their meal limited, throughout Mahurrum, to the coarsest
+food--such as barley bread, rice and peas boiled together (called
+kutcher),[24] without even the usual additions to make it palatable
+ketcherie,[25] as ghee, salt, pepper, and spices; these ingredients being
+considered by the zealous females too indulgent and luxurious for humble
+mourners during Muhurrum.
+
+The pawn leaf, another luxury of no small moment to Asiatic tastes, is now
+banished for the ten days' mourning. A very poor substitute has been
+adopted, in the mixture described at the gentlemen's assembly--it is
+called goattur.[26] The truth is, their health would suffer from any long
+disuse of tobacco-leaf, lime, and a bitter gum,[27] which are in general
+use with the pawn; the latter is of a warm aromatic nature, and imparts a
+fine flavour to the other ingredients; but, as it is considered a great
+indulgence to eat pawn, they abstain from it altogether during
+Mahurrum;--the mixture, they say, is only allowed for health's sake.
+
+When visitors call on the Mussulmaun ladies at Mahurrum, the goattur is
+presented on trays, accompanied by bags, neatly embroidered in silver and
+gold, of many different shapes and patterns, mostly their own work and
+invention; they are called buttooah[28] and jhaumdanies.[29]
+
+The variety of ornaments, which constitute the great delight of all
+classes of females in India, are entirely laid aside, from the first hour
+of Mahurrum, until the period for mourning concludes. I never heard of any
+people so thoroughly attached to ornaments as the females of India are
+generally. They are indulged in this foible--pardonable it may be--by
+their husbands and parents. The wealthiness of a family may often be
+judged by a single glance at the principal lady of the zeenahnah, who
+seldom omits doing honour to her husband, by a full display of the
+precious metals, with a great variety of gems or jewels on ordinary
+occasions. The men of all ranks are proud of their wives' finery; even the
+poorest hold in derision all ornament that is not composed of sterling
+metal, of which they seem excellent judges. The massy chains of gold or
+silver, the solid bangles for the arms and ancles, the nut[30] (nose-ring)
+of gold wire, on which is strung a ruby between two pearls, worn only by
+married women; the joshun[31] (armlet), of silver or gold, often set with
+precious stones; the many rings for the fingers, thumbs, and toes, form
+the daily dress of a lady;--but I must not digress further. These are all
+removed from the person, as soon as the moon is seen, when the first day
+of Mahurrum commences; the hair is unloosed from its usual confinement,
+and allowed to flow in disorder about the person; the coloured
+pyjaamahs[32] and deputtahs[33] are removed, with every other article of
+their usual costume, for a suit that, with them, constitutes
+mourning--some choose black, others grey, slate, or green, and the widow
+wears white from the day her husband dies.
+
+A widow never alters her style of dress, neither does she wear a single
+ornament, during her widowhood, which generally lasts with her life. I
+never heard of one single instance, during my twelve years' residence
+amongst them, of a widow marrying again--they have no law to prohibit it;
+and I have known some ladies, whose affianced husbands died before the
+marriage was concluded, who preferred a life of solitude and prayer,
+although many other overtures were made.[34]
+
+Many of the rigidly zealous, among the females, mortify themselves by
+wearing their suit of mourning, during the ten days, without changing; the
+dress is worn next the skin, and, in very warm weather, must be
+comfortless after the first day--but so it is; and so many are the
+varieties of self-inflicted privations, at this period, that my letter
+might be filled with the observations I have made. I cannot, however, omit
+to mention my old woman-servant (ayah[35]), whose mode of abstinence, in
+remembrance of Hosein, is rigidly severe; my influence does not prevail in
+dissuading her, although I fear the consequences to her health will be
+seriously felt if she persist in the fulfilment of her self-imposed trial.
+This poor old creature resolves on not allowing one drop of water, or any
+liquid, to pass her lips during the ten days' mourning; as she says, 'her
+Emaum, Hosein, and his family, suffered from thirst at Kraabaallah, why
+should such a creature as she is be indulged with water?' This shows the
+temper of the people generally; my ayah is a very ignorant old woman, yet
+she respects her Emaum's memory.[36]
+
+The Tazia, you are to understand, graces the houses of all good
+Mussulmauns in India, who are not of the sect called Soonies. This model
+of their Emaum's tomb is an object of profound respect. Hindoos, even, on
+approaching the shrine, bow their heads with much solemn gravity; I often
+fancied they mistook the Tazia for a Bootkhanah[37] (the house of an idol).
+
+It is creditable to the Mussulmauns, that they do not restrict any
+profession of people from visiting their assemblies; there is free
+admission granted when the Emaum-baarah is first lighted up, until the
+hour of performing the service, when strangers, that is the multitude, are
+civilly requested to retire. Every one is expected, on entering the
+outward verandah, to leave their shoes at the threshold of the
+sanctuary;[38] none but Europeans have any occasion to be reminded of this,
+as it is a well known and general observance with all degrees of natives
+in Asia. The servants, in charge of the Emaum-baarah, are responsible for
+the due observance of respect to the place, and when any foreigners are
+advancing, they are politely requested to leave their shoes outside; which
+must be complied with, or they cannot possibly be admitted.
+
+Some few years since, a party of young gentlemen, from cantonments, had
+made up their minds to evade the necessity for removing their boots, on
+the occasion of a visit to one of the great men's Emaum-baarahs, at a
+Native city; they had provided themselves with white socks, which they
+drew over their boots before leaving their palkies. The cheat was
+discovered by the servants in attendance, after they had been admitted;
+they made a precipitate retreat to avoid the consequences of a
+representation to the Resident, by the proprietor of the Emaum-baarah; who,
+hearing of the circumstance, made all possible inquiry, without, however,
+discovering the names of the gentlemen, who had thus, in his opinion,
+violated the sanctuary.
+
+The Natives are aware that the Resident sets the bright example of
+conforming to the observances of the people, over whom he is placed as
+governor and guardian; and that he very properly discountenances every
+attempt of his countrymen to infringe on their rights, prejudices, or
+privileges; and they have, to my knowledge, always looked up to him as to
+a parent and a friend, from the first to the last day of his exalted
+station amongst them. Many a tear marked the regret of the Natives, when
+their best, their kindest, earthly friend quitted the city he had blessed
+by his presence; and to the latest page of their history, his memory will
+doubtless be cherished with sincere veneration and respectful
+attachment.[39]
+
+The poor people vie with their rich neighbours, in making a brilliant
+light in their little halls containing the Tazia; the very poorest are
+liberal in the expenditure of oil and tallow candles--I might say
+extravagantly so, but for the purity of their intentions, supposing it to
+be a duty--and they certainly manifest their zeal and respect to the
+utmost of their power; although many, to my knowledge, live all the year
+round on the very coarsest fare, to enable them to show this reverence to
+their Emaum's memory.
+
+The ladies assemble, in the evening, round the Tazia they have set up in
+their purdahed privacy--female friends, slaves, and servants, surrounding
+the mistress of the house, in solemn gravity.
+
+The few females who have been educated are in great request at this season;
+they read the Dhie Mudgelluss, and chant the Musseeah with good effect.
+These women, being hired for the purpose, are detained during the ten days;
+when the Mahurrum ceases, they are dismissed to their own homes, loaded
+with the best gifts the good lady their employer can conveniently spare,
+commensurate with the services performed. These educated females are
+chiefly daughters of poor Syaads, who have not been married for the lack
+of a dowry; they live devoutly in the service of God, according to their
+faith. They are sometimes required, in the families of the nobility, to
+teach the Khoraun to the young ladies, and, in that capacity, they are
+called Oustaardie, or more familiarly Artoojee.[40]
+
+As I have mentioned before, the Musseeah narrative of the sufferings at
+Kraabaallah is a really pathetic and interesting composition; the work
+being conveyed in the language of the country, every word is understood,
+and very deeply felt, by the females in all these assemblies, who, having
+their hearts softened by the emphatic chantings of the readers, burst into
+violent tears and sobbings of the most heart-rending description. As in
+the gentlemen's assembly, they conclude with Mortem, in which they
+exercise themselves until they are actually exhausted; indeed, many
+delicate females injure their health by the violence and energy of their
+exertions, which they nevertheless deem a most essential duty to perform,
+at all hazards, during the continuance of Mahurrum.
+
+This method of keeping Mahurrum is not in strict obedience to the
+Mahumudan laws; in which code may be found prohibitions against all
+violent and excessive grief--tearing the hair, or other expressions of
+ungovernable sorrow.[41]
+
+I have observed that the Maulvees, Moollahs,[42] and devoutly religious
+persons, although mixing with the enthusiasts on these occasions, abstain
+from the violent exhibition of sorrows which the uninformed are so prone
+to indulge in. The most religious men of that faith feel equal, perhaps
+greater sympathy, for the sufferings of the Emaums, than those who are
+less acquainted with the precepts of the Khoraun; they commemorate the
+Mahurrum without parade or ostentatious display, and apparently wear
+mourning on their hearts, with their garb, the full term of forty
+days--the common period of mourning for a beloved object; but these
+persons never join in Mortem, beating breasts, or other outward show of
+sadness, although they are present when it is exercised; but their quiet
+grief is evidently more sincere.
+
+I have conversed with many sensible men of the Mussulmaun persuasion on
+the subject of celebrating Mahurrum, and from all I can learn, the pompous
+display is grown into a habit, by a long residence amongst people, who
+make a merit of showy parades at all their festivals. Foreign Mussulmauns
+are equally surprised as Europeans, when they visit Hindoostaun, and first
+see the Tazia conveyed about in procession, which would be counted
+sacrilegious in Persia or Arabia; but here, the ceremony is not complete
+without a mixture of pageantry with, the deeply expressed and public
+exposure of their grief.[43]
+
+The remarkable plainness of the mosque, contrasted with the superb
+decorations of an Emaum-baarah, excited my surprise. I am told by the most
+venerable of Syaads, 'The Mosque is devoted only to the service of God,
+where it is commanded no worldly attractions or ornaments shall appear, to
+draw off the mind, or divert the attention, from that one great object for
+which the house of prayer is intended'. An Emaum-baarah is erected for the
+purpose of doing honour to the memory of the Emaums, and of late years the
+emulative spirit of individuals has been the great inducement to the
+display of ornamental decorations.
+
+It is rather from their respect to the Founder of their religion and his
+descendants, than any part of their profession of faith, that the
+Mussulmaun population of Hindoostaun are guided by in these displays,
+which are merely the fashion of other people whom they imitate; and with
+far different motives to the weak-minded Hindoos, who exalt their idols,
+whilst the former thus testify their respect to worthy mortals only. This
+is the explanation I have received from devout Mussulmauns, who direct me
+to remark the strong similarity--in habit only, where 'the faith' is not
+liable to innovations--between themselves and the Hindoo population;--the
+out-of-door celebrations of marriage festivals, for instance, which are so
+nearly resembling each other, in the same classes of society, that
+scarcely any difference can be discovered by the common observer.
+
+Idolatry is hateful to a Mussulmaun, who acknowledges 'one only true God',
+and 'Him alone to be worshipped'.[44] They respect, venerate, love, and
+would imitate, their acknowledged Prophet and the Emaums (who succeeded
+Mahumud in the mission), but they never worship them, as has been often
+imagined. On the contrary, they declare to me that their faith compels
+them 'to believe in one God, and that He alone is to be worshipped by the
+creature; and that Mahumud is a creature, the Prophet sent by God to make
+His will known, and declare His power. That to bow down and worship
+Mahumud would be gross idolatry; and, although he is often mentioned in
+their prayers, yet he is never prayed to. They believe their Prophet is
+sensible of whatever passes amongst his true disciples; and that, in
+proportion as they fulfil the commands he was instructed by God to leave
+with them, so will they derive benefit from his intercession, on that
+great and awful day, when all mankind shall appear before the judgment
+seat of God.'
+
+
+[1] _Imambara_, 'enclosure of the Imam', the place where the
+    Muharram rites are performed, as contrasted with Masjid, a mosque, and
+    'Idgah, where the service at the 'Id festivals is conducted.
+
+[2] _Ta'ziya_, 'consoling'. The use of these miniature tombs is said to
+    date from the time of Amir Taimur (A.D. 1336-1405), who on his
+    return from Karbala made a model of Husain's tomb. See a good account
+    of them in Sir G. Birdwood, _Sva_, 173 ff.
+
+[3] _Abrak_, tale.
+
+[4] From Karbala, the place of pilgrimage.
+
+[5] _Mardanah_.
+
+[6] _Maqbarah_, 'place of graves'.
+
+[7] _Shatranj[-i]_, a chequered cloth, from _shatrang_, the game of chess.
+
+[8] _Majlis_.
+
+[9] _Mulaqat_.
+
+[10] _Mimbar_, sometimes a wooden structure, sometimes of masonry.
+
+[11] Green is the Sayyid colour (E.W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_, i. 38).
+    But it is an innovation in Islam, and Sayyids in Al-Hijaz, as a
+    general rule, do not wear a green turban (Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 4).
+
+[12] The spread hand designates the Sheah sect. There are times when
+    holding up the spread hand declares the Sheah, whilst the Soonie is
+    distinguished by his holding up three fingers only. In villages, the
+    spread hand is marked on the walls where Sheahs reside during Mahurrum.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+    [The five spread fingers are regarded as emblematical of the Prophet,
+    Fatimah, 'Ali, Hasan, and Husain. The Sunnis prefer three
+    fingers, signifying the first three Caliphs. In its ultimate origin,
+    the spread hand is a charm against demons and evil spirits.]
+
+[13] _Maulavi_, a Muhammadan doctor of law, a judge.
+
+[14] From Dhie, ten; Mudgelluss, assembling together for sacred purposes.
+    [_Author_.] or [_Dah_, or _Dahha majlis_ denotes the ten days of
+    Muharram; see Sir L. Pelly, _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain_,
+    i. 74.]
+
+[15] Corrupted by Anglo-Indians into _Hobson-Jobson_, the title of Sir H.
+    Yule's _Anglo-Indian Glossary_.
+
+[16] _Matam_, 'mourning'.
+
+[17] _Pan_, 'betel leaf'.
+
+[18] Cardamom.
+
+[19] _Dhaniya_ (_Coriandrum sativitm_).
+
+[20] _Huqqah_, 'a water tobacco pipe'.
+
+[21] _Marsiyah_, 'a funeral elegy'.
+
+[22] _Palang_, a more pretentious piece of furniture than the
+    _charpai_, or common 'cot'.
+
+[23] _Masnad_, 'a thing leaned on', a pile of cushions; the throne of a
+    sovereign.
+
+[24] _Khichar_.
+
+[25] _Khichri_, the 'Kedgeree' of Anglo-Indians.
+
+[26] _Gota_.
+
+[27] Catechu, Hindi _Kath_.
+
+[28] _Batua_.
+
+[29] _Jamdani_, properly a portmanteau for holding clothes
+    (_Jama_): a kind of flowered cloth.
+
+[30] _Nath_.
+
+[31] _Joshan_, an ornament worn on the upper arm.
+
+[32] _Pa[~e]jama_, 'leg clothing', drawers.
+
+[33] _Dopatta_, a sheet made of two breadths of cloth.
+
+[34] Amongst the Muhammadans the proportion of widows has declined
+    steadily since 1881, and is now only 143 per mille compared with 170
+    in that year. It would seem that the prejudices against
+    widow-marriages are gradually becoming weaker.--_Report Census of
+    India_, 1911, i. 273.
+
+[35] [~A]y[~a], from Portuguese _aia_, 'a nurse'.
+
+[36] After much, entreaty, this humble zealot was induced to take a sweet
+    lime, occasionally, to cool her poor parched mouth. She survived the
+    trial, and lived many years to repeat her practised abstinence at the
+    return of Mahurrum. [_Author_.]
+
+[37] _Butkhanah_.
+
+[38] This was a primitive Semitic taboo (Exodus iii. 5; Joshua v. 15, &c.).
+    The reason of this prohibition is that shoes could not be easily
+    washed.--W.R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_[2], 453.
+
+[39] Mordaunt Ricketts was Resident at Lucknow between 1821 and 1830, when
+    he was 'superannuated' owing to financial scandals, for the details of
+    which see Sir G. Trevelyan, _Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay_, cap.
+    x; H.G. Keene, _Here and There_, 10; on November 1, 1824, he was
+    married at Lucknow by Bishop Heber to the widow of George Ravenscroft,
+    the civilian who was Collector of Cawnpore, and there embezzled large
+    sums of money, the property of Government. He fled with his wife and
+    child to Bhinga in Oudh, where, on May 6, 1823, he was murdered by
+    Dacoits. The strange story is well told by Sleeman, _A Journey through
+    the Kingdom of Oudh_, i. 112 ff.
+
+[40] Persian _ustad, ustadji_, 'an instructor'.
+
+[41] Lamentation for the dead was strictly prohibited by the Prophet; but,
+    like all orientals, the Indian Musalmans indulge in it.
+    (_Mishkat_, i, chap, vii.)
+
+[42] _Mulla_, the Persian form of Maulavi, 'a doctor of law'.
+
+[43] It is a mistake to suppose that the procession of the Ta'ziya or
+    Tabut is peculiar to India. It is practised in Persia and Egypt.
+
+[44] The Prophet was obliged to make some compromise with idolatry, as in
+    the case of the Black Stone at Mecca. But he protested against idols
+    in one of the earliest Suurahs of the Koraan (lii 35-43), and in
+    other passages.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER III
+
+  Continuation of Mahurrum.--Consecration of Banners.--Durgah at
+  Lucknow.--Its origin explained.--Regarded with peculiar
+  veneration.--The Nuwaub vows to build a new one.--Its
+  description.--Procession to the Durgah.--Najoomies.--Influence
+  possessed and practised by them.--Eunuchs.--Anecdotes of some having
+  attained great honours and wealth.--Presents bestowed upon them
+  generally revert to the donor.--Rich attire of male and female slaves.
+
+
+After the Tazia is brought home (as the temporary ones are from the bazaar
+on the eve of Mahurrum, attended by a ceremonious display of persons,
+music, flags, flambeaux, &c.), there is little to remark of out-door
+parade beyond the continual activity of the multitude making the sacred
+visits to their several Emaum-baarahs, until the fifth day, when the
+banners are conveyed from each of them in solemn procession, to be
+consecrated at the Durgah[1] (literally translated, 'The threshold' or
+'Entrance to a sanctified place').
+
+This custom is perhaps exclusively observed by the inhabitants of Lucknow,
+where I have had the privilege of acquiring a knowledge of the motives
+which guide most of their proceedings; and as there is a story attached to
+the Durgah, not generally known to European visitors, I propose relating
+it here, as it particularly tends to explain the reasons for the
+Mussulmauns conveying their banners for consecration to that celebrated
+shrine.
+
+'A native of India--I forget his name--remarkable for his devotion and
+holy life, undertook the pilgrimage to Mecca; whilst engaged in these
+duties at the "holy house", he was visited with a prophetic dream. Abass
+Ali (the standard-bearer and relation of Hosein) appeared to him in his
+dream, commanding him, that as soon as his duties at Mecca were fulfilled
+he should, without delay, proceed to Kraabaallah, to the tomb of Hosein;
+directing him, with great precision, how he was to find the exact spot of
+earth where was deposited the very Allum[2] (banner) of Hosein, which he
+(Abass Ali) had, on the great day of Kraabaallah, carried to the field.
+The man was further instructed to possess himself of this relic secretly,
+and convey it about his person until he should reach his native country,
+when he would be more fully directed by the orderings of Providence how
+the relic should be disposed of.
+
+'The Hadjee followed all the injunctions he had received punctually; the
+exact spot was easily discovered, by the impressions from his dream; and,
+fearing the jealousy of the Arabs, he used the utmost precaution, working
+by night, to secure to himself the possession of so inestimable a prize,
+without exciting their suspicion, or attracting the notice of the numerous
+pilgrims who thronged the shrine by day. After several nights of severe
+labour he discovered, to his great joy, the metal crest of the banner; and
+concluding the banner and staff to have mouldered away, from their having
+been so long entombed in the earth, he cautiously secreted the crest about
+his person, and after enduring the many vicissitudes and privations,
+attendant on the long journey from Arabia to India, he finally succeeded
+in reaching Lucknow in safety with his prize.
+
+'The Nuwaub Asof ood Duolah[3] ruled at this period in Oude; the pilgrim
+made his adventures known to him, narrating his dream, and the
+circumstances which led to his gaining possession of the crest. The Nuwaub
+gave full credence to his story, and became the holder of the relic
+himself, rewarding the Hadjee handsomely for his trouble, and gave
+immediate orders for a small building to be erected under the denomination
+of "Huzerut Abass Ali Ke Durgah",[4] in which the crest was safely
+deposited with due honours, and the fortunate pilgrim was appointed
+guardian with a liberal salary.
+
+'In the course of time, this Durgah grew into great repute amongst the
+general classes of the Mussulmaun population, who, venerating their Emaum
+Hosein, had more than common respect for this trifle, which they believed
+had been used in his personal service. Here the public were permitted to
+offer their sacrifices and oblations to God, on occasions of importance to
+themselves; as after the performance of the rite of circumcision in
+particular, grand processions were formed conveying the youthful
+Mussulmaun, richly attired, attended by music, &c. and offering presents
+of money and sweetmeats at the shrine which contains their Emaum's sacred
+relic. On these occasions the beggars of every denomination were benefited
+by the liberality of the grateful father, and the offerings at the shrine
+became the property of the guardian of the Durgah, who, it was expected,
+would deal out from his receipts to the necessitous as occasions served.'
+
+This custom is still observed, with equal veneration for the shrine and
+its deposit; and when a lady recovers from the perils attendant on giving
+to her husband's house a desired heir, she is conveyed, with all the pomp
+and parade due to her rank in life, to this Durgah, attended by her female
+relatives, friends, domestics, eunuchs, and slaves, in covered conveyances;
+in her train are gentlemen on horseback, in palkies, or on elephants, to
+do honour to the joyful event; the Guardian's wife having charge on these
+occasions of the ladies' visits; and the Guardian, with the gentlemen and
+all the males, guarding the sanctuary outside; for they are not permitted
+to enter whilst it is occupied by the ladies, the eunuchs alone having
+that privilege where females congregate.
+
+Recovery from sickness, preservation from any grievous calamity, danger,
+or other event which excites grateful feelings, are the usual inducements
+to visiting the Durgah, with both males and females, amongst the
+Mussulmaun population of Lucknow. These recurrences yield ample stores of
+cash, clothes, &c. left at the disposal of the Guardian, who, if a good
+man, disperses these charitable donations amongst the indigent with a
+liberality equal to that of the donors in their various offerings.
+
+The Durgah had grown into general respect, when a certain reigning Nuwaub
+was afflicted by a severe and tedious illness, which baffled the skill of
+his physicians, and resisted the power of the medicine resorted to for his
+recovery. A confidential Najoom[5] (astrologer), in the service of his
+Highness, of great repute in his profession, advised his master to make a
+vow, that 'If in the wisdom of Divine Providence his health should be
+restored, he would build a new Durgah on the site of the old one, to be
+dedicated to Abass Ali, and to be the shrine for the sacred deposit of the
+crest of Hosein'. The Nuwaub, it appears, recovered rapidly after the vow
+had been made, and he went in great pomp and state to return thanks to God
+in this Durgah, surrounded by the nobles and officers of his Court, and
+the whole strength of his establishment accompanied him on the occasion.
+So grand was the spectacle, that the old people of the city talk of it at
+this day as a scene never equalled in the annals of Lucknow, for splendour
+and magnificence; immense sums of money were distributed on the road to
+the populace, and at the Durgah; the multitude, of all classes, hailing
+his emancipation from the couch of sickness with deafening cheers of
+vociferous exultation.
+
+In fulfilment of his vow, the Nuwaub gave immediate orders for erecting
+the magnificent edifice, which now graces the suburbs of Lucknow, about
+five miles from that part of the city usually occupied by the Sovereign
+Ruler of the province of Oude. By virtue of the Nuwaub's vow and recovery,
+the before-respected Durgah has, thus newly built, increased in favour
+with the public; and, on account of the veneration they have for all that
+concerns their Emaums, the banners which adorn the Tazias of Hosein must
+be consecrated by being brought to this sacred edifice; where, by the
+condescending permission of the Sovereign, both the rich and the poor are
+with equal favour admitted, at that interesting period of Mahurrum, to
+view the crest of their Leader, and present their own banners to be
+touched and thus hallowed by the, to them, sacred relic. The crest is
+fixed to a staff, but no banner attached to it; this is placed within a
+high railing, supported by a platform, in the centre of the building; on
+either side splendid banners are exhibited on these occasions.
+
+The Durgah is a square building, entered by flights of steps from the
+court-yard; the banner of each person is conveyed through the right
+entrance, opposite the platform, where it is immediately presented to
+touch the revered crest; this is only the work of a few seconds; that
+party walks on, and moves out to the left again into the court-yard; the
+next follows in rapid succession, and so on till all have performed this
+duty: by this arrangement, confusion is obviated; and, in the course of
+the day, perhaps forty or fifty thousand banners[6] may have touched the
+Emaum's consecrated crest. On these occasions, the vast population of
+Lucknow may be imagined by the almost countless multitude, of every rank,
+who visit this Durgah: there is no tax levied on the people, but the sums
+collected must be immense, since every one conscientiously offers
+something, according to his inclination or his means, out of pure respect
+to the memory of Hosein.
+
+The order of procession, appointed by each noble proprietor of banners, to
+be consecrated at the Durgah, forms a grand spectacle. There is no
+material difference in their countless numbers; the most wealthy and the
+meanest subjects of the province make displays commensurate with their
+ability, whilst those persons who make the most costly exhibitions enjoy
+the greatest share of popular favour, as it is considered a proof of their
+desire to do honour to the memory of Hosein and Hasan, their venerated
+Emaums.
+
+A description of one, just passing my house, will give you a general idea
+of these processions,--it belongs to a rich man of the city:--A guard of
+soldiers surrounds four elephants on which several men are seated, on pads
+or cushions, supporting the banners; the staffs of several are of
+silver,--the spread hand, and other crests, are formed of the same metal,
+set with precious stones. Each banner--they all resemble--is in the shape
+of a long scarf of rich silk, of bright florid colours, embroidered very
+deep at the ends, which are finished with gold and silver bullion fringes;
+it is caught together near the middle, and tied with rich gold and silver
+cords and tassels to the top of the staff, just under the hand or crest.
+The silks, I observe, are of many different colours, forming an agreeable
+variety, some blue, purple, green, yellow, &c. Red is not used; being the
+Soonies' distinguishing colour at Mahurrum it is carefully avoided by the
+zealous Sheahs--the Soonies are violently opposed to the celebration of
+this festival. After the elephants, a band of music follows, composed of
+every variety of Native instruments, with drums and fifes; the trumpets
+strike me as the greatest novelty in their band; some of them are very
+long and powerful in their effect.
+
+Next in the order of procession I observe a man in deep mourning,
+supporting a black pole, on which two swords are suspended from a bow
+reversed--the swords unsheathed glittering in the sun. The person who owns
+the banners, or his deputy, follows next on foot, attended by readers of
+the Musseeah, and a large party of friends in mourning. The readers select
+such passages as are particularly applicable to the part Abass Ali took in
+the affair at Kraabaallah, which is chanted at intervals, the procession
+pausing for that purpose.
+
+Then comes Dhull Dhull,[7]--the name of Hosein's horse at
+Kraabaallah;--that selected for the present purpose is a handsome white
+Arab, caparisoned according to the olden style of Arabia: due care is
+taken to represent the probable sufferings of both animal and rider, by
+the bloody horsecloth--the red-stained legs--and the arrows apparently
+sticking in several parts of his body; on the saddle is fixed a turban in
+the Arabian style, with the bow and arrows;--the bridle, &c. are of very
+rich embroidery; the stirrups and mountings of solid silver. The horse and
+all its attire are given after Mahurrum, in charity, to a poor Syaad.
+Footmen, with the afthaadah[8] and chowrie[9]--peculiar emblems of royalty
+in India--attend Dhull Dhull. The friends of the family walk near the
+horse; then servants of all classes, to fill up the parade, and many
+foot-soldiers, who occasionally fire singly, giving to the whole
+description a military effect.
+
+I have seen many other processions on these fifth days of Mahurrum--they
+all partake of one style,--some more splendid than others; and the very
+poor people parade their banners, with, perhaps, no other accompaniment
+than a single drum and fife, and the owner supporting his own banner.
+
+My next letter will contain the procession of Mayndhie, which forms a
+grand feature of Mahurrum display on the seventh night.
+
+P.S.--The Najoomee are men generally with some learning, who, for their
+supposed skill in astrology, have, in all ages since Mahumud's death, been
+more or less courted and venerated by the Mussulmaun people;--I should say,
+with those who have not the fear of God stronger in their hearts than the
+love of the world and its vanities;--the really religious people
+discountenance the whole system and pretended art of the astrologer.
+
+It is wonderful the influence a Najoom acquires in the houses of many
+great men in India;--wherever one of these idlers is entertained he is the
+oracle to be consulted on all occasions, whether the required solution be
+of the utmost importance, or the merest trifling subject. I know those who
+submit, with a childlike docility, to the Najoom's opinion, when their
+better reason, if allowed to sway, would decide against the astrologer's
+prediction. If Najoom says it is not proper for Nuwaub Sahib, or his Begum,
+to eat, to drink, to sleep, to take medicine, to go from home, to give
+away or accept a gift, or any other action which human reason is the best
+guide to decide upon, Najoom has said it,--and Najoom must be right.
+Najoom can make peace or war, in the family he overrules, at his pleasure;
+and many are the houses divided against themselves by the wicked influence
+of a bad man, thus exercising his crafty wiles over the weakness of his
+credulous master.--So much for Najoomee; and now for my second notice of
+the Eunuchs:--[10]
+
+They are in great request among the highest order of people, and from
+their long sojourn in a family, this class of beings are generally
+faithfully attached to the interest and welfare of their employer; they
+are much in the confidence of their master and mistress, and very seldom
+betray their trust. Being frequently purchased, whilst children, from the
+base wretches who have stolen them in infancy from the parental roof, they
+often grow up to a good old age with the family by whom they are adopted;
+they enjoy many privileges denied to other classes of slaves;--are
+admitted at all hours and seasons to the zeenahnahs; and often, by the
+liberality of their patrons, become rich and honourable;--still 'he is but
+a slave', and when he dies, his property reverts to his owner.
+
+In Oude there have been many instances of Eunuchs arriving to great honour,
+distinctions, and vast possessions. Al Mauss Ali Khaun[11] was of the
+number, within the recollection of many who survive him; he was the
+favoured Eunuch of the House of Oude; a person of great attainments, and
+gifted with a remarkably superior mind, he was appointed Collector over an
+immense tract of country, by the then reigning Nuwaub, whose councils he
+benefited by his great judgment. He lived to a good old age, in the
+unlimited confidence of his prince, and enjoyed the good will and
+affection of all who could appreciate what is valuable in honest integrity.
+He died as he had lived, in the most perfect resignation to whatever was
+the will of God, in whose mercy he trusted through time, and for eternity.
+Many of the old inhabitants speak of him with veneration and respect,
+declaring he was the perfect pattern for good Mussulmauns to imitate.
+
+Another remarkable Eunuch, Affrine Khaun,[12] of the Court of Oude, is
+well remembered in the present generation also,--the poor having lost a
+kind benefactor, and the rich a sensible companion, by his death. His vast
+property he had willed to others than the sovereign ruler of Oude (whose
+property he actually was), who sent, as is usual in these cases, to take
+possession of his estate, immediately after his death; the gates were
+barred, and the heirs the Eunuch had chosen to his immense wealth had
+taken possession; which I am not aware was disputed afterwards by the
+reigning Nuwaub, although by right of the Mussulmaun law, the Nuwaub owned
+both the slave and the slave's wealth.
+
+This accounts, perhaps, for the common practice in the higher circles of
+the Mussulmaun population, of heaping ornaments and riches on favourite
+slaves; the wealth thus expended at one time, is but a loan in the hands
+of safe keepers, to revert again to the original proprietor whenever
+required by the master, or no longer of service to the slave, who has
+neither power to bestow, nor heirs to benefit from the property he may
+leave when he dies.
+
+I have frequently observed, among the most exalted ladies, that their
+female slaves are very often superbly dressed; and, on occasions of
+marriage ceremonies, or other scenes of festivity, they seem proud of
+taking them in their suite, handsomely dressed, and richly adorned with
+the precious metals, in armlets, bangles, chains, &c.; the lady thus
+adding to her own consequence by the display of her attendant slaves. The
+same may be observed with regard to gentlemen, who have men-slaves
+attending them, and who are very frequently attired in costly dresses,
+expensive shawls, and gold ornaments.
+
+
+[1] _Dargah_, '(sacred) door-place'.
+
+[2] '_Alam_. For illustrations of those banners see Hughes,
+    _Dictionary of Islam_, 408 ff.; Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a
+    Pilgrim_, ii. 18.
+
+[3] Asaf-ud-daula, eldest son of Nawab Shuja'-ud-daula, on whose
+    death in 1775 he succeeded. He changed the seat of government
+    from Faizabad to Lucknow, where he died in 1797, and was
+    buried in the Imambara. He is principally remembered for
+    his liberality. The merchants, on opening their shops, used to
+    sing:
+
+      _Jisko na de Maula,
+      Tisko de Asaf-ud-daula_.
+      Who from Heaven nought receiveth,
+      To him Asaf-ud-daula giveth.
+
+[4] Mr. H.C. Irwin informs me that the Dargah is situated on the
+    Crommelin Road, rather more than a mile south-west of the
+    Machhi Bhawan fort. It was here that Nawab Sa'adat
+    'Al'i, on his accession, vowed that he would reform his
+    ways--an intention which was not realized.
+
+[5] _Nujumi_, 'an astrologer'; '_ilm-i-nujum_, 'astrology,
+    astronomy'.
+
+[6] The numbers are greatly exaggerated.
+
+[7] Duldul was the name of the Prophet's mule which he gave to
+    'Ali. It is often confounded with Buraq, the
+    Assyrian-looking gryphon on which he alleged that he flew to
+    Mecca.
+
+[8] _Aftabgir_, 'a sun-screen'; see p. 47.
+
+[9] _Chaunri_, the bushy tail of the yak, used as a fly-flapper.
+
+[10] Writing in 1849, General Sleeman remarks that Dom singers and eunuchs
+    are the virtual rulers of Oudh.--_A Journey through Oudh_, i, introd.
+    lxi, 178.
+
+[11] Almas ['the diamond'] 'Ali Khan, known as Miyan ['Master']
+    Almas, according to General Sleeman, was 'the greatest and best man
+    of any note that Oude has produced. He held for about forty years
+    Miyanganj and other districts, yielding to the Oude  Government an
+    annual revenue of more than eighty lacs of rupees [about L850,000].
+    During this time he kept the people secure in life and property, and
+    as happy as people in such a state of society can be; and the whole
+    country under his charge was during his lifetime a garden. He lived
+    here in great magnificence, and was often visited by his sovereign.'
+    (Ibid., i. 320 f.). Lord Valentia more than once speaks highly of him
+    (_Travels_, i. 136, 241). He also notes that the Nawab was
+    anxiously watching for his death, because, being a slave, under
+    Muhammadan law his estates reverted to the Crown.--See N.B.E. Baillie,
+    _Digest of Moohummudan Law_ (1875), 367 f.
+
+[12] Afrin Khan, 'lord of praise', Mr. Irwin informs me, is
+    mentioned in the _Tarikh Farahbakhsh_ (tr. W. Hoey, 129) as
+    engaged in negotiations when Nawab Asaf-ud-daula, at the
+    instigation of Warren Hastings and Haidar Beg, was attempting to
+    extort money from the Nawab Begam.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER IV
+
+  Mahurrum concluded.--Night of Mayndhie.--Emaum-baarah of the King of
+  Oude.--Procession to Shaah Nudghiff.--Last day of Mahurrum.--Chattahs.
+  --Musical instruments.--Zeal of the Native gentlemen.--Funeral
+  obsequies over the Tazia at Kraabaallah.--Sentiments of devout
+  Mussulmauns.--The fast followed by acts of charity.--Remarks on the
+  observance of Mahurrum.
+
+
+The public display on the seventh Mahurrum is by torch-light, and called
+the night of Mayndhie,[1] intending to represent the marriage ceremony for
+Cossum, who, it will be remembered, in the sketch of the events of
+Kraabaallah, was married to his cousin Sakeena Koobraah, the favourite
+daughter of Hosein, on the morning of the celebrated battle.
+
+This night presents to the public all the outward and showy parade which
+marks the Mayndhie procession of a real wedding ceremony, of which I
+propose speaking further in another place. This display at Mahurrum is
+attended with considerable expense; consequently, the very rich only
+observe the out-door formalities to be exhibited on this occasion; yet all
+classes, according to their means, remember the event, and celebrate it at
+home.
+
+The Mayndhie procession of one great personage, in Native cities, is
+directed--by previous arrangement--to the Emaum-baarah of a superior. I
+was present, on one occasion, when the Mayndhie of the Prime Minister of
+Oude was sent to the King's Emaum-baarah, called Shaah Nudghiff,[2]--from
+the mausoleum of Ali, of which it is an exact representation, on a small
+scale.
+
+It is situated near the banks of the river Goomtie,[3] some distance from
+the palace at Lucknow; the entrance to the outer court, or quadrangle, is
+by a handsome gateway of brickwork plastered and polished, resembling
+marble. On each side of the gateway, and carried up the two sides, in a
+line with the building, are distinct apartments, designed for the abode of
+the distressed and houseless poor; the back of these apartments forms a
+substantial wall or enclosure. The Shaah Nudghiff faces the gateway, and
+appears to be a square building, on a broad base of flights of steps, with
+a cupola roof; the interior is paved with black and white marble
+tesselated, the walls and dome neatly ornamented with plaster and gold in
+relief, the beading, cornices, &c. of gold, to correspond on a
+stone-colour ground. The cupola and cornices on the outside are richly
+ornamented with plaster designs, relieved with gold; on the summit of the
+dome is placed a crown, of pure silver, gilt, of an immense size.
+
+The decorations of the interior, for the season of Mahurrum, were on a
+scale of grandeur not easily to be conveyed by description. The walls were
+well covered with handsome glasses and mirrors; the splendid
+chandeliers,--one containing a hundred wax lights,--in every variety, and
+relieved with coloured lamps--amber, blue, and green,--mellowing the light,
+and giving a fairy-like effect to the brilliant scene. In the centre of
+the building stood the green glass Tazia, surrounded by wax lights; on
+the right of which was placed an immense lion, and on the left, a fish,[4]
+both formed of the same bright emerald-green glass as the Tazia. The
+richness and elegance of the banners,--which were numerous and well
+arranged,--could be equalled only by the costliness of their several
+mountings.
+
+In Asiatic buildings niches and recesses prevail in all convenient
+situations, and here they are appropriated for the reception of the relics
+of antiquity and curiosities; such as models of Mecca, the tent of Hosein,
+the gate of Kraabaallah, &c.; these three are made of pure silver, and
+rest on tables of the same metal. Many curious sabres, of all ages,
+shields, chain armour of the ancients, lances, &c., arranged with much
+taste, adorn the interior.
+
+The pulpit (mhembur) is of silver, and of very handsome workmanship; the
+whole of the fitting up and arrangements had been made under the eye of
+his Majesty, and to his good taste may be ascribed all the merit of the
+well-ordered display for these occasions. He delighted in visiting this
+place, which he not only designed as a tribute of his respect to the
+Emaums, but as the future repository for his own remains, when this world
+should cease to be his place of joy, or anxious care. His intention has
+been fulfilled--he died in 1827, aged fifty years, much and justly beloved
+and regretted by all who knew him; his funeral obsequies were impressively
+grand, according to Mussulmaun custom. This good and amiable King was
+succeeded by his only son Nusseer ood deen Hyder,[5] who had just
+completed his twenty-second year when he began to reign.
+
+On the evening of Mayndhie, the crowds of admiring people were admitted to
+view their Paidshah's (King's) exhibition; until the distant sounds of
+musketry announced the approach of the spectacle, when the multitude were
+desired to quit the Emaum-baarah. Hundreds still lingering, could not be
+prevailed on to depart, except by the stripes dealt out unsparingly from
+the whips of the hurkaarahs[6] and peons, appointed to keep order on the
+occasion. The place cleared, and quiet restored, I had leisure to view the
+fairy-like palace of splendour, before the bustle of the procession
+reached the building. I could hardly persuade myself the picture before me
+was not a dream, instead of a reality.
+
+I stood at the entrance to watch the approach of the minister's train,
+through the gateway into the illuminated quadrangle. Spacious as this
+court-yard is, it was nearly filled with the many people forming the
+Mayndhie parade. I should imagine there could not be less than three
+thousand souls engaged in this service, including the match-lock soldiery.
+Several trays of Mayndhie are brought, with the other requisites for the
+usual forms of marriage gifts, such as sweetmeats, dried fruits, garlands
+of sweet jasmine, imitative beds of flowers, composed of uberuck: in some
+of the flowers, fireworks were concealed, to be let off in the quadrangle.
+An imitative tomb on a bier is also paraded, together with the palkie and
+chundole of silver, which are the covered conveyances for females of the
+royal family, or such of the nobility as are privileged by grants from the
+crown; all other females use the covered palkie, mahanah, dhollee, and the
+rutt.[7] Several bands of music follow, and torches out of number. The
+elephants, camels, cavalry, &c., are left in the open space, outside the
+gateway--the gentlemen, dismounting, enter with Dhull Dhull and the trays
+of Mayndhie.
+
+I trembled for the probable destruction of the brilliant ornaments in the
+Emaum-baarah, when I heard the noble animal was to make the circuit round
+the Tazia. Dhull Dhull, being led in, went up the steps with little
+difficulty; and to my astonishment, the gentle creature paced the
+tesselated floor, in very slow time, without once slipping, or seeming
+concerned at the novelty of his situation; indeed, this docile animal
+seemed to me the only living thing present that felt no interest in the
+scene--rendered more attractive and conspicuous by the gentle manners of
+the pretty Dhull Dhull himself. The circuit being made, he was conducted
+back into the court-yard, without the slightest accident or confusion
+occurring during his visit to the Emaum-baarah.
+
+The model of the tomb of Cossum, the chundole and palkie, the trays of
+Mayndhie, sweetmeats, &c. were deposited here until the tenth day, when
+they accompany the King's temporary Tazia cavalcade to Kraabaallah for
+interment.
+
+The ceremonies performed on this night of Mayndhie resemble, in every
+particular, those of the same rank of persons on the actual solemnization
+of a wedding, even to the distribution of money amongst the populace who
+crowd in multitudes on such occasions, though apparently more eager for
+the prize than the sight.
+
+The most imposing spectacle in the celebration of Mahurrum, is reserved
+for the last day;[8] and, judging from the activity of all classes, the
+zealous exertions of the multitude, the deep interest marked on every face,
+male and female, a mere spectator might well imagine this morning to be of
+more importance than any other in the Mussulmaun's catalogue of days.
+
+At the earliest hour of the dawning day, the preparations for the march
+being complete,--which had occupied the hours usually devoted to
+sleep,--the streets and roads present a very animated picture. From the
+bustle and outpouring of the multitude, on this one absorbing engagement,
+a stranger might be led back in imagination to the flight from Egypt; the
+object, however, is very different from that of the children of Israel.
+The order of the day being to commemorate the death of Hosein, a grand
+military funeral is pourtrayed in each person's cavalcade, all pressing
+forward to their chosen Kraabaallah,--the poor man, with his humble Tazia
+and flags, falling in the rear of the more affluent person's display, as
+well for protection as for speed. There is so much of similarity in these
+processions, that the description of one will be sufficient to convey the
+idea of the whole, as they pass on in succession to the chosen place of
+burial.[9]
+
+The consecrated banners take the precedence, in the order of march,
+carried by men on elephants; then a band of music. Next comes the
+jillewdhar[10] (sword-bearer), supporting, on a black staff, the bow
+reversed, with brilliant swords suspended; on each side of him are men
+bearing black poles, on which are fixed immense long streamers of black
+unspun silk,--designed to symbolize grief, despair, &c.
+
+Then follows the horse, caparisoned as on the day of consecrating the
+banners; it is attended by servants, in the same order as when a prince
+rides out,--viz. a man with the afthaadah[11] (or sun),--the well-dressed
+grooms, holding the bridle rein on either side,--a man with the chowrie of
+peacock's feathers in a silver handle,--chobdhaahs[12] with long silver
+and gold staffs,--sota badhaahs,[13] with short staffs resembling fish, of
+the same materials,--hurkaarahs (running-footmen, or messengers), bearing
+small triangular banners with silver handles,--shoe-bearers, &c.
+
+The royal chattah[14] (umbrella), of embroidered velvet, is supported over
+the head of Dhull Dhull. This article in its plain garb, so generally used
+in Europe, is, in Hindoostaun, an original distinguishing mark of royalty,
+gracing the King's throne in lieu of a canopy. In Oude, the chattah cannot
+be used by the subject when in view of the sovereign; if the King's
+dunkah[15] be heard abroad, the people hide their chattahs, and even
+descend from their carriages, elephants, horses, or palkies, standing with
+their hands folded, in all humility, to make obeisance to the
+King,--resuming them only when the royal cortege has moved out of sight. I
+have known many of the first nobility in the Court of Oude, and English
+gentlemen in the King's suite, exposed to the rays of the morning sun,
+during the hottest season of the year; in these airings, the King alone
+has the benefit of a chattah, except the Resident happens to be of the
+party, who being always received as an equal, is privileged to the chattah,
+the chowrie, and the hookha; indulgences of which those only who have
+lived in India can possibly estimate the true value.
+
+But to my subject:--The saddle is adorned with Hosein's chain armour, gold
+turban, a richly set sword, with an embroidered belt: some of the family
+and friends attend respectfully near the horse. Then follow the bearers of
+incense, in gold censers, suspended to chains, which they wave about,
+fumigating the air with the refreshing smell of lahbaun,[16]--a
+sweet-scented resin from the cedar of Lebanon, I imagine, though some
+suppose it to be the frankincense noticed in Scripture.
+
+Next in the cavalcade is a chanter or reader of the Musseeah, who selects
+passages from that well-arranged work suited to the time when Hosein's
+person was the mark for Yuzeed's arrows, and which describe his conduct on
+the trying occasion; one or two couplets being chanted, the procession
+advances in slow time, halting every five minutes on the way from the
+beginning to the end of the march. The reader is attended by the
+proprietor of the Tazia display, and his many relatives and friends,
+bare-footed, and without any covering on their heads;--many of these
+persons throw chaff on their heads,[17] expressive of grief, and whilst
+the Musseeah is chanted, their boisterous expressions of sorrow are
+painfully severe to the mere observer of the scene.
+
+The Tazia then follows, surrounded by banners, and covered with a canopy
+upheld by silver poles in the hands of the supporters, according to the
+general style of conveying their dead at the funerals of the Mussulmauns.
+The canopy is of green, bordered and embroidered with gold. The model of
+Cossum's tomb follows in succession, which is covered with gold cloth, and
+has a canopy also supported over it, in the same way, by poles carried by
+several men. The palkie and chundole of silver and tissue are next seen;
+the trays of Mayndhie, the flowers of uberuck, and the other paraphernalia
+of the marriage ceremony, follow in due order. Then the camels and
+elephants, conveying the tent equipage and luggage of Hosein, form a long
+train, representing the supposed style of his march from Medina to
+Kraabaallah.
+
+The last and most judicious feature in the arrangement is the several
+elephants with confidential servants, distributing bread and money to the
+poor, who are thus attracted to the rear in countless numbers, leaving the
+cavalcade in quiet possession of the space of roadway uncrowded by the
+multitude. The bread given on these occasions is in great esteem amongst
+the females, who receive a small portion from the followers on their
+return from Kraabaallah with veneration, for the Emaum's sake, in whose
+name it is given. I have often been led to the remembrance of past times
+by this act of theirs, when the cross-buns of Good-Friday were esteemed by
+the aged women as possessing virtues beyond the mere substance of the cake.
+
+The whole line of march is guarded in each procession by burkhandhars[18]
+(matchlock men), who fire singly, at intervals on the way. Several bands
+of music are dispersed in the cavalcade, performing solemn dirge-like airs,
+peculiar to the style of composition in Hindoostaun and well-suited to the
+occasion--muffled drums and shrill trumpets, imitating the reiteration of
+'Hasan, Hosein', when Mortem is performed. I remember a fine female
+elephant, belonging to King Ghauzee ood deen Hyder, which had been so well
+instructed, as to keep time with the soundings from her proboscis with the
+occasional Mortems. I cannot say that she clearly pronounced the names of
+the two sons of Ali, yet the regularity of keeping time with the music and
+the human voices was of itself sufficient to excite admiration--the
+Natives declare that she pronounces the names distinctly. Her name is
+Hoseinie, the feminine of Hosein.
+
+Amongst the many varieties of Native musical instruments I have seen in
+India, the kettle-drum is the most simple and singular, which I will take
+the liberty of describing:--It is of well-baked earth, moulded in the
+usual way, and very similar in shape to those of the Royal Horse Guards. A
+globe of the common size, divided into exact halves, would be about the
+dimension and shape of a pair of Indian manufacture; the parchment is
+strained over the open mouth, with a thin hoop to fix it firm; the
+slightest pressure with the fingers on this hoop draws it into tune. The
+simplicity of this accompaniment to the human voice, when touched by the
+fingers, very much in the way Europeans use the tambourine, is only to be
+appreciated by those who have been long acquainted with the sound. The
+only time when it is beaten with sticks is, when used as dunkahs, before
+the King and Queen, on their appearing in public--a sort of alarum to warn
+obstructing hackeries, or carriages, to move out of the way.
+
+I have occasionally observed a singular mode of imitating the sound of
+cavalry going over hard ground, adopted in the processions of great men on
+the tenth of Mahurrum; the contrivance is called chuckee,[19] and composed
+of ebony, or some equally hard wood, the shape and size of a pocket globe,
+divided into halves; each person, having the pair, beats them with a
+particular tact on the flat surface, so as to produce the desired sound of
+horses galloping; and where from fifty to a hundred men, or more, are
+engaged in this performance, the resemblance may be easily conceived.
+
+There are many little observances, not of sufficient importance to make
+them general to all who keep Mahurrum, that need not here be
+detailed;--but one must not be omitted, as it is a feature in the domestic
+observances of Mussulmauns. On the Tazias, when about to be conveyed to
+Kraabaallah, I discovered small portions of corn, rice, bread, fruits,
+flowers, cups of water, &c.;--this is in keeping with the Mussulmaun
+funerals, who invariably convey food to the tomb with their dead.[1] For
+the same reason, at Mahurrum, camphor and rosewater are always carried
+with the Tazia to Kraabaallah, although there is not the same occasion for
+the articles, as will be observed when the burial service is explained.
+
+I have seen females of rank, with their own hands, place red and green wax
+lights in front of the Tazia in their halls, on the night of Mayndhie. I
+was told, in answer to my inquiry, What was meant by the solemn process I
+had witnessed?--that these ladies had some petition to make, for which
+they sought the Emaum's intercession at the throne of mercy. The red light
+was for Hosein, who died in battle; the green for Hasan, who died by
+poison,--which these colours symbolize; and that those females place great
+dependance on the fulfilment of their desires, who thus present to their
+Emaums the wax lights on the night of Mayndhie.
+
+I have remarked that the noblemen and gentlemen generally engaged in the
+service of celebrating Mahurrum, walk on the tenth morning with their
+heads bare and their feet uncovered from their homes to the burial
+ground[2] called Kraabaallah, whatever may be the distance,--perhaps four
+or five miles,--exposed to the fiery rays of the sun: some persons, who on
+this occasion are very scrupulous in thus humbling their nature, walk back
+again in the same manner, after the funeral ceremony has been duly gone
+through at Kraabaallah. The magnitude of this undertaking can be only well
+understood by those who have experienced the state of an atmosphere in the
+shady rooms of a large house, when the thermometer ranges from eighty-four
+to eighty-eight, or even ninety degrees; and when, if you venture to the
+verandah for a few seconds, the flames of heated wind are not only
+insupportable to Europeans, but frequently produce severe attacks of fever.
+The luxurious habits of the Eastern great men may be well recollected when
+counting over the proofs of zeal exhibited in this undertaking, where
+every selfish consideration for the time is banished. The nobility (or
+indeed any one who lays the slightest claim to gentility) never walk from
+one house to another during their lives, but at this particular season;
+even in their gardens indulging in whatever luxury they may boast, by
+being conveyed round in their palkie, or thonjaun[22]--a chair with poles,
+supported by bearers. On the tenth day, the good Mussulmauns rigidly fast
+until after the third watch; not even a drop of water, or the hookha,
+enters their mouths;--as they believe Hosein's sufferings only concluded
+just before the third watch, they cautiously abstain from indulgences,
+until that hour has passed.
+
+The procession having reached Kraabaallah, the whole ceremony of a funeral
+is gone through. The Tazia is committed to the grave with equal solemnity
+to that which is observed when their dead are deposited in the tomb: this
+occupies some time. I never witnessed the movements at Kraabaallah,--the
+season of the year, the confusion, and the anticipated feuds between
+Sheahs and Soonies, ever deterred me from gratifying my curiosity. It is
+always expected that the bad feelings between the two sects, amongst the
+lower orders of the people, may produce a real battle on the imitative
+ground of Kraabaallah; and I have heard of many such terminations of the
+Mahurrum at Lucknow, where the enthusiastic Sheahs and Soonies--having
+reserved their long hatred for a favourable opportunity of giving it
+vent,[23]--have found an early grave on the very ground to which their
+Tazia has been consigned. Private quarrels are often reserved for decision
+on the field of Kraabaallah.
+
+I may here remark, swords form a part of every man's daily costume, from
+the king to the poorest peasant; save only the devout men, who having
+forsaken the world have no occasion for a sword. I have often heard them
+say, 'My trust is not resting on a morsel of steel, but on the great mercy
+of my God'.--'What shall I defend? my life? Where is the arm that can
+assault me without the permission of my God; if He ordains it, should I
+murmur, or ward off the blow?'--'Is it my worldly goods I am to defend?
+From whose bounty have I received them? Is not the great Giver able to
+defend His gifts? and if He wills that I should lose them, what shall I
+say, but as Yoube[24] (Job) said, "It is the Lord, to do His own will";
+blessed be His great name for ever.' These are the sentiments of the
+devout men of all creeds; and these are likewise the exemplary opinions of
+some good Mussulmauns I have known in India.
+
+Returned to their home, the rich men are occupied in dispensing benefits
+among the poor. Food, money, and clothes, are distributed in nearly as
+great proportions as when they have to mourn over a recent separation by
+death from a beloved relative. The clothes worn during Mahurrum are never
+retained for the next occasion, but always distributed amongst the poor,
+who derive so many advantages from the annual commemoration of Mahurrum,
+that the philanthropic heart will rather be pleased than vexed at the zeal
+which produces such a harvest of benefits to the necessitous.
+
+The riches of a native city may be calculated by the immense sums expended
+at Mahurrum every year; and if no greater advantage be derived from the
+gorgeous display of the wealthy, than the stimulus to honest industry
+amongst the several trades, whose labour is brought into use on these
+occasions, there is enough in the result to excuse the expenditure of
+surplus cash in apparent trifles. This, however, is strictly the result,
+not the design, of those expensive displayers at Mahurrum, who are
+actuated solely by fervent zeal, in keeping a continued remembrance of the
+sufferings of their Emaums, and doing honour to their memory.
+
+It is not my province either to praise or condemn, but merely to mark out
+what I observe of singularity in the habits, manners, and customs of the
+Mussulmauns, in whose domestic circles I have been so many years a
+sojourner. On the subject which my pen has faintly traced to your
+view,--the celebration of Mahurrum,--I cannot refrain from offering one
+remark; I think them to be actuated by so fervent a zeal, that if they
+could believe with me, that whatever we do in this life is for Eternity,
+they would still persevere in this their supposed duty of honouring their
+Emaums.
+
+
+[1] _Mendhi_ in its primary sense is the plant _Lawsonia alba_, the
+    leaves of which are used for dyeing the hands and feet of the bride
+    and bridegroom; hence, the marriage rites on this occasion.
+
+[2] This edifice was built under the superintendence of Ghauzee ood deen
+    Hyder, first King of Oude; and it is here his remains are deposited.
+    May his soul rest in peace! [_Author_.] [This building was named after
+    Shah Najaf or Najaf Ashraf, the scene of the martyrdom of 'Ali,
+    120 miles south-west of Baghdad. The capture of the Shah Najaf, in
+    which the guns of Captain Peel played a leading part, was a notable
+    incident in the relief of Lucknow by Sir Colin Campbell.--T.R.E.
+    Holmes, _History of the Indian Mutiny_ (1885), 398 ff.]
+
+[3] The Gumti, Gomati, 'abounding in cattle'.
+
+[4] The fish is a symbol of sovereignty, or authority emanating from the
+    sovereign, in Hindoostaun, since the period of Timour.--Possessors of
+    Jaghires, Collectors of Districts, &c., have permission to use the
+    fish, in the decorations on their flags, in the way similar to our
+    armorial bearings. In Oude the fish is represented in many useful
+    articles--pleasure boats, carriages, &c. Some of the King's Chobdhaars
+    carry a staff representing a gold or silver fish. [_Author_.] [The
+    Order of the Fish (_mahi maratib_) is said to have been founded
+    by Khusru Parviz, King of Persia (A.D. 591-628), and thence
+    passed to the Moghul Emperors of Delhi and to the Court of Oudh.--W.H.
+    Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections_, ed. V.A. Smith, 135 ff.]
+
+[5] Nasir-ud-din Haidar, son of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar, whom
+    he succeeded in 1827, died, poisoned by his own family, in 1837. 'He
+    differed from his father, Ghazi-ud-din Haidar, in being
+    considerably more debauched and disreputable. His father had been an
+    outwardly decent hedonist and voluptuary, but the son was under no
+    restraints of any sort or kind, and it is probable that his character
+    was not unfavourably depicted in that highly coloured sketch, "The
+    Private Life of an Eastern King" (by W. Knighton, 1855). "Any one", we
+    are told, "was his friend who would drink with him," and his whole
+    reign was one continued satire upon the subsidiary and protected
+    system.'--H.C. Irwin, _The Garden of India_, p. 117.
+
+[6] _Harkara_, 'a messenger, orderly'.
+
+[7] _Palki_, the common palanquin or litter; _chandol_, usually carried
+    by four men at each end (a drawing representing one carried by twelve
+    men will be found in N. Manucci, _Storia do Mogor_, iv. 32, and see ii.
+    76 f.;) _miyana_, a middle-sized litter out of which the type used
+    by Europeans was developed; the Anglo-Indian 'dhooly', properly
+    _duli_; the _rath_ is a kind of bullock-carriage, often with
+    four wheels, used by women and by portly merchants.
+
+[8] Known as 'Ashura.
+
+[9] See a graphic account of the procession at Bombay in Sir G. Birdwood,
+    _Sva_, 177 ff.
+
+[10] _Jilaudar, Jalaudar_, properly an attendant holding the bridle
+    of a mounted officer or magnate.
+
+[11] The afthaadah is a sun embroidered on crimson velvet, both sides the
+    same, and fixed on a circular framework, about two yards in
+    circumference; this is attached to a silver or gold staff, the circle
+    deeply and fully flounced with gold brocade, or rich silk bound with
+    silver ribands. The person riding is sheltered from the rays of the
+    sun by the afthaadah being carried in an elevated position.
+    [_Author_.] (See p. 38.)
+
+[12] _Chobdar_, 'a stick-or staff-bearer'.
+
+[13] _Sontabardar_, 'a bearer of the silver stick or mace'.
+
+[14] _Chhata_, a mark of dignity in the East.
+
+[15] _Danka_, 'a kettle-drum'.
+
+[16] _Loban_, _luban_, frankincense, olibanum, procured from various
+    species of _Boswellia_.
+
+[17] As early as A.D. 1000 the people of Baghdad used to throw dust and
+    ashes about the streets, and dress in black sackcloth on the
+    anniversary of the death of Husain (Ockley, _History of the Saracens_,
+    418). The custom was common among the Hebrews (Isaiah iii. 26, xlvii.
+    1; Job ii. 8, & c.). Robertson Smith suggests that the dust was
+    originally taken from the grave, and the ashes from the funeral pyre
+    (_Religion, of the Semites_, 413).
+
+[18] _Barqandaz_, 'lightning-darter'.
+
+[19] _Charkhi_; the description is reproduced, without acknowledgement,
+    by Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 299.
+
+[20] The practice of offering food to the dead is an Indian innovation on
+    Musalman practice; it is based on the Hindu custom of offering
+    flour-balls (_pinda_) to the spirit of the dead man.
+
+[21] This was a Hebrew practice, condemned by the prophets (2 Samuel
+    xv. 30; Ezekiel xxiv. 17).
+
+[22] _Tamjhan, thamjan_, the Anglo-Indian 'tonjon' or
+    'tomjohn', the derivation of which is obscure. See Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 930 f.
+
+[23] Ill-feeling between Sunnis and Shi'ahs is not universal in
+    India. 'Though the Sunnis consider the Shi'ah observances as
+    impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The fact that
+    the British Government punishes all who break the peace may have
+    something to do with this. Still the Sunni and the Shi'ah in
+    India live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other
+    than the Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some
+    Musalman poets, indeed, are both Sunnis and Shi'ahs.'--E.
+    Sell, _The Faith of Islam_, 292 f.; cf. p. 14.
+
+[24] Aiyub.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER V
+
+  Time.--How divided in Hindoostaun.--Observances after
+  Mahurrum.--Luxuries and enjoyments resumed.--Black dye used by the
+  ladies.--Their nose-ring.--Number of rings worn in their ears.--Mode
+  of dressing their hair.--Aversion to our tooth-brushes.--Toilet of
+  the ladies.--The Pyjaamahs.--The Ungeeah (bodice).--The Courtie.--The
+  Deputtah.--Reception of a superior or elder amongst the
+  ladies.--Their fondness for jewels.--Their shoes.--The state of
+  society amongst the Mussulmaun ladies.--Their conversational
+  endowments.--Remarks upon the fashion and duty of beards.
+
+
+In my last I alluded to the 'third watch'; it will now, perhaps, be
+necessary to explain the divisions of time, as observed by the Mussulmauns
+of Hindoostaun.
+
+The day is divided into four equal parts, or watches, denominated
+purrhs[1]; as, first purrh, second purrh, &c. The night is also divided
+into four purrhs, each of which is subdivided into ghurries[2] (hours),
+varying in number with the changes of season; the longest days require
+eight ghurries to one purrh; the shortest, only six. The same division is
+observed for the night. The day is reckoned from the earliest dawn to the
+last decline of light:--there is very little twilight in the Upper
+Provinces of India.
+
+By this method of calculating time, you will understand that they have no
+occasion for those useful, correct, mechanical time-keepers, in general
+use in Europe; but they have a simple method of measuring the hour, by
+means of a brass vessel, with a small aperture at the bottom, which, being
+floated on a tank or large pan of water, one drop to a second of time
+forces its way through the aperture into the floating vessel, on which
+marks are made outside and in, to direct the number of ghurries by the
+depth of water drawn into it; and in some places, a certain division of
+time is marked by the sinking of the vessel. Each hour, as it passes, is
+struck by the man on duty with a hammer on a broad plate of bell-metal,
+suspended to the branch of a tree, or to a rail;--the gong of an English
+showman at the country fairs is the exact resemblance of the metal plates
+used in India for striking the hours on, and must, I think, have been
+introduced into England from the East.
+
+The durwaun (gate-keeper), or the chokeedhars (watchmen), keep the time.[3]
+In most establishments the watchmen are on guard two at a time, and are
+relieved at every watch, day and night. On these men devolves the care of
+observing the advance of time by the floating vessel, and striking the
+hour, in which duty they are required to be punctual, as many of the
+Mussulmauns' services of prayer are scrupulously performed at the
+appointed hours, which will be more particularly explained when their
+creed is brought forward in a future Letter; and now, after this
+digression, I will pursue my subject.
+
+When a member of the Mussulmaun family dies, the master of the house
+mourns forty days, during which period the razor is laid aside.[4] In the
+same manner the devout Mussulmaun mourns every year for his martyred
+Emaums; this, however, is confined to the most religious men; the general
+practice of the many is to throw off their mourning garb and restore the
+razor to its duties on the third day after the observances of Mahurrum
+have terminated.
+
+It is stated, on the authority of ancient Arabian writers, on whose
+veracity all Mussulmauns rely, that the head of Hosein being taken to
+Yuzeed, one of his many wives solicited and received the head, which she
+gave to the family of the martyred leader, who were prisoners to the King,
+and that they contrived to have it conveyed to Kraabaallah, where it was
+deposited in the same grave with his body on the fortieth day after the
+battle.[5]
+
+When a death occurs in a Mussulmaun family, the survivor provides dinners
+on the third, seventh, and fortieth days succeeding, in memory of the
+deceased person; these dinners are sent in trays to the immediate
+relatives and friends of the party,--on which sacred occasion all the poor
+and the beggars are sought to share the rich food provided. The like
+customs are observed for Hosein every year. The third day offering is
+chiefly composed of sugar, ghee, and flour, and called meetah[6]; it is of
+the consistence of our rice-puddings, and whether the dainty is sent to a
+king or a beggar there is but one style in the presentation--all is served
+in the common brown earthen dish,--in imitation of the humility of Hosein
+and his family, who seldom used any other in their domestic circle. The
+dishes of meetah are accompanied with the many varieties of bread common
+to Hindoostaun, without leaven, as sheah-maul,[7] bacherkaunie,[8]
+chapaatie,[9] &c.; the first two have milk and ghee mixed with the flour,
+and nearly resemble our pie-crust. I must here stay to remark one custom I
+have observed amongst Natives: they never cook food whilst a dead body
+remains in the house;[10] as soon as it is known amongst a circle of
+friends that a person is dead, ready-dressed dinners are forwarded to the
+house for them, no one fancying he is conferring a kindness, but
+fulfilling a duty.
+
+The third day after the accomplishment of the Mahurrum ceremonies is a
+busy time with the inmates of zeenahnahs, when generally the mourning garb
+is thrown off, and preparations commence at an early hour in the morning
+for bathing and replacing the banished ornaments. Abstinence and privation
+being no longer deemed meritorious by the Mussulmauns, the pawn--the dear
+delightful pawn, which constitutes the greatest possible luxury to the
+Natives,--pours in from the bazaar, to gladden the eye and rejoice the
+heart of all classes, who after this temporary self-denial enjoy the
+luxury with increased zest.
+
+Again the missee[11] (a preparation of antimony) is applied to the lips,
+the gums, and occasionally to the teeth of every married lady, who emulate
+each other in the rich black produced;--such is the difference of taste as
+regards beauty;--where we admire the coral hue, with the females of
+Hindoostaun, Nature is defaced by the application of black dye. The eyelid
+also is pencilled afresh with prepared black, called kaarjil[12]: the
+chief ingredient in this preparation is lampblack. The eyebrow is well
+examined for fear an ill-shaped hair should impair the symmetry of that
+arch esteemed a beauty in every clime, though all do not, perhaps,
+exercise an equal care with Eastern dames to preserve order in its growth.
+The mayndhie is again applied to the hands and feet, which restores the
+bright red hue deemed so becoming and healthy.
+
+The nose once more is destined to receive the nutt[13] (ring) which
+designates the married lady; this ring, I have before mentioned, is of
+gold wire, the pearls and ruby between them are of great value, and I have
+seen many ladies wear the nutt as large in circumference as the bangle on
+her wrist, though of course much lighter; it is often worn so large, that
+at meals they are obliged to hold it apart from the face with the left
+hand, whilst conveying food to the mouth with the other. This nutt,
+however, from ancient custom, is indispensable with married women, and
+though they may find it disagreeable and inconvenient, it cannot possibly
+be removed, except for Mahurrum, from the day of their marriage until
+their death or widowhood, without infringing on the originality of their
+customs, in adhering to which they take so much pride.
+
+The ears of the females are pierced in many places; the gold or silver
+rings return to their several stations after Mahurrum, forming a broad
+fringe of the precious metals on each side the head; but when they dress
+for great events,--as paying visits or receiving company,--these give
+place to strings of pearls and emeralds, which fall in rows from the upper
+part of the ear to the shoulder in a graceful, elegant style. My ayah, a
+very plain old woman, has no less than ten silver rings in one ear and
+nine in the other,[15] each of them having pendant ornaments; indeed, her
+ears are literally fringed with silver.
+
+After the hair has undergone all the ceremonies of washing, drying, and
+anointing with the sweet jessamine oil of India, it is drawn with great
+precision from the forehead to the back, where it is twisted into a queue
+which generally reaches below the waist; the ends are finished with strips
+of red silk and silver ribands entwined with the hair, and terminating
+with a good-sized rosette. The hair is jet black, without a single
+variation of tinge, and luxuriantly long and thick, and thus dressed
+remains for the week,--about the usual interval between their laborious
+process of bathing;--nor can they conceive the comfort other people find
+in frequent brushing and combing the hair. Brushes for the head and the
+teeth have not yet been introduced into Native families, nor is it ever
+likely they will, unless some other material than pigs' bristles can be
+rendered available by the manufacturers for the present purposes of
+brushes. The swine is altogether considered abominable to Mussulmauns; and
+such is their detestation of the unclean animal that the most angry
+epithet from a master to a slave would be to call him 'seur'[15] (swine).
+
+It must not, however, be supposed that the Natives neglect their teeth;
+they are the most particular people living in this respect, as they never
+eat or drink without washing their mouths before and after meals; and as a
+substitute for our tooth-brush, they make a new one every day from the
+tender branch of a tree or shrub,--as the pomegranate, the neem,[16]
+babool,[17] &c. The fresh-broken twig is bruised and made pliant at the
+extremity, after the bark or rind is stripped from it, and with this the
+men preserve the enamelled-looking white teeth which excite the admiration
+of strangers; and which, though often envied, I fancy, are never surpassed
+by European ingenuity.
+
+As I have rather prematurely introduced the Native ladies' style of dress
+into this Letter, I may as well conclude the whole business of their
+toilet under the present head, instead of reserving the detail of the
+subject for a future Letter when the zeenahnah is to be described, and
+accordingly proceed to tell you that the ladies' pyjaamahs are formed of
+rich satin, or gold cloth, goolbudden,[18] or mussheroo[19] (striped
+washing silks manufactured at Benares), fine chintz,--English manufacture
+having the preference,--silk or cotton ginghams,--in short, all such
+materials are used for this article of female dress as are of sufficiently
+firm texture, down to the white calico of the country, suited to the means
+of the wearer. By the most fashionable females they are worn very full
+below the knee, and reach to the feet, which are partially covered by the
+fulness, the extremity finished and the seams are bound with silver riband;
+a very broad silver riband binds the top of the pyjaamah; this being
+double has a zarbund[20] (a silk net cord) run through, by which this part
+of the dress is confined at the waist. The ends of the zarbund are
+finished with rich tassels of gold and silver, curiously and expressly
+made for this purpose, which extend below the knees: for full dress, these
+tassels are rendered magnificent with pearls and jewels.
+
+One universal shape is adopted in the form of the ungeeah[21] (bodice),
+which is, however, much varied in the material and ornamental part; some
+are of gauze or net, muslin, &c., the more transparent in texture the more
+agreeable to taste, and all are more or less ornamented with spangles and
+silver trimmings. It is made to fit the bust with great exactness, and to
+fasten behind with strong cotton cords; the sleeves are very short and
+tight, and finished with some fanciful embroidery or silver riband. Even
+the women servants pride themselves on pretty ungeeahs, and all will
+strive to have a little finery about them, however coarse the material it
+is formed of may happen to be. They are never removed at night but
+continue to be worn a week together, unless its beauty fades earlier, or
+the ornamental parts tarnish through extreme heat.
+
+With the ungeeah is worn a transparent courtie (literally translated shirt)
+of thread net; this covers the waistband of the pyjaamah but does not
+screen it; the seams and hems are trimmed with silver or gold ribands.
+
+The deputtah is a useful envelope, and the most graceful part of the whole
+female costume. In shape and size, a large sheet will convey an idea of
+the deputtah's dimensions; the quality depends on choice or circumstances;
+the preference is given to our light English manufacture of leno or muslin
+for every-day wear by gentlewomen; but on gala days, gold and silver gauze
+tissues are in great request, as is also fine India muslin manufactured at
+Decca--transparent and soft as the web of the gossamer spider;--this is
+called shubnum[22] (night dew), from its delicate texture, and is procured
+at a great expense, even in India; some deputtahs are formed of
+gold-worked muslin, English crape, coloured gauze, &c. On ordinary
+occasions ladies wear them simply bound with silver riband, but for dress
+they are richly trimmed with embroidery and bullion fringes, which add
+much to the splendour of the scene, when two or three hundred females are
+collected together in their assemblies. The deputtah is worn with much
+original taste on the back of the head, and falls in graceful folds over
+the person; when standing, it is crossed in front, one end partially
+screening the figure, the other thrown over the opposite shoulder.
+
+I should say they rarely stand; but when distinguished guests, or their
+elders amongst relatives, are announced, this mark of respect is never
+omitted. It is an interesting sight, as they have much ease and grace in
+their manner, which no tutoring could impart; they rise and arrange their
+drapery, advance a few steps from their place in the hall, and embrace
+their visitor thrice in due form, ending by salaaming, with the head bowed
+very low towards the ground and the open hand raised to the forehead,
+three times in succession, with solemnity and dignity.
+
+I have told you, in a former Letter, how many precious ornaments were laid
+aside on the eve of Mahurrum, and need hardly describe them again. Their
+fondness for good jewellery perhaps exceeds the same propensity in any
+other females on the globe: the rude workmanship of Native jewellers is
+never an object of weighty consideration, provided the precious metals are
+unalloyed in quality. The same may be remarked in their selection of
+jewels: pearls of the largest size, even when discoloured or misshapen,
+are selected in preference to the most regular in form and colour, of a
+smaller size; large diamonds, having flaws, are often preferred to smaller
+ones most perfect. The gentlemen are good judges of precious stones, and
+evince some taste in their style of ornaments; they are worn on their
+turbans, and in necklaces or harrhs[23]--rings, armlets, &c.; but these
+are all laid aside at seasons of devotion, when they are restricted
+wearing, not only ornaments, but mixed articles of silk and wool in their
+apparel. The most religious men and women invariably abstain from
+ornamental dress in every way, deeming it frivolous vanity, and
+inconsistent with that they profess--'to be seeking God, and forsaking
+worldly things'.
+
+The ladies never wear stockings,[24] and only cover the feet with shoes
+when pacing across their court-yard, which bounds their view and their
+walks. Nevertheless, there is a fashion and taste about the ladies' shoes,
+which is productive of much emulation in zeenahnah life;--they are
+splendidly worked in many patterns, with gold and silver spangles,
+variously-coloured small seed beads and embroidery--the whole one mass of
+glittering metal;--they are made with sharp points curling upwards, some
+nearly reaching half-way to the knees, and always worn down at the heel,
+as dressing slippers; the least costly for their every-day wear are of
+gold embroidery on velvet; the less opulent condescend to wear tinsel work,
+and the meanest servants yellow or red cloth with silver binding. The same
+style of shoes are worn by the males as by the females; I have seen some
+young men with green shagreen slippers for the rainy season; these are
+made with a high heel and look unseemly. The fashion of shoes varies with
+the times in this country, as well as in others--sometimes it is genteel
+to have small points to the shoes; at another, the points are long and
+much curled; but they still retain the preference for pointed shoes
+whatever be the fashion adopted.
+
+The greatest novelty in the way of shoes, which came under my observation
+in India, was a pair of silver embroidery, small pointed, and very neatly
+made: on the points and round the instep small silver bells were fastened,
+which produced harmony with every step, varied by the quick or more gentle
+paces of the wearer; these were a present to me from a lady of distinction
+in Oude. Upon visiting this lady on one occasion, my black silk slippers,
+which I had left at the entrance (as is the custom here), had most likely
+attracted the curiosity of the Begum's slaves, for when that lady attended
+me to the threshold, they could nowhere be found; and I was in danger of
+being obliged to soil my stockings by walking shoeless to my palkie,
+across the court-yard. In this dilemma the lady proffered me the pair here
+described; I was much amused with the novelty of the exchange, upon
+stepping into the musical shoes, which, however they may be prized by
+Native ladies, did not exactly suit my style of dress, nor convenience in
+walking, although I must always remember the Begum's attention with
+gratitude.
+
+
+The ladies' society is by no means insipid or without interest; they are
+naturally gifted with good sense and politeness, fond of conversation,
+shrewd in their remarks, and their language is both correct and refined.
+This, at first, was an enigma to me, considering that their lives are
+spent in seclusion, and that their education was not conducted on European
+principles; the mystery, however, has passed away upon an intimate
+acquaintance with the domestic habits of the people. The men with whom
+genteel women converse, are generally well educated, and from the
+naturally inquisitive disposition of the females, not a word escapes the
+lips of a father, husband, or brother, without an inquiry as to its
+meaning, which having once ascertained, is never forgotten, because their
+attention is not diverted by a variety of pursuits, or vain amusements.
+The women look up to the opinions of their male relatives with the same
+respect as children of other climes are accustomed to regard their tutor
+or governess,--considering every word pronounced as worthy of imitation,
+and every sentiment expressed, as a guide to their own. Thus the habit of
+speaking correctly is so familiar to the females of Mussulmaun society,
+that even women servants, long accustomed to serve in zeenahnahs, may be
+readily distinguished by their language from the same class of people in
+attendance on European ladies.
+
+P.S. All good Mussulmauns are expected to wear their beards, by command of
+the Prophet; so says my informant, who is of 'the faith', and wears his
+beard, in accordance with the injunction of his Lawgiver. In modern times,
+however, the Mussulmauns have seen fit to modify the strict letter of the
+law, and we perceive generally, mustachios only reserved on the upper lip.
+This ornament is trained with the nicest care amongst the fashionable
+young men of the present day, and made to creep over the lip at each
+corner of the mouth with curling points; well-trained mustachios being
+with them much esteemed.
+
+The religious Mussulmauns become more scrupulous as they advance in
+knowledge of their faith, when they allow their beards to grow and their
+heads to be shaven; if the hair turns white--while to look well is an
+object of interest--a dye is resorted to, composed of mayndhie and indigo,
+which restores its youthful appearance, and the beard retains its black
+glossy hue for about six weeks, when the process of dyeing is again made
+the business of a convenient hour.[25] The vanities of the world ceasing
+to charm (the heart being fixed on more important subjects), the beard is
+permitted to retain its natural colour; and, truly, the venerable
+countenance of an aged Mussulmaun, with a silvery-white beard flowing
+nearly to his girdle, is a picture that would interest every beholder well
+acquainted with Bible history.
+
+When the Mussulmaun determines on fulfilling the command of his Lawgiver,
+in making the pilgrimage to Mecca, the beard is allowed to grow whatever
+be his age; and this may be considered a badge of their faith, none being
+admitted at 'the Holy House' who have not this passport on their chin.
+
+
+[1] _Pahar_.
+
+[2] _Ghari_, about twenty-four minutes.
+
+[3] _Darwan, chaukidar_.
+
+[4] See p. 64.
+
+[5] According to the Shi'ahs, Zainu-l-'Abidin obtained from Yazid,
+    after forty days, the head of Husain, and brought it to Karbala. They
+    deny that the head is at Cairo and the body at Karbala. Others say
+    that the head was sent to Medina, and buried near the grave of
+    Fatimah.--Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 40; Ockley, _History of the
+    Saracens_, 412, 415 note.
+
+[6] _Mitha_, 'sweet'.
+
+[7] _Shirmal_, bread made with milk.
+
+[8] _Baqirkhani_, a kind of crisp bread or cake, like piecrust,
+    made of milk, sugar, and flour.
+
+[9] _Chapati_, the griddle cake, the standard food of the people.
+
+[10] No food should be cooked in the house of a Musalman during the
+    forty days of mourning. Sir J.G. Frazer thinks that this is due to
+    the risk of eating the ghost clinging to the food (_Journal
+    Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) 92 ff.).
+
+[11] _Missi_, from _mis_, 'copper', because copper-filings form its
+    chief ingredient, to which are added myrobalan, gall-nuts, vitriol, &c.
+    The custom is based on the Arab admiration for the rose-red colour of
+    the inner lip.--Burton, _A Thousand Nights and A Night_, iii. 365.
+
+[12] _Kajal_.
+
+[13] _Nath_, a love-token presented to the bride by the bridegroom. The
+    very mention of it is considered indelicate.
+
+
+[14] They generally adopt an odd number.
+
+[15] _Suar_.
+
+[16] _Nim_ (_Melia Azidirachta_).
+
+[17] _Babul_ (_Acacia arabica_).
+
+[18] _Gulbadan_, 'with body like a rose', a fine silk fabric.
+
+[19] _Mashru_ 'conformable to law', a silk-cotton cloth, which--but not
+    pure silk--a Musulman can wear during prayer.
+
+[20] _Zerband_, 'fastening below', 'a girth'.
+
+[21] _Angiya_.
+
+[22] _Shabnam_. The finest varieties of these cloths were made at Dacca.
+    Aurungzeb is said to have remonstrated with his daughter for wearing
+    what he thought to be a _Coa vestis_. She answered that she wore seven
+    folds of this cloth.
+
+[23] _Har_, a necklace, an embroidered garland thrown round the neck of
+    a visitor on his departure, as a mark of respect. These garlands were
+    substituted for the pearl necklaces which, in former days, were
+    presented to guests.
+
+[24] 'Stockings are never worn [in the Zenana]: but I have seen little
+    coloured stockings, made of the wool from Cashmir, worn at times
+    during the cold season.'--Mrs. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_,
+     i. 456.
+
+[25] According to the traditions, the Prophet said, 'Change the whiteness
+    of your hair, but not with anything black'. The first Caliph is said
+    to have dyed his beard red with henna. Nowadays indigo is largely used.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VI
+
+  The Mussulmaun religion.--Sectarians.--Their difference of
+  faith.--History of the Soonies.--The Caliphas Omir, Osman, Aboubuker,
+  &c.--Mahumud's parting charge to Ali.--Omir's jealousy of Ali.--The
+  Khoraun.--How compiled.--The Calipha Omir held in detestation.--Creed
+  of the Sheahs.--Funeral service.--Opinions of the Mussulmauns
+  respecting the Millennium.--The foundation of their faith
+  exhibited.--Sentiments of the most devout followers of
+  Mahumud.--Bridge of Sirraat, the Scales, &c. explained.--Emaum
+  Mhidhie.--Prophecy of his reappearance.--Its early fulfilment
+  anticipated.--Discourse with the Meer Hadjee Shaah on this subject.
+
+
+I do not presume to offer opinions on the nature, substance, or character,
+of the Mussulmaun Faith; but confine myself to the mere relation of such
+facts as I have received from the best possible authority, viz. the
+religious men who are of that faith, and live in strict accordance with
+the tenets they profess.
+
+There are two sects of the Mussulmaun persuasion, as I have before
+remarked, viz. the Sheahs and the Soonies. The leaders of the former are
+called Emaums; and those of the latter Caliphas. The Sheahs acknowledge
+Ali and his immediate descendants (eleven in number) 'the right and only
+lawful Emaums', in succession, after Mahumud. The Soonies declare the
+Caliphas--as Omir, Aboubuker, &c.--to be their lawful leaders after
+Mahumud.
+
+I do not find that there is any great difference in the points of faith
+between the two sects; they are equally guided by the same laws and
+ordinances inculcated by Mahumud in the Khoraun;--the Sheahs pursuing the
+pattern of observances traced out in the life and manners of Ali and his
+descendants;--and the Soonies taking their examples from the manners of
+the Caliphas. There is a distinguishing method in ablutions before prayers,
+and also in the manner of bowing and prostrating in their devotional
+exercises;[1] this difference, however, has nothing to do with their
+faith,--the subject and form of their daily prayer is one; but both sects
+have extra services for particular occasions, agreeable to the instruction
+of their favourite leaders. The Namaaz (daily prayer) was taught by
+Mahumud to his followers, every line of which is religiously reverenced by
+Mussulmauns, and cannot be altered by sectarian principles.
+
+The Mussulmaun faith is founded on three roots; from these spring, with
+the Sheahs, six branches; with the Soonies, five. The roots are as
+follows:--
+
+First.--'There is but one God, self existing; ever was, and ever will be;
+in Whom is all Power, Majesty, and Dominion; by Whom all things are, and
+were created. With Whom is neither partner or substance:[2] and He alone
+is to be worshipped.'
+
+Second.--'The Prophets were all true; and all their writings to be relied
+on, with a true faith.'
+
+Third.--'The resurrection of the dead is certain.'
+
+The Sheahs' branches, or emanations, from the three roots of their faith,
+are as follow:--
+
+1st.--'Namaaz,'[3] (prayer five times daily); a necessary duty, never to
+be omitted.
+
+2nd.--'Rumzaun,'[4] (fasting) the whole thirty days of that month; a
+service acceptable to God from His humble creatures.
+
+3rd.--'The Hadje,'[5] (pilgrimage to Mecca); commanded by Mahumud, and
+therefore to be obeyed.
+
+4th.--'Zuckhaut;'[6] the fortieth portion of all worldly goods to be set
+apart every year (an offering to God) for the service of the poor.
+
+5th.--To fight in the road of God, or in His service, against the
+idolaters.
+
+6th.--To believe that the twelve Emaums were the true and lawful leaders,
+after Mahumud; to follow in their path, or example, and to succour and
+defend the Syaads, their descendants.
+
+The Soonies omit the last branch in their profession of faith; with this
+solitary exception, the creed of the two sects, from all I can understand,
+is the same. The Sheahs are those who celebrate Mahurrum: in my
+description of that event will be seen the zealous partizans of the sect;
+and here may be introduced with propriety, some account of the opposite
+party denominated Soonies.
+
+The word Calipha[7] implies the master or head of any trade, profession,
+or calling,--as the master of the tailors, the head master of a college or
+school, &c. Omir was the first to usurp the title after Mahumud's death,
+and to him succeeded Aboubuker, and then Ausmaun (Osman).[8]
+
+Aboubuker may have claimed some relationship to Mahumud;--he was converted
+by his preaching from idolatry to the faith;--he gave his daughter in
+marriage to Mahumud, by whom two sons were born to him, Ishmael and
+Ibrahim.[9] 'An angel appeared to Mahumud, saying, Which of thy family
+shall be taken from thee, Oh, Mahumud! such is the command of God; two of
+thy youth must die, and I am sent to demand of thee whether it is thy wish
+Ishmael and Ibrahim, thine own sons, shall be taken from this world, or
+Hasan and Hosein, the sons of Fatima thy daughter?' The historian
+continues, after dwelling much on the virtues of the Prophet's only
+daughter, 'Such was the affection of Mahumud for his daughter Fatima and
+her children, and so well he knew the purity of their hearts, that he
+hesitated not a moment in replying, "If the Lord graciously permits His
+servant to choose, I freely offer my two sons Ishmael and Ibrahim; that
+Hasan and Hosein may live by His mercy "'.
+
+Omir was also a convert to the faith Mahumud taught: he likewise gave a
+daughter in marriage to Mahumud;[10] by whom, however, the same historian
+remarks, his house was not peopled. His only daughter, Fatima, lived to
+add numbers to his family: she was born to him by the pious female (a
+widow) who was his first wife[11] and to whom he was united before he
+commenced his work of conversion. Ali, to whom Fatima was married, was the
+nephew of Mahumud, and from this union the Syaad race descend to the
+present day. The Prophet observing real piety in Ali, designed him not
+only to be the most suitable husband for his amiable daughter, but the
+best qualified person to be chosen as his successor, when he should be
+called by 'the hand of death'; and in the most public manner gave charge
+of his flock to Ali, not long before that event occurred. Mahumud's speech
+to Ali on that occasion is much reverenced by the Sheah sect;--it has been
+translated for me by my husband, and is as follows:--
+
+'You, my son, will suffer many persecutions in the cause of religion; many
+will be the obstructions to your preaching, for I see they are not all as
+obedient and faithful as yourself. Usurpers of the authority, delegated to
+you, will arise, whose views are not pure and holy as your own; but let my
+admonitions dwell on your mind, remember my advice without swerving. The
+religion I have laboured to teach, is, as yet, but as the buds shooting
+forth from the tree; tender as they are, the rude blasts of dissension may
+scatter them to the winds, and leave the parent tree without a leaf:--but
+suffered to push forth its produce quietly, the hand of Time will ripen
+and bring to perfection that which has been the business of my awakened
+life to cultivate. Never, my son, suffer your sword to be unsheathed in
+the justice of your cause; I exhort you to bear this injunction on your
+mind faithfully; whatever may be the provocations you receive, or insults
+offered to your person,--I know this trial is in store for my
+son,--remember the cause you are engaged in; suffer patiently; never draw
+your sword against the people who profess the true faith, even though they
+are but by name Mussulmauns.
+
+'Against the enemies of God, I have already given you directions; you may
+fight for Him--the only true God,--but never against Him, or His faithful
+servants.'
+
+When Mahumud was numbered with the dead, Omir soon set himself forward as
+the lawful successor; he was of good address, and insinuating manners, and
+succeeded in drawing 'numbers to his threshold'. He preached the same
+doctrine Mahumud had taught, but sensual indulgence and early developed
+ambition were more strong in his heart than the faith he preached. Omir
+grew jealous of Ali's virtues and forbearance, under the various trials of
+oppression and injustice he chose to visit him with; and resolved that, if
+possible, he would destroy not only Ali, but his whole family. Omir caused
+his house to be fired treacherously, but as the historians say, 'the mercy
+of God watched over the sanctified family'; they escaped from the flames,
+with no other loss than that of their small property.
+
+The Khoraun was not the work of any particular period in the life of
+Mahumud. It was not compiled into a book until after Mahumud's death, who
+was totally unacquainted with letters; each chapter having been conveyed
+by the angel Gabriel[12] to Mahumud, his inspired memory enabled him to
+repeat, verbatim, the holy messenger's words to his disciples and converts
+when assembled as was their daily custom. To as many as committed verse,
+chapter, or portion to memory, by this oral communication, Mahumud
+rewarded with the highest seats in his assembly (meaning nearest his
+person); and to those who wished for employment, he gave the command of
+detachments sent out against the infidels.
+
+The whole Khoraun was thus conveyed to Mahumud by the angel Gabriel, at
+many different periods of his mission; and by daily repetition, did he
+instil into the memory of his followers that mental scripture. But when
+Omir usurped the right to lead, he ambitiously planned for himself a large
+share of popularity by causing the Khoraun to be committed to paper, and
+he accordingly gave orders, that the best scribes should be employed to
+convey its precepts to writing.
+
+Ali had been engaged in the same employment for some time, perceiving the
+future benefit to the faith which would accrue from such a labour, and on
+the very day, when Omir was seated in form to receive the work of his
+scribes, Ali also presented himself with his version of the Khoraun. It is
+asserted that Omir treated him with some indignity, and gave the
+preference to the volume his own scribes had prepared, desiring Ali,
+nevertheless, to leave that he had transcribed with him, though he
+candidly told him he never intended it should be 'the Book for the People'.
+Ali found, on this trying occasion, the benefit of Mahumud's advice, to
+keep his temper subdued for the trial, and withdrew with his book clasped
+to his heart, assuring Omir, that the volume should only be the property
+of his descendants; and that when the twelfth Emaum, prophesied by Mahumud,
+should disappear from the eye of man, the Khoraun he had written should
+also disappear, until that Emaum returned, with whom the book he had
+written should again be found.
+
+The name of Omir is detestable to all lovers of literature, or admirers of
+ancient history and valuable records. By his orders, the bath was heated
+with the valuable collection of manuscripts, which it had been the work of
+ages to complete.[13] Omir was told that the people valued the writings of
+the ancients, and that they were displeased at this irreparable
+destruction of valuable records; he asked if the people were not satisfied
+with the Khoraun? and if satisfied, why should they seek for other
+knowledge than that book contained? declaring it to be an useless
+employment of time, to be engaged in any other readings. They say the
+collection of books thus destroyed was so vast, that it served the purpose,
+to which it was applied, for many successive days. I have thus far given
+the accounts I have received of the origin of the two sects amongst the
+Mussulmauns from good authority. My husband says, that in Hindoostaun the
+two sects may be nearly equal in number;[14] in Persia the Sheahs
+certainly prevail; in Turkey all are Soonies; and in Arabia the Sheahs are
+supposed to preponderate. On the whole, perhaps, the two sects are about
+equally divided.
+
+The Mussulmauns' Creed, of the Sheah sect, is as follows:--
+
+'I believe in one God, supreme over all, and Him alone do I worship.
+
+'I believe that Mahumud was the creature of God, the Creator; I believe
+that Mahumud was the messenger of God, (the Lord of messengers); and that
+he was the last of the prophets. I believe that Ali was the chief of the
+faithful, the head of all the inheritors of the law, and the true leader
+appointed of God; consequently to be obeyed by the faithful. Also I
+believe that Hasan and Hosein, the sons of Ali, and Ali son of Hosein, and
+Mahumud son of Ali, and Jaufur son of Mahumud, and Moosa son of Jaufur,
+and Ali son of Moosa, and Mahumud son of Ali, and Ali son of Mahumud, and
+Hasan son of Ali, and Mhidhie (the standing proof) son of Hasan; the mercy
+of God be upon them! these were the true leaders of the faithful, and the
+proof of God was conveyed by them to the people.'[15]
+
+This creed is taught to the children of both sexes, in Mussulmaun families,
+as soon as they are able to talk; and, from the daily repetition, is
+perfectly familiar to them at an early age.
+
+I propose describing the funeral service here, as the substance of their
+particular faith is so intimately connected with the appointed service for
+the dead.
+
+The dead body of a Mussulmaun, in about six hours after life is extinct,
+is placed in a kuffin[16] (coffin) and conveyed to the place of burial,
+with parade suited to the rank he held in life.
+
+A tent, or the kaanaut[17] (screen), is pitched in a convenient place,
+where water is available near to the tomb, for the purpose of washing and
+preparing the dead body for interment. They then take the corpse out of
+the coffin and thoroughly bathe it; when dry, they rub pounded camphor on
+the hands, feet, knees, and forehead, these parts having, in the method of
+prostrating at prayer, daily touched the ground; the body is then wrapped
+neatly in a winding-sheet of white calico, on which has been written
+particular chapters from the Khoraun:[18] this done, it is taken up with
+great gentleness and laid in the grave on the side, with the face towards
+Mecca. The officiating Maulvee steps solemnly into the grave (which is
+much deeper and wider than ours), and with a loud voice repeats the creed,
+as before described; after which he says, 'These were thy good and holy
+leaders, O son of Adam! (here he repeats the person's names). Now when the
+two angels come unto thee, who are the Maccurrub[19] (messengers) from thy
+great and mighty God, they will ask of thee, "Who is thy Lord? Who is thy
+Prophet? What is thy faith? Which is thy book? Where is thy Kiblaah?[20]
+Who is thy Leader?"
+
+'Then shalt thou answer the Maccurrub thus:--
+
+  '"God, greatest in glory, is my only Lord; Mahumud, my Prophet; Islaaim,
+  my faith, (Islaaim means true faith); the Khoraun, my book; the Kaubah
+  (Holy House at Mecca), my Kiblaah;
+
+  '"Emaum Ali, son of Aboutalib,
+    "   Hasan and Hosein,
+    "   Ali, surnamed Zynool Auberdene,
+    "   Mahumud,  "   Baakur,
+    "   Jaufur,   "   Saadick,
+    "   Moosa,    "   Khazim,
+    "   Ali,      "   Reezah,
+    "   Mahumud,  "   Ul Jawaad,
+    "   Ali,      "   Ul Hoodah,
+    "   Hasan,    "   Ul Ushkeree,
+    "   Mhidhie, the standing proof that we are waiting for.[21]
+
+  '"These are all my leaders, and they are my intercessors, with them is my
+  love, with their enemies is my hatred, in the world of earth and in the
+  world to come eternal."'
+
+Then the Maulvee says:--
+
+'Know ye for a truth, O man (repeating his name), that the God we worship
+is One only, Great and Glorious, Most High and Mighty God, who is above
+all lords, the only true God.
+
+'Know ye also, That Mahumud is the best of the Lord's messengers.
+
+'That Ali and his successors (before enumerated, but always here repeated)
+were the best of all leaders.
+
+'That whatever came with Mahumud is true, (meaning the whole work of his
+mission);--Death is true; the Interrogation by Moonkih and Nykee[22] (the
+two angels) is true; the Resurrection is true; Destruction is true; the
+Bridge of Sirraat[23] is true; the Scales are true; Looking into the Book
+is true; Heaven and Earth are true; Hell is true; the Day of Judgment is
+true.
+
+'Of these things there is no doubt--all are true; and, further, that God,
+the great and glorious God, will raise all the dead bodies from their
+graves.'
+
+Then the Maulvee reads the following prayer or benediction, which is
+called Dooar[24] prayer:--
+
+'May the Lord God, abundant in mercy, keep you with the true speech; may
+He lead you to the perfect path; may He grant you knowledge of Him, and of
+His prophets.
+
+'May the mercy of God be fixed upon you for ever. Ameen.'
+
+This concluded, the Maulvee quits the grave, and slowly moves forty
+measured paces in a line with it; then turning round, he comes again to
+the grave, with the same solemnity in his steps, and standing on the edge,
+he prays,
+
+'O great and glorious God, we beseech Thee with humility make the earth
+comfortable to this Thy servant's side, and raise his soul to Thee, and
+with Thee may he find mercy and forgiveness.'
+
+'Ameen, Ameen,' is responded by all present.
+
+This ends the funeral service: the earth is closed over by the servants,
+&c. and, except with the very poor, the grave is never entirely forsaken
+day or night, during the forty days of mourning; readers of the Khoraun
+are paid for this service, and in the families of the nobility the grave
+is attended for years by those hired, who are engaged to read from that
+book perpetually, relieving each other at intervals day and night.
+
+They believe that when the Maulvee quits the grave, the angels enter to
+interrogate the dead body, and receive the confession of his particular
+faith; this is the object of the Maulvee's retiring forty paces, to give
+the angels time to enter on their mission to the dead.
+
+The Mussulmauns all believe that Mhidhie, the standing proof as he is
+called, will visit the earth at a future period; they are said to possess
+prophecies, that lead them to expect the twelve hundred and sixtieth year
+of the Hegirah, as the time for his coming. The Soonies say, this Emaum
+has yet to be born:--the Sheahs believe that Emaum Mhidhie is the person
+to reappear. Some believe he is still on earth, dwelling, as they
+conjecture, in the wilds and forests; and many go so far as to assert,
+that Mhidhie visits (without being recognized) the Holy House of Mecca
+annually, on the great day of sacrifice; but I cannot find any grounds
+they have for this opinion.[25]
+
+They also possess a prophecy, on which much dependance is placed, that
+'When the four quarters of the globe contain Christian inhabitants, and
+when the Christians approach the confines of Kaabah, then may men look for
+that Emaum who is to come'. And it is the general belief amongst
+Mussulmauns, founded on the authority of their most revered and valued
+writers, that Emaum Mhidhie will appear with Jesus Christ at his second
+coming; and with whom, they declare and firmly believe, he will act in
+concert to purge the world of sin and wickedness. When, they add, 'all men
+shall be of one mind and one faith'.
+
+Of the three principal Roots of the Mussulmauns' faith, little need be
+further said in explanation. I have had various opportunities of learning
+their undisguised thoughts, and wish only to impart what the people are,
+who are so little known to the world in general. All persons having had
+the opportunity of studying the peculiarities of their particular faith,
+will, I think, give them due credit, that reverence for, and belief in God,
+forms a prominent trait in their character and faith: 'The English
+translation of the Khoraun by Sale, (imperfect as all works must be, where
+the two languages are inadequate to speak each other's meaning,) will tell
+without a commentary, that the worship of God was the foundation on which
+Mahumud built his code of laws; and that the prophets were all
+acknowledged by him as messengers sent from God to His people, in every
+age of the world; and, lastly, that Mahumud was the Prophet, who came when
+the people of the earth, vicious and profane, had fallen into the most
+dissolute habits, worshipping idols instead of God.' This passage is the
+sentiment expressed to me by a worthy man, and a true Mussulmaun; I have
+traced it out for the sake of explaining what is in the hearts of the
+Mussulmauns of the present day.
+
+When I have conversed with some of them on the improbability of Mahumud's
+prophetic mission, I have been silenced by a few words, 'How many prophets
+were sent to the Israelites?'--'Many.'--'You cannot enumerate them? then,
+is it too much to be probable that God's mercy should have been graciously
+extended to the children of Ishmael? they also are Abraham's seed. The
+Israelites had many prophets, in all of whom we believe; the Ishmaelites
+have one Prophet only, whose mission was to draw men from idolatry to the
+true God. All men, they add will be judged according to their fidelity in
+the faith they have professed. It is not the outward sign which makes a
+man the true Mussulmaun; neither is it the mere profession of Christianity
+which will clear the man at the last day. Religion and faith are of the
+heart.'
+
+In their collection of writings, I have had access to a voluminous work,
+entitled 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'[26] (Enlightener of the Heart). My husband has
+translated for me, occasionally, portions of this valuable work, which
+bears a striking similarity to our Holy Scriptures, though collected after
+a different manner; I have acquired, by this means, a more intimate
+acquaintance with the general character of the Mussulmaun's belief. This
+book contains all the prophets' lives, at every age of the world. It was
+compiled by Mahumud Baakur, first in Arabic, and afterwards translated by
+him into the Persian language, for the benefit of the public; and is of
+great antiquity--I cannot now ascertain the exact date.
+
+The Mussulmaun belief on the subject of the resurrection is, 'When the
+fulness of time cometh, of which no man knoweth, then shall the earth be
+destroyed by fire--and after this will be the resurrection of the dead'.
+
+The branches emanating from the roots of the Mussulmaun faith will require
+further explanation which shall follow in due course. I will in this
+letter merely add what is meant by the Bridge of Sirraat,[27] the
+Scales,[28] and Looking into the Book as noted in the burial service.
+
+'The Bridge of Sirraat', they understand, is to be passed over by every
+person in their passage to eternity, and is represented sharp as the
+keenest sword.[29] The righteous will be gifted with power to pass over
+with the rapidity of lightning, neither harm nor inconvenience will attend
+them on the passage. The wicked, on the contrary, will be without help,
+and must be many times injured and cut down in the attempt. An idea has
+crept into the minds of some, that whoever offers up to God, at different
+periods of his life, such animals as are deemed clean and fitting for
+sacrifice, the same number and kind, on their day of passing Sirraat,
+shall be in readiness to assist them on the passage over.
+
+On this supposition is grounded the object of princes and nobles in India
+offering camels in sacrifice on the day of Buckrah Eade.[30] This event
+answers our Scripture account of Abraham's offering, but the Mussulmauns
+say, the son of Abraham so offered was Ishmael, and not Isaac. I have
+disputed the point with some of their learned men, and brought them to
+search through their authorities; in some one or two there is a doubt as
+to which was the son offered, but the general writers and most of the
+Mussulmauns themselves believe Ishmael was the offering made by Abraham.
+
+'The Scales are true;' the Mussulmauns believe, that on the day of
+judgment, the good and the bad deeds of every mortal will be submitted to
+the scales prepared in Heaven for that purpose.
+
+'Looking into the Book is true;' the Mussulmauns believe that every human
+being from their birth is attended by two angels,[31] one resting on the
+right shoulder the other on the left, continually; their business is to
+register every action of the individual they attend; when a good action is
+to be recorded, they beseech the Almighty in His mercy to keep the person
+in the good and perfect way; when evil ways are to be registered, they
+mourn with intercessions to God that His mercy may be extended, by
+granting them repentant hearts, and then, His forgiveness. Thus they
+explain 'Looking into the Book is true', that whatever is contained in
+this book will be looked into on the day of judgment, and by their deeds
+therein registered shall they be judged.
+
+In the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob' is to be found the lives of the Emaums, from
+which is gleaned the following remarks:--
+
+The Emaum Mhidhie was an orphan at nine years old. Alrouschid,[32] the
+King of Bagdad, advised by his wicked minister, resolved on destroying
+this boy (the last of the Emaums), fearing as he grew into favour with the
+people, that the power of his sovereignty would decrease.
+
+The King sent certain soldiers to seize Mhidhie, who was at prayers in an
+inner room when they arrived. The soldiers demanded and were refused
+admittance they then forced an entrance and proceeded to the room in which
+the Emaum was supposed to be at prayers, they discovered him immersed to
+the waist in a tank of water; the soldiers desired him to get out of the
+water and surrender himself, he continued repeating his prayer, and
+appeared to take no notice of the men nor their demand. After some
+deliberations amongst the soldiers, they thought the water was too shallow
+to endanger their lives, and one entered the tank intending to take the
+Emaum prisoner, he sank instantly to rise no more, a second followed who
+shared the same fate; and the rest, deterred by the example of their
+brother soldiers, fled from the place, to report the failure of their plan
+to the King at Bagdad.
+
+This writer reports that Emaum Mhidhie was secretly conveyed away,
+supposed by the interposition of Divine Providence, and was not again seen,
+to be recognized, on earth; yet it is believed he still lives and will
+remain for the fulfilment of that prophecy which sayeth:--'When Mecca is
+filled with Christian people Emaum Mhidhie will appear, to draw men to the
+true faith; and then also, Jesus Christ will descend from heaven to Mecca,
+there will be great slaughter amongst men; after which there will be but
+one faith--and then shall there be perfect peace and happiness over all
+the world.'
+
+The Mussulmauns of the present age discourse much on the subject of that
+prophecy--particularly during the contest between the Greeks and Turks, of
+which however they had no very correct information, yet they fancied the
+time must be fast approaching, by these leading events, to the fuller
+accomplishment; often, when in conversation with the most religious men of
+the country, I have heard them declare it as their firm belief that the
+time was fast approaching when there should be but one mind amongst all
+men. 'There is but little more to finish;' 'The time draws near;' are
+expressions of the Mussulmauns' belief, when discoursing of the period
+anticipated, as prophesied in their sacred writings;--so persuaded are
+they of the nearness of that time. In relating the substance of my last
+serious conversation with the devout Meer Hadjee Shaah, I shall disclose
+the real sentiments of most, if not every religious reflecting, true
+Mussulmaun of his sect in India.
+
+Meer Hadjee Shaah delighted in religious conversations; it was his
+happiest time when, in the quiet of night, the Meer, his son, translated,
+as I read, the Holy Bible to him. We have often been thus engaged until
+one or two, and even to a later hour in the morning; he remembered all he
+heard, and drew comparisons, in his own mind, between the two authorities
+of sacred writings--the Khoraun and Bible; the one he had studied through
+his long life, the other, he was now equally satisfied, contained the word
+of God; he received them both, and as the 'two witnesses' of God. The last
+serious conversation I had with him, was a very few days before his death;
+he was then nearly in as good health as he had been for the last year; his
+great age had weakened his frame, but he walked about the grounds with his
+staff, as erect as when I first saw him, and evinced nothing in his
+general manner that could excite a suspicion that his hours had so nearly
+run their course.
+
+We had been talking of the time when peace on earth should be universal;
+'My time, dear baittie[33] (daughter), is drawing to a quick conclusion.
+You may live to see the events foretold, I shall be in my grave; but
+remember, I tell you now, though I am dead, yet when Jesus Christ returns
+to earth, at His coming, I shall rise again from my grave; and I shall be
+with Him, and with Emaum Mhidhie also.'
+
+This was the substance of his last serious conversation with me, and
+within one short week he was removed from those who loved to hear his
+voice; but he still lives in the memory of many, and those who knew his
+worth are reconciled by reflecting on the 'joy that awaits the righteous'.
+
+'Other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring,
+and they shall hear My voice; and there shall be one fold, and one
+shepherd.' Also, 'In My Father's house are many mansions'. These were
+particularly pleasing passages to him, and often referred to in our
+scriptural conversations.
+
+
+[1] The Shi'ahs only wipe or rub the feet, instead of washing them, as
+    do the Sunnis. In the standing posture (_qiyam_) in prayer, the
+    Sunnis place the right hand over the left below the navel; the
+    Shi'ahs keep their hands hanging on both sides of the body.
+
+[2] I have met with the creed of the modern Jews, some time in the course
+    of my life, in Hurd's _History of all Religions_; the belief of the
+    Mussulmauns, as regards the unity of God, strictly coincides with that
+    of the Jews, described in the first four articles of their creed.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[3] _Namaz_, liturgical prayer, as contrasted with _du'a_, ordinary
+    prayer.
+
+[4] _Ramzan, Ramazan_.
+
+[5] _Hajj_.
+
+[6] _Zakat_.
+
+[7] Khalifah, 'successor,' 'lieutenant,' 'viceregent.'
+
+[8] 'Umar, Abu Bakr, 'Usman.
+
+[9] No son named Ishmail is recorded. Ibrahim, his son from
+    his slave girl, Mary the Copt, died A.D. 631, and was buried at Medina.
+    The daughter of Abu Bakr was 'Ayishah.
+
+[10] The Prophet married Hafsah, daughter of 'Umar, as his third wife.
+
+[11] Khadijah.
+
+[12] 'Whoso is the enemy of Gabriel--for he has by God's leave caused to
+    descend on thy heart the confirmation of previous
+    revelations.'--_Koran_, ii. 91.
+
+[13] 'The story of the destruction of the library at Alexandria is first
+    told by Bar-hebraeus (Abulfaragius), a Christian writer who lived six
+    centuries later: it is of very doubtful authority.'--_Encyclopaedia
+    Britannica_, i. 570.
+
+[14] This is incorrect, Sunnis very largely preponderating over
+    Shi'ahs. According to the latest information there were in the
+    United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, nearly 6-1/2 million Sunnis and
+    183,000 Shi'ahs (_Imperial Gazetteer_ (1908), xxiv. 172). This
+    information was not collected in recent census reports. In the whole
+    of India, in 1881, there were 46-3/4 million Sunnis, as compared
+    with 809,561 Shi'ahs.
+
+[15] The correct list of the Imams recognized by the Imamiya or
+    orthodox Shi'ahs is as follows: 'Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet;
+    Al-Hasan, son of 'Ali, Al-Husain, second son of 'Ali; 'Ali
+    Zain-ul-'Abidin, son of Al-Husain; Muhammad Al-Baqir, son of
+    Zain-ul-'Abidin; Ja'afar as-Sadiq, son of Muhammad Al-Baqir;
+    Ar-Raza, son of Musa; Muhammad At-Taqi, son of Ar-Raza;
+    'Ali-an Naqi, son of Muhammad At-Taqi; Al-Hasan Al-Askari,
+    son of 'Ali-an Naqi; Muhammad, son of Al-Hasan Al-Askari, or
+    the Imam Al-Mahdi, who is believed to be still alive, and will
+    appear in the last days as the Mahdi.
+
+[16] _Kafn_, properly 'a winding-sheet'.
+
+[17] _Qanat_.
+
+[18] The religious man generally prepares his own winding-sheet, keeping
+    it always ready, and occasionally taking out this monitor to add
+    another verse or chapter, as the train of thought may have urged at
+    the time. I have seen this done by the Meer Hadjee Shaah, who
+    appropriated a piece of fine white cambric muslin, he had received
+    from me, to this sacred purpose. I have often been a silent observer
+    of my revered friend whilst he was engaged in writing passages from
+    the book whose rules he lived by. The anticipated moment when he
+    should require this his kuffin dress, was never clouded by dread, but
+    always looked forward to with cheerfulness and fervent hope; for he
+    trusted in the mercy of God whom he loved and worshipped. [_Author_.]
+    [Many pilgrims buy at Mecca the shroud in which they desire to be
+    buried, and wash it in the well Zamzam, supposing that the holy water
+    will secure the repose of the soul after death.]
+
+[19] Maccurrub means those angels who are at all times privileged to
+    appear in the presence of God;--they are supposed to have eyes of
+    great brilliance. In order that the Mussulmauns may have the reply
+    ready for that awful moment, they have a custom of repeating the
+    responses to the angel every evening, when the lamp is first lighted,
+    as they say this sudden light resembles the angels' eyes. I had
+    noticed the custom for some time, and fancied the Mussulmaun people
+    worshipped light, until I was made acquainted with the real motive for
+    this general observance both with the men and women. [_Author._]
+    [_Muqarrab_, 'those allowed to come near'.]
+
+[20] Kiblaah is the holy place to which men turn their face when offering
+    up their prayer to God, as the Jews face Jerusalem. Literally,
+    'worshipping place'. [_Author._] [_Qiblah_: the direction of prayer
+    was changed by the Prophet from Jerusalem to Mecca (_Koran_, ii.
+    138-9, with Sale's note).]
+
+[21] See p. 72.
+
+[22] Munkir, or Munkar, and Nakir are the two recording angels.
+
+[23] See p. 78.
+
+[24] _Du'a_.
+
+[25] Al-Mahdi, 'the directed one', who will appear in the last day.
+    According to the Shi'ahs, he has already appeared in the person of
+    Muhammad Abu'l-Qasim, the 12th Imam. Later claimants are
+    Sayyid Ahmad, who fought against the Sikhs in 1826; Muhammad Ahmad ibn
+    Sayyid Abdulla, who fled after the fatal day of Omdurman, and was
+    killed in battle in 1899.
+
+[26] _Hayat[u']l-Qulub_ compiled by Muhammad Baqir, whose last
+    work was published A.D. 1627. It has been partly translated into
+    English by J.L. Morrick, Boston, 1850.
+
+[27] Sirat, the bridge over which the soul must cross on its way to
+    Paradise.
+
+[28] Mizan, the Balance, with which the deeds of the dead man are
+    weighed.--_Koran_, xxi. 47.
+
+[29] May not this be a poetical symbol, similar to the scythe? [_Author._]
+
+[30] Baqarah 'Id, 'cow festival,' held on the 10th of the month
+    Zu'l-Hijjah, the month of pilgrimage, the attempted sacrifice of
+    Ishmael having, it is said, occurred at Mount Mina, near Mecca.
+
+[31] Kiramu'l-Katibin, one recording the good, the other the
+    evil actions of the dead.
+
+[32] Harun-al-Rashid, 'Aaron the Orthodox', fifth Abbasid Caliph,
+    of Baghdad (A.D. 763 or 776-809), best known from _The Arabian Nights_.
+
+[33] _Beti_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VII
+
+  Namaaz (daily prayer).--The Mussulmaun prayers.--Their different names
+  and times.--Extra prayer-service.--The Mosque.--Ablutions requisite
+  previous to devotion.--Prostrations at prayers.--Mosque
+  described.--The Mussulmauns' Sabbath.--Its partial observance.--The
+  amusements of this life not discontinued on the Sabbath.--Employment
+  of domestics undiminished on this day.--Works of importance then
+  commenced.--Reasons for appropriating Friday to the Sabbath.--The Jews
+  opposed to Mahumud.--The Prophet receives instructions from the angel
+  Gabriel.--Their import and definition. Remarks of a Commentator on the
+  Khoraun.--Prayer of intercession.--Pious observance of Christmas Day
+  by a Native Lady.--Opinions entertained of our Saviour.--Additional
+  motives for prayer.--David's Mother's prayer.--Anecdote of Moses and
+  a Woodcutter.--Remarks upon the piety and devotion of the female
+  Mussulmauns.
+
+
+The Mussulmaun Lawgiver commanded Namaaz (daily prayer) five times a day:
+
+1st. 'The Soobhoo Namaaz,' to commence at the dawn of day.
+
+2nd. 'The Zohur,' at the second watch of the day, or mid-day.
+
+3rd. 'The Ausur,' at the third day watch.
+
+4th. 'The Muggrib,' at sunset; and,
+
+5th. 'The Eshaa,' at the fourth ghurrie of the night.[1]
+
+These are the commanded hours for prayer. Mahumud himself observed an
+additional service very strictly, at the third watch of the night, which
+was called by him, 'Tahujjoot,'[2] and the most devout men, in all ages of
+their faith, have imitated this example scrupulously.
+
+'The Soobhoo Namaaz' is deemed a necessary duty, and commences with the
+earliest dawn of day. The several prayers and prostrations occupy the
+greatest part of an hour, with those who are devout in their religious
+exercises; many extend the service by readings from an excellent
+collection, very similar to our Psalms, called 'The Vazefah'.[3]
+
+'The Zohur Namaaz', an equally essential duty, commences at mid-day, and
+occupies about the same time as 'The Soobhoo'.
+
+'The Ausur Namaaz' commences at the third day watch. The religious men are
+not tempted to excuse themselves from the due observance of this hour; but
+the mere people of the world, or those whose business requires their time,
+attach this service to the next, and satisfy their conscience with
+thinking that the prayer-hours combined, answers the same purpose as when
+separately performed.
+
+'The Muggrib Namaaz'. This is rigidly observed at sunset; even those who
+cannot make it convenient at other hours, will leave their most urgent
+employment to perform this duty at sunset. Who that has lived any time in
+India, cannot call to mind the interesting sight of the labouring classes,
+returning to their home after the business of the day is over? The sun
+sinking below the Western horizon, the poor man unbinds his waist, and
+spreads his cummerbund on the side of the road; he performs his ablutions
+from his brass lota of water, and facing Mecca, bows himself down under
+the canopy of heaven, to fulfil what he believes to be his duty at that
+hour to his merciful God.
+
+'The Eshaa Namaaz' commences at the fourth ghurrie of the night. The form
+of prayer for this Namaaz is much longer than the rest. The devout men
+extend their prayers at this still hour of the night; they tell me that
+they feel more disposed at this time to pour out their hearts to God in
+praise and thanksgiving, than at any other period of the day or night; and
+I have known many of them to be at silent prayer for hours together.
+
+Many persons in their early life may have neglected that due obedience
+expected in the commanded daily prayers; in after life, they endeavour to
+make up the deficiency, by imposing on themselves extra services, to
+fulfil the number omitted. By the same rule, when a member of the family
+dies, and it is suspected the due performance of Namaaz had been neglected
+by him, the survivor, who loved him or her in life, is anxious for the
+soul's rest, and thus proves it by performing additional prayers for the
+benefit of the soul of that beloved individual.
+
+If a Mussulmaun falls from affluence to penury, twelve devout men of his
+faith engage to fast and pray, on a day fixed by themselves, to make
+intercession for their friend:--they believe in the efficacy of good men's
+prayers; and Meer Hadjee Shaah has often declared to me, that he has
+witnessed the benefit of this exercise by the happiest results, in many
+such cases.
+
+The Khoraun, it is commanded, shall be read. A person perhaps dies before
+he has been awakened to a love of sacred things; his friends therefore
+engage readers to attend his grave, and there to read the Khoraun for the
+benefit of the departed soul.[4]
+
+They have a firm belief in the efficacy of prayer by proxy; and the view
+they have of departed spirits is still more singular. They believe the
+soul hovers over the body in the grave for some time, and that the body is
+so far animated, as to be sensible of what is passing; as when the Maulvee
+is repeating the service, the angels visit in the grave, or when the
+Khoraun is read; hence the belief in the efficacy of prayer and reading as
+substitutes for neglected or omitted duties whilst on earth. There are in
+all the mosques men retained to do the requisite service there,[5] that is,
+to keep it clean, and to prevent any thing that could pollute the
+sanctuary from entering; to call at the stated hours for Namaaz, with a
+loud voice, so that all the neighbourhood may hear and go to prayers; he
+mounts the minaret as the hour is striking, and pronounces, 'Allah wo
+uckbaar!' 'Mahumudoon Russool Allah!'[6]--God alone is true! Mahumud is
+God's Prophet!--with a voice, the extent of which can only be imagined by
+those who have heard it; this summons is repeated many times over.
+
+The mosque is open day and night for all who choose to enter for the
+purpose of prayer. The Mussulmauns, however, in their prayer-services are
+not restricted to the mosques; all places are deemed holy where no unclean
+animal has been to defile the spot, as dogs or swine, nor any idol been
+set up for worship. The person coming to Namaaz must not have contaminated
+himself by touching the dead, or any other thing accounted unclean, until
+he has bathed his whole body and changed his clothes. This resembles the
+Mosaic law.
+
+Ablutions are regarded as essentially necessary: if any one is ill, and to
+use water would be dangerous, or if there be no water to be found where
+the Mussulmaun is about to pray, there is an allowed substitute, merely to
+rub the hands, feet, knees, and head with the dry dust of clay, and this
+is counted to them for ablutions. Thus prepared, the devotee spreads his
+prayer-carpet[7] (generally of fine matting) in the most convenient place
+to himself, if not in the mosque;--perhaps under a tree, in the verandah,
+or in a room, no matter where, taking care, under all circumstances, that
+the carpet is spread to face the Kaabah (Holy House at Mecca).
+
+At the commencement of his prayers, he stands erect, his hands lifted up,
+the palms held out towards heaven, where the eyes are also turned whilst
+expressing adoration and praise to God. This ended, he prostrates himself
+before the Almighty, his forehead touching the ground; the form of words
+here used expresses the unworthiness of the creature permitted to approach
+and worship the Creator; again he stands to repeat the glorious
+perfections of God; he then kneels in worship and prayer, after which
+prostrations are resumed, &c. In the performance of some of the services
+they prostrate five times, standing up and kneeling an equal number of
+times; the shortest services have three, and all the prayers and praises
+are arranged in Arabic,--that most expressive language,--which to
+translate, they say, is to corrupt the meaning of the prayers. For this
+reason the Khoraun is not allowed in any other than the original language;
+and for the benefit of the unlearned in Arabic, it is commented upon,
+passage by passage, in the Persian language.
+
+The mosques are all erected on one plan; the entrance to the outer court
+is secured by a gate or door always on the latch, without locks, bars, or
+bolts; in the paved yard a tank or reservoir for bathing or ablutions is
+usually provided. The mosque itself is square, with a dome and two
+minarets; the side next the court-yard is the entrance, and generally this
+front is entirely open; the back of the mosque faces Mecca, in which
+direction the prayer must be offered to be effectual. These houses of
+prayer are generally kept clean and neat, but not the slightest ornament
+allowed within the walls; the floor is matted, and a plain wooden mhembur
+(pulpit) is provided. Shoes never enter within the precincts of the mosque;
+'Put off thy shoes' is strictly observed by Mussulmauns in all sacred
+places--a man praying with shoes on his feet would be accounted mad or a
+heathen.[8]
+
+The Sabbath of the Mussulmauns is kept on Friday, commencing on the
+preceding night, after the manner of the Jews, only with the difference of
+the day.[9]
+
+As a religious rest, the Sabbath is but partially observed with
+Mussulmauns. The Soonies, I have remarked, pay much more attention to its
+institutions than the Sheahs; but with either sect, the day is less
+strictly kept, than might have been expected from people who really seem
+to make religion their study, and the great business of their lives. Both
+sects have extra prayers for the day besides the usual Namaaz, which, the
+religious people perform with, great punctuality, whether they carry their
+devotions to the mosque, or offer their prayers in due form in their own
+abode. On the Sabbath they make it a point to bathe and change their
+apparel; the public offices are closed, and the shops partially shut until
+mid-day; the rulers,--as Kings or Nuwaubs,--distinguish the day by not
+receiving their courtiers and the public visitors, as on other days.
+Charitable donations are likewise more bountifully dispensed from the rich
+to the poor on Friday.
+
+These observances serve to convince us that they believe in the
+constituted Sabbath; still there is not that strict respect for the holy
+day which could satisfy the scrupulous feelings of a Christian; the
+servants are quite as much employed on Friday as on any other day;--the
+dhurzie[10] (tailor), dhobhie[11] (washerman), and indeed the whole
+establishment of servants and slaves, male and female, find their work
+undiminished on the Sabbath. The ladies amuse themselves with cards or
+dice, the singing women even are quite as much in request as on other days;
+and all the amusements of life are indulged in without once seeming to
+suspect that they are disobeying the law of God, or infringing on their
+actual duties. Indeed, I believe they would keep the day strictly, if they
+thought doing so was a necessary duty: but I have often observed, that as
+Friday is one of their 'fortunate days', works of any importance are
+commenced on this day;--whether it be building a house,--planting a garden
+or field,--writing a book,--negotiating a marriage,--going a
+journey,--making a garment, or any other business of this life which they
+wish should prosper. With them, therefore, the day of rest is made one of
+the busiest in the calendar; but I must do them the justice to say, that
+they believe their hearts are more pure after the ablutions and prayers
+have been performed. And that as nothing, however trifling or important,
+according to their praiseworthy ideas, should ever be commenced without
+being first dedicated to God,--from whose mercy they implore aid and
+blessings on the labour of their hands,--they set apart Friday for
+commencing whatever business they are anxious should prosper. This was the
+excuse made by the pious Meer Hadjee Shaah.
+
+Mahumud's biographers notice in many instances the strict observance of
+the Sabbath, at the period in which he flourished; they also say he
+selected Friday to be observed as the Mussulmaun Sabbath in distinction
+from the Jews, who it would seem were jealous of Mahumud's teaching, and
+annoyed both him and his followers in every way they could possibly devise.
+And the Khoraun commentators, on the subject of Mahumud's mission, declare,
+when speaking of the place to which the Mussulmaun bow in prayer, 'That
+when Mahumud first commenced his task of teaching the ignorant Arabians to
+forsake their idol worship, and to turn to the only true God, he was often
+reviled and insulted by the Jews; who even ridiculed the presumption of
+the Mussulmauns in daring to bow down, in their worship, towards Jerusalem,
+in the same direction with them. Mahumud was sadly perplexed whether to
+abstain or continue the practice, as he was unwilling to offend the Jews:
+in this trial he was visited by the angel Gabriel, who brought the
+following command to him from God:--
+
+'Turn from Jerusalem; and when thou bowest down to Me, face that Holy
+House of Abraham, the place of sacrifice: that shall be thy Kiblaah, O
+Mahumud.'
+
+Kiblaah is the point to which men bow in worship.[12] Kaabah is the 'Holy
+House' where Abraham's sacrifice was offered. Mecca is the city or tract
+of country surrounding the house.
+
+Thus they will say: 'I am making my pilgrimage to Mecca, to visit the
+Kaabah, which in my Namaaz, has been my Kiblaah when worshipping my God.'
+
+A Commentator on the Khoraun writes, in allusion to the prevailing
+worldly-minded men of his day, the following expressive definition of the
+objects most worshipped by them, and concludes with the one only Kiblaah
+deserving men's attention.
+
+'The Sovereign's Kiblaah is His well-ornamented crown.'
+
+'The Sensualist's Kiblaah, The gratification of his appetites.'
+
+'The Lover's Kiblaah, The mistress of his heart.'
+
+'The Miser's Kiblaah, His hoards of gold and silver.'
+
+'The Ambitious Man's Kiblaah, This world's honours and possessions.'
+
+'The mere Professor's Kiblaah, The arch of the Holy House.'
+
+And
+
+'The Righteous Man's Kiblaah, The pure love of God,--which may all men
+learn and practise.'
+
+The Mussulmaun Faith directs them to believe, not only in the prophets and
+their writings, but also that they are intercessors at the throne of grace;
+for this reason Mahumud taught his followers to call on God to hear them
+for the sake of,--
+
+'1st. Adam, Suffee Ali ("the Pure" is the nearest possible translation).'
+
+'2nd. Noah, the Prophet of God.'
+
+'3rd. Abraham, the Friend of God.'
+
+'4th. Moses, who Conversed with God.'
+
+'5th. Jesus, the Soul of God.'
+
+'6th. Mahumud, the Prophet of God.'[13]
+
+Those persons who are devout in the exercise of their religious duties day
+by day, in the concluding part of the morning Namaaz strictly observe the
+practice of Mahumud and the Emaums, in the prayers of intercession; and
+the 'Salaam-oon-ali Khoom',[14] (peace or rest be with thee) O Adam Suffee
+Ali! and to thee, O Noah, the Prophet of God! and to thee, O Abraham! &c.
+&c. going through the line in the manner and rotation above-described,
+concluding with the several Emaums, twelve in number (as in their Creed).
+
+It will be seen by this, that they have reverence for all who came from
+God, to teach mankind His will. They believe also, that the Holy Prophets
+are sensible of the respect paid to them by existing mortals, as also when
+on earth they knew what was in the hearts of those men they conversed with.
+I have the honour to be acquainted with a lady of the Mussulmaun Religion,
+who lives in accordance with the Faith she professes. There was a period
+in her life, within my recollection, when she had very severe trials of a
+domestic nature. She trusted in God for relief, and followed in the way
+she had been instructed, keeping fasts and holy days; testifying her
+respect for the prophets, by observing those days for extra prayer and
+giving alms, which the Khoraun and commentaries represent as worthy to be
+done, by the devout Mussulmauns.
+
+Amongst the number of days strictly observed by this pious lady during her
+troubles, was the Nativity of Jesus Christ, for whose sake she fed the
+hungry, clothed the naked, and gave alms to the necessitous. I was the
+more delighted when first hearing of this circumstance, because I had
+judged of the Mussulmaun faith by common report, and fancied they rejected,
+with the Jews, our Redeemer having come. They, on the contrary, believe,
+according to their Prophet's words, 'that He was born of the Virgin Mary;
+that He worked miracles; that He ascended after His earthly commission had
+ceased, to the seventh heaven; that He will again visit the earth (when
+their Emaum Mhidhie will also appear), to cleanse the world of its corrupt
+wickedness, when all men shall live in peace, and but one faith shall
+prevail, in the worship of the true God'.
+
+The Mussulmaun work, 'Hyaatool Kaloob' (which I have so often referred to),
+contains, with the lives of all the prophets, the Life of Jesus Christ,
+His acts, and the Ungeel[15] (Gospel). The Gospel they have is in many
+things different from ours; it is not formed into books by the apostles,
+neither are the miracles united with the Gospel, but are detailed as the
+acts of Christ Jesus. What they understand by the Ungeel, is, 'the Word of
+God by the mouth of Jesus';--for instance, the Sermon on the Mount, or, in
+other words, the precepts of Jesus. I am indebted to the Meer for this
+information.
+
+The Mussulmauns say, 'All power belongs to God.--Who would dare dispute
+the miracle of Christ's birth? Is there any thing difficult with God? God
+first formed Adam from the dust; and by His word all things were created.
+Is there any thing too great for His power? Let no man, then, dispute the
+birth of Christ by a pure Virgin.' They believe that Jesus Christ was the
+Prophet of God, but they believe not that He is God; and they deem all who
+thus declare Christ to be God, as unfaithful both to God and to Christ.
+
+I have said the Mussulmauns of each sect have extra prayers, beside the
+Namaaz, or daily services of prayer. I suppose there are a greater variety
+of prayers amongst these people than with those of any other religion.
+Very few, if any, of the devout men, in the early ages of their religion,
+have omitted to leave behind them some testimony of their regard for
+posterity in the form of 'prayers', dictating the words most likely to
+lead the heart of the creature to the worship of the Creator; and also
+directions how to pray for any particular object they may desire to
+accomplish by the aid of God, in whom they are instructed and believe the
+fulness of power, as of glory, ever was, is, and will be to all eternity.
+
+If the Mussulmaun suffers by persecution, by sickness, by loss of property,
+or any other distress of mind or body, he applies himself to the
+particular prayer of a favourite Emaum, or holy scribe, suited to his
+exact case. I cannot do better here than copy the translation my husband
+has made of the leading causes for the use of that prayer called
+'Daaood's[16] (David's) Mother's Prayer', in which I have known so many
+people to be engaged, when under difficulties, at the appointed period,
+viz. the fifteenth day of the month Rujub. The prayer itself occupies
+about sixteen closely written pages, and the person intending to make use
+of it, is expected to bathe and fast, as commanded by Mahumud, who
+instructed his followers in this prayer, which was then called 'The
+Opening of Difficulties',[17] afterwards, and to the present day 'David's
+Mother's Prayer', by reason of a miraculous occurrence which followed her
+having fulfilled the task of fasting, preparation, and the prayer alluded
+to.
+
+'A very poor woman had been engaged in the family of the Emaum Jaffur
+Saadick,[18] as wet-nurse to his son; she was much respected in the family,
+who wished to have retained her with them, when the child was weaned; but
+she would return to her own village, where her son was living, at some
+distance from the city of Koofah.
+
+'Her son, named Daaood, grew up under her maternal care, and proved the
+great comfort and solace of her life, by his dutiful and affectionate
+bearing towards her. At that period the reigning King of Arabia was a most
+cruel man, and an idolater; he persecuted all the professors of the "True
+Faith" whenever they came within his reach, with the most barbarous
+brutality.
+
+'One day, at an early hour, Daaood's mother presented herself at the house
+of the Emaum, in great distress of mind, and related the heavy affliction
+which had befallen her, in the loss of her dearly loved son (then a fine
+youth), who had been decoyed by the wicked emissaries of the King, for the
+purpose, it was feared, of immolation--as it was known to be his custom,
+when, laying the foundation of a building, to deposit living victims of
+the Mussulmaun faith beneath it. The poor woman had no hope her eyes would
+ever again be blessed with the sight of her fondly-loved son, and still
+more agonizing were her fears, that his protracted sufferings would be of
+the same terrible description with numbers of the faithful who had fallen
+into the hands of that wretched heathen King.
+
+'Her friends in the Emaum's family grieved over the sad affliction with
+which their favourite had been visited. The Emaum strove to comfort her,
+and proposed that she should perform the prayer in which Mahumud had
+instructed his followers for "The Opening of Difficulties". "Alas!"
+replied the woman, "poor ignorant that I am, how shall I repeat that
+prayer; I cannot read: knowest thou not, my Emaum, that I am not
+acquainted with letters?" "But I will teach you the prayer," answered the
+Emaum; "you shall repeat it after me, and by diligence you will acquire it
+perfectly by that day, on which our Prophet commanded his followers to
+perform the fast and offer this prayer, that God might be pleased to
+remove their calamities."
+
+'The poor woman obeyed all the injunctions and advice of the Emaum Jaffur
+Saadick punctually; acquired, by her diligence, the words of the prayer;
+strictly observed the preparation by fast; and, on the fifteenth "day of
+Rujub", the prayer was duly performed, with sincere devotion and perfect
+faith in God's power, and His infinite mercy.
+
+'In the mean time, it appears, the King having been much troubled in a
+dream, he was warned to release his prisoner from captivity without delay,
+at the peril of destruction to himself and all he possessed. The warning
+dream presented him with a view of the gulf to which he was condemned, if
+he delayed the release of Daaood from his confinement. The person of the
+youth was so clearly represented to the King in his dream, that there
+could be no possible mistake in the particular captive to be freed, out of
+the many he held in bondage. The King awakening from his troubled sleep,
+demanded of his attendants where the young man was confined; and learning
+from the chief officer of his court that Daaood was sent to a distant
+place, to be the offering buried under the foundation of a house, erecting
+by his command: the swiftest camels were ordered immediately, to convey
+messengers with two bags of gold, and the King's mandate, peremptorily
+ordering the release of the youth, if happily he yet existed; and if the
+building was proceeding with, the superintendent was cautioned to pull it
+down with the utmost care and dispatch, so that nothing should be omitted
+which could be done to preserve that life now so dear to the hopes of the
+King.
+
+'The messengers reached the place on the third day after Daaood had been
+immured in the foundation of the building. Small, indeed, were the hopes
+that the King's desires would be gratified. The builder, however, more
+humane than his employer, had so raised the work round the person of
+Daaood, as to leave him unhurt by its pressure, and having left a small
+aperture for air, his life was preserved;--the masonry being removed
+promptly, and with caution, the youth was discovered not only alive, but
+even uninjured by the confinement. The courier mounted the boy on the
+camel, with the present of gold contained in two bags, and conveyed Daaood,
+without loss of time, to his mother's abode.
+
+'All the particulars having undergone due investigation, it was clearly
+proved that it was on that very day when the poor woman was occupied in
+her fast and prayer, that her son Daaood was released from the foundation
+of the King's house and restored to his home. From this time forward the
+prayer of "Opening Difficulties" was denominated "Or of Daaood's Mother".'
+
+Turning over my collection of curiosities for the story of Daaood's Mother,
+which the Meer translated for me many years since, I met with an ancient
+anecdote which. I received from the same dear revered friend I must often
+quote as my author when I am detailing the particulars of things which I
+have heard and not seen,--Meer Hadjee Shaah,--who tells me he has found
+the following anecdote in the 'Commentary on The History of Moses'.--It is
+translated by my husband.
+
+'When Huzerut[19] Moosa (Moses), "to whose spirit be peace!" was on earth,
+there lived near him a poor yet remarkably religious man, who had for many
+years supported himself and his wife by the daily occupation of cutting
+wood for his richer neighbours; four small copper coins (equivalent to our
+halfpence) proved the reward of his toil, which at best afforded the poor
+couple but a scanty meal after his day's exertions.
+
+'The prophet Moosa passed the Woodcutter one morning, who accosted him
+with "O Moosa! Prophet of the Most High; behold I labour each day for my
+coarse and scanty meal; may it please thee, O Huzerut! to make a petition
+for me to our gracious God, that He may in His mercy grant me at once the
+whole supply for my remaining years, so that I shall enjoy one day of
+earthly happiness, and then, with my wife, be transferred to the place of
+eternal rest". Moosa promised and made the required petition; his prayer
+was answered from Mount Tor, thus:--
+
+'"This man's life is long, O Moses! nevertheless, if he be willing to
+surrender life when his supply is exhausted, tell him thy prayer is heard,
+the petition accepted, and the whole amount shall be found beneath his
+jhaawn namaaz[20] (prayer-carpet) after his early prayers."
+
+'The Woodcutter was satisfied when Moosa told him the result of his
+petition, and when the first duties of the morning were concluded, he
+failed not in looking for the promised remittance, where, to his surprise,
+he found a heap of silver coins. Calling his wife, the Woodcutter told her
+what he had required of the Lord through his Holy Prophet Moosa; pointing
+to the result, they both agreed it was very good to enjoy a short life of
+happiness on earth and depart in peace; although they could not help again
+and again recurring to the number of years on earth they had thus
+sacrificed. "We will make as many hearts rejoice as this the Lord's gift
+will admit," they both agreed, "and thus we shall secure in our future
+state the blessed abode promised to those who fulfil the commands of God
+in this, since to-morrow our term of life must close."
+
+'The day was spent in providing and preparing provisions for the meal. The
+whole sum was expended on the best sorts of food, and the poor made
+acquainted with the rich treat the Woodcutter and his wife were cooking
+for their benefit. The food was cooked for the indigent, and allotments
+made to each hungry applicant, reserving for themselves one good
+substantial meal, to be eaten only when the poor were all served and
+satisfied. It happened at the very moment they were seated to enjoy this
+their last meal, as they believed, a voice was heard, "O friend! I have
+heard of your feast,--I am late, yet may it be that you have a little to
+spare, for I am hungry to my very heart. The blessing of God be on him who
+relieves my present sufferings from hunger!" The Woodcutter and his wife
+agreed that it would be much, better for them to go to heaven with half a
+bellyful, than leave one fellow-creature on earth famishing for a meal;
+they, therefore, determined on sharing their own portion with him who had
+none, and he went away from them rejoicing. "Now," said the happy pair,
+"we shall eat our half-share with unmixed delight, and with thankful
+hearts. By to-morrow eve we shall be transferred to paradise."
+
+'They had scarcely raised the savoury food to their opening mouths, when a
+voice of melancholy bewailing arrested their attention, and stayed the
+hands already charged with food;--a poor wretched creature, who had not
+tasted food for two whole days, moaned his piteous tale in accents that
+drew tears from the Woodcutter and his wife--their eyes met and the
+sympathy was mutual; they were more willing to depart for heaven without
+the promised benefit of one earthly enjoyment, than suffer the hungry
+creature to die from want of that meal they had before them. The dish was
+promptly tendered to the bewailing subject, and the Woodcutter and his
+wife consoled each other by thinking that, as their time of departure was
+now so near at hand, the temporary enjoyment of a meal was not worth one
+moment's consideration. "To-morrow we die, then of what consequence to us
+whether we depart with full or empty stomachs!" And now their thoughts
+were set on the place of eternal rest. They slept, and arose to their
+morning orisons with hearts resting humbly on their God, in the fullest
+expectation that this was their last day on earth: the prayer was
+concluded, and the Woodcutter in the act of rolling up his carpet, on
+which he had bowed with gratitude, reverence, and love to his Creator,
+when he perceived a fresh heap of silver on the floor;--he could scarcely
+believe it was not a dream. "How wonderful art Thou, O God!" cried the
+poor Woodcutter; "this is Thy bounteous gift that I may indeed enjoy one
+day before I quit this earth." And when Moosa came to him, he (Moosa) was
+satisfied with the goodness and power of God; but he retired again to the
+Mount to inquire of God the cause of the Woodcutter's respite. The reply
+given to Moosa was, "That man has faithfully applied the wealth given in
+answer to his petition. He is worthy to live out his numbered years on
+earth, who, receiving My bounty, thought not of his own enjoyments whilst
+his fellow men had wants he could supply." And to the end of the
+Woodcutter's long life, God's bounty lessened not in substance; neither
+did the pious man relax in his charitable duties of sharing with the
+indigent all that he had, and with the same disregard to his own
+enjoyments.'
+
+I have but little to add, as regards the manner of worship amongst my
+Mussulmaun acquaintance; but here I cannot omit remarking, that the women
+are devout in their prayers and strict in their observance of ordinances.
+That they are not more generally educated is much to be regretted; this,
+however, is their misfortune, not their fault. The Mussulmaun faith does
+not exclude the females from a participation in the Eternal world,[21]--as
+has so often been assorted by people who could not have known them,--and
+the good Mussulmaun proves it by his instruction of the females under his
+control in the doctrines of Mahumud, and who he believes to be as much
+dependent on him for guidance on the road to heaven, as for personal
+protection from want or worldly dangers.
+
+The pure life of Fatima, Mahumud's only daughter, is greatly esteemed as
+an example of female excellence, whom they strive to imitate as much as
+possible, as well in religious as in moral or domestic duties. They are
+zealous to fulfil all the ordinances of their particular faith,--and I
+have had the best possible opportunity of studying their
+character,--devotion to God being the foundation on which every principal
+action of their lives seems to rest.
+
+In my delineation of character, whether male or female, I must not be
+supposed to mean the whole mass of the Mussulmaun population. There are
+good and bad of every class or profession of people; it has been my good
+fortune to be an inmate with the pious of that faith, and from their
+practice I have been aided in acquiring a knowledge of what constitutes a
+true disciple of Mahumud.
+
+
+[1] The writer mixes up the Persian and Arabic names of the hours of
+    prayer. The proper names, according to this list, are: i,
+    Namaz-i-Subh, from dawn to sunrise; ii, Salatu'l-Zuhr, when the
+    sun has begun to decline; iii, Salatu'l 'Asr, midway between
+    Nos. ii and iv; iv, Sala tu'l-Maghrib, a few minutes after sunset;
+    v, Salatu'l 'Isha, when night has closed in.
+
+[2] _Namaz-i-Tahajjid_, the prayer after midnight.
+
+
+[3] _Wazifah_, 'a daily ration of food', a term used for the daily
+    lesson or portion of the _Koran_ read by devout Musalmans. The
+    _Koran_ is divided into thirty lessons (_siparah_) for use
+    during the month Ramazan.
+
+[4] Special readers (_muqri_) of the _Koran_ are needed, owing to
+    the want of vowels in the Arabic character (Sale, _Preliminary
+    Discourse_, 47). Readers are often employed to recite the _Koran_
+    over a corpse on the way to Karbala.
+
+[5] Known as Khadim.
+
+[6] _Allahu akbar ... Muhammadan rasulu'llah._ In English the
+    entire call runs: 'Allah is most great (four times), I testify that
+    there is no God but Allah (twice), I testify that Muhammad is the
+    Apostle of Allah (twice), Come to prayer (twice), Come to salvation
+    (twice), Allah is most great (twice), There is no God but Allah!'
+
+[7] Known as _Ja'e-namaz,_ 'place of prayer'.
+
+[8] See p. 27.
+
+[9] The _Salatu'l-Juma'_, the Friday prayer, is obligatory. Friday was
+    appointed a Sabbath to distinguish Musalmans from Jews and
+    Christians.
+
+[10] _Darzi_.
+
+[11] _Dhobi_.
+
+[12] See p. 74.
+
+[13] The correct titles are as follows: Adam, _Safiyu'llah,_ 'The
+    Chosen One of God'; Noah, _Nabiyu'llah_, 'The Prophet of God';
+    Abraham, _Khalilu'llah_, 'The Friend of God'; Moses,
+    _Kalimu'llah_, 'He that spoke with God'; Jesus, _Ruhu'llah_,
+    'A Spirit from God'; Muhammad, _Rasulu 'Illah,_ 'The Prophet of
+    God'.
+
+[14] _Salam-'alai-kum._
+
+
+[15] _Injil, [Greek: e'uaggelion]_, the Gospel, as opposed to
+    _taurat_, the Pentateuch.
+
+[16] Daud.
+
+[17] The Fatiha, or opening chapter of the _Koran_, used like the
+    Pator-noster.
+
+[18] Ja'afar as-Sadiq.
+
+[19] _Hazrat_, 'Reverend', or 'Superior'.
+
+[20] _Ja'e-namaz_, known also as _sajjadah_, or _musalla_.
+
+[21] The assertion that the Koran teaches that women have no souls is
+    incorrect. See the texts collected by Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_,
+    pp. 677 ff.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER VIII
+
+  The Fast of Rumzaun.--Motives for its strict observance.--Its
+  commencement and duration.--Sentiments of Meer Hadjee Shaah on the
+  duty of fasting.--Adherence of the females to the observing this
+  fast.--How first broken.--Devout persons extend the term to forty
+  days.--Children permitted to try their zeal.--Calamitous effects of the
+  experiment.--Exemptions from this duty.--Joyful termination of the
+  fast.--Celebration of Eade on the last day.--The Nuzza.--Nautchwomen
+  and Domenie.--Surprise of the Natives at European dancing.--Remarks on
+  their Music.--Anecdotes of Fatima.--The Chuckee.
+
+
+  'The poor man fasts, because he wanteth meat;
+  The sick man fasts, because he cannot eat.
+  The miser fasts, with greedy mind, to spare;
+  The glutton fasts, to eat a greater share.
+  The hypocrite, he fasts to seem more holy;
+  The righteous man, to punish sinful folly.'
+
+The secret motive of the heart, man cannot fathom in his neighbour's deeds.
+There are some actions so praiseworthy in themselves, that the charitably
+disposed will pass over the probable actuating motive, when looking only
+to the fair example. I have, however, reason to think that the Mussulmauns
+generally, in fulfilling the commanded fast of Rumzaun, have an
+unexceptionable motive. They are taught by their Lawgiver, that the due
+performance of this rigid fast is an acceptable service to God the Creator,
+from man the creature: they believe this, and therefore they fast?
+
+Amongst the well-informed it is persevered in as a duty delightful to be
+permitted to perform; the ignorant take some merit to themselves in having
+faithfully observed the command; yet all the fasting population are
+actuated more or less by the same motive,---the desire to please God by
+fulfilling His commands, delivered to them by their acknowledged Prophet.
+
+The severity of a Mussulmaun's fast can alone be understood by those who
+have made the trial, as I frequently have, of the strict rules of
+abstinence which they observe; and with the additional privations to be
+endured at the period of the hottest months and the longest days in the
+same climate, as will sometimes be the case with all their movable fasts.
+
+The Mussulmaun fast commences when the first streak of light borders the
+Eastern horizon, and continues until the stars are clearly discerned in
+the heavens. During this period not the slightest particle of food, not
+one single drop of water, or any other liquid, passes the lips; the hookha,
+even, is disallowed during the continuance of the fast, which of itself
+forms not only a luxury of great value, but an excellent antidote to
+hunger.
+
+Amongst the really religious Mussulmauns the day is passed in occasional
+prayer, besides the usual Namaaz, reading the Khoraun, or the Lives of the
+Prophets. I have witnessed some, in their happy employment of these
+fatiguing days, who evinced even greater animation in their conversation
+than at other times; towards the decline of a day, when the thermometer
+has stood at eighty-nine in the shade of a closed house, they have looked
+a little anxious for the stars appearing, but,--to their credit be it
+told,--without the slightest symptom of impatience or fretfulness at the
+tardy approach of evening.
+
+My revered friend, Meer Hadjee Shaah, always told me that the great secret
+of a fast, to be beneficial, was to employ time well, which benefited both
+soul and body; employment suited to the object of the fast being the best
+possible alleviation to the fatigue of fasting. He adds, if the temper be
+soured either by the abstinence or the petty ills of life, the good
+effects of the fast are gone with the ruffled spirit, and that the person
+thus disturbed had much better break his fast, since it ceases to be of
+any value in the sight of Him to whom the service is dedicated; the
+institution of the fast having for its object to render men more humble,
+more obedient to their God; all dissensions must be forgotten; all vicious
+pursuits abandoned, to render the service of a fast an acceptable offering
+to God.
+
+In the zeenahnah, the females fast with zealous rigidness; and those who
+have not the happiness to possess a knowledge of books, or a husband or
+father disposed to read to them, will still find the benefit of employment
+in their gold embroidery of bags and trimmings, or other ornamental
+needle-work; some will listen to the Khaaunie[1] (tales), related by their
+attendants; others will overlook, and even assist in the preparations
+going forward for opening the fast. Ladies of the first quality do not
+think it a degradation to assist in the cooking of choice dishes. It is
+one of the highest favours a lady can confer on her friends, when she
+sends a tray of delicate viands cooked by her own hands. So that with the
+prayers, usual and occasional, the daily nap of two hours, indulged in
+throughout the year, occupation is made to fill up the day between dawn
+and evening; and they bear the fatigue with praiseworthy fortitude. Those
+who are acquainted with letters, or can afford to maintain hired readers,
+pass this month of trials in the happiest manner.
+
+The fast is first broken by a cooling draught called tundhie[2]; the same
+draught is usually resorted to in attacks of fever. The tundhie is
+composed of the seeds of lettuce, cucumber, and melon, with coriander, all
+well pounded and diluted with cold water, and then strained through muslin,
+to which is added rose-water, sugar, syrup of pomegranate, and kurah[3] (a
+pleasant-flavoured distilled water from the blossom of a species of aloe).
+This cooling draught is drank by basins' full amongst the Rozedhaars[4]
+(fasters), and it is generally prepared in the zeenahnah apartments for
+the whole establishment, male and female. Some of the aged and more
+delicate people break their fast with the juice of spinach[5] only, others
+choose a cup of boiling water to sip from. My aged friend, Meer Hadjee
+Shaah, has acquired a taste for tea, by partaking of it so often with me;
+and with this he has broken his fast for several years, as he says, with
+the most comforting sensations to himself. I have seen some people take a
+small quantity of salt in the first instance, preparatory to a draught of
+any kind of liquid. Without some such prelude to a meal, after the day's
+fast, the most serious consequences are to be apprehended.
+
+After indulging freely in the simple liquids, and deriving great benefit
+and comfort from a hookha, the appetite for food is generally stayed for
+some time: many persons prefer a rest of two hours before they can
+conveniently touch the food prepared for them, and even then, seldom eat
+in the same proportion as they do at other meals. Many suffice themselves
+with the one meal, and indulge in that very sparingly. The servants and
+labouring classes, however, find a second meal urgently necessary, which
+they are careful to take before the dawning day advances. In most families,
+cold rice-milk is eaten at that early hour. Meer Hadjee Shaah, I have
+before noticed, found tea to be the best antidote to extreme thirst, and
+many are the times I have had the honour to present him with this beverage
+at the third watch of the night, which he could enjoy without fear of the
+first streaks of light on the horizon arriving before he had benefited by
+this luxury.
+
+The good things provided for dinner after the fast are (according to the
+means of the party) of the best, and in all varieties; and from the
+abundance prepared, a looker-on would pronounce a feast at hand; and so it
+is, if to feed the hungry be a feast to the liberal-hearted bestower,
+which with these people I have found to be a part and parcel of their
+nature. They are instructed from their infancy to know all men as brothers
+who are in any strait for food; and they are taught by the same code, that
+for every gift of charity they dispense with a free good will, they shall
+have the blessing and favour of their Creator abundantly in return. On the
+present occasion, they cook choice viands to be distributed to the poor,
+their fellow-labourers in the harvest; and in proportion to the number fed,
+so are their expectations of blessings from the great Giver of all good,
+in whose service it is performed. In my postscript you will find several
+anecdotes of the daughter of Mahumud on the subject of charity.
+
+When any one is prevented fulfilling the fast of Rumzaun in his own person
+he is instructed to consider himself bound to provide food for opening the
+fast of a certain number of poor men who are Rozedhaars. The general food
+of the peasantry and lower orders of the people--bread and dhall[6]--is
+deemed sufficient, if unable to afford anything better.
+
+When any one dies without having duly observed the fast, pious relatives
+engage some devout person to perform a month's fast, which they believe
+will be accepted for the neglectful person. Many devout Mussulmauns extend
+the fast from thirty to full forty days, by the example of Mahumud and his
+family; and it is no unusual thing to meet with others who, in addition to
+this month, fast every Thursday through the year; some very rigid persons
+even fast the month preceding and the following month, as well as the
+month of Rumzaun.
+
+Some very young people (children we should call them in happy England) are
+permitted to try their fasting powers, perhaps for a day or two during the
+month of Rumzaun. The first fast of the noviciate is an event of no small
+moment to the mother, and gives rise to a little festival in the zeenahnah;
+the females of the family use every sort of encouragement to induce the
+young zealot to persevere in the trial when once commenced, and many are
+the preparations for the opening last with due eclat in their
+circle--sending trays of the young person's good things to intimate
+friends, in remembrance of the interesting event; and generally with a
+parade of servants and music, when the child (I must have it so) belongs
+to the nobility, or persons of consequence, who at the same time
+distribute money and food to the poor.
+
+These first fasts of the young must be severe trials, particularly in the
+hot season. I have heard, it is no uncommon thing for the young sufferers
+to sink under the fatigue, rather than break the fast they have had
+courage to commence. The consolation to the parents in such a case would
+be, that their child was the willing sacrifice, and had died 'in the road
+of God', as all deaths occurring under performances of a known duty are
+termed.
+
+Within my recollection a distressing calamity of this nature occurred at
+Lucknow, in a very respectable family. I did not know the party personally,
+but it was the topic in all the houses I visited at that period. I made a
+memorandum of the circumstance at the time, from which the following is
+copied:
+
+'Two children, a son and daughter of respectable parents, the eldest
+thirteen and the youngest eleven years of age, were permitted to prove
+their faith by the fast, on one of the days of Rumzaun; the parents,
+anxious to honour their fidelity, expended a considerable sum of money in
+the preparations for celebrating the event amongst their circle of friends.
+Every delicacy was provided for opening their fast, and all sorts of
+dainties prepared to suit the Epicurean palates of the Asiatics, who when
+receiving the trays at night would know that this was the testimony of the
+children's perseverance in that duty they all hold sacred.
+
+'The children bore the trial well throughout the morning, and even until
+the third watch of the day had passed, their firmness would have reflected
+credit on people twice their age, making their first fast. After the third
+watch, the day was oppressively hot, and the children evinced symptoms of
+weariness and fatigue; they were advised to try and compose themselves to
+sleep; this lulled them for a short time, but their thirst was more acute
+when they awoke than before. The mother and her friends endeavoured to
+divert their attention by amusing stories, praising their perseverance, &c.
+The poor weak lady was anxious that they should persevere; as the day was
+now so far gone, she did not like her children to lose the benefit of
+their fast, nor the credit due to them for their forbearance. The children
+endeavoured to support with patience the agony that bowed them down--they
+fainted, and then the mother was almost frantic, blaming herself for
+having encouraged them to prolong their fast against their strength. Cold
+water was thrown over them; attempts were made to force water into their
+mouths; but, alas! their tender throats were so swollen, that not a drop
+passed beyond their mouths. They died within a few minutes of each other;
+and the poor wretched parents were left childless through their own
+weakness and mistaken zeal. The costly viands destined for the testimony
+of these children's faith, it may be supposed, were served out to the
+hungry mendicants as the first offerings dedicated to the now happy
+spirits of immortality.'
+
+This is a sad picture of the distressing event, but I have not clothed it
+in the exaggerated garb some versions bore at the time the circumstance
+happened.
+
+There are some few who are exempt from the actual necessity of fasting
+during Rumzaun; the sick, the aged, women giving nourishment to infants,
+and those in expectation of adding to the members of the family, and very
+young children, these are all commanded not to fast.[7] There is a
+latitude granted to travellers also; but many a weary pilgrim whose heart
+is bent heavenward will be found taking his rank amongst the Rozedhaars of
+the time, without deeming he has any merit in refraining from the
+privileges his code has conferred upon him; such men will fast whilst
+their strength permits them to pursue their way.
+
+Towards the last week of Rumzaun the haggard countenances and less
+cheerful manners of the fasting multitude seem to increase, but they
+seldom relax unless their health is likely to be much endangered by its
+continuance.
+
+The conclusion of the month Rumzaun is celebrated as an Eade[8] (festival),
+and, if not more splendid than any other in the Mussulmaun calendar, it is
+one of the greatest heart-rejoicing days. It is a sort of thanksgiving day
+amongst the devout people who have been permitted to accomplish the task;
+and with the vulgar and ignorant, it is hailed with delight as the season
+of merriment and good living--a sort of reward for their month's severe
+abstinence.
+
+The namaaz of the morning, and the prayer for Eade, commence with the dawn;
+after which the early meal of Eade is looked forward to with some anxiety.
+In every house the same dainties are provided with great exactness (for
+they adhere to custom as to a law): plain boiled rice, with dhie[9] (sour
+curd) and sugar, forms the first morning repast of this Eade; dried dates
+are eaten with it (in remembrance of the Prophet's family, whose greatest
+luxury was supposed to be the dates of Arabia).[10] A preparation of flour
+(similar to our vermicelli)[11] eaten with cold milk and sugar, is amongst
+the good things of this day, and trifling as it may appear, the indulgence
+is so great to the native population, that they would consider themselves
+unfortunate Rozedhaars, if they were not gratified, on this occasion, with
+these simple emblems of long-used custom. The very same articles are in
+request in Mussulmaun society, by this custom, from the King to the
+meanest of his subjects.
+
+The ladies' assemblies, on this Eade, are marked by all the amusements and
+indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy, in their secluded state.
+Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing
+honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dresses.
+The zeenahnah rings with the festive songs and loud music, the cheerful
+meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependants, and
+remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and
+amusement, on this happy day of Eade, when the good lady of the mansion
+sits in state to receive nuzzas from inferiors, and granting proofs of her
+favour to others.
+
+Nuzza[12] is an offering of money from inferiors to those who rank in
+society above the person presenting; there is so much of etiquette
+observed in Native manners, that a first visit to a superior is never made
+without presenting a nuzza. When we arrived in India, an old servant of my
+husband's family, named Muckabeg, was sent to meet us at Patna to escort
+us to Lucknow; on entering our budgerow[13] he presented fourteen rupees
+to me, which were laid on a folded handkerchief. I did not then understand
+what was intended, and looked to the Meer for explanation; he told me to
+accept Muckabeg's 'Nuzza'. I hesitated, remarking that it seemed a great
+deal more than a man in his situation could afford to give away. My
+husband silenced my scruples by observing, 'You will learn in good time
+that these offerings are made to do you honour, together with the certain
+anticipation of greater benefits in return; Muckabeg tenders this nuzza to
+you, perhaps it is all the money he possesses, but he feels assured it
+will be more than doubly repaid to him in the value of a khillaut[14]
+(dress of honour) he expects from your hands to-day. He would have behaved
+himself disrespectfully in appearing before you without a nuzza, and had
+you declined accepting it, he would have thought that you were either
+displeased with him, or did not approve of his coming.' This little
+incident will perhaps explain the general nature of all the nuzzas better
+than any other description I could offer.
+
+Kings and Nuwaubs keep the festival in due form, seated on the throne or
+musnud, to receive the congratulations and nuzzas of courtiers and
+dependants, and presenting khillauts to ministers, officers of state, and
+favourites. The gentlemen manage to pass the day in receiving and paying
+visits, all in their several grades having some inferiors to honour them
+in the presentation of offerings, and on whom they can confer favours and
+benefits; feasting, music, and dancing-women, filling up the measure of
+their enjoyments without even thinking of wine, or any substitute stronger
+than such pure liquids as graced the feasts of the first inhabitants of
+the world.
+
+The Nautchwomen in the apartments of the gentlemen, and the Domenie[15] in
+the zeenahnahs are in great request on this day of festivity, in every
+house where the pleasures and the follies of this world are not banished
+by hearts devoted solely to the service of God. 'The Nautch' has been, so
+often described that it would here be superfluous to add to the
+description, feeling as I do an utter dislike both to the amusement and
+the performers. The nautchunies are entirely excluded from the female
+apartments of the better sort of people; no respectable Mussulmaun would
+allow these impudent women to perform before their wives and daughters.
+
+But I must speak of the Domenie, who are the singers and dancers admitted
+within the pale of zeenahnah life; these, on the contrary, are women of
+good character, and their songs are of the most chaste description,
+chiefly in the Hindoostaunie tongue. They are instructed in Native music
+and play on the instruments in common use with some taste,--as the
+saattarah[16] (guitar), with three wire strings; the surringhee[17]
+(rude-shaped violin); the dhome or dholle[18] (drum), in many varieties,
+beaten with the fingers, never with sticks. The harmony produced is
+melancholy and not unpleasing, but at best all who form the several
+classes of professors in Native societies are indifferent musicians.
+
+Amateur performers are very rare amongst the Mussulmauns; indeed, it is
+considered indecorous in either sex to practise music, singing, or dancing;
+and such is the prejudice on their minds against this happy resource
+amongst genteel people of other climates, that they never can reconcile
+themselves to the propriety of 'The Sahib Logue',--a term in general use
+for the English people visiting India,--figuring away in a quadrille or
+country dance. The nobles and gentlemen are frequently invited to witness
+a 'station-ball'; they look with surprise at the dancers, and I have often
+been asked why I did not persuade my countrywomen that they were doing
+wrong. 'Why do the people fatigue themselves, who can so well afford to
+hire dancers for their amusement?' Such is the difference between people
+of opposite views in their modes of pleasing themselves: a Native
+gentleman would consider himself disgraced or insulted by the simple
+inquiry, 'Can you dance, sing, or play?'
+
+The female slaves are sometimes taught to sing for their ladies' amusement,
+and amongst the many Hindoostanie airs there are some that would please
+even the most scientific ear; although, perhaps, they are as old as the
+country in which they were invented, since here there are neither
+composers of modern music, nor competitors for fame to bring the amusement
+to a science. Prejudice will be a continual barrier to improvement in
+music with the natives of India; the most homely of their national airs
+are preferred at the present day to the finest composition of modern
+Europe.
+
+My promised postscript is a translation from the Persian, extracted from
+'The Hyaatool Kaaloob'. The author is detailing the manner of living
+habitual to Mahumud and his family, and gives the following anecdotes
+'hudeeth' [19] (to be relied on), which occurred at the season of Rumzaun;
+the writer says:--
+
+'It is well known that they (Mahumud's family) were poor in worldly wealth;
+that they set no other value on temporal riches (which occasionally passed
+through their hands) but as loans from the great Giver of all good, to be
+by them distributed amongst the poor, and this was done faithfully; they
+kept not in their hands the gifts due to the necessitous. The members of
+Mahumud's family invariably lived on the most simple diet, even when they
+could have commanded luxuries.
+
+'At one season of Rumzaun,--it was in the lifetime of Mahumud,--Fatima,
+her husband Ali, and their two sons, Hasan and Hosein, had fasted two days
+and nights, not having, at that period, the means of procuring the
+smallest quantity of food to break their fast with. Habitually and from,
+principle, they disguised from the world or their friends all such
+temporal trials as it seemed good in the wisdom of Divine Providence to
+place in their chequered path; preferring under any circumstances of need,
+to fix their sole trust in the mercy and goodness of God for relief,
+rather than by seeking aid from their fellow-creatures lessening their
+dependence on Him.
+
+'On the evening above mentioned, Mahumud went to the cottage of Fatima,
+and said, "Daughter, I am come to open my fast with thee."--"In the name
+of the most merciful God, be it so," was the reply of Fatima; yet secretly
+she sorrowed, that the poverty of her house must now be exposed to her
+beloved father.
+
+'Fatima spread the dustha-khawn[20] (a large square of calico) on the
+floor of the room near her father, placed empty plates before him, then
+retired to her station for prayers; spreading her mat in the direction of
+Kaabah, she prostrated herself to the earth before God in the humblest
+attitude, imploring His merciful aid, in this her moment of trial.
+Fatima's fervent prayer was scarcely finished, when a savoury smell of
+food attracted her attention; raising her head from the earth, her anxious
+eye was greeted with the view of a large bowl or basin filled with
+sulleed[21] (the Arabian food of that period). Fatima again bowed down her
+head, and poured out in humble strains that gratitude to God with which
+her heart overflowed. Then rising from her devotions, she took up the
+savoury food and hurried with it to her father's presence, and summoned
+her husband and the children to partake of this joyous meal, without even
+hinting her thoughts that it was the gift of Heaven.
+
+'Ali had been some time seated at the meal, when he, knowing they had no
+means of procuring it, looked steadily on Fatima, and inquired where she
+had secreted this delicious food; at the same time recurring to the two
+days' fast they had endured. "Rebuke her not, my son," said Mahumud;
+"Fatima is the favoured of Heaven, as was Myriam[22] (Mary), the mother of
+Esaee[23] (Jesus), who, living in her uncle Zechareah's[24] (Zachariah's)
+house, was provided by God with the choicest of fruits. Zechareah was poor,
+and oft he hungered for a meal; but when he entered Myriam's apartment, a
+fresh supply of rare fruits was wont to greet his eye. Zechareah asked,
+Whence had ye these precious gifts? Myriam answered, An angel from God
+places the fruit before me; eat, my uncle, and be satisfied."'
+
+The writer thus leaves the story of the miraculous food to Fatima's prayer,
+and goes on as follows:--
+
+'At another season of the fast, this family of charity endured a severe
+trial, which was miraculously and graciously rewarded. Fatima had a female
+slave, who shared with her equally the comforts and the toils of life.
+
+'The food allotted to every member of Ali's family was two small barley
+cakes for each day; none had more or less throughout the family. The
+labour of domestic affairs was shared by Fatima with her female slave, and
+each took their day for grinding the barley at the chuckee,[25] with which
+the cakes were made.
+
+'On the--day of Rumzaun, the corn was ground as usual, the cakes made, and
+the moment for opening the fast anxiously anticipated, by this abstemious
+family. The evening arrived, and when the family had fulfilled their
+prayer-duty, the party assembled round the homely dustha-khawn with
+thankful hearts, and countenances beaming with perfect content. All had
+their allotted portions, but none had yet tasted of their cakes, when the
+voice of distress caught their ears. "Give me, oh, give me, for the love
+of God! something to relieve my hunger and save my famishing family from
+perishing." Fatima caught up her barley cakes, and ran out to the
+supplicant, followed by her husband, the two children, and the slave. The
+cakes were given to the distressed creature, and as they comprised their
+whole stock, no further supply awaited their returning steps, nor even a
+substitute within the bare walls of their cottage; a few grains of salt
+had been left from cooking the barley cakes, and each took a little of the
+small quantity, to give a relish to the water they now partook of freely;
+and then retired to sleep away the remembrance of hunger.
+
+'The next day found them all in health, and with hearts at peace; the day
+was passed in useful occupation, and when evening drew nigh, the same
+humble fare was ready for the fasting family, whose appetites were doubly
+keen by the lengthened abstinence. Again they meet to partake in gratitude
+the great gift of Divine goodness, wholesome sustenance; when, lo! the
+sound of sorrowing distress, petitioning in the holy name adored by these
+pious souls,--"For the Love of God!"--arrested their attention. An appeal
+so urgently made carried with it a command to their devout hearts, and the
+meal so long delayed to their own necessities was again surrendered to the
+beggar's prayers.
+
+'This family of charity had returned to their empty hut, and were seated
+in pious conversation to beguile their sufferings; not a murmuring word or
+sigh escaped their sanctified mouths. As the evening advanced thus
+occupied, a pleasing joy seemed to fill the heart of Fatima, who secretly
+had sorrowed for her good dear children's privations; presently a bright
+and powerful light filled the room, an angel stood before them; his
+appearance gave them no alarm;--they beheld his presence with humility.
+"Thy good deeds", said the angel (Gabriel), "are acceptable to God, the
+All Merciful! by whose command I come to satisfy the demands of mortal
+nature; this fruit (dates) is the gift of Him you serve; eat and be at
+peace." The meal was ample which the angel brought to this virtuous family,
+and having placed it before them, he vanished from their sight.'
+
+The Chuckee, before mentioned, is two flat circular stones (resembling
+grindstones in England), the upper stone has a peg or handle fixed in it,
+near the edge, with which it is forced round, by the person grinding, who
+is seated on the floor; the corn is thrown in through a circular hole on
+the upper stone, and the flour works out at the edges between the two
+stones. This is the only method of grinding corn for the immense
+population throughout Oude, and most other parts of Hindoostaun even to
+the present day. The late King of Oude, Ghauzieood deen Hyder, was at one
+time much pressed by some English friends of his, to introduce water-mills,
+for the purpose of grinding corn; he often spoke of the proposed plan to
+the Meer, and declared his sole motive for declining the improvement was
+the consideration he had for the poor women, who by this employment made
+an excellent living in every town and village, and who must, by the
+introduction of mills, be distressed for the means of support. 'My poor
+women', he would often say, 'shall never have cause to reproach me, for
+depriving them of the use and benefit of their chuckee.'
+
+I have before said it is not my intention to offer opinions on the
+character of the Mussulmaun people, my business being merely to relate
+such things as I have heard and seen amongst them. The several
+translations and anecdotes I take the opportunity of placing in these
+letters, are from authorities the Mussulmauns style, hudeeth
+(authentic),--that are not, cannot, be doubted, as they have been handed
+down either by Mahumud or by the Emaums, whose words are equally to be
+relied on. When any passages in their sacred writings are commented on by
+different authors, they give their authority for the opinion offered, as
+Emaum Such-a-one explains it thus. You understand, therefore, that the
+Mussulmauns believe these miracles to have occurred to the members of
+their Prophet's family as firmly as we believe in the truth of our Holy
+Scripture.
+
+
+[1] _Kahani_.
+
+[2] _Thandi_.
+
+[3] See p. 13.
+
+[4] _Rozadar_, 'one who keeps fast' (_roza_).
+
+[5] _Spinacea oleracea_, or _Basella alba_.
+
+[6] Dhall [_dal_] is a sort of pea, sometimes cooked in a savoury way
+    with garlic, salt, ghee, pepper and herbs. It is about the consistence
+    of thick pea-soup--but without meat. [_Author_.]
+
+[7] But it is directed that infirm people, unable to fast, should feed a
+    poor person when the fast is over. Women in child and those suckling
+    children are advised to fast at some other more convenient season.
+
+[8] 'Idu'l-fitr, 'the Festival of the Breaking of the Fast'.
+
+[9] _Dahi_.
+
+[10] The Ajwah date is never sold in Arabia, because the Prophet advised
+    that whosoever break the fast every day with, six or seven of those
+    fruits need fear neither poison nor magic.--Burton, _Pilgrimage_,
+    i. 401 f.
+
+[11] Known as _siwayan_, which Musalman servants present on this day
+    to their European masters in India.
+
+[12] _Nazr, nazar_.
+
+[13] A lumbering, keelless barge, formerly much used by Europeans
+    travelling on the Ganges and its tributaries: _bajra_ meaning
+    'heavy'.
+
+[14] _Khil'at._
+
+[15] _Domni_, a woman of the Dom or singer class.
+
+[16] _Sitara_, 'three-stringed', but often possessing four or more
+    strings of steel and brass wire, played with a steel wire frame.
+
+[17] _Saranyi_.
+
+[18] _Dhol_: 'dhome' is a mistake.
+
+[19] _Hadis_, the sayings of the Prophet, not of an uninspired divine or
+    teacher.
+
+[20] _Dastarkhwan_, a modification of the Arab leathern table-spread
+    (_sufra_).
+
+
+[21] _Tharid_, bread moistened with broth and mixed with scraps of meat.
+
+[22] Maryam.
+
+[23] 'Isa'l-Masih.
+
+[24] Zakariya (_Koran_, iii. 32, vi. 85, xix. 1-12, xxi. 89).
+
+[25] _Chakki_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER IX
+
+  The Hadje (Pilgrimage to Mecca).--Commanded to be performed by
+  Mahumud.--Eagerness of both sexes to visit the Prophet's
+  tomb.--Qualifications requisite for the undertaking.--Different
+  routes from India to Mecca.--Duties of the pilgrims at the Holy
+  House.--Mecca and its environs.--Place of Abraham.--The
+  Bedouins.--Anecdote of a devotee and two pilgrims.--A Bedouin Arab,
+  and the travellers to Mecca.--The Kaabah (Holy House).--Superstitious
+  regard to a chain suspended there.--Account of the gold
+  water-spout.--Tax levied on pilgrims visiting the tomb of Mahumud by
+  the Sheruff of Mecca.--Sacred visit to the tombs of Ali, Hasan, and
+  Hosein.--The importance attached to this duty.--Travellers annoyed by
+  the Arabs.--An instance recorded.--The Nudghiff Usheruff.--Anecdotes
+  of Syaad Harshim.
+
+
+'The Pilgrimage to Mecca' is commanded by Mahumud to his followers at
+least once during their lifetime, provided the obstacles are not
+insurmountable. Indulgences are made for the sick, or individual poverty.
+All who have the means at command, whatever may be their distance from the
+place, are expected to perform the Hadje themselves if possible; or, if
+prevented by any circumstances they cannot control, they are required to
+pay the expenses of other persons willing to be their proxies.
+
+Whatever information I have acquired on the subject of this pilgrimage has
+been gleaned from frequent conversations with Meer Hadjee Shaah, who, as I
+have before remarked, performed the Hadje from Hindoostaun to Mecca, at
+three different periods of his eventful life.
+
+If the fatigues, privations, and difficulties of the pilgrimage to Mecca
+be considered, the distance from Hindoostaun must indeed render the Hadje
+a formidable undertaking; yet, the piously disposed of both sexes yearn
+for the opportunity of fulfilling the injunctions of their Lawgiver, and
+at the same time, gratifying their laudable feelings of sympathy and
+curiosity--their sympathy, as regards the religious veneration for the
+place and its purposes; their curiosity, to witness with their own eyes
+those places rendered sacred by the words of the Khoraun in one instance,
+and also for the deposits contained in the several tombs of prophets, whom
+they have been taught to reverence and respect as the servants of God.
+
+Every year may be witnessed in India the Mussulmauns of both sexes forming
+themselves into Kauflaahs[1] (parties of pilgrims) to pursue their march
+on this joyous expedition, believing, as they do, that they are fulfilling
+a sacred duty. The number of women is comparatively few, and those chiefly
+from the middling and lower classes of the people, whose expenses are
+generally paid by the rich females. The great obstacle to the higher
+classes performing the pilgrimage themselves is, that the person must at
+times be necessarily exposed to the view of the males. The lower orders
+are less scrupulous in this respect, who, whilst on the pilgrimage, wear a
+hooded cloak[2] of white calico, by which the person is tolerably well
+secreted, so that the aged and youthful have but one appearance; the
+better sort of people, however, cannot reconcile themselves to go abroad,
+unless they could be permitted to have their covered conveyances, which in
+this case is impossible.
+
+The qualifications necessary for all to possess, ere they can be deemed
+fit subjects for the Hadje, are, as I learn, the following:
+
+'They must be true Mussulmauns in their faith; that is, believe in one
+only true God, and that Mahumud is His Prophet.
+
+'They must strictly obey the duties commanded by Mahumud; that is, prayer
+five times daily, the fast of Rumzaun, &c.
+
+'They must be free from the world; that is, all their debts must be paid,
+and their family so well provided for, according to their station, that no
+one dependent on them may be in want of the necessaries of life during the
+absence of the pilgrim from his home and country.
+
+'They must abstain from all fermented or intoxicating liquors, and also
+from all things forbidden to be eaten by the law (which is strictly on the
+Mosaic principle).
+
+'They must freely forgive their enemies; and if they have given any one
+cause of offence, they must humble themselves, and seek to be forgiven.
+
+'They must repent of every evil they have committed, either in thought,
+word, or deed, against God or their neighbour.'
+
+Thus prepared, the pious Mussulmaun sets out on his supposed duty, with
+faith in its efficacy, and reliance on the goodness of Divine Providence
+to prosper him in the arduous undertaking.
+
+Many Kauflaahs from the Upper Provinces of India, travel overland to
+Bombay; others make Calcutta their place of embarkation, in the Arab ships,
+which visit those ports annually with returning pilgrims from Arabia,
+cargoes of coffee, Arabian fruits, and drugs. Some few enterprising people
+make the whole pilgrimage by land; this is, however, attended with so many
+and severe difficulties, that but few of the present day have courage to
+attempt it. In those cases their road would be from Delhie to Cashmire,
+through Buckaria,[3] making a wide circuit to get into Persia. This is the
+most tedious route, but possesses the advantages of more inhabited places
+on the line of march, and therefore provisions are the more readily
+procured. There is one route from the Lahore Province,--the English
+territory here is bounded by the river Suttledge, which the traveller
+crosses into the Sikh country,--through Afghastaan and Persia. I have not
+heard of the Kauflaahs making this their road of late; there seems to be
+always a disposition to fear the Sikhs,[4] who are become a powerful
+nation under Runjeet Singh; but I am not aware what ground the pilgrims
+have for their distrust, except that they can scarcely expect the same
+courtesy from these people as from the Mussulmauns, who would naturally
+aid and assist the pilgrims, and respect the persons thus labouring to
+accomplish the command of their Prophet.
+
+Whatever may be the chosen route, the pilgrims must make up their minds to
+many trials necessarily incident to the undertaking; and to the habits of
+the Mussulmauns of India, I cannot suppose any fatigue or trial greater
+than the voyage by sea, in an Arab vessel. It is well for those persons
+whose hearts have undergone that thorough change, which by the law fits
+them for the Hadje; with such men, earthly calamities, privations, or any
+other mere mortal annoyances, are met with pious fortitude, having
+consolations within which strengthen the outward man: in all their trials
+they will say, 'It is in the road of God, by Him cometh our reward'.
+
+The duty of the pilgrims, on their arrival at the Holy Place, is to
+worship God, and visit the tombs of the Prophets. There are forms and
+regulations to be observed in the manner of worship; certain circuits to
+be made round the Kaabah; saluting with the lips the sacred stone therein
+deposited; and calling to remembrance the past wonders of God, with
+reverence and piety of heart. I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah speak
+of the comfort a humble-minded pilgrim enjoys at the time he is making his
+visit to the Holy House; he says, 'There the heart of the faithful servant
+of God is enlightened and comforted; but the wicked finds no rest near
+Kaabah'.
+
+The pilgrims visit the tombs of every prophet of their faith within their
+reach; as the mausoleum of Hasan and Hosein, the Nudghiff Usheruff of Ali,
+and, if it be possible, Jerusalem also. At Dimishk (Damascus) they pay
+respect to the burying-place of Yieyah[5] (St. John), over whose earthly
+remains is erected, they say, the Jumna Musjud[6] (mosque), to which the
+faithful resort on Fridays (their Sabbath) to prayer.
+
+Within the confines of the Holy House, life is held so sacred that not the
+meanest living thing is allowed to be destroyed; and if even by accident
+the smallest insect is killed, the person who has caused the death is
+obliged to offer in atonement, at the appointed place for sacrificing to
+God, sheep or goats according to his means.[7]
+
+According to the description of Meer Hadjee Shaah the city of Mecca is
+situated in the midst of a partially barren country; but at the spot
+called Taaif,[8]--only one day's journey from Mecca,--the soil is
+particularly fertile, producing all kinds of fruit and vegetables in great
+abundance, and the air remarkably pure and healthy. The word Taaif implies
+in the Arabic 'the circuits completed'. It is recorded 'that the angel
+Gabriel brought this productive soil, by God's command, and placed it at a
+convenient distance from Mecca, in order that the pilgrims and sojourners
+at the Holy House might be benefited by the produce of the earth, without
+having them sufficiently near to call off their attention from the solemn
+duty of worshipping their God, which they are expressly called upon to
+perform at Mecca'.
+
+My informant tells me that there is a stone at Mecca known by the
+appellation of 'Ibraahim Mukhaun' (Place of Abraham):[9] on this is seen
+the mark of a human foot, and believed by pilgrims, on good authority, to
+be the very stone on which Abraham rested his foot when making occasional
+visits to his son Ishmael: at the performance of this duty he never
+dismounted from his camel, in compliance with his sacred promise made to
+Sarah the mother of Isaac.
+
+The pilgrimage to Mecca is most securely performed by those persons who
+travel in a humble way; riches are sure to attract the cupidity of the
+Bedouins. A poor pilgrim they respect, and with him they will share their
+last meal or coin. The Bedouin Arab delights in hospitably entertaining
+men of his own faith, provided they are really distressed; but the
+consequence of deception would be a severe visitation on the delinquent.
+The two following stories I have received from Meer Hadjee Shaah,
+descriptive of some of the incidents that occur to pilgrims, and therefore
+may be acceptable here.
+
+'A good Mussulmaun of Hindoostaun resolved on undertaking the Hadje, being
+under the strong impression of a warning dream that his earthly career
+would speedily terminate. He travelled on foot, with one companion only,
+who was a faithfully-attached friend; they had no worldly wealth, and
+journeyed on their way as mendicants, trusting for each day's food to the
+bountiful care of Divine Providence: nor was their trust in vain, since
+the hearts of all who saw these pious travellers were moved by the power
+of God to yield them present relief.
+
+'On a certain day these pilgrims had journeyed from the dawn until eve
+without a meal, or meeting any one to assist them, when they were at last
+encountered by a religious devotee of another nation, with whom they
+conversed for some time. Their new acquaintance having found they were
+indeed poor, not even possessed of a single coin to purchase corn or food
+of any kind, expressed his hearty sympathy, and desired to be of service
+to the pilgrims; he therefore disclosed to them that he was in possession
+of a secret for the transmutation of metals,[10] and offered some of his
+prepared powder to the elder Hadjee, by which he would have persuaded him
+want should never again intrude; adding, "You will with this be
+independent of all future care about subsistence on your pilgrimage."
+
+'The pious Hadjee, however, was of a different mind from the devotee, and
+politely rejected the offer of the powder by which he was to acquire
+riches, declaring that the possession of such an article would rob him of
+the best treasure he enjoyed, namely, the most perfect reliance on Him, by
+whom the birds of the air are fed from day to day without labour or care,
+and who had hitherto fed him both in the city and in the desert; and that
+in this trust he had comforts and consolations which the whole world could
+not grant him: "My God, in whom I trust, will never desert me whilst I
+rely on Him alone for succour and support."'
+
+My excellent friend says, such pilgrims as the one described may pass
+through the haunts of the Bedouins without fear or sorrow, and they are
+always respected. The next anecdote I am about to relate will develop more
+particularly the Arab's natural disposition, and how necessary it is for
+men really to be that they would seem, when placed by circumstances within
+their reach. Some of the parties were known to my venerable relative.
+
+'Six Mussulmauns from India were travelling on foot in Arabia; they
+assumed the title of pilgrim mendicants. On a certain day they drew nigh
+to the tent of a Bedouin Arab, who went out to meet them, and entering
+into conversation, soon discovered by their talk that they were poor
+pilgrims from India, who depended on casual bounties from men of their
+faith for their daily meal. The Bedouin, though a robber, had respect for
+the commands of his religion; and with that respect he boasted a due share
+of hospitable feeling towards all who were of his own faith; he
+accordingly told them they were welcome to his home, and the best meal he
+could provide for them, which offers they very gladly accepted, and
+followed him to the tent.
+
+'The Arab desired his wife to take water to his guests and wash their feet
+after the fatigue of their day's march, and told her in secret to divert
+their attention whilst he went out in search of plunder, that the
+hospitality of an Arab might be shown to the strangers. Then mounting his
+fleet-camel, he was quickly out of sight. Many a weary circuit the Arab
+made, his ill stars prevailed; not a Kauflaah nor a traveller could he
+meet, whence a supply might be extracted, to be the means of providing for
+his guests; his home was penniless, and with the Bedouins, none give
+credit. His bad success dispirited him, and he returned to the back of his
+tent, to consult what was best to be done in this emergency. The only
+thing he possessed in the world fit for food was the animal on which he
+rode, from day to day, to levy contributions upon the passing traveller.
+
+'His only immediate resource was to kill his favourite camel. His honour
+was at stake; the sacrifice would be great; he was attached to the beast;
+the loss would be irreparable, he thought:--yet every weighty argument on
+one side to preserve the camel's life, was as quickly overturned in the
+reflection of his Arabian honour;--his visitors must be fed, and this was
+the only way he could contrive the meal. With trembling hands and
+half-averted eyes, the camel's blood was shed; with one plunge his
+favourite ceased to breathe. For some minutes, the Arab could not look on
+his poor faithful servant; but pride drove pity from her haunt, and the
+animal was quickly skinned and dressed in savoury dishes, with his wife's
+assistance. At length, the food prepared, the Arab and his wife placed the
+most choice portions before their guests, and whilst they dined attended
+them with respectful assiduity; selecting for each the most delicate
+pieces, to induce the travellers to eat, and evince the cordial welcome
+tendered by the host.[11]
+
+'The travellers having dined; the Arab and his wife took their turn at the
+feast with appetites most keen,--forgetful even, for the time, whence the
+savoury dishes were procured; and if an intruding thought of his favourite
+camel shot across the mind of the Arab, it was quickly chased in the
+reflection that his prided honour was secured by the sacrifice, and that
+reflection was to him a sufficient compensation.
+
+'The pilgrims, refreshed by food, were not inclined to depart, and as they
+were urged to stay by their friendly host, they slept comfortably in the
+Arab's tent, on coarse mats, the only bed known to the wandering Bedouins.
+The morning found them preparing to pursue their march; but the Arab
+pressed their continuance another day, to share with him in the abundance
+his camel afforded for the whole of the party. The travellers were not
+unwilling to delay their departure, for they had journeyed many days
+without much ease, and with very little food; their host's conversation
+also was amusing, and this second day of hospitality by the Arab was an
+addition to the comfort and convenience of the weary pilgrims.
+
+'The following morning, as was fixed, the travellers rose to take leave of
+their benevolent host and his attentive wife; each as he embraced the Arab,
+had some grateful word to add, for the good they had received at his hands.
+The last of the pilgrims, having embraced the Arab, was walking from the
+tent, when the dog belonging to the host seized the man by his garment and
+held him fast. "What is this?" inquired the Arab, "surely you must have
+deceived me; my dog is wise as he is trusty,--he never yet lied to his
+master. This labaadhar of yours he has taken a fancy to it seems; but you
+shall have my coat of better-looking stuff for your old chintz garment. We
+will exchange labaadhars,[12] my friend," said the Arab, throwing his own
+towards the hesitating traveller. His fellow-pilgrims, hearing altercation,
+advanced, and with surprise listened to the parley going on between the
+host and guest.--"I have a veneration for my chintz, old as it is," said
+the pilgrim; "it has been my companion for many years, brother; indeed I
+cannot part with it." The dog held fast the garment, and the Arab, finding
+persuasion was but loss of words, cast a frown of deep meaning on the
+travellers, and addressed them:--"Ye came to me beggars, hungry and
+fatigued; I believed ye were poor, and I sheltered ye these two days, and
+fed ye with my best; nay, more, I even killed my useful camel, that your
+hunger might be appeased. Had I known there was money with any of ye, my
+poor beast's life might yet have been spared; but it is too late to repent
+the sacrifice I made to serve you," Then, looking steadfastly at the
+chintz-robed traveller, he added, in a tone of sharp authority, "Come,
+change garments!--here, no one disputes my commands!"
+
+'The trembling pilgrim reluctantly obeyed. The Arab took up the garment
+and proceeded with it to where the fire was kindled. "Now we shall see
+what my trusty dog discovered in your tattered chintz," said the Arab, as
+he threw it on the fire. All the pilgrims hovered round the flames to
+watch what would result from the consuming garment, with intense anxiety.
+The Arab drew from the embers one hundred gold mohurs, to the surprise and
+wonder of all the travellers, save him who owned the chintz garment; he
+had kept his treasures so secretly, that even in their greatest distress
+he allowed his brother pilgrims to suffer, with himself, want and
+privations which, owing to his lust for gold, he had no heart to relieve.
+
+'The Arab selected from the prize he had obtained, by the exchange of
+garments, ten gold mohurs, and presented them to the owner with a sharp
+rebuke for his duplicity, alluding to the meanness he had been guilty of
+in seeking and accepting a meal from a Bedouin, whilst he possessed so
+much wealth about his person; then adding,--"There is nothing hidden from
+God; I killed my sole treasure to give food to the poor hungry travellers;
+my deed of charity is rewarded; deceit in you is punished by the loss of
+that wealth you deserved not to possess.--Depart, and be thankful that
+your life is spared; there are some of my tribe who would not have
+permitted you to go so easily: you have enough spared to you for your
+journey; in future, avoid base deceptions."'
+
+Of the Kaabah (Holy House) many wonderful things are recorded in the
+several commentaries on the Khoraun, and other ancient authorities, which
+it would fill my letter to detail. I will, however, make mention of the
+mystic chain as a sample of the many superstitious habits of that age.
+
+It is said, 'A chain was suspended from the roof of Kaabah, whither the
+people assembled to settle (by the touch) disputed rights in any case of
+doubt between contending parties.'
+
+Many curious things are related as having been decided by this mystic
+chain,[13] which it should seem, by their description, could only be
+reached by the just person in the cause to be decided, since, however long
+the arm of the faulty person, he could never reach the chain; and however
+short the person's arm who was in the right, he always touched the chain
+without difficulty. I will here relate one of the anecdotes on this
+subject.
+
+'Two pilgrims travelled together in Arabia; on the way one robbed the
+other of his gold coins, and secreted them carefully in the hollow of his
+cane or staff. His companion missing his cash, accused him of the theft,
+and when disputes had risen high between them, they agreed to visit the
+mystic chain to settle their difference. Arriving at Kaabah, their
+intentions being disclosed to the keepers of the place, the thief claimed
+the privilege, being the accused, of first reaching to touch the chain; he
+then gave the staff in which he had deposited the money into his
+fellow-pilgrim's hands, saying, "Keep this, whilst I go to prove my
+innocence." He next advanced and made the usual prayer, adding to which,
+"Lord, whatever I have done amiss I strive to remedy; I repent, and I
+restore"; then raising his arm, he touched the chain without difficulty.
+The spectators were much surprised, because all believed he was actually
+the thief. The man who lost his gold, freely forgave his fellow-traveller,
+and expressed sorrow that he had accused him wrongfully; yet he wished to
+prove that he was not guilty of falsehood--having really lost his
+gold,--and declared he also would approach the chain to clear himself from
+such a suspicion. "Here," said he to the criminal, "take back your staff;"
+and he advanced within the Kaabah, making the required prayer, and adding,
+"Now my Creator will grant me mercy and favour, for He knoweth my gold was
+stolen, and I have not spoken falsely in that, yet I know not who is the
+thief." He raised his hand and grasped the chain, at which the people were
+much amazed.'
+
+It is presumed, by writers of a later period, that this circumstance threw
+the mystic properties of the chain out of favour; for it was soon after
+removed secretly, these writers add, and its disappearance made the
+subject of much conjecture; no one could ever ascertain by whom it was
+taken, but the general belief is, that it was conveyed away by
+supernatural agency. Another marvellous story is recorded of the Kaabah,
+as follows:
+
+'A poor pilgrim, nearly famishing with hunger, while encircling the Holy
+House, on looking up towards the building observed the water-spout of
+gold[14] hanging over his head. He prayed that his wants might be relieved,
+adding, "To Thee, O God, nothing is difficult. At thy command, that spout
+of gold may descend to my relief;" holding the skirt of his garment to
+receive it, in answer to his faithful address. The spout had been firmly
+fixed for ages, yet it fell as the pilgrim finished his prayer. He lost no
+time in walking away with his valuable gift, and offered it to a merchant
+for sale, who immediately recognizing the gold spout of Kaabah, accused
+the pilgrim of sacrilege, and without delay handed him over to the
+Sheruff[15] of Mecca, to answer for his crime. He declared his innocence
+to the Sheruff, and told him how he became possessed of the treasure. The
+Sheruff had some difficulty in believing his confession, yet perceiving he
+had not the appearance of a common thief, he told him, if what he had
+declared was true, the goodness of God would again be extended towards him
+on the trial he proposed to institute. The spout was restored to its
+original position on the Kaabah, and made secure. This done, the pilgrim
+was required to repeat his faithful address to God, in the presence of the
+assembled multitude; when, to their astonishment, it again descended at
+the instant his prayer was finished. Taking up the spout without
+hesitation, he was walking away with it very quietly, when the people
+flocked round him, believing him to be some sainted person, and earnestly
+requested him to bestow on them small portions of his raiment as relics of
+his holy person. The Sheruff then clothed him in rich garments, and in
+lieu of the gold spout--which none could now dispute his right to,--the
+same weight of gold in the current coin of Arabia was given to him, thus
+raising him from beggary to affluence.'
+
+I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah speak of this gold spout which adorns
+the Kaabah, being held in great veneration by the pilgrims who make the
+Hadje to that place.
+
+All Mussulmauns performing the pilgrimage pay a kind of tax to the Sheruff
+of Mecca. The present possessors of power in Mecca are of the Soonie sect.
+The admission money, in consequence, falls heavy on the Sheahs, from whom
+they exact heavy sums, out of jealousy and prejudice. This renders it
+difficult for the poor Sheah pilgrim to gain admittance, and it is even
+suspected that in many cases they are induced to falsify themselves, when
+it is demanded of them what sect they belong to, rather than be denied
+entrance after their severe trial to reach the confines of Mecca. The tax
+levied on the Soonies is said to be trifling in proportion to that of the
+Sheahs.
+
+Amongst the different places visited by each Hadjee,--after the circuit is
+made,--a zeearut to the tomb of Ali at Nudghiff Usheruff, and the
+far-famed Kraabaallah of Hasan and Hosein are esteemed indispensable
+engagements, if it be possible; there is not, however, any command to this
+effect in the Mussulmaun law, but the Sheahs, zealous for their leaders,
+are willing to think they do honour to their memory, by visiting those
+tombs which contain the mortal remains of their respected Emaums.
+
+Travelling through this part of Arabia, Meer Hadjee Shaah says, is
+attended with much inconvenience and fatigue; but he failed not at each
+pilgrimage he made, to pay a visit to the mausoleums of his forefathers.
+He tells me that Kraabaallah was for a long time almost an interdicted
+visit, through the power of the Soonies, who were so jealous of the
+respect paid to the Emaums, that the Turks (who are Soonies) raised the
+price of admission within the gates to one hundred gold pieces. At that
+time very few people could gratify their yearnings beyond the outside view
+of the mausoleum; and even now that the entrance-money is much reduced the
+sums so collected yield a handsome revenue to the Turks.
+
+I will here introduce an anecdote which proves the value certain
+individuals set on the zeearut (sacred visit) to Kraabaallah, which I have
+received from my revered pilgrim-friend and relative.
+
+'Amongst the applicants for admission at the gates of Kraabaallah was an
+aged woman clothed in ragged garments. The gate-keeper, judging from her
+appearance, that she was destitute of money, scoffed at her presumption;
+she, however, produced the price of admission with much confidence of
+manner, and demanded entrance without further delay. The keepers now
+suspected the old woman to be a thief, and commenced interrogating her how
+she became possessed of so large a sum. The poor old woman answered them,
+"I have laboured hard for thirty years at my spinning-wheel, and have
+debarred myself during those years of all superfluities, contenting myself
+with a bare subsistence; I have done this that the dearest wish of my
+heart might once in my lifetime be gratified, to visit and weep over the
+tomb of my Emaums. Here, take the fruits of my labour, and let me have my
+reward; every moment delayed is agony to me."'
+
+In journeying through Arabia, pilgrims are much annoyed with the intrusion
+they so frequently meet with from the idle Arabs, who force their way into
+every stranger's place of sojourn without ceremony, to strain the nerves
+of charity from 'brethren of the faith'.
+
+There is a maxim well known amongst Mussulmauns,--the words of
+Mahumud,--'With the faithful, all are brothers'; and this is the pass-word
+with those idle men who pretend to have too much pride to beg, and are yet
+too indolent to labour for their support.
+
+A Mussulmaun,--however great his rank,--is seated with his friends and
+attendants; an Arab, who lives by this method, stalks into the tent or
+apartment, salutes the master with, 'Salaam-oon-ali Koom!' (health or
+peace be with you!) and unbidden takes his seat on the nearest vacant spot
+to the head person of the assembly. After the first surprise excited by
+the stranger's intrusion, he looks at the master and says, 'I claim the
+privilege of a brother'; by which it is to be understood the Arab requires
+money from the richer man of his faith. A small sum is tendered, he
+receives it without indicating any sense of obligation, rises from his
+seat, and moves off with no other than the familiar salute which marked
+his entrance, 'Salaam-oon-ali Koom!'[16]
+
+A rich Eunuch, of Lucknow, accompanied Meer Hadjee Shaah on one of his
+pilgrimages, with a large Kauflaah. Upon one occasion, when the whole
+party were seated in friendly conclave, some of these idle Arabs entered
+in the way described; the Eunuch was unacquainted with the language, or
+the manners of Arabia, and expressed his dislike to their freedom in warm
+language, and evident anger in his countenance; many had claimed the
+tribute of brotherhood, when the Eunuch, who was accustomed in his own
+country to receive respect and deference from inferiors, lost all patience
+with the uncourtly intrusion of the Arabs, and evinced his wrath to the
+proud Arab then present, who understood by his violent manners, if not by
+his language, that he was offended with him. The good sense and kindly
+manner of Meer Hadjee Shaah restored tranquillity in the assembly; he gave
+money to the man, and apologized for his friend's ignorance of the customs
+of Arabia: thus preventing the enraged Arab from fulfilling his threat of
+forcing the Eunuch to appear before the Sheruff of Mecca.
+
+Nudghiff Usheruff, the burying-place of Ali, is the resort of many pious
+men of the Mussulmaun persuasion, as well as the shrine to be visited by
+'the faithful' of the Sheah sect. Amongst the many singular stories I have
+heard of the devout men of that religion, I select one from the number
+relating to a man whose abode was--through choice--near the shrine of
+their beloved Emaum Ali. I shall give it in exactly the style I have
+received it, through my husband's translation, from an old work in the
+Persian language.
+
+'In the reign of Nadir Shaah,[17] a devout man of the faith took up his
+abode in the vicinity of Nudghiff Usheruff in Arabia. He was a Syaad,
+named Harshim;[18] a man of great learning, whose heart was set on seeking
+with love the most merciful God, whom he served faithfully. Syaad Harshim,
+conscious that the riches and honours of this world are inadequate to
+procure eternal happiness, and feeling convinced that the more humble a
+man's mode of living is, the greater are the prospects of escaping
+temptations in this life of probation, resolved on labouring for his daily
+bread, and relinquished with his paternal home, the abundance and riches
+which his ancient house had long boasted.
+
+'Syaad Harshim selected Nudghiff Usheruff for his sojourn, and the
+business of a woodman for a calling. The piety of his life, and the
+goodness of his heart, drew upon him the respect of the inhabitants of the
+city. It was his practice to spend every day in the jungle (wilderness)
+cutting fire-wood, of which he gave a light burthen to his ass; and
+returning towards evening to the populated city, he found ready customers
+for the load which his day's labour produced. His honesty and love of
+truth were proverbial: he asked the price for his wood which he intended
+to take; if more was offered, it was rejected,--if less, he would not
+accept it.
+
+'One evening, a man of superior address to his usual customers, but poorly
+clad, met him at the entrance of the street, and bargained for the load of
+wood. Syaad Harshim was penetrating, and could not help expressing his
+surprise at the circumstance of one, evidently moving in a higher sphere,
+being there to purchase wood. "I see," said the Syaad to the purchaser,
+"that your station is superior to your circumstances!--How is this?"--"My
+story," replied the stranger, "is not, I fear, uncommon in this age of the
+world. I will relate it briefly:--I was once a rich man, and my mind was
+set on making the pilgrimage. Aware that valuables and money would be an
+incumbrance to me on my journey, I applied to the Kauzy of this city to
+take charge of all my worldly riches during my absence, to which he
+readily consented, and having packed my jewels, money, and valuables in a
+strong chest with a good lock, I gave it into his charge and departed.
+
+'"My pilgrimage accomplished, and tired of a wandering life, I returned
+home after a few years' absence, waited on the Kauzy, and applied for the
+treasure I had deposited in his care; he denied all knowledge of me or my
+valuables, pretended not to understand me, called me an impostor, and
+eventually drove me from his house with violence. I again tried the Kauzy
+by expostulation, and sent my friends to him, but all without benefit; for
+here I am as you see me, Syaad Harshim, reduced to penury by the Kauzy's
+injustice. The world esteems him a person of great character, and condemns
+me as the unjust one. Well! I can say no more; I know that God is merciful,
+I put my trust in Him!" "Ameen," responded the Syaad, "do you so, and it
+will yet be well with you."
+
+'The stranger lingered with the sympathizing Woodman, and after some time
+had elapsed he asked him if he would interest himself with the Kauzy to
+effect a restitution of his rights, adding, "All are willing to give you,
+O Syaad, great credit for superior virtues." Harshim replied he had no
+merit to call for his fellow-mortals' good opinion, but as he felt
+interested in the affair he would certainly visit the unjust man, and
+requested the stranger to meet him at the Kauzy's door on the following
+morning.
+
+'Arrived at the Kauzy's residence, Harshim was received with evident
+pleasure, for though but a woodman, he yet was known to be a person of
+superior rank, and a man universally respected for his great piety. After
+the common salutations, the Syaad stated the object of his visit, assuring
+the Kauzy he was actuated purely by good feelings towards him in the part
+he had undertaken;--being desirous only of preserving his soul from the
+evil that attended the unjust men of this world, who die without
+repentance and restitution to those whom they have injured. Then calling
+the stranger forward, he said with firmness of voice and manner, "Behold
+this man! he left money and jewels in your charge whilst he went on his
+duty to the pilgrimage; he comes now to demand his property, give back his
+chest of treasures without delay, honestly and justly, as you hope for
+mercy in a future state!"
+
+'The Kauzy answered, "I have it not, Syaad Harshim, you may believe me;
+this fellow wickedly raises the falsehood to injure me, and it is as much
+to his own dishonour as to my discredit. I beg, therefore, you will
+neither give credit to his base assertions, nor think so meanly of me; my
+station as Kauzy of this district should, methinks, screen me from such
+imputations."--"True," said Harshim, "the station you occupy in the world,
+and the place you hold as Kauzy, prevent suspicion from attaching to you;
+hence this poor man has not yet found redress to the justice of his claims.
+I would have you believe me sincerely your friend, in desiring to bring
+your heart to repentance, and thus only can your soul's safety be secured.
+I know you to have this man's property, and your own heart even now
+convicts you of the injustice you practise. Nothing is hidden from
+God;--reflect on the punishment prepared for the unrepenting hypocrite.
+Listen, whilst I relate to you my own convictions, or rather experience,
+of that terrible punishment which is prepared for the impenitent hardened
+sinner beyond the grave.
+
+'"I have been a woodman for several years, and by my daily labour have
+earned my coarse food. Some years since, I was sick and unable to pursue
+my usual occupation; my supply was thus cut off. Requiring temporary
+relief, I applied to a rich Banker of this city for a trifling loan; my
+request was promptly complied with, and I engaged to repay the sum by two
+pice each day upon again resuming my employment. By the mercy of God I
+recovered; and on the evening of each day, as I sold the wood my day's
+labour produced in the market, I paid the Banker two pice. On the very day,
+however, that the last two were to have been paid, the Banker died. Thus I
+remained his debtor still. Often had I thought of the circumstance that I
+was his debtor, and with real regret; yet the sum was small, and with this
+I became reconciled.
+
+'"Not long after his decease I was visited with a dream, important to all
+the world to know, and I therefore desire to make it public. Judgement was
+opened to my view; the beauty of heaven was displayed on one side, and the
+torments of hell on the other. My dream presented many people waiting
+their award, whom I had known in life, and amongst the number my creditor
+the Banker; he was standing on the brink of that fiery yawning gulf which
+is prepared for the wicked and unjust. His attendant angels produced the
+documents of their faithful keeping,--good and evil actions of every
+mortal are thus registered,--one exhibited a small blank book in which not
+one good deed had been recorded, and that presented by the other,
+containing the evils of his ways on earth, appeared to me an immense
+volume filled throughout.
+
+'"'Take him to his merited torments!' was pronounced in an awful tone of
+command.--'Have mercy! have pity!' cried the Banker, in a supplicating
+voice.--'Produce one claim for pity,' was heard.--The Banker in agony
+looked wildly round, as if in search of something he might urge in
+extenuation, when casting his eyes on me he exclaimed, 'There! oh, there
+is one! who when in trouble I relieved, and he is still my debtor!'
+
+'"In my dream this appeared too slender a benefit to draw forth the
+slightest remission of the punishments awarded to his deserts. 'Away with
+him!' was heard.--'Oh!' cried the Banker's soul, 'draw near to me, thou
+good, virtuous, and humble Woodman, that the reflected light of thy
+virtues may give one instant's ease to my present torture. Let me but
+touch the righteous Harshim, and I will depart to my just punishment with
+submission!'
+
+'"I was permitted to gratify the unhappy spirit, wondering at the same
+time what benefit he could derive from touching me. Advancing near the
+tortured soul he stretched forth his hand and touched me on the knee; it
+was like a firebrand; I drew back hastily and found my knee was scorched.
+'Return to men with warnings,' said the wretched spirit. 'Tell them of my
+unhappy state; tell them what are the tortures of the wicked; that touch
+you have received on your knee, is of the same nature my whole body
+suffers in eternal flames.'--The pain I suffered in my knee disordered my
+sleep; I awoke in agony, and here it is to this day," said the Woodman,
+untying a bandage from his knee. "Examine the place, and be warned, O
+Kauzy, by the terrible certainty I have brought from that Banker whom you
+knew, and who is now suffering for his injustice on earth. I have been
+lame from that night of my dream," continued Syaad Harshim, "but I shall
+rejoice in the pain, if the example influence one hardened sinner to
+repent, whilst repentance may avail."
+
+'During the recital of the dream, Syaad Harshim watched the countenance of
+the Kauzy, who tried in vain to hide the guilty changes of his face. The
+Syaad at last fixed his keen eyes on him, "Now, friend," said he, "it
+would be great folly to add guilt to guilt by farther subterfuge. I know
+the day, the hour, you ingeniously substituted a false key to this man's
+chest; I could tell you what you wickedly took out; the place where it is
+secreted, even, is not hidden from my knowledge; go, bring it from your
+wife's apartment; a little labour will remove it from the corner near the
+bedstead."
+
+'The Kauzy was now subdued by the commanding truths of the Syaad, and his
+heart being softened by the fearful relation of the Banker's torment, he
+sank to the earth with shame and remorse,--"I acknowledge my sin, thou
+holy man of truth;--forgive me!" he cried, "forgive me, oh my God! I am
+indeed repentant, and by this holy man's means I am brought to a sense of
+my guilt!" He then went to the women's apartment, brought out the chest
+and delivered it to the owner, entreating Syaad Harshim to forgive him.
+
+'The Syaad replied, "I have nothing to forgive, nor power to remit; my
+advice you have freely, and may it serve you! Seek pardon from God who
+loves to be sought, and whose mercy never faileth. He is not the God of
+revenge, where repentance is sincere; but He is the God of mercy to all
+who seek Him faithfully. His mercy is already extended to you, for He has
+given you time to repent:--but for His mercy, you had been taken to your
+punishment, whilst you had no thoughts of repentance in your guilty heart.
+Farewell! let me know by your future life, that Syaad Harshim's lost
+labour in the jungle of this day, has produced something to the better
+harvest--awakening one sinner to a sense of his danger."'
+
+Meer Hadjee Shaah has related to me many singular anecdotes of this Syaad
+Harshim, which are generally spoken of, and believed to be true by the
+sojourners at Nudghiff Usheruff. His memory is much respected by the
+Mussulmauns, and the acts of his life are registered with the veneration
+paid to saints, amongst people of more enlightened nations. They
+confidently assert, that whenever Syaad Harshim presented himself at the
+entrance to Nudghiff Usheruff, the gates, which are always kept locked,
+flew open to receive him.
+
+In proof that he disregarded worldly possessions, the following is related
+of him in the ancient works both of Arabia and Persia:--
+
+'The great conqueror, Nadir Shaah, on one occasion visited the shrine of
+Ali, with a vast retinue of his chiefs, courtiers, and followers. The King
+heard, whilst at Nudghiff Usheruff, of the sainted life led by the Woodman,
+Syaad Harshim, in that neighbourhood, and he felt disposed to tender a
+present of money and valuables, to induce the Syaad's prayer for his
+future prosperity. Accordingly, the King commanded trays to be filled from
+his Indian spoils, which were sent with a message, humbly couched,
+entreating the good Syaad would accept his offering of respect, and make
+prayers to God for him.
+
+'The trays were conveyed by servants of the King, who arrived at the
+Syaad's hut at the moment he was satisfying the demands of nature with a
+meal of coarse barley bread and pure water. "What is all this?" inquired
+the Syaad, on seeing the valuables before him. "An humble offering from
+the great Nadir Shaah," replied the messenger, "who entreats you will
+honour him by the acceptance of his presents, and offer your pious prayer
+for God's mercy in his behalf." "My prayers", said the Syaad, "I can
+promise shall be made duly and truly, but not my acceptance of his gifts.
+Take back these hateful, useless things! Tell Nadir Shaah, Syaad Harshim
+will not even touch them." The messenger tried persuasions without avail;
+he was constrained to return to his royal master, with his loaded trays.
+
+'No sooner were the King's servants out of sight, than the wife of Syaad
+Harshim vented her disappointment in no measured strain of anger towards
+her husband. "Here am I," said the old lady, "a very slave in consequence
+of our poverty, a very beggar in appearance, and my scanty meal of coarse
+bread is scarce sufficient to keep me in bodily strength; surely you ought
+to have remembered me, when the King's offering was before you--even if
+you liked not to accept it for yourself."--"I might indeed", he replied,
+"have done as you say, wife, had I known your sentiments sooner; but I
+believed you were as contented as myself with homely fare and honest
+labour; but be comforted, you shall have a share of the next offering made
+by the King to Syaad Harshim, provided your present inclination remains
+unchanged by time." This promise quieted the wife's angry humour, and
+peace was again restored between them.
+
+'"Wife," said the Syaad, "this al-kaulock[19] (Arab's coat of calico) of
+mine requires a little of thy labour: as I have now no other garment to
+change with, I trust you may please to wash it whilst I take my
+sleep;--one caution you must observe,--I have occasion for the water in
+which this dress is to be washed; preserve it carefully for me, my good
+wife;" and he laid him down on his mat to sleep. The wife, obedient to her
+husband's wishes, washed his dress, and took care to preserve the dirty
+water; when he awoke, she brought him the clean garment, and received his
+warm commendations for her diligence. She then produced the pan of dirty
+water, in which she had cleansed the garment, saying, "There, Syaad
+Harshim, I have done as you desired."--"Very good," replied her husband,
+"now you must farther oblige me by drinking it--you know there is nothing
+in this water but the sweat of my body produced by my daily labour." The
+wife, disgusted at the strange request of her husband, looked with
+amazement, and fancied he must have lost his senses. "What is this you
+require of me? would you poison your wife, O Syaad Harshim, with the filth
+from your skin, the accumulation of many days' labour in the jungles? art
+thou mad, to ask thy wife a request so unheard of?"
+
+'"Listen to me, wife," said the Syaad, in gentle terms; "you profess to
+love, honour, and respect me, as your faithful, lawful husband; pray can
+the dirt from my body be more offensive to your palate than the scum of
+Nadir Shaah, whom you only know by name? You would have accepted the
+filthy offerings of a cruel man, who plundered and sacrificed his victims
+to obtain the treasures he possesses;--you would not have scrupled to
+obtain your future sustenance by the coins of Nadir Shaah, gained as they
+were by the spilling of human blood? Is this your love for Syaad Harshim?"
+The wife threw herself at her husband's feet, when his speech was finished:
+"Pardon me, my dear husband! pardon my ignorance and self-love; I see
+myself disgraced by harbouring one wish for more than is gained by honest
+industry. No longer have I any desire for the gold of Nadir Shaah.
+Contented as yourself, my dear, good husband! I will continue to labour
+for the honest bread that sustains, nor ever again desire my condition to
+be changed."'
+
+The Woodman, Syaad Harshim, lived to a great age; many a tear hath fallen
+on his grave from the good pilgrims visiting the shrine of Ali, near which
+he was buried; and his resting place is reverenced to this day by the
+passing traveller of his own faith.
+
+
+[1] _Kafilah_.
+
+[2] The _burqa'_: see drawing in Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, p. 95.
+
+[3] Bokhara.
+
+[4] _The Origin of the Sikhs_, by H. Colebrooke, Esq., gives a faithful
+    picture of those warlike people. [The best account of their beliefs
+    is by M. Macauliffe, _The Sikh Religion_, Oxford, 1909.]
+
+
+[5]  Yahya. On the capture of Damascus by the Muhammadans, the
+    churches were equally divided between the Christians and their
+    conquerors. The great Cathedral of St. John was similarly divided,
+    and for eighty years the two religions worshipped under the same
+    roof.--Arnold, _The Preaching of Islam_, p. 50.
+
+[6] A vulgar corruption of Jame' Masjid, the Cathedral Mosque.
+
+[7] On the taboos attached to the sanctuary, see Burton, _Pilgrimage_,
+    i. 379 f.
+
+[8] At-Ta'if, meaning 'circumambulation'. When Adam settled at Mecca,
+    finding the country barren, he prayed to Allah to supply him with a
+    piece of fertile land. Immediately a mountain appeared, which, having
+    circumambulated the Ka'aba, settled itself down eastward of Mecca.
+    Hence it was called Kita min Sham, 'a piece of Syria,' whence it
+    came. (Burton, ii. 336.) 'Its fertile lands produce the fruits of
+    Syria in the midst of the Arabian desert' ( Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_,
+    vi. 255).
+
+[9] At Mecca are 'evident signs, with the standing place of Abraham; and
+    he who enters it is safe' _(Koran_, iii. 90). On the north side of
+    the Ka'aba, just by its door, is a slight hollow in the ground, lined
+    with marble. The spot is called Mi'jan, and it is supposed to be the
+    place where Abraham and Ishmael kneaded the chalk which they used in
+    building the Ka'aba: the stone, with the mark of Abraham's feet, is
+    shown.--Burckhardt, quoted by Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, p. 337;
+    Burton, ii. 311; Sale, _Preliminary Discourse_, p. 84.
+
+[10] The Asiatics, generally, have faith in certain properties of chemical
+    productions to alter the nature of the common to the precious metals.
+    I have often witnessed the anxious exertions of Natives in India, who
+    try all sorts of experiments in alchemy, expecting to succeed; but I
+    have never known any other issue from the many laborious efforts of
+    individuals than waste of time and property in these absurd schemes.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[11] One of the best-known versions of this famous tale is found in _The
+    Decameron_ of Boccaccio, Day 5, novel 9. It goes back to Buddhist
+    times, and is told of Hatim Tai, the model of Oriental
+    liberality. For numerous parallels, see A.C. Lee, _The Decameron of
+    Boccaccio, its Sources and Analogues_, 1909, pp. 170 ff.
+
+[12] _Labada_, 'a rain coat, wrapper'.
+
+
+[13] This is probably some local tradition, of which no record appears in
+    travellers' accounts of the Ka'aba.
+
+[14] On the north-west side of the Ka'aba is a water-spout, called
+    Mi'zabu'r-Rahmah, 'the spout of Mercy'. It is made of gold, and was
+    sent from Constantinople in A.D. 1573. It carries the rain-water from
+    the roof, and discharges it on the grave of Ishmael.--Hughes,
+    _Dictionary of Islam_, pp. 257, 337.
+
+[15] The Sharif, 'honourable,' is the local ruler of Mecca and the
+    Hajaz: see _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, xvii. 952; Burton,
+    _Pilgrimage_, ii. 3.
+
+[16] _As-Salamu-'alai-kum_, 'Peace be with you!'
+
+[17] Nadir Shah, born a shepherd, A.D. 1687, aided Shah Tahmasp
+    against Ashraf, leader of the Afghans, defeated him, and restored
+    his master in 1730. Afterwards he deposed Tahmasp, and raised his
+    infant son to the throne of Persia, under the title of 'Abbas III.
+    But he continued to rule the country, and on the death of 'Abbas in
+    1736 he became king. He marched on India in 1739, defeated the Emperor
+    Muhammad on the historic field of Panipat, sacked Delhi, and
+    perpetrated a horrible massacre. He returned to Persia laden with
+    spoil, but his tyranny excited the hostility of the nobles, and he was
+    assassinated in 1747, and buried at Mashhad.
+
+[18] Sayyid Hashim.
+
+[19] _Alkhalaq_, Turkish, 'a coat with sleeves'.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER X
+
+  The Zuckhaut (God's portion).--Syaads restricted the benefit of this
+  charity.--The Sutkah.--The Emaum's Zaumunee (protection).--The Tenths,
+  or Syaads' Due.--Mussulmauns attribute thanks to God only, for all
+  benefits conferred.--Extracts from the 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'.--Mahumud's
+  advice.--His precepts tend to inculcate and encourage
+  charity.--Remarks on the benevolence of Mussulmauns.
+
+
+On the subject of Zuckhaut, commanded by Mahumud to his followers, I shall
+have little to remark;--the nature of the institute is intended to oblige
+mankind to share with the poor a due portion of those benefits they have
+received through the bounty of Divine Providence. Every Mussulmaun is
+expected by this law to set apart from his annual income one-fortieth part,
+denominated Zuckhaut (God's portion), for the sole benefit of the poor. I
+believe there are not many,--judging by what I have witnessed among the
+Mussulmaun population of Hindoostaun,--who do not expend a much larger
+portion of their yearly income in charitable donations, than the enjoined
+fortieth part.
+
+The poor Syaads are not allowed to receive any relief from 'the
+Zuckhaut'[1]; they being of the Prophet's blood, are not to be included
+with the indigent for whom these donations are generally set apart. The
+strict Mussulmaun of the Sheah sect usually deducts one-tenth[2] from
+whatever money comes into his possession as 'the Syaads' due', to whom it
+is distributed, as proper objects present themselves to his knowledge;
+much in the same way as the tribe of Levi are entitled to the tenth of the
+produce from their brethren of Israel by the Mosaic law.
+
+The Syaads are likewise restricted from accepting many other charitable
+offerings,--sutkah for instance--by which is meant the several things
+composing peace-offerings, offerings in atonement, &c. The better to
+explain this I must here describe some of the habits of the Mussulmaun
+population:--When any person escapes from a threatened danger, or accident,
+their friends send offerings of corn, oil, and money; all that is thus
+sent to the person preserved, must be touched by his hand and then
+distributed amongst the poor and needy.
+
+If any member of a family be ill, a tray is filled with corn, and some
+money laid on it: it is then placed under the bed of the sick person for
+the night; in the morning this is to be distributed amongst the poor. Some
+people cook bread, and place it in the same way with money under the bed
+of the sick. All these things are called Sutkah[3] in whatever form they
+are planned, which is done in a variety of ways; and, when distributed to
+the poor, are never to be offered to, nor allowed to be accepted by, the
+Syaad race. The scapegoat, an animal in good health and without blemish,
+is another offering of the Sutkah denomination: a Syaad is not allowed to
+be one of the number to run after the goat released from the sick chamber.
+
+When any one is going a journey, the friends send bands of silk or riband,
+in the folds of which are secured silver or gold coins; these are to be
+tied on the arm of the person projecting the journey, and such offerings
+are called 'Emaum Zaumunee',[4] or the Emaum's protection. Should the
+traveller be distressed on his journey, he may, without blame, make use of
+any such deposits tied on his arm, but only in emergencies; none such
+occurring, he is expected, when his journey is accomplished in safety, to
+divide all these offerings of his friends amongst righteous people. The
+Syaads may accept these gifts, such being considered holy,--paak[5] is the
+original word used, literally clean.
+
+They believe the Emaums have knowledge of such things as pertain to the
+followers of Mahumud and his descendants. Thus they will say, when
+desiring blessings and comforts for another person, 'Emaum Zaumunee,
+Zaumunee toom kero!'[6] may the Emaums protect you, and give you their
+safe support!
+
+The tenths, or Syaads' dues, are never appropriated to any other use than
+the one designed. Thus they evince their respect to the descendants of
+Mahumud; by these tenths the poorer race of Syaads are mainly supported;
+they rarely embark in trade, and never can have any share in banking, or
+such professions as would draw them into dealings of usury. They are
+chiefly employed as writers, moonshies,[7] maulvees, and moollahs, doctors
+of law, and readers of the Khoraun; they are allowed to enter the army, to
+accept offices of state; and if they possess any employment sufficient to
+support themselves and family, the true Syaad will not accept from his
+neighbours such charitable donations as may be of service to the poor
+brethren of his race. The Syaads, however poor, are seldom known to
+intrude their distresses, patiently abiding until relief be sent through
+the interposing power of divine goodness.
+
+Such is the way in which they receive the blessings showered by the
+orderings of the Almighty, that one never hears a Mussulmaun offer thanks
+to his earthly benefactor, in return for present benefits; but 'Shooghur
+Allah!'[8] all thanks to God! I was somewhat surprised when first
+acquainted with these people, that they accepted any kind of service done
+them with the same salutation as when first meeting in the morning, viz.
+salaam, and a bow. I inquired of the Meer if there was no word in
+Hindoostaunie that could express the 'Thank you!' so common to us in
+England? He bade me remark that the Mussulmauns return thanks to God
+whenever they receive a benefit from mortals, whom they consider but as
+the agents appointed by God to distribute His gifts. 'All thanks to God!'
+is repeated with every benefit received; and this follows every meal or
+cup of water as naturally, as to eat or to drink is preceded by 'Bis ma
+Allah!'[9]--In the name, or to the praise of God!
+
+Amongst the many choice things I have gleaned from the work so often
+quoted in my Letters, viz. 'Hyaatool Kaaloob', the following, through my
+Meer's aid in translation, may here be inserted.
+
+MAHUMUD'S ADVICE
+
+'Observe, ye faithful, there are five things most acceptable to God the
+Creator, from man, His creature:--
+
+1st. 'A generous gift, made when you have the greatest necessity yourself
+for that which you give away.
+
+2nd. 'All gifts that are free-will offerings of the heart, neither
+expecting nor desiring your bounty, should be rewarded, either by returns
+or acknowledgements.
+
+3rd. 'To be most humble, when in the enjoyment of the greatest prosperity.
+
+4th. 'To promote peace, when the reason for indulging your anger is most
+enticing.
+
+5th. 'To forgive freely from the heart, when the power to revenge is
+present with you.'
+
+You perceive a system of charitable feeling is inculcated by the laws of
+Mahumud; and in every-day practice it is found to be the prominent feature
+in their general habits. It is common with the meanest of the people to
+offer a share of their food to any one calling upon them at meal-time. I
+have seen this amiable trait of character in all classes of the people;
+and often on a river voyage, or a land journey, when the servants cook
+their dinner under a tree or by the bank of the river, if a dog, which
+they consider an unclean animal, advances within their reach, a portion of
+their food is thrown to him with that kindliness of feeling which induces
+them to share with the hungry, whatever gifts they receive from the Author
+of all good.[10] Except in seasons of famine, no one need despair of
+having sufficient to support nature, wherever the Mussulmauns congregate.
+I speak it to their credit, and in justice to their character.
+
+
+[1] See p. 67.
+
+[2] Known among Indian Musalmans as _dasaundh_, 'tithes'.
+
+[3] _Sadaqah_, used in the Koran (ii. 265) for almsgiving. In India the
+    term is applied to the custom by which money, clothes, grain, &c., are
+    waved over a patient, or only shown to him, and then given away to
+    beggars; or they are placed near the foot of a tree, on the bank of a
+    river, or where four roads meet, and are then supposed to carry away
+    the disease with them.--Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, p. 252.
+
+[4] _Imam zamini_, 'a gift to the guardian saint'. When about to
+    go on a journey, or when any misfortune befalls a person, a coin or
+    metal ring is tied up in a cloth coloured with turmeric, in the name
+    of the Imam Zamin, and worn on his left arm. When the traveller
+    reaches his destination, or gets rid of his affliction, it is taken
+    off, and its value, with some money in addition, is spent in food or
+    sweetmeats, which are offered in the name of the saint.--Jaffur
+    Shurreef, p. 182.
+
+[5] _Pak_.
+
+[6] _Imam Zamani, Zamani tum karo_.
+
+[7] _Munshi_, 'a writer, secretary'.
+
+[8] _Shukr Allah_.
+
+[9] _Bi'smi'llah_: the full form is
+    _bi'smi'llah'r-rahmani'r-rahim_, 'In the name of Allah,
+    the Compassionate, the Merciful!' These latter titles are omitted when
+    going into battle, or when slaughtering animals.
+
+[10] The Prophet ordered that when a dog drinks from a vessel, it must be
+    washed seven times, the first cleansing being with earth. But the dog
+    of the Seven Sleepers will be admitted into Heaven.--_Koran_,
+    xviii. 17.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XI
+
+  Mussulmaun festivals.--Buckrah Eade.--Ishmael believed to have been
+  offered in sacrifice by Abraham and not Isaac.--Descent of the
+  Mussulmauns from Abraham.--The Eade-gaarh.--Presentation of
+  Nuzzas.--Elephants.--Description of the Khillaut (robe of
+  honour).--Customs on the day of Buckrah Eade.--Nou-Roze (New Year's
+  Day).--Manner of its celebration.--The Bussund (Spring-colour).--The
+  Sah-bund.--Observances during this month.--Festival of the New
+  Moon.--Superstition of the Natives respecting the influence of the
+  Moon.--Their practices during an eclipse.--Supposed effects of the
+  Moon on a wound.--Medicinal application of lime in
+  Hindoostaun.--Observance of Shubh-burraat.
+
+
+An account of the Mussulmaun festivals, I imagine, deserves a Letter; for
+in many of them I have been able to trace, not only the habits and manners
+of the people with whom I was sojourning, but occasionally marks of their
+particular faith have been strongly developed in these observances, to
+most of which they attach considerable importance. Buckrah Eade, for
+instance, is a festival about as interesting to the Natives, as
+Christmas-day is to the good people of England; and the day is celebrated
+amongst all classes and denominations of Mussulmauns with remarkable zeal
+and energy.
+
+The particular event which gives rise to Buckrah Eade[1] is the well-known
+circumstance of Abraham offering his son in sacrifice to God. The
+Mussulmauns, however, insist that the son so offered was Ishmael, and not
+Isaac, as our Scriptures declare. I have before remarked that I had
+frequent arguments with the learned men of that persuasion on this subject,
+which provoked a minute investigation of their most esteemed authors, to
+decide between our opinions. The author of 'The Hyaatool Kaaloob' advances
+many authorities, which the Mussulmauns deem conclusive, all of whom
+declare that Ishmael was the son demanded and offered in sacrifice; and
+two only, I think, of the many names that author quotes, were disposed to
+doubt whether it was Isaac or Ishmael. An evident proof, I think, that on
+some former occasion there had existed a difference of opinion on this
+subject among men of their persuasion. The result of the present inquiry,
+however, is that they believe Ishmael was the offering and not Isaac;
+whilst I remain equally convinced of the correctness of our sacred book.
+
+The Mussulmauns, I should remark, as well as the Jews, trace their origin
+to Abraham, the former through Ishmael, and the latter through Isaac; and
+it is more than probable that to this circumstance may be attributed the
+decided prejudice of opinion, in favour of Ishmael being the person
+offered in sacrifice. Whether this be the case or not, these children of
+Abraham annually testify their reverence for their progenitor, and respect
+for his faith towards God, in the way most congenial to their particular
+ideas of honouring the memory of their forefathers.
+
+I have thus attempted to sketch the origin of the festival, it shall now
+be my task to describe the way in which the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun
+celebrate Buckrah Eade.
+
+On this day all classes of people, professing 'the faith' sacrifice
+animals, according to their circumstances; some offer up camels, others
+sheep and goats, lambs or kids. It is a day of religious veneration, and
+therefore by the pious prayers are added to sacrifice;--it is also a day
+of joyful remembrances, consequently one of festivity amongst all ranks of
+the Mussulmaun population.
+
+Kings, Princes, or Nuwaubs, with the whole strength of their
+establishments, celebrate the event, by going in great state to an
+appointed place, which is designated 'The Eade-Gaarh'[2] where the animals
+designed for immediate sacrifice are previously conveyed. On the arrival
+of the cavalcade at the Eade-gaarh, the head Moollah reads the form of
+prayer appointed for the occasion, and then presents the knife to the
+royal personage, who with his own hand sheds the blood of the camel he
+offers in sacrifice, repeating an impressive prayer as he presents the
+steel to the throat of the animal. The exact moment of the King's
+sacrifice is announced by signal, when a grand salute from the artillery
+and infantry commences the day's rejoicing.
+
+An account of the procession on these occasions may be interesting to my
+readers, though no description can give an adequate idea of its imposing
+appearance. I have witnessed the Buckrah Eade celebrations at Lucknow,
+where expense and good taste are neither wanted nor spared, to do honour
+to the great occasion.
+
+The several persons forming the King's suite, whether nobles or menials,
+together with the military, both horse and foot, are all dressed in their
+best apparel. The elephants have undergone a thorough cleansing in the
+river, their hides have been well oiled, which gives a jetty hue to the
+surface, and their heads painted with bright colours, according to the
+fancy of their keepers; their housings and trappings are the most costly
+and brilliant the possessors can procure, some with gold, others with
+silver howdahs (seats), and draperies of velvet or fine cloth embroidered
+and fringed with gold.
+
+The horses of individuals, and those of the irregular troops, are, on this
+occasion, caparisoned with embroidered horsecloths and silver ornaments,
+necklaces of silver or gold; or in the absence of these costly adornings,
+the less affluent substitute large coloured beads and tufts of variegated
+silk on their horses' necks. Many of the horses have stars and crescents
+painted upon the chest and haunches: the tail and mane are dyed red with
+mayndhie.[3]
+
+The procession is formed in the following order: Fifty camels, in pairs,
+carrying swivels, and each attended by two gunners and a camel-driver; the
+men dressed in clean white dresses, with turbans and sashes of red and
+green: the trappings of the camel are composed of broadcloth of the same
+colours. Next to these is a park of artillery, the men in new regimentals
+of blue, faced with red and yellow lace. Two troops of horse soldiers, in
+new regimentals, scarlet cloth unrurkas[4] (coats) and white trousers,
+with high-crowned caps of lambskin, similar to the Persian caps: these
+horsemen have black belts, and are armed with pistols in the holsters, a
+sabre and lance.
+
+Then follows a regiment of nujeebs[5] (foot soldiers), their jackets red,
+with small cap turban of black leather ornamented with the kirrich[6] or
+dirk (part of the armorial bearings of the House of Oude): their trousers
+reach no lower than the hams, where they are ornamented with black points
+turning upwards on the white, leaving the thighs and legs perfectly bare.
+The dunkah[7] (kettle drums) on a horse, richly ornamented with scarlet
+cloth drapery, embroidered and fringed with gold, the rider dressed in
+scarlet and gold, with a turban to correspond, both being ornamented with
+the royal insignia,--a fish.[8]
+
+The elephant carriages, containing first his Majesty and the Resident, the
+others conveying the Prime Minister and the favoured nobles of his
+Majesty's suite, form an impressive feature in the cortege, from their
+splendour and novelty. The King's carriage is composed chiefly of silver,
+open on every side, with a canopy of crimson velvet, embroidered and
+fringed with gold, the curtains and lining to correspond; this carriage is
+drawn by four elephants, exactly of one size (the rest have but two), each
+very richly attired in velvet and gold coverings. The King and his suite
+are very splendidly dressed in the Native costume. The chowries and
+afthaadah are flourished before him, and on each side; the royal carriage
+is guarded by the irregular horse in great numbers, and immediately
+followed by led horses, very richly caparisoned, their grooms neatly
+dressed in white, with turbans of red and green. To these succeed the
+royal naalkie,[9] a species of conveyance supported by bearers,
+constructed of beautifully wrought gold; the bearers in loose scarlet
+coats, embroidered with gold, bearing the royal insignia on their coats
+and turbans. A gold palkie, supported in the same style; an elegant state
+carriage, with eight black horses in hand, the coachman (a European)
+dressed in scarlet, with a cocked-hat and staff feather.
+
+
+Hurkaarahs (running messengers), chobdhaahs with gold and silver staffs,
+are seen on either side and in front of the King's carriage, reiterating
+the King's titles and honours as they proceed. Then follow the English
+gentlemen composing the King's suite, in their court dresses, on elephants.
+To them succeed the Native nobility, great officers of state, &c., on many
+elephants,--I should think more than fifty,--and the whole followed by
+military, both horse and foot. The procession has an imposing effect,
+particularly when viewed from an open space. The regiments have each their
+colours unfurled, and their bands of music playing English pieces. I have
+often thought if our theatrical managers could witness some of these
+splendid processions, they might profit by representing on the stage the
+grand exhibition of an Eastern monarch, which loses much of its splendour
+by my indifferent powers of description.
+
+After the ceremony at the Eade-gaarh has concluded, the King and his suite
+return in the same well-arranged order, and arriving at his palace, enters
+the throne-room, where being seated, he receives nuzzas in due form,
+presented in turn by every person belonging to the court, whether
+relations, nobles, courtiers, dependants, servants, or slaves; every
+person observing a proper etiquette in their approach to the throne, the
+inferiors keeping back until their superiors retire,--which each one does
+immediately after presenting his nuzza; thus confusion is prevented in the
+hall of audience.
+
+As a description of the ceremony of presenting nuzzas, on such occasions,
+may be acceptable to some of my friends, I will describe that which I
+witnessed at the Court of Oude.
+
+The King was seated on his throne of pure gold, dressed in a very costly
+habit of Persian velvet, embroidered with gold; on his neck, valuable
+haarhs (necklaces) of diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds, were
+suspended in many rows, reaching from the neck nearly to the waist.
+
+The throne is a flat surface, about two yards square, raised about two
+feet from the floor, upon three sides of it is a railing; a square canopy,
+supported by poles, is attached to the four corners of the throne, which,
+together with the poles, are formed of wood, and cased over with pure gold,
+into which are set precious stones of great value. The canopy and cushions,
+on which the King takes his seat, are of crimson velvet, very richly
+embroidered with gold and pearls; a deep fringe of pearls of a good size
+finishes the border of the canopy. The chattah is of corresponding costly
+materials (crimson velvet and gold), fringed also with red pearls.
+
+The King's crown is elegantly formed, richly studded with diamonds, and
+ornamented with handsome plumes of the birds of Paradise. Over his head
+was supported the velvet chattah. On either side of the throne stood a
+nobleman with chowries of peacock's-feathers in gold handles, which they
+kept waving continually over the King's person.
+
+To the right of the throne were gilt chairs with velvet seats placed for
+the accommodation of the Resident and his lady, who were accompanied by
+many English ladies and gentlemen standing, as also by the European
+gentlemen attached to the King's suite: the latter, in their court dresses
+of puce cloth, richly embroidered with gold, had a very good effect,
+mingled with the well-dressed lady-visitors of the Resident.
+
+To the left of the throne stood the Native gentlemen holding high offices
+in the Court of Oude, each richly dressed in the Asiatic costume.
+
+At the King's feet stood the Vizier (Prime Minister), whose business it is,
+on such occasions, to deposit the nuzzas on the throne after they have
+been accepted by his Majesty.
+
+As the company advanced the head Chamberlain announced the name and rank
+of each person in the presence of the King. The second Chamberlain
+directed such persons, after presenting the nuzza, the way they must
+retire from the hall.
+
+The nuzzas of the first nobility consisted of twenty-one gold mohurs[10];
+those of less exalted persons were proportioned to their rank and
+circumstances; whilst servants and slaves, with inferior dependants of the
+Court, tendered their humble tribute of respect in rupees of silver.
+
+The person presenting has the offering placed on a clean white folded
+kerchief; he advances with his head bowed low, until within ten paces of
+the throne; he then stands erect for a few seconds, with his hands folded
+and held forward, after which he bows his head very low three times, and
+each time places his open hand to his forehead,--this is called
+'salaaming'; this done, he advances to the foot of the throne, repeats the
+three salaams, then presents with both hands the nuzza on the kerchief,
+which the King touches with, his hand, and the Vizier receives and
+deposits with the collected heap by the side of his Majesty.
+
+When the ceremony of presenting nuzzas has concluded, the King rises and
+advances with the Resident to the centre of the audience hall, where the
+person in charge of the haarhs[11] is in attendance with several of these
+marks of distinction, one of which the King selects and places with his
+own hands over the head of the Resident; the Resident then takes one and
+places it on the King in a similar way. Should the Vizier be in favour at
+this time, he is invested with the haarh, both by his Majesty and the
+Resident; but if, unfortunately for him, he does not enjoy his royal
+master's confidence, he takes this opportunity of testifying his
+dissatisfaction by omitting the favour to his Vizier. The haarh is
+actually of very little value but as a badge of distinction peculiar to
+Native courts, to which the Natives attach so much importance, that I
+wonder not at their anxiety to be honoured with this distinguishing mark
+of the King's satisfaction.
+
+European visitors, both male and female, are generally adorned with haarhs
+on these occasions. The King then conducts the Resident to the
+entrance,--when taking leave, he pours otta[12] on his hands, with the
+'Khodah Afiz!'[13] (God be with you!) and sometimes out of compliment to
+the Resident, his Majesty offers otta also to each of the English visitors,
+as they pass him at the door.
+
+On these great court days, the Vizier's nuzza is usually of great
+value,--sometimes a lac of rupees has been presented, when the Vizier is
+much in favour, who is sure to receive ten times the value of his nuzza
+ere the day is passed. When this large sum is presented, the Minister has
+his one hundred bags (each containing a thousand rupees), covered with
+crimson silk, and tied with silver ribands, placed on each side the throne
+prior to the King's arrival; who, on seeing this proof of his faithful
+servant's attachment, condescends to embrace him in the presence of the
+assembled court--an honour of vast magnitude in the estimation of Natives.
+
+The King confers favour on, as well as receives homage from, his subjects,
+on the day of Buckrah Eade. On some, titles or other distinctions are
+conferred; to others presents, according to his good will and pleasure:
+many receive khillauts; and should there be an unfortunate omission, in
+the distribution of princely munificence, that person understands to his
+sorrow, that he is out of favour, without needing to be told so by word of
+mouth.
+
+The title of Khaun, Nuwaub, Rajah, or any other distinction conferred by
+the King, is accompanied by the dress of honour, and often by elephants,
+horses, or the particular kind of Native palkie which are alone used by
+princes and the nobility. The elephant is always given ready furnished
+with the several necessary appendages, as silver howdah, embroidered
+jhewls[14] (draperies), &c.; and the horse richly caparisoned for riding.
+
+The naalkie and palkie are vehicles conferred on Native gentlemen with
+their titles, which cannot be used by any persons than those who have
+received the grant from their Sovereign; and there is quite as much
+ambition to be thus distinguished in a Native Court, as may be traced
+amongst the aspirants for 'the orders' in the several European states.
+
+Though the naalkie and palkie are restricted to the use of privileged
+persons, all are allowed the services of the elephant. I knew a professed
+beggar, who made his diurnal tour through the city of Lucknow on one. A
+beggar, however, in Native estimation, is not the despicable creature he
+is in European opinion; a degree of veneration is always evinced towards
+men, who live on the casual bounty of their fellow mortals, and profess
+not to have either a worldly calling or other means of support. The beggar,
+I allude to, was called Shaah Jhee[15]; he had originally been a
+travelling mendicant, and made a visit to Lucknow, when the late King was
+a young man, whom he met by accident outside the town; and, I believe,
+without knowing to whom he was speaking, predicted some favourable
+circumstances which should attend him eventually; the young prince then
+disclosed himself to the beggar, and promised him if his predictions were
+verified, he would reward him in the way he wished. Shaah Jhee left the
+Oude district, and travelled over most parts of Hindoostaun. Returning
+after many years' absence to Lucknow, he found the prince seated on the
+throne of his ancestors, and watching for a favourable opportunity to
+present himself, made his claims to the sovereign, who, remembering the
+circumstance and his promise, conferred the required reward--to be allowed
+to demand five cowries daily from every shopkeeper in the city of Lucknow.
+The King added to this humble demand a house to reside in, and the
+elephant on which he went to collect his revenue. Eighty-five cowries
+(shells) are valued at one pice, or a halfpenny; yet so vast is this
+capital of Oude, that Shaah Jhee was in the receipt of a handsome daily
+allowance, by this apparently trifling collection.
+
+Most of the respectable gentlemen in Lucknow maintain an elephant for
+their own use, where it is almost as common to meet them as horses. Though
+most persons, I observe, avoid falling in with, the royal cortege, (which
+is always announced by the sound of the dunkah), unless they are disposed
+to court the King's observation; then they draw up their elephant, and
+oblige the animal to kneel down whilst the King passes on, the owner
+standing in his howdah to make salaams; others, I have seen, dismount in
+time, and stand in a humble posture, with the hands folded and the head
+bowed low, doing reverence and attracting his Majesty's notice as he
+passes on. These little acts of ceremonious respect are gratifying to the
+King, and are frequently the means of advancing the views of the subject
+to his favour.
+
+The khillauts, presented by the King, vary in the number of the articles
+composing the gift, as well as in the quality. The personal rank, and
+sometimes the degree of estimation in which the receiver is held, is
+defined by the value and number of an individual's khillaut. I have known
+some gentlemen tenacious to a foible, about the nature of the khillaut
+that could consistently be accepted; I have heard it even expressed, 'I
+shall be disgraced in the eyes of the world, if my khillaut has not the
+full complement usually conferred on men of my rank'. It is the honour
+they value, not the intrinsic worth of the articles, for it is no uncommon
+thing to find them distributing the dress of honour amongst their
+dependants, on the same day they have received it.
+
+The splendid articles composing khillauts are as follows: swords with
+embroidered belts, the handle and scabbard either enamelled or embossed
+silver, often set with precious stones; the most inferior have silver
+mountings and velvet scabbards; shields studded with silver; kirrich
+(dirk), the handle and sheath equally as rich as the swords; embroidered
+or gold cloth chupkunds[16] (coats); shawl-stuff labaadahs[17] (pelisses),
+trimmed with sable; turbans of shawl or muslin; ornaments for the turban
+of diamonds and emeralds, the inferior of paste; strings of pearls and
+emeralds for the neck; shawls, always in pairs, of more or less value;
+shawl-kerchiefs; shawl cummerbunds[18] (girdles); shawl lahaafs[19]
+(counterpanes); gold cloth, gold and silver muslins, and shawl stuff, in
+pieces, each being sufficient to form a dress; Benares silks, or rich
+satin for trousers; pieces of fine embroidered muslin for shirts. These
+are the usual articles of value given in khillauts to the most exalted
+favourites. In some instances the King confers one hundred and one pieces
+in a khillaut; in others seventy-five, and down to five articles, which is
+the lowest number given in this much-prized dress of honour. In a khillaut
+of five pieces, I have observed, generally, a coarser kind of gold cloth
+dress, a coloured muslin turban, a pair of coarse shawls, a coarse shawl
+romall[20] (kerchief), and a girdle. I have also observed, that the higher
+the numbers rise, the quality of the articles increased in value;
+consequently, when we hear of any one being invested with the highest
+number, we calculate that each piece is of the very best quality and
+fabric.
+
+When khillauts are conferred, the investiture usually takes place in the
+King's presence, who sometimes condescends to place one of the articles on
+the receiver with his own hands; at other times he merely touches the
+turban with his hand, and the individuals are clothed by the Prime
+Minister. After receiving the khillaut, each person approaches the throne
+and does homage to the King, presenting a nuzza in accordance with his
+rank, and the value of the khillaut.
+
+The Revenue Collectors and Zemindhaars[21] (landlords of farms) crowd to
+the Court on these days, to testify their respect and share in the honours
+distributed with a liberal hand. These persons may well be solicitous to
+receive this badge of distinction, which they find increases their
+influence over the Ryotts[22] (cultivators).
+
+On the morning of Buckrah Eade, the King gives a public breakfast at
+Lucknow, to the Resident and his suite, and to such of the Native nobility
+as are privileged to 'the chair'[23] at the royal banquets. The breakfast
+concluded, many varieties of sports commence, as elephant-fighting, tiger
+sports, &c.[24] The entertainment is got up with great magnificence,
+neither expense nor trouble being spared to render the festivities of the
+day conspicuous.
+
+After the Resident and his party have retired, the King returns to his
+private apartments, where the forms of state are thrown aside with the
+splendid robes; and the ease and comfort of real Asiatic life is again
+indulged in, without the parade so studiously observed in public, as being
+essential to the sovereign's dignity. The trammels of state must indeed be
+irksome to those who indulge in that sort of luxurious ease which forms
+the chief comfort of Native life.
+
+The evening at Court is passed by the King and his favourite courtiers,
+with music and the performances of dancing-girls; a variety of fire-work
+exhibitions; the witticisms of the Court-jesters, and such other
+amusements as are suited to Asiatic taste.
+
+The magnificent style of celebrating Buckrah Eade at Lucknow is perhaps
+unequalled by any other Native Court now existing in Hindoostaun. The
+rejoicings on this festival are not confined to the higher classes alone;
+but it is a period of equal interest to every individual of the Mussulmaun
+community. The custom of the Court is imitated by the subjects in their
+several grades, each striving to do honour to the day according to their
+ability. The religious classes add, to their usual Namaaz, the appointed
+prayer for the occasion of Buckrah Eade.
+
+The rich send presents of goats and sheep to their neighbours and to the
+poor, so that the meanest of the people are enabled to offer sacrifice and
+rejoice in the good things of which they partake: new suits of clothes are
+also distributed to the dependants of the family and to the poor. In short,
+on this day, there seems a spirit of benevolence abroad, that is even
+remarkable beyond the general generosity of their natural character, as
+all who have any thing to share will assuredly, on this occasion, impart a
+blessing to the needy, and gratify their friends and acquaintances.
+
+The bride and bridegroom elect exchange presents of goats, &c.; the tutor
+writes a copy of verses on the day, and presents it to his pupil; the
+pupil in return sends his tutor a dress and money to enable him to keep
+Eade with his family.
+
+The ladies dress in their most costly jewels and apparel to receive or pay
+visits. The children have their sports and amusements. Whenever I have
+entered a Native house on these days, all seemed cheerful and happy, and
+enjoying themselves in whatever way was most congenial to their particular
+tastes; 'every one must be cheerful (they say) on Buckrah Eade'.
+
+On this day, millions of animals are sacrificed in remembrance of
+Abraham's faith. I have often thought how striking is the similarity
+between the Mosaic and Mussulmaun institutes,--indeed my recollections of
+Scripture history have frequently been realized in the views I have had of
+the domestic habits of the Mussulmauns. They are forbidden the use of
+unclean animals; the swine is equally abominable to Mussulmauns as to the
+Jews; neither are they less scrupulous in discarding from their kitchen
+any kind of animal food prohibited by their laws, or which has not been
+killed by one of their faith. In this process the person, who is to slay,
+turns the animal's head towards Mecca, repeats the short appointed prayer,
+and with one plunge the animal has ceased to feel: they are expert in the
+art of despatching life, so that the animal's sufferings may not be
+protracted unnecessarily;--an amiable trait of character and worthy of
+imitation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+'Nou-Roze'[25] (New Year's Day) is a Festival of Eade of no mean
+importance in the estimation of Mussulmaun society.
+
+The exact period of commencing the Mussulmaun new year is the very moment
+of the sun's entering the sign Aries. This is calculated by those
+practical astronomers, who are in the service of most great men in Native
+cities;--I should tell you they have not the benefit of published
+almanacks as in England,--and according to the hour of the day or night
+when the sun passes into that particular sign, so are they directed in the
+choice of a colour to be worn in their garments on this Eade: if at
+midnight, the colour would be dark puce, almost a black; if at mid-day,
+the colour would be the brightest crimson. Thus to the intermediate hours
+are given a shade of either colour applicable to the time of the night or
+the day when the sun enters the sign Aries; and whatever be the colour to
+suit the hour of Nou-Roze, all classes wear the day's livery, from the
+King to the meanest subject in the city. The King, on his throne, sits in
+state to receive congratulations and nuzzas from his nobles, courtiers and
+dependants. 'Mabaarukh Nou-Roze!'[26] (May the New Year be fortunate!) are
+the terms of salutation exchanged by all classes of society, the King
+himself setting the example. The day is devoted to amusements, a public
+breakfast at the palace, sending presents, exchanging visits, &c.
+
+The trays of presents prepared by the ladies for their friends are
+tastefully set out, and the work of many days' previous arrangement. Eggs
+are boiled hard, some of these are stained in colours resembling our
+mottled papers; others are neatly painted in figures and devices; many are
+ornamented with gilding; every lady evincing her own peculiar taste in the
+prepared eggs for 'Nou-Roze'. All kinds of dried fruits and nuts,
+confectionary and cakes, are numbered amongst the necessary articles for
+this day's offering: they are set out in small earthen plates, lacquered
+over to resemble silver, on which is placed coloured paper, cut out in
+curious devices (an excellent substitute for vine leaves) laid on the
+plate to receive the several articles forming 'Nou-Roze' presents.
+
+Amongst the young people these trays are looked forward to with child-like
+anxiety. The ladies rival each other in their display of novelty and good
+taste, both in the eatables and the manner of setting them off with effect.
+
+The religious community have prayers read in their family, and by them it
+is considered both a necessary duty and a propitious commencement to bring
+in the new year by 'prayer and praises'.
+
+When it is known that the Nou-Roze will occur by daylight, the ladies have
+a custom of watching for the moment the year shall commence by a fresh
+rose, which being plucked from the stalk is thrown into a basin of water,
+the eye downwards. They say, this rose turns over of itself towards the
+sun at the very moment of that luminary passing into the sign Aries. I
+have often found them thus engaged; but I never could say I witnessed the
+actual accomplishment of their prediction.
+
+The Nou-Roze teems with friendly tokens between the two families of a
+bride and bridegroom elect, whose interchange of presents are also
+strictly observed. The children receive gifts from their elders; their
+nurses reap a harvest from the day; the tutor writes an ode in praise of
+his pupil, and receives gifts from the child's parents; the servants and
+slaves are regaled with dainties and with presents from the superiors of
+the establishment; the poor are remembered with clothes, money and food;
+the ladies make and receive visits; and the domenie attend to play and
+sing in the zeenahnah. In short, the whole day is passed in cheerful
+amusements, suited to the retirement of a zeenahnah and the habits of the
+people.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is a festival observed at Lucknow called Bussund[27] (spring-colour).
+I should remark here, that almost all the trees of India have perpetual
+foliage; as the season approaches for the new leaves to sprout, the young
+buds force off the old leaves; and when the trees are thus clothed in
+their first delicate foliage, there is a yellow tinge in the colour which
+is denominated Bussund (Spring). A day is appointed to be kept under this
+title, and then every one wears the Bussund colour: no one would be
+admitted at Court without this badge of the day. The elephants, horses and
+camels of the King, or of his nobles, are all ornamented with the same
+colour on their trappings.
+
+The King holds a Court, gives a public breakfast, and exhibits sports with
+ferocious animals. The amusements of this day are chiefly confined to the
+Court: I have not observed much notice taken of it in private life.
+
+The last month of the periodical rains is called Sahbaund.[28] There is a
+custom observed by the Mussulmaun population, the origin of which has
+never been clearly explained to me; some say it is in remembrance of the
+Prophet Elisha or Elijah, and commences the first Friday of Sahbaund, and
+is followed up every succeeding Friday through this concluding month of
+the rainy season.[29]
+
+This ceremony may have had its origin with devout persons willing to
+honour or to invoke the Prophet Elijah, who, as our Scripture informs us,
+'prayed, and the clouds gave no rain for the space of three years; and
+again he prayed and the heavens were opened to his prayer'. Or in that of
+Elisha parting the waters with the mantle of Elijah, after succeeding him
+in the Prophetic office, 2 Kings ii. 14; or a still more probable event,
+calculated to excite the pious to some such annual notice as is observed
+with these people, in the same chapter, the twentieth and following verses,
+where we find it said of Elisha, 'And he said, Bring me a new cruse, and
+put salt therein. And they brought it to him. And he went forth unto the
+spring of the waters, and cast the salt in there, and said, Thus saith the
+Lord, I have healed these waters; there shall not be from thence any more
+dearth or barren land. So the waters were healed unto this day, according
+to the saying of Elisha which he spake.'
+
+The learned men call it a zeenahnah, or children's custom; but it is
+common to see children of all ages amongst the males, partake of, and
+enjoy the festival with as much glee as the females or their juniors.
+
+A bamboo frame is formed to the shape of a Chinese boat: this frame-work
+is hidden by a covering of gold and silver tissue, silk, or coloured
+muslin, bordered and neatly ornamented with silver paper. In this light
+bark many lamps are secreted, of common earthenware. A procession is
+formed to convey the tribute, called 'Elias ky Kishtee[30]', to the river.
+The servants of the family, soldiers, and a band of Native music attend in
+due order of march: the crowd attracted by this childish play is immense,
+increasing as they advance through the several streets on the way to the
+river, by all the idlers of the place.
+
+The kishtee (boat) is launched amidst a flourish of trumpets and drums,
+and the shouts of the populace; the small vessel, being first well lighted,
+by means of the secreted lamps, moves down gently with the stream. When at
+a little distance, on a broad river, in the stillness of evening, any
+one--who did not previously know how these little moving bodies of light
+were produced--might fancy such fairy scenes as are to be met with in the
+well-told fables of children's books in happy England.
+
+This custom, though strongly partaking of the superstitious, is not so
+blameable as that which I have known practised by some men of esteemed
+good understanding, who having a particular object in view, which they
+cannot attain by any human stratagem or contrivance, write petitions to
+the Emaum Mhidhie on Fridays, and by their own hands commit the paper to
+the river, with as much reverence as if they thought him present in the
+water to receive it. The petition is always written in the same respectful
+terms, as inferiors here well know how to address their superiors; and
+every succeeding Friday the petition is repeated until the object is
+accomplished, or the petitioner has no further inducement to offer one.
+
+I have made particular inquiries whether such sensible people (as I have
+seen thus engaged) placed any dependence on this mode of petitioning. The
+only answer I have received, is, 'Those who think proper thus to petition,
+certainly believe that it will be effectual, if they persevere in it.'
+
+The New Moon is a festival in the family of every good Mussulmaun.[31]
+They date the new moon from the evening it first become visible, and not
+as we do--from the moment it changes. The event is announced in Native
+cities by firing salutes from the field-pieces of Kings, Nuwaubs, &c.
+
+Amongst the religious people there is much preparation in bathing and
+changing the dress against the evening the moon is expected to be visible,
+and when the guns have announced that it is visible, they have the Khoraun
+brought, which they open at the passage where Mahumud praises God for this
+particular blessing. A small looking glass is then brought, on which
+passage it is placed, and the book held in such a position that the moon
+may be first seen by the person reflected in the glass. They then repeat
+the prayer, expressly appointed for this occasion, and that done, the
+whole family rise and embrace each other, making salaams and reverence to
+their superiors and elders. The servants and slaves advance for the same
+purpose, and nothing is heard for some minutes, but 'May the new moon be
+fortunate!' reiterated from every mouth of the assembled family.
+
+I cannot answer for the motives which actuate the ignorant people to bow
+when they first see the new moon; but the pious Mussulmaun, I am assured,
+bows to the Creator for the visible blessing, and not to the object.
+
+The first eatables handed round to secure good luck and health throughout
+the month are sugar-candy and cheese. I fancy this is a mere zeenahnah
+custom, for I do not find the males so particular about eating this most
+extraordinary mixture as the females.
+
+The servants' wages are paid by the month, and in well-regulated families
+the first day of the moon is hailed by dependants and domestics with no
+small share of anxiety. Indeed, these people make the moon of much more
+importance in the regulation of domestic affairs than the inhabitants of
+more polished countries, for they attribute the influence of that planet
+over the inhabitants of the earth in many extraordinary ways. It may be
+deemed superstitious, but as my business is to relate the most material
+ceremonies among this people, I cannot well omit noticing some of their
+observances at this time.
+
+If any person is ill, and bleeding is the only good remedy to be pursued,
+the age of the moon is first discussed, and if it happens to be near the
+full, they are inflexibly resolute that the patient shall not lose blood
+until her influence is lessened. And should it happen at the commencement
+of the second quarter, or a few days after the full, the difficulty is to
+be overcome by deprecating the evil influence of the moon over the patient,
+by burning a brand of straw which is flourished about the sick person's
+head, who is brought out into the moon's presence for this important
+operation.[32] Many equally extraordinary things of this sort I have been
+obliged to witness in the zeenahnah.
+
+The full moon is deemed propitious for celebrating the marriage festivals.
+If this be not possible, care is always to be taken that the ceremony does
+not fall at the period when she is in the unfavourable sign; they say the
+happiness of the young couple depends on this being carefully avoided, as
+in the opinion of every Mussulmaun 'the moon in Scorpio' is unpropitious
+for any business of moment.[33]
+
+When a journey is contemplated the moon's age is the first consideration;
+indeed, the favourable signs of Madam Luna's movements are not only
+selected for commencing a journey, but for all undertakings of like
+importance;--whether to build, to write, to plant, to take medicine, &c.
+
+What will be said of the singular custom, 'drinking the moon at a
+draught'? A silver basin being filled with water is held in such a
+situation that the full moon may be reflected in it; the person to be
+benefited by this draught is required to look steadfastly at the moon in
+the basin, then shut his eyes and quaff the liquid at one draught.[34]
+This remedy is advised by medical professors in nervous cases, and also
+for palpitations of the heart. I have seen this practised, but I am not
+aware of any real benefit derived by the patient from the prescription.
+
+When the planet Venus is in conjunction with the moon, they say the time
+is most favourable to offer prayers to God for any particular object they
+may have in view. At this time they write charms or talismans to be worn
+by children. I remember having witnessed a gentleman thus occupied, who
+wrote little scraps in the Arabic character to distribute amongst the
+children of his friends, who wore them enclosed in silver cases on their
+arms.
+
+An eclipse of the moon is an event of great interest, both with the
+Mussulmaun and the Hindoo population, although they have very opposite
+ideas of the causes of an eclipse.
+
+Many of the notions entertained by the lower classes of Mussulmauns upon
+the nature of an eclipse are borrowed from the Hindoos.[34] Some think
+that it is caused by the anger of God towards the people of the earth;
+others say the moon is in debt, and many other equally odd conceits exist
+amongst the ignorant people, and among them only. Yet a sensation of awe
+is felt by most; and where is the intelligent creature who can view an
+eclipse or any other phenomenon of Nature without the same feeling of awe,
+although all are not equally ready to express the sensation?
+
+Loud cries from the mixed population, Mussulmauns and Hindoos, announce
+the commencement of an eclipse, whether it be of the sun or the moon. The
+voice of the Mussulmaun is distinguished by the Namaazies'[35] call to
+prayers--'Allah wo uckbaar![36] (God alone is great!) To this summons the
+faithful attend diligently, and they are generally occupied in the form of
+prayer appointed by Mahumud until the shadow has passed over the sun or
+moon eclipsed.
+
+The ladies prepare offerings of corn, oil, and money to be distributed
+amongst the poor. The gentlemen give presents to the needy. The astronomer
+who predicts to his royal or noble master the exact period of an eclipse,
+is rewarded, when it is over, with money, a dress, and a crescent of pure
+gold in some instances. A bride elect sends sutkah[38] to her intended
+husband, accompanied by a goat or kid, which must be tied to the leg of
+his bedstead during the continuance of an eclipse: these offerings are
+afterwards distributed in charity. Women expecting to become mothers are
+carefully kept awake during an eclipse, as they declare the infant's
+security depends on the mother being kept from sleep; they are not allowed
+to use a needle, scissors, knife, or any other instrument during an
+eclipse, for fear of drawing blood, which would be injurious at that
+period, both to the mother and child; neither are the animals in a similar
+state neglected; a mixture of cow-dung and drugs is rubbed over the belly
+of such animals, whether cows, sheep, goats, &c., and all these are
+securely housed until the planet is again resplendent: they fancy that
+both the animal and its young would be endangered by exposure during the
+time of the eclipse.
+
+The power of the moon on wounded persons is believed universally to be of
+dangerous tendency. I have heard many extraordinary relations by people
+who, as they tell me, have suffered from exposure to the moon whilst a
+wound was fresh. One person had received a severe sabre-cut on his arm;
+the place was sewed up by the barber (the only surgeon amongst the
+Natives), and being much exhausted he laid down to sleep in the open air.
+The moon was near the full, and after some hours' exposure to her
+influence he awoke in great agony; the barber examined the arm early in
+the morning and found the cut in a state of corruption, the sewing having
+burst; the wound was cleansed, and dressed with pounded camphor; the place
+eventually healed, and the man lived many years to tell his story, always
+declaring his belief that the moon had been the cause of his sufferings;
+he was the more certain of this as he dreamed whilst exposed to her
+influence, that a large black woman (an inhabitant of the moon) had
+wrestled with him, and hurt his wound.
+
+The usual application in India to a fresh wound is that of slacked lime. A
+man in our employ was breaking wood, the head of the hatchet came off, and
+the sharp edge fell with considerable force on the poor creature's foot;
+he bled profusely and fainted, lime was unsparingly applied, to the wound,
+the foot carefully wrapped up, and the man conveyed to his hut on a
+charpoy (bedstead), where he was kept quiet without disturbing the wound;
+at the end of a fortnight he walked about, and in another week returned to
+his labour.[39]
+
+Lime is an article of great service in the domestic economy of the Natives.
+I have experienced the good effects of this simple remedy for burns or
+scalds: equal proportions of lime, water, and any kind of oil, made into a
+thin paste, and immediately applied and repeatedly moistened, will
+speedily remove the effects of a burn; and if applied later, even when a
+blister has risen, the remedy never fails: I cannot say how it might act
+on a wound, the consequence of a neglected burn.
+
+The lime used with pawn by the natives of India is considered very
+beneficial to health; and they use it in great quantities, considering
+that they never eat pawn without lime, and the most moderate pawn eaters
+indulge in the luxury at least eight times in the course of the day. The
+benefit of lime is worth the consideration of the medical world--as a
+preventive in some climates, as a renovater in others.
+
+Shubh-burraat,[40] is the designation of one of the months of the
+Mussulmauns (you are aware their month is the duration of the moon). The
+night of the full moon Shubh-burraat is a period of great and interesting
+importance to the Mussulmaun people of every degree; for on this night
+they are persuaded the fate of every human being is fixed in heaven; and
+that whatever is to be their doom is then registered in the Book of Life.
+Those who are to retain health, life, prosperity, or any other blessing,
+and those who are to be visited by sickness, sorrows, adversity or death;
+in short, whatever is to occur throughout the year is on this night
+assuredly noted in heaven for each individual on earth.
+
+On this night they are instructed also to remember their friends and
+relatives who have been separated from them by death, and the injunction
+is followed up with much pious respect and marked veneration. Food is
+cooked and portioned out in the name of each departed object of their
+regard, over which the elder of the family,--if a Maulvee is not
+available,--reads a certain form of prayer called Fahteeah[41]; this done,
+each portion (if convenient) is conveyed to the several tombs wherein
+those friends are deposited; or if not convenient to send the food to the
+burying ground, it is distributed amongst the poor of the city and the
+suburbs; the beggars congregating in those places to indulge in the
+luxuries prepared to the memory of the dead. The food prepared on this
+occasion must not contain any animal food. Bread of various kinds, sweet
+rice, and meetah[42] (a mixture of sugar, ghee, and flour), are the usual
+dainties I have observed in these offerings. Fireworks are in universal
+request on the night of Shubh-burraat, which is required to be passed in
+wakefulness; and to this may be ascribed the never-varying custom of
+letting them off: it is an amusement these people take delight in at all
+times, and on this occasion most usefully, to keep them awake. The younger
+branches, at all events, derive this benefit from the pastime.
+
+The religious community make it a night of strict devotion; they offer
+prayers and intercessions for the souls of their departed friends, since
+they imagine that this period, of all others, is most favourable to prayer,
+as they believe the heart is more open to the throne of mercy, the prayer
+more effectual, and that the real penitent suing for pardon on the night
+of Shubh-burraat, is certainly heard and his sins forgiven.
+
+The Sheah sect attach still greater importance to this night, as the
+anniversary of the birth of Emaum Mhidhie.[43] They also remember Hasan
+and Hosein as martyrs; and in memory of their sufferings the zeearut[44]
+(circuit as at Mahurrum), is performed by walking round the ground in front
+of their apartments, repeating the burial service, with some trifling
+alterations; likewise the salaams to the Prophets and Emaums are duly
+performed during this night of fate.
+
+There is a singular opinion current amongst the Mussulmauns, that the
+trees hold converse at this momentous period.[45] The really pious
+characters amongst the Mussulmauns declare that they discountenance
+superstition in every way; but they strictly adhere to every habit or
+custom on record which was the practice of Mahumud and his family, the
+Emaums. Of course, they do not think the observances of Shubh-burraat are
+at all bordering on superstition, whatever may be thought of the practice
+by others.
+
+
+[1] See p. 78.
+
+[2] 'Idgah, the place where the rites of the 'Id festival are
+    conducted. It generally consists of a pavement, with a wall to the
+    west, facing east.
+
+[3] See p. 42.
+
+[4] _Angarkha_.
+
+[5] _Najib_, 'noble'; the half-disciplined militia of Native States.
+
+[6] _Kirch_, a straight thrusting sword.
+
+[7] See p. 48.
+
+[8] See p. 43.
+
+[9] _Nalki_, a kind of litter, the use of which was regarded as a
+    mark of dignity: see Sleeman, _Rambles_, p. 135.
+
+[10] A coin worth, about Rs. 16.
+
+[11] Haarh is a name given to any sort of ornament which we should
+    designate a necklace. The haarhs presented on these occasions at the
+    Oude court are composed of silver ribands very prettily platted and
+    confined at each division of plats by knobs covered with silver riband.
+    The prices of these haarhs are from five to twenty-five rupees each,
+    depending on the size. [_Author_.] See p. 62.
+
+[12] _'Itr_, essence of roses.
+
+[13]_Khuda hafiz_.
+
+[14] _Jhul_.
+
+[15] _Shahji_, 'my lord'.
+
+[16] _Chapkan_, the cassock-like frock, which is the usual dress of
+    respectable natives.
+
+[17] _Labada_, a sort of overcoat.
+
+[18] _Kamarband_, 'loin-band'.
+
+[19] _Lahaf_, a corruption of _ghilaf_, 'a wrapper'.
+
+[20] _Rumal_, 'face-wiper'.
+
+[21] _Zamindar_, 'a landowner'.
+
+[22] _Ra'iyat_.
+
+[23] Many native gentlemen are allowed to be seated in the king's presence
+    at court daily, but not at the banquet, which is a distinction
+    reserved only for the nobility and favourites. [_Author_.]
+
+[24] For an account of the animal fights before Lord W. Bentinck in 1831
+    see Mrs. F. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 176 ff.; W. Knighton,
+    _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 147 ff.
+
+[25] _Nauroz_. Specially a Persian feast: see Sir J. Malcolm, _History of
+    Persia_,[2] ii. 341 _n_., 404; S.G.W. Benjamin, _Persia and the
+    Persians_, p. 198; O.J. Wills, _The Land of the Lion and the Sun_, ed.
+    1891, p. 48.
+
+[26] _Nauroz mubarak_.
+
+[27] Basant or spring feast, held at the vernal equinox.
+
+[28] Sawan, the fourth month of the Hindu year, July-August.
+
+[29] The feast is held in honour of the mythical Khwaja Khizr, 'the
+    green one', a water spirit identified with the Prophet Elisha (see
+    Sale on _Koran_, xviii. 63). The launching of the little boats is,
+    in essence, a form of magic intended to carry away the evils which
+    menace the community, and to secure abundant rainfall.
+
+[30] _Ilyas ki kishti_.
+
+[31] This is known as Hilal.
+
+[32] The Semites, like other races, believed in the influence of the moon.
+    'The sun shall not strike thee by day, nor the moon by night' (Ps.
+    cxxi. 6). It was believed to cause blindness and epilepsy. Sir J.G.
+    Frazer has exhaustively discussed the question of the influence of the
+    moon. The harvest moon, in particular, brings fertility, and hears the
+    prayers of women in travail: the moon causes growth and decay, and she
+    is dangerous to children. Many practical rules are based on her
+    influence at the various phases (_The Golden Bough_[3] Part I, vol. ii,
+    p. 128; Part IV, vol. ii, p. 132 ff.).
+
+[33] 'The sixth house is Scorpio, which is that of slaves and servants,
+    and of diseases' (Abul Fazl, _Akbarnama_, tr. H. Beveridge, ii. 12).
+
+[34] Here the moon is supposed to exert a curative influence.
+
+[35] Hindus believe that during an eclipse the moon is being strangled by
+    a demon, Rahu. Cries are raised, drums and brazen pans are beaten
+    to scare him.
+
+[36] Properly the Mu'azzin or official summoner to prayer.
+
+[37] _Allahu akbar_.
+
+[38] All offerings of intercession or thanksgivings are denominated sutkah
+    [_Author_] (_sadaqah_, see p. 136).
+
+[39] Lime liniment, composed of equal parts of lime-water and a bland oil,
+    is recognized in surgical practice.
+
+[40] _Shab-i-bara'at_, 'the night of record', is a feast held on the
+    15th of the month Sha'ban, when a vigil is kept, with prayers and
+    illuminations. On this occasion service in memory of the deceased
+    ancestors of the family is performed. On this night the fortunes of
+    mortals during the coming year are said to be recorded in Heaven. See
+    p. 51.
+
+[41] Al-Fatihah, 'the opening one', the first chapter of the Koran.
+
+[42] _Mitha, mithai_, 'sweetmeats'.
+
+[43] Imam Mahdi, see pp. 72, 76.
+
+[44] _Ziyarat_, see p. 15.
+
+[45] Compare the oracular trees of the Greeks (Sir J.G. Frazer,
+    _Pausanias_, ii. 160). For legends of speaking trees in India,
+    W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India_,[2] ii. 89.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XII
+
+  The Zeenahnah.--Its interior described.--Furniture, decorations,
+  &c.--The Purdah (curtains).--Bedstead.--The Musnud (seat of
+  honour).--Mirrors and ornamental furniture disused.--Display on
+  occasions of festivity.--Observations on the Mussulmaun
+  Ladies.--Happiness in their state of seclusion.--Origin of secluding
+  females by Mahumud.--Anecdote.--Tamerlane's command prohibiting
+  females being seen in public.--The Palankeen.--Bearers.--Their
+  general utility and contentedness of disposition.--Habits peculiar
+  to Mussulmaun Ladies.--Domestic arrangements of a Zeenahnah.--Dinner
+  and its accompanying observances.--The Lota and Lugguns.--The
+  Hookha.--Further investigation of the customs adopted in Zeenahnahs.
+
+
+Before I introduce the ladies of a Mussulmaun zeenahnah to your notice, I
+propose giving you a description of their apartments.
+
+Imagine to yourself a tolerably sized quadrangle, three sides of which is
+occupied by habitable buildings, and the fourth by kitchens, offices,
+lumber rooms, &c.; leaving in the centre an open court-yard. The habitable
+buildings are raised a few steps from the court; a line of pillars forms
+the front of the building, which has no upper rooms; the roof is flat, and
+the sides and back without windows, or any aperture through which air can
+be received. The sides and back are merely high walls forming an enclosure,
+and the only air is admitted from the fronts of the dwelling-place facing
+the court-yard. The apartments are divided into long halls, the extreme
+corners having small rooms or dark closets purposely built for the
+repository of valuables or stores; doors are fixed to these closets, which
+are the only places I have seen with them in a zeenahnah or mahul[1]
+(house or palace occupied by females); the floor is either of beaten earth,
+bricks, or stones; boarded floors are not yet introduced.
+
+As they have neither doors nor windows to the halls, warmth or privacy is
+secured by means of thick wadded curtains, made to fit each opening
+between the pillars. Some zeenahnahs have two rows of pillars in the halls
+with wadded curtains to each, thus forming two distinct halls, as occasion
+may serve, or greater warmth be required: this is a convenient arrangement
+where the establishment of servants, slaves, &c., is extensive.
+
+The wadded curtains are called purdahs[2]; these are sometimes made of
+woollen cloth, but more generally of coarse calico, of two colours, in
+patchwork style, striped, vandyked, or in some other ingeniously contrived
+and ornamented way, according to their individual taste.
+
+Besides the purdahs, the openings between the pillars have blinds neatly
+made of bamboo strips, wove together with coloured cords: these are called
+jhillmuns or cheeks.[3] Many of them are painted green; others are more
+gaudy both in colour and variety of patterns. These blinds constitute a
+real comfort to every one in India, as they admit air when let down, and
+at the same time shut out flies and other annoying insects; besides which
+the extreme glare is shaded by them,--a desirable object to foreigners in
+particular.
+
+The floors of the halls are first matted with the coarse date-leaf matting
+of the country, over which is spread shutteringhies[4] (thick cotton
+carpets, peculiarly the manufacture of the Upper Provinces of India, wove
+in stripes of blue and white, or shades of blue); a white calico carpet
+covers the shutteringhie, on which the females take their seat.
+
+The bedsteads of the family are placed, during the day, in lines at the
+back of the halls, to be moved at pleasure to any chosen spot for the
+night's repose; often into the open courtyard, for the benefit of the pure
+air. They are all formed on one principle, differing only in size and
+quality; they stand about half-a-yard from the floor, the legs round and
+broad at bottom, narrowing as they rise towards the frame, which is laced
+over with a thick cotton tape, made for the purpose, and platted in
+checquers, and thus rendered soft, or rather elastic, and very pleasant to
+recline upon. The legs of these bedsteads are in some instances gold,
+silver gilt, or pure silver; others have enamel paintings on fine wood;
+the inferior grades have them merely of wood painted plain and varnished;
+the servants' bedsteads are of the common mango-wood without ornament, the
+lacing of these for the sacking being of elastic string manufactured from
+the fibre of the cocoa-nut.
+
+Such are the bedsteads of every class of people. They seldom have
+mattresses; a soojinee[5] (white quilt) is spread on the lacing, over
+which a calico sheet, tied at each corner of the bedstead with cords and
+tassels; several thin flat pillows of beaten cotton for the head,--a
+muslin sheet for warm weather, and a well wadded ruzzie[6] (coverlid) for
+winter, is all these children of Nature deem essential to their comfort in
+the way of sleeping. They have no idea of night dresses; the same suit
+that adorns a lady, is retained both night and day, until a change be
+needed. The single article exchanged at night is the deputtah,[7] and that
+only when it happens to be of silver tissue or embroidery, for which a
+muslin or calico sheet is substituted.
+
+The very highest circles have the same habits in common with the meanest,
+but those who can afford shawls of cashmere prefer them for sleeping in,
+when the cold weather renders them bearable. Blankets are never used
+except by the poorest peasantry, who wear them in lieu of better garments
+night and day in the winter season: they are always black, the natural
+colour of the wool. The ruzzies of the higher orders are generally made of
+silk of the brightest hues, well wadded, and lined with dyed muslin of
+assimilating colour; they are usually bound with broad silver ribands, and
+sometimes bordered with gold brocaded trimmings. The middling classes have
+fine chintz ruzzies, and the servants and slaves coarse ones of the same
+material; but all are on the same plan, whether for a queen or the meanest
+of her slaves, differing only in the quality of the material.
+
+The mistress of the house is easily distinguished by her seat of honour in
+the hall of a zeenahnah; a musnud[8] not being allowed to any other person
+but the lady of the mansion.
+
+The musnud carpet is spread on the floor if possible near to a pillar
+about the centre of the hall, and is made of many varieties of
+fabric,--gold cloth, quilted silk, brocaded silk, velvet, fine chintz, or
+whatever may suit the lady's taste, circumstances, or convenience. It is
+about two yards square, and generally bordered or fringed, on which is
+placed the all-important musnud. This article may be understood by those
+who have seen a lace-maker's pillow in England, excepting only that the
+musnud is about twenty times the size of that useful little article in the
+hands of our industrious villagers. The musnud is covered with gold cloth,
+silk, velvet, or calico, with square pillows to correspond, for the elbows,
+the knees, &c. This is the seat of honour, to be invited to share which,
+with the lady-owner, is a mark of favour to an equal or inferior: when a
+superior pays a visit of honour, the prided seat is usually surrendered to
+her, and the lady of the house takes her place most humbly on the very
+edge of her own carpet.
+
+Looking-glasses or ornamental furniture are very rarely to be seen in the
+zeenahnahs, even of the very richest females. Chairs and sofas are
+produced when English visitors are expected; but the ladies of Hindoostaun
+prefer the usual mode of sitting and lounging on the carpet; and as for
+tables, I suppose not one gentlewoman of the whole country has ever been
+seated at one; and very few, perhaps, have any idea of their useful
+purposes, all their meals being served on the floor, where dusthakhawns[9]
+(table-cloths we should call them) are spread, but neither knives, forks,
+spoons, glasses, or napkins, so essential to the comfortable enjoyment of
+a meal amongst Europeans. But those who never knew such comforts have no
+desire for the indulgence, nor taste to appreciate them.
+
+On the several occasions, amongst Native society, of assembling in large
+parties, as at births and marriages, the halls, although extensive, would
+be inadequate to accommodate the whole party. They then have awnings of
+white calico, neatly flounced with muslin, supported on poles fixed in the
+courtyard, and connecting the open space with the great hall, by wooden
+platforms which are brought to a line with the building, and covered with
+shutteringhie and white carpets to correspond with the floor-furniture of
+the hall; and here the ladies sit by day and sleep by night very
+comfortably, without feeling any great inconvenience from the absence of
+their bedsteads, which could never be arranged for the accommodation of so
+large an assemblage--nor is it ever expected.
+
+The usually barren look of these almost unfurnished halls is on such
+occasions quite changed, when the ladies are assembled in their various
+dresses; the brilliant display of jewels, the glittering drapery of their
+dress, the various expressions of countenance, and different figures, the
+multitude of female attendants and slaves, the children of all ages and
+sizes in their variously ornamented dresses, are subjects to attract both
+the eye and the mind of an observing visitor; and the hall, which when
+empty appeared desolate and comfortless, thus filled, leaves nothing
+wanting to render the scene attractive.
+
+The buzz of human voices, the happy playfulness of the children, the
+chaste singing of the domenies fill up the animated picture. I have
+sometimes passed an hour or two in witnessing their innocent amusements,
+without any feeling of regret for the brief sacrifice of time I had made. I
+am free to confess, however, that I have returned to my tranquil home with
+increased delight after having witnessed the bustle of a zeenahnah
+assembly. At first I pitied the apparent monotony of their lives; but this
+feeling has worn away by intimacy with the people, who are thus precluded
+from mixing generally with the world. They are happy in their confinement;
+and never having felt the sweets of liberty, would not know how to use the
+boon if it were to be granted them. As the bird from the nest immured in a
+cage is both cheerful and contented, so are these females. They have not,
+it is true, many intellectual resources, but they have naturally good
+understandings, and having learned their duty they strive to fulfil it. So
+far as I have had any opportunity of making personal observations on their
+general character they appear to me obedient wives, dutiful daughters,
+affectionate mothers, kind mistresses, sincere friends, and liberal
+benefactresses to the distressed poor. These are their moral
+qualifications, and in their religious duties they are zealous in
+performing the several ordinances which they have been instructed by their
+parents or husbands to observe. If there be any merit in obeying the
+injunctions of their Lawgiver, those whom I have known most intimately
+deserve praise, since 'they are faithful in that they profess'.
+
+To ladies accustomed from infancy to confinement this is by no means
+irksome; they have their employments and their amusements, and though
+these are not exactly to our taste, nor suited to our mode of education,
+they are not the less relished by those for whom they were invented. They
+perhaps wonder equally at some of our modes of dissipating time, and fancy
+we might spend it more profitably. Be that as it may, the Mussulmaun
+ladies, with whom I have been long intimate, appear to me always happy,
+contented, and satisfied with the seclusion to which they were born; they
+desire no other, and I have ceased to regret they cannot be made partakers
+of that freedom of intercourse with the world we deem so essential to our
+happiness, since their health suffers nothing from that confinement, by
+which they are preserved from a variety of snares and temptations; besides
+which, they would deem it disgraceful in the highest degree to mix
+indiscriminately with men who are not relations. They are educated from
+infancy for retirement, and they can have no wish that the custom should
+be changed, which keeps them apart from the society of men who are not
+very nearly related to them. Female society is unlimited, and that they
+enjoy without restraint.
+
+A lady whose friendship I have enjoyed from my first arrival in India,
+heard me very often speak of the different places I had visited, and she
+fancied her happiness very much depended on seeing a river and a bridge. I
+undertook to gain permission from her husband and father, that the treat
+might be permitted; they, however, did not approve of the lady being
+gratified, and I was vexed to be obliged to convey the disappointment to
+my friend. She very mildly answered me, 'I was much to blame to request
+what I knew was improper for me to be indulged in; I hope my husband and
+family will not be displeased with me for my childish wish; pray make them
+understand how much I repent of my folly. I shall be ashamed to speak on
+the subject when we meet.'
+
+I was anxious to find out the origin of secluding females in the
+Mussulmaun societies of Hindoostaun, as I could find no example in the
+Mosaic law, which appears to have been the pattern Muhumud followed
+generally in domestic habits. I am told by the best possible authority,
+that the first step towards the seclusion of females occurred in the life
+of Mahumud, by whose command the face and figure of women were veiled on
+their going from home, in consequence of some departure from strict
+propriety in one of his wives (Ayashur,[10] the daughter of Omir); she is
+represented to have been a very beautiful woman, and was travelling with
+Mahumud on a journey in Arabia.
+
+'The beautiful Ayashur, on her camel, was separated from the party; she
+arrived at the serai (inn, or halting-place) several hours after they had
+encamped, and declared that her delay was occasioned by the loss of a
+silver bangle from her ankle, which after some trouble she had discovered,
+and which she produced in a bruised state in testimony of her assertion.
+Mahumud was displeased, and her father enraged beyond measure at his
+daughter's exposing herself to the censure of the public, by allowing any
+thing to detach her from the party.' Mahumud assuaged Omir's anger by a
+command then first issued, 'That all females, belonging to the faithful,
+should be compelled to wear a close veil over their face and figure
+whenever they went abroad.'
+
+In Arabia and Persia the females are allowed to walk or ride out with a
+sort of hooded cloak, which falls over the face, and has two eye-holes for
+the purpose of seeing their way.[11] They are to be met with in the streets
+of those countries without a suspicion of impropriety when thus habited.
+
+The habit of strict seclusion, however, originated in Hindoostaun with
+Tamerlane the conqueror of India.
+
+When Tamerlane[12] with his powerful army entered India, he issued a
+proclamation to all his followers to the following purport, 'As they were
+now in the land of idolatry and amongst a strange people, the females of
+their families should be strictly concealed from the view of strangers';
+and Tamerlane himself invented the several covered conveyances which are
+to the present period of the Mussulmaun history in use, suited to each
+grade of female rank in society. And the better to secure them from all
+possibility of contamination by their new neighbours, he commanded that
+they should be confined to their own apartments and behind the purdah,
+disallowing any intercourse with males of their own persuasion even, who
+were not related by the nearest ties, and making it a crime in any female
+who should willingly suffer her person to be seen by men out of the
+prescribed limits of consanguinity.
+
+Tamerlane, it may be presumed, was then ignorant of the religious
+principles of the Hindoos. They are strictly forbidden to have intercourse
+or intermarry with females who are not strictly of their own caste or
+tribe, under the severe penalty of losing that caste which they value as
+their life. To this may be attributed, in a great degree, the safety with
+which female foreigners travel daak[13] (post) in their palankeens, from
+one point of the Indian continent to another, without the knowledge of
+five words of the Hindoostaunie tongue, and with no other servant or
+guardian but the daak-bearers, who carry them at the rate of four miles an
+hour, travelling day and night successively.
+
+The palankeen is supported on the shoulders of four bearers at once,--two
+having the front pole attached to the vehicle, and two supporting the pole
+behind. The four bearers are relieved every five or six minutes by other
+four, making the set of eight to each palankeen,--this set conveys their
+burden from eight to ten miles, where a fresh party are in waiting to
+relieve them, and so on to the extent of the projected journey; much in
+the same way as relays of horses are stationed for post-travelling in
+England. Perhaps the tract of country passed through may not present a
+single hut or habitation for miles together, often through jungles of
+gloomy aspect; yet with all these obstacles, which would excite fear or
+distrust in more civilized parts of the world, females travel in India
+with as perfect security from insult as if they were guarded by a company
+of sepoys, or a troop of cavalry.
+
+I am disposed to think that the invention of covered conveyances by
+Tamerlane first gave rise to the bearers. It seems so probable that the
+conqueror of the Hindoos should have been the first to degrade human
+nature, by compelling them to bear the burden of their fellow-creatures. I
+can never forget the first impression, on my mind, when witnessing this
+mode of conveyance on my landing at Calcutta; and although I am willing to
+agree that the measure is one of vast utility in this climate, and to
+acknowledge with gratitude the benefit I have derived by this personal
+convenience, yet I never seat myself in the palankeen or thonjaun[14]
+without a feeling bordering on self-reproach, as being one amongst the
+number to perpetuate the degradation of my fellow-mortals. They, however,
+feel nothing of this sentiment themselves, for they are trained from
+boyhood to the toil, as the young ox to the yoke. It is their business;
+the means of comfort is derived to them by this service; they are happy in
+the employment, and generally cheerful, and form a class of people in
+themselves respected by every other both for their services and for their
+general good behaviour. In the houses of foreigners they are the most
+useful amongst the whole establishment; they have charge of property, keep
+the furniture in exact order, prepare the beds, the lamps, and the candles,
+where wax is used. Tallow having beef-fat in its manufacture is an
+abomination, to the Hindoos, by whom it is considered unholy to slay, or
+even to touch any portion of the slaughtered cattle of their respect: for
+believing in transmigration, they affirm that these animals receive the
+souls of their departed relations. The bearers make the best of nurses to
+children, and contribute to the comfort of their employer by pulling the
+punkah night and day: in short, so necessary are these servants to the
+domestic economy of sojourners in the East, that their merits as a people
+must be a continual theme of praise; for I know not how an English
+establishment could be concluded with any degree of comfort without these
+most useful domestics. But I have allowed my pen to stray from the subject
+of female seclusion, and will here bring that part of my history to a
+close in very few words.
+
+Those females who rank above peasants or inferior servants, are disposed
+from principle to keep themselves strictly from observation; all who have
+any regard for the character or the honour of their house, seclude
+themselves from the eye of strangers, carefully instructing their young
+daughters to a rigid observance of their own prudent example. Little girls,
+when four years old, are kept strictly behind the purdah, and when they
+move abroad it is always in covered conveyances, and under the
+guardianship of a faithful female domestic, who is equally tenacious us
+the mother to preserve the young lady's reputation unblemished by
+concealing her from the gaze of men.
+
+The ladies of zeenahnah life are not restricted from the society of their
+own sex; they are, as I have before remarked, extravagantly fond of
+company, and equally as hospitable when entertainers. To be alone is a
+trial to which they are seldom exposed, every lady having companions
+amongst her dependants; and according to her means the number in her
+establishment is regulated. Some ladies of rank have from two to ten
+companions, independent of slaves and domestics; and there are some of the
+Royal family at Lucknow who entertain in their service two or three
+hundred female dependants, of all classes. A well-filled zeenahnah is a
+mark of gentility; and even the poorest lady in the country will retain a
+number of slaves and domestics, if she cannot afford companions; besides
+which they are miserable without society, the habit of associating with
+numbers having grown up with infancy to maturity: 'to be alone' is
+considered, with women thus situated, a real calamity.
+
+On occasions of assembling in large parties, each lady takes with her a
+companion besides two or three slaves to attend upon her, no one expecting
+to be served by the servants of the house at which they are visiting. This
+swells the numbers to be provided for; and as the visit is always for
+three days and three nights (except on Eades, when the visit is confined
+to one day), some forethought must be exercised by the lady of the house,
+that all may be accommodated in such a manner as may secure to her the
+reputation of hospitality.
+
+The kitchen and offices to the zeenahnah, I have remarked, occupy one side
+of the quadrangle; they face the great or centre hall appropriated to the
+assembly. These kitchens, however, are sufficiently distant to prevent any
+great annoyance from the smoke;--I say smoke, because chimneys have not
+yet been introduced into the kitchens of the Natives. The fire-places are
+all on the ground, something resembling stoves, each admitting one
+saucepan, the Asiastic style of cooking requiring no other contrivance.
+Roast or boiled joints are never seen at the dinner of a Native: a leg of
+mutton or sirloin of beef would place the hostess under all sorts of
+difficulties, where knives and forks are not understood to be amongst the
+useful appendages of a meal. The variety of their dishes are countless,
+but stews and curries are the chief; all the others are mere varieties.
+The only thing in the shape of roast meats, are small lean cutlets bruised,
+seasoned and cemented with pounded poppy-seed, several being fastened
+together on skewers: they are grilled or roasted over a charcoal fire
+spread on the ground, and then called keebaab,[15] which word implies,
+roast meat.
+
+The kitchen of a zeenahnah would be inadequate to the business of cooking
+for a large assembly; the most choice dishes only (for the highly favoured
+guests), are cooked by the servants of the establishment. The needed
+abundance required on entertaining a large party is provided by a regular
+bazaar cook, several of whom establish themselves in Native cities, or
+wherever there is a Mussulmaun population. Orders being previously given,
+the morning and evening dinners are punctually forwarded at the appointed
+hours in covered trays, each tray having portions of the several good
+things ordered, so that there is no confusion in serving out the feast on
+its arrival at the mansion. The food thus prepared by the bazaar cook
+(naunbye,[16] he is called), is plain boiled-rice, sweet-rice, kheer[17]
+(rice-milk), mautungun[18] (rice sweetened with the addition of preserved
+fruits, raisins, &c., coloured with saffron), sallons[19] (curries) of
+many varieties, some cooked with vegetables, others with unripe fruits
+with or without meat; pillaus of many sorts, keebaabs, preserves, pickles,
+chatnees, and many other things too tedious to admit of detail.
+
+The bread in general use amongst Natives is chiefly unleavened; nothing in
+the likeness of English bread is to be seen at their meals; and many
+object to its being fermented with the intoxicating toddy (extracted from
+a tree). Most of the Native bread is baked on iron plates over a charcoal
+fire. They have many varieties, both plain and rich, and some of the
+latter resembles our pastry, both in quality and flavour.
+
+The dinners, I have said, are brought into the zeenahnah ready dished in
+the Native earthenware, on trays; and as they neither use spoons or forks,
+there is no great delay in setting out the meal where nothing is required
+for display or effect, beyond the excellent quality of the food and its
+being well cooked. In a large assembly all cannot dine at the dustha-khawn
+of the lady-hostess, even if privileged by their rank; they are, therefore,
+accommodated in groups of ten, fifteen, or more, as may be convenient;
+each lady having her companion at the meal, and her slaves to brush off
+the intruding flies with a chowrie, to hand water, or to fetch or carry
+any article of delicacy from or to a neighbouring group. The slaves and
+servants dine in parties after their ladies have finished, in any retired
+corner of the court-yard--always avoiding as much as possible the presence
+of their superiors.
+
+Before any one touches the meal, water is carried round for each lady to
+wash the hand and rinse the mouth. It is deemed unclean to eat without
+this form of ablution, and the person neglecting it would he held unholy;
+this done, the lady turns to her meal, saying, 'Bis ma Allah!'--(In the
+name or to the praise of God!) and with the right hand conveys the food to
+her mouth, (the left is never used at meals)[20]; and although they
+partake of every variety of food placed before them with no other aid than
+their fingers, yet the mechanical habit is so perfect, that they neither
+drop a grain of rice, soil the dress, nor retain any of the food on their
+fingers. The custom must always be offensive to a foreign eye, and the
+habit none would wish to copy; yet every one who witnesses must admire the
+neat way in which eating is accomplished by these really 'children of
+Nature'.
+
+The repast concluded, the lota[21] (vessel with water), and the luggun[22]
+(to receive the water in after rinsing the hands and mouth), are passed
+round to every person, who having announced by the 'Shuggur Allah!'--All
+thanks to God!--that she has finished, the attendants present first the
+powdered peas, culled basun,[23]--which answers the purpose of soap in
+removing grease, &c., from the fingers,--and then the water in due course.
+Soap has not even yet been brought into fashion by the Natives, except by
+the washermen; I have often been surprised that they have not found the
+use of soap a necessary article in the nursery, where the only substitute
+I have seen is the powdered pea.
+
+Lotas and lugguns are articles in use with all classes of people; they
+must be poor indeed who do not boast of one, at least, in their family.
+They are always of metal, either brass, or copper lacquered over, or zinc;
+in some cases, as with the nobility, silver and even gold are converted
+into these useful articles of Native comfort.
+
+China or glass is comparatively but little used; water is their only
+beverage, and this is preferred, in the absence of metal basins, out of
+the common red earthen katorah[24] (cup shaped like a vase).
+
+China dishes, bowls, and basins, are used for serving many of the savoury
+articles of food in; but it is as common in the privacy of the palace, as
+well as in the huts of the peasantry, to see many choice things introduced
+at meals served up in the rude red earthen platter; many of the delicacies
+of Asiatic cookery being esteemed more palatable from the earthen flavour
+of the new vessel in which it is served.
+
+I very well remember the first few days of my sojourn at Lucknow, feeling
+something bordering on dissatisfaction, at the rude appearance of the
+dishes containing choice specimens of Indian cookery, which poured in (as
+is customary upon fresh arrivals) from the friends of the family I had
+become a member of. I fancied, in my ignorance, that the Mussulmaun people
+perpetuated their prejudices even to me, and that they must fear I should
+contaminate their china dishes; but I was soon satisfied on this point: I
+found, by experience, that brown earthen platters were used by the
+nobility from choice; and in some instances, the viand would have wanted
+its greatest relish if served in China or silver vessels. Custom
+reconciles every thing: I can drink a draught of pure water now from the
+earthen katorah of the Natives with as much pleasure as from a glass or a
+silver cup, and feel as well satisfied with their dainties out of an
+earthen platter, as when conveyed in silver or China dishes.
+
+China tea sets are very rarely found in the zeenahnah; tea being used by
+the Natives more as a medicine than a refreshment, except by such
+gentlemen as have frequent intercourse with the 'Sahib Logue' (English
+gentry), among whom they acquire a taste for this delightful beverage. The
+ladies, however, must have a severe cold to induce them to partake of the
+beverage even as a remedy, but by no means as a luxury.[25] I imagined
+that the inhabitants of a zeenahnah were sadly deficient in actual
+comforts, when I found, upon my first arrival in India, that there were no
+preparations for breakfast going forward: every one seemed engaged in pawn
+eating, and smoking the hookha, but no breakfast after the morning Namaaz.
+I was, however, soon satisfied that they felt no sort of privation, as the
+early meal so common in Europe has never been introduced in Eastern
+circles. Their first meal is a good substantial dinner, at ten, eleven, or
+twelve o'clock, after which follow pawn and the hookha; to this succeeds a
+sleep of two or three hours, providing it does not impede the duty of
+prayer;--the pious, I ought to remark, would give up every indulgence
+which would prevent the discharge of this duty. The second meal follows in
+twelve hours from the first, and consists of the same substantial fare;
+after which they usually sleep again until the dawn of day is near at hand.
+
+It is the custom amongst Natives to eat fruit after the morning sleep,
+when dried fruits, confectionery, radishes, carrots, sugar-cane, green
+peas, and other such delicacies, are likewise considered wholesome
+luxuries, both with the ladies and the children. A dessert immediately
+after dinner is considered so unwholesome, that they deem our practice
+extremely injudicious. Such is the difference of custom; and I am disposed
+to think their fashion, in this instance, would be worth imitating by
+Europeans whilst residing in India.
+
+I have been much amused with the curious inquiries of a zeenahnah family
+when the gardener's dhaullie is introduced. A dhaullie,[26] I must first
+tell you, is a flat basket, on which is arranged, in neat order, whatever
+fruit, vegetables, or herbs are at the time in season, with a nosegay of
+flowers placed in the centre. They will often ask with wonder--'How do
+these things grow?'--'How do they look in the ground?'--and many such
+child-like remarks have I listened to with pity, whilst I have relieved my
+heart by explaining the operations of Nature in the vegetable kingdom, a
+subject on which they are perfectly ignorant, and, from the habits of
+seclusion in which they live, can never properly be made to understand or
+enjoy.
+
+I have said water is the only beverage in general use amongst the
+Mussulmaun Natives. They have sherbet, however, as a luxury on occasions
+of festivals, marriages, &c. This sherbet is simply sugar and water, with
+a flavour of rose-water, or kurah[27] added to it.
+
+The hookha is almost in general use with females. It is a common practice
+with the lady of the house to present the hookha she is smoking to her
+favoured guest. This mark of attention is always to be duly appreciated;
+but such is the deference paid to parents, that a son can rarely be
+persuaded by an indulgent father or mother to smoke a hookha in their
+revered presence;--this praiseworthy feeling originates not in fear, but
+real genuine respect. The parents entertain for their son the most tender
+regard; and the father makes him both his companion and his friend; yet
+the most familiar endearments do not lessen the feeling of reverence a
+good son entertains for his father. This is one among the many samples of
+patriarchal life, my first Letter alluded to, and which I can never
+witness in real life, without feeling respect for the persons who follow
+up the patterns I have been taught to venerate in our Holy Scripture.
+
+The hookha, as an indulgence of a privilege, is a great definer of
+etiquette. In the presence of the King or reigning Nuwaub, no subject,
+however high he may rank in blood or royal favour, can presume to smoke.
+In Native courts, on state occasions, hookhas are presented only to the
+Governor-General, the Commander-in-Chief, or the Resident at his Court,
+who are considered equals in rank, and therefore entitled to the privilege
+of smoking with him; and they cannot consistently resist the intended
+honour. Should they dislike smoking, a hint is readily understood by the
+hookha-bahdhaar[28] to bring the hookha, charged with the materials,
+without the addition of fire. Application of the munall[29] (mouth-piece)
+to the month indicates a sense of the honour conferred.
+
+
+[1] _Mahall._
+
+[2] _Parda._
+
+[3] _Jhilmil, chiq,_ the Anglo-Indian 'chick'.
+
+[4] _Shatranji_, see p. 19.
+
+[5] _Sozani_ (_sozan_, 'a needle'), an embroidered quilt.
+
+[6] _Razai_, a counterpane padded with cotton.
+
+[7] _Dopatta_, a double sheet: see p. 26.
+
+[8] See p. 24.
+
+[9] _Dastarkhwan_, see p. 108.
+
+[10] 'Ayishah, daughter of Abubakr, third and best loved wife of the
+    Prophet, though she bore him no child. The tale of the scandal about
+    her is historical, but it is treated as a calumny (_Koran_, xxiv.
+    II, 22, with Sale's note).
+
+[11] Known as the _burqa_.
+
+[12] Amir Taimur, known as Taimur Lang, 'the lame', was born A.D.
+    1336; ascended the throne at Balkh, 1370; invaded India and captured
+    Delhi, 1398; died 1405, and was buried at Samarkand. There seems to be
+    no evidence that he introduced the practice of the seclusion of women,
+    an ancient Semitic custom, which, however, was probably enforced on
+    the people of India by the brutality of foreign invaders.
+
+[13] _Dak_.
+
+[14] See p. 32.
+
+[15] _Kabab_, properly, small pieces of meat roasted on skewers.
+
+
+[16] _Nanbai_, a baker of bread _(nan)_.
+
+[17] _Khir_, milk boiled with rice, sugar, and spices.
+
+[18] _Mutanjan_, a corruption of _muttajjan_, 'fried in a pan'; usually in
+    the form _mutanjan pulao_, meat boiled with rice, sugar, butter,
+    and sometimes pine-apples or nuts.
+
+[19] _Salan_, a curry of meat, fish, or vegetables.
+
+[20] The left hand is used for purposes of ablution.
+
+[21] The Musalman _lota_, properly called _badhna_, differs from
+    that used by Hindus in having a spout like that of a teapot.
+
+[22] _Lagan_, a brass or copper pan in which the hands are washed: also
+    used for kneading dough.
+
+[23] _Besan_, flour, properly that of gram (_chana_). The prejudice
+    against soap is largely due to imitation of Hindus, who believe
+    themselves to be polluted by fat. Arabs, after a meal, wash their
+    hands and mouths with soap (Burton, _Pilgrimage_, ii. 257). Sir G.
+    Watt (_Economic Dictionary_, iii. 84 ff.) gives a long list of other
+    detergents and substitutes for soap.
+
+[24] _Katora_.
+
+[25] The prejudice against the use of tea has much decreased since this
+    book was written, owing to its cultivation in India. Musalmans and
+    many Hindus now drink it freely.
+
+[26] _Dali_, the 'dolly' of Anglo-Indians.
+
+[27] See p. 13.
+
+[28] _Huqqahbardar_.
+
+[29] _Munhnal_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIII
+
+  Plurality of wives.--Mahumud's motive for permitting this
+  privilege.--State of society at the commencement of the Prophet's
+  mission.--His injunctions respecting marriage.--Parents invariably
+  determine on the selection of a husband.--First marriages attended by
+  a public ceremony.--The first wife takes precedence of all
+  others.--Generosity of deposition evinced by the Mussulmaun
+  ladies.--Divorces obtained under certain restrictions.--Period of
+  solemnizing marriage.--Method adopted in choosing a husband or
+  wife.--Overtures and contracts of marriage, how regulated.--Mugganee,
+  the first contract.--Dress of the bride elect on this occasion.--The
+  ceremonies described as witnessed.--Remarks on the bride.--Present
+  from the bridegroom on Buckrah Eade.
+
+
+The Mussulmauns have permission from their Lawgiver to be pluralists in
+wives, as well as the Israelites of old.[1] Mahumud's motive for
+restricting the number of wives each man might lawfully marry, was, say
+his biographers, for the purpose of reforming the then existing state of
+society, and correcting abuses of long standing amongst the Arabians.
+
+My authority tells me, that at the period of Mahumud's commencing his
+mission, the Arabians were a most abandoned and dissolute people, guilty
+of every excess that can debase the character of man: drunkards,
+profligate, and overbearing barbarians, both in principle and action.
+Mahumud is said unvariedly to have manifested kindly feelings towards the
+weaker sex, who, he considered, were intended to be the companion and
+solace of man, and not the slave of his ungovernable sensuality or caprice;
+he set the best possible example in his own domestic circle, and
+instituted such laws as were then needed to restrain vice and promote the
+happiness of those Arabians who had received him as a Prophet. He forbade
+all kinds of fermented liquors, which were then in common use; and to the
+frequent intoxication of the men, were attributed their vicious habits,
+base pursuits, and unmanly cruelty to the poor females. Mahumud's code of
+laws relating to marriage restricted them to a limited number of wives;
+for at that period they all possessed crowded harems, many of the
+inhabitants of which were the victims of their reckless persecution; young
+females torn from the bosom of their families and immured in the vilest
+state of bondage, to be cast out upon the wide world to starvation and
+misery, whenever the base master of the house or tent desired to make room
+for a fresh supply, often the spoils of his predatory excursions.
+
+By the laws of Mahumud his followers are restrained from concubinage; they
+are equally restricted from forced marriages. The number of their wives
+must be regulated by their means of supporting them, the law strictly
+forbidding neglect, or unkind treatment of any one of the number his
+followers may deem it convenient to marry.
+
+At the period when Mahumud issued these necessary laws for the security of
+female comfort and the moral habits of the males, there existed a practice
+with the Arabs of forcing young women to marry against their inclination,
+adding, year by year, to the many wretched creatures doomed, for a time,
+to all the miseries of a crowded hut; and at last, when tired of their
+persons or unable to provide them with sustenance, turning them adrift
+without a home, a friend, or a meal. To the present day the law against
+forced marriages is revered, and no marriage contract can be deemed lawful
+without the necessary form of inquiry by the Maulvee, who, in the presence
+of witnesses, demands of the young lady, 'whether the contract is by her
+own free will and consent?' This, however, I am disposed to think, in the
+present age, is little else than a mere form of 'fulfilling the law' since
+the engagement is made by the parents of both parties, the young couple
+being passive subjects to the parental arrangement, for their benefit as
+they are assured. The young lady, from her rigid seclusion, has no prior
+attachment, and she is educated to be 'obedient to her husband'. She is
+taught from her earliest youth to look forward to such match as her kind
+parents may think proper to provide for her; and, therefore, can have no
+objection to accepting the husband selected for her by them. The parents,
+loving their daughter, and aware of the responsibility resting on them,
+are cautious in selecting for their girls suitable husbands, according to
+their particular view of the eligibility of the suitor.
+
+The first marriage of a Mussulmaun is the only one where a public display
+of the ceremony is deemed necessary, and the first wife is always
+considered the head of his female establishment. Although he may be the
+husband of many wives in the course of time, and some of them prove
+greater favourites, yet the first wife takes precedence in all matters
+where dignity is to be preserved. And when the several wives meet--each
+have separate habitations if possible--all the rest pay to the first wife
+that deference which superiority exacts from inferiors; not only do the
+secondary wives pay this respect to the first, but the whole circle of
+relations and friends make the same distinction, as a matter of course;
+for the first wife takes precedence in every way.
+
+Should the first wife fortunately present her husband with a son, he is
+the undisputed heir; but the children of every subsequent wife are equals
+in the father's estimation. Should the husband be dissolute and have
+offspring by concubines--which is not very common,--those children are
+remembered and provided for in the distribution of his property; and, as
+very often occurs, they are cherished by the wives with nearly as much
+care as their own children; but illegitimate offspring very seldom marry
+in the same rank their father held in society.
+
+The latitude allowed by 'the law' preserves the many-wived Mussulmaun from
+the world's censure; and his conscience rests unaccused when he adds to
+his numbers, if he cannot reproach himself with having neglected or
+unkindly treated any of the number bound to him, or their children. But
+the privilege is not always indulged in by the Mussulmauns; much depends
+on circumstances, and more on the man's disposition. If it be the happy
+lot of a kind-hearted, good man to be married to a woman of assimilating
+mind, possessing the needful requisites to render home agreeable, and a
+prospect of an increasing family, then the husband has no motive to draw
+him into further engagements, and he is satisfied with one wife. Many such
+men I have known in Hindoostaun, particularly among the Syaads and
+religious characters, who deem a plurality of wives a plague to the
+possessors in proportion to their numbers.
+
+The affluent, the sensualist, and the ambitious, are most prone to swell
+the numbers in their harem. With some men, who are not highly gifted
+intellectually, it is esteemed a mark of gentility to have several wives.
+
+There are some instances of remarkable generosity in the conduct of good
+wives (which would hardly gain credit with females differently educated),
+not necessary to the subject before me; but I may here add to the praise
+of a good wife among these people, that she never utters a reproach, nor
+gives evidence by word or manner in her husband's presence that she has
+any cause for regret; she receives him with undisguised pleasure, although
+she has just before learned that another member has been added to his
+well-peopled harem. The good and forbearing wife, by this line of conduct,
+secures to herself the confidence of her husband; who, feeling assured
+that the amiable woman has an interest in his happiness, will consult her
+and take her advice in the domestic affairs of his children by other wives,
+and even arrange by her judgment all the settlements for their marriages,
+&c. He can speak of other wives without restraint,--for she knows he has
+others,--and her education has taught her, that they deserve her respect
+in proportion as they contribute to her husband's happiness. The children
+of her husband are admitted at all times and seasons, without restraint or
+prejudice; she loves them next to her own, because they are her husband's.
+She receives the mothers of such children without a shade of jealousy in
+her manner, and delights in distinguishing them by favours and presents
+according to their several merits. From this picture of many living wives
+in Mussulmaun society, it must not be supposed I am speaking of women
+without attachment to their husbands; on the contrary, they are persons
+who are really susceptible of pure love, and the generosity of their
+conduct is one of the ways in which they prove themselves devoted to their
+husband's happiness. This, they say, was the lesson taught them by their
+amiable mother, and this is the example they would set for the imitation
+of their daughters.
+
+I do not mean to say this is a faithful picture of all the females of
+zeenahnah life. The mixture of good and bad tempers or dispositions is not
+confined to any class or complexion of people, but is to be met with in
+every quarter of the globe. In general, I have observed those females of
+the Mussulmaun population who have any claim to genteel life, and whose
+habits are guided by religious principles, evince such traits of character
+as would constitute the virtuous and thoroughly obedient wife in any
+country; and many, whom I have had the honour to know personally, would do
+credit to the most enlightened people in the world.
+
+Should the first wife prove a termagant or unfaithful--rare occurrences
+amongst the inmates of the harem,--the husband has the liberty of
+divorcing her by paying down her stipulated dowry. This dowry is an
+engagement made by the husband on the night of Baarraat[2] (when the
+bridegroom is about to take his bride from her parents to his own home).
+On which occasion the Maulvee asks the bridegroom to name the amount of
+his wife's dowry, in the event of separation; the young man is at liberty
+to name any sum he pleases. It would not prevent the marriage if the
+smallest amount were promised; but he is in the presence of his bride's
+family, and within her hearing also, though he has not yet seen her;--it
+is a critical moment for him, thus surrounded. Besides, as he never
+intends to separate from the lady, in the strict letter of the law, he
+cannot refrain from gratifying those interested in the honour he is about
+to confer by the value of the promised dowry, and, therefore, he names a
+very heavy sum, which perhaps his whole generation never could have
+collected in their joint lives. This sum would of itself be a barrier to
+divorce; but that is not the only object which influences the Mussulmaun
+generally to waive the divorce; it is because they would not publish their
+own disgrace, by divorcing an unfaithful or undutiful wife.
+
+If the first wife dies, a second is sought after on the same principle
+which guided the first--'a superior to head his house'. In this case there
+would be the same public display which marked the first wife's marriage;
+all the minor or secondary wives being introduced to the zeenahnah
+privately; they are in consequence termed Dhollie[3] wives, or brought
+home under cover.
+
+Many great men appear to be close imitators of King Solomon, with whose
+history they are perfectly conversant, for I have heard of the sovereign
+princes in Hindoostaun having seven or eight hundred wives at one time in
+their palaces. This is hearsay report only, and I should hope an
+exaggeration.[4]
+
+The first marriage is usually solemnized when the youth is eighteen, and
+the young lady thirteen, or fourteen at the most; many are married at an
+earlier age, when, in the opinion of the parents, an eligible match is to
+be secured. And in some cases, where the parents on both sides have the
+union of their children at heart, they contract them at six or seven years
+old, which marriage they solemnly bind themselves to fulfil when the
+children have reached a proper age; under these circumstances the children
+are allowed to live in the same house, and often form an attachment for
+each other, which renders their union a life of real happiness.
+
+There are to be found in Mussulmaun society parents of mercenary minds,
+who prefer giving their daughters in marriage as dhollie wives to noblemen
+or men of property, to the preferable plan of uniting them with a husband
+of their own grade, with whom the girl would most likely live without a
+rival in the mud-walled tenement; this will explain the facilities offered
+to a sovereign or nobleman in extending the numbers of his harem.
+
+Some parents excuse themselves in thus disposing of their daughters on the
+score of poverty, and the difficulty they find in defraying the expenses
+of a wedding: this I conceive to be one great error in the economy of the
+Mussulmaun people,--unnecessary expense incurred in their marriage
+ceremonies, which hampers them through life in their circumstances.
+Parents, however poor, will not allow their daughter to be conveyed from
+their home, where the projected union is with an equal, without a
+seemingly needless parade of music, and a marriage-portion in goods and
+chattels, if they have no fortune to give beside; then the expense of
+providing dinners for friends to make the event conspicuous, and the
+useless articles of finery for the girl's person, with many other ways of
+expending money, to the detriment of the parents' finances, without any
+very substantial benefit to the young couple. But this dearly-loved custom
+cannot be passed over; and if the parents find it impossible to meet the
+pecuniary demands of these ceremonies, the girl has no alternative but to
+live out her days singly, unless by an agent's influence she is accepted
+as a dhollie wife to some man of wealth.
+
+Girls are considered to have passed their prime when they number from
+sixteen to eighteen years; even the poorest peasant would object to a wife
+of eighteen.
+
+There has been the same difficulty to encounter in every age of Mussulmaun
+history in Hindoostaun; and in the darker periods of civilization, the
+obstacles to settling their daughters to advantage induced the villagers
+and the uneducated to follow the example of the Rajpoots, viz., to destroy
+the greater proportion of females at their birth. In the present age, this
+horrid custom is never heard of amongst any classes of the Mussulmaun
+population[5]; but by the Rajpoot Hindoos it is still practised, as one of
+their chiefs very lately acknowledged in the presence of a friend of mine.
+I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shaah declare that it was a common
+occurrence within his recollection, among the lower classes of the people
+in the immediate vicinity of Loodeeanah,[6] where he lived when a boy; and
+that the same practice existed in the Oude territory, amongst the
+peasantry even at a much later date. One of the Nuwaubs of Oude,--I think
+Asoof ood Dowlah,--hearing with horror of the frequent recurrence of this
+atrocity in the remote parts of his province, issued a proclamation to his
+subjects, commanding them to desist from the barbarous custom[7]; and, as
+an inducement to the wicked parents to preserve their female offspring
+alive, grants of land were to be awarded to every female as a
+marriage-portion on her arriving at a proper age.
+
+It is generally to be observed in a Mussulmaun's family, even at this day,
+that the birth of a girl produces a temporary gloom, whilst the birth of a
+boy gives rise to a festival in the zeenahnah. Some are wicked enough to
+say, 'It is more honourable to have sons than daughters', but I believe
+the real cause is the difficulty to be encountered in settling the latter
+suitably.
+
+The important affair of fixing upon a desirable match for their sons and
+daughters is the source of constant anxiety in the family of every
+Mussulmaun, from the children's earliest years to the period of its
+accomplishment.
+
+There is a class of people who make it the business of their lives to
+negotiate marriages. Both men and women of this description are of course
+ingeniously expert in the art of talking, and able to put the best
+colouring on the affair they undertake; they occupy every day of their
+lives in roving about from house to house, and, as they have always
+something entertaining to say, they generally gain easy admittance; they
+make themselves acquainted with the domestic affairs of one family in
+order to convey them to another, and so continue in their line of
+gossiping, until the economy of every person's house is familiar to all.
+The female gossip in her researches in zeenahnahs, finds out all the
+expectations a mother entertains for her marriageable sons or daughters,
+and details whatever she learns in such or such a zeenahnah, as likely to
+meet the views of her present hostess. Every one knows the object of these
+visits, and if they have any secret that the world may not participate in,
+there is due caution observed that it may not transpire before this Mrs.
+Gad-about.
+
+When intelligence is brought, by means of such agency, to the mother of a
+son who happens to be marriageable, that a lady of proper rank has a
+daughter to be sought, she consults with her husband, and further
+inquiries are instituted amongst their several friends, male and female;
+after due deliberation, the connexion being found desirable, the father
+will consult an omen before negotiations are commenced. The omen to decide
+the important step is as follows:--Several slips of paper are cut up, on
+half the number is written 'to be', on the other half, 'not to be'; these
+papers are mixed together and placed under the prayer-carpet. When the
+good Mussulmaun is preparing for his evening Namaaz he fails not in his
+devotions to ask for help and guidance in an affair of so much importance
+to the father as the happiness and well-being of his son. At the portion
+of the service when he bows down his head to God, he beseeches with much
+humility, calling on the great power and goodness of God to instruct and
+guide him for the best interest of his child; and then he repeats a short
+prayer expressive of his reliance on the wisdom of God, and his perfect
+submission to whatever may be His wise decree in this important business.
+The prayer concluded, he seats himself with solemn gravity on the
+prayer-carpet, again and again imploring Divine guidance, without which he
+is sure nothing good can accrue: he then draws one slip from under his
+carpet; if 'to be' is produced, he places it by his left side;--a second
+slip is drawn out, should that also bear the words 'to be' the business is
+so far decided. He then offers thanks and praises to God, congratulates
+his wife on the successful issue of the omen, and discusses those plans
+which appear most likely to further the prospects of their dearly-loved
+son. But should the second and third papers say 'not to be' he is assured
+in his heart it was so decided by 'that Wisdom which cannot err:' to whom
+he gives praise and glory for all mercies received at His hand: after this
+no overture or negotiation would be listened to by the pious father from
+the same quarter.[8]
+
+The omen, however, proving favourable, the affair is decided; and in order
+to gain the best possible information of the real disposition of all
+parties concerned, a confidential friend is sent to the zeenahnah of the
+young lady's mother to make her own observations on what passes within;
+and to ascertain, if possible, whether the report brought by the female
+agent was true or exaggerated; and finally, to learn if their son would be
+received or rejected as a suitor, provided advances were made.
+
+The female friend returns, after a day or two's absence, to the anxious
+parents of the youth, and details all she has seen or heard during her
+visit. The young lady may, perhaps, have been seen (this is not always
+conceded to such visitors), in which case her person, her manners, her
+apparent disposition, the hospitality and good breeding of the mother and
+other members of the zeenahnah, are described; and lastly, it is hinted
+that, all other things suiting, the young lady being yet disengaged, the
+projected offer would not be disagreeable to her parents.
+
+The father of the youth then resolves on sending a male agent in due form
+to negotiate a marriage, unless he happens to be personally acquainted
+with the girl's father; in which case the lady is desired to send her
+female agent on the embassy, and the father of the youth speaks on the
+subject in the meantime to the girl's father.
+
+A very intimate friend of mine was seeking for a suitable match for her
+son, and being much in her confidence, I was initiated in all the
+mysteries and arrangements (according to Mussulmaun rule) of the affair
+pending the marriage of her son.
+
+The young lady to be sought (wooed we should have it), had been described
+as amiable and pretty--advantages as much esteemed as her rank;--fortune
+she had none worth mentioning, but it was what is termed in Indian society
+a good and equal match. The overture was, therefore, to be made from the
+youth's family in the following manner:
+
+On a silver tray covered with gold brocade and fringed with silver, was
+laid the youth's pedigree, traced by a neat writer in the Persian
+character, on richly embossed paper ornamented and emblazoned with gold
+figures. The youth being a Syaad, his pedigree was traced up to Mahumud,
+in both paternal and maternal lines, and many a hero and Begum of their
+noble blood filled up the space from the Prophet down to the youthful Meer
+Mahumud, my friend's son.
+
+On the tray, with the pedigree, was laid a nuzza, or offering of five gold
+mohurs, and twenty-one (the lucky number) rupees; a brocaded cover,
+fringed with silver, was spread over the whole, and this was conveyed by
+the male agent to the young Begum's father. The tray and its contents are
+retained for ever, if the proposal is accepted: if rejected, the parties
+return the whole without delay, which is received as a tacit proof that
+the suitor is rejected: no further explanation is ever given or required.
+
+In the present instance the tray was detained, and in a few days after a
+female from their family was sent to my friend's house to make a general
+scrutiny of the zeenahnah and its inmates. This female was pressed to stay
+a day or two, and in that time many important subjects underwent
+discussion. The youth was introduced, and everything according with the
+views entertained by both parties, the fathers met, and the marriage, it
+was decided, should take place within a twelvemonth, when the young lady
+would have accomplished her thirteenth year.
+
+'Do you decide on having Mugganee[9] performed?' is the question proposed
+by the father of the youth to the father of the young maiden. In the
+present case it was chosen, and great were the preparations of my friend
+to do all possible honour to the future bride of her son.
+
+Mugganee is the first contract, by which the parties are bound to fulfil
+their engagement at an appointed time.
+
+The dress for a bride[10] differs in one material point from the general
+style of Hindoostaunie costume: a sort of gown is worn, made of silver
+tissue, or some equally expensive article, about the walking length of an
+English dress; the skirt is open in front, and contains about twenty
+breadths of the material, a tight body and long sleeves. The whole dress
+is trimmed very richly with embroidered trimming and silver riband; the
+deputtah (drapery) is made to correspond. This style of dress is the
+original Hindoo fashion, and was worn at the Court of Delhi for many
+centuries; but of late years it has been used only on marriage festivals
+amongst the better sort of people in Hindoostaun, except Kings or Nuwaubs
+sending khillauts to females, when this dress, called a jhammah,[11] is
+invariably one of the articles.
+
+The costly dresses for the present Mugganee my friend prepared at a great
+expense, and with much good taste; to which were added a ruby ring of
+great value, large gold ear-rings, offerings of money, the flower-garlands
+for the head, neck, wrists, and ankles, formed of the sweet-scented
+jessamine; choice confectionery set out in trays with the pawns and fruits;
+the whole conveyed under an escort of soldiers and servants with a band of
+music, from the residence of Meer Mahumud to that of his bride elect,
+accompanied by many friends of the family. These offerings from the youth
+bind the contract with the young lady, who wears his ring from that day to
+the end of her life.
+
+The poorer sort of people perform Mugganee by the youth simply sending a
+rupee in a silk band, to be tied on the girl's arm.
+
+Being curious to know the whole business of a wedding ceremony amongst the
+Mussulmaun people, I was allowed to perform the part of 'officiating
+friend' on this occasion of celebrating the Mugganee. The parents of the
+young lady having been consulted, my visit was a source of solicitude to
+the whole family, who made every possible preparation to receive me with
+becoming respect; I went just in time to reach the gate at the moment the
+parade arrived. I was handed to the door of the zeenahnah by the girl's
+father, and was soon surrounded by the young members of the family,
+together with many lady-visitors, slaves, and women-servants of the
+establishment. They had never before seen an English-woman, and the
+novelty, I fancy, surprised the whole group; they examined my dress,
+my complexion, hair, hands, &c., and looked the wonder they could not
+express in words. The young Begum was not amongst the gazing throng;
+some preliminary customs detained her behind the purdah, where it may
+be supposed she endured all the agony of suspense and curiosity by her
+compliance with the prescribed forms.
+
+The lady of the mansion waited my approach to the dulhaun[12] (great hall)
+with all due etiquette, standing to receive and embrace me on my advancing
+towards her. This ceremony performed, I was invited to take a seat on the
+musnud-carpet with her on the ground; a chair had been provided for me,
+but I chose to respect the lady's preference, and the seat on the floor
+suited me for the time without much inconvenience.
+
+After some time had been passed in conversation on such subjects as suited
+the taste of the lady of the house, I was surprised at the servants
+entering with trays, which they placed immediately before me, containing a
+full-dress suit in the costume of Hindoostaun. The hostess told me she had
+prepared this dress for me, and I must condescend to wear it. I would have
+declined the gaudy array, but one of her friends whispered me, 'The custom
+is of long standing; when the face of a stranger is first seen a dress is
+always presented; I should displease Sumdun Begum by my refusal;--besides,
+it would be deemed an ill omen at the Mugganee of the young Bohue[13] Begum
+if I did not put on the Native dress before I saw the face of the bride
+elect.' These I found to be weighty arguments, and felt constrained to
+quiet their apprehensions of ill-luck by compliance; I therefore forced
+the gold dress and the glittering drapery over my other clothes, at the
+expense of some suffering from the heat, for it was at the very hottest
+season of the year, and the dulhaun was crowded with visitors.
+
+This important point conceded to them, I was led to a side hall, where the
+little girl was seated on her carpet of rich embroidery, her face resting
+on her knees in apparent bashfulness. I could not directly ascertain
+whether she was plain, or pretty as the female agent had represented. I
+was allowed the privilege of decorating the young lady with the sweet
+jessamine guinahs,[14] and placing the ring on the forefinger of the right
+hand; after which, the ear-rings, the gold-tissue dress, the deputtah were
+all in their turn put on, the offering of money presented, and then I had
+the first embrace before her mother. She looked very pretty, just turned
+twelve. If I could have prevailed on her to be cheerful, I should have
+been much gratified to have extended my visit in her apartment, but the
+poor child seemed ready to sink with timidity; and out of compassion to
+the dear girl, I hurried away from the hall, to relieve her from the
+burden my presence seemed to inflict, the moment I had accomplished my
+last duty, which was to feed her with my own hand, giving her seven pieces
+of sugar-candy; seven, on this occasion, is the lucky number, I presume,
+as I was particularly cautioned to feed her with exactly that number of
+pieces.
+
+Returning to the assembly in the dulhaun, I would have gladly taken leave;
+but there was yet one other custom to be observed to secure a happy omen
+to the young people's union. Once again seated on the musnud with Sumdun
+Begum,[15] the female slaves entered with sherbet in silver basins. Each
+person taking sherbet is expected to deposit gold or silver coins in the
+tray; the sherbet-money at this house is collected for the bride; and when
+during the three days' performance of the marriage ceremony at the
+bridegroom's house sherbet is presented to the guests, the money collected
+there is reserved for him. The produce of the two houses is afterwards
+compared, and conclusions drawn as to the greatest portion of respect paid
+by the friends on either side. The poor people find the sherbet-money a
+useful fund to help them to keep house; but with the rich it is a mere
+matter to boast of, that so much money was collected in consequence of the
+number of visitors who attended the nuptials.
+
+After the Mugganee ceremony had been performed, and before the marriage
+was solemnized, the festival of Buckrah Eade occurred;--in the eleventh
+Letter you will find it remarked, the bride and bridegroom elect then
+exchange presents;--my friend was resolved her son's presents should do
+honour to both houses, and the following may give you an idea of an
+Eade-gift.
+
+Thirty-five goats and sheep of the finest breed procurable, which I
+succeeded in having sent in their natural dress, instead of being adorned
+with gold-cloth and painted horns: it was, however, with some persuasion
+the folly of this general practice was omitted in this instance.
+
+The guinah or garland, of flowers on a tray covered with brocade. The
+guinah are sweet-scented flowers without stalks, threaded into garlands in
+many pretty ways, with great taste and ingenuity, intermixed with silver
+ribands; they are formed into bracelets, necklaces, armlets, chaplets for
+the head, and bangles for the legs. There are people in Lucknow who make
+the preparing of guinahs a profitable business, as the population is so
+extensive as to render these flower-ornaments articles of great request.
+
+A tray filled with pawns, prepared with the usual ingredients, as lime,
+cuttie[16] (a bitter gum), betel-nut, tobacco, spices, &c.; these pawns
+are tied up in packets of a triangular form and covered with enamelled
+foil of many bright colours. Several trays of ripe fruits of the season,
+viz., kurbootahs[17] (shaddock), kabooza[18] (melons), ununas[19] (pine
+apple), guavers,[20] sherreefha[21] (custard-apple), kummeruck,[22]
+jarmun[23] (purple olives), orme[24] (mango), falsah,[25] kirhnee,[26]
+baer,[27] leechie,[28] ormpeach,[29] carounder,[30] and many other kinds
+of less repute.
+
+Confectionery and sweetmeats, on trays, in all the varieties of Indian
+invention; a full-dress suit for the young lady; and on a silver tray the
+youth's nuzza of five gold mohurs, and twenty-one rupees.
+
+The Eade offering of Meer Mahumud was escorted by servants, soldiers, and
+a band of music; and the young lady returned a present to the bridegroom
+elect of thirty-five goats and sheep, and a variety of undress skull-caps,
+supposed to be her own work, in spangles and embroidery. I may state here,
+that the Natives of India never go bare-headed in the house. The turban is
+always worn in company, whatever may be the inconvenience from heat; and
+in private life, a small skull-cap, often of plain white muslin, just
+covers the head. It is considered disgraceful in men to expose the head
+bare; removing the turban from the head of an individual would be deemed
+as insulting as pulling a nose in Europe.
+
+Whatever Eade or festival may occur between the Mugganee and the final
+celebration of nuptials, presents are always interchanged by the young
+bride and bridegroom; and with all such observances there is one
+prevailing custom, which is, that though there should be nothing at hand
+but part of their own gifts, the trays are not allowed to go back without
+some trifling things to keep the custom in full force.
+
+
+[1] The _Koran_ (iv. 3) allows Musalmans to marry 'by twos, or
+    threes, or fours'; but the passage has been interpreted in various
+    ways.
+
+[2] _Barat_.
+
+[3] _Duli_, 'the Anglo-Indian 'dhooly'. Such wives are so called
+    because they are brought to the houses of their husbands in an
+    informal way, without a regular marriage procession.
+
+[4] The King of Vijayanagar had twelve thousand wives: four thousand
+    followed him on foot and served in the kitchen; the same number
+    marched with him on horseback; the remainder in litters, and two or
+    three thousand of them were bound to burn themselves with his corpse
+    (Nicolo Conti, _India in the Fifteenth Century_, part iii, p. 6). In
+    Orissa a palm-leaf record states that one monarch died prematurely
+    just as he had married his sixty-thousandth wife, and a European
+    traveller speaks of a later prince who had four thousand ladies (Sir
+    W. Hunter, _Orissa_. ii, 132 f.). Manucci states that there were more
+    than thirty thousand women in the palace of Shah Jahan at Dheli,
+    and that he usually had two thousand women of different races in his
+    zenana (_Storia de Major_, i. 195, ii. 330). Tippoo Sultan of
+    Mysore married nine hundred women (Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_,
+    93).
+
+[5] There in evidence that infanticide did prevail among some Musalman
+    tribes. Where actual infanticide has disappeared, it has often been
+    replaced by neglect of female infants, except in those castes where,
+    owing to a scarcity of girls, they command a high price.--_Reports
+    Census of India_, 1911, i. 216 ff; _Panjab_, 1911, i. 231.
+
+[6] Ludhiana.
+
+[7] No record of this proclamation has been traced in the histories of the
+    time.
+
+[8] The bride is often selected by praying for a dream in sleep, by
+    manipulating the rosary, or by opening the _Koran_ at random, and
+    reading the first verse which comes under the eye. Another method is
+    to ascertain to which of the elements--fire, air, earth, water--the
+    initials of the names of the pair correspond. If these agree, it is
+    believed that the engagement will be prosperous.--Jaffur Shurreef,
+    _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 37.
+
+[9] _Mangni_, 'the asking'.
+
+[10] Compare the full account of brides' dress in Mrs. F. Parks,
+    _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 425.
+
+[11] _Jama_.
+
+[12] _Dalan_.
+
+[13] _Bahu_, properly a son's wife or daughter-in-law: commonly applied
+    to a bride or young wife.
+
+[14] Probably the _genda_ or French marigold (_Tagetes erecta_).
+
+[15] Sumdun is always the title of the bride's mamma; Bohue, that of the
+    young wife, and, therefore, my thus designating her here is premature.
+    [_Samdhan_ means a connexion by marriage. The mothers of bride and
+    bridegroom are _samdhan_ to each other.]
+
+[16] _Kuth, kuttha_, the gum of _Acacia catechu_.
+
+[17] The shaddock (_Citrus decumana_) is called _chakoira_; possibly
+    confused with the next.
+
+[18] _Kharbuzah, Cucumis melo_.
+
+[19] _Ananas, Ananassa saliva_.
+
+[20] Guava.
+
+[21] _Sharifah, Anona squamosa_.
+
+[22] _Kamrak, Averrhoa Carambola_.
+
+[23] _Jamun, jaman, Eugenia Jambolana_.
+
+[24] _Am, Mangifera indica_.
+
+[25] _Falsa, phalsa, Greuria asiatica_.
+
+[26] _Kirni, Canthium parviflorum_.
+
+[27] _Ber, Zizyphus Jujuba_.
+
+[28] _Lichi, Nephelium Lichi_.
+
+[29] Possibly some confusion between _um_, the mango, and _alu,
+    aru_, the peach.
+
+[30] _Karaunda, Carissa Carandas_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIV
+
+  Wedding ceremonies of the Mussulmauns.--The new or full moon
+  propitious to the rites being concluded.--Marriage settlements
+  unknown.--Control of the wife over her own property.--Three days and
+  nights occupied in celebrating the wedding.--Preparations previously
+  made by both families.--Ostentatious display on those occasions.--Day
+  of Sarchuck.--Customs on the day of Mayndhie.--Sending presents.--Day
+  of Baarraat.--Procession of the bridegroom to fetch the bride.--The
+  bride's departure to her new home.--Attendant ceremonies
+  explained.--Similarity of the Mussulmaun and Hindu
+  ceremonies.--Anecdote of a Moollah.--Tying the Narrah to the Moosul.
+
+
+When the young lady's family have made all the necessary arrangements for
+that important event (their daughter's nuptials), notice is sent to the
+friends of the intended bridegroom, and the gentlemen of both families
+meet to settle on what day the celebration is to take place. They are
+guided in the final arrangement by the state of the moon--the new or full
+moon has the preference; she must, however, be clear of Scorpio, which, as
+I have before stated, they consider the unfortunate sign.[1] There are
+some moons in the year considered very unpropitious to marry in. At
+Mahurrum, for instance, no emergency as to time or circumstance would
+induce the female party to consent to the marriage solemnities taking
+place. In Rumzaun they have scruples, though not equal to those which they
+entertain against fulfilling the contract in Mahurrum, the month of
+mourning.
+
+Marriage settlements are not known in Mussulmaun society. All contracts
+are made by word of mouth; and to their credit, honourable reliance is
+usually followed by honourable fulfilment of agreements. The husband is
+expected to be satisfied with whatever portion of his wife's fortune the
+friends may deem consistent or prudent to grant with their daughter. The
+wife is at liberty to keep under her own control any separate sum or
+allowance her parents may be pleased to give her, over and above the
+marriage portion granted to the husband with his wife.[2]
+
+The husband rarely knows the value of his wife's private property unless,
+as sometimes happens, the couple in after years have perfect confidence in
+each other, and make no separate interests in worldly matters.
+Occasionally, when the married couple have not lived happily together, the
+wife has been known to bury her cash secretly; and perhaps she may die
+without disclosing the secret of her treasure to any one.
+
+In India the practice of burying treasure is very common with females,
+particularly in villages, or where there are fears entertained of robbers.
+There is no difficulty in burying cash or other treasure, where the ground
+floors of the houses are merely beaten earth--boarded floors, indeed, are
+never seen in Hindoostaun--in the houses of the first classes of Natives
+they sometimes have them bricked and plastered, or paved with marble.
+During the rainy season I have sometimes observed the wooden tuckht[3] (a
+portable platform) in use with aged or delicate females, on which they
+make their seats from fear of the damp from the mud floor; but they
+complain that these accommodations are not half so comfortable as their
+ordinary seat.
+
+The division of personal property between married people has the effect of
+rendering the wife much more independent than the married lady of other
+countries. The plan is a judicious one in the existing state of Mussulmaun
+society, for since the husband could at his pleasure add other wives, the
+whole property of the first wife might be squandered on these additions.
+In the middling classes of society, and where the husband is a religious
+person, this division of property is not so strictly maintained; yet every
+wife has the privilege, if she chooses to exercise it, of keeping a
+private purse, which the good wife will produce unasked to meet her
+husband's emergencies; and which the good husband is never known to demand,
+however great may be his necessities. There are many traits of character
+in the Mussulmaun world that render them both amiable and happy, wherever
+politeness of behaviour is brought to bear. I have seen some bright
+examples of forbearance and affectionate solicitude in both sexes, which
+would do honour to the most refined societies of the civilized world.
+
+The marriage ceremony occupies three days and nights:--The first is called,
+Sarchuck;[4] the second, Mayndhie;[5] and the third, Baarraat,[6] (fate or
+destiny is the meaning of this word).
+
+I am not aware that three days are required to accomplish the nuptials of
+the young couple in any other society of Mussulmauns distinct from those
+of Hindoostaun. Judging by similar usages among the Hindoo population, I
+am rather disposed to conjecture that this is one of the customs of the
+aborigines, imitated by the invaders, as the outward parade and publicity
+given to the event by the Mussulmauns greatly resemble those of the
+surrounding Hindoos.
+
+There are no licences granted, nor any form of registry kept of marriages.
+Any person who is acquainted with the Khoraun may read the marriage
+ceremony, in the presence of witnesses if it be possible; but they usually
+employ a professed Moollah or Maulvee, in consideration of such persons
+being the most righteous in their lives; for they make this engagement a
+religious, as well as a civil contract.[7]
+
+The day being fixed, the elders, male and female, of the two families,
+invite their several relatives, friends, and acquaintances to assemble,
+according to their means and convenience for entertaining visitors. The
+invitations are written in the Persian character on red paper, describing
+the particular event which they are expected to honour. During the week
+previous to Sarchuck, both families are busily engaged in sending round to
+their several friends trays of ready-cooked dinners. Rich and poor share
+equally on these occasions; the reason assigned for which is, that the
+persons' nuptials may be registered in the minds of those who partake of
+the food, who in the course of time, might otherwise forget that they had
+ever heard of the young couple's nuptials.
+
+The mother of Bohue Begum actively employed the intervening time, in
+finishing her preparations for the young lady's departure from the
+parental roof with suitable articles, which might prove the bride was not
+sent forth to her new family without a proper provision. There is
+certainly too much ostentation evinced on these occasions; but custom,
+prided custom, bids defiance to every better argument; and thus the mother,
+full of solicitude that her daughter should carry with her evident marks
+of parental affection, and be able to sustain her rank in life, loads her
+child with a profusion of worldly goods. The poorest people, in this
+instance, imitate their superiors with a blameable disregard to
+consequences. Many parents among the lower orders incur heavy debts to
+enable them to make a parade at their children's wedding, which proves a
+source of misery to themselves as long as they live.
+
+It may be presumed the Sumdun Begum prepared more suits of finery than her
+daughter could wear out for years. A silver bedstead with the necessary
+furniture, as before described; a silver pawn-dawn,[8] round, and shaped
+very like a modern spice-box in England; a silver chillumchee[9]
+(wash-hand basin), and lota (water-jug with a spout, nearly resembling an
+old-fashioned coffee-pot); a silver luggun[10] (spittoon); silver
+surraie[11] (water-bottle); silver basins for water; several dozens of
+copper saucepans, plates and spoons for cooking; dishes, plates, and
+platters in all variety needful for the house, of metal or of stone. China
+or glass is rarely amongst the bride's portion, the only articles of glass
+I remember to have seen was the looking-glass for the bride's toilette,
+and that was framed and cased in pure silver. Stone dishes are a curious
+and expensive article, brought from Persia and Arabia, of a greenish
+colour, highly polished; the Natives call them racaab-puttie,[12] and
+prefer them to silver at their meals, having an idea that poisoned food
+would break them; and he who should live in fear of such a calamity, feels
+secure that the food is pure when the dish of this rare stone is placed
+before him perfect.
+
+Amongst the various articles sent with the bride to her new home is the
+much prized musnud, cushions and carpet to correspond; shutteringhies, and
+calico carpets, together with the most minute article used in Native
+houses, whether for the kitchen, or for the accommodation of the young
+lady in her apartments; all these are conveyed in the lady's train when
+she leaves her father's house to enter that of her husband. I am afraid my
+descriptions will be deemed tediously particular, so apt are we to take
+the contagion of example from those we associate with; and as things
+unimportant in other societies are made of so much consequence to these
+people, I am in danger of giving to trifles more importance than may be
+agreeable to my readers.
+
+On the day of Sarchuck the zeenahnahs of both houses are completely filled
+with visitors of all grades, from the wives and mothers of noblemen, down
+to the humblest acquaintance of the family. To do honour to the hostess,
+the guests appear in their best attire and most valuable ornaments.
+
+A wedding in the family of a respectable Mussulmaun is very often the
+medium of reconciling long standing estrangements between friends. Human
+nature has the same failings in every climate; there will be some who
+entertain jealousies and envyings in all societies, but a wedding with
+these people is a perfect peace-maker, since none of the invited can
+consistently stay away; and in such an assembly, where is the evil mind to
+disturb harmony, or recur to past grievances?
+
+The day of Sarchuck is the first time the young lady receives the
+appellation of Dullun,[13] at which time also the bridegroom is designated
+Dullha.[14] Dullun is kept in strict confinement, in a dark room or closet,
+during the whole three days' merriment going forward under the parental
+roof; whilst the bridegroom is the most prominent person in the assembly
+of the males, where amusements are contrived to please and divert him, the
+whole party vieing in personal attentions to him. The ladies are occupied
+in conversation and merriment, and amused with the native songs and music
+of the dominie, smoking the hookha, eating pawn, dinner, &c. Company is
+their delight, and time passes pleasantly with them in such an assembly.
+
+The second day, Mayndhie, is one of bustle and preparation in the Sumdun
+Begum's department; it is spent in arranging the various articles that are
+to accompany the bride's Mayndhie, which is forwarded in the evening to
+the bridegroom with great parade.
+
+It is so well known that I need hardly mention the fact, that the herb
+mayndhie[15] is in general request amongst the natives of India, for the
+purpose of dyeing the hands and feet; it is considered by them an
+indispensable article to their comfort, keeping those members cool and a
+great ornament to the person.
+
+Long established custom obliges the bride to send mayndhie on the second
+night of the nuptials to the bridegroom; and, to make the event more
+conspicuous, presents proportioned to the means of the party accompany the
+trays of prepared mayndhie.
+
+The female friends of the bride's family attend the Mayndhie procession in
+covered conveyances, and the male guests on horses, elephants, and in
+palkies; trains of soldiers, servants, and bands of music swell the
+procession (among people of distinction) to a magnitude inconceivable to
+those who have not visited the Native cities of Hindoostaun, or witnessed
+the parade of a marriage ceremony.
+
+Amongst the bride's presents with mayndhie, may be noticed every thing
+requisite for a full-dress suit for the bridegroom, and the etceteras of
+his toilette; confectionery, dried fruits, preserves, the prepared pawns,
+and a multitude of trifles too tedious to enumerate, but which are
+nevertheless esteemed luxuries with the Native young people, and are
+considered essential to the occasion. One thing I must not omit, the
+sugar-candy, which forms the source of amusement when the bridegroom is
+under the dominion of the females in his mother's zeenahnah. The artush
+bajie,[16] (fireworks) sent with the presents, are concealed in flowers
+formed of the transparent uberuck:[17] these flowers are set out in frames,
+called chumund,[18] and represent beds of flowers in their varied forms
+and colours; these in their number and gay appearance have a pretty effect
+in the procession, interspersed with the trays containing the dresses, &c.
+All the trays are first covered with basket-work raised in domes, and over
+these are thrown draperies of broadcloth, gold-cloth, and brocade, neatly
+fringed in bright colours.
+
+The Mayndhie procession having reached the bridegroom's house, bustle and
+excitement pervade through every department of the mansion. The gentlemen
+are introduced to the father's hall; the ladies to the youth's mother, who
+in all possible state is prepared to receive the bride's friends.
+
+The interior of a zeenahnah has been already described; the ladies crowd
+into the centre hall to witness, through the blinds of bamboo, the
+important process of dressing the young bridegroom in his bride's presents.
+The centre purdah is let down, in which are openings to admit the hands
+and feet; and close to this purdah a low stool is placed. When all these
+preliminary preparations are made, and the ladies securely under cover,
+notice is sent to the male assembly that, 'Dullha is wanted'; and he then
+enters the zeenahnah court-yard, amidst the deafening sounds of trumpets
+and drums from without, and a serenade from the female singers within. He
+seats himself on the stool placed for him close to the purdah, and obeys
+the several commands he receives from the hidden females, with childlike
+docility. The moist mayndhie is then tied on with bandages by hands he
+cannot see, and, if time admits, one hour is requisite to fix the dye
+bright and permanent on the hands and feet. During this delay, the hour is
+passed in lively dialogues with the several purdahed dames, who have all
+the advantage of seeing though themselves unseen; the singers occasionally
+lauding his praise in extempore strains, after describing the loveliness
+of his bride, (whom they know nothing about), and foretelling the
+happiness which awaits him in his marriage, but which, in the lottery, may
+perhaps prove a blank. The sugar-candy, broken into small lumps, is
+presented by the ladies whilst his hands and feet are fast bound in the
+bandages of mayndhie; but as he cannot help himself, and it is an omen of
+good to eat the bride's sweets at this ceremony, they are sure he will try
+to catch the morsels which they present to his mouth and then draw back,
+teasing the youth with their banterings, until at last he may successfully
+snap at the candy, and seize the fingers also with the dainty, to the
+general amusement of the whole party and the youth's entire satisfaction.
+
+The mayndhie supposed to have done its duty, the bandages are removed; his
+old unnah,[19] the nurse of his infancy (always retained for life),
+assists him with water to wash off the leaves, dries his feet and hands,
+rubs him with otta,[20] robes him in his bride's presents, and ornaments
+him with the guinah. Thus attired he takes leave of his tormentors, sends
+respectful messages to his bride's family, and bows his way from their
+guardianship to the male apartment, where he is greeted by a flourish of
+trumpets and the congratulations of the guests, many of whom present
+nuzzas and embrace him cordially.
+
+The dinner is introduced at twelve amongst the bridegroom's guests, and
+the night passed in good-humoured conviviality, although the strongest
+beverage at the feast consists of sugar and water sherbet. The
+dancing-women's performances, the display of fireworks, the dinner, pawn,
+and hookha, form the chief amusements of the night, and they break up only
+when the dawn of morning approaches.
+
+The bride's female friends take sherbet and pawn after the bridegroom's
+departure from the zeenahnah, after which they hasten away to the bride's
+assembly, to detail the whole business of their mission.
+
+I have often heard the ladies complain, that the time hangs very heavy on
+their hands whilst the party have gone to perform Mayndhie, until the
+good ladies return with their budget of particulars. Hundreds of questions
+are then put to them by the inquisitive dames, how the procession passed
+off?--whether accident or adventure befel them on the march?--what remarks
+were made on the bride's gifts?---but most of all they want to know, how
+the bridegroom looked, and how he behaved under their hands? The events of
+the evening take up the night in detailing, with the occasional
+interruptions of dinner, pawn, and sherbet; and so well are they amused,
+that they seldom feel disposed to sleep until the crowing of the cock
+warns them that the night has escaped with their diversified amusements.
+
+The eventful Baarraat arrives to awaken in the heart of a tender mother
+all the good feelings of fond affection; she is, perhaps, about to part
+with the great solace of her life under many domestic trials; at any rate,
+she transfers her beloved child to another protection. All marriages are
+not equally happy in their termination; it is a lottery, a fate, in the
+good mother's calculation. Her darling child may be the favoured of Heaven
+for which she prays; she may be, however, the miserable first wife of a
+licentious pluralist; nothing is certain, but she will strive to trust in
+God's mercy, that the event prove a happy one to her dearly-loved girl.
+
+I have said the young bride is in close confinement during the days of
+celebrating her nuptials; on the third she is tormented with the
+preparations for her departure. The mayndhie must be applied to her hands
+and feet, the formidable operations of bathing, drying her hair, oiling
+and dressing her head, dyeing her lips, gums, and teeth with antimony,
+fixing on her the wedding ornaments, the nut (nose-ring) presented by her
+husband's family: the many rings to be placed on her fingers and toes, the
+rings fixed in her ears, are all so many new trials to her, which though a
+complication of inconveniences, she cannot venture to murmur at, and
+therefore submits to with the passive meekness of a lamb.
+
+Towards the close of the evening, all this preparation being fulfilled,
+the marriage portion is set in order to accompany the bride. The guests
+make their own amusements for the day; the mother is too much occupied
+with her daughter's affairs to give much of her time or attention to them;
+nor do they expect it, for they all know by experience the nature of a
+mother's duties at such an interesting period.
+
+The bridegroom's house is nearly in the same state of bustle as the
+bride's, though of a very different, description, as the preparing for the
+reception of a bride is an event of vast importance in the opinion of a
+Mussulmaun. The gentlemen assemble in the evening, and are regaled with
+sherbet and the hookha, and entertained with the nuutch-singing and
+fireworks until the appointed hour for setting out in the procession to
+fetch the bride to her new home.
+
+The procession is on a grand scale; every friend or acquaintance, together
+with their elephants, are pressed into the service of the bridegroom on
+this night of Baarraat. The young man himself is mounted on a handsome
+charger, the legs, tail, and mane of which are dyed with mayndhie, whilst
+the ornamental furniture of the horse is splendid with spangles and
+embroidery. The dress of the bridegroom is of gold-cloth, richly trimmed
+with a turban to correspond, to the top of which is fastened an immense
+bunch of silver trimming, that falls over his face to his waist, and
+answers the purpose of a veil,[21] (this is in strict keeping with the
+Hindoo custom at their marriage processions). A select few of the females
+from the bridegroom's house attend in his train to bring home the bride,
+accompanied by innumerable torches, with bands of music, soldiers, and
+servants, to give effect to the procession. On their arrival at the gate
+of the bride's residence, the gentlemen are introduced to the father's
+apartments, where fireworks, music, and singing, occupy their time and
+attention until the hour for departure arrives.
+
+The marriage ceremony is performed in the presence of witnesses, although
+the bride is not seen by any of the males at the time, not even by her
+husband, until they have been lawfully united according to the common form.
+
+In the centre of the hall, in the zeenahnah, a tuckht (platform) six feet
+square is placed, on which the musnud of gold brocade is set. This is the
+bride's seat when dressed for her nuptials; she is surrounded by ladies
+who bear witness to the marriage ceremony. The purdahs are let down, and
+the Maulvee, the bridegroom, the two fathers, and a few male friends are
+introduced to the zeenahnah court-yard, with a flourish of trumpets and
+deafening sounds of drums. They advance with much gravity towards the
+purdahs, and arrange themselves close to this slender partition between
+the two sexes.
+
+The Maulvee commences by calling on the young maiden by name, to answer to
+his demand, 'Is it by your own consent this marriage takes place
+with ----?' naming the person who is the bridegroom; the bride answers,
+'It is by my consent.' The Maulvee then explains the law of Mahumud, and
+reads a certain chapter from that portion of the Khoraun which binds the
+parties in holy wedlock.[22] He then turns to the young man, and asks him
+to name the sum he proposes as his wife's dowry. The bridegroom thus
+called upon, names ten, twenty, or perhaps a hundred lacs of rupees; the
+Maulvee repeats to all present the amount proposed, and then prays that
+the young couple thus united may be blessed in this world and in eternity.
+All the gentlemen then retire, except the bridegroom, who is delayed, as
+soon as this is accomplished, entering the hall until the bride's guests
+have retreated into the side rooms: as soon as this is accomplished he is
+introduced into the presence of his mother-in-law and her daughter by the
+women servants. He studiously avoids looking up as he enters the hall,
+because, according to the custom of this people, he must first see his
+wife's face in a looking-glass, which is placed before the young couple,
+when he is seated on the musnud by his bride. Happy for him if he then
+beholds a face that bespeaks the gentle being he hopes Fate has destined
+to make him happy; if otherwise he must submit; there is no untying the
+sacred contract.
+
+Many absurd customs follow this first introduction of the bride and
+bridegroom. When the procession is all formed, the goods and chattels of
+the bride are loaded on the heads of the carriers; the bridegroom conveys
+his young wife in his arms to the chundole (covered palankeen), which is
+in readiness within the court, and the procession moves off in grand style,
+with a perpetual din of noisy music until they arrive at the bridegroom's
+mansion.
+
+The poor mother has perhaps had many struggles with her own heart to save
+her daughter's feelings during the preparation for departure; but when the
+separation takes place the scene is affecting beyond description. I never
+witnessed anything to equal it in other societies: indeed, so powerfully
+are the feelings of the mother excited, that she rarely acquires her usual
+composure until her daughter is allowed to revisit her, which is generally
+within a week after her marriage.
+
+P.S.--I have remarked that, in important things which have nothing to do
+with the religion of the Mussulmauns, they are disposed to imitate the
+habits of the Hindoos; this is more particularly to be traced in many of
+their wedding customs.
+
+In villages where there are a greater proportion of Hindoos than
+Mussulmauns the females of the two people mix more generally than is
+usually allowed in cities or large towns; and it is among this mingled
+population that we find the spirit of superstition influencing the female
+character in more marked manner than it does in more populous places,
+which the following anecdote, will illustrate. The parties were known to
+the person who related the circumstance to me.
+
+'A learned man, a moollah[23] or head-teacher and expounder of the
+Mahumudan law, resided in a village six koss (twelve miles English)
+distant from Lucknow, the capital of Oude. This moollah was married to a
+woman of good family, by whom he had a large progeny of daughters. He
+lived in great respect, and cultivated his land with success, the produce
+of his farm not only supporting his own family, but enabling the good
+moollah to distribute largely amongst the poor, his neighbours, and the
+passing traveller. A hungry applicant never left his door without a meal
+of the same wholesome, yet humble fare, which formed his own daily
+sustenance. Bread and dhall he preferred to the most choice delicacies, as
+by this abstemious mode of living, he was enabled to feed and comfort the
+afflicted with the residue of his income.
+
+'This moollah was one of the most pious men of the age, and alive to the
+interests of his fellow-mortals, both temporal and eternal. He gave
+instruction gratis to as many pupils as chose to attend his lectures, and
+desired to acquire from his matured knowledge an introduction to the
+points of faith, and instruction in the Mussulmaun laws. Numbers of young
+students attended his hall daily, to listen to the expounding of the rules
+and maxims he had acquired by a long life devoted to the service of God,
+and his duty to mankind. In him, many young men found a benefactor who
+blended instruction with temporal benefits; so mild and persuasive were
+this good moollah's monitions, that he lived in the affection, venerations
+and respect of his pupils, as a fond father in the love of his children.
+
+'The wife of this good man managed the domestic affairs of the family,
+which were very little controlled by her husband's interference. On an
+occasion of solemnizing the nuptials of one of their daughters, the wife
+sent a message to the moollah, by a female slave, requiring his immediate
+presence in the zeenahnah, that he might perform his allotted part in the
+ceremony, which, as elder of the house, could not be confided to any other
+hands but his. This was to "tie the naarah to the moosul".[24]
+
+'The moollah was deeply engaged in expounding to his pupils a difficult
+passage of the Khoraun when the slave entered and delivered her message.
+"Coming", he answered, without looking at the messenger, and continued his
+exposition.
+
+'The good woman of the house was in momentary expectation of her husband's
+arrival, but when one hour had elapsed, her impatience overcame her
+discretion, and she dispatched the slave a second time to summon the
+moollah, who, in his anxiety to promote a better work, had forgotten the
+subject of tying the naarah to the moosul. The slave again entered the
+hall, and delivered her lady's message; he was then engaged in a fresh
+exposition, and, as before, replied "coming", but still proceeding with
+his subject as if he heard not the summons.
+
+'Another hour elapsed, and the wife's ordinary patience was exhausted; "Go
+to your master, slave!" she said with authority in her voice and manner;
+"go ask your master from me, whether it is his intention to destroy the
+peace of his house, and the happiness of his family. Ask him, why he
+should delay performing so important a duty at this ceremony, when his own
+daughter's interest and welfare are at stake?"
+
+'The slave faithfully conveyed the message, and the moollah, finding that
+his domestic peace depended on submitting to the superstitious notions of
+his wife, accompanied the slave to the zeenahnah without further delay.
+
+'The moollah's compliance with the absurd desires of his wife surprised
+the students, who discussed the subject freely in his absence. He having
+always taught them the folly of prejudice and the absurdity of
+superstition, they could not, comprehend how it was the moollah had been
+led to comply with a request so much at variance with the principles he
+endeavoured to impress upon them.
+
+'On his return, after a short absence, to his pupils, he was about to
+re-commence the passage at which he had left off to attend his wife's
+summons; one of the young men, however, interrupted him by the inquiry,
+"Whether he had performed the important business of tying the naarah to the
+moosul?"--"Yes," answered the moollah, very mildly, "and by so doing I
+have secured peace to my wife's disturbed mind."--"But how is it, reverend
+Sir," rejoined the student, "that your actions and your precepts are at
+variance? You caution us against every species of superstition, and yet
+that you have in this instance complied with one, is very evident."--"I
+grant you, my young friend," said the moollah, "that I have indeed done so,
+but my motive for this deviation is, I trust, correct. I could have argued
+with you on the folly of tying the naarah to the moosul, and you would
+have been convinced by my arguments; but my wife, alas! would not listen
+to anything but the custom--the custom of the whole village. I went with
+reluctance, I performed the ceremony with still greater; yet I had no
+alternative if I valued harmony in my household: this I have now secured
+by my acquiescence in the simple desire of my wife. Should any evil
+accident befall my daughter or her husband, I am spared the reproaches
+that would have been heaped upon me, as being the cause of the evil, from
+my refusal to tie the naarah to the moosul. The mere compliance with this
+absurd custom, to secure peace and harmony, does not alter my faith; I
+have saved others from greater offences, by my passive obedience to the
+wishes of my wife, who ignorantly places dependance on the act, as
+necessary to her daughter's welfare."
+
+'The students were satisfied with his explanation, and their respect was
+increased for the good man who had thus taught them to see and to cherish
+the means of living peaceably with all mankind, whenever their actions do
+not tend to injure their religious faith, or infringe on the principles of
+morality and virtue.'
+
+
+[1] See p. 158.
+
+[2] For the right of the bride to her private property, see N.E.B. Baillie,
+    _Digest of Moohummudan Law_ (1875), 146 ff.
+
+[3] _Takht._
+
+[4] _Sachaq_, the fruits and other gifts carried in procession in
+  earthen pots ornamented with various devices.--Jaffur Shurreef,
+  _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 73.
+
+[5] _Menhdi_.
+
+[6] _Barat, barat_: meaning 'bridegroom's procession'.
+
+[7] Among the Khojas of West India a person from the lodge to which the
+    parties belong recites the names of the Panjtan-i-pak, the five
+    holy ones--Muhammad, 'Ali, Fatimah, Hasan, Husain--with the
+    invocation: 'I begin the wedding of ---- with ----, to wed as did
+    Fatimah, the bright-faced Lady (on whom be peace!) with the Lord and
+    Leader, the Receiver of the Testament of the Chosen and Pure, the Lord
+    'Ali, the son of Abu-Talib.'--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii,
+    45.
+
+[8] _Pandan_.
+
+[9] _Chilamchi_.
+
+[10] _Lagan_.
+
+[11] _Surahi_.
+
+[12] _Rikab_, 'a cup'; _patthari_, 'made of stone'. China dishes are
+    also supposed to betray poison: see J. Fryer, _A New Account of East
+    India and Persia_ (Hakluyt Society's edition), i. 87.
+
+[13] _Dulhin_.
+
+[14] _Dulha_.
+
+[15] _Menhdi_: the henna plant, _Lawsonia alba_.
+
+[16] _Atishbazi_, fire-play.
+
+[17] _Abrak_, talc.
+
+[18] _Chaman_, a flower-bed.
+
+[19] _Anna_.
+
+[20] Otto, _'itr_ of roses.
+
+[21] 'The dress of the bridegroom consisted entirely of cloth of gold;
+    and across his forehead was bound a sort of fillet made of an
+    embroidery of pearls, from which, long strings of gold hung down all
+    over his face to his saddle-bow; and to his mouth he kept a red silk
+    handkerchief closely pressed to prevent devils entering his
+    mouth.'--Mrs. F. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 438 f. This
+    fillet is called _sihra_, and it is intended to avert the influence
+    of the Evil Eye and of demons.
+
+
+[22] The officiating Mulla or Qazi lifts the bridegroom's veil,
+    makes him gargle his throat three times with water, and seating him
+    facing Mecca, requires him to repeat a prayer to Allah for forgiveness
+    (_istighfarullah_); the four Qul, or chapters of the _Koran_
+    commencing with the word _qul_, 'say' (cix, cxii, cxiii, cxiv); the
+    Kalima or Creed: 'There is no deity but Allah: Muhammad is the
+    Apostle of Allah'; the Articles of Belief (_Sifat-i-iman_) in
+    Allah, his Angels, the Scriptures, the Prophets, the Resurrection,
+    and Day of Judgement. His absolute decree and predestination of Good
+    and Evil; the Prayer of Obedience, said standing
+    (_du'a'l-qunut_). If he be illiterate, the meaning of all these
+    should be explained to him.--Jafnir Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 86.
+
+[23] Mulla.
+
+[24] The naarah is a cord of many threads dyed red and yellow; the moosul
+    the heavy beam in use where rice is to be cleansed from the husks. The
+    custom is altogether of Hindoo origin. [_Author_.] [When the condiment
+    (_ubtan_), made of the flour of gram, mixed with oil and perfumes,
+    which is rubbed on the bride and bridegroom, is being ground, the
+    handle of the hand-mill is smeared with sandalwood paste, powder of a
+    kind of nut ( _Vangueira spinosa_), and some betel leaves; betel-nuts
+    wrapped in a piece of new red cloth are tied to it. Then seven women,
+    whose husbands are living, sit down to grind the condiment. Some raw
+    rice is put in a red cloth, and with a parcel of betel-leaf is tied to
+    the mill-handle with a thread (_nara_). Women pretend to beat it,
+    and sing a marriage song. The rite is a form of fertility magic. The
+    handle of the mill here represents the rice-pounder (_musal_) in
+    the rite described in the text.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part i, 101;
+    part ii, 163 f.[7]]
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XV
+
+  On the birth and management of children in Hindoostaun.--Increase of
+  joy on the birth of a Son.--Preference generally shown to male
+  children.--Treatment of Infants.--Day of Purification.--Offerings
+  presented on this occasion to the child.--The anniversary of the
+  birthday celebrated.--Visit of the father to the Durgah.--Pastimes of
+  boys.--Kites.--Pigeons.--The Mhogdhur.--Sword-exercise.--The Bow and
+  Arrows.--The Pellet-bow.--Crows.--Sports of Native
+  gentlemen.--Cock-fighting.--Remarks upon horses, elephants, tigers,
+  and leopards.--Pigeon-shooting.--Birds released from captivity on
+  particular occasions.--Reasons for the extension of the royal
+  clemency in Native Courts.--Influence of the Prime Minister in the
+  administration of justice.
+
+
+The bustle of a wedding in the family of a Mussulmaun having subsided, and
+the bride become familiar with her new relatives, the mother also
+reconciled to the separation from her child by the knowledge of her
+happiness,--for they are allowed frequent intercourse,--the next important
+subject which fills their whole hearts with hope and anxiety, is the
+expected addition to the living members of the family. Should this occur
+within the first year of their union, it is included in the catalogue of
+'Fortune's favours', as an event of no small magnitude to call forth their
+joy and gratitude. Many are the trifling ceremonies observed by the
+females of this uneducated people, important in their view to the
+well-being of both mother and infant, but so strongly partaking of
+superstition that time would be wasted in speaking of them; I will
+therefore hasten to the period of the infant's birth, which, if a boy, is
+greeted by the warmest demonstrations of unaffected joy in the houses both
+of the parents of the bride and bridegroom. When a female child is born,
+there is much less clamourous rejoicing at its birth than when a son is
+added to honour the family;[1] but the good mother will never be
+dissatisfied with the nature of the gift, who can appreciate the source
+whence she receives the blessing. She rests satisfied that unerring Wisdom
+hath thus ordained, and bows with submission to His decree. She desires
+sons only as they are coveted by the father, and procure for the mother
+increased respect from the world, but she cannot actually love her infant
+less because it is a female.
+
+The birth of a son is immediately announced by a discharge of artillery,
+where cannon are kept; or by musketry in the lower grades of the Native
+population, even to the meanest peasant, with whom a single match-lock
+proclaims the honour as effectually as the volley of his superiors. The
+women say the object in firing at the moment the child is born, is to
+prevent his being startled at sounds by giving him so early an
+introduction to the report of muskets; but in this they are evidently
+mistaken, since we never find a musket announcing the birth of a female
+child.[2] They fancy there is more honour attached to a house where are
+many sons. The men make them their companions, which in the present state
+of Mussulmaun society, girls cannot be at any age. Besides which, so great
+is the trouble and anxiety in getting suitable matches for their daughters,
+that they are disposed to be more solicitous for male than female children.
+
+Amongst the better sort of people the mother very rarely nourishes her own
+infant; and I have known instances, when a wet-nurse could not be procured,
+where the infant has been reared by goals' milk, rather than the good lady
+should be obliged to fatigue herself with her infant. The great objection
+is, that in Mussulmaun families nurses are required to be abstemious in
+their diet, by no means an object of choice amongst so luxurious a people.
+A nurse is not allowed for the first month or more to taste animal food,
+and even during the two years--the usual period of supporting infancy by
+this nourishment--the nurse lives by rule both in quality and quantity of
+such food only as may be deemed essential to the well-being of the child.
+
+The lower orders of the people benefit by their superiors' prejudices
+against nursing, and a wet-nurse once engaged in a family becomes a member
+of that house to the end of her days, unless she chooses to quit it
+herself.
+
+On the fourth day after the birth of a son, the friends of both families
+are invited to share in the general joy testified by a noisy assembly of
+singing-women, people chattering, smell of savoury dishes, and constant
+bustle; which, to any other females in the world would be considered
+annoyances, but in their estimation are agreeable additions to the
+happiness of the mother, who is in most cases screened only by a curtain
+from the multitude of noisy visitors assembled to rejoice on the important
+event. I could not refrain, on one of these occasions, remarking on the
+injudicious arrangement at such a time, when I thought quiet was really
+needed to the invalid's comfort. The lady thought otherwise; she was too
+much rejoiced at this moment of her exaltation to think of quiet; all the
+world would know she was the mother of a son; this satisfied her for all
+that she suffered from the noisy mirth and increased heat arising from the
+multitude of her visitors, who stayed the usual time, three days and
+nights. The ladies, however, recover their strength rapidly. They are
+attended by females in their time of peril, and with scarcely an instance
+of failure. Nature is kind. Science has not yet stepped within the
+confines of the zeenahnah. All is Nature with these uneducated females,
+and as they are under no apprehension, the hour arrives without terror,
+and passes over without weakening fears. They trust in God, and suffer
+patiently. It may be questioned, however, whether their pains at that
+juncture equal those of females in Europe. Their figure has never been
+tortured by stays and whalebone; indeed, I do not recollect having met
+with an instance of deformity in the shape of any inhabitant of a
+zeenahnah.
+
+On the ninth day the infant is well bathed,--I cannot call any of its
+previous ablutions a bath,[3]--then its little head is well oiled, and the
+fillet thrown aside, which is deemed necessary from the first to the ninth
+day. The infant from its birth is laid in soft beaten cotton, with but
+little clothing until it has been well bathed, and even then the dress
+would deserve to be considered more as ornamental covering than useful
+clothing; a thin muslin loose shirt, edged and bordered with silver
+ribands, and a small skull-cap to correspond, comprises their dress.
+Blankets, robes, and sleeping-dresses, are things unknown in the nursery
+of a zeenahnah. The baby is kept during the month in a reclining position,
+except when the nurse receives it in her arms to nourish it; indeed for
+many months the infant is but sparingly removed from its reclining
+position. They would consider it a most cruel disturbance of a baby's
+tranquillity, to set it up or hold it in the arms, except for the purpose
+of giving it nourishment.
+
+The infant's first nourishment is of a medicinal kind, composed of
+umultass[4](cassia), a vegetable aperient, with sugar, and distilled water
+of aniseed; this is called gootlie,[5] and the baby has no other food for
+the first three days, after which it receives the nurse's aid. After the
+third day a small proportion of opium is administered, which practice is
+continued daily until the child is three or four years old.
+
+The very little clothing on infants in India would of itself teach the
+propriety of keeping them in a reclining position, as the mere natural
+strength of the poor baby has nothing to support it by the aid of bandages
+or clothing. The nurse receives the baby on a thin pillow of calico
+quilted together, called gooderie;[6] it is changed us often us required,
+and is the only method as yet introduced amongst the Natives to secure
+cleanliness and comfort to their infants. In the cold season, when the
+thermometer may range from forty-five to fifty, the method of inducing
+warmth is by means of cotton or wadded quilts; flannel, as I have said
+before, they know not the use of. The children, however, thrive without
+any of those things we deem essential to the comfort of infancy, and the
+mamma is satisfied with the original customs, which, it may be supposed,
+are (without a single innovation) unchanged since the period of Abraham,
+their boasted forefather.
+
+On the fortieth day after the infant's birth, the same rites are observed
+as by the Jews (with the exception of circumcision), and denominated, as
+with them, the Day of Purification. On this day the infant is submitted to
+the hands of the barber, who shaves the head, as commanded by their law.
+The mother bathes and dresses in her most costly attire. Dinner is cooked
+for the poor in abundance. Friends and relatives call on the mother to
+present nuzzas and offerings, and to bring presents to the child, after
+the manner of the wise men's offerings, so familiar to us in our
+Scriptures. The offerings to the child are often costly and pretty;
+bangles and various ornaments of the precious metals. The taawees[7] of
+gold and silver are tablets on which engraved verses from the Khoraun are
+inscribed in Arabic characters; these are strung on cords of gold thread,
+and suspended, when the child is old enough to bear their weight, over one
+shoulder, crossing the back and chest, and reaching below the hip on the
+opposite side; they have a remarkably good effect with the rich style of
+dressing Native children. In some of the offerings from the great people
+are to be observed precious stones set in necklaces, and bangles for the
+arms and ankles. All who visit at these times take something for the baby;
+it would be deemed an omen of evil in any one neglecting to follow this
+immemorial custom; not that they are avaricious, but that they are anxious
+for their infant's prosperity, which these tributes are supposed to
+indicate.[8]
+
+The mother thus blessed with a darling son is almost the idol of the new
+family she has honoured; and when such a person happens to be an agreeable,
+prudent woman, she is likely to remain without a rival in her husband's
+heart, who has no inducement to add dhollie[9] wives to his establishment
+when his home is made happy to him by the only wife who can do him honour
+by the alliance.
+
+The birthday of each son in a family is regularly kept. The term used for
+the occasion is Saul-girrah[10]--derived, from saul, a year, girrah, to
+tie a knot. The custom is duly maintained by tying a knot on a string kept
+for the purpose by the mother, on the return of her boy's birthday. The
+girls' years are numbered by a silver loop or ring being added yearly to
+the gurdonie,[11] or silver neck-ring. These are the only methods of
+registering the ages of Mussulmaun children.
+
+The Saul-girrah is a day of annual rejoicing through the whole house of
+which the boy is a member; music, fireworks, toys, and whatever amusement
+suits his age and taste, are liberally granted to fill up the measure of
+his happiness; whilst his father and mother have each their assemblies to
+the fullest extent of their means. Dinner is provided liberally for the
+guests, and the poor are not neglected, whose prayers and blessings are
+coveted by the parents for their offspring's benefit; and they believe the
+blessings of the poor are certain mediations at the throne of mercy which
+cannot fail to produce benefits on the person in whose favour they are
+invoked.
+
+The boy's nurse is on all occasions of rejoicing the first person to be
+considered in the distribution of gifts; she is, indeed, only second in
+the estimation of the parents to the child she has reared and nourished;
+and with the child, she is of more consequence even than his natural
+parents. The wet-nurse, I have said, is retained in the family to the end
+of her days, and whatever children she may have of her own, they are
+received into the family of her employer without reserve, either as
+servants or companions, and their interest in life regarded and watched
+over with the solicitude of relations, by the parents of the boy she has
+nursed.
+
+At seven years old the boys are circumcised, as by their law directed. The
+thanksgiving when the child is allowed to emerge from confinement, gives
+rise to another jubilee in the family.
+
+At Lucknow we see, almost daily, processions on their way to the Durgah
+(before described),[12] where the father conveys the young Mussulmaun to
+return thanks and public acknowledgements at the sainted shrine. The
+procession is planned on a grand scale, and all the male friends that can
+be collected attend in the cavalcade to do honour to so interesting an
+occasion.
+
+When the prayer and thanksgiving have been duly offered in the boy's name
+at the Durgah, money is distributed amongst the assembled poor; and on the
+way home, silver and copper coins are thrown to the multitude who crowd
+around the procession. The scrambling and tumult on these occasions can
+only be relished by the Natives, who thus court popularity; but they
+rarely move in state without these scenes of confusion following in their
+train. I have witnessed thousands of people following the King's train, on
+his visiting the Durgah at Lucknow, when his Majesty and his Prime
+Minister scattered several thousands of rupees amongst the populace. The
+noise was deafening, some calling blessings on the King, others
+quarrelling and struggling to force away the prize from the happy one who
+had caught, in the passing shower, a rupee or two in his drapery. Some of
+the most cunning secure the prize in their mouths to save themselves from
+the plunderer; some are thrown down and trampled under foot; the sandy
+soil, however, renders their situation less alarming than such a calamity
+would be in London, but it is altogether a scene of confusion sufficient
+to terrify any one, except those who delight in their ancient customs
+without regarding consequences to individuals.
+
+The amusements of boys in India differ widely from the juvenile sports of
+the English youth; here there are neither matches at cricket nor races;
+neither hoops nor any other game which requires exercise on foot. Marbles
+they have, and such other sports as suit their habits and climate, and can
+be indulged in without too much bodily exertion. They fly kites at all
+ages. I have seen men in years, even, engaged in this amusement, alike
+unconscious that they were wasting time, or employing it in pursuits
+fitted only for children. They are flown from the flat roofs of the houses,
+where it is common with the men to take their seat at sunset. They are
+much amused by a kind of contest with kites, which is carried on in the
+following manner. The neighbouring gentlemen, having provided themselves
+with lines, previously rubbed with paste and covered with pounded glass,
+raise their kites, which, when brought in contact with each other by a
+current of air, the topmost string cuts through the under one, when down
+falls the kite, to the evident amusement of the idlers in the streets or
+roadway, who with shouts and hurrahs seek to gain possession of the toy,
+with as much avidity as if it were a prize of the greatest value: however,
+from the numerous competitors, and their great zeal to obtain possession
+of it, it is usually torn to pieces. Much skill is shown in the endeavours
+of each party to keep his string uppermost, by which he is enabled to cut
+that of his adversary's kite.
+
+The male population are great pigeon-fanciers, and are very choice in
+their breed, having every variety of the species they can possibly procure;
+some are brought from different parts of the world at an enormous expense.
+Each proprietor of a flock of pigeons knows his own birds from every other.
+They are generally confined in bamboo houses erected on the flat roofs of
+the mansions, where at early dawn and at sunset the owner takes his
+station to feed his pets and give them a short airing. Perhaps a
+neighbour's flock have also emerged from their cages at the same time,
+when mingling in the circuit round and round the buildings (as often
+happens), one or more from one person's flock will return home with those
+of another; in which case, they are his lawful prize for ever, unless his
+neighbour wishes to redeem the captives by a price, or by an exchange of
+prisoners. The fortunate holder, however, of such prize makes his own
+terms, which are perhaps exorbitant, particularly if he have any ill-will
+against the proprietor, or the stray pigeon happen to be of a peculiarly
+rare kind.[13] Many are the proofs of good breeding and civility, elicited
+on such occasions between gentlemen; and many, also, are the perpetuated
+quarrels where such a collision of interests happens between young men of
+bad feelings, or with persons having any previous dislike to each other.
+
+The chief out-door exercise taken by the youth of India, is an occasional
+ride on horseback or the elephant. They do not consider walking necessary
+to health; besides which, it is plebeian, and few ever walk who can
+maintain a conveyance. They exercise the moghdhur[14] (dumb-bell) as the
+means of strengthening the muscles and opening the chest. These moghdhurs,
+much resembling the club of Hercules, are used in pairs, each weighing
+from eight to twenty pounds; they are brandished in various ways over the
+head, crossed behind, and back again, with great ease and rapidity by
+those with whom the art has become familiar by long use. Those who would
+excel in the use of the moghdhurs practise every evening regularly; when,
+after the exercise, they have their arms and shoulders plastered with a
+moist clay, which they suppose strengthens the muscles and prevents them
+from taking cold after so violent an exercise. The young men who are
+solicitous to wield the sabre with effect and grace, declare this practice
+to be of the greatest service to them in their sword exercise: they go so
+far as to say, that they only use the sword well who have practised the
+moghdhur for several years.
+
+At their sword exercise, they practise 'the stroke' on the hide of a
+buffalo, or on a fish called rooey,[15] the scales of which form an
+excellent coat of mail, each being the size of a crown-piece, and the
+substance sufficient to turn the edge of a good sabre. The fish is
+produced alive from the river for this purpose; however revolting as the
+practice may appear to the European, it does not offend the feelings of
+the Natives, who consider the fish incapable of feeling after the first
+stroke; but, as regards the buffalo, I am told the most cruel inflictions
+have been made, by men who would try their blade and their skill on the
+staked animal without mercy.
+
+The lance is practised by young men of good family as an exercise; and by
+the common people, as the means of rendering them eligible to the Native
+military service of India. It is surprising to witness the agility of some
+of the Natives in the exercise of the lance; they are generally good
+horsemen, and at full speed will throw the lance, dismount to recover it,
+and remount, often without stirrups, with a celerity inconceivable. I have
+seen them at these exercises with surprise, remembering the little
+activity they exhibit in their ordinary habits.
+
+The Indian bow and arrow has greatly diminished as a weapon of defence in
+modern times; but all practise the use of the bow, as they fancy it opens
+the chest and gives ease and grace to the figure; things of no trifling
+importance with the Mussulmaun youth. I have seen some persons seated
+practising the bow, who were unable to bear the fatigue of standing; in
+those cases, a heavy weight and pulley are attached to the bow, which
+requires as much force in pulling as it would require to send an arrow
+from sixty to a hundred yards from the place they occupy.[16]
+
+The pellet-bow is in daily use to frighten away the crows from the
+vicinity of man's abode; the pellets are made of clay baked in the sun,
+and although they do not wound they bruise most desperately. Were it not
+for this means of annoying these winged pests, they would prove a perfect
+nuisance to the inhabitants, particularly within the confines of a
+zeenahnah, where these impudent birds assemble at cooking-time, to the
+great annoyance of the cooks, watching their opportunity to pounce upon
+anything they may incautiously leave uncovered. I have often seen women
+placed as watchers with the pellet-bow, to deter the marauders the whole
+time dinner was preparing in the kitchen. The front of these cooking-rooms
+are open to the zeenahnah court-yard, neither doors, windows, nor curtains
+being deemed necessary, where the smoke has no other vent than through the
+open front into the court-yard.
+
+The crows are so daring that they will enter the yard, where any of the
+children may be taking their meals (which they often do in preference to
+eating them under the confinement of the hall), and frequently seize the
+bread from the hands of the children, unless narrowly watched by the
+servants, or deterred by the pellet-bow. And at the season of building
+their nests, these birds will plunder from the habitations of man,
+whatever may be met with likely to make a soft lining for their nests;
+often, I am told, carrying off the skull-cap from the children's heads,
+and the women's pieces of calico or muslin from their laps when seated in
+the open air at work.
+
+Many of the Natives are strongly attached to the brutal practice of
+cock-fighting; they are very choice in their breed of that gallant bird,
+and pride themselves on possessing the finest specimens in the world. The
+gay young men expend much money in these low contests: the birds are
+fought with or without artificial spurs, according to the views of the
+contending parties.[17] They have also a small bird which they call 'the
+buttaire',[18] a species of quail, which I hear are most valiant
+combatants; they are fed and trained for sport with much care and
+attention. I am told these poor little birds, when once brought to the
+contest, fight until they die. Many are the victims sacrificed to one
+mornings amusement of their cruel owners, who wager upon the favourite
+bird with a spirit and interest equal to that which may be found in more
+polished countries among the gentlemen of the turf.
+
+Horse-racing has very lately been introduced at Lucknow, but I fancy the
+Natives have not yet acquired sufficient taste for the sport to take any
+great delight in it. As long as it is fashionable with European society,
+so long it may be viewed with comparative interest by the few. But their
+views of the breed and utility of a stud differ so much from those of a
+European, that there is but little probability of the sport of
+horse-racing ever becoming a favourite amusement with them,[19] When they
+are disposed to hunt, it is always on elephants, both for security and to
+save fatigue.
+
+A horse of the finest temper, form, or breed, one that would be counted
+the most perfect animal by an English connoisseur, would be rejected by a
+Native if it possessed the slightest mark by them deemed 'unfortunate'. If
+the legs are not all of a colour, the horse is not worthy; if an unlucky
+turn of the hair, or a serpentine wave of another colour appears on any
+part of the animal, it is an 'omen of ill-luck' to the possessor, and must
+not be retained on the premises. A single blemish of the sort would be
+deemed by a Native gentleman as great a fault in an otherwise perfect
+animal, as if it could only move on three legs. The prejudice is so
+strongly grounded in their minds to these trifling marks, that they would
+not keep such horses in their stables one hour, even if it belonged to
+their dearest friend, fearing the evil consequences that might befall
+their house.[20]
+
+The swiftness of a good English hunter would be no recommendation to a
+Native gentleman; he rides for pleasant exercise and amusement, and the
+pace therefore never exceeds the gentlest canter of an English lady's
+jennet. Many of their horses are trained to a pace I have never remarked
+in other countries; it is more than a walk but not quite a canter, the
+steps are taken very short, and is, I am assured, an agreeable exercise to
+the rider. I was once in possession of a strong hill pony, whose walk was
+as quick as the swiftest elephant; very few horses could keep up with him
+at a trot. The motion was very easy and agreeable, particularly suited to
+invalids in that trying climate.
+
+The Native method of confining horses in their sheds or stables appears
+somewhat remarkable to a European. The halter is staked in the ground, and
+the two hind legs have a rope fastened to each; this is also staked in the
+ground behind. The ropes are left sufficiently long to allow of the animal
+lying down at his pleasure.
+
+The food of horses is fresh grass, brought from the jungles daily, by the
+grass-cutters, who are kept solely for this purpose. In consequence of
+these men having to walk a distance of four or more miles before they
+reach the jungles, and the difficulty of finding sufficient grass when
+there, one man cannot procure more grass in a day than will suffice for
+one horse; the consequence is, that if a gentleman keep twenty horses,
+there are forty men to attend them; viz., twenty grooms, and as many
+grass-cutters. The grass of India, excepting only during the rainy season,
+is burnt up by the heat of the sun, in all exposed situations. In the
+jungles and forests of mango-trees, wherever there is any shade, the men
+search for grass, which is of a different species to any I have seen in
+Europe, called doob-grass,[21] a dwarf creeper, common throughout India;
+every other kind of grass is rejected by the horse; they would rather eat
+chaff in the absence of the doob-grass. The refuse of the grass given for
+food, answers the purpose of bedding; for in India straw is never brought
+into use, but as food for the cows, buffaloes, and oxen. The nature of
+straw is friable in India, perhaps induced by climate by the wise ordering
+of Divine Providence, of which indeed a reflecting mind must be convinced,
+since it is so essential an article for food to the cattle where grass is
+very scarce, excepting only during the season of rain.
+
+When the corn is cut, the whole produce of a field is brought to one open
+spot, where the surface of the ground is hard and smooth; the oxen and
+their drivers trample in a continued circuit over the whole mass, until
+the corn is not only threshed from the husks, but the straw broken into
+fine chaff. They winnow it with their coarse blankets, or chuddahs[22]
+(the usual wrapper of a Native, resembling a coarse sheet), and house the
+separate articles in pits, dug in the earth, close to their habitations.
+Such things as barns, granaries, or stacks, are never seen to mark the
+abode of the Native farmers as in Europe.
+
+An invading party could never discover the deposits of corn, whilst the
+Natives chose to keep their own secret. This method of depositing the corn
+and chaff in the earth, is the only secure way of preserving these
+valuable articles from the encroachment of white ants, whose visits to the
+grain are nearly as destructive, and quite as much dreaded, as the flights
+of locusts to the green blades.
+
+The corn in general use for horses, sheep, and cattle, in called gram;[23]
+the flavour resembles our field pea much more than grain. It is produced
+on creepers, with pods; and bears a pretty lilac blossom, not unlike peas,
+or rather vetches, but smaller; the grain, however, is as large as a pea,
+irregularly shaped, of a dark brown skin, and pale yellow within. There
+are several other kinds of grain in use amongst the Natives for the use of
+cattle; one called moat,[24] of an olive green colour. It is considered
+very cooling in its nature, at certain seasons of the year, and is greatly
+preferred both for young horses and for cows giving milk.
+
+Horses are subject to an infectious disease, which generally makes its
+appearance in the rainy season, and therefore called burrhsaatie.[25] Once
+in the stable, the disorder prevails through the stud, unless timely
+precautions are taken to prevent them being infected--removal from the
+stable is the most usual mode adopted--so easy is the infection conveyed
+from one animal to the other, that if the groom of the sick horse enters
+the stable of the healthy they rarely escape contagion. It is a tedious
+and painful disorder and in nine cases out of ten the infected animal
+either dies, or is rendered useless for the saddle. The legs break out in
+ulcers, and, I am informed, without the greatest care on the part of the
+groom, he is also liable to imbibe the corruption; if he has any cut or
+scratch on his hands, the disease may be received as by inoculation.
+
+The Natives have the greatest aversion to docked-tailed horses, and will
+never permit the animals to be shorn of the beauty with which Nature has
+adorned them, either in length or fulness; besides which, they think it a
+barbarous want of taste in those who differ from them, though they fancy
+Nature is improved when the long tail and mane of a beautiful white Arab
+are dyed with mayndhie; his legs, up to the knees, stained with the same
+colour, and divers stars, crescents, &c., painted on the haunches, chest,
+and throat of the pretty gentle creature.[26]
+
+When the horses are looking rough, the Natives feed them with a mixture of
+coarse brown sugar and ghee, which they say gives sleekness to the skin,
+and improves the constitution of the horse. When their horses grow old,
+they boil the gram with which they feed them, to make it easy of digestion;
+very few people, indeed, give corn at any age to the animal unsoaked, as
+they consider it injudicious to give dry corn to horses, which swells in
+the stomach of the animal and cannot digest: the grain swells exceedingly
+by soaking, and thus moistened, the horse requires less water than would
+be necessary with dry corn.
+
+The numberless Native sports I have heard related in this country would
+take me too long to repeat at present; describe them I could not, for my
+feelings and views are at variance with the painful tortures inflicted on
+the brute creation for the perverted amusements of man, consisting of many
+unequal contests, which have sickened me to think they were viewed by
+mortals with pleasure or satisfaction. A poor unoffending antelope or stag,
+perhaps confined from the hour of its quitting its dam in a paddock,
+turned out in a confined space to the fury of a cheetah[27] (leopard) to
+make his morning's repast. Tigers and elephants are often made to combat
+for the amusement of spectators; also, tigers and buffaloes, or alligators.
+The battle between intoxicated elephants is a sport suited only for the
+cruel-hearted, and too often indulged. The mahouts[28] (the men who sit as
+drivers on the neck of the elephant) have frequently been the victims of
+the ignoble amusement of their noble masters; indeed, the danger they are
+exposed to is so great, that to escape is deemed a miracle. The
+fighting-elephants are males, and they are prepared for the sport by
+certain drugs mixed up with the wax from the human ear. The method of
+training elephants for fighting must be left to abler hands to describe. I
+have passed by places where the animal was firmly chained to a tree, in
+situations remote from the population of a city, as danger is always
+anticipated from their vicinity; and when one of these infuriated beasts
+break from their bonds, serious accidents often occur to individuals
+before they can again be secured.
+
+Amongst the higher classes tigers and leopards are retained for field
+sports, under the charge of regular keepers. In many instances these wild
+inhabitants of the jungle are tamed to the obedience of dogs, or other
+domestic animals. I have often seen the young cubs sucking the teats of a
+goat, with which they play as familiarly as a kitten with its mother. A
+very intimate acquaintance of ours has several tigers and leopards, which
+are perfectly obedient to his command; they are led out by their keepers
+night and morning, but he always feeds them with his own hands, that he
+may thereby make them obedient to himself, when he sports in the jungles,
+which he often does with success, bringing home stags and antelopes to
+grace the board, and distribute amongst his English friends.
+
+The tigers and cheetahs are very generally introduced after breakfast,
+when Native noblemen have European visitors. I remember on one of these
+occasions, these animals were brought into the banqueting-room, just as
+the self-performing cabinet organ had commenced a grand overture. The
+creatures' countenances were terrifying to the beholder, and one in
+particular could with great difficulty be reined in by his keepers. The
+Natives are, however, so accustomed to the society of tigers, that they
+smiled at my apprehension of mischief. I was only satisfied when they were
+forced away from the sounds that seemed to fill them with wonder, and
+perhaps with rage.
+
+Pigeon-shooting is another amusement practised among the sporting men of
+Hindoostaun. I, of course, allude to the Mussulmauns, for most Hindoos
+hold it criminal to kill a crow, or even the meanest insect; and I have
+known them carry the principle of preserving life to the minutest insects,
+wearing crape or muslin over their mouths and noses in the open air,
+fearing a single animalcule that floats in the air should be destroyed by
+their breath. For the same reason, these men have every drop of water
+strained through muslin before it is used either for drinking or for
+cooking.[29]
+
+There are people who make it a profitable means of subsistence to visit
+the jungles with nets, in order to collect birds, as pigeons, parrots,
+minas, &c.; these are brought in covered baskets to the towns, where they
+meet with a ready sale.
+
+Many a basket have I delighted in purchasing, designing to rescue the
+pretty creatures from present danger. I am annoyed whenever I see birds
+immured in cages. If they could be trained to live with us, enjoying the
+same liberty, I should gladly court society with these innocent creatures;
+but a bird confined vexes me, my fingers itch to open the wicket and give
+the prisoner liberty. How have I delighted in seeing the pretty variegated
+parrots, minas, and pigeons fly from the basket when opened in my verandah!
+I have sometimes fancied in my evening walk that I could recognize the
+birds again in the gardens and grounds, which had been set at liberty in
+the morning by my hand.
+
+The good ladies of India, from whom I have copied the practice of giving
+liberty to the captive birds, although different motives direct the action,
+believe, that if a member of their family is ill, such a release
+propitiates the favour of Heavenly mercy towards them.[30] A sovereign
+(amongst the Mussulmauns) will give liberty to a certain number of
+prisoners, confined in the common gaol, when he is anxious for the
+recovery of a sick member of his family; and so great is the merit of
+mercy esteemed in the creature to his fellow-mortal, that the birth of a
+son, a recovery from severe illness, accession to the throne, &c., are the
+precursors to royal clemency, when all prisoners are set at liberty whose
+return to society may not be deemed cruelty to the individual, or a
+calamity to his neighbours. I may here remark, the Mussulmaun laws do not
+allow of men being confined in prison for debt.[31] The government of Oude
+is absolute, yet to its praise be it said, during the first eight years of
+my sojourn I never heard of but one execution by the King's command; and
+that was for crimes of the greatest enormity, where to have been sparing
+would have been unjust.[32] In cases of crime such as murder, the nearest
+relative surviving is appealed to by the court of justice; if he demand
+the culprit's life, the court cannot save him from execution. But it is
+rarely demanded; they are by no means a revengeful people generally; there
+are ambitious, cruel tyrants to be found, but these individuals are
+exceptions to the mass of the people. Examples of mercy set by the King in
+all countries have an influence upon his subjects; and here the family of
+a murdered man, if poor, is maintained by the guilty party or else
+relieved by royal munificence, as the case may require. Acts of oppression
+may sometimes occur in Native States without the knowledge even, and much
+less by the command, of the Sovereign ruler, since the good order of the
+government mainly depends on the disposition of the Prime Minister for the
+time being. There is no check placed in the constitution of a Native
+government between the Prime Minister and his natural passions. If cruel,
+ambitious, or crafty, he practises all his art to keep his master in
+ignorance of his daily enormities; if the Prime Minister be a
+virtuous-minded person, he is subjected to innumerable trials, from the
+wiles of the designing and the ambitious, who strive by intrigue to root
+him from the favour and confidence of his sovereign, under the hope of
+acquiring for themselves the power they covet by his removal from office.
+
+
+[1] When, a boy is born, the midwife, in order to avert the Evil Eye and
+    evil spirits, says: 'It is only a girl blind of one eye!' If a girl is
+    born, the fact is stated, because she excites no jealousy, and is thus
+    protected from spirit attacks.
+
+[2] This is intended to scare evil spirits, but has become a mere form of
+    announcing the joyful event.
+
+[3] After the first bath pieces of black thread are tied round the child's
+    wrist and ankle as protection.
+
+[4] _Amaltas, Cassia fistula_
+
+[5] The purgative draught (_guthl_) is usually made of aniseed,
+    myro-bolans, dried red rose leaves, senna, and the droppings of mice
+    or goats.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii, 153.
+
+[6] _Gudri_.
+
+[7] _Ta'awiz_.
+
+[8] Among the Khojahs of Bombay a stool is placed near the mother's bed,
+    and as each, of the female relatives comes in she strews a little rice
+    on the stool, lays on the ground a gold or silver anklet as a gift for
+    the child, and bending over mother and baby, passes her hands over
+    them, and cracks her finger-joints against her own temples, in order
+    to take all their ill luck upon herself.--_Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part
+    ii, 45.
+
+[9] _Duli_: see p. 184.
+
+[10] _Salgirah_ or _barasganth_, 'year-knot'.
+
+[11] _Gardani_.
+
+[12] P. 36.
+
+[13] The Mahomedans are very keen on breeding pigeons in large numbers;
+    they make them fly all together, calling out, whistling, and waving
+    with a cloth fastened to the end of a stick, running and making
+    signals from the terraced roofs, with a view of encouraging the
+    pigeons to attack the flock of some one else.... Every owner is
+    overjoyed in seeing his own pigeons the most dexterous in misleading
+    their opponents.'--Manucci, _Storia do Mogor_, i. 107 f.
+
+[14] _Mugdar_.
+
+[15] _Rohu_, a kind of carp, _Labeo rohita_.
+
+[16] The use of the bow and arrow has now disappeared in northern India,
+    and survives only among some of the jungle tribes.
+
+[17] A curious relic of the custom of cock-fighting at Lucknow survives in
+    the picture by Zoffany of the famous match between the Nawab
+    Asaf-ud-daula and Col. Mordaunt in 1786. The figures in the picture are
+    portraits of the celebrities at the Court of Oudh, whose names are
+    given by Smith, _Catalogue of British Mezzotint Portrait_, i. 273.
+
+[18] _Bater, Coturnix communis_.
+
+[19] Lucknow is now an important racing centre, and the Civil Service Cup
+    for ponies has been won several times by native gentlemen.
+
+[20] The feather or curl is one of the most important marks. If it faces
+    towards the head, this is a horse to buy; if it points towards the
+    tail, it is a 'female snake' (_sampan_), a bad blemish, as is a
+    small star on the forehead. A curl at the bottom of the throat is very
+    lucky, and cancels other blemishes. A piebald horse or one with five
+    white points, a white face and four white stockings, is highly valued.
+    The European who understands the rules can often buy an 'unlucky'
+    horse at a bargain.
+
+[21] _Dub, Cynodon Dactylon_.
+
+[22] _Chadar._
+
+[23] _Cicer arietinum_: the word comes from Port, _grao_, a grain.
+
+[24] _Moth_, the aconite-leaved kidney-bean, _Phaseolus aconitifolius_.
+
+[25] _Barsati_ from _barsat_, the rainy season; a pustular
+    eruption breaking out on the head and fore parts of the body.
+
+[26] The Native gentleman's charger, with his trained paces, his
+    henna-stained crimson mane, tail, and fetlocks, is a picturesque sight
+    now less common than it used to be.
+
+[27] _Chita_, the hunting leopard. _Felis jubata_.
+
+[28] _Mahawat_, originally meaning 'a high officer'.
+
+[29] This specially applies to the Jain ascetics, who keep a brush to
+    remove insects from their path, and cover their mouths with linen.
+
+[30]  A common piece of imitative magic: as the bird flies away it carries
+    the disease with it. The practice of releasing prisoners when the King
+    or a member of his family was sick, or as a thanksgiving on recovery,
+    was common.--Sleeman, _Journey_, ii. 41.
+
+[31] This is incorrect. Imprisonment for debt is allowed by Muhammadan
+    Law.--Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 82.
+
+[32] This gives a too favourable account of the administration of justice
+    in Oudh. 'A powerful landlord during the Nawabi could evict a
+    tenant, or enhance his rent, or take away his wife from him, or cut
+    his head off, with as much, or as little, likelihood of being called
+    to account by Na zim or Chakladar for one act as for another'
+    (H.C. Irwin, _The Garden of India_, 258). Gen. Sleeman points out that
+    Musalmans wore practically immune from the death penalty,
+    particularly if they happened to kill a Sunni. A Hindu, consenting
+    after conviction to become a Musalman, was also immune (_Journey
+    Through Oudh_, i. 135). Executions used constantly to occur in Lucknow
+    under Nasir-ud-din (W. Knighton, _Private Life of an Eastern
+    King_, 104).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVI
+
+  Remarks on the trades and professions of Hindoostaun.--The
+  Bazaars.--Naunbye (Bazaar cook).--The Butcher, and other
+  trades.--Shroffs (Money-changers).--Popular cries in Native
+  cities.--The articles enumerated and the venders of them
+  described.--The Cuppers.--Leechwomen.--Ear-cleaners.--Old
+  silver.--Pickles.--Confectionery.--Toys.--Fans.--Vegetables and
+  fruit.--Mangoes.--Melons.--Melon-cyder.--Fish.--Bird-catcher.--The
+  Butcher-bird, the Coel, and Lollah.--Fireworks.--Parched
+  corn.--Wonder-workers.--Snakes.--Anecdote of the Moonshie and the
+  Snake-catcher.--The Cutler.--Sour curds.--Clotted
+  cream.--Butter.--Singular process of the Natives in making
+  butter.--Ice.--How procured in India.--Ink.--All writing dedicated to
+  God by the Mussulmauns.--The reverence for the name of God.--The
+  Mayndhie and Sulmah.
+
+
+The various trades of a Native city in Hindoostaun are almost generally
+carried on in the open air. The streets are narrow, and usually unpaved;
+the dukhauns[1] (shops) small, with the whole front open towards the
+street; a tattie[2] of coarse grass forming an awning to shelter the
+shopkeeper and his goods from the weather. In the long lines of dukhauns
+the open fronts exhibit to the view the manufacturer, the artisan, the
+vender, in every variety of useful and ornamental articles for general use
+and consumption. In one may be seen the naunbye[3] (bazaar cook) basting
+keebaubs[3] over a charcoal fire on the ground with one hand, and beating
+off the flies with a bunch of date-leaves in the other; beside him may be
+seen assistant cooks kneading dough for sheermaul[3] or other bread, or
+superintending sundry kettles and cauldrons of currie, pillau, matunjun,[3]
+&c., whilst others are equally active in preparing platters and trays, in
+order to forward the delicacies at the appointed hour to some great
+assembly.
+
+The shop adjoining may probably be occupied by a butcher, his meat exposed
+for sale in little lean morsels carefully separated from every vestige of
+fat[4] or skin; the butcher's assistant is occupied in chopping up the
+coarser pieces of lean meat into mince meat.[5] Such shops as these are
+actually in a state of siege by the flies; there is, however, no remedy
+for the butcher but patience; his customers always wash their meat before
+it is cooked, so he never fails to sell even with all these disadvantages.
+But it is well for the venders of more delicate articles when neither of
+these fly-attracting emporiums are next door neighbours, or immediately
+opposite; yet if it even should be so, the merchant will bear with
+equanimity an evil he cannot control, and persuade his customers for
+silver shoes or other ornamental articles, that if they are not tarnished
+a fly spit or two cannot lessen their value.
+
+The very next door to a working goldsmith may be occupied by a weaver of
+muslin; the first with his furnace and crucible, the latter with his loom,
+in constant employ. Then the snake-hookha manufacturer,[6] opposed to a
+mixer of tobacco, aiding each other's trade in their separate articles.
+The makers and venders of punkahs of all sorts and sizes, children's toys,
+of earth, wood, or lakh; milk and cream shops; jewellers, mercers,
+druggists selling tea, with other medicinal herbs. The bunyah[7]
+(corn-dealer) with large open baskets of sugar and flour, whose whiteness
+resembles each other so narrowly, that he is sometimes suspected of mixing
+the two articles by mistake, when certain sediments in sherbet indicate
+adulterated sugar.
+
+It would take me too long were I to attempt enumerating all the varieties
+exposed in a Native street of shops. It may be presumed these people make
+no mystery of their several arts in manufacturing, by their choice of
+situation for carrying on their trades. The confectioner, for instance,
+prepares his dainties in despite of dust and flies, and pass by at what
+hour of the day you please, his stoves are hot, and the sugar simmering
+with ghee sends forth a savour to the air, inviting only to those who
+delight in the delicacies he prepares in countless varieties.
+
+
+The most singular exhibitions in these cities are the several shroffs[8]
+(money-changers, or bankers), dispersed in every public bazaar, or line of
+shops. These men, who are chiefly Hindoos, and whose credit may perhaps
+extend throughout the continent of Asia for any reasonable amount, take
+their station in this humble line of buildings, having on their right and
+left, piles of copper coins and cowries.[9] These shroffs are occupied the
+whole day in exchanging pice for rupees or rupees for pice, selling or
+buying gold mohurs, and examining rupees; and to all such demands upon him
+he is entitled to exact a regulated per centage, about half a pice in a
+rupee. Small as this sum may seem yet the profits produce a handsome
+remuneration for his day's attention, as many thousands of rupees may have
+passed under his critical eye for examination, it being a common practice,
+both with shopkeepers and individuals, to send their rupees to the shroff
+for his inspection, always fearing imposition from the passers of base
+coin. These shroffs transact remittances to any part of India by
+hoondies,[10] which are equivalent to our bills of exchange, and on which
+the usual demand is two and a half per cent at ninety days, if required
+for any distant station.
+
+The European order is here completely reversed, for the shopkeeper sits
+whilst the purchasers are compelled to stand. The bazaar merchant is
+seated on the floor of his dukhaun, near enough to the open front to
+enable him to transact business with his customers, who, one and all,
+stand in the street to examine the goods and to be served; let the weather
+be bad or good, none are admitted within the threshold of the dukhaun. In
+most places the shops are small, and look crowded with the articles for
+sale, and those where manufactories are carried on have not space to spare
+to their customers.
+
+Very few gentlemen condescend to make their own purchases; they generally
+employ their confidential domestic to go to market for them; and with the
+ladies their women servants are deputed. In rich families it is an office
+of great trust, as they expend large sums and might be much imposed upon
+were their servants faithless. The servants always claim dustoor[11]
+(custom) from the shopkeepers, of one pice for every rupee they lay out;
+and when the merchants are sent for to the houses with their goods, the
+principal servant in the family is sure to exact his dustoor from the
+merchant; and this is often produced only after a war of words between the
+crafty and the thrifty.
+
+The diversity of cries from those who hawk about their goods and wares in
+streets and roadways, is a feature in the general economy of the Natives
+not to be overlooked in my brief description of their habits. The
+following list of daily announcements by the several sonorous claimants on
+the public attention, may not be unacceptable with their translated
+accompaniments.
+
+'Seepie wallah deelie sukha'[12] (Moist or dry cuppers).--Moist and dry
+cupping is performed both by men and women; the latter are most in request.
+They carry their instruments about with them, and traverse all parts of
+the city. The dry cupping is effected by a buffalo's horn and resorted to
+by patients suffering under rheumatic pains, and often in cases of fever,
+when to lose blood is either inconvenient on account of the moon's age, or
+not desirable by reason of the complaint or constitution of the patient.
+
+'Jonk, or keerah luggarny wallie'[13] (The woman with leeches).--Women
+with leeches attend to apply the required remedy, and are allowed to take
+away the leeches after they have done their office. These women by a
+particular pressure on the leech oblige it to disgorge the blood, when
+they immediately place it in fresh water; by this practice the leeches
+continue healthy, and may be brought to use again the following day if
+required.
+
+'Kaan sarf kerna wallah'[14] (Ear-cleaner).--The cleansing of ears is
+chiefly performed by men, who collecting this article make great profits
+from the sale of it, independent of the sums obtained from their employers.
+It is the chief ingredient in use for intoxicating elephants previous to
+the furious contests so often described as the amusement of Native Courts.
+
+'Goatah chandnie bickhow'[15] (Sell your old silver trimmings).--The
+several articles of silver trimmings are invariably manufactured of the
+purest metal without any alloy, and when they have served their first
+purposes the old silver procures its weight in current rupees.
+
+'Tale kee archah wallah'[16] (Oil pickles).--The method of pickling in oil
+is of all others in most request with the common people, who eat the
+greasy substance as a relish to their bread and dhall. The mustard-oil
+used in the preparation of this dainty is often preferred to ghee in
+curries.
+
+The better sort of people prefer water pickle, which is made in most
+families during the hot and dry weather by a simple method; exposure to
+the sun being the chemical process to the parboiled carrots, turnips,
+radishes, &c., immersed in boiling water, with red pepper, green ginger,
+mustard-seed, and garlic. The flavour of this water pickle is superior to
+any other acid, and possesses the property of purifying the blood.
+
+'Mittie wallah'[17] (Man with sweetmeats).--The many varieties of
+sweetmeats, or rather confectionery, in general estimation with the
+natives, are chiefly composed of sugar and ghee, prepared in countless
+ways, with occasional additions of cocoa-nut, pistachias, cardimuns,
+rose-water, &c., and constantly hawked about the streets on trays by men.
+
+'Kallonie wallah'[18] (Man with toys).--Toys of every kind, of which no
+country in the world I suppose exhibits greater variety, in wood, lakh,
+uberuck[19] (tulk), paper, bamboo, clay, &c., are constantly cried in the
+streets and roadways of a Native city.
+
+'Punkah wallah'[20] (Vender of fans).--The punkahs are of all descriptions
+in general use, their shape and material varying with taste and
+circumstances, the general form resembling hand-screens: they are made for
+common use of date-leaf, platted as the common mats are; some are formed
+of a single leaf from the tor[21]-tree, large or small, the largest would
+cover a tolerable sized round table; many have painted figures and devices,
+and from their lightness may be waved by children without much labour. I
+have seen very pretty punkahs made of sweet-scented flowers over a frame
+of bamboo. This, however, is a temporary indulgence, as the flowers soon
+lose their fragrance.
+
+'Turkaaree', 'Mayvour'[22] (The first is vegetables; the last,
+fruit).--Vegetables of every kind and many sorts of fruits are carried
+about by men and women, who describe the name and quality of the articles
+they have to sell. It would occupy too large a space to enumerate here the
+several productions, indigenous and foreign, of the vegetable world in
+India. The Natives in their cookery, use every kind of vegetable and fruit
+in its unripe state. Two pounds of meat is in general all that is required
+to form a meal for twenty people, and with this they will cook several
+dishes by addition of as many different sorts of vegetables.
+
+Herbs, or green leaves, are always denominated saag,[23] these are
+produced at all seasons of the year, in many varieties; the more
+substantial vegetables, as potatoes, turnips, carrots, &c., are called
+turkaaree.
+
+The red and green spinach is brought to the market throughout the year,
+and a rich-flavoured sorrel, so delicious in curries, is cultivated in
+most months. Green peas, or, indeed, vegetables in general, are never
+served in the plain way in which we see them at our tables, but always in
+stews or curries. The green mango is used invariably to flavour their
+several dishes, and, at the proper season, they are peeled, cut, and dried
+for the year's consumption. They dislike the acid of the lemon in their
+stews, which is never resorted to when the green mango or tamarind can be
+procured.
+
+The fruits of India in general estimation with the Natives are the mango
+and the melon. Mangoes are luscious and enticing fruit; the Natives eat
+them to an excess when they have been some hours soaked in water, which,
+they say, takes away from the fruit its detrimental quality; without this
+preparatory precaution those who indulge in a feast of mango are subject
+to fevers, and an increase of prickly heat, (a fiery irritable rash, which
+few persons are exempt from, more or less, in the hot weather); even biles,
+which equally prevail, are less troublesome to those persons who are
+careful only to eat mangoes that have been well soaked in water. The
+Natives have a practice, which is common among all classes, and therefore
+worthy the notice of foreigners, of drinking milk immediately after eating
+mangoes. It should be remembered that they never eat their fruit after
+dinner, nor do they at any time indulge in wine, spirits, or beer.
+
+The mango in appearance and flavour has no resemblance to any of the
+fruits of England; they vary in weight from half an ounce to half a seer,
+nearly a pound; the skin is smooth, tough, and of the thickness of leather,
+strongly impregnated with a flavour of turpentine; the colour, when ripe,
+is grass green, or yellow in many shades, with occasional tinges and
+streaks of bright red; the pulp is as juicy as our wall-fruit, and the
+kernel protected by a hard shell, to which fine strong silky fibres are
+firmly attached. The kernel of the mango is of a hot and rather offensive
+flavour; the poor people, however, collect it, and when dried grind it
+into flour for bread, which is more wholesome than agreeable; in seasons
+of scarcity, however, it is a useful addition to the then scanty means of
+the lower orders of the people. The flavour of the fruit itself differs so
+much, that no description can be given of the taste of a mango--even the
+fruit of one tree vary in their flavour. A tope (orchard) of mango-trees
+is a little fortune to the possessor, and when in bloom a luxurious resort
+to the lovers of Nature.
+
+The melon is cultivated in fields with great ease and little labour, due
+care always being taken to water the plants in their early growth. The
+varieties are countless, but the kind most esteemed, and known only in the
+Upper Provinces, are called chitlahs,[24] from their being spotted green
+on a surface of bright yellow; the skin is smooth and of the thickness of
+that of an apple; the fruit weighing from half-a-pound to three pounds.
+The flavour may be compared to our finest peaches, partaking of the same
+moist quality, and literally melting in the mouth.
+
+The juice of the melon makes a delicious cider; I once tried the
+experiment with success. The Natives being prohibited from the use of all
+fermented liquors, I was induced by that consideration to be satisfied
+with the one experiment; but with persons who are differently situated the
+practice might be pursued with very little trouble, and a rich beverage
+produced, much more healthy than the usual arrack that is now distilled,
+to the deterioration of the health and morals of the several classes under
+the British rule, who are prone to indulge in the exhilarating draughts of
+fermented liquors.
+
+At present my list of the indigenous vegetables of India must be short; so
+great, however, is the variety in Hindoostaun, both in their quality and
+properties, and so many are the benefits derived from their several uses
+in this wonderful country, that at some future time I may be induced to
+follow, with humility, in the path trodden by the more scientific
+naturalists who have laboured to enrich the minds of mankind by their
+researches.
+
+The natives are herbalists in their medical practice. The properties of
+minerals are chiefly studied with the view to become the lucky discoverer
+of the means of transmuting metals; seldom with reference to their
+medicinal qualities. Quicksilver, however, in its unchanged state, is
+sometimes taken to renew the constitution.[25] One gentleman, whom I well
+knew, commenced with a single grain, increasing the number progressively,
+until his daily close was the contents of a large table-spoon; he
+certainly appeared to have benefited by the practice, for his appetite and
+spirits were those of a man at thirty, when he had counted eighty years.
+
+'Muchullee'[26] (Fish).--Fish of several kinds are caught in the rivers
+and tanks; the flavour I can hardly describe, for, since I knew the
+practice of the Hindoos of throwing their dead bodies into the rivers the
+idea of fish as an article of food was too revolting to my taste. The
+Natives, however, have none of these qualms; even the Hindoos enjoy a
+currie of fish as a real delicacy, although it may be presumed some of
+their friends or neighbours have aided that identical fish in becoming a
+delicacy for the table.
+
+There are some kinds of fish forbidden by the Mussulmaun law, which are,
+of course, never brought to their kitchens, as the eel, or any other fish
+having a smooth skin;[27] all sorts of shell-fish are likewise prohibited
+by their code. Those fish which have scales are the only sort allowable to
+them for food.
+
+The rooey[28] is a large fish, and in Native families is much admired for
+its rich flavour; the size is about that of a salmon, the shape that of a
+carp; the flesh is white, and not unlike the silver mullet. The scales of
+this fish are extremely useful; which, on a tolerable sized fish, are in
+many parts as large as a crown-piece, and of a substance firmer than horn.
+It is not uncommon to see a suit of armour formed of these scales, which,
+they affirm, will turn the edge of the best metal, and from its lightness,
+compared with the chain armour, more advantageous to the wearer, though
+the appearance is not so agreeable to the eye.
+
+'Chirryah wallah'[29] (Bird-man).--The bird-catcher cries his live birds
+fresh caught from the jungles: they seldom remain long on hand. I have
+before described the practice of letting off the birds, in cases of
+illness, as propitiatory sacrifices. The Natives take delight in petting
+talking-birds, minas and parrots particularly; and the bull-bull,[30] the
+subzah,[31] and many others for their sweet songs.
+
+The numberless varieties of birds I have seen in India, together with
+their qualities, plumage, and habits, would occupy too much of my time at
+present to describe. I will here only remark a few of the most singular as
+they appeared to me. The butcher-bird,[32] so called from its habit, is
+known to live on seeds; yet it caters for the mina and others of the
+carnivorous feathered family, by collecting grasshoppers, which they
+convey in the beak to the thorny bushes, and there fix them on sharp
+thorns, (some of which are nearly two inches in length), and would almost
+seem to have been formed by Nature for this use only. The mina[33] follows
+his little friend's flight as if in the full assurance of the feast
+prepared for him.
+
+The coel[34] is a small black bird, of extreme beauty in make and plumage;
+this bird's note is the harbinger of rain, and although one of the
+smallest of the feathered race, it is heard at a considerable distance.[35]
+The coel's food is simply the suction from the petals of sweet-scented
+flowers.
+
+The lollah,[36] known to many by the name of haverdewatt, is a beautiful
+little creature, about one-third the size of a hedge sparrow. The great
+novelty in this pretty bird is, that the spots of white on its brown
+plumage change to a deep red at the approach of the rainy season; the
+Natives keep them by dozens in cages with a religious veneration, as their
+single note describes one of the terms in use to express an attribute of
+the Almighty.
+
+But enough--I must hasten to finish my list of popular cries by the Indian
+pedlars, who roar out their merchandize and their calling to the inmates
+of dwellings bounded by high walls, whose principal views of the works of
+Nature and art are thus aided by those casual criers of the day.
+
+'Artush-baajie'[37] (Fireworks).--Fireworks are considered here to be very
+well made, and the Native style much extolled by foreigners; every year
+they add some fresh novelty to their amusing pastime. They are hawked
+about at certain seasons, particularly at the Holie[38] (a festival of the
+Hindoos,) and the Shubh-burraat[39] of the Mussulmauns. Saltpetre being
+very reasonable, fireworks are sold for a small price. Most of the
+ingenious young men exercise their inventive powers to produce novelties
+in fireworks for any great season of rejoicing in their families.
+
+'Chubbaynee'[40] (Parched corn).--The corn of which we have occasionally
+specimens in English gardens, known by the name of Indian corn, is here
+used as a sort of intermediate meal, particularly amongst the labouring
+classes, who cook but once a day, and that when the day's toil is over.
+This corn is placed in a sort of furnace with sand, and kept constantly
+moved about. By this process it is rendered as white as magnesia, crisp,
+and of a sweet flavour; a hungry man could not eat more than half-a-pound
+of this corn at once, yet it is not as nutritious as barley or wheat. I
+have never heard that the Natives use this corn for making bread.
+
+'Tumaushbeen'[41] (Wonder-workers).--This call announces the rope-dancers
+and sleight-of-hand company; eating fire, swallowing pen-knives, spinning
+coloured yarn through the nose, tricks with cups and balls, and all the
+arts of the well-known jugglers. I have seen both men and women attached
+to these travelling companies perform extraordinary feats of agility and
+skill, also most surprising vaultings, by the aid of bamboos, and a
+frightful method of whirling round on the top of a pole or mast. This pole
+is from twenty to thirty feet high; on the top is a swivel hook, which
+fastens to a loop in a small piece of wood tied fast to the middle of the
+performer, who climbs the pole without any assistance, and catches the
+hook to the loop; at first he swings himself round very gently, but
+increasing gradually in swiftness, until the velocity is equal to that of
+a wheel set in motion by steam. This feat is sometimes continued for ten
+or fifteen minutes together, when his strength does not fail him; but it
+is too frightful a performance to give pleasure to a feeling audience.
+
+'Samp-wallah'[42] (Snake-catchers).--These men blow a shrill pipe in
+addition to calling out the honourable profession of snake-catcher. I
+fancy it is all pretence with these fellows; if they catch a snake on the
+premises, it is probably one they have let loose secretly, and which they
+have tutored to come and go at the signal given: they profess to draw
+snakes from their hiding-place, and make a good living by duping the
+credulous.
+
+The best proof I can offer of the impositions practised by these men on
+the weakness and credulity of their neighbours, may be conveyed in the
+following anecdote, with which I have been favoured by a very intelligent
+Mussulmaun gentleman, on whom the cheat was attempted during my residence
+in his neighbourhood at Lucknow.
+
+'Moonshie Sahib,[43] as he is familiarly called by his friends, was absent
+from home on a certain day, during which period his wife and family
+fancied they heard the frightful sound of a snake, apparently as if it was
+very near to them in the compound (court-yard) of the zeenahnah. They were
+too much alarmed to venture from the hall to the compound to satisfy
+themselves or take steps to destroy the intruder if actually there. Whilst
+in this state of mental torture it happened (as they thought very
+fortunately) that a snake-catcher's shrill pipe was heard at no great
+distance, to whom a servant was sent; and when the ladies had shut
+themselves up securely in their purdahed apartment, the men servants were
+desired to introduce the samp-wallahs into the compound, to search for and
+secure this enemy to their repose.
+
+'The snake-catcher made, to all appearance, a very minute scrutiny into
+every corner or aperture of the compound, as if in search of the reptile's
+retreat; and at last a moderate sized snake was seen moving across the
+open space in an opposite direction to the spot they were intent on
+examining. The greatest possible satisfaction was of course expressed by
+the whole of the servants and slaves assembled; the lady of the house was
+more than gratified at the reported success of "the charmers" and sent
+proofs of her gratitude to the men in a sum of money, proportioned to her
+sense of the service rendered on the occasion; the head samp-wallah placed
+the snake in his basket, (they always carry a covered basket about with
+them) and they departed well satisfied with the profits of this day's
+employment.
+
+'The Moonshie says, he returned home soon after, and listened to his
+wife's account of the event of the morning, and her warm commendation of
+the skilful samp-wallahs; but although the servants confirmed all the lady
+had told her husband of the snake-charmers' diligence, still he could not
+but believe that these idle fellows had practised an imposition on his
+unwary lady by their pretended powers in charming the snake. But here it
+rested for the time; he could not decide without an opportunity of
+witnessing the samp-wallahs at their employment, which he resolved to do
+the next convenient opportunity.
+
+'As might have been anticipated, the very same snake-catcher and his
+attendant returned to the Moonshie's gateway a very few days after their
+former success; Moonshie Sahib was at home, and, concealing his real
+intentions, he gave orders that the two men should be admitted; on their
+entrance, he said to them, "You say you can catch snakes; now, friends, if
+any of the same family remain of which you caught one the other day in
+this compound, I beg you will have the civility to draw them out from
+their hiding-places."[44]
+
+'The Moonshie watched the fellows narrowly, that they might not have a
+chance of escaping detection, if it was, as he had always suspected, that
+the snakes are first let loose by the men, who pretend to attract them
+from their hiding-places. The two men being bare-headed, and in a state of
+almost perfect nudity (the common usage of the very lowest class of Hindoo
+labourers), wearing only a small wrapper which could not contain, he
+thought, the least of this class of reptiles, he felt certain there could
+not now be any deception.
+
+'The samp-wallah and his assistant, pretending to search every hole and
+crevice of the compound, seemed busy and anxious in their employment,
+which occupied them for a long time without success. Tired at last with
+the labour, the men sat down on the ground to rest; the pipe was resorted
+to, with which they pretend to attract the snake; this was, however,
+sounded again and again, without the desired effect.
+
+'From the apparent impossibility of any cheat being practised on him, the
+Moonshie rather relaxed in his strict observance of the men: he had turned
+his back but for an instant only, when the two fellows burst out in an
+ecstasy of delight, exclaiming, "They are come! they are come!"--and on
+the Moonshie turning quickly round, he was not a little staggered to find
+three small snakes on the ground, at no great distance from the men, who,
+he was convinced, had not moved from the place. They seemed to have no
+dread of the reptiles, and accounted for it by saying they were
+invulnerable to the snakes' venom; the creatures were then fearlessly
+seized one by one by the men, and finally deposited in their basket.
+
+'"They appear very tame," thought the Moonshie, as he observed the men's
+actions: "I am outwitted at last, I believe, with all my boasted vigilance;
+but I will yet endeavour to find them out.--Friend," said he aloud, "here
+is your reward," holding the promised money towards the principal; "take
+it, and away with you both; the snakes are mine, and I shall not allow you
+to remove them hence."
+
+'"Why, Sahib," replied the man, "what will you do with the creatures? they
+cannot be worth your keeping; besides, it is the dustoor[45] (custom); we
+always have the snakes we catch for our perquisite."--"It is of no
+consequence to you, friend, how I may dispose of the snakes," said the
+Moonshie; "I am to suppose they have been bred in my house, and having
+done no injury to my people, I may be allowed to have respect for their
+forbearance; at any rate, I am not disposed to part with these guests, who
+could have injured me if they would."
+
+'The principal samp-wallah, perceiving it was the Moonshie's intention to
+detain the snakes, in a perfect agony of distress for the loss he was
+likely to sustain, then commenced by expostulation, ending with threats
+and abuse, to induce the Moonshie to give them up; who, for his part, kept
+his temper within bounds, having resolved in his own mind not to be
+outwitted a second time; the fellow's insolence and impertinent speeches
+were, therefore, neither chastised nor resented. The samp-wallah strove to
+wrest the basket from the Moonshie's strong grasp, without succeeding; and
+when he found his duplicity was so completely exposed, he altered his
+course, and commenced by entreaties and supplications, confessing at last,
+with all humility, that the reptiles were his own well-instructed snakes
+that he had let loose to catch again at pleasure. Then appealing to the
+Moonshie's well-known charitable temper, besought him that the snakes
+might be restored, as by their aid he earned his precarious livelihood.
+
+'"That they are yours, I cannot doubt," replied the Moonshie, "and,
+therefore, my conscience will not allow me to detain them from you; but
+the promised reward I of course keep back. Your insolence and duplicity
+deserve chastisement, nevertheless I promise to forgive you, if you will
+explain to me how you managed to introduce these snakes."
+
+'The man, thankful that he should escape without further loss or
+punishment, showed the harmless snakes, which, it appears, had been
+deprived of their fangs and poison, and were so well instructed and docile,
+that they obeyed their keeper as readily as the best-tutored domestic
+animal. They coiled up their supple bodies into the smallest compass
+possible, and allowed their keeper to deposit them each in a separate bag
+of calico, which was fastened under his wrapper, where it would have been
+impossible, the Moonshie declares, for the quickest eye to discover that
+anything was secreted.'
+
+'Sickley ghur'[46] (Cutler and knife-grinder).--These most useful artisans
+are in great request, polishing articles of rusty steel, giving a new edge
+to the knives, scissors, razors, or swords of their employer, in a
+masterly manner, for a very small price.
+
+'Dhie cuttie'[47] (Sour curds).--This article is in great request by
+scientific cooks, who use it in many of their dainty dishes. The method of
+making sour curd is peculiarly Indian: it is made of good sweet milk, by
+some secret process which I could never acquire, and in a few hours the
+whole is coagulated to a curd of a sharp acidity, that renders it equally
+useful with other acids in flavouring their curries. The Natives use it
+with pepper, pounded green ginger, and the shreds of pumpkins or radishes,
+as a relish to their savoury dishes, in lieu of chatnee; it is considered
+cooling in its quality, and delicious as an accompaniment to their
+favourite viands.
+
+'Mullie'[48] (Clotted cream).---This article is much esteemed by the
+Natives. I was anxious to know how clotted cream could be procured at
+seasons when milk from the cow would be sour in a few hours, and am told
+that the milk when brought in fresh from the dairy is placed over the fire
+in large iron skillets; the skin (as we call it on boiled milk) is taken
+off with a skimmer, and placed in a basket, which allows all the milk to
+be drained from it; the skin again engendered on the surface is taken off
+in the same way, and so they continue, watching and skimming until the
+milk has nearly boiled away. This collection of skin is the clotted cream
+of Hindoostaun.
+
+'Mukhun'[49] (Butter).--Butter is very partially used by the Natives; they
+use ghee, which is a sort of clarified butter, chiefly produced from the
+buffalo's milk. The method of obtaining butter in India is singular to a
+European. The milk is made warm over the fire, then poured into a large
+earthen jar, and allowed to stand for a few hours. A piece of bamboo is
+split at the bottom, and four small pieces of wood inserted as stretchers
+to these splits. A leather strap is twisted over the middle of the bamboo,
+and the butter-maker with this keeps the bamboo in constant motion; the
+particles of butter swimming at the top are taken off and thrown into
+water, and the process of churning is resumed; this method continues until
+by the quantity collected, these nice judges have ascertained there is no
+more butter remaining in the milk. When the butter is to be sold, it is
+beaten up into round balls out of the water. When ghee is intended to be
+made, the butter is simmered over a slow fire for a given time, and poured
+into the ghee pot, which perhaps may contain the produce of the week
+before they convey it to the market for sale; in this state the greasy
+substance will keep good for months, but in its natural state, as butter,
+the second day it is offensive to have it in the room, much less to be
+used as an article of food.
+
+'Burruff wallah'[50] (The man with ice).--The ice is usually carried about
+in the evening, and considered a great indulgence by the Natives. The
+ice-men bring round both iced creams, and sherbet ices, in many varieties;
+some flavoured with oranges, pomegranates, pine-apple, rose-water, &c.
+
+They can produce ices at any season, by saltpetre, which is here abundant
+and procured at a small price; but strange as it may appear, considering
+the climate, we have regular collections of ice made in January, in most
+of the stations in the Upper Provinces, generally under the
+superintendence of an English gentleman, who condescends to be the
+comptroller. The expenses are paid by subscribers, who, according to the
+value of their subscription, are entitled to a given quantity of ice, to
+be conveyed by each person's servant from the deposit an hour before
+day-break, in baskets made for the purpose well wadded with cotton and
+woollen blankets; conveyed home, the basket is placed where neither air
+nor light can intrude. Zinc bottles, filled with pure water, are placed
+round the ice in the basket, and the water is thus cooled for the day's
+supply, an indulgence of great value to the sojourners in the East.
+
+The method of collecting ice is tedious and laborious, but where labour is
+cheap and the hands plenty the attempt has always been repaid by the
+advantages. As the sun declines, the labourers commence their work; flat
+earthen platters are laid out, in exposed situations, in square
+departments, upon dried sugar-cane leaves very lightly spread, that the
+frosty air may pass inside the platters. A small quantity of water is
+poured into the platter; as fast as they freeze their contents are
+collected and conveyed, during the night, to the pit prepared for the
+reception of ice. The rising sun disperses the labourers with the ice, and
+they seek their rest by day, and return again to their employ; as the lion,
+when the sun disappears, prowls out to seek his food from the bounty of
+his Creator. The hoar frost seldom commences until the first of January,
+and lasts throughout that month.
+
+'Roshunie'[51] (Ink).---Ink, that most useful auxiliary in rendering the
+thoughts of one mortal serviceable to his fellow-creatures through many
+ages, is here an article of very simple manufacture. The composition is
+prepared from lampblack and gum-arabic; how it is made, I have yet to
+learn.
+
+The ink of the Natives is not durable; with a wet sponge may be erased the
+labour of a man's life. They have not yet acquired the art of printing,[52]
+and as they still write with reeds instead of feathers, an ink, permanent
+as our own, is neither agreeable nor desirable.
+
+There is one beautiful trait in the habits of the Mussulmauns: when about
+to write they not only make the prayer which precedes every important
+action of their lives, but they dedicate the writing to God, by a
+character on the first page, which, as in short-hand writing, implies the
+whole sentence.[53] A man would be deemed heathenish amongst Mussulmauns,
+who by neglect or accident omitted this mark on whatever subject he is
+about to write.
+
+Another of their habits is equally praiseworthy:--out of reverence for
+God's holy name (always expressed in their letters) written paper to be
+destroyed is first torn and then washed in water before the whole is
+scattered abroad; they would think it a sinful act to burn a piece of
+paper on which that Holy name has been inscribed. How often have I
+reflected whilst observing this praiseworthy feature in the character of a
+comparatively unenlightened people, on the little respect paid to the
+sacred writings amongst a population who have had greater opportunities of
+acquiring wisdom and knowledge.[54]
+
+The culpable habit of chandlers in England is fresh in my memory, who
+without a scruple tear up Bibles and religious works to parcel out their
+pounds of butter and bacon, without a feeling of remorse on the sacrilege
+they have committed.
+
+How careless are children in their school-days of the sacred volume which
+contains the word of God to His creatures. Such improper uses, I might say
+abuses, of that Holy Book, would draw upon them the censure of a people
+who have not benefited by the contents, but who nevertheless respect the
+volume purely because it speaks the word 'of that God whom they worship'.
+
+'Mayndhie' (A shrub).--The mayndhie and its uses have been so fully
+explained in the letters on Mahurrum, that I shall here merely remark,
+that the shrub is of quick growth, nearly resembling the small-leafed
+myrtle; the Natives make hedge-rows of it in their grounds, the blossom is
+very simple, and the shrub itself hardy: the dye is permanent.
+
+'Sulmah.'[55]--A prepared permanent black dye, from antimony. This is used
+with hair-pencils to the circle of the eye at the root of the eye-lashes
+by the Native ladies and often by gentlemen, and is deemed both of service
+to the sight and an ornament to the person. It certainly gives the
+appearance of large eyes, if there can be any beauty in altering the
+natural countenance, which is an absurd idea, in my opinion. Nature is
+perfect in all her works; and whatever best accords with each feature of a
+countenance I think she best determines; I am sure that no attempt to
+disguise or alter Nature in the human face ever yet succeeded, independent
+of the presumption in venturing to improve that which in His wisdom, the
+Creator has deemed sufficient.
+
+It would occupy my pages beyond the limits I can conveniently spare to the
+subject, were I to pursue remarks on the popular cries of a Native city to
+their fullest extent; scarcely any article that is vended at the bazaars,
+but is also hawked about the streets. This is a measure of necessity
+growing out of the state of Mussulmaun society, by which the females are
+enabled to purchase at their own doors all that can be absolutely
+requisite for domestic purposes, without the obligation of sending to the
+markets or the shops, when either not convenient, or not agreeable. And
+the better to aid both purchasers and venders, these hawkers pronounce
+their several articles for sale, with voices that cannot fail to impress
+the inhabitants enclosed within high walls, with a full knowledge of the
+articles proclaimed without need of interpreters.
+
+
+[1] _Dukan_.
+
+[2] _Tatti_.
+
+[3] See pp. 57, 173, 174.
+
+[4] The fat of meat is never eaten by the Natives, who view our joints
+of meat with astonishment, bordering on disgust. [_Author_.]
+
+[5] Many Hindoostaunie dishes require the meat to be finely minced.
+    [_Author_.]
+
+[6] Known as _gargarasaz_.
+
+[7] Baniya.
+
+[8] _Sarraf_.
+
+[9]: Cowries are small shells imported from the Eastern isles, which pass
+    in India as current coin, their value fluctuating with the price of
+    corn, from, sixty to ninety for one pice. [_Author_.]
+
+[10] _Hundi_.
+
+[11] _Dasturi_.
+
+[12] _Sipiwala gila sukha_.
+
+[13] _Jonk_, a leech; _kira_, a worm, _laganewali_.
+
+[14] _Kan saf karnewala_: more usually _Kanmailiya,
+    kan_, the ear; _maila_, dirt.
+
+[15] _Gota, chandni bikau_, silver lace to sell! The dealer is
+    _Gota, kinari farosh_.
+
+[16] _Tel ka acharwala_.
+
+[17] _Mithaiwala_.
+
+[18] _Khilaunewala_.
+
+[19] _Abrak_, talc.
+
+[20] _Pankahwala_.
+
+[21] _Tar_, the palmyra palm.
+
+[22] _Tarkari, mewa_.
+
+[23] _Sag_.
+
+[24] _Chitra_, spotted, speckled.
+
+[25] Quicksilver is used by Native physicians as the first of alternative
+    tonics.
+
+[26] _Machhli_.
+
+[27] Being considered to be like snakes.
+
+[28] _Rohu_, a kind of carp, _Labeo rohita_.
+
+[29] _Chiryawala_.
+
+[30] _Bulbul, Daulias hafizi_, the true Persian nightingale.
+
+[31] _Sabza, sabzak_, green bird, usually a jay, _coracias_.
+
+[32] A shrike, one of the _laniadae_.
+
+[33] _Maina_, a starling, _Aeridotheres tristis_.
+
+[34] The black cuckoo, _Eudynamys orientalis_.
+
+[35] The note of the bird at night, detested by Anglo-Indians, gives it
+    the name of the brain-fever bird.
+
+[36] _Lal, Estrelda amandava_, the avadavat, is so called because it
+    was brought to Europe from Ahmadabad.
+
+[37] _Atishbazi_, fire-play.
+
+[38] Holi, the spring festival of the Hindus, at which bonfires are
+    lighted, coloured water thrown about, and much obscenity is practiced.
+
+[39] See p. 161.
+
+[40] _Chabena, chabeni_, what is munched or chewed (_chabna_).
+
+[41] _Tamashawala: tamashabin_, a spectator of wonders.
+
+[42] _Sampwala_.
+
+[43] 'Mr. Secretary.'
+
+[44] It is generally believed snakes do not live apart from their species;
+    if one is destroyed in a house, a second is anticipated and generally
+    discovered. [_Author_.]
+
+[45] _Dastur, dasturi_, the percentage appropriated on purchase
+    by servants.
+
+[46] _Saiqalgar_, corrupted into _sikligar_, a polisher.
+
+[47] _Dahi khatai_. There is no mystery about the preparation.
+    Milk is boiled and soured by being poured into an earthen vessel in
+    which curds have previously been kept. Sometimes, but less frequently,
+    an acid or rennet is added to precipitate the solid ingredients of the
+    milk.
+
+[48] _Malai_.
+
+[49] _Makkhan_.
+
+[50] _Burfwala_.
+
+[51] _Roshanai_, 'brightness', made of lampblack, gum-arabic, and
+    aloe juice. Elaborate prescriptions are given by Jaffur Shurreef
+    (_Qanoon-e-Islam_ 150 f.).
+
+[52] Lithography and printing are now commonly done by natives.
+
+[53] Letters usually begin with, the invocation,
+    _Bi'-smi'illahi'r-rahmani'r-rahim_, 'In the name of Allah,
+    the Compassionate, the Merciful.' The monogram 'I' is often
+    substituted, as being the initial of Allah, and the first letter of
+    the alphabet.
+
+[54] If the Koran were wrapped in a skin and thrown into fire, it would
+    not burn, say the Traditions (Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 521).
+    Compare the care taken by the Chinese to save paper on which writing
+    appears (J.H. Gray, _China_, i. 178).
+
+[55] _Surma_, a black ore of antimony, a tersulphide found in the
+    Panjab, often confused by natives with galena, and most of that
+    sold in bazars is really galena. It is used as a tonic to the nerves
+    of the eye, and to strengthen the sight.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVII
+
+  Seclusion of Females.--Paadshah Begum.--The Suwaarree.--Female
+  Bearers.--Eunuchs.--Rutts.--Partiality of the Ladies to Large
+  retinues.--Female Companions.--Telling the Khaunie.--Games of the
+  Zeenahnah.--Shampooing.--The Punkah.--Slaves and
+  slavery.--Anecdote.--The Persian Poets.--Fierdowsee.--Saadie, his
+  'Goolistaun'.--Haafiz.--Mahumud Baarkur.--'Hyaatool
+  Kaaloob'.--Different manner of pronouncing Scripture names...Page 248
+
+
+The strict seclusion which forms so conspicuous a feature in the female
+society of the Mussulmauns in India, renders the temporary migration of
+ladies from their domicile an event of great interest to each individual
+of the zeenahnah, whether the mistress or her many dependants be
+considered.
+
+The superior classes seldom quit their habitation but on the most
+important occasions; they, therefore, make it a matter of necessity to
+move out in such style as is most likely to proclaim their exalted station
+in life. I cannot, perhaps, explain this part of my subject better than by
+giving a brief description of the suwaarree[1] (travelling retinue) of the
+Paadshah Begum[2] which passed my house at Lucknow on the occasion of her
+visit to the Durgah of Huzerut Abas Ali Kee, after several years strictly
+confining herself to the palace.
+
+By Paadshah is meant 'King';--Begum, 'Lady.' The first wife of the King is
+distinguished by this title from every other he may have married; it is
+equivalent to that of 'Queen' in other countries. With this title the
+Paadshah Begum enjoys also many other marks of royal distinction; as, for
+instance, the dunkah (kettle-drums) preceding her suwaarree; a privilege,
+I believe, never allowed by the King to any other female of his family.
+The embroidered chattah (umbrella); the afthaadah (embroidered sun); and
+chowries of the peacock's feathers, are also out-of-door distinctions
+allowed only to this lady and the members of the royal family. But to my
+description:--
+
+First, in the Paadshah Begum's suwaarree I observed a guard of cavalry
+soldiers in full dress, with their colours unfurled; these were followed
+by two battalions of infantry, with their bands of music and colours. A
+company of spearmen on foot, in neat white dresses and turbans, their
+spears of silver, rich and massive. Thirty-six men in white dresses and
+turbans, each having a small triangular flag of crimson silk, on which
+were embroidered the royal arms (two fish and a dirk of a peculiar shape).
+The staffs of these flags are of silver, about three feet long; in the
+lower part of the handle a small bayonet is secreted, which can be
+produced at will by pressure on a secret spring. Next followed a full band
+of music, drums, fifes, &c.; then the important dunkah, which announces to
+the public the lady's rank: she is enclosed within the elevated towering
+chundole, on each side of which the afthaadah and chowries are carried by
+well-dressed men, generally confidential servants, appointed to this
+service.
+
+The chundole is a conveyance resembling a palankeen, but much larger and
+more lofty; it is, in fact, a small silver room, six feet long, five broad,
+and four feet high, supported by the aid of four silver poles on the
+shoulders of twenty bearers. These bearers are relieved every quarter of a
+mile by a second set in attendance: the two sets change alternately to the
+end of the journey. The bearers are dressed in a handsome royal livery of
+white calico made to sit close to the person; over which are worn scarlet
+loose coats of fine English broad-cloth, edged and bordered with gold
+embroidery: on the back of the coat a fish is embroidered in gold. Their
+turbans correspond in colour with the coats; on the front of the turban is
+fixed diagonally a fish of wrought gold, to the tail of which a rich gold
+tassel is attached; this readies to the shoulder of the bearer, and gives
+a remarkable air of grandeur to the person.
+
+The chundole is surrounded by very powerful women bearers, whose business
+it is to convey the vehicle within the compound (court-yard) of the
+private apartments, or wherever men are not admitted at the same time with
+females. Chobdhaars and soota-badhaars walk near the chundole carrying
+gold and silver staffs or wands, and vociferating the rank and honours of
+the lady they attend with loud voices the whole way to and from the Durgah.
+These men likewise keep off the crowds of beggars attracted on such
+occasions by the known liberality of the ladies, who, according to
+established custom, make distributions to a large amount, which are
+scattered amongst the populace by several of the Queen's eunuchs, who walk
+near the chundole for that purpose.
+
+The chief of the eunuchs followed the Queen's chundole on an elephant,
+seated in a gold howdah; the trappings of which were of velvet, richly
+embroidered in gold; the eunuch very elegantly dressed in a suit of
+gold-cloth, a brilliant turban, and attired in expensive shawls. After the
+eunuch, follow the Paadshah Begum's ladies of quality, in covered
+palankeens, each taking precedence according to the station or the favour
+she may enjoy; they are well guarded by soldiers, spearmen, and chobdhaars.
+Next in the train, follow the several officers of the Queen's household,
+on elephants, richly caparisoned. And, lastly, the women of inferior rank
+and female slaves, in rutts (covered carriages) such as are in general use
+throughout India. These rutts are drawn by bullocks, having bells of a
+small size strung round their neck, which as they move have a novel and
+not unpleasing sound, from the variety of tones produced. The rutt is a
+broad-wheeled carriage, the body and roof forming two cones, one smaller
+than the other, covered with scarlet cloth, edged, fringed, and bordered
+with gold or amber silk trimmings. The persons riding in rutts are seated
+on cushions placed flat on the surface of the carriage (the Asiatic style
+of sitting at all times) and not on raised seats, the usual custom in
+Europe. The entrance to these rutts is from the front, like the tilted
+carts of England, where a thick curtain of corresponding colour and
+material conceals the inmates from the public gaze; a small space is left
+between this curtain and the driver, where one or two women servants are
+seated as guards, who are privileged by age and ugliness to indulge in the
+liberty of seeing the passing gaiety, and of enjoying, without a screen,
+the pure air; benefits which their superiors in rank are excluded from at
+all ages.
+
+In the Paadshah Begum's suwaarree, I counted fifty of these Native
+carriages, into each of which from four to six females are usually crowded,
+comprising the members of the household establishment of the great lady;
+such as companions, readers of the Khoraum, kaawauses[3] (the higher
+classes of female-slaves), muggalanie[4] (needle-women), &c. This will
+give you a tolerable idea of the number and variety of females attached to
+the suite of a lady of consequence in India. The procession, at a walking
+pace, occupied nearly half an hour in passing the road opposite to my
+house: it was well conducted, and the effect imposing, both from its
+novelty and splendour.
+
+A lady here would be the most unhappy creature existing, unless surrounded
+by a multitude of attendants suitable to her rank in life. They have often
+expressed surprise and astonishment at my want of taste in keeping only
+two women servants in my employ, and having neither a companion nor a
+slave in my whole establishment; they cannot imagine anything so stupid as
+my preference to a quiet study, rather than the constant bustle of a
+well-filled zeenahnah.
+
+Many of the Mussulmaun ladies entertain women companions, whose chief
+business is to tell stories and fables to their employer, while she is
+composing herself to sleep; many of their tales partake of the romantic
+cast which characterizes the well-remembered 'Arabian Nights'
+Entertainments', one story begetting another to the end of the collection.
+When the lady is fairly asleep the story is stayed, and the companion
+resumes her employment when the next nap is sought by her mistress.
+
+Amongst the higher classes the males also indulge in the same practice of
+being talked to sleep by their men slaves; and it is a certain
+introduction with either sex to the favour of their employer, when one of
+these dependants has acquired the happy art of 'telling the khaunie'[5]
+(fable) with an agreeable voice and manner. The more they embellish a tale
+by flights of their versatile imaginations, so much greater the merit of
+the rehearser in the opinion of the listeners.
+
+The inmates of zeenahnahs occasionally indulge in games of chance: their
+dice are called chowsah (four sides), or chuhsah[6] (six sides); these
+dice are about four inches long and half an inch thick on every side,
+numbered much in the same way as the European dice. They are thrown by the
+hand, not from boxes, and fall lengthways.
+
+They have many different games which I never learned, disliking such modes
+of trifling away valuable time; I am not, therefore, prepared to describe
+them accurately. One of their games has a resemblance to draughts, and is
+played on a chequered cloth carpet, with red and white ivory cones.[7]
+They have also circular cards, six suits to a pack, very neatly painted,
+with which they play many (to me) indescribable games; but oftener, to
+their credit be it said, for amusement than for gain. The gentlemen,
+however, are not always equally disinterested; they frequently play for
+large sums of money. I do not, however, find the habit so general with the
+Natives as it is with Europeans. The religious community deem all games of
+chance unholy, and therefore incompatible with their mode of living. I am
+not aware that gaming is prohibited by their law in a direct way,[8] but
+all practices tending to covetousness are strictly forbidden; and, surely,
+those who can touch the money called 'winnings' at any game, must be more
+or less exposed to the accusation of desiring other men's goods.
+
+Shampooing has been so often described as to leave little by way of
+novelty for me to remark on the subject; it is a general indulgence with
+all classes in India, whatever may be their age or circumstances. The
+comfort derived from the pressure of the hands on the limbs, by a clever
+shampooer, is alone to be estimated by those who have experienced the
+benefits derived from this luxurious habit, in a climate where such
+indulgences are needed to assist in creating a free circulation of the
+blood, which is very seldom induced by exercise as in more Northern
+latitudes. Persons of rank are shampooed by their slaves during the hours
+of sleep, whether it be by day or by night; if through any accidental
+circumstance the pressure is discontinued, even for a few seconds only,
+the sleep is immediately broken: such is the power of habit.
+
+The punkah (fan) is in constant use by day and night, during eight months
+of the year. In the houses of the Natives, the slaves have ample
+employment in administering to the several indulgences which their ladies
+require at their hands; for with them fixed punkahs have not been
+introduced into the zeenahnah:[9] the only punkah in their apartments is
+moved by the hand, immediately over or in front of the person for whose
+use it is designed. In the gentlemen's apartments, however, and in the
+houses of all Europeans, punkahs are suspended from the ceiling, to which
+a rope is fastened and passed through an aperture in the wall into the
+verandah, where a man is seated who keeps it constantly waving, by pulling
+the rope, so that the largest rooms, and even churches, are filled with
+wind, to the great comfort of all present.
+
+The female slaves, although constantly required about the lady's person,
+are nevertheless tenderly treated, and have every proper indulgence
+afforded them. They discharge in rotation the required duties of their
+stations, and appear as much the objects of the lady's care as any other
+people in her establishment. Slavery with them is without severity; and in
+the existing state of Mussulmaun society, they declare the women slaves to
+be necessary appendages to their rank and respectability. The liberal
+proprietors of slaves give them suitable matches in marriage when they
+have arrived at a proper age, and even foster their children with the
+greatest care; often granting them a salary, and sometimes their freedom,
+if required to make them happy. Indeed, generally speaking the slaves in a
+Mussulmaun's house must be vicious and unworthy, who are not considered
+members of the family.
+
+It is an indisputable fact that the welfare of their slaves is an object
+of unceasing interest with their owners, if they are really good
+Mussulmauns; indeed, it is second only to the regard which they manifest
+to their own children.
+
+Many persons have been known, in making their will, to decree the liberty
+of their slaves. They are not, however, always willing to accept the boon.
+'To whom shall I go?'--'Where shall I meet a home like my master's house?'
+are appeals that endear the slave to the survivors of the first proprietor,
+and prove that their bondage has not been a very painful one. It is an
+amiable trait of character amongst the Mussulmauns, with whom I have been
+intimate, and which I can never forget, that the dependence of their
+slaves is made easy; that they enjoy every comfort compatible with their
+station; and that their health, morals, clothing, and general happiness,
+are as much attended to as that of their own relatives. But slavery is a
+harsh term between man and man, and however mitigated its state, is still
+degrading to him. I heartily trust there will be a time when this badge of
+disgrace shall be wiped away from every human being. He that made man,
+designed him for higher purposes than to be the slave of his fellow-mortal;
+but I should be unjust to the people of India, if I did not remark, that
+having the uncontrolled power in their hands, they abstain from the
+exercise of any such severity as has disgraced the owners of slaves in
+other places, where even the laws have failed to protect them from cruelty
+and oppression. Indeed, wherever an instance has occurred of unfeeling
+conduct towards these helpless beings, the most marked detestation has
+invariably been evinced towards the authors by the real Mussulmaun.
+
+I have heard of a very beautiful female slave who had been fostered by a
+Native lady of high rank, from her infancy. In the course of time, this
+female had arrived to the honour of being made the companion of her young
+master, still, however, by her Begum's consent, residing with her lady,
+who was much attached to her. The freedom of intercourse, occasioned by
+the slave's exaltation, had the effect of lessening the young creature's
+former respect for her still kind mistress, to whom she evinced some
+ungrateful returns for the many indulgences she had through life received
+at her hands. The exact nature of her offences I never heard, but it was
+deemed requisite, for the sake of example in a house where some hundreds
+of female slaves were maintained, that the lady should adopt some such
+method of testifying her displeasure towards this pretty favourite, as
+would be consistent with her present elevated station. A stout silver
+chain was therefore made, by the Begum's orders, and with this the slave
+was linked to her bedstead a certain number of hours every day, in the
+view of the whole congregated family of slaves. This punishment would be
+felt as a degradation by the slave; not the confinement to her bedstead,
+where she would perhaps have seated herself from choice, had she not been
+in disgrace.
+
+'Once a slave, and always a slave,' says Fierdowsee the great poet of
+Persia; but this apophthegm was in allusion to the 'mean mind' of the King
+who treated him scurvily after his immense labour in that noble work, 'The
+Shah Namah.' I have a sketch of Fierdowsee's life, which my husband
+translated for me; but I must forbear giving it here, as I have heard the
+whole work itself is undergoing a translation by an able Oriental scholar,
+who will doubtless do justice both to 'The Shah Namah' and the character
+of Fierdowsee, who is in so great estimation with the learned Asiatics.[10]
+
+The Mussulmauns quote their favourite poets with much the same freedom
+that the more enlightened nations are wont to use with their famed authors.
+The moral precepts of Saadie[11] are often introduced with good effect,
+both in writing and speaking, as beacons to the inexperienced.
+
+Haafiz[12] has benefited the Mussulmaun world by bright effusions of
+genius, which speak to successive generations the wonders of his
+extraordinary mind. He was a poet of great merit; his style is esteemed
+superior to the writers of any other age; and, notwithstanding the world
+is rich with the beauties of his almost inspired mind, yet, strange as it
+may appear, he never compiled a single volume. Even in the age in which he
+lived his merit as a poet was in great estimation; but he never thought of
+either benefit or amusement to the world or to himself beyond the present
+time. He wrote the thoughts of his inspired moments on pieces of broken
+pitchers or pans, with charcoal; some of his admirers were sure to follow
+his footsteps narrowly, and to their vigilance in securing those scraps
+strewed about, wherever Haafiz had made his sojourn, may to this day be
+ascribed the benefit derived by the public from his superior writings.
+Saadie, however, is the standard favourite of all good Mussulmauns; his
+'Goolistaun'[13] (Garden of Roses), is placed in the hands of every youth
+when consigned to the dominion of a master, as being the most worthy book
+in the Persian language for his study, whether the beauty of his diction
+or the morality of his subjects be considered.
+
+The 'Hyaatool Kaaloob'[14] (Enlightener of the Heart), is another Persian
+work, in prose, by Mirza Mahumud Baakur, greatly esteemed by the learned
+Mussulmauns. This work contains the life and acts of every known prophet
+from the Creation, including also Mahumud and the twelve Emaums. The
+learned Maulvee, it appears, first wrote it in the Arabic language, but
+afterwards translated it into Persian, with the praiseworthy motive of
+rendering his invaluable work available to those Mussulmauns who were not
+acquainted with Arabic.
+
+I have some extracts from this voluminous work, translated for me by my
+husband, which interested me on account of the great similarity to our
+Scripture history; and if permitted at some future time, I propose
+offering them to the public in our own language, conceiving they may be as
+interesting to others as they have been to me.
+
+The Persian and Arabic authors, I have remarked, substitute Y for J in
+Scripture names; for instance, Jacob and Joseph are pronounced Yaacoob and
+Yeusuf.[15] They also differ from us in some names commencing with A, as
+in Abba, which they pronounce Ubba (Father); for Amen, they say Aameen[16]
+(the meaning strictly coinciding with ours); for Aaron, Aaroon; for Moses,
+Moosa.[17] I am told by those who are intimate with both languages, that
+there is a great similarity between the Hebrew and Arabic. The passage in
+our Scripture 'Eloi, Eloi, lama sabaethani,' was interpreted to me by an
+Arabic scholar, as it is rendered in that well-remembered verse in the
+English translation.
+
+
+[1] _Sawari_.
+
+[2] The Padshah Begam was the widow of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar,
+    King of Oudh. On his death, in 1837, she contrived a plot to place his
+    putative son, Munna Jan, on the throne. After a fierce struggle in
+    the palace, the revolt was suppressed by the Resident, Colonel Low,
+    and his assistants, Captains Paton and Shakespear. The pair were
+    confined in the Chunar Fort till their deaths. See the graphic
+    narrative by Gen. Sleeman (_Journey Through Oudh_, ii. 172 ff.); also
+    H.C. Irwin (_The Garden of India_, 127 f.); Mrs. F. Parks (_Wanderings
+    of a Pilgrim_, ii. 114).
+
+[3] _Khawass_, 'distinguished': special attendants.
+
+[4] _Mughlani_, a Moghul woman: an attendant in a zenana, a
+    sempstress.
+
+[5] _Kahani_.
+
+[6] _Chausa, chhahsa_, not to be found in Platt's _Hindustani
+    Dictionary_.
+
+[7] The game of Pachisi, played on a cloth marked in squares: see
+    _Bombay Gazetteer_, ix, part ii, 173.
+
+[8] Gambling is one of the greater sins.--Sale, _Koran: Preliminary
+    Discourse_, 89; Sells, _Faith of Islam_, 155.
+
+[9] Fixed punkahs were introduced early in the nineteenth century.--Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_, 744.
+
+[10] Firdausi, author of the Shahnama, died A.D. 1020 or 1025,
+    aged 89 years. An abridged translation, to which reference is made, by
+    J. Atkinson, was published in 1832. It has since been translated by
+    A.G. and E. Warner (1905), and by A. Rogers (1907).
+
+[11] Shaikh Sa'di, born at Shiraz A.D. 1175, died 1292, aged 120
+    lunar years. His chief works are the _Gulistan_ and the _Bostan_.
+
+[12] Khwaja Hafiz, Shams-ud-din Muhammad, author of the
+    Diwan Hafiz, died at Shiraz A.D. 1389, where his tomb at
+    Musalla is the scene of pilgrimage; see E.G. Browne, _A Year amongst
+    the Persians_, 280 f.
+
+[13] _Gulistan_.
+
+[14] See p. 77.
+
+[15] Ya'qub, Yusuf.
+
+[16] _Amin_.
+
+[17] Harun, Musa.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XVIII
+
+  Evils attending a residence in India.--Frogs.--Flies.--Blains.--
+  Musquitoes.--The White Ant.--The Red Ant.--Their destructive
+  habits.--A Tarantula.--Black Ants.--Locusts.--Superstition of the
+  Natives upon their appearance.--The Tufaun, or Haundhie
+  (tempest).--The rainy season.--Thunder and lightning.--Meteors.--
+  Earthquakes.--A city ruined by them.--Reverence of the Mussulmauns
+  for saints.--Prickly heat.--Cholera Morbus.--Mode of
+  Treatment.--Temperance the best remedy.--Recipe.
+
+
+A residence in India, productive as it may be (to many) of pecuniary
+benefits, presents, however, a few inconveniences to Europeans independent
+of climate,--which, in the absence of more severe trials, frequently
+become a source of disquiet, until habit has reconciled, or reflection
+disposed the mind to receive the mixture of evil and good which is the
+common lot of man in every situation of life. I might moralise on the duty
+of intelligent beings suffering patiently those trials which human
+ingenuity cannot avert, even if this world's happiness were the only
+advantage to be gained; but when we reflect on the account we have to give
+hereafter, for every thought, word, or action, I am induced to believe,
+the well-regulated mind must view with dismay a retrospect of the past
+murmurings of which it has been guilty. But I must bring into view the
+trials of patience which our countrymen meet while in India, to those who
+have neither witnessed nor [Transcriber's note: illegible] them; many of
+them present slight, but living, op[Transcriber's note: illegible] those
+evils with which the Egyptians were visited for their impiety to Heaven.
+
+Frogs, for instance, harmless as these creatures are in their nature,
+occasion no slight inconvenience to the inhabitants of India. They enter
+their house in great numbers and, without much care, would make their way
+to the beds, as they do to the chambers; the croaking during the rainy
+season is almost deafening, particularly towards the evening and during
+the night. Before the morning has well dawned, these creatures creep into
+every open doorway, and throughout the day secrete themselves under the
+edges of mattings and carpets, to the annoyance of those who have an
+antipathy to these unsightly looking creatures.
+
+The myriads of flies which fill the rooms, and try the patience of every
+observer of nice order in an English establishment, may bear some likeness
+to the plague which was inflicted on Pharaoh and his people, as a
+punishment for their hardness of heart. The flies of India have a property
+not common to those of Europe, but very similar to the green fly of Spain:
+when bruised, they will raise a blister on the skin, and, I am told, are
+frequently made use of by medical gentlemen as a substitute for the
+Spanish fly.[1]
+
+If but one wing or leg of a fly is by any accident dropped into the food
+of an individual, and swallowed, the consequence is an immediate
+irritation of the stomach, answering the purpose of a powerful emetic. At
+meals the flies are a pest, which most people say they abhor, knowing the
+consequences of an unlucky admission into the stomach of the smallest
+particle of the insect. Their numbers exceed all calculation; the table is
+actually darkened by the myriads, particularly in the season of the
+periodical rains. The Natives of India use muslin curtains suspended from
+the ceiling of their hall at meal times, which are made very full and long,
+so as to enclose the whole dinner party and exclude their tormentors.
+
+The biles or blains, which all classes of people in India are subject to,
+may be counted as amongst the catalogue of Pharaoh's plagues. The most
+healthy and the most delicate, whether Europeans or Natives, are equally
+liable to be visited by these eruptions, which are of a painful and
+tedious nature. The causes inducing these biles no one, as yet, I believe,
+has been able to discover, and therefore a preventive has not been found.
+I have known people who have suffered every year from these attacks, with
+scarce a day's intermission during the hot weather.[2]
+
+The musquitoes, a species of gnat, tries the patience of the public in no
+very measured degree; their malignant sting is painful, and their attacks
+incessant; against which there is no remedy but patience, and a good gauze
+curtain to the beds. Without some such barrier, foreigners could hardly
+exist; certainly they never could enjoy a night's repose. Even the mere
+buzzing of musquitoes is a source of much annoyance to Europeans: I have
+heard many declare the bite was not half so distressing as the sound. The
+Natives, both male and female, habitually wrap themselves up so entirely
+in their chuddah[3] (sheet) that they escape from these voracious insects,
+whose sounds are so familiar to them that it may be presumed they lull to,
+rather than disturb their sleep.
+
+The white ant is a cruel destroyer of goods: where it has once made its
+domicile, a real misfortune may be considered to have visited the house.
+They are the most destructive little insects in the world doing as much
+injury in one hour as a man might labour through a long life to redeem.
+These ants, it would seem, have no small share of animosity to ladies'
+finery, for many a wardrobe have they demolished, well filled with
+valuable dresses and millinery, before their vicinity has even been
+suspected, or their traces discovered. They destroy beams in the roofs of
+houses, chests of valuable papers, carpets, mats, and furniture, with a
+dispatch which renders them the most formidable of enemies, although to
+appearance but a mean little insect.
+
+There is one season of the year when they take flight, having four
+beautiful transparent wings; this occurs during the periodical rains, when
+they are attracted by the lights of the houses, which they enter in
+countless numbers, filling the tables, and whilst flitting before the
+lights disencumber themselves of their wings. They then become, to
+appearance, a fat maggot, and make their way to the floors and walls,
+where it is supposed they secrete themselves for a season, and are
+increasing in numbers whilst in this stage of existence. At the period of
+their migration in search of food, they will devour any perishable
+materials within their reach. It is probable, however, that they first
+send out scouts to discover food for the family, for the traces of white
+ants are discovered by a sort of clay-covered passage, formed as they
+proceed on their march in almost a direct line, which often extends a
+great distance from their nest.
+
+To mark the economy of ants has sometimes formed a part of my amusements
+in Hindoostaun.[4] I find they all have wings at certain seasons of the
+year; and more industrious little creatures cannot exist than the small
+red ants, which are so abundant in India. I have watched them at their
+labours for hours without tiring; they are so small that from eight to
+twelve in number labour with great difficulty to convey a grain of wheat
+or barley; yet these are not more than half the size of a grain of English
+wheat. I have known them to carry one of these grains to their nest at a
+distance of from six hundred to a thousand yards; they travel in two
+distinct lines over rough or smooth ground, as it may happen, even up and
+down steps, at one regular pace. The returning unladen ants invariably
+salute the burthened ones, who are making their way to the general
+storehouse; but it is done so promptly that the line is neither broken nor
+their progress impeded by the salutation.
+
+I was surprised one morning in my breakfast parlour to discover something
+moving slowly up the wall; on approaching near to examine what it was, I
+discovered a dead wasp, which the khidmutghar[5] (footman) had destroyed
+with his chowrie during breakfast, and which, falling on the floor, had
+become the prize of my little friends (a vast multitude), who were
+labouring with their tiny strength to convey it to their nest in the
+ceiling. The weight was either too great, or they had quarrelled over the
+burthen,--I know not which,--but the wasp fell to the ground when they had
+made more than half the journey of the wall; the courageous little
+creatures, however, were nothing daunted, they resumed their labour, and
+before evening their prize was safely housed.
+
+These ants are particularly fond of animal food. I once caught a tarantula;
+it was evening, and I wished to examine it by daylight. I placed it for
+this purpose in a recess of the wall, under a tumbler, leaving just
+breathing room. In the morning I went to examine my curiosity, when to my
+surprise it was dead and swarming with red ants, who had been its
+destroyers, and were busily engaged in making a feast on the (to them)
+huge carcass of the tarantula.
+
+These small creatures often prove a great annoyance by their nocturnal
+visits to the beds of individuals, unless the precaution be taken of
+having brass vessels, filled with water, to each of the bed-feet; the only
+method of effectually preventing their approach to the beds. I was once
+much annoyed by a visit from these bold insects, when reclining on a couch
+during the extreme heat of the day. I awoke by an uneasy sensation from
+their bite or sting about my ears and face, and found they had assembled
+by millions on my head; the bath was my immediate resource. The Natives
+tell me these little pests will feed on the human body if they are not
+disturbed: when any one is sick there is always great anxiety to keep them
+away.
+
+The large black ant is also an enemy to man; its sharp pincers inflict
+wounds of no trifling consequence; it is much larger than the common fly,
+has long legs, is swift of foot, and feeds chiefly on animal substances. I
+fancy all the ant species are more or less carnivorous, but strictly
+epicurean in their choice of food, avoiding tainted or decomposed
+substances with the nicest discrimination. Sweetmeats are alluring to them;
+there is also some difficulty in keeping them from jars of sugar or
+preserves; and when swallowed in food, are the cause of much personal
+inconvenience.
+
+I have often witnessed the Hindoos, male and female, depositing small
+portions of sugar near ants' nests, as acts of charity to commence the day
+with;[6] and it is the common opinion with the Natives generally, that
+wherever the red ants colonize prosperity attends the owners of that house.
+They destroy the white ants, though the difference in their size is as a
+grain of sand to a barley-corn; and on that account only may be viewed
+rather as friends than enemies to man, provided by the same Divine source
+from whence all other benefits proceed.
+
+The locusts, so familiar by name to the readers of Scripture, are here
+seen to advantage in their occasional visits. I had, however, been some
+years in India before I was gratified by the sight of these wonderful
+insects; not because of their rarity, as I had frequently heard of their
+appearance and ravages, but not immediately in the place where I was
+residing, until the year 1825, which the following memorandum made at the
+time will describe.
+
+On the third of July, between four and five o'clock in the afternoon, I
+observed a dusky brown cloud bordering the Eastern horizon, at the
+distance of about four miles from my house, which stands on an elevated
+situation; the colour was so unusual that I resolved on inquiring from my
+oracle, Meer Hadjee Shaah, to whom I generally applied for elucidations of
+the remarkable, what such an appearance portended. He informed me it was a
+flight of locusts.
+
+I had long felt anxious to witness those insects, that had been the food
+of St. John in the Desert, and which are so familiar by name from their
+frequent mention in Scripture; and now that I was about to be gratified, I
+am not ashamed to confess my heart bounded with delight, yet with an
+occasional feeling of sympathy for the poor people, whose property would
+probably become the prey of this devouring cloud of insects before the
+morning's dawn. Long before they had time to advance, I was seated in an
+open space in the shade of my house to watch them more minutely. The first
+sound I could distinguish was as the gentlest breeze, increasing as the
+living cloud approached; and as they moved over my head, the sound was
+like the rustling of the wind through the foliage of many pepul-trees.[7]
+
+It was with a feeling of gratitude that I mentally thanked God at the time
+that they were a stingless body of insects, and that I could look on them
+without the slightest apprehension of injury. Had this wondrous cloud of
+insects been the promised locust described in the Apocalypse, which shall
+follow the fifth angel's trumpet; had they been hornets, wasps, or even
+the little venomous musquito, I had not then dared to retain my position
+to watch with eager eyes the progress of this insect family as they
+advanced, spreading for miles on every side with something approaching the
+sublime, and presenting a most imposing spectacle. So steady and orderly
+was their pace, having neither confusion nor disorder in their line of
+march through the air, that I could not help comparing them to the
+well-trained horses of the English cavalry.[8] 'Who gave them this order
+in their flight?' was in my heart and on my tongue.
+
+I think the main body of this army of locusts must have occupied thirty
+minutes in passing over my head, but my attention was too deeply engrossed
+to afford me time to consult my time-piece. Stragglers there were many,
+separated from the flight by the noises made by the servants and people to
+deter them from settling; some were caught, and, no doubt, converted into
+currie for a Mussulmaun's meal. They say it is no common delicacy, and is
+ranked among the allowed animal food.
+
+The Natives anticipate earthquakes after the visitation or appearance of
+locusts. They are said to generate in mountains, but I cannot find any one
+here able to give me an authentic account of their natural history.
+
+On the 18th of September, 1825, another flight of these wonderful insects
+passed over my house in exactly a contrary direction from those which
+appeared in July, viz. from the West towards the East. The idea struck me
+that they might be the same swarm, returning after fulfilling the object
+of their visit to the West: but I have no authority on which to ground my
+supposition. The Natives have never made natural history even an amusement,
+much less a study, although their habits are purely those of Nature; they
+know the property of most herbs, roots, and flowers, which they cultivate,
+not for their beauty, but for the benefit they render to man and beast.[9]
+
+I could not learn that the flight had rested anywhere near Futtyghur, at
+which place I was then living. They are of all creatures the most
+destructive to vegetation, licking with their rough tongue the blades of
+grass, the leaves of trees, and green herbage of all kinds. Wherever they
+settle for the night, vegetation is completely destroyed; and a day of
+mournful consequences is sure to follow their appearance in the poor
+farmer's fields of green com.
+
+But that which bears the most awful resemblance to the visitations of God's
+wrath on Pharaoh and the Egyptians, is, I think, the frightful storm of
+wind which brings thick darkness over the earth at noonday, and which
+often occurs from the Tufaun or Haundhie,[10] as it is called by the
+Natives. Its approach is first discerned by dark columns of yellow clouds,
+bordering the horizon; the alarm is instantly given by the Natives, who
+hasten to put out the fires in the kitchens, and close the doors and
+windows in European houses, or with the Natives to let down the purdahs.
+No sound that can be conceived by persons who have not witnessed this
+phenomenon of Nature, is capable of conveying an idea of the tempest. In a
+few minutes total darkness is produced by the thick cloud of dust; and the
+tremendous rushing wind carries the fine sand, which produces the darkness,
+through every cranny and crevice to all parts of the house; so that in the
+best secured rooms every article of furniture is covered with sand, and
+the room filled as with a dense fog: the person, dresses, furniture, and
+the food (if at meal times), are all of one dusky colour; and though
+candles are lighted to lessen the horror of the darkness, they only tend
+to make the scene of confusion more visible.
+
+Fortunately the tempest is not of very long continuance. I have never
+known it to last more than half an hour; yet in that time how much might
+have been destroyed of life and property, but for the interposing care of
+Divine mercy, whose gracious Providence over the works of His hand is seen
+in such seasons as these! The sound of thunder is hailed as a messenger of
+peace; the Natives are then aware that the fury of the tempest is spent,
+as a few drops of rain indicate a speedy termination; and when it has
+subsided they run to see what damage has been done to the premises without.
+It often occurs, that trees are torn up by their roots, the thatched
+houses and huts unroofed, and, if due care has not been taken to quench
+the fires in time, huts and bungalows are frequently found burnt, by the
+sparks conveyed in the dense clouds of sand which pass with the rapidity
+of lightning.
+
+These tufauns occur generally in April, May, and June, before the
+commencement of the periodical rains. I shall never forget the awe I felt
+upon witnessing the first after my arrival, nor the gratitude which filled
+my heart when the light reappeared. The Natives on such occasions gave me
+a bright example: they ceased not in the hour of peril to call on God for
+safety and protection; and when refreshed by the return of calm, they
+forgot not that their helper was the merciful Being in whom they had
+trusted, and to whom they gave praise and thanksgiving.
+
+The rainy season is at first hailed with a delight not easily to be
+explained. The long continuance of the hot winds,--during which period
+(three months or more) the sky is of the colour of copper, without the
+shadow of a cloud to shield the earth from the fiery heat of the sun,
+which has, in that time, scorched the earth and its inhabitants, stunted
+vegetation, and even affected the very houses--renders the season when the
+clouds pour out their welcome moisture a period which is looked forward to
+with anxiety, and received with universal joy.
+
+The smell of the earth after the first shower is more dearly loved than
+the finest aromatics or the purest otta. Vegetation revives and human
+nature exults in the favourable shower. As long as the novelty lasts, and
+the benefit is sensibly felt, all seem to rejoice; but when the intervals
+of clouds without rain occur, and send forth, as they separate, the bright
+glare untempered by a passing breeze, poor weak human nature is too apt to
+revolt against the season they cannot control, and sometimes a murmuring
+voice is heard to cry out, 'Oh, when will the rainy season end!'
+
+The thunder and lightning during the rainy season are beyond my ability to
+describe. The loud peals of thunder roll for several minutes in succession,
+magnificently, awfully grand. The lightning is proportionably vivid, yet
+with fewer instances of conveying the electric fluid to houses than might
+be expected when the combustible nature of the roofs is considered; the
+chief of which are thatched with coarse dry grass. The casualties are by
+no means frequent; and although trees surround most of the dwellings, yet
+we seldom hear of any injury by lightning befalling them or their
+habitations. Fiery meteors frequently fall; one within my recollection was
+a superb phenomenon, and was visible for several seconds.
+
+The shocks from earthquakes are frequently felt in the Upper Provinces of
+India;[11] I was sensible of the motion on one occasion (rather a severe
+one), for at least twenty seconds. The effect on me, however, was attended
+with no inconvenience beyond a sensation of giddiness, as if on board ship
+in a calm, when the vessel rolls from side to side.
+
+At Kannoge, now little more than a village in population, between Cawnpore
+and Futtyghur, I have rambled amongst the ruins of what formerly was an
+immense city, but which was overturned by an earthquake some centuries
+past. At the present period numerous relics of antiquity, as coins, jewels,
+&c., are occasionally discovered, particularly after the rains, when the
+torrents break down fragments of the ruins, and carry with the streams of
+water the long-buried mementos of the riches of former generations to the
+profit of the researching villagers, and to the gratification of curious
+travellers, who generally prove willing purchasers.[12]
+
+I propose giving in another letter the remarks I was led to make on
+Kannoge during my pleasant sojourn in that retired situation, as it
+possesses many singular antiquities and contains the ashes of many holy
+Mussulmaun saints. The Mussulmauns, I may here observe, reverence the
+memory of the good and the pious of all persuasions, but more particularly
+those of their own faith. I have sketches of the lives and actions of many
+of their sainted characters, received through the medium of my husband and
+his most amiable father, that are both amusing and instructive; and
+notwithstanding their particular faith be not in accordance with our own,
+it is only an act of justice to admit, that they were men who lived in the
+fear of God, and obeyed his commandments according to the instruction they
+had received; and which, I hope, may prove agreeable to my readers when
+they come to those pages I have set apart for such articles.
+
+My catalogue of the trying circumstances attached to the comforts which
+are to be met with in India are nearly brought to a close; but I must not
+omit mentioning one 'blessing in disguise' which occurs annually, and
+which affects Natives and Europeans indiscriminately, during the hot winds
+and the rainy season: the name of this common visitor is, by Europeans,
+called 'the prickly heat'; by Natives it is denominated 'Gurhum dahnie'[13]
+(warm rash). It is a painful irritating rash, often spreading over the
+whole body, mostly prevailing, however, wherever the clothes screen the
+body from the power of the air; we rarely find it on the hands or face. I
+suppose it to be induced by excessive perspiration, more particularly as
+those persons who are deficient in this freedom of the pores, so essential
+to healthiness, are not liable to be distressed by the rash; but then they
+suffer more severely in their constitution by many other painful attacks
+of fever, &c. So greatly is this rash esteemed the harbinger of good
+health, that they say in India, 'the person so afflicted has received his
+life-lease for the year'; and wherever it does not make its appearance, a
+sort of apprehension is entertained of some latent illness.
+
+Children suffer exceedingly from the irritation, which to scratch is
+dangerous. In Native nurseries I have seen applications used of pounded
+sandal-wood, camphor, and rose-water; with the peasantry a cooling earth,
+called mooltanie mittee,[14] similar to our fuller's-earth, is moistened
+with water and plastered over the back and stomach, or wherever the rash
+mostly prevails; all this is but a temporary relief, for as soon as it is
+dry, the irritation and burning are as bad as ever.
+
+The best remedy I have met with, beyond patient endurance of the evil, is
+bathing in rain-water, which soothes the violent sensations, and
+eventually cools the body. Those people who indulge most in the good
+things of this life are the greatest sufferers by this annual attack. The
+benefits attending temperance are sure to bring an ample reward to the
+possessors of that virtue under all circumstances, but in India more
+particularly; I have invariably observed the most abstemious people are
+the least subject to attacks from the prevailing complaints of the country,
+whether fever or cholera, and when attacked the most likely subjects to
+recover from those alarming disorders.
+
+At this moment of anxious solicitude throughout Europe, when that awful
+malady, the cholera, is spreading from city to city with rapid strides,
+the observations I have been enabled to make by personal acquaintance with
+afflicted subjects in India, may be acceptable to my readers; although I
+heartily pray our Heavenly Father may in His goodness and mercy preserve
+our country from that awful calamity, which has been so generally fatal in
+other parts of the world.
+
+The Natives of India designate cholera by the word 'Hyza', which with them
+signifies 'the plague'. By this term, however, they do not mean that
+direful disorder so well known to us by the same appellation; as, if I
+except the Mussulmaun pilgrims, who have seen, felt, and described its
+ravages on their journey to Mecca, that complaint seems to be unknown to
+the present race of Native inhabitants of Hindoostaun. The word 'hyza', or
+'plague', would be applied by them to all complaints of an epidemic or
+contagious nature by which the population were suddenly attacked, and
+death ensued. When the cholera first appeared in India (which I believe
+was in 1817), it was considered by the Natives a new complaint.[15]
+
+In all cases of irritation of the stomach, disordered bowels, or severe
+feverish symptoms, the Mussulmaun doctors strongly urge the adoption of
+'starving out the complaint'. This has become a law of Nature with all the
+sensible part of the community; and when the cholera first made its
+appearance in the Upper Provinces of Hindoostaun, those Natives who
+observed their prescribed temperance were, when attacked, most generally
+preserved from the fatal consequences of the disorder.
+
+On the very first symptom of cholera occurring in a member of a Mussulmaun
+family, a small portion of zahur morah[16] (derived from zahur, poison;
+morah, to kill or destroy, and thence understood as an antidote to poison,
+some specimens of which I have brought with me to England) moistened with
+rosewater, is promptly administered, and, if necessary, repeated at short
+intervals; due care being taken to prevent the patient from receiving
+anything into the stomach, excepting rosewater, the older the more
+efficacious in its property to remove the malady. Wherever zahur morah was
+not available, secun-gebeen[17] (syrup of vinegar) was administered with
+much the same effect. The person once attacked, although the symptoms
+should have subsided by this application, is rigidly deprived of
+nourishment for two or three days, and even longer if deemed expedient;
+occasionally allowing only a small quantity of rose-water, which they say
+effectually removes from the stomach and bowels those corrupt adhesions
+which, in their opinion, is the primary cause of the complaint.
+
+The cholera, I observed, seldom attacked abstemious people; when, however,
+this was the case, it generally followed a full meal; whether of rice or
+bread made but little difference, much I believe depending on the general
+habit of the subject; as among the peasantry and their superiors the
+complaint raged with equal malignity, wherever a second meal was resorted
+to whilst the person had reason to believe the former one had not been
+well digested. An instance of this occurred under my own immediate
+observation in a woman, the wife of an old and favourite servant. She had
+imprudently eaten a second dinner, before her stomach, by her own account,
+had digested the preceding meal. She was not a strong woman, but in
+tolerable good health; and but a few hours previous to the attack I saw
+her in excellent spirits, without the most remote appearance of
+indisposition. The usual applications failed of success, and she died in a
+few hours. This poor woman never could be persuaded to abstain from food
+at the stated period of meals; and the Natives were disposed to conclude
+that this had been the actual cause of her sufferings and dissolution.
+
+In 1821 the cholera raged with even greater violence than on its first
+appearance in Hindoostaun; by that time many remedies had been suggested,
+through the medium of the press, by the philanthropy and skill of European
+medical practitioners, the chief of whom recommended calomel in large
+doses, from twenty to thirty grains, and opium proportioned to the age and
+strength of the patient. I never found the Natives, however, willing to
+accept this as a remedy, but I have heard that amongst Europeans it was
+practised with success. From a paragraph which I read in the Bengal papers,
+I prepared a mixture that I have reason to think, through the goodness of
+Divine Providence, was beneficial to many poor people who applied for it
+in the early stages of the complaint, and who followed the rule laid down
+of complete abstinence, until they were out of danger from a relapse, and
+even then for a long time to be cautious in the quantity and digestible
+quality of their daily meal. The mixture was as follows:
+
+Brandy, one pint; oil or spirit of peppermint, if the former half an
+ounce--if the latter, one ounce; ground black pepper, two ounces; yellow
+rind of oranges grated, without any of the white, one ounce; these were
+kept closely stopped and occasionally shook, a table-spoonful administered
+for each dose, the patient well covered up from the air, and warmth
+created by blankets or any other means within their power, repeating the
+close as the case required.
+
+Of the many individuals who were attacked with this severe malady in our
+house very few died, and those, it was believed, were victims to an
+imprudent determination to partake of food before they were
+convalescent,--individuals who never could be prevailed on to practise
+abstemious habits, which we had good reason for believing was the best
+preventive against the complaint during those sickly seasons. The general
+opinion entertained both by Natives and Europeans, at those awful periods,
+was, that the cholera was conveyed in the air; very few imagined that it
+was infectious, as it frequently attacked some members of a family and the
+rest escaped, although in close attendance--even such as failed not to pay
+the last duties to the deceased according to Mussulmaun custom, which
+exposed them more immediately to danger if infection existed;--yet no
+fears were ever entertained, nor did I ever hear an opinion expressed
+amongst them, that it had been or could be conveyed from one person to
+another.
+
+Native children generally escaped the attack, and I never heard of an
+infant being in the slightest degree visited by this malady. It is,
+however, expedient, to use such precautionary measures as sound sense and
+reason may suggest, since wherever the cholera has appeared, it has proved
+a national calamity, and not a partial scourge to a few individuals; all
+are alike in danger of its consequences, whether the disorder be
+considered infectious or not, and therefore the precautions I have urged
+in India, amongst the Native communities, I recommend with all humility
+here, that cleanliness and abstemious diet be observed among all classes
+of people.
+
+In accordance with the prescribed antidote to infection from scarlet fever
+in England, I gave camphor (to be worn about the person) to the poor in my
+vicinity, and to all the Natives over whom I had either influence or
+control; I caused the rooms to be frequently fumigated with vinegar or
+tobacco, and labaun[18] (frankincense) burnt occasionally. I would not,
+however, be so presumptuous to insinuate even that these were preventives
+to cholera, yet in such cases of universal terror as the one in question,
+there can be no impropriety in recommending measures which cannot injure,
+and may benefit, if only by giving a purer atmosphere to the room
+inhabited by individuals either in sickness or in health. But above all
+things, aware that human aid or skill can never effect a remedy unaided by
+the mercy and power of Divine Providence, let our trust be properly placed
+in His goodness, 'who giveth medicine to heal our sickness', and humbly
+intreat that He may be pleased to avert the awful calamity from our shores
+which threatens and disturbs Europe generally at this moment.
+
+Were we to consult Nature rather than inordinate gratifications, we should
+find in following her dictates the best security to health at all times,
+but more particularly in seasons of prevailing sickness. Upon the first
+indications of cholera, I have observed the stomach becomes irritable, the
+bowels are attacked by griping pains, and unnatural evacuations; then
+follow sensations of faintness, weakness, excessive thirst, the pulse
+becomes languid, the surface of the body cold and clammy, whilst the
+patient feels inward burning heat, with spasms in the legs and arms.
+
+In the practice of Native doctors, I have noticed that they administer
+saffron to alleviate violent sickness with the best possible effect. A
+case came under my immediate observation, of a young female who had
+suffered from a severe illness similar in every way to the cholera; it was
+not, however, suspected to be that complaint, because it was not then
+prevailing at Lucknow: after some days the symptoms subsided, excepting
+the irritation of her stomach, which, by her father's account, obstinately
+rejected everything offered for eleven days. When I saw her, she was
+apparently sinking under exhaustion; I immediately tendered the remedy
+recommended by my husband, viz. twelve grains of saffron, moistened with a
+little rose-water; and found with real joy that it proved efficacious;
+half the quantity in doses were twice repeated that night, and in the
+morning the patient was enabled to take a little gruel, and in a
+reasonable time entirely recovered her usual health and strength.
+
+I have heard of people being frightened into an attack of cholera by
+apprehending the evil: this, however, can only occur with very weak minds,
+and such as have neglected in prosperity to prepare their hearts for
+adversity. When I first reached India, the fear of snakes, which I
+expected to find in every path, embittered my existence. This weakness was
+effectually corrected by the wise admonitions of Meer Hadjee Shaah, 'If
+you trust in God, he will preserve you from every evil; be assured the
+snake has no power to wound without permission.'
+
+
+[1] The _Cantharis resicatoria_ is imported into India for use in blisters.
+    But there is a local substitute, _mylabris_, of which there are
+    several varieties (Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, ii. 128, v. 309).
+
+[2] The reference is perhaps to what is known as the Dehli Boil, a form
+    of oriental sore, like the Biskra Button, Aleppo Evil, Lahore and
+    Multan Sore (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_, 302); possibly only to
+    hot-weather boils.
+
+[3] _Chadar_.
+
+[4] For a good account of the ways of Indian ants, see M. Thornton,
+    _Haunts and Hobbies of an Indian Official,_ 2 ff.
+
+[5] _Khidmatgar_.
+
+[6] The habit of laying sugar near ants' nests is a piece of fertility
+    magic, and common to Jains and Vishnu-worshippers; see J. Fryor, _A
+    New Account of East India and Persia_, Hakluyt Society ed., I, 278.
+
+[7] _Pipal, Ficus religiosa_.
+
+[8] An esteemed friend has since referred me to the second chapter of the
+    prophet Joel, part of the seventh and eighth verses, as a better
+    comparison. [_Author._]
+
+[9] The variety of locust seen in India is _acridium peregrinum_, which is
+    said to range throughout the arid region from Algeria to N.W. India.
+    They have extended as far south as the Kistna District of Madras (Watt,
+    _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part i, 154).
+
+[10] _Tufan_, storm, _andhi_, darkness.
+
+[11] Earthquakes tend generally to be more frequent in the regions of
+    extra-peninsular India, where the rocks have been more recently folded,
+    than in the more stable Peninsula. Serious earthquakes have occurred
+    recently in Assam, June, 1897, and in Kangra, Panjab, April,
+    1907. (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1907, i. 98 f.)
+
+[12] Kanauj, in the Farrukhabad District, United Provinces of Agra
+    and Oudh. The ruin of the great city was due to attacks by Mahmud
+    of Ghazni, A.D. 1019, and by Shihab-ud-din, Muhammad Ghori,
+    in 1194.
+
+[13] _Garm dahani_, hot inflammation, prickly heat.
+
+[14] _Multani mitti_, 'Multan Earth', a soft, drab-coloured
+    saponaceous earth, like fuller's earth, used in medicine and for
+    cleansing the hair.
+
+[15] Cholera (_haiza_) was known to the Hindus long before the arrival of
+    the Portuguese, who first described it (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 586
+    ff.). The attention of English physicians was first seriously called
+    to it in 1817, when it broke out in the Jessore District of Bengal,
+    and in the camp of Marquess Hastings in the Datiya State, Central
+    India. (See Sleeman, _Rambles_, 163, 232.)
+
+[16] _Zahr-mohra_, 'poison vanguard': the bezoar stone, believed to be
+    an antidote to poison (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 90 f.).
+
+[17] _Sikanjabin_, oxymel, vinegar, lime-juice, or other acid, mixed
+    with sugar or honey.
+
+[18] _Loban_.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XIX
+
+  Kannoge.--Formerly the capital of Hindoostaun.--Ancient
+  castle.--Durability of the bricks made by the aborigines.--Prospect
+  from the Killaah (castle).--Ruins.--Treasures found therein.--The
+  Durgah Baallee Peer Kee.--Mukhburrahs.--Ancient Mosque.--Singular
+  structure of some stone pillars.--The Durgah Mukdoom
+  Jhaunneer.--Conversions to the Mussulmaun Faith.--Anecdote.--Ignorance
+  of the Hindoos.--Sculpture of the Ancients.--Mosque inhabited by
+  thieves.--Discovery of Nitre.--Method of extracting it.--Conjectures
+  of its produce.--Residence in the castle.--Reflections.
+
+
+Kannoge, now comparatively a Native village, situated about midway between
+Cawnpore and Futtyghur, is said to have been the capital of Hindoostaun,
+and according to Hindoo tradition was the seat of the reigning Rajahs two
+thousand years prior to the invasion of India by the Sultaun Timoor. If
+credit be given to current report, the Hindoos deny that the Deluge
+extended to India[1] as confidently as the Chinese declare that it never
+reached China.
+
+These accounts I merely state as the belief of the Hindoos, and those
+the least educated persons of the population. The Mussulmauns, however,
+are of a different opinion; the account they give of the Deluge
+resembles the Jewish, and doubtless the information Mahumud has conveyed
+to his followers was derived from that source.
+
+Some of the people are weak enough to conjecture that Kannoge was founded
+by Cain.[2] It bears, however, striking features of great antiquity, and
+possesses many sufficient evidences of its former extent and splendour to
+warrant the belief that it has been the capital of no mean kingdom in ages
+past. The remarks I was enabled to make during a residence of two years at
+Kannoge may not be deemed altogether uninteresting to my readers, although
+my descriptions may be 'clouded with imperfections'. I will not, therefore,
+offer any useless apologies for introducing them in my present Letter.
+
+Kannoge, known as the oldest capital of the far-famed kingdom of
+Hindoostaun, is now a heap upon heap of ruins, proclaiming to the present
+generation, even in her humility, how vast in extent and magnificent in
+style she once was, when inhabited by the rulers of that great empire. The
+earth entombs emblems of greatness, of riches, and of man's vain-glorious
+possessions; buildings have been reared by successive generations on
+mounds which embowelled the ruined mansions of predecessors.
+
+The killaah[3] (castle) in which during two years we shared an abode with
+sundry crows, bats, scorpions, centipedes, and other living things, was
+rebuilt about seven hundred years ago, on the original foundation which,
+as tradition states, has continued for more than two thousand years. The
+materials of which the walls are constructed are chiefly bricks.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that the bricks of ancient manufacture in India
+give evidence of remarkable durability, and are very similar in quality to
+the Roman bricks occasionally discovered in England. At Delhi I have met
+with bricks that have been undoubtedly standing six or seven centuries;
+and at Kannoge, if tradition speak true, the same articles which were
+manufactured upwards of two thousand years ago, and which retain the
+colour of the brightest red, resemble more the hardest stone than the
+things we call bricks of the present day. After the minutest examination
+of these relics of ancient labour, I am disposed to think that the clay
+must have been more closely kneaded, and the bricks longer exposed to the
+action of fire than they are by the present mode of manufacturing them;
+and such is their durability, that they are only broken with the greatest
+difficulty.
+
+The killaah was originally a fortified castle, and is situated near the
+river Kaullee Nuddie,[4] a branch or arm of the Ganges, the main stream of
+which flows about two miles distant. During the periodical rains, the
+Ganges overflows its banks, and inundates the whole tract of land
+intervening between the two rivers, forming an extent of water more
+resembling a sea than a river.
+
+At the time we occupied the old castle, scarcely one room could be called
+habitable; and I learned with regret after the rains of 1826 and 1827,
+which were unusually heavy, that the apartments occupied since the
+Honourable East India Company's rule by their taasseel-dhaars,[5]
+(sub-collectors of the revenue), were rendered entirely useless as a
+residence.
+
+The comfortless interior of that well-remembered place was more than
+compensated by the situation. Many of my English acquaintance, who
+honoured me by visits at Kannoge, will, I think, agree with me, that the
+prospect from the killaah was indescribably grand. The Ganges and the
+Kaullee Nuddee were presented at one view; and at certain seasons of the
+year, as far as the eye could reach, their banks, and well-cultivated
+fields, clothed in a variety of green, seemed to recall the mind to the
+rivers of England, and their precious borders of grateful herbage. Turning
+in another direction, the eye was met by an impenetrable boundary of
+forest trees, magnificent in growth, and rich in foliage; at another
+glance, ruins of antiquity, or the still remaining tributes to saints; the
+detached villages; the sugar plantations; the agriculturists at their
+labour; the happy peasantry laden with their purchases from the bazaars;
+the Hindoo women and children, bearing their earthen-vessels to and from
+the river for supplies of water:--each in their turn formed objects of
+attraction from without, that more than repaid the absence of ordinary
+comforts in the apartment from which they were viewed. The quiet calm of
+this habitation, unbroken by the tumultuous sounds of a city, was so
+congenial to my taste, that when obliged to quit it, I felt almost as much
+regret as when I heard that the rains had destroyed the place which had
+been to me a home of peaceful enjoyment.
+
+The city of Kannoge has evidently suffered the severities of a shock from
+an earthquake: the present inhabitants cannot tell at what period this
+occurred, but it must have been some centuries since, for the earth is
+grown over immense ruins, in an extensive circuit, forming a strong but
+coarse carpet of grass on the uneven mounds containing the long-buried
+mansions of the great. The rapid streams from the periodical rains forcing
+passages between the ruins, has in many places formed deep and frightful
+ravines, as well as rugged roads and pathways for the cattle and the
+traveller.
+
+After each heavy fall of rain, the peasantry and children are observed
+minutely searching among the ruins for valuables washed out with the loose
+earth and bricks by the force of the streams, and, I am told, with
+successful returns for their toil; jewels, gold and silver ornaments,
+coins of gold and silver, all of great antiquity, are thus secured; these
+are bought by certain merchants of the city, by whom they are retailed to
+English travellers, who generally when on a river voyage to or from the
+Upper Provinces, contrive, if possible, to visit Kannoge to inspect the
+ruins, and purchase curiosities.
+
+There is a stately range of buildings at no great distance from the
+killaah (castle), in a tolerable state of preservation, called 'Baallee
+Peer Kee Durgah'.[6] The entrance is by a stone gateway of very superior
+but ancient workmanship, and the gates of massy wood studded with iron. I
+observed that on the wood framework over the entrance, many a stray
+horseshoe has been nailed, which served to remind me of Wales, where it is
+so commonly seen on the doors of the peasantry.[7] I am not aware but that
+the same motives may have influenced the two people in common.
+
+To the right of the entrance stands a large mosque, which, I am told, was
+built by Baallee himself; who, it is related, was a remarkably pious man
+of the Mussulmaun persuasion, and had acquired so great celebrity amongst
+his countrymen as a perfect durweish, as to be surnamed peer[8] (saint).
+The exact time when he flourished at Kannoge, I am unable to say; but
+judging from the style of architecture, and other concurring circumstances,
+it must have been built at different periods, some parts being evidently
+of very ancient structure.
+
+There are two mukhburrahs,[9] within the range, which viewed from the main
+road, stand in a prominent situation: one of these mukhburrahs was built
+by command, or in the reign (I could not learn which), of Shah Allumgeer
+[10] over the remains of Ballee Peer; and the second contains some of the
+peer's immediate relatives.
+
+From the expensive manner in which these buildings are constructed, some
+idea may be formed of the estimation this pious man was held in by his
+countrymen. The mausoleums are of stone, and elevated on a base of the
+same material, with broad flights of steps to ascend by. The stone must
+have been brought hither from a great distance, as I do not find there is
+a single quarry nearer than Delhi or Agra. There are people in charge of
+this Durgah who voluntarily exile themselves from the society of the world,
+in order to lead lives of strict devotion and under the imagined presiding
+influence of the saint's pure spirit; they keep the sanctuary from
+pollution, burn lamps nightly on the tomb, and subsist by the occasional
+contributions of the charitable visitors and their neighbours.
+
+Within the boundary of the Durgah, I remarked a very neat stone tomb, in
+good preservation: this, I was told, was the burying-place of the Kalipha
+[11] (head servant) who had attended on and survived Baallee Peer; this man
+had saved money in the service of the saint, which he left to be devoted
+to the repairs of the Durgah; premising that his tomb should be erected
+near that of his sainted master, and lamps burned every night over the
+graves, which is faithfully performed by the people in charge of the
+Durgah.
+
+After visiting the ruins of Hindoo temples, which skirt the borders of the
+river in many parts of the district of Kannoge, the eye turns with
+satisfaction to the ancient mosques of the Mussulmauns, which convey
+conviction to the mind, that even in the remote ages of Hindoostaun, there
+have been men who worshipped God; whilst the piles of mutilated stone
+idols also declare the zealous Mussulmaun to have been jealous for his
+Creator's glory. I have noticed about Kannoge hundreds of these broken or
+defaced images collected together in heaps (generally under trees), which
+were formerly the objects to which the superstitious Hindoos bowed in
+worship, until the more intelligent Mussulmauns strayed into the recesses
+of the deepest darkness to show the idolaters that God could not be
+represented by a block of stone.
+
+In a retired part of Kannoge, I was induced to visit the remains of an
+immense building[12], expecting the gratification of a fine prospect from
+its towering elevation; my surprise, however, on entering the portal drove
+from my thoughts the first object of my visit.
+
+The whole building is on a large scale, and is, together with the gateway,
+steps, roof, pillars, and offices, composed entirely of stone: from what I
+had previously conceived of the ancient Jewish temples, this erection
+struck me as bearing a strong resemblance. It appears that there is not
+the slightest portion of either wood or metal used in the whole
+construction; and, except where some sort of cement was indispensable, not
+a trace of mortar is to be discovered in the whole fabric. The pillars of
+the colonnade, which form three sides of the square, are singular piles of
+stone, erected with great exactness in the following order:--
+
+A broad block of stone forms the base; on the centre is raised a pillar of
+six feet by two square, on this rests a circular stone, resembling a
+grindstone, on which is placed another upright pillar, and again a
+circular, until five of each are made to rest on the base to form a pillar;
+the top circulars or caps are much larger than the rest; and on these the
+massy stone beams for the roof are supported. How these ponderous stones
+forming the whole roof were raised, unacquainted as these people ever have
+been with machinery, is indeed a mystery sufficient to impress on the
+weak-minded a current report amongst the Natives, that the whole building
+was erected in one night by supernatural agency, from materials which had
+formerly been used in the construction of a Hindoo temple, but destroyed
+by the zeal of the Mussulmauns soon after their invasion of Hindoostaun.
+
+The pillars I examined narrowly, and could not find any traces of cement
+or fastening; yet, excepting two or three which exhibit a slight curve,
+the whole colonnade is in a perfect state. The hall, including the
+colonnade, measures one hundred and eighty feel by thirty, and has
+doubtless been, at some time or other, a place of worship, in all
+probability for the Mussulmauns, there being still within the edifice a
+sort of pulpit of stone evidently intended for the reader, both from its
+situation and construction; this has sustained many rude efforts from the
+chisel in the way of ornament not strictly in accordance with the temple
+itself; besides which, there are certain tablets engraved in the Persian
+and Arabic character, which contain verses or chapters from the Khoraun;
+so that it may be concluded, whatever was the original design of the
+building, it has in later periods served the purposes of a mosque.
+
+In some parts of this building traces exist to prove that the materials of
+which it has been formed originally belonged to the Hindoos, for upon many
+of the stones there are carved figures according with their mythology;
+such stones, however, have been placed generally upside down, and attempts
+to deface the graven figures are conspicuous,--they are all turned inside,
+whilst the exterior appearance is rough and uneven. It may be presumed
+they were formerly outward ornaments to a temple of some sort, most likely
+a 'Bootkhanah'[13] (the house for idols).
+
+I have visited the Durgah, called Mukhdoom Jhaaunneer[14], situated in the
+heart of the present city, which is said to have been erected nearly a
+thousand years ago, by the order of a Mussulmaun King; whether of
+Hindoostaun or not, I could not learn. It bears in its present dilapidated
+state, evidences both of good taste and superior skill in architecture, as
+well as of costliness in the erection, superior to any thing I expected to
+find amongst the ancient edifices of Hindoostaun.
+
+The antique arches supporting the roof, rest on pillars of a good size;
+the whole are beautifully carved. The dome, which was originally in the
+centre of this pavilion, has been nearly destroyed by time; and although
+the light thus thrown into the interior through the aperture, has a good
+effect, it pained me to see this noble edifice falling to decay for the
+want of timely repairs. Notwithstanding this Durgah is said to have been
+built so many years, the stone-work, both of the interior and exterior, is
+remarkably fresh in appearance, and would almost discredit its reputed age.
+The walls and bastions of the enclosure appear firm on their foundations;
+the upper part only seems at all decayed.
+
+The side rooms to the Durgah, of which there are several on each side of
+the building, have all a fretwork of stone very curiously cut, which
+serves for windows, and admits light and air to the apartments, and
+presents a good screen to persons within; this it should seem was the only
+contrivance for windows in general use by the ancient inhabitants of
+Hindoostaun; and even at the present day (excepting a few Native gentlemen
+who have benefited by English example), glazed windows are not seen in any
+of the mansions in the Upper Provinces of India.
+
+I noticed that in a few places in these buildings, where the prospect is
+particularly fine, small arches were left open, from whence the eye is
+directed to grand and superb scenery, afforded by the surrounding country,
+and the remains of stately buildings. From one of these arches the killaah
+is seen to great advantage, at the distance of two miles: both the Durgah
+and the killaah are erected on high points of land. I have often, whilst
+wandering outside the killaah, looked up at the elevation with sensations
+of mistrust, that whilst doing so it might, from its known insecure state,
+fall and bury me in its ruins; but viewing it from that distance, and on a
+level with the Durgah, the appearance was really gratifying.
+
+At Kannoge are to be seen many mukhburrahs, said to have been erected over
+the remains of those Hindoos who at different periods had been converted
+to the Mussulmaun faith. This city, I am informed, has been the chosen
+spot of righteous men and sainted characters during all periods of the
+Mussulmaun rule in Hindoostaun, by whose example many idolators were
+brought to have respect for the name of God, and in some instances even to
+embrace the Mahumudan faith. Amongst the many accounts of remarkable
+conversions related to me by the old inhabitants of that city, I shall
+select one which, however marvellous in some points, is nevertheless
+received with full credit by the faithful of the present day:--
+
+'A very pious Syaad took up his residence many hundred years since at
+Kannoge, when the chief part of the inhabitants were Hindoos, and, as
+might be expected, many of them were Brahmins. He saw with grief the state
+of darkness with which the minds of so many human beings were imbued, and
+without exercising any sort of authority over them, he endeavoured by the
+mildest persuasions to convince these people that the adoration they paid
+to graven images, and the views they entertained of the river Ganges
+possessing divine properties, were both absurd and wicked.
+
+'The Syaad used his best arguments to explain to them the power and
+attributes of the only true God; and though his labours were unceasing,
+and his exemplary life made him beloved, yet for a long period all his
+endeavours proved unsuccessful. His advice, however, was at all times
+tendered with mildness, his manners so humble, and his devotion so
+remarkable, that in the course of time the people flocked around him,
+whenever he was visible, to listen to his discourse, which generally
+contained some words of well-timed exhortation and kind instruction. His
+great aim was directed towards enlightening the Brahmins, by whom, he was
+aware, the opinions of the whole population were influenced, and to whom
+alone was confined such knowledge as at that remote period was conveyed by
+education.
+
+'Ardently zealous in the great work he had commenced, the Syaad seemed
+undaunted by the many obstacles he had to contend with. Always retaining
+his temper unruffled, he combined perseverance with his solicitude, and
+trusted in God for a happy result in His good time. On an occasion of a
+great Hindoo festival the population of the then immense city were
+preparing to visit the Ganges, where they expected to be purified from
+their sins by ablution in that holy river, as they term it. The Ganges, at
+that period, I understand, flowed some miles distant from the city.
+
+'The Syaad took this occasion to exhort the multitude to believe in God;
+and after a preliminary discourse, explaining the power of Him whom he
+alone worshipped, he asked the people if they would be persuaded to follow
+the only true God, if His power should be demonstrated to them by the
+appearance of the river they adored flowing past the city of Kannoge,
+instead of, as at that moment, many miles distant. Some of his auditory
+laughed at the idea, and derided the speaker; others doubted, and asked
+whether the God whom the Mussulmauns worshipped possessed such power as
+the Syaad had attributed to Him; many Brahmins, however, agreed to the
+terms proposed, solemnly assuring the holy man he should find them
+converts to his faith if this miracle should be effected by the God he
+worshipped.
+
+'It is related that the Syaad passed the whole day and night in devout
+prayers; and when the morning dawned the idolators saw the river Ganges
+flowing past the city in all the majesty of that mighty stream.[15] The
+Brahmins were at once convinced, and this evidence of God's power worked
+the way to the conversion of nearly the whole population of Kannoge.'
+
+The number of the inhabitants may be supposed to have been immensely great
+at the period in question, as it is related that on the occasion of their
+conversion the Brahmins threw away the cords which distinguish them from
+other castes of Hindoos, (each cord weighing about a drachm English),
+which when collected together to be consigned to the flames, were weighed,
+and found to be upwards of forty-five seers; a seer in that province being
+nearly equal to two pounds English.[16]
+
+The Brahmins, it will be recollected, form but a small portion of that
+community, and are the priesthood of the Hindoos, very similar in their
+order to the Levites among the children of Israel.
+
+There are still remaining traces of monuments erected over the remains of
+converted Hindoos, which have been particularly pointed out to me by
+intelligent men, from whom I have received information of that great work
+which alone would render Kannoge a place of interest without another
+object to attract the observation of a reflecting mind.
+
+Notwithstanding that the Ganges continues to water the banks of Kannoge,
+and that other proofs exist of idolatry having ceased for a considerable
+time to disgrace the inhabitants, it is still partially occupied by
+Hindoos, who retain the custom of their forefathers according to the
+original, whether descendants of the converted, or fresh settlers is not
+in my power to determine; but I may remark, without prejudice, from what I
+have been enabled to glean in conversation with a few Hindoos of this city,
+that they have a better idea of one over-ruling Supreme power than I have
+ever been able to find elsewhere in the same class of people.
+
+I was much interested with an old blacksmith, who was employed at the
+killaah. On one occasion I asked him what views he entertained of the
+Source from whence all good proceeds--whether he believed in God? He
+replied promptly, and as if surprised that such a doubt could exist, 'Yes,
+surely; it is to Allah (God) the supreme, I am indebted for my existence;
+Allah created all things, the world and all that is in it: I could not
+have been here at this moment, but for the goodness of Allah!'
+
+There are amongst them men of good moral character, yet in a state of
+deplorable ignorance, a specimen of which may be here noticed in a person
+of property employed in the service of Government, at the killaah; he is
+of the caste denominated Burghutt[17],--one of the tribe which professes
+so great reverence for life, as to hold it sinful to destroy the meanest
+reptile or insect; and, therefore, entirely abstain from eating either
+fish, flesh, or fowl:--yet, when I pressed for his undisguised opinion, I
+found that he not only denied the existence of God, but declared it was
+his belief the world formed itself.
+
+I was induced to walk three miles from the killaah, on a cool day in
+December, to view the remains of a piece of sculpture of great antiquity.
+I confess myself but little acquainted with Hindoo mythology, and
+therefore my description will necessarily be imperfect. The figure of
+Luchmee is represented in relief, on a slab of stone eight feet by four,
+surrounded by about a hundred figures in different attitudes. Luchmee, who
+is of course the most prominent, is figured with eight arms; in his right
+hands, are sabres, in his left, shields; his left foot upon the hand of a
+female, and the right on a snake.[18] This figure is about four feet high,
+and finely formed, standing in a martial attitude; his dress (unlike that
+of the modern Hindoo) is represented very tight, and, altogether, struck
+me as more resembling the European than the Asiatic: on his head I
+remarked a high-crowned military cap without a peak: the feet were bare.
+There can be no doubt this figure is emblematical; the Hindoos, however,
+make it an object of their impure and degrading worship.
+
+I could not help expressing my surprise on finding this idol in such
+excellent condition, having had so many samples throughout Kannoge of the
+vengeance exercised by Mussulmaun zeal, on the idols of the Hindoos. My
+guide assured me, that this relic of antiquity had only been spared from
+the general destruction of by-gone periods by its having been buried,
+through the supposed influence of unconverted venerating Brahmins; but
+that within the last thirty years it had been discovered and dug out of
+the earth, to become once more an ornament to the place. My own ideas lead
+me to suppose that it might have been buried by the same convulsion of the
+earth which overturned the idolatrous city.
+
+I observed that a very neat little building, of modern date, was erected
+over this antiquity, and on inquiry found that the Hindoos were indebted
+to the liberality of a lady for the means of preserving this relic from
+the ravages of the seasons.
+
+There is in the same vicinity a second piece of mythological sculpture, in
+a less perfect state than Luchmee, the sabred arm of which has been struck
+off, and the figure otherwise mutilated by the zealous Mussulmauns, who
+have invariably defaced or broken the idols wherever they have been able
+to do so with impunity. On a platform of stone and earth, near this place,
+a finely-formed head of stone is placed, which my guide gravely assured me
+was of very ancient date, and represented Adam, the father of men!
+
+I heard with pain during my sojourn at Kannoge, that the house of God had
+been made the resort of thieves; a well-known passage of Scripture struck
+me forcibly when the transaction was related.
+
+I have before stated that the mosque is never allowed to be locked or
+closed to the public. Beneath the one I am about to speak of (a very
+ancient building near to Baallee Peer's Durgah), is a vaulted suite of
+rooms denominated taarkhanah[19], intended as a retreat from the intense
+heat of the day; such as is to be met with in most great men's residences
+in India. In this place, a gang of thieves from the city had long found a
+secure and unsuspected spot wherein to deposit their plunder. It happened,
+however, that very strict search was instituted after some stolen property
+belonging to an individual of Kannoge; whether any suspicions had been
+excited about the place in question, I do not recollect, but thither the
+police directed their steps, and after removing some loose earth they
+discovered many valuable articles,--shawls, gold ornaments, sabres, and
+other costly articles of plunder. It is presumed,--for the thieves were
+not known or discovered,--that they could not possibly be Mussulmauns,
+since the very worst characters among this people hold the house of God in
+such strict veneration, that they, of all persons, could not be suspected
+of having selected so sacred a place to deposit the spoils of the
+plunderer.
+
+The process of obtaining nitre from the earth is practised at Kannoge by
+the Natives in the most simple way imaginable, without any assistance from
+art. They discover the spot where nitre is deposited by the small white
+particles which work through the strata of earth to the surface. When a
+vein is discovered, to separate the nitre from the earth, the following
+simple method is resorted to:--large troughs filled with water are
+prepared, into which the masses of earth containing nitre are thrown; the
+earth is allowed to remain undisturbed for some time, after which it is
+well stirred, and then allowed to settle; the water by this means becomes
+impregnated with the nitre, and is afterwards boiled in large iron pans,
+from which all the dirt is carefully skimmed, until the water is
+completely evaporated, and the nitre deposited in the pans.
+
+I know not how far the admixture of animal bodies with the soil may tend
+to produce this article, but it is a fact, that those places which bear
+the strongest proofs of having received the bodies of both men and beasts,
+produce it in the greatest abundance.[20]
+
+The retirement of Kannoge afforded me so many pleasant ways of occupying
+time, that I always look back to the period of my sojourn at the old
+killaah with satisfaction. The city is sufficiently distant from the
+killaah to leave the latter within reach of supplies, without the
+annoyance of the bustle and confusion inseparable from a Native city. In
+my daily wanderings a few peasantry only crossed my path; the farmers and
+citizens were always attentive, and willing to do us such kind offices as
+we at any time required. They respected, I may say venerated my husband;
+and I must own that my feelings oblige me to remember with gratitude the
+place and the people whence I drew so many benefits.
+
+Here I could indulge in long walks without incurring the penalty of a
+departure from established custom, which in most well-populated parts of
+Hindoostaun restrains European ladies from the exercise so congenial to
+their health and cherished habits. Should any English-woman venture to
+walk abroad in the city of Lucknow, for instance,--to express their most
+liberal opinion of the act,--she would be judged by the Natives as a
+person careless of the world's opinion. But here I was under no such
+constraint; my walks were daily recreations after hours of quiet study in
+the most romantic retirement of a ruined killaah, where, if luxury
+consists in perfect satisfaction with the objects by which we are
+surrounded, I may boast that it was found here during my two years'
+residence.
+
+
+[1] This is incorrect. Hindu traditions refer to a deluge, in which Manu,
+    with the help of a fish, makes a ship, and fastening her cable to the
+    fish's horn, is guided to the mountain, and then he, alone of human
+    beings, is saved.--J. Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_, part ii (1860),
+    p. 324.
+
+[2] This is merely a stupid folk etymology, comparing Kanauj with Cain.
+
+[3] _Qil'a_.
+
+[4] Kali Nadi, 'black stream', a corruption of the original
+    name, Kalindi.
+
+[5] _Tahsildar_.
+
+[6] In the southern centre of the ruined citadel stand the tombs of
+    Bala Pir and his son, Shaikh Mahdi. Shaikh Kabir,
+    commonly called Bala Pir, is said to have been the tutor of
+    the brother Nawabs, Dalel and Bahadur Khan. The former
+    ruled Kanauj in the time of Shah Jahan (A.D. 1628-1651), and
+    died after his deposition in 1666.--A. Fuehrer, _Monumental Antiquities
+    and Inscriptions of the N.W. Provinces and Oudh_, 1891, p. 80.
+
+[7]  Horseshoes are often nailed on the gates of the tombs of Musalman
+    saints, as at the mosque of Fatehpur Sikri.
+
+[8] _Pir_, 'a saint, a holy man'.
+
+[9] _Maqbara_, 'a sepulchre'.
+
+[10] The Emperor Aurangzeb, A.D. 1658-1707.
+
+[11] Khalifah, Caliph, one of the terms which have suffered degradation,
+    often applied to cooks, tailors, barbers, or other Musalman
+    servants.
+
+[12] This may be the building known as Sita ki Rasoi, the kitchen
+    of Sita, heroine of the Ramayana epic. It is described and
+    drawn by Mrs. F. Parks (_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 143).
+
+[13] Butkhana.
+
+[14] The tomb of the Saint Sa'id Shaikh Makhdum Jahaniya
+    Jahangasht of Multan (A.D. 1308-81). Fuehrer, _op. cit._, p. 81.
+
+[15] Many saints are credited with the power of changing the courses of
+    rivers: see instances in W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of
+    N. India_, 2nd ed., ii. 218.
+
+[16] This may be a variant of the story that after the capture of Chitor,
+    Akbar weighed 74-1/2 _man_ (8 lbs. each) of cords belonging to the
+    slain Rajputs.--J. Tod, _Annals of Rajasthan_, 1884, i. 349.
+
+[17] The name has not been traced. The reference is to Jains, who are
+    specially careful of animal life.
+
+[18] If this is a male figure it cannot represent the goddess Lakshmi.
+    Mrs. Parks (_Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, ii. 144) speaks of images of
+    Rama and his brother Lakshmana, one of which may possibly be that
+    referred to in the text.
+
+[19] _Tahkhana_, an underground cellar.
+
+
+[20] This account is fairly correct. 'Although active saltpetre is met
+    with under a variety of conditions, they all agree in this particular,
+    that the salt is formed under the influence of organic matter.'--(G.
+    Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part ii, 431 _ff_).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XX
+
+  Delhi.--Description of the city.--Marble hall--The Queen's Mahul
+  (palace).--Audience with the King and Queen.--Conversation with
+  them.--Character of their Majesties.--Visit to a
+  Muckburrah.--Soobadhaars.--The nature of the office.--Durgah of Shah
+  Nizaam ood deen.--Tomb of Shah Allum.--Ruins in the vicinity of Delhi.
+  --Antique pillars (Kootub) .--Prospect from its galleries.--Anecdotes
+  of Juangheer and Khareem Zund...Page 289
+
+
+My visit to Delhi, once the great capital of Hindoostaun, and the
+residence of the great Sultauns, has made impressions of a lasting kind,
+and presented a moral lesson to my mind, I should be sorry to forget in
+after years; for there I witnessed the tombs of righteous men in perfect
+repair after the lapse of many centuries, standing in the midst of the
+mouldering relics of kings, princes, and nobles, many of whose careers, we
+learn from history, was comparatively of recent date; yet, excepting in
+one solitary instance of Shah Allum's grave, without so much of order
+remaining as would tell to the passing traveller the rank of each
+individual's mausoleum, now either entirely a ruin or fast mouldering to
+decay.
+
+The original city of Delhi presents to view one vast extent of ruins;
+abounding in mementos of departed worth, as well as in wrecks of greatness,
+ingenuity, and magnificence. Why the present city was erected or the
+former one deserted, I cannot venture an opinion, neither can I remember
+correctly in what reign the royal residence was changed; but judging from
+the remnants of the old, I should imagine it to have been equally
+extensive with the modern Delhi. A part of the old palace is still
+standing, whither the present King, Akbaar Shah,[1] occasionally resorts
+for days together, attracted perhaps by sympathy for his ancestors, or by
+that desire for change inherent in human nature, and often deemed
+essential to health in the climate of Hindoostaun.
+
+The city of Delhi is enclosed by a wall; the houses, which are generally
+of brick or red stone, appear to good advantage, being generally elevated
+a story or two from the ground-floor, and more regularly constructed than
+is usual in Native cities. Mosques, mukhburrahs, and emaum-baarahs, in all
+directions, diversify the scene with good effect; whilst the various shops
+and bazaars, together with the outpourings of the population to and from
+the markets, give an animation to the whole view which would not be
+complete without them.
+
+The palace occupies an immense space of ground, enclosed by high walls,
+and entered by a gateway of grand architecture. On either side the
+entrance I noticed lines of compact buildings, occupied by the military,
+reaching to the second gateway, which is but little inferior in style and
+strength to the grand entrance; and here again appear long lines of
+buildings similarly occupied. I passed through several of these formidable
+barriers before I reached the marble hall, where the King holds his durbar
+(court) at stated times; but as mine was a mere unceremonious visit to the
+King and Queen, it was not at the usual hour of durbar, and I passed
+through the hall without making any particular observations, although I
+could perceive it was not deficient in the costliness and splendour suited
+to the former greatness of the Indian empire.
+
+After being conveyed through several splendid apartments, I was conducted
+to the Queen's mahul[2] (palace for females), where his Majesty and the
+Queen were awaiting my arrival. I found on my entrance the King seated in
+the open air in an arm chair enjoying his hookha; the Queen's musnud was
+on the ground, close by the side of her venerable husband. Being
+accustomed to Native society, I knew how to render the respect due from an
+humble individual to personages of their exalted rank. After having left
+my shoes at the entrance and advanced towards them, my salaams were
+tendered, and then the usual offering of nuzzas, first to the King and
+then to the Queen, who invited me to a seat on her own carpet,--an honour
+I knew how to appreciate from my acquaintance with the etiquette observed
+on such occasions.
+
+The whole period of my visit was occupied in very interesting conversation;
+eager inquiries were made respecting England, the Government, the manners
+of the Court, the habits of the people, my own family affairs, my husband's
+views in travelling, and his adventures in England, my own satisfaction
+as regarded climate, and the people with whom I was so immediately
+connected by marriage;--the conversation, indeed, never flagged an instant,
+for the condescending courtesy of their Majesties encouraged me to add to
+their entertainment, by details which seemed to interest and delight them
+greatly.
+
+On taking leave his Majesty very cordially shook me by the hand, and the
+Queen embraced me with warmth. Both appeared, and expressed themselves,
+highly gratified with the visit of an English lady who could explain
+herself in their language without embarrassment, or the assistance of an
+interpreter, and who was the more interesting to them from the
+circumstance of being the wife of a Syaad; the Queen indeed was particular
+in reminding me that 'the Syaads were in a religious point of view, the
+nobles of the Mussulmauns, and reverenced as such far more than those
+titled characters who receive their distinction from their fellow-mortals'.
+
+I was grieved to be obliged to accept the Queen's parting present of an
+embroidered scarf, because I knew her means were exceedingly limited
+compared with the demands upon her bounty; but I could not refuse that
+which was intended to do me honour at the risk of wounding those feelings
+I so greatly respected. A small ring, of trifling value, was then placed
+by the Queen on my finger, as she remarked, 'to remind me of the giver.'
+
+The King's countenance, dignified by age, possesses traces of extreme
+beauty; he is much fairer than Asiatics usually are; his features are
+still fine, his hair silvery white; intelligence beams upon his brow, his
+conversation gentle and refined, and his condescending manners hardly to
+be surpassed by the most refined gentleman of Europe. I am told by those
+who have been long intimate with his habits in private, that he leads a
+life of strict piety and temperance, equal to that of a durweish[3] of his
+faith, whom he imitates in expending his income on others without
+indulging in a single luxury himself.
+
+The Queen's manners are very amiable and condescending; she is reported to
+be as highly gifted with intellectual endowments as I can affirm she is
+with genuine politeness.
+
+I was induced to visit the mukhburrah of the great-great-grandfather of the
+present King of Oude,[4] who, at his death,--which occurred at Delhi, I
+believe,--was one of the Soobadhaars[5] of the sovereign ruler of India.
+This nobleman, in his time, had been a staunch adherent to the descendants
+of Timoor, and had been rewarded for his fidelity by public honours and
+the private friendship of the King. The monument erected over his remains,
+is in a costly style of magnificence, and in the best possible condition,
+standing in the centre of a flower-garden which is enclosed by a stone
+wall, with a grand gateway of good architecture. The mukhburrah is
+spacious, and in the usual Mussulmaun style of building mausoleums; viz.,
+a square, with a dome, and is ascended by a flight of broad steps. This
+building stands about three miles from the city, in a good situation to be
+seen from the road. I was told that the family of Oude kept readers of the
+Khoraun in constant attendance at the mukhburrah; and I observed several
+soldiers, whose duty it was to guard the sacred spot, at the expense of
+the Oude government.
+
+In explanation of the word Soobadhaar, it may not be uninteresting to
+remark in this place, that when the government of Hindoostaun flourished
+under the descendants of Timoor, Soobadhaars were appointed over districts,
+whose duty, in some respects, bore resemblance to that of a Governor; with
+this difference, that the soobadhaaries were gifts, not only for the life
+of the individuals, but to their posterity for ever, under certain
+restrictions and stipulations which made them tributary to, and retained
+them as dependants of, the reigning sovereign:--as for instance, a certain
+annual amount was to be punctually transferred to the treasury at Delhi;
+the province to be governed by the same laws, and the subjects to be under
+the same control in each Soobadhaarie as those of the parent sovereignty;
+the revenue exacted in the very same way,; each Soobadhaar was bound to
+retain in his employ a given number of soldiers, horse and foot, fully
+equipped for the field, with perfect liberty to employ them as occasion
+served in the territory which he governed, whether against refractory
+subjects, or encroachments from neighbouring provinces; but in any
+emergency from the Court at Delhi, the forces to be, at all times, in
+readiness for the Sultaun's service at a moment's notice.
+
+The gift of a Soobadhaarie was originally conferred on men who had
+distinguished themselves, either in the army, or in civil capacities, as
+faithful friends and servants of the Sultaun. In the course of time, some
+of these Soobadhaars, probably from just causes, threw off their strict
+allegiance to their Sovereign, abandoned the title of Soobadhaar, and
+adopted that of Nuwaub in its stead, either with or without the consent of
+the Court of Delhi.
+
+As it is not my intention to give a precise history of the Indian empire,
+but merely to touch on generalities, I have confined my remarks to a brief
+explanation of the nature of this office; and will only add, that whilst
+the Soobadhaars (afterwards the Nuwaubs) of Oude swayed over that
+beautiful province under these titles, they continued to send their usual
+nuzzas to the King of Delhi, although no longer considered under his
+dominion; thus acknowledging his superiority, because inferiors only
+present nuzzas. But when Ghauzee ood deen Hyder was created King of Oude,
+he could no longer be considered tributary to the House of Timoor, and the
+annual ceremony of sending a nuzza, I understood, was discontinued. The
+first King of Oude issued coins from his new mint almost immediately after
+his coronation, prior to which period the current money of that province
+bore the stamp of Delhi.[6]
+
+Shah Nizaam ood deen[7] was one of the many Mussulmaun saints, whose
+history has interested me much. He is said to have been dead about five
+hundred years, yet his memory is cherished by the Mussulmauns of the
+present day with veneration unabated by the lapse of years, thus giving to
+the world a moral and a religious lesson, 'The great and the ambitious
+perish, and their glory dieth with them; but the righteous have a name
+amongst their posterity for ever.'
+
+I was familiar with the character of Nizaam ood deen long prior to my
+visit at the Court of Delhi, and, as maybe supposed, it was with no common
+feeling of pleasure I embraced the opportunity of visiting the mausoleum
+erected over the remains of that righteous man.
+
+The building originally was composed of the hard red stone, common to the
+neighbourhood of Delhi, with an occasional mixture of red bricks of a very
+superior quality; but considerable additions and ornamental improvements
+of pure white marble have been added to the edifice, from time to time, by
+different monarchs and nobles of Hindoostaun, whose pious respect for the
+memory of the righteous Shah Nizaam ood deen is testified by these
+additions, which render the mausoleum at the present time as fresh and
+orderly as if but newly erected.
+
+The style of the building is on the original, I might say, only plan of
+Mussulmaun mukhburrahs--square, with a cupola. It is a beautiful structure
+on a scale of moderate size. The pavements are of marble, as are also the
+pillars, which are fluted and inlaid with pure gold; the ceiling is of
+chaste enamel painting (peculiarly an Indian art, I fancy,) of the
+brightest colours. The cupola is of pure white marble, of exquisite
+workmanship and in good taste; its erection is of recent date, I
+understand, and the pious offering of the good Akbaar Shah, who, being
+himself a very religions personage, was determined out of his limited
+income to add this proof of his veneration for the sainted Nizaam to the
+many which his ancestors had shown.[8]
+
+The marble tomb enclosing the ashes of Shah Nizaam ood deen is in the
+centre of the building immediately under the cupola; this tomb is about
+seven feet long by two, raised about a foot from the pavement; on the
+marble sides are engraved chapters from the Khoraun in the Arabic
+character, filled up with black; the tomb itself has a covering of very
+rich gold cloth, resembling a pall.
+
+This tranquil spot is held sacred by all Mussulmauns. Here the sound of
+human feet are never heard; 'Put off thy shoes', being quite as strictly
+observed near this venerated place, as when the mosque and emaum-baarah
+are visited by 'the faithful'; who, as I have before remarked, whenever a
+prayer is about to be offered to God, cast off their shoes with scrupulous
+care, whether the place chosen for worship be in the mosque, the abode of
+men, or the wilderness.
+
+I was permitted to examine the interior of the mausoleum. The calm
+stillness, which seemed hardly earthly; the neatness which pervaded every
+corner of the interior; the recollection of those virtues, which I so
+often heard had distinguished Shah Nizaam's career on earth, impressed me
+with feelings at that moment I cannot forget; and it was with reluctance I
+turned from this object to wander among the surrounding splendid ruins,
+the only emblems left of departed greatness; where not even a tablet
+exists to mark the affection of survivors, or to point to the passing
+traveller the tomb of the monarch, the prince, or the noble,--except in
+the instance of Shah Allum,--whilst the humble-minded man's place of
+sepulture is kept repaired from age to age, and still retains the
+freshness of a modern structure in its five hundredth year.
+
+There are men in charge of Shah Nizaam ood deen's mausoleum who lead
+devout lives, and subsist on the casual bounties gleaned from the
+charitable visitors to his shrine. Their time is passed in religious
+duties, reading the Khoraun over the ashes of the saint, and keeping the
+place clean and free from unholy intrusions. They do not deem this mode of
+existence derogatory; for to hold the situation of darogahs, or keepers of
+the tombs of the saints, who are held in universal veneration amongst
+Mussulmauns, is esteemed an honourable privilege.
+
+In this sketch of my visit to the tombs at Delhi, I must not omit one very
+remarkable cemetery, which, as the resting place of the last reigning
+sovereign of Hindoostaun, excited in me no small degree of interest,
+whilst contrasting the view it exhibited of fallen greatness, with the
+many evidences of royal magnificence.
+
+The tomb I am about to describe is that erected over the remains of Shah
+Allum;[9] and situated within view of the mausoleum of the righteous
+plebeian, Shah Nizaam. It is a simple, unadorned grave; no canopy of
+marble, or decorated hall, marks here the peaceful rest of a monarch, who
+in his life-time was celebrated for the splendour of his Court; a small
+square spot of earth, enclosed with iron railings, is all that remains to
+point to posterity the final resting place of the last monarch of
+Hindoostaun. His grave is made by his favourite daughter's side, whose
+affection had been his only solace in the last years of his earthly
+sufferings; a little masonry of brick and plaster supports the mound of
+earth over his remains, on which I observed the grass was growing,
+apparently cultured by some friendly hand. At the period of my visit, the
+solitary ornament to this last terrestrial abode of a King was a luxuriant
+white jessamine tree, beautifully studded with blossoms, which scented the
+air around with a delightful fragrance, and scattered many a flower over
+the grave which it graced by its remarkable beauty, height, and luxuriance.
+The sole canopy that adorns Shah Allum's grave is the rich sky, with all
+its resplendent orbs of day and night, or clouds teeming with beneficent
+showers. Who then could be ambitious, vain, or proud, after viewing this
+striking contrast to the grave of Shah Nizaam? The vain-glorious humbled
+even in the tomb;--the humble minded exalted by the veneration ever paid
+to the righteous.
+
+I was persuaded to visit the ruins of antiquity which are within a morning'
+s drive of Delhi. Nothing that I there witnessed gave me so much pleasure
+as the far-famed Kootub, a monument or pillar, of great antiquity, claimed
+equally by the Hindoo and Mussulmaun as due to their respective periods of
+sovereign rule. The site is an elevated spot, and from the traces of
+former buildings, I am disposed to believe this pillar, standing now erect
+and imposing, was one of the minarets of a mosque, and the only remains of
+such a building, which must have been very extensive, if the height and
+dimensions of the minaret be taken as a criterion of the whole.[10]
+
+This pillar has circular stairs within, leading to galleries extending all
+round, at stated distances, and forming five tiers from the first gallery
+to the top, which finishes with a circular room, and a canopy of stone,
+open on every side for the advantage of an extensive prospect. Verses from
+the Khoraun are cut out in large Arabic characters on the stones, which
+form portions of the pillar from the base to the summit in regular
+divisions; this could only be done with great labour, and, I should
+imagine, whilst the blocks of stone were on the level surface of the earth,
+which renders it still more probable that it was a Mussulmaun erection.
+
+The view from the first gallery was really so magnificent, that I was
+induced to ascend to the second for a still bolder extent of prospect,
+which more than repaid me the task. I never remember to have seen so
+picturesque a panorama in any other place. Some of my party, better able
+to bear the fatigue, ascended to the third and fourth gallery. From them I
+learned that the beauty and extent of the view progressively increased
+until they reached the summit, from whence the landscape which fell
+beneath the eye surpassed description.
+
+On the road back to Delhi, we passed some extensive remains of buildings,
+which I found on inquiry had been designed for an observatory by Jhy
+Sing,[11]--whose extraordinary mind has rendered his name conspicuous in
+the annals of Hindoostaun,--but which was not completed while he lived. It
+may be presumed, since the work was never finished, that his countrymen
+either have not the talent, or the means to accomplish the scientific plan
+his superior mind had contemplated.
+
+At the time I visited Delhi, I had but recently recovered from a serious
+and tedious illness; I was therefore ill-fitted to pursue those researches
+which might have afforded entertaining material for my pen, and must, on
+that account, take my leave of this subject with regret, for the present,
+and merely add my acknowledgments to those kind friends who aided my
+endeavours in the little I was enabled to witness of that remarkable place,
+which to have viewed entirely would have taken more time and better health
+than I could command at that period. I could have desired to search out
+amongst the ruined mausoleums for those which contain the ashes of
+illustrious characters, rendered familiar and interesting by the several
+anecdotes current in Native society, to many of which I have listened with
+pleasure, as each possessed some good moral for the mind.
+
+It is my intention to select two anecdotes for my present Letter, which
+will, I trust, prove amusing to my readers; one relates to Jhaungeer,[12]
+King of India; the other to Kaareem Zund, King of Persia. I am not aware
+that either has appeared before the public in our language, although they
+are so frequently related by the Natives in their domestic circles. If
+they have not, I need hardly apologise for introducing them, and on the
+other hand, if they have before been seen, I may plead my ignorance of the
+circumstance in excuse for their insertion here.
+
+I have already noticed that, among the true Mussulmauns, there are no
+religious observances more strictly enforced than the keeping the fast of
+Rumzaun, and the abstaining from fermented liquors. It is related, however,
+that 'A certain king of India, named Jhaungeer, was instructed by his
+tutors in the belief, that on the day of judgment, kings and rulers will
+not have to answer either for the sin of omission or commission, as
+regards these two commands; but that the due administration of justice to
+the subjects over whom they are placed, will be required at the hands of
+every king, ruler, or governor, on the face of the earth.
+
+'Jhaungeer was determined to walk strictly in the path which he was
+assured would lead him to a happy eternity; and, therefore, in his reign
+every claim of justice was most punctiliously discharged. Each case
+requiring decision was immediately brought to the foot of the throne; for
+the King would not allow business of such importance to his soul's best
+interest to be delegated to the guardianship of his Vizier, or other of
+his servants; and in order to give greater facility to complainants of
+every degree, the King invented the novel contrivance of a large bell,
+which was fixed immediately over his usual seat on the musnud, which bell
+could be sounded by any one outside the palace gate, by means of a stout
+rope staked to the ground. Whenever this alarum of justice was sounded in
+the King's ear, he sent a trusty messenger to conduct the complainant into
+his presence.[13]
+
+'One day, upon the bell being violently rung, the messenger was commanded
+to bring in the person requiring justice. When the messenger reached the
+gate, he found no other creature near the place but a poor sickly-looking
+ass, in search of a scanty meal from the stunted grass, which was dried up
+by the scorching sun, and blasts of hot wind which at that season
+prevailed. The man returned and reported to the King that there was no
+person at the gate.
+
+'The King was much surprised at the singularity of the circumstance, and
+whilst he was talking of the subject with his nobles and courtiers, the
+bell was again rung with increased violence. The messenger being a second
+time despatched, returned with the same answer, assuring the King that
+there was not any person at or within sight of the gate. The King,
+suspecting him to be a perverter of justice, was displeased with the man,
+and even accused him of keeping back a complainant from interested motives.
+It was in vain the messenger declared himself innocent of so foul a crime;
+a third time the bell rang, "Go," said the King to his attendants, "and
+bring the supplicant into my presence immediately!" The men went, and on
+their return informed the King that the only living creature near the gate
+was an ass, poor and manged, seeking a scanty meal from the parched blades
+of grass. "Then let the ass be brought hither!" said the King; "perhaps
+_he_ may have some complaint to prefer against his owner."
+
+'The courtiers smiled when the ass was brought into the presence of the
+monarch, who upon seeing the poor half-starved beast covered with sores,
+was at no loss for a solution of the mysterious ringing at the bell, for
+the animal not finding a tree or post against which he could rub himself,
+had made use of the bell-rope for that purpose.
+
+"Enquire for the owner of the ass!" commanded the King, "and let him be
+brought before me without delay!" The order promptly given, was as readily
+obeyed; and the hurkaarahs (messengers, or running footmen) in a short
+time introduced a poor Dhobhie[14] (washerman) who had owned the ass from a
+foal. The plaintiff and defendant were then placed side by side before the
+throne, when the King demanded, "Why the sick ass was cast out to provide
+for itself a precarious subsistence?" The Dhobhie replied, "In truth, O
+Jahaum-punah![15] (Protector or Ruler of the World), because he is grown
+old and unserviceable, afflicted with mange, and being no longer able to
+convey my loads of linen to the river, I gave him his liberty."
+
+'"Friend," said the King, "when this thine ass was young and healthy,
+strong and lusty, didst thou not derive benefits from his services? Now
+that he is old, and unable from sickness to render thee further benefits,
+thou hast cast him from thy protection, and sent him adrift on the wide
+world; gratitude should have moved thee to succour and feed so old and
+faithful a servant, rather than forsake him in his infirmities. Thou hast
+dealt unjustly with this thy creature; but, mark me, I hold thee
+responsible to repair the injury thou hast done the ass. Take him to thy
+home, and at the end of forty days attend again at this place, accompanied
+by the ass, and compensate to the best of thy power, by kind treatment,
+for the injury thou hast done him by thy late hard-hearted conduct."
+
+'The Dhobhie, glad to escape so well, went away leading the ass to his
+home, fed him with well-soaked gram (grain in general use for cattle), and
+nicely-picked grass, sheltered him from the burning sun, poured healing
+oil into his wounds, and covered his back to keep off the flies; once a
+day he bathed him in the river. In short, such expedients were resorted to
+for the comfort and relief of the ass, as were ultimately attended with
+the happiest effects.
+
+'At the expiration of the forty days, the Dhobhie set off from his home to
+the palace, leading his now lively ass by a cord. On the road the
+passers-by were filled with amazement and mirth, at the manners and
+expressions of the Dhobhie towards his led ass. "Come along,
+brother!--Make haste, son!--Let us be quick, father!--Take care, uncle!"
+
+'"What means the old fool?" was asked by some; "does he make his ass a
+relation?"--"In truth," replied the Dhobhie, "my ass is a very dear old
+friend, and what is more, he has been a greater expense to me than all my
+relations latterly: believe me, it has cost me much care and pains to
+bring this ass into his present excellent condition." Then relating the
+orders of the King, and his own subsequent treatment of the beast, the
+people no longer wondered at the simple Dhobhie's expressions which had
+prompted them at first to believe he was mad.
+
+'The King, it is related, received the Dhobhie graciously, and commended
+and rewarded him for his careful attention to the animal; which in his
+improved condition became more useful to his master than he had ever been,
+through the King's determination to enforce justice even to the brute
+creation.'
+
+The second anecdote, translated for me by the same kind hand, is often
+related, with numerous embellishments, under the title of 'Khareem
+Zund'.[16]
+
+'Khareem Zund ruled in Persia. One day he was seated in the verandah of
+his palace smoking his hookha, and, at the same time, as was his frequent
+practice, overlooking the improvements carried on by masons and labourers,
+under the superintendence of a trusty servant. One of the labourers, who
+was also named Khareem, had toiled long, and sought to refresh himself
+with a pipe. The overseer of the work, seeing the poor man thus engaged,
+approached him in great wrath, rated him severely for his presumption in
+smoking whilst he stood in the presence of his sovereign, and striking him
+severely with a stick, snatched the pipe from the labourer and threw it
+away. The poor wretch cared not for the weight of the blow so much as for
+the loss of his pipe: his heart was oppressed with the weight of his
+sorrows, and raising his eyes to Heaven he cried aloud, "Allah
+Khareem!"[17] (God is merciful!), then lowering his eyes, his glance
+rested on the King, "App Khareem!" (thou art named merciful!), from whom
+withdrawing his eyes slowly he looked at his own mean body, and added,
+"Myn Khareem!" (I am called merciful!).
+
+'The King, who had heard the labourer's words, and witnessed with emotion
+the impressive manner of lifting his eyes to Heaven, had also seen the
+severity of the overseer to the unoffending labourer; he therefore
+commanded that the man should be brought into his presence without delay,
+who went trembling, and full of fear that his speech had drawn some heavy
+punishment on his head.
+
+'"Sit down," said the King.--"My sovereign pardon his slave!" replied the
+labourer.--"I do not jest; it is my pleasure that you sit down," repeated
+the King; and when he saw his humble guest seated, he ordered his own
+silver hookha to be brought and placed before the poor man, who hesitated
+to accept the gracious offer; but the King assured him in the kindest
+manner possible it was his wish and his command. The labourer enjoyed the
+luxury of a good hookha, and by the condescending behaviour of the King
+his composure gradually returned.
+
+'This King, who it would seem delighted in every opportunity that offered
+of imparting pleasure and comfort to his subjects of all ranks and degrees,
+seeing the labourer had finished his second chillum[18] (contents of a
+pipe) told him he had permission to depart, and desired him to take the
+hookha and keep it for his sake. "Alas, my King!" said the labourer, "this
+costly silver pipe will soon be stolen from me; my mud hut cannot safely
+retain so valuable a gift; the poor mazoor[19] inhabits but a chupha (or
+coarse grass-roofed) hut."--"Then take materials from my store-houses to
+build a house suited to your hookha," was the order he received from the
+King; "and let it be promptly done! I design to make you one of my
+overseers; for _you_, Khareem, have been the instrument to rouse _me_ to
+be Khareem (merciful); and I can now approach Allah with increased
+confidence. Who is the only true Khareem!"'
+
+
+[1] Akbar Shah II, King of Delhi, A.D. 1806-37.
+
+[2] _Mahall_.
+
+[3] _Darvesh_, 'a religious mendicant'.
+
+[4] Mansur 'Ali Khan, Safdar Jang, Nawab of Oudh
+    (A.D. 1739-56), his successors being--his son, Shuja-ud-daula
+    (1756-75); his son, Asaf-ud-daula (1775-97); his reputed son Wazir
+    'Ali (1797-8); Sa'a dat 'Ali Khan, half-brother of
+    Asaf-ud-daula (1798-1814); his son, Ghazi-ud-din Haidar
+    (1814-37). The tomb of Safdar Jang is near that of the Emperor
+    Humayun. 'This tomb in one of the last great Muhammadan
+    architectural efforts in India, and for its age it deserves perhaps
+    more commendation than is usually accorded to it. Though the general
+    arrangement of the tomb in the same as that of the Taj, it was not
+    intended to be a copy of the latter' (H.C. Fanshawe, _Delhi Past and
+    Present_, 1902, 246 f., with a photograph). For a different
+    appreciation, see Sleeman, _Rambles_, p. 507.
+
+[5] _Subahdar_, the Viceroy or Governor of a Subah or Province of
+    the Moghul Empire.
+
+[6] Ghazi-ud-din announced his independence of Delhi under the
+    advice of his Minister, Agha Mir.
+
+[7] Shaikh Nizam-ud-din. Auliya, one of the noblest disciples of
+    Shaikh Farid-ud-din Shakkarganj; born at Budaun, A.D. 1236,
+    died at Delhi, 1325.
+
+[8] The entrance to the Dargah was built by Firoz Shah, and bears
+    the date A.D. 1378. The structure over the tomb has been rebuilt by
+    many pious donors, and little of the original work is left (Fanshawe,
+    op. cit., 235 ff.; Sleeman, _Rambles_, 490 ff., 507).
+
+[9] Shah 'Alam II, King of Delhi, A.D. 1759-1806. 'Three royal graves
+    in the little court to the south side of the mosque lie within a
+    single marble enclosure--that on the last is the resting-place of
+    Akbar Shah II (died 1837 A.D.); the next to it is that of Shah
+    Alam II (died 1806), and then beyond an empty space, intended for
+    the grave of Bahadur Shah, [the last King of Delhi], buried at
+    Rangoon, comes the tomb of Shah Alam Bahadur Shah, a plain
+    stone with grass on it' (Fanshawe, 281 f.; Sleeman, _Rambles_, 500).
+
+[10] Qutb, 'the polar star'. The pillar, 238 feet in height, was begun by
+    Qutb-ud-di Aibak (A.D. 1206-10), and there are inscriptions of
+    Altamsh or Iltutmish, his son-in-law. It is entirely of Muhammadan
+    origin, and was primarily intended to serve as a minaret to
+    Qutb-ud-din's mosque adjoining it; but its name refers to the saint
+    Qutb-ud-din, buried close by. (Fanshawe, 265 ff.; Sleeman,
+    _Rambles_, 492 ff.)
+
+[11] This observatory was built by Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur (A.D.
+    1693-1743) in 1724. He also erected similar observatories at Benares,
+    Multan, Ujjain, and Jaipur (Fanshawe, 247).
+
+[12] Jahangir, eldest son of the Emperor Akbar, reigned A.D. 1605-27.
+
+[13] 'The first order that I issued was for the setting up of a Chain of
+    Justice, so that if the Officers of the Courts of Justice should fail
+    in the investigation of the complaints of the oppressed, the injured
+    person might come to this chain and shake it, and so give notice of
+    their wrongs. I ordered that the chain should be made of pure gold,
+    and be thirty _gaz_ [yards] long, with sixty bells upon it. The
+    weight of it was four Hindustani _mans_ [8 lb.] of 'Irak.
+    One end was firmly attached to a battlement of the fort of Agra, the
+    other to a stone column on the bank of the river' (_Memoirs of
+    Jahangir_ in Sir H.M. Elliot, _History of India_, vi. 284). It
+    does not appear that this silly contrivance was ever used, and it was
+    meant only for parade. Raja Anangpal had already set up a
+    similar bell at Delhi (ibid. vi. 262, iii. 565).
+
+[14] _Dhobi_.
+
+[15] _Jahan-panah_.
+
+
+[16] Karim Khan, of the Zand tribe, defeated the Afghans and
+    secured the Kingdom of Fars or Southern Persia, with his capital at
+    Shiraz. He died at an advanced age, A.D. 1779 (Sir J. Malcolm,
+    _History of Persia_, 1829, ii. 58 ff.).
+
+[17] _Allah Karim, Ap Karim, Main Karim_.
+
+
+[18] _Chilam_, the clay bowl of a water-pipe: its contents.
+
+[19] _Mazdur_, a day labourer.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXI
+
+  Natural Productions of India.--Trees, shrubs, plants, fruits,
+  &c.--Their different uses and medicinal qualities.--The Rose.--Native
+  medical practice.--Antidote to Hydrophobia.--Remedy for the venom of
+  the Snake.--The Chitcherah (Inverted thorn).--The Neam-tree.--The
+  Hurrundh (Castor-tree).--The Umultass (Cassia-tree).--The
+  Myrtle.--The Pomegranate.--The Tamarind.--The Jahmun.--The
+  Mango.--The Sherrefah.--White and red Guavers.--The Damascus Fig.--The
+  Peach, and other Fruits.--The Mahdhaar (Fire-plant).--The Sirrakee and
+  Sainturh (Jungle-grass).--The Bamboo, and its various uses
+  enumerated.
+
+
+In Europe we are accustomed to cultivate the rose merely as an ornament of
+the garden. This is not the case with my Indian acquaintance; they
+cultivate the rose as a useful article, essential to their health, and
+conducive to their comfort.
+
+The only rose I have ever seen them solicitous about is the old-fashioned
+'hundred-leaf' or cabbage-rose'.[1] Where-ever a Mussulmaun population
+congregate these are found planted in enclosed fields. In the month of
+September, the rose trees are cut down to within eight inches of the
+surface of the earth, and the cuttings carefully planted in a sheltered
+situation for striking, to keep up a succession of young trees. By the
+first or second week in December the earliest roses of the season are in
+bloom on the new wood, which has made its way from the old stock in this
+short period. Great care is taken in gathering the roses to preserve every
+bud for a succession. A gardener in India is distressed when the Beeby
+Sahibs[2] (English ladies) pluck roses, aware that buds and all are
+sacrificed at once. I shall here give a brief account of the several
+purposes to which the rose is applied.
+
+Rose-water is distilled in most Mussulmaun families as a medicine and an
+indispensable luxury. For medicine, it is administered in all cases of
+indigestion and pains of the stomach or bowels,--the older the rose-water
+the more effectual the remedy. I have been accustomed to see very old
+rose-water administered in doses of a wine-glass full, repeated frequently,
+in cases of cholera morbus and generally with good effect, when the
+patient has applied the remedy in time and due care has been observed in
+preventing the afflicted person from taking any other liquid until the
+worst symptoms have subsided. This method of treatment may not accord with
+the views of professional men generally; however, I only assert what I
+have repeatedly seen, that it has been administered to many members of my
+husband's family with the best possible effect. On one occasion, after
+eating a hearty dinner, Meer Hadjee Shaah was attacked with cholera;
+rose-water was administered, with a small portion of the stone called zahur
+morah. In his agony, he complained of great thirst, when rose-water was
+again handed to him, and continued at intervals of half-an-hour during the
+day and part of the night. In the morning, the pain and symptoms had
+greatly subsided; he was, notwithstanding, restrained from taking any
+liquid or food for more than forty-eight hours, except occasionally a
+little rose-water; and when his Native doctors permitted him to receive
+nourishment, he was kept on very limited portions of arrow-root for
+several days together. At the end of about eight days (the fever having
+been entirely removed) chicken-broth was allowed, and at first without
+bread; solids, indeed, were only permitted when all fears of a relapse had
+ceased, and even then but partially for some time, fearing the
+consequences to the tender state of the bowels. Such persons as are
+abstemious and regard the quality of their daily food are most likely to
+recover from the attack of this awful scourge. Very young children are
+rarely amongst the sufferers by cholera; the adults of all classes are
+most subject to it in India; indeed, I do not find the aged or the
+youthful, either male or female, preponderate in the number attacked; but
+those who live luxuriously suffer most. Amongst the Natives, it is
+difficult to prevail on them to forego their usual meals, particularly
+amongst the lower orders: if they feel rather inconvenienced by heartburns
+or other indications of a disordered stomach, they cannot resist eating
+again and again at the appointed hours, after which strong symptoms of
+cholera usually commence. I never heard of one case occurring after a good
+night's rest, but invariably after eating, either in the morning or the
+evening.
+
+My remarks have drawn me from my subject, by explaining the supposed
+medicinal benefits of rose-water, which as a luxury is highly valued in
+India. It is frequently used by the Natives in preparing their sweet
+dishes, is added to their sherbet, sprinkled over favoured guests, used to
+cleanse the mouth-piece of the hookha, and to cool the face and hands in
+very hot weather. Although they abstain from the use of rose-water,
+externally and internally, when suffering from a cold,--they fancy
+smelling a rose will produce a cold, and I have often observed in India,
+that smelling a fresh rose induces sneezing,[3]--yet, at all other times,
+this article is in general use in respectable Mussulmaun families. Dried
+rose-leaves and cassia added to infusions of senna, is a family medicine
+in general request.
+
+The fresh rose-leaves are converted by a very simple process into a
+conserve, which is also used as a medicine; it is likewise an essential
+article, with other ingredients, in the preparation of tobacco for their
+luxurious hookha.
+
+A syrup is extracted from the fresh rose, suited admirably to the climate
+of India as an aperient medicine, pleasant to the taste and mild in its
+effects. A table-spoon full is considered a sufficient dose for adults.
+
+The seed of the rose is a powerful astringent, and often brought into use
+in cases of extreme weakness of the bowels. The green leaves are
+frequently applied pounded as a cold poultice to inflamed places with much
+the same effect as is produced in England from golard-water.[4]
+
+The oil or otta of roses is collected from the rose-water when first
+distilled. Persons intending to procure the otta, have the rose-water
+poured into dishes while warm from the still: this remains undisturbed
+twenty-four hours, when the oily substance is discovered on the surface as
+cream on milk; this is carefully taken off, bottled, the mouth closed with
+wax, and then exposed to the burning rays of the sun for several days. The
+rose-water is kept in thin white glass bottles, and placed in baskets for
+a fortnight, either on the roofs of houses or on a grass-plot; or wherever
+the sun by day and the dew by night may be calculated on, which act on the
+rose-water and induce that fragrant smell so peculiar to that of India.
+
+I have elsewhere remarked that the Native medical practice is strictly
+herbal; minerals are strongly objected to as pernicious in after
+consequences, although they may prove effectual in removing present
+inconvenience. Quicksilver[5] is sometimes resorted to by individuals, but
+without the sanction of their medical practitioners. They have no notion
+of the anatomy of the human body, beyond a few ideas suggested in the old
+Grecian school of medicine, in favour of which they are strongly
+prejudiced. They, however, are said to perform extraordinary cures by
+simple treatment, many cases of severe fever occurred under my own
+observation, which were removed, I really believe, by strict attention to
+diet, or rather starving the enemy from its strong hold, than by any of
+the medicines administered to the patients. If any one is attacked by
+fever, his medical adviser inquires the day and the hour it commenced, by
+which he is guided in prescribing for the patient. On the borehaun[6]
+(critical days) as the third, fifth, and seventh, after the fever
+commences, nothing could induce the medical doctor to let blood or
+administer active medicines; there only remains then for the patient to be
+debarred any kind of food or nourishment, and that duly observed, the
+fever is often thrown off without a single dose of medicine. By three or
+four days of most strict abstinence, and such simple nourishment as the
+thinnest gruel or barley water,--the latter made from the common field
+barley, very sparingly allowed, the patient is rendered convalescent.
+
+The Natives of India profess to have found an antidote to, and cure for,
+hydrophobia in the reetah[7] berry, described as a saponaceous nut. I have
+never seen a case of hydrophobia, but it is by no means uncommon, I
+understand. They always advise that the person bitten by a rabid animal,
+should have the limb promptly tied up with a bandage above and below the
+bite; the wound, as speedily as possible, to be seared with a red-hot iron,
+and a few doses of the reetah berry with a portion of soap administered.
+The berry is well known for its good property in cleansing and softening
+the hair, for which purpose it is generally found in the bathing-rooms
+both of the European and Native ladies.
+
+The Native remedy for snake bites, is called neellah tootee[8] (blue
+vitrol): if from eight to twelve grains be administered in ghee or butter
+immediately after the bite is received, the happiest results will follow.
+A person in our family was bitten by a snake, but neglected to apply for
+the remedy for more than half an hour after the accident, when his own
+expressions were, that 'he suffered great uneasiness in his body, and his
+faculties seemed darkened;' half a masha, about eight grains of blue stone,
+was now given in ghee. In a few hours he was apparently quite well again,
+and for several days he found no other inconvenience than a slight
+numbness in the hand which had been bitten by the snake.
+
+This person had occasion soon after to leave home, and had exerted himself
+unusually by walking, when he found the same symptoms of uneasiness return;
+he hurried to a house where he was known, and requested to be supplied
+with a certain quantity of blue stone without delay. He had sense enough
+remaining to explain for what purpose he required it, when the person
+applied to objected to furnish him with the poisonous article. The remedy,
+however, was ultimately procured, taken, and in a few hours he was
+recovered sufficiently to return home. He never found the symptoms return
+again to my recollection.
+
+The chitcherah[9] (inverted thorn), is a shrub common to India, which
+bears small grains not unlike rice; these seeds are poisonous in their
+natural state, but when properly prepared with a portion of
+urzeez[10]--(tin), it becomes a useful medicine; and in particular cases
+of scrofula, which have resisted all other remedies offered by the medical
+practitioners, the Natives tell me this has proved an effectual remedy;
+and my informant, a Native doctor, assures me that three doses, of three
+grains each, is all he finds necessary to give his patient in scrofula
+cases.
+
+The chitcherah in its green state is resorted to as a remedy for the sting
+of scorpions: when applied to the wound, which is often much inflamed and
+very painful, the cure is prompt. The scorpion runs from this shrub when
+held to it, as if it were frightened: many people declare scorpions are
+never met with in the grounds where the chitcherah grows.
+
+The neam-tree[11] is cultivated near the houses of Natives generally, in
+the Upper Provinces, because, as they affirm, it is very conducive to
+health, to breathe the air through the neam-trees. This tree is not very
+quick of growth, but reaches a good size. When it has attained its full
+height, the branches spread out as luxuriantly as the oak and supplies an
+agreeable shelter from the sun. The bark is rough; the leaves long, narrow,
+curved, pointed, and with saw teeth edges; both the wood and leaves
+partake of the same disagreeable bitter flavour. The green leaves are used
+medicinally as a remedy for biles; after being pounded they are mixed with
+water and taken as a draught; they are also esteemed efficacious as
+poultices and fomentations for tumours, &c. The young twigs are preferred
+by all classes of the Natives for tooth-brushes.
+
+The hurrundh,[12] or castor-tree, is cultivated by farmers in their
+corn-fields throughout Hindoostaun. This tree seldom exceeds in its growth
+the height of an English shrub. The bark is smooth; the leaf, in shape,
+resembles the sycamore, but of a darker green. The pods containing the
+seed grow in clusters like grapes, but of a very different appearance, the
+surface of each pod being rough, thorny, and of a dingy red cast when ripe.
+The seed produces the oil, which is in common use as a powerful medicine,
+for men and animals. In remote stations, where any difficulty exists in
+procuring cocoa-nut oil, the castor oil is often rendered useful for
+burning in lamps; the light, however, produced by it is very inferior to
+the oil of cocoa-nut. The green leaves are considered cooling to wounds or
+inflamed places, and therefore used with ointment after the
+blister-plaster is removed.
+
+As I have seen this tree growing in corn-fields, I may here remark that
+the farmer's motives for cultivating it originate in the idea that his
+crops are benefited by a near vicinity to the hurrundh. It is also very
+common to observe a good row of the plant called ulsee[13](linseed),
+bordering a plantation of wheat or barley: they fancy this herb preserves
+the blade healthy, and the corn from blight.
+
+The umultass[14] (cassia) is a large and handsome forest tree, producing
+that most useful drug in long dark pods, several inches long, which hang
+from the branches in all directions, giving a most extraordinary
+appearance to the tree. The seed is small and mixed with the pulp, which
+dissolves in water, and is in general use with the Natives as a powerful
+and active medicine in bilious cases. I am not, however, aware that the
+seed possesses any medicinal property: it certainly is not appropriated to
+such cases in Hindoostaun.
+
+Myrtle-trees,[15] under many different names, and of several kinds, are
+met with in India, of an immense size compared with those grown in Europe.
+They are cultivated for their known properties, rather than as mere
+ornaments to the garden. The leaves, boiled in water, are said to be of
+service to the hair; the root and branches are considered medicinal.
+
+The pomegranate-tree[16] may be ranked amongst the choicest beauties of
+Asiatic horticulture; and when its benefits are understood, no one wonders
+that a tree or two is to be seen in almost every garden and compound of
+the Mussulmaun population in India.
+
+The finest fruit of this sort is brought, however, from Persia and Cabul,
+at a great expense; and from the general estimation in which it is held,
+the merchants annually import the fruit in large quantities. There are two
+sorts, the sweet and the acid pomegranate, each possessing medicinal
+properties peculiar to itself. Sherbet is made from the juice, which is
+pressed out, and boiled up with sugar or honey to a syrup; thus prepared
+it keeps good for any length of time, and very few families omit making
+their yearly supply, as it constitutes a great luxury in health, and a
+real benefit in particular disorders. The Natives make many varieties of
+sherbet from the juices of their fruits, as the pine-apple, falsah,[17]
+mango, or any other of the same succulent nature, each having properties
+to recommend it beyond the mere pleasantness of its flavour.
+
+An admirer of Nature must be struck with the singular beauty of the
+pomegranate-tree, so commonly cultivated in India. The leaves are of a
+rich dark green, very glossy, and adorned at the same time with every
+variety of bud, bloom, and fruit, in the several stages of vegetation,
+from the first bud to the ripe fruit in rich luxuriance, and this in
+succession nearly throughout the year. The bright scarlet colour of the
+buds and blossoms seldom vary in their shades; but contrasted with the
+glossy dark green foliage, the effect excites wonder and admiration. There
+is a medicinal benefit to be derived from every part of this tree from its
+root upwards, each part possessing a distinct property, which is employed
+according to the Native knowledge and practice of medicine.
+
+Even the falling blossoms are carefully collected, and when made into a
+conserve, are administered successfully in cases of blood-spitting.
+
+The tamarind-tree may often be discovered sheltering the tomb of revered
+or sainted characters; but I am not aware of any particular veneration
+entertained towards this tree by the general population of India, beyond
+the benefit derived from the medicinal properties of the fruit and the
+leaves.[18]
+
+The ripe fruit, soaked in salt and water, to extract the juices, is
+strained, and administered as a useful aperient; and from its quality in
+cleansing the blood, many families prefer this fruit in their curries to
+other acids. From the tamarind-tree, preserves are made for the affluent,
+and chatnee for the poor, to season their coarse barley unleavened cakes,
+which form their daily meal, and with which they seem thoroughly contented.
+
+From what cause I know not, but it is generally understood that vegetation
+does not thrive in the vicinity of the tamarind-tree. Indeed, I have
+frequently heard the Natives account for the tamarind being so often
+planted apart from other trees, because they fancy vegetation is always
+retarded in their vicinity.
+
+The jahmun-tree[19] is also held in general estimation for the benefit of
+the fruit, which, when ripe, is eaten with salt, and esteemed a great
+luxury, and in every respect preferable to olives. The fruit, in its raw
+state, is a powerful astringent, and possesses many properties not
+generally known out of Native society, which may excuse my mentioning them
+here. The fruit, which is about the size and colour of the damson-plum,
+when ripe is very juicy, and makes an excellent wine, not inferior in
+quality to port. The Natives, however, are not permitted by their law to
+drink wine, and therefore this property in the fruit is of no benefit to
+them; but they encourage the practice of extracting the juice of jahmun
+for vinegar, which is believed to be the most powerful of all vegetable
+acids. The Native medical practitioners declare, that if by accident a
+hair has been introduced with food into the stomach, it can never digest
+of itself, and will produce both pain and nausea to the individual. On
+such occasions they administer jahmun vinegar, which has the property of
+dissolving any kind of hair, and the only thing they are aware of that
+will. Sherbet is made of this vinegar, and is often taken in water either
+immediately after dinner, or when digestion is tardy.
+
+The skin of the jahmun produces a permanent dye of a bright lilac colour,
+and with the addition of urzeez (tin), a rich violet. The effect on wool I
+have never tried, but on silks and muslins the most beautiful shades have
+been produced by the simplest process possible, and so permanent, that the
+colour resisted every attempt to remove it by washing, &c.[20]
+
+The mango-tree stands pre-eminently high in the estimation of the Natives,
+and this is not to be wondered at when the various benefits derived from
+it are brought under consideration. It is magnificent in its growth, and
+splendid in its foliage, and where a plantation of mango-trees, called 'a
+tope', is met with, that spot is preferred by travellers on which to pitch
+their tent. The season of blooming is about February and March; the
+aromatic scent from the flowers is delightful, and the beautiful
+clustering of the blossoms is not very unlike the horse-chestnut in
+appearance and size, but branching horizontally. The young mangoes are
+gathered for preserves and pickles before the stone is formed; the
+full-grown unripe fruit is peeled, split, and dried, for seasoning curries,
+&c. The ripe fruit spoken of in a former Letter requires no further
+commendation, neither will it admit of comparison with any European fruits.
+The kernels, when ripe, are often dried and ground into flour for bread in
+seasons of scarcity. The wood is useful as timber for doors, rafters, &c.,
+and the branches and leaves for fuel; in short, there is no part of the
+whole tree but is made useful in some way to man.
+
+The sherrefah[21] (custard-apple) is produced on a very graceful tree, not,
+however, of any great size; the blossom nearly resembles that of the
+orange in colour and shape; the fruit ripens in the hottest months, and is
+similar in flavour to well-made custards. The skin is of a dusky pea-green
+rough surface, in regular compartments; each division or part containing a
+glossy black seed covered with the custard. This seed is of some utility
+amongst the lower order of Natives who have occasion to rid themselves of
+vermin at the expense of little labour; the seed is pounded fine and when
+mixed in the hair destroys the living plague almost instantly. The same
+article is often used with a hair-pencil to remove a cataract of the eye
+(they have no idea of surgical operations on the eye). There is one thing
+worthy of remark in this tree and its fruit, that flies are never known to
+settle on either; ants of every description feed on the fruit without
+injury, so that it cannot be imagined there is anything poisonous to
+insects, generally, in the quality of the fruit; yet, certain it is, the
+sherrefah is equally obnoxious to flies as the seed is destructive to
+vermin. The leaves and tender twigs are considered detrimental to health,
+if not actually poisonous to cattle.
+
+The guaver,[23] white and red, are produced in the Upper Provinces; but
+the fruit is seldom so fine as in the Bengal district. The strong aromatic
+smell and flavour of this fruit is not agreeable to all tastes; in size
+and shape it resembles the quince.
+
+The Damascus fig ripens well, and the fruit is superior to any I have met
+with in other countries. The indigenous fig-tree of Hindoostaun is one of
+the objects of Hindoo veneration. It has always been described to me by
+those Natives, as the sacred burbut,[24]--why? they could not explain. The
+fruit is very inferior.
+
+The peach is cultivated in many varieties, and every new introduction
+repays the careful gardener's skill by a rich and beautiful produce. They
+have a flat peach,[24] with a small round kernel (a native of China), the
+flavour of which is delicious, and the tree prolific.
+
+I may here remark, that all those trees we are accustomed in Europe to
+designate wall-fruit, are in India pruned for standards. The only fruit
+allowed to trail on frames is the vine, of which they have many choice
+varieties; one in particular, of late introduction from Persia, has the
+remarkable peculiarity of being seedless, called 'Ba daanah'[25] (without
+seeds); the fruit is purple, round, and sweet as honey.
+
+Peach, nectarine, and apricot trees, are cut down early in February, much
+in the same way as willows are docked in England: the new wood grows
+rapidly, and the fruit is ready for the table in the month of June. A tree
+neglected to be pruned in this way annually, would the first year yield
+but little, and that indifferent fruit, the tree become unhealthy, and, in
+most cases, never again restored to its former vigour.
+
+Apple-trees are found chiefly in the gardens of Europeans; they are not
+perhaps as yet understood by Native gardeners, or it may be the climate is
+not favourable to them; certain it is, that the apples produced in
+Hindoostaun are not to be compared with those of other countries. Singular
+as it may seem, yet I have never met with more than one species of apple
+in my visits to the gardens of India. I have often fancied a fresh
+importation of English apple-trees would be worth the trouble of the
+transfer.[26]
+
+The apple-trees grow tall and slender, the blossoms break out on the top
+of each branch in a cluster; the fruit, when ripe, is about the size of
+small crabs, and shaped like golden-pippins, without any acidity, but the
+sweetness rather resembles turnips than the well-flavoured apple. In the
+bazaars are to be met with what is called apple-preserve, which, however,
+is often a deception,--turnips substituted for apples.
+
+Mulberries are indigenous, and of several varieties. The Native gardeners,
+however, take so little pains to assist or improve the operations of
+Nature, that the mulberry here is seldom so fine as in other countries.
+The common sort is produced on an immense tree with small leaves; the
+berry is long, and when ripe, of a yellow-green, very much resembling
+caterpillars in colour and form.
+
+Plum-trees would thrive in Hindoostaun if introduced and cultivated,[27]
+since the few, chiefly the bullace-plum, I have seen, produce tolerably
+good fruit.
+
+Cherries, I have never observed; they are known, however, by the name of
+'glass'[28] to the travelling Natives, who describe them as common to
+Cashmire, Cabul, and Persia.
+
+Gooseberries and currants are not known in India, but they have many good
+substitutes in the falsah, American sorrel, puppayah,[29] and a great
+variety of Chinese fruits--all of which make excellent tarts, preserves,
+and jellies. Strawberries and raspberries repay their cultivation in the
+Upper Provinces: they thrive well with proper care and attention.
+
+The melon I have described elsewhere as an indigenous fruit greatly valued
+by the Natives, who cultivate the plant in the open fields without much
+trouble, and with very little expense; the varieties are countless, and
+every year adds to the number amongst the curious, who pride themselves on
+novelty in this article of general estimation.
+
+The pine-apple requires very little pains to produce, and little demand on
+art in bringing it to perfection. The Bengal climate, however, suits it
+better than the dry soil of the Upper Provinces. I have frequently heard a
+superstitious objection urged by the Natives against this fruit being
+planted in their regular gardens; they fancy prosperity is checked by its
+introduction, or to use their own words,--'It is unfortunate to the
+proprietor of the garden.'
+
+There is a beautiful shrub, called by the Natives, mahdhaar, or
+arg,[30]--literally, fire-plant,--met with in the Upper Provinces of India,
+inhabiting every wild spot where the soil is sandy, as generally as the
+thistle on neglected grounds in England.
+
+The mahdhaar-plant seldom exceeds four feet in height, the branches spread
+out widely, the leaves are thick, round, and broad; the blossom resembles
+our dark auricula. When the seed is ripe, the pod presents a real treat to
+the lover of Nature. The mahdhaar pod may be designated a vegetable bag of
+pure white silk, about the size of large walnuts. The skin or bag being
+removed, flat seeds are discovered in layers over each other, resembling
+scales of fish; to each seed is affixed very fine white silk, about two
+inches long; this silk is defended from the air by the seed; the texture
+greatly resembles the silky hair of the Cashmire goat. I once had the
+mahdhaar silk collected, spun, and wove, merely as an experiment, which
+answered my full expectation: the article thus produced might readily be
+mistaken for the shawl stuff of Cashmire.[31]
+
+The stalks of mahdhaar, when broken, pour out a milky juice at all seasons
+of the year, which falling on the skin produces blisters. The Natives
+bring this juice into use both for medicine and alchymy in a variety of
+ways.
+
+The mahdhaar, as a remedy for asthma, is in great repute with the Natives;
+it is prepared in the following way:--The plants are collected, root,
+stalks, and leaves, and well dried by exposure to the sun; they are then
+burnt on iron plates, and the ashes thrown into a pan of water, where they
+remain for some days, until the water has imbibed the saline particles; it
+is then boiled in an iron vessel, until the moisture is entirely absorbed,
+and the salt only left at the bottom. The salt is administered in
+half-grain doses at the first, and increasing the quantity when the
+patient has become accustomed to its influence: it would be dangerous to
+add to the quantity suddenly.[32]
+
+Another efficient remedy, both for asthma and obstinate continuance of a
+cough, is found in the salt extracted from tobacco-leaves, by a similar
+process, which is administered with the like precaution, and in the same
+quantities.
+
+The sirrakee and sainturh[33] are two specimens of one genus of
+jungle-grass, the roots of which are called secundah,[34] or khus-khus,[35]
+and are collected on account of their aromatic smell, to form thatch
+tatties, or screens for the doors and windows; which being kept constantly
+watered, the strong wind rushing through the wet khus-khus is rendered
+agreeably cool, and produces a real luxury at the season of the hot winds,
+when every puff resembles a furnace-heat to those exposed to it by
+out-of-door occupation.
+
+This grass presents so many proofs of the beneficent care of Divine
+Providence to the creatures of His hand, that the heart must be
+ungratefully cold which neglects praise and thanksgiving to the Creator,
+whose power and mercy bestows so great a benefit. The same might be justly
+urged against our insensibility, if the meanest herb or weed could speak
+to our hearts, each possessing, as it surely does, in its nature a
+beneficial property peculiar to itself. But here the blessing is brought
+home to every considerate mind, since a substitute for this article does
+not appear to exist in India.
+
+I have seen the sainturh stalks, on which the bloom gracefully moves as
+feathers, sixteen feet high. The sirrakee has a more delicate blossom,
+finer stalk, and seldom, I believe, exceeds ten feet; the stalk resembles
+a reed, full of pith, without a single joint from the shoot upwards; the
+colour is that of clean wheat straw, but even more glossy. The blossom is
+of a silky nature possessing every variety of shade, from pure white to
+the rainbow's tints, as viewed in the distance at sunrise; and when
+plucked the separated blossoms have many varieties of hue from brown and
+yellow, to purple.
+
+The head or blossom is too light to weigh down the firm but flexible stalk;
+but as the wind presses against each patch of grass, it is moved in a mass,
+and returns to its erect position with a dignity and grace not to be
+described.
+
+I have watched for the approaching season of the blooming sirrakee with an
+anxiety almost childish; my attention never tired with observing the
+progressive advances from the first show of blossom, to the period of its
+arriving at full perfection; at which time, the rude sickle of the
+industrious labourer levels the majestic grass to the earth for domestic
+purposes. The benefits it then produces would take me very long to
+describe.
+
+The sirrakee and sainturh are stripped from the outward sheltering blades,
+and wove together at the ends; in this way they are used for bordering
+tatties, or thatched roofs; sometimes they are formed into screens for
+doors, others line their mud-huts with them. They are found useful in
+constructing accommodations after the manner of bulk-heads on boats for
+the river voyagers, and make a good covering for loaded waggons. For most
+of these purposes the article is well suited, as it resists moisture and
+swells as the wet falls on it, so that the heaviest rain may descend on a
+frame of sirrakee without one drop penetrating, if it be properly placed
+in a slanting position.
+
+I cannot afford space to enumerate here the variety of purposes which this
+production of Nature is both adapted for and appropriated to; every part
+of the grass being carefully stored by the thrifty husbandman, even to the
+tops of the reed, which, when the blossom is rubbed off, is rendered
+serviceable, and proves an excellent substitute for that useful invention,
+a birch-broom. The coarse parent grass, which shelters the sirrakee, is
+the only article yet found to answer the purposes for thatching the
+bungalows of the rich, the huts of the poor, the sheds for cattle, and
+roofs for boats. The religious devotee sets up a chupha-hut,[36] without
+expense,--(all the house he requires,)--on any waste spot of land most
+convenient to himself, away from the busy haunts of the tumultuous world,
+since bamboo and grass are the common property of all who choose to take
+the trouble of gathering it from the wilderness. And here neither rent or
+taxes are levied on the inhabitant, who thus appropriates to himself a
+home from the bounteous provision prepared by Divine goodness for the
+children of Nature.
+
+This grass is spontaneous in its growth, neither receiving or requiring
+aid from human cultivation. It is found in every waste throughout
+Hindoostaun, and is the prominent feature of the jungle, into which the
+wild animals usually resort for shelter from the heat of the day, or make
+their covert when pursued by man, their natural enemy.
+
+The beneficence of Heaven has also exacted but little labour from the
+husbandman of India in procuring his daily provision. Indeed the actual
+wants of the lower order of Natives are few, compared with those of the
+same class in England; exertion has not, therefore, been called forth by
+necessity in a climate which induces habits of indulgence, ease, and quiet;
+where, however it may have surprised me at first, that I found not one
+single Native disposed to delight in the neat ordering of a flower-garden,
+I have since ascertained it is from their unwillingness to labour without
+a stronger motive than the mere gratification of taste.[37] Hence the
+uncultivated ground surrounding the cottages in India, which must
+naturally strike the mind of strangers with mingled feelings of pity and
+regret, when comparing the cottages of the English peasantry with those of
+the same classes of people in Hindoostaun.
+
+The bamboo presents to the admirer of Nature no common specimen of her
+beautiful productions; and to the contemplating mind a wide field for
+wonder, praise, and gratitude. The graceful movements of a whole forest of
+these slender trees surpass all description; they must be witnessed in
+their uncultivated ground, as I have seen them, to be thoroughly
+understood or appreciated, for I do not recollect wood scenery in any
+other place that could convey the idea of a forest of bamboo.
+
+The bamboos are seen in clusters, striking from the parent root by suckers,
+perhaps from fifty to a hundred in a patch, of all sizes; the tallest in
+many instances exceed sixty feet, with slender branches, and leaves in
+pairs, which are long, narrow, and pointed. The body of each bamboo is
+hollow and jointed, in a similar way to wheat stalks, with bands or knots,
+by which wonderful contrivance both are rendered strong and flexible,
+suited to the several designs of creative Wisdom. The bamboo imperceptibly
+tapers from the earth upwards. It is the variety of sizes in each cluster,
+however, which gives grace and beauty to the whole as they move with every
+breath of air, or are swayed by the strong wind.
+
+Where space allows the experiment, the tallest bamboo may be brought down
+to a level with the earth, without snapping asunder. In the strong tempest
+the supple bamboo may be seen to bow submissively,--as the self-subdued
+and pliant mind in affliction,--and again rear its head uninjured by the
+storm, as the righteous man 'preserved by faith' revives after each trial,
+or temptation.
+
+The wood of the bamboo is hard, yet light, and possesses a fine grain,
+though fibrous. The outward surface is smooth and highly polished by
+Nature, and the knot very difficult to penetrate by any other means than a
+saw. The twigs or branches are covered with sharp thorns, in all
+probability a natural provision to defend the young trees from herbaceous
+animals. I have heard of the bamboo blossoming when arrived at full age;
+this I have, however, never seen, and cannot therefore presume to
+describe.[38]
+
+In the hollow divisions of the bamboo is found, in small quantities, a
+pure white tasteless substance, called tawurshear,[39] which as a medicine
+is in great request with the Native doctors, who administer it as a
+sovereign remedy for lowness of spirits, and every disease of the heart,
+such as palpitations, &c. The tawurshear when used medicinally is pounded
+fine, and mixed up with gold and silver leaf, preserved quinces and apples,
+and the syrup of pomegranates, which is simmered over a slow fire until it
+becomes of the consistence of jam. It is taken before meals by the patient.
+
+The bamboo is rendered serviceable to man in a countless variety of ways,
+both for use and ornament. The chuphas (thatched-roofs) of huts, cottages,
+or bungalows, are all constructed on frames of bamboo, to which each layer
+of grass is firmly fixed by laths formed of the same wood.
+
+The only doors in poor people's habitations are contrived from the same
+materials as the roof: viz., grass on bamboo frames, just sufficient to
+secure privacy and defend the inmates from cold air, or the nightly
+incursions of wolves and jackals. For the warm weather, screens are
+invented of split bamboos, either fine or coarse, as circumstances permit,
+to answer the purpose of doors, both for the rich and poor, whenever the
+house is so situated that these intruders may be anticipated at night.
+
+The bamboo is made useful also in the kitchen as bellows by the aid of the
+cook's breath; in the stable, to administer medicine to horses; and to the
+poor traveller, as a deposit for his oil, either for cooking or his lamp.
+To the boatman as sculls, masts, yards, and poles; besides affording him a
+covering to his boat, which could not be constructed with any other wood
+equally answering the same varied purpose of durability and lightness.
+
+The carriers (generally of the bearer caste), by the help of a split
+bamboo over the shoulder, convey heavy loads suspended by cords at each
+end, from one part of India to the other, many hundred miles distant. No
+other wood could answer this purpose so well; the bamboo being remarkably
+light and of a very pliant nature lessens the fatigue to the bearer,
+whilst almost any wood sufficiently strong to bear the packages would fret
+the man's shoulder and add burden to burden. The bearers do not like to
+carry more than twelve seer (twenty-four pounds) slung by ropes at each
+end of their bamboo for any great distance; but, I fear, they are not
+always allowed the privilege of thinking for themselves in these matters.
+
+When a hackery[40] (sort of waggon) is about to be loaded with of corn or
+goods, a railing is formed by means of bamboos to admit the luggage; thus
+rendering the waggon itself much lighter than if built of solid wood, an
+object of some moment, when considering the smallness of the cattle used
+for draught, oxen of a small breed being in general use for waggons, carts,
+ploughs, &c. I have never seen horses harnessed to any vehicle in India,
+except to such gentlemen's carriages as are built on the English principle.
+
+The Native carriages of ladies and travellers are indebted to the bamboo
+for all the wood used in the construction of the body, which is merely a
+frame covered with cloth, shaped in several different ways,--some square,
+others double cones, &c.
+
+Baskets of every shape and size, coarse or fine, are made of the split
+bamboo; covers for dinner trays, on which the food is sent from the
+kitchen to the hall; cheese-presses, punkahs, and screens, ingeniously
+contrived in great varieties; netting-needles and pins, latches and bolts
+for doors; skewers and spits; umbrella sticks, and walking canes; toys in
+countless ways, and frames for needle-work.
+
+A long line of etceteras might here be added as to the number of good
+purposes to which the bamboo is adapted and appropriated in Native economy;
+I must not omit that even the writing-paper on which I first practised the
+Persian character was manufactured from the bamboo, which is esteemed more
+durable, but not so smooth as their paper made from cotton. The young
+shoots of bamboo are both pickled and preserved by the Natives, and
+esteemed a great luxury when produced at meals with savoury pillaus, &c.
+
+I am told, a whole forest of bamboo has sometimes been consumed by fire,
+ignited by their own friction in a heavy storm, and the blaze fanned by
+the opposing wind; the devouring element, under such circumstances, could
+be stayed only when there ceased to be a tree to feed the flame.
+
+
+[1] The Indian rose-water is made principally from _Rosa damascena_ about
+    Ghazipur in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It has no
+    medicinal value, but is used as a vehicle for other mixtures (Watt,
+    _Economic Dictionary_, VI, part i. 560 ff.).
+
+[2] _Bibi Sahiba_. 'On the principle of the degradation of titles
+    which is general, this word in application to European ladies has been
+    superseded  by the hybrid _Mem Sahib_ or Madam Sahib, though it
+    is often applied to European maid-servants or other Englishwomen of
+    that rank of life' (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 78).
+
+[3] It is one of the flowers which produce pollen catarrh. Pope's
+    suggestion that a man with a hypersensitive nervous system might 'die
+    of a rose in aromatic pain', is not an impossible contingency.
+
+[4] Goulard water, named after Thomas Goulard, a French surgeon: a
+    solution of sub-acetate of lead, used as a lotion in cases of
+    inflammation (_New English Dictionary, s.v._).
+
+[5] P. 235.
+
+[6] Not in Platts' _Hindustani Dictionary_: probably _barhan_,
+    increasing.
+
+[7] _Ritha_, the berry of the soap-nut tree, _Sapindus trifoliatus_
+    or _mukorossi_. (Watt, _Economic Dict_., vol. vi, part ii, 468.)
+
+[8] _Nila tutiya_, copper sulphate: used as an emetic in cases
+    of poisoning, but not now recognized as a remedy for snake-bite.
+
+[9] _Chichra, Achryanthes aspera_ (Watt, i. 81).
+
+[10] _Arziz_.
+
+[11] _Nim, Melia Azadirachta_. The belief that it is a prophylactic
+    against fever and cholera is held even by some Europeans
+    (Watt, v. 217).
+
+[12] _Arand, Ricinus communis_.
+
+[13]  Alsi, _Linum usitatissimum._
+
+[14] _Amaltas, Cassia fistula_. The pulp of the fruit and the root-bark
+    form the most useful domestic medicine, a simple purgative.
+
+[15] _Myrtus communis_.
+
+[16] _Punica Granatum_. The best varieties of the fruit come from
+    Afghanistan and Persia.
+
+[17] _Phalsa, falsa, Grewia asiatica_.
+
+[18] The shade of the tree is supposed to be unhealthy to men, animals,
+    and plants, as it is believed to be haunted by spirits, and it is
+    worshipped on a day known as 'Tamarind Eleventh'.
+
+[19] See p. 194.
+
+[20] Watt, however, writes: 'Tin is a highly important metal in dyeing as
+    practised in Europe, but in this respect is apparently unknown to the
+    natives of India.' (Watt, _Economic Dictionary_, vol. vi, part iv, 60.)
+
+[21] _Sharifa, Anona squamosa_.
+
+[22] Guava.
+
+[23] _Bargat_, the banyan-tree.
+
+[24] _Pyrus persica_.
+
+[25] _Be-danah._
+
+[26] Excellent apples are now grown on the lower Himalayas.
+
+[27] _Prunus communis_ grows in the lower Himalayas and as far down as
+    Saharanpur, but the fruit is inferior.
+
+[28] The sweet or wild cherry, _Prunus avium_, is called _gilas_ in the
+    Hills.
+
+[29] _Papaiya_, the papau tree, _Carica papaya_, has the curious
+    property of making meat tender, if placed near it.
+
+[30] _Madar, ak._ The latter term is derived from Sanskrit _arka_,
+    'the sun', on account of the fiery colour of its flowers.
+
+[31] The plant yields a silk cotton from the seeds and a rich white bass
+    fibre from the bark, both likely to be of commercial value (Watt, ii.
+    38 ff.)
+
+[32] Used in equal proportions with black pepper, the fresh blossoms are a
+    useful and cheap remedy for asthma, hysteria, and epilepsy (_ibid_. ii.
+    44 ff).
+
+[33] _Sirki_ is the upper portion of the blossoming stem, and
+    _sentha_ the lower portion of the reed grass _Saccharum ciliare_
+    (_ibid_. vi, part ii, 2.)
+
+[34] _Sarkanda_ is the Panjab name for the grass _Saccharum
+    arundinaceum_, but it is also applied to _Saccharum ciliare_ in last
+    note (_ibid_. vi, part ii, 1 f.).
+
+[35] _Khaskhas_, used for screens, is the root of the grass _Andropogon
+    muricatus_ (_ibid_. i, 245 ff.)
+
+[36] _Chhappar_.
+
+[37] This is true of the higher class Musalmans; but there were
+    splendid gardens in the palaces of the Moghul Emperors: see C.M.
+    Villiers Stuart, _The Gardens of the Great Mughals_, 1913.
+
+[38] The subject of the flowering of the bamboo has been investigated by
+    Sir G. Watt, who writes: 'A bamboo may not flower before it has
+    attained a certain age, but its blossoming is not fixed so arbitrarily
+    that it cannot be retarded or accelerated by climatic influences. It
+    is an undoubted fact that the flowering of the bamboo is decided by
+    causes which bring about famine, for the providential supply of food
+    from this source has saved the lives of thousands of persons during
+    several of the great famines of India.' Hence the provision of the
+    edible seeds by the extension of bamboo cultivation has been
+    recommended as a means of mitigating distress (_Economic Dictionary_,
+    vol. i, 373 ff., 386).
+
+[39] _Tabashir_, bamboo manna, is a siliceous substance found in the
+    joints of the bamboo: considered cooling, toxic, aphrodisiac and
+    pectoral, but as a medicinal agent it is inert (_ibid_. i. 384, Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 887).
+
+[40] A bullock carriage, Hindustani _chhakra_ (Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 407 f.).
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXII
+
+  Monkeys.--Hindoo opinions of their Nature.--Instances of their
+  sagacity.--Rooted animosity of the Monkey tribe to the
+  snake.--Cruelty to each other when maimed.--The female remarkable for
+  affection to its young.--Anecdotes descriptive of the belief of the
+  Natives in the Monkey being endowed with reason.--The Monkeys and the
+  Alligator.--The Traveller and the Monkeys.--The Hindoo and the
+  Monkey.
+
+
+The Natives of India, more particularly the Hindoos, are accustomed to pay
+particular attention to the habits of the varied monkey race, conceiving
+them to be connecting links in the order of Nature between brutes and
+rational creatures; or, as some imagine and assert, (without any other
+foundation than conjecture and fancy), that they were originally a race of
+human beings, who for their wicked deeds have been doomed to perpetuate
+their disgrace and punishment to the end of time in the form and manner we
+see them, inhabiting forests, and separated from their superior man.
+
+I have had very few opportunities of acquainting myself with the general
+principles of the Hindoo belief, but I am told, there are amongst them
+those who assert that one of their deities was transformed to a particular
+kind of monkey, since designated Hummoomaun,[1] after the object of their
+adoration; whence arises the marked veneration paid by Hindoos of certain
+sects to this class of monkeys.
+
+The Natives firmly believe the whole monkey race to be gifted with reason
+to a certain extent, never accounting for the sagacity and cunning they
+are known to possess by instinctive habits; arguing from their own
+observations, that the monkeys are peaceable neighbours, or inveterate
+enemies to man, in proportion as their good will is cultivated by kindness
+and hospitality, or their propensity to revenge roused by an opposite line
+of conduct towards them.
+
+The husbandman, whose land is in the vicinity of a forest, and the abode
+of monkeys, secures safety to his crops, by planting a patch of ground
+with that species of grain which these animals are known to prefer. Here
+they assemble, as appetite calls, and feast themselves upon their own
+allotment; and, as if they appreciated the hospitality of the landlord,
+not a blade is broken, or a seed destroyed in the fields of corn to the
+right and left of their plantation. But woe to the farmer who neglects
+this provision; his fields will not only be visited by the marauders, but
+their vengeance will be displayed in the wasteful destruction of his
+cultivation. This undoubtedly looks more like reason than instinct; and if
+credit could be given to half the extraordinary tales that are told of
+them, the monkeys of India might justly be entitled to a higher claim than
+that of instinct for their actions.
+
+Monkeys seem to be aware that snakes are their natural enemies. They never
+advance in pursuit of, yet they rarely run from a snake; unless its size
+renders it too formidable an object for their strength and courage to
+attack with anything like a prospect of success in destroying it. So great
+is the animosity of the monkey race to these reptiles, that they attack
+them systematically, after the following manner:--
+
+When a snake is observed by a monkey, he depends on his remarkable agility
+as a safeguard from the enemy. At the most favourable opportunity he
+seizes the reptile just below the head with a firm grasp, then springs to
+a tree, if available, or to any hard substance near at hand, on which he
+rubs the snake's head with all his strength until life is extinct; at
+intervals smelling the fresh blood as it oozes from the wounds of his
+victim. When success has crowned his labour, the monkey capers about his
+prostrate enemy, as if in triumph at the victory he has won; developing,
+as the Natives say, in this, a striking resemblance to man.
+
+Very few monkeys, in their wild state, ever recover from inflicted wounds;
+the reason assigned by those who have studied their usual habits is, that
+whenever a poor monkey has been wounded, even in the most trifling way,
+his associates visit him by turns, when each visitor, without a single
+exception, is observed to scratch the wound smartly with their nails. A
+wound left to itself might be expected to heal in a short time, but thus
+irritated by a successive application of their sharp nails, it inflames
+and increases. Mortification is early induced by the heated atmosphere,
+and death rapidly follows.
+
+The monkeys' motives for adding to their neighbour's anguish, is accounted
+for by some speculators on the score of their aversion to the unnatural
+smell of blood; or they are supposed to be actuated by a natural
+abhorrence to the appearance of the wound, not by any means against the
+wounded; since in their domestic habits, they are considered to be
+peaceable and affectionate in their bearings towards each other. The
+strong will exercise mastery over the weak where food is scarce, but, in a
+general way, they are by no means quarrelsome or revengeful amongst
+themselves. They are known to hold by each other in defending rights and
+privileges, if the accounts given by credible Natives be true, who add
+that a whole colony of monkeys have been known to issue forth in a body to
+revenge an injury sustained by an individual of their tribe; often firing
+a whole village of chupha-roofs, where the aggressor is known to be a
+resident, who in his anger may have maimed or chastised one of their
+colony.
+
+The female monkey is remarkable for her attachment to her progeny, which
+she suckles until it is able to procure food for its own sustenance. When
+one of her young dies, the mother is observed to keep it closely encircled
+in her arms, moaning piteously with true maternal feelings of regret, and
+never parting with it from her embrace until the dead body becomes an
+offensive mass: and when at last she quits her hold, she lays it on the
+ground before her, at no great distance, watching with intense anxiety the
+dead body before her, which she can no longer fold in her embrace, until
+the work of decomposing has altered the form of the creature that claimed
+her tender attachment. What an example is here given to unnatural mothers
+who neglect or forsake their offspring!
+
+I shall here insert a few anecdotes illustrative of the opinions of the
+Natives on the subject of monkeys being possessed of reasoning faculties.
+They shall be given exactly as I have received them, not expecting my
+readers will give to them more credit than I am disposed to yield to most
+of these tales; but as they are really believed to be true by the Natives
+who relate them, I feel bound to afford them a place in my work, which is
+intended rather to describe men as they are, than men as I wish to see
+them.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Muttra is an immense jungle or forest, where
+monkeys abound in great numbers and variety. Near a village bordering this
+forest, is a large natural lake which is said to abound with every sort of
+fish and alligators. On the banks of this lake are many trees, some of
+which branch out a great distance over the water. On these trees monkeys
+of a large description, called Lungoor,[2] gambol from spray to spray in
+happy amusement: sometimes they crowd in numbers on one branch, by which
+means their weight nearly brings the end of the bough to the surface of
+the water; on which occasion it is by no means unusual for one or more of
+their number to be lessened.
+
+Whether the monkeys told their thoughts or not, my informant did not say,
+but the retailers of this story assert, that the oldest monkey was aware
+that his missing brethren had been seized by an alligator from the branch
+of the tree, whilst they were enjoying their amusement. This old monkey,
+it would seem, resolved on revenging the injury done to his tribe, and
+formed a plan for retaliating on the common enemy of his race.
+
+The monkeys were observed by the villagers, for many successive days,
+actively occupied in collecting the fibrous bark of certain trees, which
+they were converting into a thick rope. The novelty of this employment
+surprised the peasants and induced them to watch daily for the result.
+When the rope was completed, from sixty to seventy of the strongest
+monkeys conveyed it to the tree: having formed a noose at one end with the
+nicest care, the other end was secured by them to the overhanging arm of
+the tree. This ready, they commenced their former gambols, jumping about
+and crowding on the same branch which had been so fatal to many of their
+brethren.
+
+The alligator, unconscious of the stratagem thus prepared to secure him,
+sprang from the water as the branch descended but instead of catching the
+monkey he expected, he was himself caught in the noose; and the monkeys
+moving away rather precipitately, the alligator was drawn considerably
+above the surface of the water. The more he struggled the firmer he was
+held by the noose; and here was his skeleton to be seen many years after,
+suspended from the tree over the water, until time and the changes of
+season released the blanched bones from their exalted situation, to
+consign them to their more natural element in the lake below.
+
+On one occasion, a Hindoo traveller on his way to Muttra, from his place
+of residence, drew down the resentment of the monkeys inhabiting the same
+forest, by his inattention to their well-known habits. The story is told
+as follows:--
+
+'The man was travelling with all his worldly wealth about his person: viz.,
+fifty gold mohurs, (each nearly equal to two pounds in value[3]), and a
+few rupees, the savings of many a year's hard service, which were secreted
+in the folds of his turban; a good suit of clothes on his back; a few gold
+ornaments on his neck and arms; and a bundle of sundries and cooking
+vessels.
+
+'The Hindoo was on foot, without companions, making his way towards the
+home of his forefathers, where he hoped with his little treasury to be
+able to spend his remaining years in peace with his family and friends,
+after many years' toil and absence from his home. He stopped near to the
+lake in question, after a long and fatiguing march, to rest himself
+beneath the shade of the trees, and cook his humble meal of bread and
+dhall. I ought here, perhaps, to say, that this class of Natives always
+cook in the open air, and, if possible, near a river, or large body of
+water, for the purpose of bathing before meals, and having water for
+purifying their cooking utensils, &c.
+
+'The man having undressed himself, and carefully piled his wardrobe
+beneath the tree he had selected for shelter, went to the lake and bathed;
+after which he prepared his bread, and sat himself down to dine. As soon
+as he was comfortably seated, several large monkeys advanced and squatted
+themselves at a respectful distance from him, doubtless expecting to share
+in the good things he was enjoying. But, no: the traveller was either too
+hungry or inhospitable, for he finished his meal, without tendering the
+smallest portion to his uninvited visitors, who kept their station
+watching every mouthful until he had finished.
+
+'The meal concluded, the traveller gathered his cooking vessels together
+and went to the bank of the lake, in order to wash them, as is customary,
+and to cleanse his mouth after eating; his clothes and valuables were left
+securely under the tree as he imagined,--if he thought at all about
+them,--for he never dreamed of having offended the monkeys by eating all
+he had cooked, without making them partakers. He was no sooner gone,
+however, than the monkeys assembled round his valuables; each took
+something from the collection; the oldest among them having secured the
+purse of gold, away they ran to the tree over the very spot where the man
+was engaged in polishing his brass vessels.
+
+The Hindoo had soon completed his business at the lake, and unconscious of
+their movements, he had returned to the tree, where to his surprise and
+sorrow, he discovered his loss. Nearly frantic, the Hindoo doubted not
+some sly thief had watched his motions and removed his treasures, when he
+heard certain horrid yells from the monkeys which attracted his attention:
+he returned hastily to the lake, and on looking up to the tree, he
+discovered his enemies in the monkeys. They tantalized him for some time
+by holding up the several articles to his view, and when the old monkey
+shook the bag of gold, the poor man was in an agony; they then threw the
+whole into the lake, the coins, one by one, were cast into the deep water,
+where not a shadow of hope could be entertained of their restoration, as
+the lake was deep and known to be infested with alligators.
+
+'The man was almost driven mad by this unlooked-for calamity, by which he
+was deprived of the many comforts his nursed treasure had so fairly
+promised him for the remainder of life. He could devise no plan for
+recovering his lost valuables, and resolved on hastening to the nearest
+village, there to seek advice and assistance from his fellow-men; where
+having related his unfortunate adventures, and declaring he had done
+nothing to anger the creatures, he was asked if he had dined, and if so,
+had he given them a share? He said, he had indeed cooked his dinner, and
+observed the monkeys seated before him whilst he dined, but he did not
+offer them any.
+
+'"That, that, is your offence!" cried the villagers in a breath; "who
+would ever think of eating without sharing his meal with men or with
+animals? You are punished for your greediness, friend."--"Be it so," said
+the traveller; "I am severely used by the brutes, and am now resolved on
+punishing them effectually in return for the ill they have done me."
+
+'He accordingly sold the gold ornaments from his arms and neck, purchased
+a quantity of sugar, ghee, flour, and arsenic, returned to his old
+quarters, prepared everything for cooking, and, in a short time, had a
+large dish filled with rich-looking cakes, to tempt his enemies to their
+own ruin.
+
+'The feast was prepared in the presence of the assembled multitude of
+monkeys. The Hindoo placed the dish before his guests, saying, "There, my
+lords! your food is ready!" The old monkey advanced towards the dish, took
+up a cake, raised it to his nose, and then returning it to the dish,
+immediately ran off, followed by the whole of his associates into the
+thick jungle.
+
+'The man began to despair, and thought himself the most unlucky creature
+existing; when, at length, he saw them returning with augmented numbers;
+he watched them narrowly, and observed each monkey had a green leaf in his
+paw, in which he folded a cake and devoured the whole speedily. The man
+expected of course to see them sicken immediately, for the quantity of
+arsenic he had used was sufficient, he imagined to have killed twenty
+times their number. But, no: his stratagem entirely failed; for the leaf
+they had provided themselves was an antidote to the poison put into their
+food. The traveller thus sacrificed even that little which would have
+carried him on his journey, had he been satisfied with his first loss; but
+the Hindoo cherished a revengeful disposition, and thereby was obliged to
+beg his way to his family.'
+
+The next monkey story is equally marvellous, the Natives believe that it
+actually occurred; I am disposed, however, to think all these stories were
+originally fables to impress a moral upon the ignorant.
+
+'Near a small town in the province of Oude there is a jungle of some
+extent, inhabited by monkeys. A certain man of the Hindoo class, residing
+in the town, resolved upon enjoying himself one day with a bottle of
+arrack he had procured by stealth, and since it is well known that spirits
+or fermented liquors are prohibited articles in the territories governed
+by Mussulmaun rulers, the man betook himself with his treat to the
+neighbouring jungle, where in private he might drink the spirit he loved,
+and escape the vigilance of the police.
+
+'Arriving at a convenient spot, the Hindoo seated himself under a tree,
+prepared his hookha, drew from his wrapper the bottle of spirits, and a
+small cup he had provided; and if ever he knew what happiness was in his
+life, this moment was surely his happiest.
+
+'He drank a cup of his liquor, smoked his hookha with increased relish,
+and thought of nothing but his present enjoyment. Presently he heard the
+sound of rustling in the trees, and in a few minutes after, a fine sturdy
+monkey, of the Lungoor tribe, placed himself very near to him and his
+bottle.
+
+'The Hindoo was of a lively temper, and withal kindly disposed towards the
+living, though not of his own species. Having a cake of dry bread in his
+waistband, he broke off a piece and threw it to his visitor; the monkey
+took the bread and sniffed at the cup. "Perhaps you may like to taste as
+well as to smell," thought the Hindoo, as he poured out the liquor into
+the cup, and presented it to his guest.
+
+'The monkey raised the cup with both paws to his mouth, sipped of its
+contents, winked his eyes, appeared well satisfied with the flavour, and
+to the surprise of the Hindoo, finished the cup, which was no sooner done,
+than away he sprang up the tree again.
+
+'"Had I known you would run away so soon, my guest, I should have spared
+my arrack;" thought the Hindoo. But the monkey quickly returned to his old
+position, threw down a gold mohur to his entertainer, and sat grinning
+with apparent satisfaction. The Hindoo, astonished at the sight of gold,
+thought to repay his benefactor by another cup of spirits, which he placed
+before the monkey, who drank it off, and again mounted the tree, and
+shortly returned with a second gold mohur.
+
+'Delighted with the profit his arrack produced, the Hindoo drank sparingly
+himself, for each time the monkey took a cup, a gold mohur was produced,
+until the man counted eight of these valuable coins on his palm. By this
+time, however, the monkey was completely overcome by the strength of his
+potations, and lay apparently senseless before the Hindoo, who fancied now
+was his turn to mount the tree, where he found, on diligent search, in a
+hollow place, a small bag of gold mohurs, with which he walked off,
+leaving the monkey prostrate on the earth.
+
+'The Hindoo determined on going some distance from his home, in a
+different direction, fearing his secret treasure might be the means of
+drawing him into difficulties amongst the people of his own town, who had
+probably been robbed by the monkey at some previous period.
+
+'In the meanwhile the monkey is supposed to have recovered from his stupor,
+and the next morning on discovering his loss, he set up a horrid yell,
+which brought together all his fellow-inhabitants of the jungle; and some
+neighbouring villagers saw an immense number of monkeys of all sorts and
+sizes, collected together in a body. The story runs that this army of
+monkeys was headed by the one who had recovered from his drunken fit, and
+that they marched away from the jungle in pursuit of the robber.
+
+'Their first march was to the adjacent village, where every house was
+visited in turn by the monkeys, without success; no one ever venturing to
+obstruct or drive away the intruders, fearing their resentment. After
+which they sallied out of the village to the main road, minutely looking
+for footsteps, as a clue, on the sandy pathway; and by this means
+discovering the track of the Hindoo, they pursued the road they had
+entered throughout the day and night. Early in the morning of the
+following day, the monkeys advanced to the serai (inn, or halting place
+for travellers) soon after the Hindoo himself had quitted it, who had
+actually sojourned there the previous night.
+
+'On the road, when the horde of monkeys met any traveller, he was detained
+by them until the chief of them had scrutinized his features, and he was
+then liberated on finding he was not the person they were in pursuit of.
+After having marched nearly forty miles from their home, they entered one
+of the halting places for travellers, where the Hindoo was resting after
+his day's journey.
+
+'The monkey having recognized the robber, immediately grasped him by the
+arm, and others entering, the frightened robber was searched, the purse
+discovered in his wrapper, which the chief monkey angrily seized, and then
+counted over its contents, piece by piece. This done, finding the number
+correct, the monkey selected eight pieces, and threw them towards the
+Hindoo; and distributing the remaining number of gold mohurs amongst the
+monkeys, who placed each his coin in the hollow of his cheek, the whole
+body retired from the serai to retrace their steps to the jungle.'
+
+
+[1] Hanuman, the divine monkey of the Ramayana epic, who helped
+    Rama to recover his abducted wife, Sita.
+
+[2] _Langur, Semnopithecus entellus_.
+
+[3] Now worth a little more than a sovereign.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXIII
+
+  The Soofies.--Opinion of the Mussulmauns concerning Solomon.--The
+  Ood-ood.--Description of the Soofies and their sect.--Regarded with
+  great reverence.--Their protracted fasts.--Their opinion esteemed by
+  the Natives.--Instance of the truth of their predictions.--The Saalik
+  and Majoob Soofies.--The poets Haafiz and Saadie.--Character and
+  attainments of Saadie.--His 'Goolistaun'.--Anecdotes descriptive of
+  the origin of that work.--Farther remarks on the character and
+  history of Saadie.--Interesting anecdotes illustrative of his virtues
+  and the distinguishing characteristics of the Soofies.
+
+
+The life of King Solomon, with all his acts, is the subject of many an
+author's pen, both in the Arabic and Persian languages; consequently the
+learned Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun are intimately acquainted with his
+virtues, his talent, and the favour with which he was visited by the great
+goodness of the Almighty. In the course of my sojourn amongst them, I have
+heard many remarkable and some interesting anecdotes relating to Solomon,
+which the learned men assure me are drawn from sources of unquestionable
+authority.
+
+They affirm that the wisdom of Solomon not only enabled him to search into
+the most hidden thoughts of men, and to hold converse with them in their
+respective languages, but that the gift extended even to the whole brute
+creation; by which means he could hold unlimited converse, not only with
+the animate, as birds, beasts, and fish, but with inanimate objects, as
+shrubs, trees, and, indeed, the whole tribe of vegetable nature; and,
+further, that he was permitted to discern and control aerial spirits, as
+demons, genii, &c.
+
+The pretty bird, known in India by the name of Ood-ood,[1] is much
+regarded by the Mussulmauns, as by their tradition this bird was the
+hurkaarah of King Solomon; and entrusted with his most important
+commissions whenever he required intelligence to be conveyed to or from a
+far distant place, because he could place greater confidence in the
+veracity of this bird, and rely on more certain dispatch, than when
+entrusting his commands to the most worthy of his men servants.
+
+The ood-ood is beautifully formed, has a variegated plumage of black,
+yellow, and white, with a high tuft of feathers on its head, through which
+is a spear of long feathers protruding directly across the head for
+several inches, and is of the woodpecker species. The princes, Nuwaubs,
+and nobility of Hindoostaun, keep hurkaarahs for the purpose of conveying
+and obtaining intelligence, who are distinguished by a short spear, with a
+tuft of silk or worsted about the middle of the handle, and the tail of
+the ood-ood in the front of their turban, to remind them of this bird,
+which they are expected to imitate both in dispatch and fidelity. I am
+told, these men (from their early training) are enabled to run from fifty
+to sixty miles bare-footed, and return the same distance without halting
+on the same day.
+
+The religious devotees of the Mussulmaun persuasion, who are denominated
+Soofies,[1] are conjectured, by many, to have a similar gift with Solomon
+of understanding the thoughts of other men. By some it is imagined that
+Solomon was the first Soofie; by others, that Ali, the husband of Fatima,
+imparted the knowledge of that mystery which constitutes the real Soofie.
+I am acquainted with some Natives who designate the Soofies 'Freemasons'
+but I imagine this to be rather on account of both possessing a secret,
+than for any similarity in other respects, between the two orders of
+people.
+
+My business, however, is to describe. The Soofies then are, as far as I
+can comprehend, strictly religious men, who have forsaken entirely all
+attachment to earthly things, in their adoration of the one supreme God.
+They are sometimes found dwelling in the midst of a populous city, yet,
+even there they are wholly detached from the world, in heart, soul, and
+mind, exercising themselves in constant adoration of, and application to
+God; occasionally shutting themselves up for several weeks together in a
+hut of mud, thatched with coarse grass, with scarce sufficient provision
+to support the smallest living animal, and water barely enough to moisten
+their parched lips during the weeks thus devoted to solitary retirement
+and prayer.
+
+When these recluses can no longer support their self-inflicted privation,
+they open the door of their hut, a signal anxiously watched for by such
+persons as have a desire to meet the eye of the holy man, of whom they
+would inquire on some (to them) interesting matter; probably regarding
+their future prospects in the world, the cause of the ill-health and
+prospects of recovery of a diseased member of their family, or any like
+subject of interest to the inquirer.
+
+The Soofie, I am told, does not approve of being thus teased by the
+importunities of the thronging crowd, who beset his threshold the instant
+his door is heard to open. Being weak in body, after the fatigue of a
+protracted fast of weeks together, his replies to the questions (preferred
+always with remarkable humility) are brief and prompt; and the Natives
+assure me dependence may always be placed on the good Soofie's reply being
+strictly the words of truth. On this account, even if the oracle's reply
+disappoint the hopes of the questioner, he retires without a murmur, for
+then he knows the worst of his calamity, and if God orders it so, he must
+not complain, because Infinite Wisdom cannot err, and the holy man will
+assuredly speak the truth.
+
+The practice so long prevailing in Europe of visiting the cunning man, to
+have the hidden mysteries of fate solved, occurred to my recollection when
+I first heard of this custom in India.
+
+'Will my son return from his travels during my lifetime?'--was the inquiry
+of a truly religious man, whom I knew very intimately, to one of the
+professed Soofie class, on his emerging from his hut. The reply was as
+follows:--'Go home!--be happy;--comfort your heart;--he is coming!' By a
+singular coincidence it happened, that the following day's daak produced a
+letter, announcing to him that his son was on his way returning to his
+home and his father, who had for some years despaired of ever again seeing
+his son in this life.
+
+It is needless to say, that the veneration shown to this Soofie was much
+increased by the singular coincidence, because the person who consulted
+him was a man of remarkable probity, and not given to indulge in idle
+conversations with the worldly-minded of that city.
+
+There are many men in this country, I am told, who make Soofieism their
+profession, but who are in reality hypocrites to the world, and their
+Maker: actuated sometimes by the love of applause from the multitude, but
+oftener, I am assured, by mercenary motives. A Soofie enjoying public
+favour may, if he choose, command any man's wealth who gives credit to his
+supposed power. All men pay a marked deference to his holy character, and
+few would have the temerity to withhold the desired sum, however
+inconvenient to bestow, should the demand be made by one professing to be
+a Soofie.
+
+The real Soofie is, however, a very different character, and an object of
+deserved veneration, if only for the virtue of perfect content with which
+his humble mind is endued: respect cannot be withheld by the reflecting
+part of the world, when contemplating a fellow-creature (even of a
+different faith) whose life is passed in sincere devotion to God, and
+strictly conforming to the faith he has embraced. My Native friends inform
+me,--and many reprobate the notion,--that the Soofies believe they resolve
+into the Divine essence when their souls are purified from the animal
+propensities of this life by severe privations, fervent and continual
+prayer, watchings, resisting temptations, and profound meditation in
+solitude. When they have acquired the perfection they aim at, and are
+really and truly the perfect Soofie, they rarely quit the hut they have
+first selected for their retirement, and into which no one ever attempts
+to intrude, without the Soofie commands it. He enjoys the universal
+respect and veneration of all classes of people; he has no worldly rewards
+to bestow, yet there are servants always ready to do him any kindness,
+amongst the number of his admirers who flock to catch but a glimpse of the
+holy man, and fancy themselves better when but the light of his
+countenance has beamed upon them. Proudly pre-eminent, in his own eyes, is
+the one amongst the multitude who may be so far honoured as to be allowed
+to place a platter of food before the Soofie, when the imperative demands
+of Nature prevail over his self-inflicted abstinence.
+
+Some Soofies shut themselves in their hut for a few days, and others for
+weeks together, without seeing or being seen by a human being. Their
+general clothing is simply a wrapper of calico, and their only furniture a
+coarse mat. They are said to be alike insensible to heat or cold, so
+entirely are their hearts weaned from the indulgence of earthly comforts.
+
+I must explain, however, that there are two classes of the professedly
+devout Soofies, viz. the Saalik, and the Majoob.[3] The true Saalik
+Soofies are those who give up the world and its allurements, abstain from
+all sensual enjoyments, rarely associate with their fellow-men, devote
+themselves entirely to their Creator, and are insensible to any other
+enjoyments but such as they derive from their devotional exercises.
+
+The Majoob Soofies have no established home nor earthly possessions; they
+drink wine and spirits freely, when they can obtain them. Many people
+suppose this class have lost the possession of their reason, and make
+excuse for their departure from the law on that score. Both classes are
+nevertheless in great respect, because the latter are not deemed guilty of
+breaking the law, since they are supposed to be insensible of their
+actions whilst indulging in the forbidden juice of the grape.
+
+Haafiz,[4] the celebrated poet of Persia, it is related, was a Soofie of
+the Majoob class, he lived without a thought of providing for future
+exigencies, accepted the offerings of food from his neighbour, drank wine
+freely when offered to him, and slept under any shed or hovel he met with,
+as contented as if he was in the palace of a king.
+
+Saadie,[5] the Persian poet, was, during the latter years of his life, a
+Saalik Soofie of the most perfect kind. Many of the inspirations of his
+pen, however, were written in that part of his life which was devoted to
+the world and its enjoyments; yet most of these indicate purity of thought
+in a remarkable degree. Saadie's life was subject to the most
+extraordinary vicissitudes; he possessed an independent mind, scorning
+every allurement of wealth which might tend to shackle his principles. He
+is said to have repeatedly rejected offers of patronage and pecuniary
+assistance from many noblemen, whilst he still loved the world's
+enticements, declaring he never could submit to confine himself to
+attendance on an earthly master for any lengthened period. His wit,
+pleasing deportment, and polite manners, together with the amiable
+qualities of his heart, rendered him a general favourite, and they who
+could boast most intimacy with Saadie were the most honoured by the world;
+for, though but the poor Saadie, he shed a lustre over the assemblies of
+the great and noble in birth or station, by his brilliant mind.
+
+The 'Goolistaun'[6] of Saadie has been so often eulogized, as to render it
+unnecessary for me to add a single word in commendation of its style and
+morality; but I will here take leave to insert an anecdote translated for
+me by my husband, in allusion to the incident which prompted Saadie to
+write that work, under the title of 'Goolistaun' (Garden of Roses). I will
+also here remark, that in the principal cities of Persia, the Mussulmauns
+of that age were not equally rigid in their observance of the law
+interdicting the use of fermented liquors, as are those of the present day
+in Hindoostaun. Many young men among the higher orders indulged freely in
+the 'life-inspiring draught', as they were wont to call the juice of the
+grape.
+
+'Shiraaz was the abode and the presumptive birth-place of Saadie. In his
+early years he was led by a love of society to depart from the rigid
+customs of his forefathers, and with the wild youth of his acquaintance to
+indulge freely in nightly potations of the forbidden juice of the grape.
+He had long delighted his friends and favourites by sharing in their
+nocturnal revels, and adding by his wit and pleasantry to the mirthful
+moments as they flew by unheeded.
+
+'At a particular season of the year, a convivial party were accustomed to
+assemble in a garden of roses, from midnight to the rising sun, to indulge
+in the luxury of wine during that refreshing season; as to receive the
+first scent from the opening roses as they expand with the dawn of the
+morning, constituted a delight, proverbially intoxicating, amongst the
+sons of Persia. Saadie composed many airs for the occasion, and gifted by
+Nature with a voice equalled only by his wit, he sang them with a melody
+so sweet as to render him almost the idol of his companions.
+
+'At one of these seasons of enjoyment, the festival was prepared by his
+circle of friends as usual, but Saadie delayed his visit. The whole party
+were lost in surprise and regret at an absence as unexpected as deplored.
+Some time was passed in fruitless conjecture on the cause of his delay,
+and at last it was agreed that a deputation from his well-beloved
+associates should go in quest of their favourite. They accordingly went,
+and knocked at the door of his room, which they found was securely
+fastened within. The poet inquired "Who is it that disturbs my repose, at
+this hour, when all good subjects of the King should be at rest?"--"Why,
+Saadie, Saadie!" they replied, "it is your friends and associates, your
+favourites!--have you forgotten our enjoyments and this season of bliss?
+Come, come, open the door, Saadie! away with us! our revels await your
+presence. Nothing gives enjoyment to our party until you add your smiles
+to our mirth."
+
+'"Let me alone," replied Saadie; "enjoy your pastime, if such it be to ye;
+but for me, I am heartily ashamed of my late wanton pursuits. I have
+resolved on mending my ways, whilst yet I have time; and be ye also wise,
+my friends; follow Saadie's example. Go home to your beds, and forsake the
+sinful habits of the world!"
+
+'"Why Saadie, what aileth thee! art thou mad?--or has the study of
+philosophy drawn thee from thy former self, whilst yet thine hairs are jet
+with youth? These reflections of thine will suit us till far better when
+time hath frosted our beards. Come, come, Saadie, away with us! let not
+the precious moments escape in this unprofitable converse. You must come,
+Saadie; our hearts will break without you!"
+
+'"Nay, nay," responded Saadie, "my conscience smites me that I have erred
+too long. It suits not my present temper to join in your mirth."--"Open
+the door to us at any rate," sounded from the many voices without; "speak
+to us face to face, our dear and well-beloved friend! let us have
+admission, and we will argue the subject coolly."--Saadie's good-nature
+could not resist the appeal, the door was unbarred, and the young men
+entered in a body.
+
+'"We have all wickedly broken the law of the faithful," said Saadie to his
+guests; and he tried to reason with his unreasonable favourites, who, on
+their part, used raillery, bantering, argument, and every power of speech,
+to turn Saadie from his steady purpose of now fulfilling the law he had
+wilfully violated. They effected nothing in moving him from his purpose,
+until one of the young men, to whom Saadie was much attached, spoke
+tenderly to him of the affection both himself and friends entertained for
+him, adding, "It is written in our law, that if a Mussulmaun be guilty of
+any sin, however great, (and all kinds of sin are therein enumerated), and
+he afterwards sincerely repents before God, with fasting and prayer, his
+sins shall be forgiven. Now you, Saadie, who are deeply versed in the way
+of wisdom, and better acquainted with the words of the Khoraun than any
+other man on earth, tell me, is there in that holy book a promise made of
+forgiveness for that man who breaks the hearts of his fellow-creatures?
+With us there are many hearts so devotedly attached to you, that must
+assuredly burst the bonds of life by your complete and sudden desertion of
+them, so that not one sin but many shall be hurled by their deaths on your
+conscience, to be atoned for how you may."
+
+'Saadie loved them all too dearly to resist their persevering proofs of
+affection, and he suffered himself, after a little more argument, to be
+led forth to the scene of their revels, where, however, he argued strongly
+on the impropriety of their habits and refused to be tempted by the
+alluring wine. He then promised to prepare for them a never-fading garden
+of roses which should last with the world; every leaf of which, if plucked
+with attention, should create a greater and more lasting bliss about their
+hearts than the best wine of Shiraaz, or the most refined aromatic had
+hitherto conveyed to their sensual appetites.'
+
+After the evening in question, Saadie abstained from all participation in
+the revels of his friends, and devoted his hours to retirement that he
+might accomplish the 'Goolistaun' he had pledged himself to cultivate for
+their more substantial benefit and perpetual enjoyment. The simplicity,
+elegance, purity of style, and moral precepts conveyed in this work, prove
+the author to have been worthy the respect with which his name has been
+reverenced through all ages, and to this day, by the virtuously disposed
+his work is read with unabated interest.
+
+Saadie did not remain very long at Shiraaz after his conversion, nor did
+he settle any where for any long period. The Persian writers assert that
+he disliked the importunities of the world, which, sensible of his merits
+as a poet and companion, constantly urged him to associate with them. He,
+therefore, lived a wandering life for many years, carefully concealing his
+name, which had then become so celebrated by his writings, that even
+beyond the boundaries of Persia his fame was known.
+
+As his manner of life was simple, his wants were few; he depended solely
+on the care of Divine Providence for his daily meal, avoiding every thing
+like laying by from to-day's produce for the morrow's sustenance. He
+considered that provision alone acceptable, which the bounty of Divine
+Providence daily provided for his need, by disposing the hearts of others
+to tender a suitable supply. In fact, he is said to have been of opinion
+that the store laid up by men for future exigencies lessened the
+delightful feeling of dependance on the bounty of God, who faileth not,
+day by day, to provide for the birds and beasts of the forest with equal
+care as for the prince on his throne; he would say, 'I shall be tempted to
+forget from whom my bread is received, if I have coins in my purse to
+purchase from the vender. Sweet is the daily bread granted to my prayers
+and dependance on the sole Giver of all good!'
+
+To illustrate the necessity of perfect content, he relates, in his
+writings, the following interesting anecdote:--'I was once travelling on
+foot, where the roads were rugged, my shoes worn out, and my feet cut by
+the stones. I was desirous of pursuing my journey quickly, and secretly
+mourned that my feet pained me, and that my shoes were now rendered
+useless; often wishing, as I stepped with caution, that I possessed the
+means of replenishing these articles so useful to a traveller.
+
+'With these feelings of dissatisfaction, I approached the spot where a
+poor beggar was seated, who, by some calamity, had been deprived of both
+his feet. I viewed this sad object with much commiseration, for he was
+dependant on the kindness of his fellow-beggars to convey him daily to
+that public spot, where the passing traveller, seeing his misery, might be
+induced to bestow upon him a few coins to provide for his subsistence.
+"Alas! alas!" said I, "how have I suffered my mind to be disturbed because
+my feet pained me, and were shoeless. Ungrateful being that I am! rather
+ought I to rejoice with an humble heart, that my gracious Benefactor hath
+granted me the blessing of feet, and sound health. Never let me again
+murmur or repine for the absence of a luxury, whilst my real wants are
+amply supplied."'
+
+One of my objects in detailing the anecdotes of Saadie in this place, is
+to give a more correct idea of the Soofie character of that particular
+class called Saalik, to which he ultimately belonged.
+
+The next translation from the life of Saadie will show how beautifully his
+well-tempered spirit soared above those difficulties which the common mind
+would have sunk under. His fame, his superior manners, were of that rare
+kind, that distance from his birth-place could be no obstacle to his
+making friends, if he chose to disclose his name in any city of Asia.
+
+I have no dates to guide me in placing the several anecdotes in their
+proper order; this, however, will be excused, as I do not pretend to give
+his history.
+
+'On one occasion, Saadie was journeying on foot, and being overtaken by
+the Arabs, (who, or a party of, it may be presumed, were at war with
+Persia), he was taken prisoner, and conveyed by them, with many others, to
+Aleppo. The prisoners, as they arrived, were all devoted to the public
+works (fortifying the city), and obliged to labour according to their
+ability.
+
+'Saadie, unused to any branch of mechanical labour, could only be employed
+in conveying mortar to the more scientific workmen. For many months he
+laboured in this way, degrading as the employment was, without a murmur,
+or a desire that his fate had been otherways ordained. Hundreds of men
+then living in Aleppo would have been proud of the honour and the good
+name they must have acquired from the world, by delivering the Poet from
+his thraldom, had they known he was amongst them, a slave to the Arabs;
+for Saadie was revered as a saint by those who had either read his works,
+or heard of his name, extolled as it was for his virtues. But Saadie
+placed his trust in God alone, and his confidence never for an instant
+forsook him; he kept his name concealed from all around him, laboured as
+commanded, and was contented.
+
+'Many months of degrading servitude had passed by, when one day, it so
+happened that a rich Jew merchant, who had formerly lived at Shiraaz, and
+there had been honoured by the regard of the idolized Saadie, visited
+Aleppo, on his mercantile concerns. Curiosity led him to survey the
+improvements going on in the city; and passing the spot where Saadie was
+then presenting his load of mortar to the mason, he thought he recognized
+the Poet, yet deemed it impossible that he should be engaged in so
+degrading an employment, who was the object of universal veneration in
+Persia. Still the likeness to his former friend was so striking, that he
+felt no trifling degree of pleasure, whilst contemplating those features
+whose resemblance recalled the image of that holy man who was so dear to
+him, and brought back to his recollection many delightful hours of
+friendly converse, which at Shiraaz had cheated time of its weight, and
+left impressions on his heart to profit by during life.
+
+'"I will talk with this man," thought the Jew; "surely he must be related
+to my friend; the face, the form, the graceful manner, and even in that
+rude garb and occupation, he so strongly resembles my friend, that I
+cannot doubt he must be of the same kindred."
+
+'Drawing near to Saadie, the Jew accosted him with, "Who are you,
+friend,--and whence do you come?" Saadie's voice dispelled every doubt of
+the Jew, their eyes met, and in a few seconds they were clasped in each
+other's warm embrace, the Jew lamenting, in terms of warm sympathy, the
+degradation of the immortalized poet, and sainted man; whilst he in turn
+checked his friend's murmurings, by expressing his conviction that the
+wisdom of God knew best how to lead his confiding servants to himself,
+declaring his present occupation did not render him discontented.
+
+'The Jew went without delay to the superintendant of the public works, and
+inquired the sum he would be willing to receive in lieu of the labourer
+whom he desired to purchase, carefully avoiding the name of Saadie lest
+the ransom should be proportioned to the real value of such a slave. The
+man agreed to take one hundred and ten pieces of silver (each in value
+half a dollar). The sum was promptly paid, and the Jew received an order
+to take away his purchase when and wherever he pleased. He lost no time in
+possessing himself of his treasured friend, conveyed him to the city,
+where he clothed him in apparel better suited to his friend, and on the
+same day Saadie accompanied the benevolent Israelite to his country
+residence, some miles distant from the city of Aleppo.
+
+'Arrived here, Saadie enjoyed uninterrupted peace of mind for a long
+season, his heart bounding with gratitude to God, who had, he felt assured,
+worked out his deliverance from slavery and its consequences; and as may
+be supposed from such a heart, Saadie was truly sensible of the benevolent
+Jew's kindness, with whom he was constrained to remain a considerable time,
+for the Jew indeed loved him as a brother, and always grieved at the bare
+probability that they might ever again be separated; and desiring to
+secure his continuance with him during their joint lives, he proposed that
+Saadie should accept his only daughter in marriage with a handsome dowry.
+
+'Saadie resisted his friend's offer for some time, using arguments which,
+instead of altering his friend's purpose, only strengthened the desire to
+secure this amiable man as the husband of his daughter. Saadie assured him
+he was sensible of the offence his friend might give to the opinions of
+his people, by the proposal of uniting his daughter to a man of another
+faith, and that their prejudices would bring innumerable evils on his good
+name by such an alliance. "No," said Saadie, "I cannot consent to such a
+measure. I have already been a great trouble to you, if not a burden; let
+me depart, for I cannot consent to draw down on the head of my friend the
+censures of his tribe, and, perhaps, in after-time, disappointments. I
+have, indeed, no desire to marry; my heart and mind are otherways engaged."
+
+'The friends often discussed the subject ere Saadie gave way to the
+earnest solicitations of the Jew, to whose happiness the grateful heart of
+Saadie was about to be sacrificed when he reluctantly consented to become
+the husband of the young Jewess. The marriage ceremony was performed
+according to the Jewish rites, when Saadie was overpowered with the
+caresses and munificence of his friend and father-in-law.
+
+'A very short season of domestic peace resulted to him from the alliance.
+The young lady had been spoiled by the over-indulgence of her doating
+parent, her errors of temper and mind having never been corrected. Proud,
+vindictive, and arrogant, she played the part of tyrant to her meek and
+faultless husband. She strove to rouse his temper by taunts, revilings,
+and indignities that required more than mortal nature to withstand
+replying to, or bear with composure.
+
+'Still Saadie went on suffering in silence; although the trials he had to
+endure undermined his health, he never allowed her father to know the
+misery he had entailed on himself by this compliance with his well-meant
+wishes; nor was the secret cause of his altered appearance suspected by
+the kind-hearted Jew, until by common report his daughter's base behaviour
+was disclosed to the wretched father, who grieved for the misfortunes he
+had innocently prepared for the friend of his heart.
+
+'Saadie, it is said, entreated the good Jew to allow of a divorce from the
+Jewess, which, however, was not agreed to; and when his sufferings had so
+increased that his tranquillity was destroyed, fearing the loss of reason
+would follow, he fled from Aleppo in disguise and retraced his steps to
+Shiraaz, where in solitude his peace of mind was again restored, for there
+he could converse with his merciful Creator and Protector uninterrupted by
+the strife of tongues.'
+
+
+[1] _Hudhud_, the lapwing, hoopoe. In the Koran (xxvii. 20, with Sale's
+    note) the bird is described as carrying a letter from Solomon to the
+    Queen of Sheba. On another occasion, when Solomon was lost in the
+    desert, he sent it to procure for him water for ablution.
+
+[2] The term _sufi_, derived from _suf_, 'wool', in allusion to
+    the garments worn by them, was applied in the second century of Islam
+    to men or women who adopted the ascetic or quietistic way of life. See
+    Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, 608 ff.: D.B. Macdonald, _The
+    Development of Muslim Theology_, 1903: E.G. Browne, _A Year Amongst
+    the Persians_, 1893.
+
+[3] If a Sufi becomes, by devotion, attracted to God, he is called
+    _Salik-i-majzub_, 'an attracted devotee': if he practises
+    complete devotion, but is not influenced by the special attraction of
+    God, he is called _Salik_, 'a devotee' (Hughes, _Dictionary of
+    Islam_, 612: Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 197).
+
+[4] See p. 255.
+
+[5] See p. 255.
+
+[6] Gulistan.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXIV
+
+  The Soofies continued.--Eloy Bauxh.--Assembly of Saalik
+  Soofies.--Singular exhibition of their zeal.--Mystery of Soofeism.--The
+  terms Soofie and Durweish explained.--Anecdote of Shah Sherif.--Shah
+  Jee and the Paltaan.--Dialogue on death between Shah Jee and his
+  wife.--Exemplary life of his grandson.--Anecdote of a Mussulmaun
+  lady.--Reflections on modern Hindoos.--Anecdotes of Shah ood Dowlah
+  and Meer Nizaam...Page 348
+
+
+My last Letter introduced the Soofies to your notice, the present shall
+convey a further account of some of these remarkable characters who have
+obtained so great celebrity among the Mussulmauns of India, as to form the
+subjects of daily conversation. I have heard some rigid Mussulmauns
+declare they discredit the mysterious knowledge a Soofie is said to
+possess, yet the same persons confess themselves staggered by the singular
+circumstances attending the practice of Soofies living in their vicinity,
+which they have either witnessed or heard related by men whose veracity
+they cannot doubt; amongst the number I may quote an intimate acquaintance
+of my husband's, a very venerable Syaad of Lucknow, who relates an
+anecdote of Saalik Soofies, which I will here introduce.
+
+'Meer Eloy Bauxh,[1] a Mussulmaun of distinguished piety, who has devoted
+a long life to the service of God, and in doing good to his fellow-men,
+tells me, that being curious to witness the effect of an assembly of
+Saalik Soofies, he went with a party of friends, all equally disposed with
+himself to be amused by the eccentricities of the Soofies, whose practice
+they ridiculed as at least absurd,--to speak in no harsher terms of their
+pretended supernatural gifts.
+
+'This assembly consisted of more than a hundred persons, who by agreement
+met at a large hall in the city of Lucknow, for the purpose of
+"remembering the period of absence", as they term the death of a highly
+revered Soofie of their particular class. The room being large, and free
+admittance allowed to all persons choosing to attend the assembly, Meer
+Eloy Bauxh and his party entered, and seated themselves in a convenient
+place for the more strict scrutiny of the passing-scene.
+
+'The service for the occasion began with a solemn strain by the musical
+performers, when one of the inspired Soofies commenced singing in a voice
+of remarkable melody. The subject was a hymn of praise to the great
+Creator, most impressively composed in the Persian language. Whilst the
+Soofie was singing, one of the elders in particular,--though all seemed
+sensibly affected by the strain,--rose from his seat, in what the Soofies
+themselves call, "the condition changed," which signifies, by what I could
+learn, a religious ecstasy. This person joined in the same melody which
+the other Soofie had begun, and at the same time accompanied the music by
+capering and sobbing in the wildest manner imaginable. His example had the
+effect of exciting all the Soofies on whom his eyes were cast to rise also
+and join him in the hymn and dance.
+
+'The singularity of this scene seemed, to Meer Eloy Bauxh and his party,
+so ludicrous that they could not refrain from laughing in an audible
+manner, which attracted the attention of the principal Soofie engaged in
+the dance, who cast his eyes upon the merry party, not, however,
+apparently in anger. Strange as he confesses it to be,--and even now it
+seems more like a dream than a reality,--at the moment he met the eye of
+the Soofie, there was an instant glow of pure happiness on his heart, a
+sensation of fervent love to God, which he had never before felt, in his
+most devout moments of prayer and praise; his companions were similarly
+affected, their eyes filled with tears, their very souls seemed elevated
+from earth to heaven in the rapture of their songs of adoration, which
+burst forth from their lips in unison with the whole Soofie assemblage.
+
+'Before they had finished their song of praise, which lasted a
+considerable time, the chief of the Soofie party sunk exhausted on the
+carpet, whilst the extraordinary display of devotion continued in full
+force on the whole assembly, whether Soofies or mere visitors, for many
+minutes after the principal devotee had fallen to the floor. Water was
+then procured, and animation gradually returned to the poor exhausted
+devotee, but with considerable delay. Meer Eloy Bauxh says he waited until
+the Soofie was perfectly restored to sense, and saw him taken to his place
+of abode; he then returned to his own home to meditate on the events of a
+day he never can forget.'
+
+Soofeism, it appears, (by the accounts I have received,) is a mystery; the
+secret of which can only be imparted by the professor to such persons as
+have been prepared for its reception, by a course of religious instruction.
+No one can be initiated into the mystery who has not first renounced all
+worldly vanities and ambitious projects--who is not sincerely repentant of
+past offences--who has not acquired perfect humility of heart, and an
+entire resignation to the Divine Will--a lively faith in God, and a firm
+determination to love and serve Him, from a conviction, 'That God alone is
+worthy to be served, loved, and worshipped by His creatures.' Thus
+prepared, the person is to receive instruction from a Calipha, (head or
+leader of the Soofies), who directs the pupil in certain exercises of the
+heart, which constitute the secrets of their profession. What these
+exercises are, I am not competent to give an opinion, but judging by the
+way a real Soofie conducts himself, it may be presumed his practices are
+purely religious; for I am assured that he is devoted to all good ways;
+that he carefully avoids worldly vanities, and every species of temptation
+and alluring gratification of the senses; that he is incessant in prayer,
+and in fasting severe; free from all prejudice, as regards the belief or
+persuasion of other men, so long as they worship God alone; regarding all
+mankind as brothers, himself the humblest of the race; claiming no merit
+for the ascendancy he has acquired over earthly wishes, he gives glory
+alone to God, whom he loves and worships.
+
+All the Durweish are of the Mussulmaun persuasion. Many are devout
+Durweish, who are, nevertheless, unacquainted with the mystery of Soofeism;
+and, to use their own words, (by which the Natives distinguish them),
+'Every real Soofie is undoubtedly a Durweish, but all Durweishes are not
+Soofies,' although their lives may be devoted much in the same holy way,
+both in the practice of religion and abstinence from worldly enjoyments;
+and if the writers on these subjects may be believed, many wonderful cures
+have been effected by the prayers of the devout Durweish.
+
+There are some pretenders, I am told, who put themselves forth to the
+world in the character of a Durweish, who are not, in fact, entitled to
+the appellation,--hypocritical devotees, who wear the outward garb of
+humility, without the feeling of that inward virtue which is the
+characteristic principle of the true Durweish. The distinction between the
+real and the pretended Durweish, may be illustrated by the following
+anecdote which I have received from the mouth of Meer Hadjee Shaah:--
+
+'In the last century,' he says, 'there lived at or near Delhi, a very
+pure-minded Durweish, named Shah Sherif ood deen Mah-mood,[2] (he was
+known in his latter years by several of my aged acquaintance at Lucknow,
+and his son and grandson both lived, at different periods, in that city).
+This person forsook the world whilst in the prime of manhood, and devoted
+himself to prayer, fasting, and good deeds. He was esteemed the most
+humble-minded of human beings, and his devotion to his Maker sincere and
+ardent. His principal abode was Delhi, where his wife and children also
+resided, to whom he was tenderly attached; yet so tempered were his
+affections, that he never allowed any earthly endearments to interfere
+with his devotions, or to separate him from his love to his Creator.
+
+'It was announced by the Soofies and Durweish, that on a certain day a
+festival or assembly of holy men would meet for the service of God, at the
+Jummah musjud[3] (Friday mosque), situated in the city of Delhi.
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen was disposed to attend the meeting, which consisted
+of the heads or superiors of several classes of the religious, with their
+disciples and followers. At this meeting, as was expected, were assembled
+the Soofies, Durweish, and religious mendicants of all ranks and
+conditions, from those clothed in gold-cloth and brocade, down to the
+almost naked Faakeer;[4] and amongst the latter number may be classed the
+humble-minded Shah Sherif ood deen. A small wrapper girt about his loins
+by a girdle of black wool spun into small ropes, and a similar article
+wound round his head, with a coarse white sheet over his shoulders for his
+summer apparel; and a black blanket to shelter his naked limbs from the
+cold winter, formed his sole wardrobe.
+
+'This holy man took his station in the most humble spot of the assembly,
+"sitting amongst the shoes" of the more esteemed or more aspiring
+personages. As there was nothing remarkable in his appearance, he remained
+unobserved, or unnoticed by the multitude present. Many of the assembly
+made great display of their right to pre-eminence, by the costliness of
+their robes, the splendour of their equipage, and the number of their
+servants; striving to command respect, if possible, by their superior
+external habiliments.
+
+'This meeting had been convened to celebrate the death of one of their
+order, which had occurred some years prior. After prayers had been read,
+suited to the occasion, a poor man, whose very appearance might excite
+compassion, addressed the heads of the devotees with folded hands,
+beseeching them, who were accounted so truly holy in their lives, to offer
+up a prayer for him who had so long suffered severe affliction, by reason
+of his neck and face being drawn awry, from a paralytic attack, or some
+like calamity. The sufferer said, "I am a poor merchant, and have a large
+family dependant altogether on my personal exertions for support; but,
+alas! this illness prevents me from attending to the business of life. I
+am wasting both in body and in substance through this grievous affliction."
+
+'The sick man's address was heard by the whole assembly in silence; many
+present, both Soofies and Durweish, were really pious men, and were
+willing to allow the person who seemed to be the head of this assembly, to
+intercede in behalf of the sufferer. To him they all looked, expecting he
+would commence a prayer in which they might join; but he, it is suspected,
+conscious of his own duplicity in assuming only the character of a Soofie
+without the virtues, was anxious to dismiss the supplicant, with a promise
+that prayer should certainly be made for him in private, adding, "This is
+not a proper season for your application; it is disrespectful to disturb
+our meeting with your requests; we came not here to listen to your
+importunities, but on more important, business."
+
+'"True, my Lord," answered the afflicted man; "I am sensible of all you
+say; but, I do assure you, private prayer has been tried for my relief by
+many individuals of your holy profession, and I have still to mourn my
+calamity. I thought when so many holy persons were assembled together, the
+united prayer--in accordance with our Prophet's commands--offered up at
+this time, would certainly be received at the throne of Mercy. I entreat
+then, at the hands of this venerable assembly, the aid I require."
+
+'The pretended Soofie looked haughtily on the sick man, and bade him
+retire to his home; he should have a prayer offered, he might depend, but
+it must be in private. The sufferer was still importunate, and urged every
+argument he could command, to induce the inexorable Soofie to allow the
+present assembly to offer a prayer on the spot for his recovery; but
+nothing he could urge availed with the proud Soofie, who at length grew
+angry even to the use of bitter words.
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen observed in silence the scene before him; at length
+he ventured (in the most respectful terms) to suggest to the heads of the
+assembly the propriety of vouchsafing the poor man's request; and hinted
+that, the prayer of some one more pure of heart than the rest might
+effectually reach the throne of Mercy in behalf of the supplicant.
+
+'"And pray," said the leader, rising haughtily, "who gave you leave to
+suggest or recommend to your superiors in knowledge and virtue? Is not our
+determination sufficient, that you, insignificant being! should presume to
+teach us what we ought to do?--you can know nothing of the Durweish's
+powerful prayers, nor the mystery of a Soofie's holy calling."
+
+'"I am, indeed, a very ignorant and unworthy creature," replied Shah
+Sherif, "and acknowledge my great presumption in daring to speak before so
+many of my superiors in knowledge and virtue; but we are told in our
+hudeeths (true speech) that the prayers of many hearts may prevail in a
+good cause, whilst singly offered the same prayer might fail," The proud
+Soofie's anger seemed to increase as the Durweish spoke; he bade him keep
+silence, and reviled him with many bitter words, which the good Shah
+received with his usual humility and forbearance. At length, the Shah
+looked attentively at the Soofie, who had thus rebuked and insulted him,
+and said, "I will believe, Sir, you are the Soofie you aspire to be
+thought among your fellow-men, if you will immediately offer up your
+single prayer, by which the suffering man may be relieved; for we know
+such prayers have been answered by the gracious Giver of all good."
+
+'"What do you know of the powerful prayer of the Soofie?" replied the
+proud man, "I suspect you to be an impostor in your humble exterior."--"No,
+" said the Shah, "I am but a poor beggar, and a humble, the very humblest
+servant of God."--"You pretend to much humility," retorted the Soofie,
+"suppose we see one of your miraculous works in answer to your prayer; it
+would please us to witness what you can do."
+
+'Shah Sherif ood deen raised his eyes to Heaven, his heart went with his
+prayer, and in a dignified manner he stretched forth his hand towards the
+afflicted person. The man was instantly restored; then drawing his hand
+into a direct line with the proud Soofie, and pointing his finger to him,
+he said, "What more, friend, dost them now require of me? The man's
+affliction is removed, but the power which is delegated to me rests still
+on my finger; command me, to whom shall I present it; to you, or any one
+of your people?"
+
+'The proud Soofie hung his head abashed and confounded, he had not power
+to answer. The Shah observed his confusion and said, "It is not well to
+pray for relief to one poor weak fellow-creature, and then to afflict
+another; to the mountain's retreat, I will consign this malady." Then
+shaking his hand as if to relieve himself from a heavy weight, he uttered
+in a solemn tone, "Go to the mountains!" and resumed that humble seat he
+had first chosen with a smile of composure beaming on his countenance.'
+This miracle is actually believed by the Natives to be true.
+
+Shah Sherif ood deen, say the people who know him, spent the principal
+part of each day and night in silent prayer and meditation; no one ever
+ventured to intrude within his small sanctuary, but hundreds of people
+would assemble outside the building, in front of which he occasionally sat
+for an hour, but scarcely ever conversed with any one of his visitors.
+During the time he was thus seated, he generally raised his eyes once or
+twice, and looked round on the faces of his audience. It was generally
+remarked, that no one could meet the eye of Shah Jee--that familiar
+appellation by which he was known--without an indescribable sensation of
+reverential awe, which irresistibly compelled them to withdraw their eyes.
+The talismanic power of Shah Jee's eyes had become proverbial throughout
+the city of Delhi. A certain Pattaan,[5] however, of warlike appearance, a
+man remarkable for his bravery, declared amongst his associates that he
+would certainly out-stare Shah Jee, if ever they met, which he was
+resolved should be the very first opportunity; he accordingly went with
+his companions at a time when this Durweish was expected to appear in
+public.
+
+The Pattaan was seated on the floor with many other people; when the Shah
+issued from his sanctuary, the people rose to make their salaams, which
+Shah Jee either did not, or would not observe, but seated himself
+according to his custom on the mat which had been spread for him; where,
+his eyes fixed on the ground, he seemed for some time to be wholly
+absorbed in silent meditation. At length, raising his head, he turned his
+face to the long line of spectators, saluting with his eyes each person in
+the row, until he came to the Pattaan, who, according to his vow, kept his
+large eyes fixed on the Durweish. Shah Jee went on with his survey, and a
+second time cast a glance along the whole line, not omitting the Pattaan
+as before, whose gaze, his companions observed, was as firmly settled on
+the Durweish as at the first. A third time the eyes of the Shah went round
+the assembly and rested again on the Pattaan.
+
+Observing the immoveable eyes of their Pattaan acquaintance, the visitors
+smiled at each other, and secretly gave him credit for a piety and
+pureness of heart which he was not before supposed to be blessed with;
+'How else,' said they, 'would he have been able to withstand the
+penetrating glance of the revered Durweish.' Shah Jee rose from his seat,
+and retired, thus giving to the company a signal for their departure from
+the place.
+
+The associates of the Pattaan congratulated him on his success, and
+inquired by what stratagem he had so well succeeded in fulfilling his
+promise; but his eyes being still fixed in a wild stare, he replied not to
+his questioners. They rallied him, and tried by a variety of means to
+dissolve his reverie; but the Pattaan was insensible, all the boasted
+energies of his mind having forsaken him. His friends were now alarmed at
+his abstractedness, and with considerable difficulty removed him from the
+place to his own home, where his family received him, for the first time,
+with grief, as he was their whole stay and support, and the kind head of a
+large family.
+
+The Pattaan continued staring in the same state throughout the night and
+following day, talking wildly and incoherently. 'The Pattaan is paid for
+his presumption,' said some; others recommended application to be made to
+the Durweish, Shah Jee, who could alone remove the calamity. The wife and
+mother, with many female dependants, resolved on pleading his case with
+the benevolent Shah Jee; but as access to him would be difficult, they
+conceived the idea of making their petition through the agency of the wife
+of the Durweish, to whom they accordingly went in a body at night, and
+related their distress, and the manner in which they supposed it to have
+originated, declaring, in conclusion, that as the excellent Durweish had
+been pleased to cast this affliction on their guardian, they must become
+slaves to his family, since bread could no longer be provided by the
+labour of him who had hitherto been their support.
+
+The wife of the Durweish comforted the women by kind words, desiring them
+to wait patiently until her dear lord could be spoken with, as she never
+ventured to intrude on his privacy at an improper moment, however urgent
+the necessity. After a few hours' delay, passed with impatient feeling by
+the group of petitioning females, they were at length repaid by the voice
+of Shah Jee. His wife going to the door of his apartment, told him of the
+circumstance attending the Pattaan, and the distressed condition of the
+females of his family, who came to supplicate his aid in restoring their
+relative to reason; adding, 'What commands will you be pleased to convey
+by me? What remedy do you propose for the suffering Pattaan?'
+
+The Durweish answered, 'His impure heart, then, could not withstand the
+reflected light. Well, well! tell the poor women to be comforted, and as
+they desire to have the Pattaan restored to his former state, they need
+only purchase some sweetmeats from the bazaar, which the man being induced
+to eat, he will speedily be restored to his wonted bodily and mental
+powers.'
+
+Upon hearing the commands of Shah Jee, the women speedily departed,
+ejaculating blessings on the Durweish, his wife, and family. On their
+return they purchased the sweetmeats and presented them to the Pattaan,
+who devoured them with eagerness, and immediately afterwards his former
+senses returned, to the no small joy of his family circle. They inquired
+of him, what had been the state of his feelings during the time he was in
+that insensible state from which he was now happily relieved? He replied,
+that the first gaze of the Durweish had fixed his eyes so firmly that he
+could by no means close or withdraw them from the object; the second
+glance detached his thoughts from every earthly vanity or wish; and that
+the third look from the same holy person, fixed him in unspeakable joys,
+transports pure and heavenly, which continued until he had eaten the
+sweetmeats they had presented, with a kind intention, he had no doubt, but
+which nevertheless, must be ever regretted by him whilst life remained;
+for no earthly joy could be compared with that which he had experienced in
+his trance.
+
+The Durweish Shah Sherif ood deen, was asked by some one why he had
+selected the bazaar sweetmeats as a remedy in the Pattaan's case? He
+answered, 'Because I knew the man's heart was corrupt. The light which had
+been imparted to him could alone be removed by his partaking of the
+dirtiest thing mortals hold good for food, and surely there cannot be any
+thing more dirty than the bazaar sweetmeats, exposed as they are to the
+flies and dust of the city; and how filthily they are manufactured
+requires not my aid in exposing.'
+
+This Durweish is said,--and believed by the good Mussulmaun people I have
+conversed with,--to have foreseen the hour when he should be summoned from
+this life into eternity; and three weeks prior to the appointed time, he
+endeavoured to fortify the minds of his wife and family, to bear with
+resignation that separation he had been warned should take place. He
+assembled his affectionate relatives on the occasion, and thus addressed
+them, 'My dear family, it is the will of God that we should part; on such
+a day (mentioning the time), my soul will take flight from its earthly
+mansion. Be ye all comforted, and hereafter, if ye obey God's holy law, ye
+shall meet me again in a blessed eternity.'
+
+As may be supposed, the females wept bitterly; they were distressed,
+because the good Durweish had ever been kind, indulgent, affectionate, and
+tender in all the relative situations he held amongst them. He tried many
+soothing arguments to comfort and console them for some hours, but without
+in the least reducing their grief, or moderating their bewailings: they
+could not, and would not be comforted.
+
+'Well,' said the Durweish, 'since the separation I have predicted causes
+you all so much sorrow, it would be better, perhaps, that we part not. I
+have thought of another method to avoid the pangs of separation; I will
+offer my prayers this night to the gracious Giver of all good, that He may
+be pleased to permit ye all to bear me company in death.'
+
+'Oh! stay your prayer!' said the wife of the Durweish; 'this must not be;
+for if we all die at once, who will perform the funeral rites, and deposit
+our bodies in the earth?' The Durweish smiled at his wife's objection, and
+answered, 'This is of no consequence to us, dear wife: the body may be
+likened to a garment that is thrown off when old; the soul having worn its
+earthly covering for a season, at the appointed time shakes off the
+perishable piece of corruption, to enter into a purer state of existence.
+It matters not if the body have a burial or not; the soul takes no
+cognizance of the clay it has quitted. Yet, if it be a matter of great
+consideration with you, be assured that many pious men and Durweish, whose
+respect we have enjoyed in life, will not fail to give decent interment to
+the remains of those they have loved and respected.'
+
+This for a moment baffled the wife in her argument; but presently she
+persuasively urged that her daughters were all young, that they had as yet
+seen but little of this world, and therefore it would be cruel to take
+them away so soon; they must desire to see more of this life ere they
+entered on another state of existence. 'Oh, my wife,' said the Durweish,
+'you reason badly; this life hath no joys to be compared with those which
+the righteous man's hopes lead him to expect in the world beyond the grave.
+I will assuredly make my promised prayer, if I find a semblance of
+remaining grief upon separating from me at the appointed time, for our
+removal to perfect happiness.'
+
+'No, no!' was cried by all the assembled family; 'do let us remain a
+little longer here, we are not in a hurry to quit this world.'--'Well,
+well, be satisfied then,' responded the Durweish, 'if such is your desire;
+and hereafter let me not hear a sigh or a murmur from one of you, for my
+appointed time is drawing to a close; if you will not accompany me, let me,
+at least, depart in peace.'
+
+The people who relate this (and I have heard the anecdote from many) add,
+that the Durweish Shah Sherif ood deen Mah-mood died at the close of the
+third week, and on the day and hour he had predicted.
+
+A grandson of this Durweish I have been writing about is still living in
+India, remarkable for a very retentive memory and propriety of life. I
+have not met with this gentleman during my residence in India, but have
+often heard his name mentioned with respect by Meer Hadjee Shaah who knew
+him well. He says that this Syaad, when but a boy, learned the whole
+Khoraun by heart[6] in the short space of forty days; he adds, that this
+person is exemplary in his life, and in his habits and manners humble;
+that he is truly a servant of God; rejects the mystic tenets of Soofieism;
+possesses an enlightened mind, and is a Moollah or Doctor of the
+Mussulmaun law. I have heard many singular anecdotes of his life, proving
+his disregard for riches, honours, and the vain pursuits of the
+worldly-minded. If I recollect right, he once was engaged in the
+confidential office of Moonshie to a highly talented gentleman at Fort
+William, from which employment he retired and took up his abode for some
+time at Lucknow; from whence, it was said, he went to Hydrabaad, where, it
+is probable, he may still be found in the exercise of a religious course
+of life. His name is respected by all the good men of his own persuasion,
+with whom I have been most intimately acquainted.
+
+Conceiving the subject may be interesting to my friends, I will not offer
+any apology for introducing to your notice a female character of great
+merit, whose death occurred during my residence in the vicinity of her
+abode. I was induced to make memorandums of the circumstances which
+brought the knowledge of her virtues more immediately before the public.
+
+Maulvee Meer Syaad Mahumud[7] succeeded, on the death of his father, in
+1822, to the exalted position amongst Mussulmauns of head leader and
+expounder of the Mahumudan law in the city of Lucknow; he is a person of
+unassuming manners and extreme good sense, is an upright, honest-hearted,
+religious man, meriting and receiving the respect and good opinion of all
+his countrymen capable of appreciating the worthiness of his general
+deportment. He is esteemed the most learned person of the present age
+amongst Asiatic scholars; and occupies his time in study and devotion, and
+in giving gratuitous instruction to youth, at stated hours, in those laws
+which he makes his own rule of life. Neither is the good Maulvee's fame
+confined to the city in which he sojourns, as may be gathered from the
+following anecdote, which exhibits the upright principles of this worthy
+man, at the same time that it discloses the character of a very amiable
+female, whose charity was as unbounded as her memory is revered in
+Furrukhabaad.
+
+'The late Nuwaub of Furrukhabaad[8] was first married to a lady of birth
+and good fortune, Villoiettee Begum,[9] by whom he was not blessed with a
+son; but he had other wives, one of whom bore him an heir, who at the
+present time enjoys the musnud of his father.
+
+'Villoiettee Begum was beautiful in person, and possessed a heart of the
+most benevolent and rare kind; her whole delight was centred in the
+exercises of those duties which her religion inculcated; she spent much of
+her time in prayer, in acquiring a knowledge of the Khoraun, in acts of
+kindness to her fellow-creatures, and in strict abstinence.
+
+'It was her unvaried custom at meals before she touched a morsel herself,
+to have twelve portions of food, selected from the choicest viands
+provided for her use, set apart for as many poor people; and when they had
+been served, she humbly and sparingly partook of the meal before her. She
+was possessed of great wealth, yet never expended any portion of it in the
+extravagances of dress; indeed, so humble was her appearance, that she
+might have been mistaken for the meanest of her slaves or domestics. It
+was her usual custom, whenever she purchased new clothing for her own wear,
+to lay in a large store for the poor; and it is affirmed, by those who
+were long intimate with the family, that a supplicant was never known to
+pass her door without relief. She even sought out, with the aid of a
+faithful domestic, the modest poor who were restrained by their feelings
+from intruding their necessities; and her liberal donations were
+distributed in so kind a manner, that even the pride of birth could never
+feel distressed when receiving her charitable assistance.
+
+'This lady was much attached to the duties of her religion, and delighted
+in acquiring instruction from righteous persons of her own faith. She
+showered favours on all the poor who were reported to live in the fear of
+God; indeed, such was the liberality, benevolence, and unvaried charity of
+this good lady, that the news of her death was received by hundreds of
+people as their greatest earthly calamity. The example of this lady's
+character is the more enhanced by reflecting on the retired way in which
+she was reared and lived, restrained by the customs of her people within
+the high walls of a zeenahnah, without the advantages of a liberal
+education or the immediate society of intelligent people. She seems, by
+all accounts, to have been a most perfect pattern of human excellence.
+
+'In forming her will (Villoiettee Begum had been a widow several years
+before her death), she does not appear to have wished a single thing to be
+done towards perpetuating her name,--as is usual with the great, in
+erecting lofty domes over the deposited clay of the Mussulmaun,--but her
+immense wealth was chiefly bequeathed in charitable gifts. The holy and
+the humble were equally remembered in its distribution. She had been
+acquainted with the virtues of the good Maulvee of Lucknow, to whom she
+left a handsome sum of money for his own use, and many valuable articles
+to fit up the Emaum-baarah for the service of Mahurrum, with a, desire
+that the same should be conveyed to him as soon after her death as
+convenient. Her vakeel (agent) wrote to Meer Syaad Mahumud very soon after
+the lady's death, to apprise him of the bequest Villoiettee Begum had
+willed to him, and at the same time forwarded the portable articles to him
+at Lucknow.
+
+'The Maulvee was much surprised, and fancied there must be some mistake in
+the person for whom this legacy was intended, as the lady herself was
+entirely unknown to him, and an inhabitant of a station so remote from his
+own residence as not likely ever to have heard of him. He, however,
+replied to the vakeel, and wrote also to a gentleman in the neighbourhood,
+desiring to have a strict inquiry instituted before he could venture to
+accept the riches of this lady's bounty, presuming that even if he was the
+person alluded to in her will, that the Begum must have intended him as
+her almoner to the poor of Lucknow. The good, upright Maulvee acted on the
+integrity of his heart and desired a strict scrutiny might be instituted
+into the will of the deceased, which was accordingly made, and he was
+assured in reply, that Villoiettee Begum had been long acquainted with his
+worth, and in her liberal bequest she had decidedly intended the money for
+his sole use and benefit, in testimony of her respect for his virtuous
+character. The Maulvee again wrote and requested to be informed by those
+most intimate with the Begum's way of life, whether she had left
+unperformed any of the duties incumbent on a member of the faithful, as
+regards zuckhaut[10], pilgrimage, the fast, &c.? which not having
+accomplished, and having ample means, he felt himself bound, in the
+situation he held, to devote her legacy to the purpose of such duties by
+proxy (which their law commands) in her name. He was in reply assured that
+the good Begum had not omitted any part of her duty; she had regularly
+applied zuckhaut, duly performed the fast, had paid the expenses for poor
+pilgrims to Mecca (her substitutes); and not until all the scruples of the
+just Maulvec had been removed would he hear of, or accept the Begum's
+legacy.'
+
+The anecdote I have now given will serve to illustrate the character of
+some good people of Hindoostaun of the present day; indeed, the veneration
+and respect paid by all classes to those men who lead religious lives, is
+but little changed from the earlier pages of the Mussulmaun history. I
+have just met with a Durweish anecdote, of former times, that may be worth
+transcribing, as I have received it from Meer Hadjee Shaah, whose aid I am
+so much indebted to for subjects with which to amuse my friends.
+
+'Shaah ood Dowlah[11] was a Durweish who flourished in the reign of King
+Shah Jaluui at Delhi, but whose fame is known throughout India to the
+present day. The Durweish was remarkable for his activity of body. It is
+related, that he was often to be seen at prayer in Delhi, and in three
+hours after he had transported himself eighty miles oil without any
+visible assistance but his own personal activity on foot. This
+extraordinary rapidity of movement rendered him an object of veneration;
+and the general belief was, that he was highly favoured of Heaven, and
+gifted with supernatural power; the life he led was purely religious, with
+a total disregard of earthly riches.
+
+'The King, Shah Jahan, was a very sensible person, and a great admirer of
+all that is counted good and excellent in his fellow-men; he was
+particularly friendly to such men as the Durweish, or others who devoted
+their lives to religious exercises. He had often heard of Shah ood Dowlah,
+without ever meeting with him, and on hearing of some singular acts of
+this Durweish, he was desirous of seeing him, and gave orders accordingly
+to his Minister, that messengers should be sent in search of the holy man,
+but as often as they appeared before the Durweish's hut he was invisible;
+this statement even added to the King's curiosity. On a certain day the
+King was seated on the story of his palace which overlooked the town and
+the outskirts beyond the walls, in conversation with his Minister and
+favourites, when the Durweish was espied at no great distance standing on
+the broadway; which, when the King knew, he desired messengers might be
+dispatched to convey the holy man to his presence. "Your royal will shall
+be obeyed", replied the Minister; "but your Majesty must be aware that the
+extent of the circuit from the palace to the outer gate is so great that
+long before a slave can get to that road, Shah ood Dowlah will be beyond
+the reach of our summons. With all due submission to your Majesty's better
+judgement, would it not be more prudent to call him from hence, and
+persuade him to ascend the wall in a basket suspended to a rope." The King
+agreed, and the Durweish was hailed. "Our King, the Protector of the World,
+commands Shah ood Dowlah's attendance?"--The Durweish, looking up at the
+summoner, inquired, "Where is the King?"--"In this apartment," he was
+answered.--"How am I to get near him? he is too far off: an old man does
+not well to climb."--"Wait a minute", replied the servant, "your
+conveyance shall be prepared."
+
+'In a few minutes the basket descended from the upper story, by a strong
+rope, well secured against the probability of accident. The Durweish,--who
+was covered with a chudha[12], or sheet, to keep him from giddiness in the
+ascent,--seated himself firmly in the basket, and the servants drew him up
+in safety. He was immediately conveyed to the King's apartment; who,
+contrary to precedent, rose at his entrance to receive this respected and
+much-desired guest.
+
+'"Pray be seated, my friend", said the King, leading him to the most
+honoured part of the royal carpet. The Durweish obeyed without a moment's
+hesitation, to the astonishment of the Vizier, nobles, courtiers, &c., who
+had never before seen a human being seated in the King's presence, not
+even one of the most exalted of the nobles. "I have long desired this
+happiness," said the King to the Durweish, "that I might converse with you.
+"--"Your Majesty is very gracious to the poor Durweish", was responded. "I
+hear much of your great virtue and good life," said the King, "from the
+world, my subjects."--"They do but flatter the poor Durweish," was his
+reply; adding, "none can tell what passes in my heart, when they view only
+my face. I am but a poor Durweish."
+
+'"I have many questions to ask you," said the King, "which I hope to have
+resolved from your own mouth; but, first, I beg to be informed, what
+methods you have used in order to acquire that command over selfish
+feelings, which is displayed in your intercourse with the world? and by
+what means you have become so enlightened in the ways pleasing to God?"
+
+'The Durweish with a smile of pleasure, and in language calm as respectful,
+answered in the following words:--"Your Majesty, the Protector of the
+World, was desirous of becoming personally known to the very meanest of
+your subjects, the poor Durweish; the opportunity arrived, and you
+condescended to let down a line of rope to assist your poor subject in the
+ascent to your presence. With equal condescension you have seated me by
+your side; and I, the poor Durweish, feel a due sense of the honour
+conferred on me. Had I been anxious to gain admittance to the Protector of
+the World, many would have been the difficulties to surmount; your castle
+is well guarded, your gates innumerable to be passed ere this place could
+be reached, and who would have aided the poor Durweish's wishes? But your
+Majesty had the will, and the power to effect that will; whilst I, who had
+neither, might have exerted myself for ages without effect. Such then, O
+King! is the way God draws those whom He wills unto Him. He sees into the
+hidden recesses of the human heart, and knows every working of mortal
+minds; He has no difficulty to surmount; for to whom in His mercy He
+grants evidence of His love, He draws them to Himself in heart, in soul,
+in mind, with infinitely less effort than thou hast exerted to draw my
+mortal body within thy palace. It is God who in love and mercy throws the
+line to man; happy that soul who accepts the offered means, by which he
+may ascend!"'
+
+Meer Nizaam ood deen[13] lived many years at Lucknow, where he was much
+esteemed by the religious men of the time; some who survived him have
+frequently entertained me with anecdotes of that respected Durweish. Out
+of the many I have heard detailed by them, I have selected for this place
+a few of the most interesting:--
+
+A certain King of Delhi (whose name has escaped my recollection) having
+heard of the remarkable piety of this Durweish, expressed a great desire
+to see him, and the message was conveyed by a confidential person,
+instructed to say to the holy man, that his presence was solicited as a
+favour at Court. The person intrusted with the royal message, remarked to
+Meer Nizaam, when he had agreed to accompany him, that his mean apparel
+was not suited to appear in the presence of majesty, and offered to
+provide him with a superior dress.
+
+The Durweish looked steadily in the face of the proposer, and addressed
+him, 'Friend! know you not, that clad in these very garments you deride, I
+make my daily prayers to Him who is the Creator and Lord of the whole
+earth, and all that therein is? If I am not ashamed to appear in the
+presence of my God thus habited, canst thou think I shall deem it needful
+to change my garments for one who is, at best but the creature of my
+Creator? Thinkest thou I would pay more deference to my fellow-man than I
+have done to my God? No, no; be assured the clothes I wear will not be
+changed for earthly visits.'
+
+This Durweish had a mind and heart so entirely devoted to his Creator, and
+was so thoroughly purified from earthly vanity, that his every wish was
+granted as soon as it had been formed in his heart, says one of his many
+admirers, Meer Eloy Bauxh[14]; who, in proof that he was so gifted, relates
+the following anecdote which I give in his own words:--
+
+'One day I was conversing with the Durweish, Meer Nizaam, when he told me
+he could bring me to his door, from my own home, at any hour or time he
+pleased. I was a little wavering in my belief of his power to do so, and
+offered some remarks that indicated my doubts. "Well," said he in reply,
+"you shall be convinced, my friend, ere long, I promise you."
+
+'A few evenings after this conversation had been held, I was seated on my
+charpoy, in meditation,--my usual practice after the evening namaaz,--when
+a sudden impulse seized my mind, that I must immediately go off to the
+Durweish who lived at the opposite extremity of this large city (Lucknow).
+I prepared to set out, and by the time I was ready, the rain burst forth
+in torrents from the over-charged clouds. Still the impulse was so strong
+that I cared not for this impediment even, which under ordinary
+circumstances would have deterred me from venturing out on a dark evening
+of storm; I wrapped myself up in my labaadah[15], took a stick and
+umbrella, and sallied forth in great haste. On reaching the outer gate of
+my premises, the strong, feeling that had impelled me to proceed, vanished
+from my mind, and I was as strongly urged by an opposite impulse to retire
+again within my own habitation, where, if I reasoned at all, it was on the
+unusual changeableness of my fixed resolution, for I never thought about
+the subject of the Durweish's prediction at the time.
+
+'Some few days after this, I paid Meer Nizaam a visit, and after our usual
+embrace and salutations were over, he said to me, "Well, my friend, are
+you convinced by this time, that I have the power to bring you to me
+whenever I wish, by the preparations you made for coming on the evening of
+such a day?" (mentioning the time and hour accurately).
+
+'"I remember well my desire to visit you, but why was I deterred from my
+purpose?" I asked. The Durweish replied, "Out of pure compassion for the
+fatigue and pains it would have given you, had you come so far on such a
+night of rain and tempest. My pity for you altered my wishes, and thereby
+your purposes. I only wished you to be convinced, and perhaps you are so
+now."'
+
+Meer Eloy Bauxh often speaks of this circumstance, and declares he has
+full confidence that the Durweish in question possessed the power of
+influencing the minds of others, or attracting them by his wishes to
+appear before him.
+
+'This Durweish was once applied to by a Mussulmaun, who went regularly for
+many days in succession, to watch a favourable moment for soliciting
+advice and assistance in his then uneasy state of mind. The Mussulmaun's
+name was Hummoon[16], since designated Shah, a native of the Upper
+Provinces of Hindoostaun, in the Lahore district. Hummoon occasionally
+passing near the river, had frequently observed, amongst, the number of
+Hindoo women, on their way to and from the place of bathing, one young
+female whose charms riveted his attention. He sometimes fancied that the
+girl smiled on him; but aware of the strong prejudices of her caste, which
+prohibits intercourse even, much less marriage, with men of another
+persuasion, he loved therefore without hope; yet he could not resist, as
+the opportunity offered, of again and again watching for a glance at the
+beautiful Hindoo whose person had won his entire affections. Not a word
+had ever passed between them, but he fancied she sometimes returned his
+looks of love in her smiles.
+
+'The passion of Hummoon increased daily; he could with difficulty restrain
+himself within the prescribed bounds; he longed to address her, and in
+vain puzzled his imagination for the proper means to adopt, for he knew
+the edict of her caste had placed a barrier between them of an
+insurmountable nature. For months he endured all the torments of his
+perplexing state, and at last resolved on applying to the good Durweish
+for advice and assistance, whose famed powers had been long the subject of
+admiration among the Mussulmauns.
+
+Hummoon went daily to the threshold of the Durweish, and seated himself
+among the many who, like him, had some favour to ask of the holy man, at
+the propitious moment when he chose to be visible and disposed to look
+round upon his petitioning visitors. All waited for a look with the most
+intense anxiety (for a Durweish does not always notice his courtiers), and
+happy did he deem himself who was encouraged by the recognition of his eye,
+to offer his petition by word of mouth. Many such applicants had been
+favoured by the Durweish, yet Hummoon visited daily without being noticed
+by the holy man. At length, however, a look of inquiry was given to the
+almost despairing Hummoon; thus encouraged, he folded his hands, and bent
+them forward in a supplicating attitude, told his distresses as briefly as
+the subject would permit, and concluded his tale of sorrow, by entreating
+the Durweish would instruct him in the exercise of some prayer by which he
+might be made happy with the object of his love.
+
+'The Durweish listened attentively to Hummoon's tale; and more, he pitied
+him, for he felt at all times a due proportion of sympathy for the misery
+of his fellow-creatures, and the singularity of Hummoon's case affected
+him. He told him he could teach the way to become deserving of having his
+wishes in this world granted to him, but more he could not answer for; but
+it would take him a considerable time to practise the devotions necessary
+to his future peace, which were of the heart, not the mere repetition of a
+prayer by the lips. Hummoon readily assured the Durweish, he was willing
+to be guided by his advice and instruction; adding, that he would
+patiently persevere for any length of time necessary, so that at last his
+object might be accomplished.
+
+'Hummoon commenced under the tuition of the Durweish the practice of
+devotional exercises. He forsook (as was required of him) all vain
+pursuits, worldly desires, or selfish gratifications; day and night was
+devoted to religious study and prayer, and such was the good effect of his
+perseverance and progressive increase of faith, that at the end of some
+few months he had entirely left off thinking of the first object of his
+adoration, his whole heart and soul being absorbed in contemplation of,
+and devotion to, his Creator. At the end of a year, no trace or
+remembrance of his old passion existed; he became a perfect Durweish,
+retired to a solitary place, where under the shade of trees he would sit
+alone for days and nights in calm composure, abstracted from every other
+thought but that of his God, to whom he was now entirely devoted.'
+
+I am told that this Durweish, Hummoon Shah, is still living
+in the Lahore province, a pattern of all that is excellent in
+virtue and devotion.
+
+
+[1] Mir Ilahi Bakhsh.
+
+[2] Shah Sharif-ud-din, Mahmud.
+
+[3] Jame' Masjid, the Congregational mosque.
+
+[4] Faqir, a poor man, one poor in the sight of God.
+
+[5] Pathan, a frontier tribe, many of which reside in British India.
+
+[6] Such a person is called Hafiz.
+
+[7] Maulavi Mir Sayyid Muhammad.
+
+[8] Early in the eighteenth century Farrukhabad, now a district of
+    this name in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, became an
+    independent State during the decay of the Moghul Empire. The line of
+    Nawabs was founded by Muhammad Khan, an Afghan of the Bangash
+    tribe. It was annexed by Oudh in 1749 and ceded to the British in 1801,
+    on which event the Nawab ceased to be independent. The last Nawa
+    b joined the rebels in the mutiny of 1857.
+
+[9] Wilayati Begam, the foreign lady.
+
+[10] See p. 67.
+
+[11] Shah-ud-daula.
+
+[12] _Chadar_.
+
+[13] Mir Nizam-ud-din.
+
+[14] Mir Ilahi Bakhsh.
+
+[15] _Labada_, a rain-coat.
+
+[16] Hamun.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXV
+
+  Mussulmaun Devotees.--The Chillubdhaars.--Peculiar mode of
+  worship.--Propitiatory offerings.--Supposed to be invulnerable to
+  fire.--The Maadhaars or Duffelees.--Character of the
+  founder.--Pilgrimage to his tomb.--Females afflicted on visiting
+  it.--Effects attributed to the violation of the sanctuary by a
+  foreigner.--Superstition of the Natives.--Anecdote of Sheikh Suddoo
+  and the Genii.--The way of the world exemplified, a Khaunie
+  (Hindoostaunie fable).--Moral fable.--The King who longed for
+  fruit...Page 370
+
+
+There are many classes of men amongst the Mussulmauns, who either abjure
+the world or seem to do so, independent of those denominated Durweish;--
+such us the religions mendicants, &c., who have no earthly calling, and
+derive their subsistence from the free-will offerings of their neighbours,
+or the bounty of the rich, who from respect for their humble calling, and
+a hope of benefit from their prayers, or rather from the veneration of
+Mussulmauns towards such of their faith as have renounced the world for
+the service of God.
+
+The Chillubdhaars[1] are a well-known class of wanderers; their founder
+was a Syaad, Ahmud Kaabeer,[2] of whom many wonderful things are related
+sufficient to impress on the weak mind a belief in his supernatural
+ascendancy. His presumed powers are said to have been chiefly instrumental
+in curing the sick or in removing temporal afflictions; but his effectual
+prayers in behalf of people in difficulty, they say, surpassed those of
+any other of the whole tribes of devotees that have at any age existed.
+His admirers and followers speak of him as having been invulnerable to
+fire. In his lifetime he had forty disciples or pupils constantly with him;
+at his death these forty separated, each in the course of time
+accumulating his forty pupils, after the pattern of their founder, who
+also eventually became leaders, and so on, until at the present time, it
+is conjectured, there are few places in Asia exempt from one or more
+detachments of these Chillubdhaar practical beggars who are much admired
+by the weak; and although they profess the same tenets and rules of life
+with their founder, Syaad Ahmud Kaabeer, yet, I believe, no one gives the
+Chillubdhaars of the present period credit for possessing either the
+virtues or the power of that man who set them so many bright examples;
+nevertheless, they are applied to on emergencies by the ignorant and the
+credulous of the present day, courted by the weak, and tolerated by all.
+
+They all practise one plan whenever called upon to remove the difficulty
+of any person who places sufficient confidence in their ability. On such
+occasions, a young heifer, two years old, is supplied by the person having
+a request to make, after which a fire of charcoal is made in an open space
+of ground, and the animal sacrificed according to Mussulmaun form. The
+tender pieces of meat are selected, spitted, and roasted over the fire, of
+which when cooked, all present are requested to partake. Whilst the meat
+is roasting, the Chillubdhaars beat time with a small tambourine to a song
+or dirge expressive of their love and respect to the memory of the
+departed saint, their founder and patron, and a hymn of praise to the
+Creator.
+
+The feast concluded, whilst the fire of charcoal retains a lively heat,
+these devotees commence dancing, still beating their tambourines and
+calling out with an audible voice, 'There is but one God!--Mahumud is the
+Prophet of God!' Then they sing in praise of Ali, the descendants of the
+Prophet, and, lastly, of Syaad Ahmud Kaabeer their beloved saint. Each
+then puts his naked foot in the fire: some even throw themselves upon
+it,--their associates taking care to catch them before they are well
+down,--others jump into the fire and out again instantly; lastly, the whole
+assembly trample and kick the remaining embers about, whilst a spark
+remains to be quenched by this means.[3] These efforts, it is pretended,
+are sufficient to remove the difficulties of the persons supplying
+the heifer and the charcoal.
+
+These mendicants live on public favour and contributions; they wear
+clothes, are deemed harmless, never ask alms, but are always willing to
+accept them, and have no laws of celibacy, as is the case with some
+wandering beggars in India, who are naked except the wrapper; sometimes
+they settle, making fresh converts, but many wander from city to city,
+always finding people disposed to administer to their necessities. They
+are distinguished from other sects, by each individual carrying a small
+tambourine, and wearing clothing of a deep buff colour.
+
+There are another set of wandering mendicants, who are called Madhaar[4]
+beggars, or the Duffelees,[5] by reason of the small hand-drum they carry
+with them. These are the disciples of the sainted Maadhaar, whose tomb is
+visited annually by little short of a million of people, men, women, and
+children, at a place called Muckunpore, about twenty koss from Cawnpore.
+
+Maadhaar was esteemed in his lifetime a most perfect Durweish, and his
+admirers speak of the power he then possessed as still existing; in that
+his pure spirit at stated periods hovers near his last earthly remains,
+where the common people make a sort of pilgrimage to entreat his influence
+in their behalf. A mayllah[6] (fair) is the consequence of this annual
+pilgrimage, which continues, I think, seventeen days in succession, and
+brings together, from many miles distant, the men of business, the
+weak-minded, and the faithful devotees of every class in the Upper
+Provinces.
+
+From the respect paid to the memory of Maadhaar, and the expected
+influence of his spirit at the shrine, the ignorant people bring their
+sons to receive the saint's blessing on their tender years. The man of
+business also presents himself before it, desirous to insure a share of
+success at the fair, and ultimate prosperity at home. The devotee visits
+the shrine from a desire to increase in true wisdom by the reflected light
+of the Maadhaar Durweish's purer spirit. Women having made vows to visit
+the shrine, come to fulfil it at this period, if their hopes be realized
+in the birth of a son; and others to entreat his influence that their
+daughters may be suitably married; in short, all who assemble at this
+mayllah have some prayer to offer, or acknowledgments to make, for they
+depend on the abundant power and influence of the saint's spirit to supply
+their several wants or desires.
+
+At the shrine of this saint, a descendant, or as is suspected often in
+such cases, a pretended relative, takes his station to collect, with all
+the appearance of sanctity and humility, the nuzzas offered at the shrine
+of Maadhaar. The amount so collected is enormous, if credit be given to
+the reports in circulation; for all visitors are expected to present an
+offering, and most of the pilgrims do it for conscience sake. I knew a
+Mussulmaun who went from curiosity to this mayllah; he was accosted rather
+rudely as he was quitting the tomb, without leaving a nuzza; he told the
+guardian of the tomb he had presented the best nuzza he possessed, in a
+prayer for the soul of the departed; (as commanded every Mussulmaun should
+offer when drawing near the tomb of one of his own faith).
+
+I have conversed with a remarkably devout person, on the numerous
+extraordinary stories related of Maadhaar's life, and the subsequent
+influence of his tomb. He told me that women can never, with safety to
+themselves, enter the mausoleum containing his ashes; they are immediately
+seized with violent pains as if their whole body was immersed in flames of
+fire. I spoke rather doubtingly on this subject, upon which he assured me
+that he had known instances of one or two women who had imprudently defied
+the danger, and intruded within the mausoleum, when their agony was
+extreme, and their sufferings for a long time protracted, although they
+eventually recovered.
+
+Another still more remarkable circumstance has been related to me by the
+Natives, for the truth of which I cannot venture to vouch, although I have
+no reason to doubt the veracity of the narrators.
+
+'A party of foreigners, encamped near the fair, wished to see what was
+going on at this far-famed mayllah, and for the purpose of gratifying
+their curiosity, halted on a certain day in the vicinity of the Durgah,
+when the place was much thronged by the various pilgrims to that shrine.
+The party dined in their tent, but drank more wine than was consistent
+with propriety, and one was particularly overcome. When they sallied forth,
+at the close of the day, to visit this saint's tomb, their approach was
+observed by the keepers, who observing how very unfit the strangers
+appeared to enter the sanctuary of other men's devotions,--the hallowed
+ground that was by them respected,--the head-keeper very civilly advanced
+as they moved towards the entrance, requesting that they would desist from
+entering in their apparent condition, contrary to the rules of the place
+and people. The convivial party then drew back, without contesting the
+point, excepting the one most disguised in liquor, who asserted his right
+to enter wherever and whenever he thought good, nor would he be controlled
+by any man in India.
+
+'The keepers spoke very mildly to the tipsy foreigner, and would have
+persuaded him he was doing wrong, but he was not in a state to listen to
+any argument dissuading him from his determined purpose; they warned him
+that a severe punishment must follow his daring, as he pushed past them
+and reeled into the mausoleum, triumphing at his success. He had
+approached the tomb, when he was immediately seized with trembling, and
+sank senseless on the floor; his friends without, observing his situation,
+advanced and were assisted by the keepers in removing the apparently
+inanimate body to the open air: water was procured, and after considerable
+delay, returning symptoms of life were discovered. When able to speak, he
+declared himself to be on the eve of death, and in a few short hours he
+breathed his last.' The unhappy man may have died of apoplexy.
+
+The ignorant part of the population of Hindoostaun hold a superstitious
+belief in the occasional visitations of the spirit of Sheikh Suddoo.[7] It
+is very common to hear the vulgar people say if any one of their friends
+is afflicted with melancholy, hypochondria, &c., 'Ay, it is the spirit of
+Sheikh Suddoo has possessed him.' In such cases the spirit is to be
+dislodged from the afflicted person by sweetmeats, to be distributed among
+the poor; to which is added, if possible, the sacrifice of a black goat. I
+am not quite sure that the night blindness, with which the lower orders of
+Natives are frequently attacked, has not some superstitious allusion
+attached to it; but the only remedy I have ever heard prescribed for it is,
+that the patient should procure the liver of a young kid, which must be
+grilled over the fire, and eaten by the afflicted person. The story of
+this Sheikh Suddoo, which is often related in the zeenahnahs of the
+Mussulmauns, is as follows:--
+
+'Sheikh Suddoo was a very learned man, but a great hypocrite, who passed
+days and nights in the mosque, and was fed by the charitable, his
+neighbours, from such viands as they provided daily for the poor traveller,
+and those men who forsake the world. The Sheikh sometimes wandered into a
+forest seldom penetrated by the foot of man, where, on a certain day, he
+discovered a copper cup, curiously engraved with characters which he tried
+in vain with all his learning to decipher. The Sheikh returned with the
+cup to the mosque, regretting that the characters were unknown to him; but
+as he had long desired to have a good-sized lamp, he fancied from the
+peculiar shape of his prize, that it would answer the very purpose, and
+the same night he exultingly prepared his charaagh[8] (a light) in the
+engraved vessel.
+
+'The moment he had ignited one wick, he was surprised by the appearance of
+a figure, resembling a human being, standing before him, "Who art thou,"
+he demanded, "intruding at this hour on the privacy of a
+hermit?"--"I come", replied the figure, "on the summons from your lamp.
+That vessel, and whoever possesses it, has four attendants, one of whom
+you see before you, your slave. We are Genii, and can only be summoned by
+the lighting up of the vessel now before you; the number of your slaves
+will be in due attendance, always guided by as many wicks as it may be
+your pleasure to light up for our summons. Demand our attendance, at any
+hour you please, we are bound to obey."
+
+'The Sheikh inquired if he or his companions possessed any power. "Power",
+replied the Genii, "belongs to God alone, the Creator of all things
+visible and invisible; but by His permission we are enabled to perform, to
+a certain extent, any reasonable service our master requires."
+
+'The Sheikh soon put their abilities to the test, and satisfied himself
+that these agents would aid and assist him in raising his character with
+the world (for he coveted their praise), "They would", he thought,
+"assuredly believe he was a pious Durweish, when he could convince them by
+a ready compliance with their requests, which must seem to follow his
+prayers, and which he should be able to further now by the aid of the
+Genii."
+
+'The pretended holy man employed his attendant Genii fully; many of his
+demands on their services were difficult, and too often revolting to them;
+yet whilst he retained the lamp in his possession, they were bound to obey
+his commands. He once heard of a king's daughter, who was young and
+beautiful; he therewith summoned the Genii, and required that they should
+convey the princess to him. They reluctantly obeyed his command, and the
+princess was the Sheikh's unwilling companion in the mosque. On another
+occasion, he desired the Genii to bring without delay, to the ground in
+front of his present abiding place, a very curious mosque situated many
+leagues distant, the stones of which were so nicely cemented together,
+that no trace of the joining could be discovered. The Genii received this
+command with regret, but they were obliged to obey, and departed from the
+Sheikh's presence to execute his unworthy orders.
+
+'It happened that the mosque which the Sheikh coveted was the retreat of a
+righteous man, who had separated from the world to serve his God,
+venerable in years and devout in his duties. The Genii commenced their
+labour of removing the mosque; the good man who was at his devotions
+within, fancied an earthquake was shaking the building to its foundation,
+but as he trusted in God for preservation, he breathed a fervent prayer as
+he remained prostrate before Him.
+
+'The shaking of the mosque continued, and he was inspired by a sudden
+thought that induced him to believe some supernatural agency was employed
+against the holy house; he therefore called out, "Who and what are ye, who
+thus sacrilegiously disturb the house of God!" The Genii appeared, and
+made known to what order of beings they belonged, whose servants they were,
+and the purpose of their mission.
+
+'"Begone this instant!" replied the pious man, with a tone of authority
+that deprived them of strength: "a moment's delay, and I will pray that
+you be consumed by fire! Know ye not that this is a mosque, holy, and
+erected wherein to do service to the great and only God? Would Sheikh
+Suddoo add to his enormities by forcing the house of God from its
+foundation? Away, ye servants of the wicked Sheikh, or meet the fire that
+awaits you by a moment's further delay!"
+
+'The Genii fled in haste to their profane employer, whose rage was
+unbounded at their disobedience, as he termed their return without the
+mosque; he raved, stormed, and reviled his slaves in bitter sarcasms, when
+they, heartily tired of the Sheikh's servitude, caught up the copper
+vessel, and, in his struggle to resist the Genii, he was thrown with
+violence on the ground, when his wicked soul was suddenly separated from
+his most impure body.'
+
+This story receives many alterations and additions, agreeable to the
+talent and the inclination of the person relating it in Native society;
+but as there once was a person on whose history it has been founded, they
+do not denominate it fabulous or khaunie.[9] The following, which I am
+about to copy from a translation of my husband's, is really a mere fable;
+and, however trifling and childish it may appear, I feel bound to insert
+it, as one among those things which serves to illustrate the character of
+the people I have undertaken to describe; merely adding, that all these
+fables prove an unceasing entertainment in the zeenahnah, with females who
+cannot themselves read, either for amusement or instruction:--
+
+'A certain man was travelling on horseback through an immense forest; and
+when he came to a particular spot, he observed fire consuming some bushes,
+in the centre of which was a monstrous large snake. The Snake was in
+danger of being destroyed by the flames, so he called to the Traveller, in
+a voice of despair--"Oh! good Sahib, save me, or I perish!"[10]
+
+'The Traveller was a very tender-hearted creature, prone to pity the
+painful sufferings of every living creature, whether man or animal; and
+therefore began to devise some scheme for liberating the Snake from the
+devouring flames. His horse's corn bag, which was made of leather, hung
+dangling by a rope from the crupper; this, he thought, would be the best
+thing he could offer to the distressed Snake. Accordingly, holding fast by
+the rope, he threw the bag towards the flames, and desired the Snake to
+hasten into it, who immediately accepted the offered aid, and the
+Traveller drew him out of his perilous situation.
+
+'No sooner was the Snake released from danger, than, ungrateful for the
+services he had received from the Traveller, he sprang towards him, with
+the purpose of wounding his deliverer. This, however, he failed to
+accomplish, for the Traveller drew back in time to escape the attack; and
+demanded of his enemy his reasons for such base ingratitude, saying--"Have
+I not saved your life by my prompt assistance? What a worthless reptile
+art thou! Is this thy mode of rewarding benefits?"--"Oh!" said the Snake,
+"I am only imitating the way of the world; who ever thinks of returning
+good for good? No, no! every benefit received by the creature of this
+world is rewarded to the donor by an ungrateful return. I tell you, good
+Traveller, I am only following the example set me in the way of the world."
+
+'"I shall not take your word for it," said the Traveller in reply; "but if
+I can be convinced that what you say is true, you shall be welcome to bite
+me."--"Agreed," said the Snake; and off they set together in search of
+adventures.
+
+'The first object they met was a large Pepul-tree[11] whose branches spread
+out an inviting shelter to the weary traveller to repose under, without
+rent or tax. The Pepul-tree was asked, "Whether it was consistent with the
+way of the world for the Snake to try to wound the man who had preserved
+him from destruction."
+
+'The Pepul-tree replied, "To follow in the way of the world, I should say
+the Snake was justified. A good return is never now-a-days tendered for a
+benefit received by mere worldlings, as I can bear witness by my own
+sufferings. Listen to my complaint:--Here in this solitary jungle, where
+neither hut nor mansion is to be found, I spread forth my well-clothed
+branches,--a welcome shelter to the passing traveller from the burning
+heat of the noontide sun, or the deluge poured out from the over-charged
+cloud;---under my cover they cook their meal, and my falling leaves supply
+them with fuel, as also with a bed on which they may recline their weary
+limbs. Think you, when they have thus profited by the good I have done
+them, that they are grateful for my services?--Oh, no! the ingrates
+despoil the symmetry of my form, break off my branches with violence, and
+trudge off triumphantly with the spoil which may serve them for fuel for
+cooking at their next stage. So you see the Snake is right; he has but
+followed the way of the world."
+
+'The Snake exultingly led the way in search of other proofs by which he
+should be justified. They fell in with a man who was by occupation a
+camel-driver. The Man being made acquainted with the point at issue,
+desired to be heard, as he could prove by his own tale that the Snake's
+ingratitude was a true picture of the way of the world:--"I was the sole
+proprietor of a very fine strong camel, by whose labour I earned a
+handsome competence for each day's provision of myself and family, in
+conveying goods and sometimes travellers from place to place, as my good
+fortune served me. On a certain day, returning home through an intricate
+wood, I drew near to a poor blind man who was seated on the ground
+lamenting his hard fate. Hearing my camel's feet advance, he redoubled his
+cries of distress, calling loudly for help and assistance. His piteous
+cries won upon the tender feelings of my heart; so I drew near to inquire
+into his situation, he told me with tears and sobs, that he was travelling
+on foot from his home to visit his relations at the next town; that he had
+been attacked by robbers, his property taken from him by violence, and
+that the boy, his guide, was forced from him by the banditti as a slave;
+and here, added the blind man, must I perish, for I can neither see my way
+home, nor search for food; in this lone place my friends will never think
+to seek me, and my body will be the feast for jackals ere the morning
+dawns.
+
+'"The poor man's story made so deep an impression on my mind, that I
+resolved on assisting him; accordingly my camel was made to kneel down, I
+seated the blind man safely on my beast, and set off with him to the city
+he called his home. Arrived at the city gates, I lowered my camel, and
+offered to assist the poor man in descending from his seat; but, to my
+astonishment, he commenced abusing me for my barefaced wickedness,
+collected a mob around us, by his cries for help from his persecutor,
+declared himself the master of the camel, and accused me of attempting to
+rob him now as I had done his brother before.
+
+'"So plausible was his speech--so apparently innocent and just his
+demands--that the whole collected populace believed I was actually
+attempting to defraud the blind man of his property, and treated me in
+consequence with great severity. I demanded to be taken before the Kauzy
+of the city. 'Yes yes,' said the blind man, 'we will have you before the
+Kauzy'; and away we went, accompanied by the crowd who had espoused the
+blind man's cause against me.
+
+'"The blind man preferred his claim, and advocated his own cause with so
+many arguments of apparent justice, that I was not allowed a voice in the
+business; and in the end I was sentenced to be thrust out of the city as a
+thief and vagabond, with a threat of still greater punishment if I dared
+to return. Here ends my sad tale; and you may judge for yourself, oh,
+Traveller! how truly the Snake has proved to you that he follows but the
+way of the world!"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+'As they pursued their way in search of further conviction, they met a Fox,
+whose wisdom and sagacity was consulted on the important question. Having
+heard the whole history with becoming gravity, the Fox addressed the
+Traveller:--"You can have no good reason to suppose, Mr. Traveller, that
+in your case there should be any deviation from the general rule. I have
+often been obliged to suffer the vilest returns from friends whom I have
+been active to oblige; but I am rather curious to see the way you effected
+the release of the Snake from the fire, for I will candidly confess myself
+so stupid as not clearly to understand the description you have both
+attempted to give. I shall judge the merits of the case better if I see it
+performed."
+
+'To this proposal the Snake and Traveller agreed: and when the corn bag
+was thrown towards the Snake, he crept into it as before. The Fox then
+called out to the Traveller "Draw quickly!" he did so, and the Snake was
+caught by a noose in the cord which the Fox had contrived unperceived, by
+which the Snake was secured fast round the middle. "Now," said the Fox,
+"bruise your enemy, and thus relieve the world of one base
+inhabitant!"'[12]
+
+This fable is frequently enlarged and embellished by the reciter to a
+considerable extent, by introducing many different objects animate and
+inanimate, to elucidate the question before the Fox arrives, who is
+generally brought in to moral the fable.
+
+I trust to be excused for transcribing the following moral fable which was
+translated from the Persian by my husband for my amusement, bearing the
+title of 'The King who longed for an unknown fruit:'--
+
+'A certain King was so great a tyrant, that his servants and subjects
+dreaded each burst of anger, as it were the prelude to their own
+annihilation. The exercise of his will was as absolute as his power; he
+had only to command, and obedience followed, however difficult or
+inconvenient to the people who served under him.
+
+'This tyrant dreamed one night that he was eating fruit of an
+extraordinary flavour and quality. He had never in his whole life seen
+fruit of the kind, neither had he heard such described by travellers; yet
+when he ruminated on the subject in the morning he was resolved to have
+fruit of the same sort his dream presented, or his people should suffer
+for his disappointment.
+
+'The King related his dream, and with it his commands to his Vizier, his
+courtiers, and attendants, that fruit of the same description should be
+brought before him within seven days; in default of which he vowed
+solemnly that death should be the portion of his Vizier, his courtiers,
+and servants. They all knew the King meant to be obeyed, by the
+earnestness of his manner, and they trembled under the weight of his
+perplexing orders; each, therefore, was speedily engaged in the
+all-important search. The whole empire was canvassed, and all the business
+of the Court was suspended to satisfy the whim of the Monarch, without
+avail; terror and dismay marked the countenance of the whole city--for
+certain death awaited these servants of the Court--and there was but now
+one day left to their hopes. The city, the suburbs, the provinces, had
+been searched; disappointment followed from every quarter, and the
+threatened party gave up their hearts to despair.
+
+'A certain Durweish, knowing the consternation of the people, and feeling
+pity for their unmerited sufferings, sent for the Vizier privately. "I am
+not", said the Durweish, "by any means anxious to please the vanity and
+silly wishes of your master, the King, but I do hear with pity the state
+of despair you and your fellows are reduced to, by the unsuccessful
+results of your search after the fruit, and the certain consequences which
+are to follow your failure."
+
+'Then giving the Vizier a fragment of a broken pitcher, on which was
+ciphered unknown characters, he told him to take it with him to a certain
+tomb, situated in the suburbs of the royal city, (directing him to the
+spot with great exactness), and casting the fragment on the tomb, to
+follow the directions he would there receive; he further desired him to be
+secret, to go alone, and at midnight.
+
+'The now hope-inspired Vizier went as desired at midnight, and cast the
+fragment on the tomb, which instantly opened to him. He then descended a
+flight of steps, from the foot of which, at a little distance, he first
+espied a light not larger than a taper, but which increased as he went on
+until the full splendour of noonday succeeded. Proceeding with confidence,
+revived hope cheered his heart, anticipating that by success so many lives
+besides his own would be preserved through his humble endeavours; and that
+life would be more than doubly dear, as the prospect of losing the gift
+had embittered the last few days so severely.
+
+'The Vizier passed on courageously through halls, corridors, and
+apartments of magnificent structure, decorated and furnished in the most
+perfect style of elegant neatness. Everything he saw bore marks of
+splendour. The King's palace was then remembered in all its costliness, to
+be as much inferior to the present scene as could be detected by the
+lapidary's correct eye, when comparing the diamond with the pebble.
+
+'He was perfectly entranced as he gazed on the emerald gate, through which
+he had to pass to enter a garden of luxuriant beauty, where every shrub,
+plant, flower, and fruit teemed with richness. In the centre of a walk an
+old man was seated in a chair of burnished gold, clad in the costume of
+the country, who seemed to be engaged in breathing the sweet odours by
+which he was surrounded with a calm and tranquil countenance of joy. "I
+know your business," said the possessor of this paradise, to the Vizier as
+he advanced towards him; "you are come to obtain fruit from this tree,
+which bows its branches to the earth with the weight and number of its
+burden. Take one only; this is the fruit your master's dream pictured to
+his fancy."
+
+'Full of joy at the prospect of release from the dreaded anger of his
+royal master, the Vizier hastily plucked the fruit, and retreated by the
+way he came, without waiting to inquire what the old man meant by an
+exclamation he uttered at parting, which at the time seemed of lesser
+import than he afterwards imagined; but "Alas, the world" was recalled to
+his memory on his way back to the palace, and haunted his mind so strongly
+that he became restless and uneasy, even after the King had conferred
+honours and favours innumerable on him for his successful efforts in
+procuring that fruit which had never before been seen by any creature on
+earth but by the King, and by him only in a dream. "Alas, the world!" was
+like a dark envelope over every attempt to be cheerful; an impenetrable
+cloud seemed to pervade the Vizier's mind; he could think of nothing but
+the parting words of the old man, and his own folly in not inquiring his
+meaning.
+
+'The Vizier at last went to the same Durweish who had befriended him in
+his hour of need, and related to him the obstacle to his enjoyment of the
+blessings and honours which had crowned his success, and hoped from this
+holy-minded man to ascertain the meaning of that perplexing sentence,
+"Alas, the world!" The Durweish could not, or would not explain the old
+man's meaning; but willing to do the Vizier all possible service, he
+proposed giving him again the necessary passport to the inhabitant of the
+garden.
+
+'The fragment of a pitcher was again traced with the mystic characters,
+and with this in his hand the Vizier at midnight sought the tomb, where he
+found as easy access as on the former occasion. Everything he saw seemed
+doubly beautiful to his imagination since his former visit. He entered by
+the emerald gate and found the old man enjoying the magnificent and
+sense-devouring scene, with as much delight as mortals are wont to show
+when content fills the heart of man.
+
+'"I know your second errand, my friend," said the old man, "and am quite
+as willing to oblige you as on your first visit. Know then, Vizier, that
+whilst an inhabitant of earth, I followed the humble occupation of a
+village barber; by shaving and paring nails I earned my daily bread, and
+maintained my family. Sometimes I collected ten pice in my day of labour
+from house to house, and if twelve crowned my efforts I was fortunate.
+
+'"Many years passed over my head in this way, when one day I was less
+successful in my calling, and but half my usual earnings was all I had
+gained. On my way home I was ruminating on the scantiness of the meal
+likely to be procured by five pice for my family of seven people; the
+season was one of such great scarcity, that ten pice on other days had
+been of late barely sufficient to procure our daily food; and even with
+twelve we thought our wants had been but inadequately supplied. I went on
+grieving,--more for my family than myself, it is true,--and could have
+cried at the thought of the small portion of bread and dhall I should see
+allotted to each individual dependant on me.
+
+'"In my progress towards home, whilst regretting my poverty, I saw an
+unfortunate beggar, whose earnest entreaty seemed to make no impression on
+those who passed him by; for, in truth, when money is scarce and corn dear,
+people's hearts grow somewhat cold to the distresses of those who have no
+claim by kindred ties. But with me it was otherways: my scantiness seemed
+to make me more tender to the sorrows of my fellow-creatures. Poor soul,
+said I to myself, thou art starving, and no one gives ear to thy
+complaints; now if I take home this scanty produce of my day's labour, it
+will not give a meal to all my household; besides, they dined with me
+tolerably well yesterday. We shall not starve by one day's fasting;
+to-morrow Divine Providence may send me in the way of more bearded men
+than I have met to-day. I am resolved this poor man shall have the
+benefit of a good meal for once, which he supplicates for in the name of
+God.
+
+'"I then went to the beggar and threw the five pice into his upheld
+wrapper. 'There, brother,' said I, 'it is all I have; go, make yourself
+happy in a good meal, and remember me in your prayers.' 'May Heaven give
+you plenty in this world and bless your soul in the next!' was his only
+response. That prayer was heard, for during my further sojourn on earth
+abundance crowned my board; and here, it is unnecessary to remark on the
+bounties by which you perceive I am surrounded.
+
+'"That I said _Alas, the world!_ was from the reflection that I did but
+one act of real charity whilst I remained in it, and see what an abundance
+rewards me here. Had I known how such things are rewarded hereafter, I
+should have been more careful to have embraced the passing opportunities,
+while I walked with my fellow-man on earth. That I said, _Alas, the
+world_! to you, was an intended admonition to mankind; to convince them of
+the blessings bestowed in this world of bliss eternal, in reward for every
+proper use to which the benefits they received in their probationary state
+of existence may have been devoted. Go, friend! and profit by the example
+I present of heavenly rewards! Persevere in a course of practical charity
+in that world you still inhabit; and secure, whilst you may, the blessed
+rewards of eternity!"'
+
+
+[1] This term does not appear in the ordinary dictionaries or Census
+    reports. Sir C. Lyall, with much probability, suggests that the
+    correct form is Chalapdar, 'a cymbal player'.
+
+
+[2] A saint, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir, is buried at Bijaimandil, Delhi.
+    T.W. Beale, _Oriental Biographical Dictionary, s.v._
+
+[3] Fire-walking is practised by many Musalman devotees. In a case
+    recorded on the NW. frontier, a fakir and other persons walked
+    through a fire-trench and showed no signs of injury; others came out
+    with blistered feet and were jeered at as unorthodox Musalmans; a
+    young Sikh, shouting his Sikh battle-cry, performed the feat, and as
+    he escaped uninjured, a riot was with difficulty prevented.--T.L.
+    Pennell, _Among the Wild Tribes of the Afghan Frontier_, 1909, p. 37,
+    See M.L. Dames, 'Ordeals by Fire in the Punjab' (_Journal
+    Anthropological Society, Bombay_, vol. iv). The subject is fully
+    discussed by Sir J. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_[3], part vii, vol. ii,
+    1913, pp. 5 ff.
+
+[4] Madari fakirs, who take their names from Badi-ud-din Madar
+    Shah, a disciple of Shaikh Muhammad Taifuri Bastami, who
+    died A.D. 1434 at the ago of 124 years, and is buried at Makanpur in
+    the Cawnpur District, where an annual fair is held at his tomb. On the
+    anniversary of his death food is offered here, and amulets
+    _(baddhi)_ are hung round the necks of children. Some light a
+    charcoal fire, sprinkle ground sandalwood on it, and jumping into it,
+    tread out the embers with their feet, shouting out _dam Madar_, 'by
+    the breath of Madar!' the phrase being regarded as a charm against
+    snake-bite and scorpion stings. After the fire-walk the feet of the
+    performers are washed and are found to be uninjured. Others vow a
+    black cow, sacrifice it, and distribute the meat to beggars. The rite
+    is of Hindu origin, and Hindus believe that the saint is an
+    incarnation of their god Lakshmana.--Jaffur Sharreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_,
+    158 f.: W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the NW. P. and Oudh_, iii.
+    397 ff.
+
+[5] Dafali, from _daf_, a drum.
+
+[6] _Mela_.
+
+[7] Shaikh Saddu is the special saint of women. His name was
+    Muhi-ud-din, and he lived at Amroha or Sambhal, in the United
+    Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Some unorthodox Musalmans offer food in
+    the name, and hold a session, in which a female devotee becomes
+    possessed. A woman who wants a child says to her: 'Lady! I offer my
+    life to you that I may have a child', whereupon the devotee gives her
+    betel which she has chewed, or sweets, and this is supposed to bring
+    about the desired result (Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam_, 184 f: W.
+    Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, i. 204). In
+    Bihar it is said that he had a lamp with four wicks, on lighting
+    which, four Jinns appeared, and he used them for the purpose of
+    debauchery. Finally, another Jinn slew him. People become possessed in
+    his name, and when summoned in cases of illness or trouble, announce
+    that a goat or a cock must be sacrificed to the saint (_Census Report,
+    Bengal_, 1901, i. 180).
+
+[8] _Chiragh_, an earthenware cup in which a wick is lighted.
+
+[9] _Kahani_, a folk-tale.
+
+[10] This tale comes from the Nala-Damayanti Saga. Nala finds a snake
+    in danger of death from a jungle fire, saves it, and is bitten by the
+    reptile, in the forehead, which causes him to become weak, deformed,
+    and black in colour. The snake turns out to be the King Snake,
+    Karkotaka. He says to Nala: 'I gave you this bite for your good, as
+    you will soon learn, in order that your deformity may conceal you in
+    carrying out your plans' (C.H. Tawney, _Katha-saral-Sagara_, i.
+    564 f.: C.H. Bompas, _Folklore of the Santal Parganas_, 149 ff.).
+
+[11] _Pipal, Ficus religiosa_.
+
+[12] A common Indian folk-tale. In one of the most common versions the
+    jackal tricks the ungrateful tiger, and induces him to go back to his
+    cage.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXVI
+
+  Superstition of the Natives.--Fair annually kept by Hindoos.--Supposed
+  practice of witchcraft by an old woman.--Assaulted by an infuriated
+  populace.--Rescued by a Native gentleman.--He inquires their reasons
+  for persecuting her.--Is instrumental in appeasing their
+  malignity.--Endeavours to remove their prejudice.--Proneness of
+  Asiatics to superstition.--Opinion of a Mussulmaun on the influence
+  of evil spirits.--Account of a woman possessed by an evil
+  spirit.--Dialogue with her during the paroxysms of her
+  affliction.--Means used for her recovery.--Further allusions to the
+  false notions of the Natives respecting supernatural agency...Page 387
+
+
+All the Natives of Hindoostaun appear to me to be, more or less, tinctured
+with superstitious notions, which, in many instances, are so grafted in
+their nature as to resist every attempt made to root out by arguments the
+folly of this great weakness.
+
+I hope to be forgiven for introducing in this Letter a few anecdotes and
+occurrences, which may illustrate that faulty side of the character of a
+people who have not derived those advantages which are calculated to
+displace superstition from the mind of man;--in a word, they are strangers
+to that Holy volume which teaches better things.
+
+A fair had been held at Lucknow one afternoon, not immediately within our
+view, but the holiday folks passed our house on the road to and from the
+scene of action. This fair or mayllah is visited by all ranks and classes
+of Natives; but it is strictly a Hindoo festival annually kept up in
+remembrance of the celebrated Kornea,[1] of Hindoo mythologic celebrity,
+who according to their tradition, when but a child, on a certain day
+killed with his slender arm a great tyrant, the giant Khaunce. Had there
+ever existed a suspicion that the Hindoos sprang from any of the tribes of
+Israel, I should have imagined the event they celebrate might have
+reference to the act of David, who with his single arm destroyed Goliath
+of Gath. This, however, can hardly be supposed, although the similarity is
+remarkably striking.
+
+The figure of Khaunce is made up of bamboo and paper, representing a human
+being of gigantic stature, and bearing a most fierce countenance, with
+some certain appendages, as horns, tail, &c., to render the figure more
+disgusting. It is placed near the bank of the river Goomtie, in a
+conspicuous situation, for the wonder and admiration of some, the terror
+of the weak, and the satisfaction of the believers in the fabled story of
+Kornea and his supposed supernatural power.
+
+Kornea is represented by a little boy, dressed in costly apparel, who is
+conveyed in grand procession, seated on an elephant, and surrounded by
+attendants on horseback, with bands of music and a multitude of followers,
+through the principal streets of the city to the chosen spot where Khaunce
+is placed to be attacked by the child.
+
+When the farce is properly prepared for the attack, the child, I am
+told,--for I have never seen the ceremony,--takes aim from his
+well-ornamented bow, and with a single arrow sends the monstrous giant
+into the river, whilst the shouts of the multitude declare the victory of
+Kornea, and the destruction of the enemy to the repose of mankind. The
+figure, I should have remarked, is made up of parts merely placed on each
+other, so that the force of an arrow is sufficient to dislodge the lofty
+erection as readily as a pack of cards in a mimic castle may be levelled
+by a breath. The mayllah concludes when the floating members of the figure
+have glided with the stream out of sight.
+
+A party of poor weak-minded mortals, pedestrians, but by their dress
+respectable people, returning from this day's mayllah when the evening was
+well advanced, suddenly halted near my house; my attention was soon
+aroused by violent screams, and exclamations of 'Seize her! seize her! she
+is eating my heart!' accompanied by all those indications of fear and pain,
+that did not fail to excite my sympathy; for I could not comprehend what
+was the matter and imagined the poor man had been wounded by the hand of
+an assassin.
+
+A crowd quickly assembled, and a great bustle ensued; I was really alarmed,
+and the tumult of voices continuing for some minutes, we distinctly heard
+the loud cries of a coarse female voice who seemed to be in great danger
+of losing her life by the rough treatment of a lawless rabble; this
+induced a Native gentleman of our family to venture out, to ascertain if
+possible the cause of the excitement, and also to endeavour to assuage the
+angry feelings of the turbulent party. His appearance amongst them
+produced the desired effect, they were silenced by his command; and when
+the man whose alarming screams had first assailed us, was brought before
+him, he found that he was a man of great respectability amongst the
+shop-keepers of the city, with a child of four years old in his arms, or
+rather I should say the child was seated astride on his father's hip, the
+arm encircling the child's body, as is the general manner of nursing
+amongst all classes of the Natives.
+
+On being questioned as to the cause of his raising the tumult, he declared
+that he was walking quietly on the roadway with his party, when the old
+woman (who was in custody) had touched him as he passed, when immediately
+his heart sickened, and he was sensible she had bewitched him, for she was
+still devouring his heart and feasting on his vitals.[2] 'I will certainly
+kill her!' he added, 'if she does not restore me to myself and my child
+likewise!'--'When was your child attacked?'--'About four days since,'
+answered the angry father.
+
+'Good man!' replied my friend; 'you must be under the influence of
+delusion, since you told me just now, the woman is a stranger to you, and
+that you never saw her before; how could she have bewitched your child
+then four days ago? I am sure weakening fears or illness has taken
+possession of your better feelings; the poor creature looks not like one
+who possesses the power you ascribe to her.'
+
+The old woman threw herself at the feet of my friend, and implored his
+protection, reiterating her gratitude to him as her preserver from the
+fury of an angry populace, who had already beaten her with slippers on her
+head, as a prelude to their future harsh intentions towards her. She
+stretched out her hands to touch him and bless him, as is the custom with
+the lower orders of women to their superior of either sex, but the
+multitude insisted she should not be allowed to let her unhallowed hands
+fall on the good Mussulmaun gentleman; in a second was to be heard the
+invocations of Hindoos and Mussulmauns, on their several sources of
+supreme aid, to save the gentleman from her power, for all the mob felt
+persuaded the old woman was a witch.
+
+'Be assured you are mistaken, I, at least, have no fears that her touch
+can harm me;' responded my friend. 'Exercise your reason--is she not a
+human being like ourselves? True she is old and ugly, but you are really
+wicked in accusing and ill-treating the poor wretch.' They were silenced
+for a few minutes, then declared she must be a witch, for her feet were
+crooked, she was desired to exhibit them, and they were found to be
+perfectly good straight feet.
+
+My friend inquired of the old woman who she was; she answered, 'A poor
+mazoorie[3] (corn-grinder), my husband and my sons are grass-cutters, our
+abode is in the serai (inn for travellers), we are poor, but honest
+people.' 'You see, Sir,' said my friend to the accusing person, 'your own
+weak fears have imposed upon your mind. This woman cannot have done you any
+injury; let her depart quietly to her home without farther annoyance.'
+
+'No!' replied the accuser, 'she must satisfy me she is not a witch, or
+worse than that, by allowing me to pluck a few hairs from her head.'--'
+What benefit do you propose to yourself by this measure?'--'Why I shall
+relieve myself from her power over me, by possessing hairs plucked from
+her head, on which my friends will exercise certain prayers, and thus the
+craft she has used to bewitch me will be dissolved, and I shall be
+restored to myself again.'[4]
+
+Willing as my friend was to get the poor woman released from the hands of
+the accusing party, and finding reason or argument of no avail in turning
+them from their purpose to detain her, the terms were acceded to on the
+one part, provided the woman herself was willing to comply, to which, when
+she was asked, she replied, 'I am not the wretched creature my accuser
+imagines, and therefore can have no objection, on condition that I may be
+allowed afterwards to return to my home in peace.'
+
+The poor old head was now in danger of being plucked of its white hairs by
+the surrounding crowd, whose extravagant desire to possess the, to them,
+invaluable specific against witchcraft--for they still believed she was
+actually a witch--led them to overlook humanity and feeling; but the
+peacemaker's voice was again heard, commanding the crowd to desist, and
+they should all be gratified, when the scissors he had sent a servant to
+fetch, might enable them to possess the prize without inflicting pain on
+the poor persecuted woman.
+
+Whilst this was in agitation, and before the scissors were used, several
+well-armed soldiers, attracted by the appearance of a riot, had made their
+way to the scene of contention, who recognizing the old woman as the
+mother and wife of their three grass-cutters, immediately took the poor
+old soul under their protection, and conveyed her safely from her
+tormentors. My friend was very well satisfied to resign his charge to
+their guardianship, and not a little pleased that he had been instrumental
+in preserving a fellow-creature from the lawless hands of the foolishly
+superstitious of his countrymen.
+
+It is lamentable to witness how powerful an ascendancy superstition sways
+over the minds of Asiatics generally. The very wisest, most learned, most
+religious, even, are more or less tinctured with this weakness; and, I may
+add, that I have hardly met with one person entirely free from the opinion
+that witchcraft and evil agency are in the hands of some, and often
+permitted to be exercised on their neighbours. The truly religious people
+declare to me, that they only are preserved from such calamities who can
+place their whole reliance on the power and goodness of God alone; Who,
+they are persuaded, will never suffer His faithful servants to be
+persecuted by the evil one in any shape, or under any mysterious agency.
+Perfect dependance on Divine Providence is the Mussulmaun's only safeguard,
+for they declare it to be their belief that evil agency exists still, as
+it did in the first ages of the world. Faith and trust in God can alone
+preserve them; when that fails, or if they have never learned to rely on
+Him for protection, they are necessarily exposed to the influence of that
+evil agency by which so many have suffered both in body and soul amongst
+their country-people.
+
+The return of our friend, with the explanation of the scene I had
+witnessed from my window, led me to inquire very minutely into the opinion
+and general belief of the Mussulmauns on such subjects. A sensible, clever
+gentleman of that persuasion then present, told me that there could be no
+doubt witchcraft was often practised in Lucknow, detailing things he had
+often heard, about the wicked amongst human beings who practised muntah[5]
+(incantations); and perhaps would have explained the motives and the
+acquired power if I had been disposed to listen. I inquired of my friend,
+as he had always appeared a religious person, whether he really believed
+in magic, genii, evil agency, &c. He told me, that he did believe
+certainly that such things still existed; but he added, 'such power can
+only work on the weak or the wicked, for that heart whose dependance is
+wholly fixed on God, has a sure protection from every evil, whether of man
+or spirit. You have in your sacred book a full and ample delineation of
+the works of magic, in the period of Moses, and also of Saul. In later
+periods you have proofs of greater weight with you, where Christ cast out
+devils and gave the same power to His disciples. My opinion,' he added,
+'will not alter yours, nor do I wish it; neither would I argue or dispute
+with you on subjects become obsolete in the enlightened world of which you
+are a member, but as far as my own individual opinion is concerned, it is
+my belief that all things are possible to the Almighty power and will of
+God. And I see no right we have either to inquire why, or to dispute about
+the motives by which His wisdom permits the weak to be afflicted for a
+season, or the wicked to be punished in this life.'
+
+I inquired if he had ever witnessed any of the strange events I
+continually heard his people speak of, as having occurred in their
+neighbourhood, such as people possessed with unclean spirits, sufficient
+to confirm his belief in their probability. He replied, 'I have not only
+witnessed but have, under Divine Providence, been the instrument to convey
+relief to several different women, who suffered from being possessed by
+evil spirits.' He then related the following, which I copy from the notes
+I took at the time of his relation:--
+
+'When I was a very young man, my mind was bent on inquiring into the truth
+of the generally believed opinion, that some righteous men of our faith
+had power granted to them to remove evil spirits from their victims. I
+took the advice of a certain venerable person, who was willing to impart
+his knowledge to me. Preparatory to my own practice, I was instructed to
+forsake the haunts of man, and give myself wholly to prayer. Accordingly I
+absented myself from my home, family, and friends, and led the life you
+would call a hermit's; my food was simply herbs and fruits, and
+occasionally an unleavened cake of my own preparing, whilst the nearest
+tank of water supplied me with the only beverage I required; my clothing a
+single wrapper of calico; my house a solitary chupha (a thatch of coarse
+grass tied over a frame of bamboo), and this placed on the margin of a
+wood, where seldom the feet of man strayed to interfere with, or disturb
+my devotion. My days and nights were given to earnest prayer; seeking God
+and offering praises with my mouth to Him, constituted my business and my
+delight for nearly two whole years, during which time my friends had
+sought me in vain, and many a tear I fear was shed at the uncertain fate
+of one they loved so well in my father's house.'
+
+'The simplicity of my mode of life, added to the veneration and respect
+always paid to the Durweish's character, raised me in the opinion of the
+few who from time to time had intruded on my privacy, to ask some boon
+within my limits to give as a taawise[6] (talisman), which is in fact a
+prayer, or else one of the names or attributes of God, in such a character
+as best suited the service they required; for you must be told, in the
+Mussulmaun faith, we count ninety-nine different names or titles to the
+great merciful Creator and only true God. In many cases the taawise I had
+so given, had been supposed by the party receiving them, to have been
+instrumental in drawing down upon them the favour of God, and thus having
+their difficulties removed; this induced others influenced by their report,
+to apply to me, and at last my retirement was no longer the hermit's cell,
+but thronged as the courtyard of a king's palace. My own family in this
+way discovered my retreat, they urged and prevailed on me to return
+amongst them, and by degrees to give up my abstemious course of life.
+
+'The fame of my devotion, however, was soon conveyed to the world; it was
+a task to shake off the entreaties of my poor fellow-mortals who gave me
+more credit for holiness of life than I felt myself deserving of. Yet
+sympathy prevailed on me to comfort when I could, although I never dared
+to think myself deserving the implicit confidence they placed in me.
+
+'On one occasion I was induced, at the urgent entreaties of an old and
+valued friend, to try the effects of my acquired knowledge in favour of a
+respectable female, whose family, and her husband in particular, were in
+great distress at the violence of her sufferings. They fancied she was
+troubled by a demon, who visited her regularly every eighth day; her
+ravings when so possessed endangered her health, and destroyed the
+domestic harmony of the house.
+
+'The day was fixed for my visit, and the first exercise of my acquirements;
+even then I had doubts on my mind whether the demons so often quoted did
+really exist, or were but the disordered wanderings of imagination; and if
+they did exist, I still was doubtful as to the extent of my knowledge
+being sufficient to enable me to be the instrument for effecting the
+desired benefit. Trusting faithfully, however, in God's help, and desiring
+nothing but His glory, I commenced my operations. The woman was seated on
+a charpoy (bedstead) behind a wadded curtain, which hid her from my view.
+Respectable females, you are aware, are not allowed to be seen by any
+males except very near relatives. I took my seat opposite the curtain with
+the husband of the suffering woman, and entered into conversation with him
+on general subjects.
+
+'I soon heard the wild speeches of the woman, and my heart fully
+sympathized in her sufferings. After preparing the sweet-scented flowers
+for my purpose (it is believed all aerial beings feed on the scent of
+flowers), fire was brought in a chafing-dish, at my request, and a copper
+plate was placed on this fire, on which I strewed my prepared flowers
+mixed up with drugs. Instantly the demon became furious in the woman,
+calling out to me, "Spare me! spare me!"
+
+'I should remark that the woman was so entirely hidden by the curtain as
+to leave it beyond a doubt that she could not see what I was doing on the
+other side, but she seemed, by the instinct of the evil spirit which
+possessed her, to be thoroughly acquainted with the nature of my visit,
+and the exertion I was making by prayer, for her release from the intruder.
+The women attending her, her friends and relatives, had no power to
+restrain her in the violence of her paroxysms; she tore the curtain with
+more than human force, and it gave way, leaving her and the other women
+exposed to my gaze.
+
+'I would, from modesty, have retired, but her husband, having confidence
+in my ability to help his afflicted wife, whom he loved most tenderly,
+entreated me not to retire, but to think of the woman as my own sister.
+The woman, or rather the demon in the woman, told me what I was going to
+do was not withheld from her knowledge, desiring me immediately to leave
+the place.
+
+'"Who are you?" I inquired.--"I am the spirit of an old woman, who once
+inhabited this house;" was answered by a coarse harsh voice.--"Why have
+you dared to possess yourself of this poor female? she never could have
+done you any injury."--"No," was answered, "not the female, but her
+husband has taken possession of this house, and I am here to torment him
+for it, by visiting his wife."
+
+'"Do you know that I am permitted to have power to destroy you in this
+fire?"--"Yes, but I hope you will shew mercy; let me escape and I will
+flee to the forest."--"I cannot agree to this, you would then, being at
+liberty, fasten yourself on some other poor mortal, who may not find one
+to release him from your tyranny; I shall destroy you now;" and I was
+actually preparing my methods for this purpose, when the screaming became
+so violent, the poor woman's agony so terrific, that I dreaded her instant
+death from the present agony of her ravings.
+
+'"How am I to know you are what you represent yourself to be?" said I,
+trying the softest manner of speech; (the poor victim appeared at ease
+immediately).--"Ask me any question you please," was replied, apparently
+by the woman, "and I will answer you." I rose and went into the front
+entrance of the house, which is divided from the zeenahnah by a high wall,
+as are all our Mussulmaun houses, and returned with something closely
+concealed in my hand. I asked, "What is enclosed in my clenched hand?"--"A
+piece of charcoal," was the prompt reply. It was so in truth; I could no
+longer doubt.
+
+'Another of the party was sent to the outer house; and, again I inquired,
+"What is in this person's hand?"--"Grains of corn."--"Of what
+nature?"--"Wheat." The hand was opened, and the contents were really as
+was said;--confirming to all present, if they had ever doubted, that the
+poor woman was possessed by the demon, as I have before represented.
+Nearly two hours were spent in the most singular conversations, which,
+whilst they amused me exceedingly, convinced me by my own observations of
+the truth of that which I had but imperfectly believed before these trials.
+
+'"I will certainly destroy you in this fire, unless you give me ample
+assurances that you will never again annoy or torment this poor
+inoffensive woman;" and, as I presented my preparation, the screams, the
+cries of "Spare me! oh, spare me this fiery torment!" were repeated with
+redoubled force. I asked, "What is your belief?"--"I believe in one God,
+the Creator of all things;" was promptly answered.--"Then away to the
+forest, the boon you first craved from me, nor again venture to return to
+this house."
+
+'The instant my command was given, the woman was calm, her reason restored
+immediately; her shame and confusion were beyond expressing by words, as
+she awoke from what she termed a dream of heavy terror that had
+overpowered her. The appearance of a strange man,--herself but half clad,
+for in the moments of raving she had torn off parts of her clothing,
+leaving the upper part of her person entirely uncovered--nearly deprived
+her again of returning reason; her husband's presence, however, soothed
+her mind; but it was some time before her confusion was sufficiently
+banished to enable her to converse freely with me. In answer to the
+questions I asked of her, she replied that she had not the least
+recollection of what had occurred. She fancied herself overpowered by a
+dreadful dream which had agitated her greatly, though she could not
+recollect what was the nature of that dream. I ordered some cooling
+beverage to be prepared for my patient, and recommending rest and quiet,
+took my leave, promising to visit her again in my professional character,
+should any return of the calamity render my visit necessary. The whole
+family heaped blessings and prayers on my head for the benefit they
+believed I had been the instrument of Providence in rendering to their
+house.
+
+'This was my first attempt at the practice I had been instructed in; and,
+you may believe, I was gratified with the success with which my endeavours
+had been crowned. For several months the lady continued quite well, when
+some symptoms of irritability of temper and absence of mind warned her
+husband and family of approaching danger upon which, they urged and
+entreated my second visit. I went accompanied by several friends who were
+curious to witness the effect expected to be produced by my prayer. It
+appeared the poor woman was more calm on my first entrance, than when _I_
+had previously visited her; but after repeating my form of prayer, the
+most violent ravings followed every question I put to her.
+
+'Many hours were spent in this way. The replies to my questions were
+remarkable; she always answered, as if by the spirit with which she was
+possessed. I demanded, "Why have you dared to return to this poor
+creature? do you doubt my ability to destroy you?" The reply was, "had no
+power to fix myself again on the woman, until you entered the house, but I
+have hovered over her."--I said, "I do not believe that you are the soul
+of a deceased old woman as you represent yourself to be; perhaps you may
+wish to convince me, by answering the questions that will be made by me
+and my friends." The several questions were then put and answered in a way
+that surprised all present.
+
+Afterwards, I said, "You professed when here on a former occasion, to
+believe in God. Answer me now, to what sect of people did you
+belong?"--"Sheikh," was the reply, "and I believe in one God of mercy and
+of truth,"'--"Then you are my brother,'" I said, rising, and holding out
+my hand to the woman, "we will shake hands."---"No, No!" replied the woman,
+with great agitation and terror, "I beseech you not to touch me; the fire
+which I dread would then torment me more than I could bear. I would
+willingly shake hands with all here present, that would give me no pain,
+but with you the case is different; one touch of yours would destroy me
+immediately. Not to prolong my story, at the husband's earnest entreaty,
+the evil soul was destroyed by the practice I had learned, and the poor
+woman, restored to health and peace, was no more troubled by her enemy."
+
+When this story was related, I fancied it a mere fable of the relator's
+brain to amuse his audience; but on a more intimate acquaintance with him,
+I find it to be his real opinion that he had been instrumental in the way
+described, in removing evil spirits from the possessed; nor could I ever
+shake his confidence by any argument brought forward for that purpose
+during many years of intimate acquaintance; which is the more to be
+regretted as in all other respects he possesses a very superior and
+intelligent mind, and as far as _I_ could judge of his heart by his life,
+always appeared to be a really devout servant of God.
+
+It is not surprising that the strongly grounded persuasion should be too
+deeply rooted to give way to my feeble efforts; time, but more especially
+the mercy of Divine goodness extended to them, will dissolve the delusion
+they are as yet fast bound by, as it has in more enlightened countries,
+where superstition once controlled both the ignorant and the scholar, in
+nearly as great a degree as it is evident it does at this day the people
+of India generally. Here the enlightened and the unenlightened are so
+strongly persuaded of the influence of supernatural evil agency, that if
+any one is afflicted with fits, it is affirmed by the lookers on, of
+whatever degree, that the sick person is possessed by an unclean spirit.
+
+If any one is taken suddenly ill, and the doctor cannot discover the
+complaint, the opinion is that some evil spirit has visited the patient,
+and the holy men of the city are then applied to, who by prayer may draw
+down relief for the beloved and suffering object. Hence arises the number
+of applications to the holy men for a written prayer, called taawise (
+talisman) which the people of that faith declare will not only preserve
+the wearer from the attacks of unclean spirits, genii, &c., but these
+prayers will oblige such spirits to quit the afflicted immediately on
+their being placed on the person. The children are armed from their birth
+with talismans; and if any one should have the temerity to laugh at the
+practice, he would be judged by these superstitious people as worse than a
+heathen.
+
+
+[1] Kanhaiya, a name of the demigod Krishna, whom Kansa, the wicked King
+    of Mathura, tried to destroy. For the miracle-play of the
+    destruction of Kansa by Krishna and his brother Balarama, see Prof.
+    W. Ridgeway, _The Origin of Tragedy_, 140, 157, 190. The author seems
+    to refer to the Ramlila festival.
+
+[2] For cases of witches sucking out the vitals of their victims, see
+    W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India_, ii. 268 ff.
+
+[3] _Mazdurni_, a day labourer.
+
+[4] On the efficacy of shaving or plucking out hair from a witch in order
+    to make her incapable of bewitching people, see W. Crooke, _Popular
+    Religion and Folklore of N. India_[2], ii. 250 f.
+
+[5] _Mantra_.
+
+[6] _Ta'wiz_, see p. 214.
+
+
+
+
+LETTER XXVII
+
+  Memoir of the life of Meer Hadjee Shah.--His descent.--Anecdote of a
+  youthful exploit.--His predilection for the army.--Leaves his home to
+  join the army of a neighbouring Rajah.--Adventures on the way.--Is
+  favourably received and fostered by the Rajah.--His first pilgrimage
+  to Mecca.--Occurrences during his stay in Arabia.--Description of a
+  tiger-hunt.--Detail of events during his subsequent pilgrimages.--The
+  plague.--Seizure by pirates.--Sketch of the life of Fatima, an
+  Arabian lady.--Relieved from slavery by Meer Hadjee Shah.--He marries
+  her.--Observations on the piety of his life.--Concluding
+  remarks...Page 400
+
+
+The name of Meer Hadjee Shah has so often occurred in my Letters, that I
+feel persuaded a brief sketch of his life may be acceptable here, more
+particularly as that venerated man presented to my immediate observation a
+correct picture of the true Mussulmaun. I can only regret my inability to
+do justice to the bright character of my revered father-in-law, whose
+conduct as a devout and obedient servant to his Maker, ruled his actions
+in every situation of life, and to whom my debt of gratitude is boundless,
+not alone for the affectionate solicitude invariably manifested for my
+temporal comforts, but for an example of holy living, which influences
+more than precept. This much valued friend of mine was the mouth of wisdom
+to all with whom he conversed, for even when intending to amuse by
+anecdotes, of which his fund was inexhaustible, there was always a moral
+and religious precept attached to the relation, by which to benefit his
+auditor, whilst he riveted attention by his gentle manners and
+well-selected form of words.
+
+Before we met, I had often heard him described by his dutiful son, but
+with all that affection had prompted him to say of his father, I was not
+prepared to expect the dignified person I found him,--a perfect model of
+the patriarchs of old to my imagination, nor could I ever look at him
+through our years of intimacy, without associating him in my mind with
+Abraham, the father of his people.
+
+His form was finely moulded, his height above six feet, his person erect,
+even in age, his fine cast of countenance beamed with benevolence and
+piety, and his dark eye either filled with tears of sympathy or
+brightening with joy, expressed both superior intelligence and intensity
+of feeling. His venerable flowing beard gave a commanding majesty to the
+figure before me, whilst his manners were graceful as the most polished
+even of European society. Raising his full eyes in pious thankfulness to
+God (whose mercy had thus filled his cup of earthly happiness to the brim),
+he embraced us both with a warmth of pressure to his throbbing heart, that
+pronounced more than his words, the sincerity of our welcome. Never have I
+forgotten the moment of our meeting. The first impression lasted through
+our long acquaintance, for he proved indeed a real solace during my
+pilgrimage in a strange land.
+
+The subject of my present Letter, Meer Mahumud Hadjee Shah, was a native
+of Loodeeanah,[1] the capital city of the Punjaab territory, so called
+from the five rivers which water that tract of country, and derived from
+punje (five), aab (water). He descended through a long line of pure Syaad
+blood, from Mahumud, many of his ancestors having been remarkable for
+their holy lives, and his grandsire in particular, a singularly devout
+Durweish, of whom are related in the family many interesting incidents and
+extraordinary escapes from peril which distinguished him as a
+highly-favoured mortal. On one occasion, when attacked by a ravenous tiger,
+his single blow with a sabre severed the head from the carcase: the sabre
+is still retained in the family with veneration, as the instrument by
+which the power and goodness of God was manifested to their sire.
+
+The father of Meer Hadjee Shah was a Kauzy (Judge) of the city of
+Loodeeanah, a man greatly admired for his extensive knowledge of the
+Mahumudan law, respected for his general worthiness, and venerated for his
+holy life. He had a large family, of whom the subject before me was the
+eldest son; his father designed to instruct and prepare him as his
+successor in the same honourable employment, whenever old age or
+infirmities should render his own retirement from the office necessary.
+But,--as the son always regretted when talking over the circumstance, with
+becoming remorse that his mind was differently swayed,--through an
+enterprising spirit he preferred the adventurous to the more sober calling
+for which his father had originally destined him.
+
+To illustrate the temper of his youth, his often repeated anecdote of an
+event which occurred when he was but twelve years old may here be
+presented:--
+
+'After our hours of study, boys of my own age were allowed to meet
+together for exercise and amusement, without the controlling presence of
+our Maulvees (tutors). Many an enterprising feat had been performed during
+our hours of play, but none that has impressed me with so keen a
+remembrance of my youthful follies as the one I am about to relate. We had
+long observed the wild pigeons, which owned not any earthly master, take
+refuge for the night in an old and dilapidated well outside the town; a
+plan was laid between my companions and myself to possess ourselves of
+some of these pigeons, and one evening we assembled by agreement to put
+our project in force.
+
+'A strong rope was procured, to which we fastened a piece of board, so as
+to form a seat; a bag was provided, into which the game was to be
+deposited as fast as it was caught; and a thick stick, with which to
+ascertain in the holes the situation of each pigeon, which was to be
+seized by the neck when thus discovered. Everything was arranged when,
+"Who will be lowered first?" was inquired by the head of our party. Meer
+Mahumud was not a little pleased when it was suggested, that he was the
+bravest boy among them; and with a proud feeling of ecstasy my young heart
+bounded whilst I seated myself on the board and was lowered from the
+summit for several yards down the well, my young companions holding fast
+the rope outside from which I was suspended; the bag conveniently slung
+across my left shoulder, with the open mouth in front, to enable me to
+deposit my gleanings without delay.
+
+'I had collected several pigeons in this way; and, at last, my stick was
+presented to search in a new aperture, where it seemed to be resisted by
+something more than the soft feathers of a bird; fearless as I was, my
+young hand was thrust into the hole, and I caught at something with a firm
+grasp, which at once convinced me could not be a pigeon; but I resolved
+not to part from my prize very readily, and drawing my hand and arm from
+the hole with great difficulty (putting all my youthful strength and
+energy to the task), I discovered my prize was a living snake of rather a
+large size.
+
+'Fearful to announce the nature of my present prisoner to the youngsters,
+at whose mercy I then was, lest they, through terror, should let the rope
+go, and thus precipitate me to the bottom of the well, I called out, "Draw
+up! draw up quickly! delay not, brothers!" and I was soon brought to the
+mouth of the well with the snake coiled round my arm, and firmly grasped
+just under the head, so that it could not extricate itself or injure me.
+The boys soon assisted me off the top of the well, and brought pieces of
+stone, with which they bruised the snake's head until I was relieved from
+its pressure on my arm by its death. I should remark, that I had presence
+of mind to rub the head against the wall on my ascent, which had
+considerably lessened the snake's pressure on my arm, and I believe it was
+more than half dead before I had reached the top.
+
+'My arm pained me dreadfully, but still my greatest agony was for fear my
+father should hear of my exploit, which I felt convinced would not only
+excite his present anger, but be the means of preventing my having another
+opportunity of enjoying the society and amusements of my young companions.
+Strict secrecy was therefore enjoined by my command upon the whole party;
+and returning to my home, I thought to disguise my real feelings by
+seeking repose instead of the evening dinner which was prepared for me. My
+affectionate mother had no suspicion that I was ill, although she was much
+distressed that play had destroyed the appetite of her son. I had dozed
+for some hours, when the agony of my arm awoke me as from an uneasy dream;
+I could hardly recollect the last evening's adventure, for my mind seemed
+much bewildered. My groans, however, brought my mother to my bed-side,
+whose tender care was exercised in fomenting my arm, which she found much
+swollen and inflamed.
+
+'The secret of my enterprize was never divulged by me until the news of my
+sudden illness was reported in the neighbourhood; when some of my young
+friends told the tale, and it was conveyed by one of the gossiping old
+women, of the city to the zeenahnah of my mother. My arm was for a long
+period rendered useless, and I was under the care of doctors for many
+months; the whole skin peeled off, and left me cause for remembering the
+circumstance, although it did not cure me of that preference for
+enterprize, which afterwards drew me from my home to visit other places,
+and to search for new adventures. Often did I remonstrate with my father
+on the subject of my future profession: how often did I declare my
+disinclination to pursue those studies (deemed essential to fit me for the
+office I was in due time to be appointed to), and avow my predilection for
+a military life!'
+
+At that period of Indian History, the Punjaab district was disturbed by
+the depredations of the Mahrattas.[2] Hordes of those lawless banditti
+were in the habit of frequent encroachments on the Mussulmaun possessions,
+committing frightful enormities in their predatory excursions against
+towns and villages, spreading terror and desolation wherever they
+approached. On this account military ardour was encouraged by the heads of
+families, and the youth of respectable Mussulmauns were duly instructed in
+the use of defensive weapons, as a measure of prudence by which they were
+enabled, whenever called upon, to defend the lives and property of their
+neighbours as well as of their individual families.
+
+In describing this period of his life, I have often heard Meer Hadjee Shah
+confess with remorse, that he was wont to pay far greater attention to his
+military instructors than to the Maulvee's lectures on law or other dry
+subjects of books, as he then often thought them, and at fourteen years
+old he was perfect master of the sabre, spear, matchlock, and the bow;
+able even then to defend himself against an enemy, or take the palm of
+victory, when practising those arts with the youth of his own standing.
+
+At seventeen, his love of enterprize drew him from the calm study of his
+tutors under the parental roof, to seek amongst strangers employment
+better suited to his inclination. His early adventures were attended with
+many vicissitudes and trials, which would (however interesting to those
+who have loved him) appear tedious to the general reader; I shall,
+therefore, but digress occasionally with such anecdotes as maybe generally
+interesting. One which presents him in the early part of his career
+amongst strangers in a position which marks the bravery of his youth, I
+shall take the liberty of introducing in his own words:--
+
+'After a good night's repose, I was desirous of pursuing my march, and
+prepared to take leave of my hospitable entertainer (a Kauzy of the
+village), from whom I had received the utmost attention and civility. This
+kind-hearted man was unwilling to allow of my journeying alone, and
+insisted that two of his menservants should accompany me that day's march
+at least. I had no fears, nor much to lose beside my life, and for some
+time resisted the offer, but without avail. The men therefore accompanied
+me, and after six hours' walk, I prevailed on them to take refreshment and
+rest at the serai of the village, through which we had to pass, with leave
+to retrace their way home afterwards with my duty to their master.
+
+'Released from their guardianship, I felt my own independence revive, and
+bounded on as lively as the antelope, full of hope that I might yet reach
+the Rajah's territory by nightfall, who, I had heard, was willing to give
+employment to the enterprising youth of Loodeeanah, in the army he was
+then raising. I must have walked since the morning near twenty koss (forty
+miles) without food or water; but I neither felt hunger nor fatigue, so
+deeply was my heart engaged in the prospect of a military life. At length
+hunger awakened me to a sense of my forlorn condition, for I had left home
+without a coin in my possession; and although I passed through many
+inhabited villages where relief would have been gladly tendered, if I had
+only applied for it, yet my pride forbade the humble words of supplicating
+for a meal; hungry as I was, death even would have been preferable at that
+time to breathing out a want amongst strangers.
+
+'I was overjoyed on approaching a cultivated tract of country to find a
+field of wheat, ripe for the harvest, evincing the great Creator's
+bountiful hand, and hesitated not, without a scruple, to possess myself of
+an occasional handful as I passed along, rubbing the ears and eating as I
+went, to save that time I deemed so precious; for my anxiety to reach the
+Rajah and employment, increased as the day advanced. I had traversed near
+thirty koss on foot, scarcely having halted since the dawning day; this to
+a young man who had been through life indulged by the luxury of a horse
+for exercise, whilst under the parental roof, may be imagined to have been
+no trifling undertaking. But buoyant youth, filled with hopes of honour
+and preferment is regardless of those difficulties which must subdue the
+indolent or less aspiring spirit.
+
+'At the extremity of a large field through which I had to pass, my eye
+rested on a man with two oxen, certain indications, I imagined, of a well
+of water being adjacent for the purpose of irrigation, towards whom I
+approached sufficiently near to inquire if a draught of pure water could
+be obtained for a thirsty traveller. The sturdy farmer-looking man seemed
+to view me with scrutiny, without deigning to reply; my question was
+repeated with civility, but no answer was given, and I then fancied his
+looks foreboded no good meaning; he held in his hand a large heavy stick
+studded at the top with iron rings (in common use with the lower orders of
+people as a weapon of defence against robbers, tigers, wolves, or
+reptiles), but as I stood far enough off to be out of immediate danger of
+a sudden attack, if such was premeditated, the surly look of his
+countenance gave me little concern until he called out in a commanding
+tone, "Youngster! off with your garments; lay down those bow and arrows
+instantly, or I will fell you to the earth with this staff that is in my
+hand!" which he raised in a position to prove himself in earnest.
+
+'My surprise was great, but it did not put me off my guard, and I replied
+with courage, that his insolent demand would not meet with a willing
+compliance; I was able to defend myself, young as I was, against his
+treacherous intentions on an unoffending traveller; and I prepared my bow
+in the expectation that he would either be deterred, or leave me no
+alternative but to use it in self-defence. Two arrows were promptly
+prepared, one placed in my bow, the other in my girdle, as he advanced
+repeating his demand, with the countenance of a ruffian, and his club
+elevated; he no doubt fancied that the bow was a plaything in the hand of
+a mere ignorant stripling. I warned him repeatedly not to advance, or my
+bow should teach him that my young arm was well instructed.
+
+'He however dared my vengeance, and advanced still nearer, when seeing I
+had no alternative, I aimed at his legs, not desiring to revenge but to
+deter my enemy; the arrow entered his thigh, passing completely through:
+he was astonished and stood like a statue. I then desired him to throw
+down his club, with which I walked away, or rather ran a sufficient
+distance to relieve myself from further expectation of annoyances from my
+enemy or the villagers.
+
+'Much time had been spent in that contest, which had left me the victor; I
+waited not however to witness his further movements, but with hastened
+steps in half an hour I reached the Rajah's palace. Several soldiers were
+guarding outside the gate, where stood, as is usual, charpoys for their
+use, on one of which, uninvited, I seated myself, fatigued by my long and
+unusual exercise. The men with great civility offered me water and their
+hookha, and when refreshed I answered their many inquiries, founded very
+naturally on my appearance, my youth, and travelling without an attendant.
+
+'I frankly told them that the Rajah's famed liberality had drawn me from
+Loodeeanah to seek employment as a soldier under his command. One of my
+new acquaintance recommended my immediately going into the palace, where
+the Rajah was seated in Durbar (holding his Court) for the express purpose
+of receiving applicants for the army now raising, under the expectation of
+a hostile visit from the Sikhs. I followed my guide through several
+avenues and courts until we arrived at the Baarah Daree[3] (twelve doors),
+or state apartments.'
+
+I must, however, here abstain from following Meer Hadjee Shah through the
+whole detail of his intimacy with the Rajah, which continued for some
+years, and by whom he was fostered as a favourite son; he accompanied the
+Rajah to the field against the Sikhs, whose singular habits and manners,
+both in battle and in their domestic circle, he has often amused his
+friends by relating.
+
+His first pilgrimage to Mecca was undertaken whilst a very young man,
+travelling the whole way by land, and enduring many trials and hardships
+in what he deemed 'The road of God'. On one occasion he was beset by
+wolves whilst on foot; but as he always confessed his preservation was by
+the power and goodness of Divine Providence, so in the present instance
+the wolves even ran from the blows of his staff, howling to their dens.
+
+During his stay in Arabia, when on his pilgrimage, his funds were
+exhausted, and he had no knowledge of a single individual from whom he
+could condescend to borrow, but as he always put his sole trust in God, a
+way was made for his returning prosperity in rather a singular and
+unexpected manner.
+
+A rich Begum, the widow of a wealthy Arab merchant, had long suffered from
+a severe illness, and had tried every medical prescription within her
+reach without relief. On a certain night she dreamed that a Syaad pilgrim
+from India, who had taken up his abode at the serai outside the town,
+possessed a medicine which would restore her to health. She had faith in
+her dream, and sent a polite message to the Syaad, who was described
+minutely by the particulars of her dream. Meer Hadjee Shah attended the
+summons, but assured the lady who conversed with him, that he was not
+acquainted with medicine; true, he had a simple preparation, which enabled
+him to benefit a fellow pilgrim, when by circumstances no better adviser
+could be found: he then offered her the powder, giving directions how to
+use it, and left her. In the evening a handsome dinner was conveyed by
+this lady's orders to Meer Hadjee Shah, which he accepted with gratitude
+to God, and for several days this was repeated, proving a sensible benefit
+to him, and to others equally destitute of the means of present provision,
+who were abiding at the serai.
+
+In the course of a week he was again summoned to attend the Begum, who was
+entirely cured of her long illness, which she attributed solely to the
+medicine he had left with her, and she now desired to prove her gratitude
+by a pecuniary compensation. He was too much gratified at the efficacy of
+his simple remedy, to require further recompense than the opportunity he
+had enjoyed of rendering himself useful to a fellow-creature, and would
+have refused the reward tendered, but the lady had resolved not to be
+outdone in generosity; and finding how he was circumstanced by another
+channel, she made so many earnest appeals, that he at last consented to
+accept as much as would defray his expenses for the journey to the next
+place he was on the point of embarking for, where he expected to meet with
+his Indian friends, and a supply of cash.
+
+On one occasion, he was exposed to danger from a tiger, but, to use his
+own words, 'as my trust was placed faithfully in God, so was I preserved
+by Divine favour'. The anecdote relative to that event, I cannot pass over,
+and therefore I relate it, as near as I recollect, in his own words:--'I
+was at Lucknow during the reign of the Nuwaub, Shujah ood Dowlah,[4] who
+delighted much in field sports; on one occasion it was announced that he
+intended to hunt tigers, and orders were issued to the nobility and his
+courtiers, requiring their attendance on elephants, to accompany him on a
+certain day. The preparations were made on a grand scale, and excited a
+lively interest throughout the city. I had never been present at a tiger
+hunt, and I felt my usual ambition to share in the adventures of that day
+too irresistible to be conquered by suggestions of prudence; and
+accordingly I went, on horseback, accompanied by a friend about my own age,
+falling into the rear of the Nuwaub's cavalcade which was far more
+splendid than any thing I had before witnessed, the train of elephants
+richly caparisoned, on which were seated in their gold or silver howdahs,
+the whole strength of the Court in rich dresses.
+
+'The hunting party had penetrated the jungle a considerable distance
+before a single trace of a tiger could be discovered, when, at length it
+was announced to the Nuwaub that the sheekaarees[5] (huntsmen) had reason
+to believe one at least was concealed in the high grass near which the
+party approached. The order was then given to loosen the led buffaloes,
+and drive them towards the grass which concealed the game, a practice at
+that time common with Native sportsmen to rouse the ferocious animal, or
+to attract him, if hungry, from his lurking place; but it seemed as if the
+buffaloes were scared by the number of elephants, for with all the goading
+and whipping, which was dealt to them unsparingly, they could not be
+pressed into the service for which they were provided.
+
+'The Nuwaub was remarkable for bravery, and prided himself on his
+successful shot; he therefore caused his elephant to advance to the edge
+of the high grass, that he might have the satisfaction of the first fire,
+when the animal should be roused. Some delay in this, induced the Nuwaub
+to order the dunkah-wallah (kettle-drummer) on horseback to be guarded on
+each side by soldiers with drawn sabres, to advance in front and beat his
+drums. The first sounds of the dunkah roused the tiger: this being
+instantly perceived, the horsemen wheeled round, and were in a second or
+two cleared from danger. The tiger sprang towards the elephant, but was
+instantly thrown back by her trunk to a good distance, the Nuwaub taking
+aim at the same instant, fired and slightly wounded the animal, only
+however sufficiently to add to its former rage.
+
+'My friend and myself were at this time (attracted by our eagerness to
+witness the sports) not many paces from the spot, when perceiving our
+dangerous position, retreat was the thought of the moment with us both: my
+friend's horse obeyed the signal, but mine was petrified by fear; no
+statue ever stood more mute and immoveable; for a second I gave myself up
+for lost, but again my heart was lifted up to the only Power whence safety
+proceeds, and drawing my sabre as the tiger was springing towards me (the
+same sabre which had been the instrument of safety to my grandsire in a
+like danger) as my arm was raised to level the blow, the animal curved his
+spring as if in fear of the weapon, brushed close to my horse's nose, and
+then stuck its sharp talons in the neck of another horse on which a
+Pattaan soldier was seated: his horse plunged, kicked, threw his rider on
+the ground with a violence that left him senseless, his open sabre falling
+on the handle, which, like a miracle, was forced into the earth leaving
+the point upwards in a slanting position, just clearing his neck by a few
+inches.
+
+'The tiger turned on the man with fury and wide-extended jaw, but was met
+by the sabre point, and the Pattaan's red turban, which fell at the
+instant; the tiger endeavouring to extricate himself from the entanglement,
+the sabre entered deeper through his jaw, from which he had but just
+released himself, when a ball from the Nuwaub's rifle entered his side and
+he slank into the grass, where he was followed and soon dispatched.'
+
+In his travels Meer Hadjee Shah had often been exposed to the dangerous
+consequences of the plague; but (as he declares), he was always preserved
+from the contagion through the same protecting care of Divine Providence
+which had followed him throughout his life. He has been often in the very
+cities where it raged with awful violence, yet neither himself nor those
+who were of his party, were ever attacked by that scourge. On one occasion,
+he was, with a large party of pilgrims, halting for several days together
+at a place called Bundah Kungoon[6] (the word Bundah implies the
+sea-shore), preparatory to commencing their projected journey to Shiraaz;
+he relates, that the mules and camels were provided, and even the day fixed
+for their march; but, in consequence of a dream he had been visited with,
+he was resolved to change his course, even should his fellow-travellers
+determine on pursuing their first plan, and thereby leave him to journey
+alone in an opposite direction.
+
+He made his new resolution known to the pilgrims, and imparted to them the
+dream, viz., 'Go not to Shiraaz, where thou shalt not find profit or
+pleasure, but bend thy steps towards Kraabaallah. His companions laughed
+at his wild scheme, and as their minds were fixed on Shiraaz, they would
+have persuaded Meer Hadjee Shah to accompany them; but, no, his dream
+prevailed over every other argument, and he set out accompanied by two
+poor Syaads and fifteen mendicant pilgrims, embarking at Kungoon on a
+small vessel for Bushire, which by a favourable wind they reached on the
+third day. Here they first learned the distressing intelligence that the
+plague had raged with frightful consequences to the population; and during
+their few days' sojourn at Busserah, he says, many victims fell by that
+awful visitation. The city itself was in sad disorder, business entirely
+suspended, and many of the richer inhabitants had fled from the scene of
+terror and dismay. No accommodation for travellers within his means could
+be procured by Meer Hadjee Shah, and he was constrained to set out on foot
+with his companions, after providing themselves with provisions for a few
+days.
+
+Unused to walk any great distance of late, and the effects of the short
+voyage not being entirely removed, he grew weary ere the first day's march
+was ended; 'But here', he says, 'I found how kind my Creator was to me,
+who put it into the hearts of my companions to take it by turns to carry
+me, until we arrived within sight of Feringhee Bargh[7] (Foreigners'
+Garden), where we found many of the healthy inhabitants from Bushire had,
+with permission, taken refuge, some in tents, others without a shelter;
+and in their haste to flee from danger, had forsaken all their possessions,
+and neglected provision for present comfort; a change of garments even had
+been forgotten in their haste to escape from the pestilential city.
+
+'Never', he says, 'shall I forget the confusion presented at this place
+nor the clamorous demands upon us, whom they esteemed religious men, for
+our prayers and intercessions that the scourge might be removed from them.
+I could not help thinking and expressing also, "How ready weak mortals are
+to supplicate for God's help when death or affliction approaches their
+threshold, who in prosperity either forget Him entirely or neglect to seek
+Him or to obey His just commands."
+
+'The next day our march led us to the vicinity of a large populated town.
+We halted near a plantation of date-trees, and one of our mendicant
+pilgrims was dispatched with money to purchase bread and dates for our
+sustenance, with instructions to conceal, if possible, our numbers and our
+halting-place, fearing that the inhabitants might assail us with stones if
+it were suspected that we came from the infected city. The quantity of
+food, however, required for so large a party excited suspicion, but our
+preservation was again secured by Divine interference.
+
+'A Dirzy[9] from the city visited our resting-place, and finding we were
+pilgrims, asked permission to travel with us to Kraabaallah, which was
+readily agreed to, and when a host of men were observed issuing from the
+town, this man, who was an inhabitant, ran towards them, explained that we
+were all healthy men, and interested several Arab-Syaads to come forward
+and befriend me and my party, which they readily assented to on finding
+that brother Syaads were in danger. The Kauzy of the town hearing all the
+particulars attending us, came to the spot which we had selected for our
+halt, presented his nuzza of twenty-one dinars to me, entreated pardon for
+the intended assault he had in ignorance authorized, obliged me to accept
+his proffered civilities, and we remained several days in the enjoyment of
+hospitality in that town, where we had at first such strong reasons to
+anticipate violence and persecution; but this could not be whilst the arm
+of the Lord was raised to shelter His confiding servants. To Him be the
+praise and the glory for every preservation I have been favoured with! and
+many were the perils with which I was surrounded in my walk through life,
+yet, always safely brought through them, because I never failed putting my
+trust in His mercy and protection who alone could defend me.'
+
+On one occasion of his pilgrimage to Mecca, Meer Hadjee Shah, with all his
+companions on board a trading ship, off the coast of Arabia, were attacked
+by pirates, and taken prisoners; but, as he always declared, the goodness
+of Divine Providence again preserved him and those with him from the hands
+of their enemies. In the event in question, he undertook to speak for all
+his party to the Arab chief, before whom they were taken prisoners, and
+having a thorough knowledge of the Arabic language, he pleaded their joint
+cause so effectually, that the chief not only liberated the whole party,
+but forced presents upon them in compensation for their inconvenient
+detention.
+
+The most interesting, if not the most remarkable incident which occurred
+to Meer Hadjee Shah in his journey through life, remains to be told. The
+story has been so often related by his own lips, that I think there will
+be little difficulty in repeating it here from memory. It may be deemed
+prolix, yet I should not do justice by a farther abridgement.
+
+
+
+FATIMA'S HISTORY
+
+'Fatima was the daughter of Sheikh Mahumud,[9] an Arab, chief of a tribe,
+dwelling in the neighbourhood of Yumen, who was a wealthy man, and much
+esteemed amongst his people. His wife died when Fatima, their only child,
+was but six years old, and two years after her father also was taken from
+this world, leaving his whole estate and possessions to his daughter, and
+both to the guardianship of his own brother, Sheikh ----, who was tenderly
+attached to the little girl, and from whom she received the fostering care
+of parental solicitude.
+
+'This uncle was married to a lady of no very amiable temper, who seized
+every opportunity of rendering the orphan daughter of his brother as
+comfortless as possible, but her uncle's affection never slackened for an
+instant, and this consoled her whenever she had trials of a domestic
+nature to distress her meek spirit.
+
+'When Fatima had reached her sixteenth year, an eligible match being
+provided by her uncle, it was intended to be immediately solemnized; for
+which purpose her uncle went over to Yumen to make preparations for the
+nuptials, where he expected to be detained a few days; leaving with his
+niece the keys of all his treasuries, whether of money or jewels.
+
+'On the very day of his departure from home, a brother of his wife's
+arrived at the mansion, and required, in Fatima's presence, a loan of five
+hundred pieces of silver. This could only be obtained by Fatima's consent,
+who firmly declared her resolution not to betray the trust her uncle had
+reposed in her. The wife was severe in her censures on her husband's
+parsimony, as she termed his prudence, and reviled Fatima for being the
+favoured person in charge of his property. This woman in her rage against
+the unoffending girl, struck her several times with violence. Situated as
+their residence was, apart from a single neighbour, she feared to stay
+during her uncle's absence, and left the house not knowing exactly where
+to seek a temporary shelter; but recollecting a distant relation of her
+mother's resided at Bytool Faakere,[10] no great distance off (within a
+walk as she imagined), she left her home without further reflection,
+unattended by a single servant.
+
+'When within a mile of her destined place of refuge, she was observed by a
+party of Bedouin robbers, who descended from their hill to arrest her
+progress, by whom she was conveyed to their retreat, almost in a state of
+insensibility from terror and dismay. Arriving at their hut, however, she
+was cheered by the sight of females, one of whom particularly struck her
+as being very superior to her companions, and in whose countenance
+benevolence and pity seemed to indicate a sympathizing friend in this hour
+of severe trial. The women were desired to relieve the prisoner Fatima of
+her valuables, which were, in accordance with their station, very costly
+both in pearls and gold ornaments.
+
+'Fatima overheard, during the night, some disputes and debates between the
+robbers, about the disposal of her person, one of whom was single, and
+declared his willingness to marry the girl, and so retain her with them;
+but Fatima had, when she was seized, recognized his countenance, having
+seen him before, and knew that his connexions lived in the town of Bytool
+Faakere, which she had unguardedly declared. The robbers, therefore,
+dreaded detection if her life was spared; they were not by nature
+sanguinary, but in this case there seemed no medium between their
+apprehension and the death of Fatima.
+
+'The female, however, who had at first sight appeared so amiable and
+friendly, fulfilled the poor girl's impressions, by strenuously exerting
+her influence, and eventually prevailed, in saving the orphan Fatima from
+the premeditated sacrifice of life; and as no better arrangement could be
+made to secure the robbers from detection, it was at length agreed she
+should be sold to slavery. This decided on, the swiftest camel in their
+possession was prepared at an early hour, a few short minutes only being
+allowed to Fatima, to pour out her gratitude to God, and express her
+acknowledgements to her humane benefactress, when she was mounted on the
+camel's back, with the husband of that kind-hearted female.
+
+'With the prospect of continued life, poor Fatima ceased to feel acute
+agony, and bore the fatigue of a whole day's swift riding without a murmur,
+for the Bedouin's behaviour was marked with respect. Towards the evening,
+as they drew near to a large town, the Bedouin halted by the margin of a
+forest, and the long night was passed in profound silence, with no other
+shelter than that which the forest afforded; and at the earliest dawn the
+march was again resumed, nor did he slacken his speed, until they were in
+sight of Mocha, where he designed to dispose of his victim. She was there
+sold to a regular slave-merchant, who was willing to pay the price
+demanded when he saw the beautiful face and figure of the poor girl,
+expecting to make a handsome profit by the bargain.
+
+'The Bedouin made his respectful obedience and departed in haste, leaving
+poor Fatima in almost a state of stupor from fatigue. Left however to
+herself in the slave-merchant's house, she seemed to revive, and again to
+reflect on the past, present, and future. Her escape from death called
+forth grateful feelings, and she felt so far secure that the wretch who
+had bought her, had an interest in her life, therefore she had no further
+fear of assassination. But then she reverted to her bonds; painful indeed
+were the reflections, that she who had been nobly born, and nursed in the
+lap of luxury, should find herself a slave, and not one friendly voice to
+soothe her in her bondage. She resolved however (knowing the privilege of
+her country's law) to select for herself a future proprietor.
+
+'Her resolution was soon put to the test; she was summoned to appear
+before a fisherman, who had caught a glimpse of her fine figure as she
+entered Mocha, and who desired to purchase her to head his house. The poor
+girl summoned all her courage to meet this degrading offer with dignity. A
+handsome sum was offered by the fisherman, as she appeared before him to
+reject the proposal. "Here is your new master, young lady," said the
+slave-merchant; "behave well, and he will marry you."
+
+Fatima looked up, with all her native pride upon her brow; "He shall never
+be my master!" she replied, with so much firmness, that (astonished as
+they were) convinced the bargainers that Fatima was in earnest. The
+merchant inquired her objection, us she had betrayed no unwillingness to
+be sold to him; she answered firmly, whilst the starting tear was in her
+eye, "My objection to that man is our inequality: I am of noble birth. My
+willingness to become your slave, was to free me from the hands of those
+who first premeditated my murder; and sooner than my liberty should be
+sold to the creature I must detest, this dagger", as she drew one from her
+vest, "shall free me from this world's vexations".
+
+'This threat settled the argument, for the slave-merchant calculated on
+the loss of three hundred dinars he had paid to the Bedouin; and Fatima,
+aware of this, without actually intending any violence to herself, felt
+justified in deterring the slave-merchant from further importunities.
+Several suitors came to see, with a view to purchase the beautiful Arab of
+noble birth, but having acted so decidedly in the first instance, the
+merchant felt himself obliged to permit her to refuse at will, and she
+rejected all who had made their proposal.
+
+'Meer Hadjee Shah, in the fulfilment of his promise to his wife at parting,
+to take home a slave for her attendant, happening at that time to be
+passing through Mocha, inquired for a slave-merchant: he was conducted to
+the house where Fatima was still a prisoner with many other less noble,
+but equally unhappy females. Fatima raised her eyes as he entered the hall;
+she fancied by his benevolent countenance that his heart must be kind; she
+cast a second glance and thought such a man would surely feel for her
+sufferings and be a good master. His eye had met hers, which was instantly
+withdrawn with unaffecting modesty; something prepossessed him that the
+poor girl was unhappy, and his first idea was pity, the second her
+liberation from slavery, and, if possible, restoration to her friends.
+
+'When alone with the slave-merchant, Meer Hadjee Shah inquired the price
+he would take for Fatima. "Six hundred pieces of silver (dinars),"[11] was
+the reply.--"I am not rich enough," answered the pilgrim; "salaam, I must
+look elsewhere for one:" and he was moving on.---"Stay," said the merchant,
+"I am anxious to get that girl off my hands, for she is a stubborn subject,
+over whom I have no control; I never like to buy these slaves of high
+birth, they always give me trouble. I paid three hundred dinars to the
+Bedouin for her, now if she will agree to have you for her master (which I
+very much doubt, she has so many scruples to overcome), you shall add
+fifty to that sum, and I will be satisfied."
+
+'They entered the hall a second time together, when the merchant addressed
+Fatima. "This gentleman desires to purchase you; he is a Syaad of India,
+not rich, he says, but of a high family, as well as a descendant of the
+Emaums."--"As you will," was all the answer Fatima could make. The money
+was accordingly paid down, and the poor girl led away from her
+prison-house, by the first kind soul she had met since she quitted her
+benefactress in the Bedouins' retreat.
+
+'Fatima's situation had excited a lively interest in the heart of Meer
+Hadjee Shah, even before he knew the history of those sufferings that had
+brought her into bondage, for he was benevolent, and thought she seemed
+unhappy; he wanted no stronger inducement than this to urge him to release
+her. Many a poor wretched slave had been liberated through his means in a
+similar way, whilst making his pilgrimages; and in his own home I have had
+opportunities of seeing his almost paternal kindness invariably exercised
+towards his slaves, some of whom he has, to my knowledge, set at liberty,
+both male and female, giving them the opportunity of settling, or leaving
+them to choose for themselves their place of future servitude.
+
+'But to return to Fatima. On taking her to his lodgings, he tried to
+comfort her with the solicitude of a father, and having assured her she
+was free, inquired where her family resided, that she might be forwarded
+to them. The poor girl could scarce believe the words she heard were
+reality and not a dream; so much unlooked for generosity and benevolence
+overpowered her with gratitude, whilst he addressed her as his daughter,
+and explained his motives for becoming her purchaser, adding, "Our laws
+forbid us to make slaves of the offspring of Mussulmauns of either sex;
+although be it confessed with sorrow, unthinking men do often defy the law,
+in pursuance of their will; yet I would not sell my hopes of heaven for
+all that earth could give. I again repeat, you are free; I am not rich,
+but the half of my remaining funds set apart to take me to my home in
+India, shall be devoted to your service, and without any delay I will
+arrange for your return to Yumen, under safe convoy" (and seeing she was
+about to express her gratitude to him): "Forbear, as you respect me, a
+single word of acknowledgement; if any thanks are due, it is to that good
+Providence who hath preserved you from greater evils, to Whom be offered
+also my humble praises, that through His mercy my steps were directed
+through Mocha, at such a time as this, when an unprotected female required
+fatherly protection."
+
+'Fatima was in tears during this speech of her true friend, and when he
+paused, she said, "Heaven, indeed, sent you to my aid; you seem like a
+guardian angel. Much, much I fear to be separated from one so pious and so
+bountiful. May I not again be thrown into similar scenes to those your
+generosity has been exercised to release me from? Who but yourself and my
+own dear uncle could ever feel that lively interest for my preservation?"
+
+'Meer Hadjee Shah would willingly have conveyed the poor girl to her uncle'
+s residence near Yumen, had it been possible; but his arrangements were
+made to sail by an Arab ship to Bombay, which if many days postponed would
+detain him nearly another year from India, where he was aware his return
+was expected by his wife and family; and he was not willing to give them
+cause for uneasiness, by any further delay; he however went out to make
+inquiries at Mocha for some safe means of getting Fatima conveyed to her
+uncle.
+
+'In the meantime she resolved in her mind the several circumstances
+attending her actual situation in the world, and before the next morning
+had well dawned, she had resolved on urging her kind protector to take her
+with him to India, before whom she appeared with a more tranquil
+countenance than he had yet witnessed. When they were seated, he said,
+"Well, Fatima, I propose to devote this day to the arrangement of all
+things necessary for your comfort on your journey home, and to-morrow
+morning the kaarawaun[12] sets out for Yumen, where I heartily pray you
+may be conducted in safety, and meet your uncle in joy. Have no fears for
+your journey, put your entire trust in God, and never forget that your
+safety and liberation were wrought out by His goodness alone."
+
+'"Huzerut[13] (revered Sir)," she replied, "I have weighed well the
+advantages I should derive by being always near to you, against the
+prospects of my home and wealth in Arabia, which I am resolved to
+relinquish if you accede to my proposal. Let me then continue to be your
+slave, or your servant, if that term is more agreeable to my kind master.
+Slavery with a holy master is preferable to freedom with wealth and
+impiety. You must have servants, I will be the humblest and not the least
+faithful in my devoted services."
+
+'The pious man was surprised beyond measure; he attempted to dissuade her,
+and referred to his wife and children in India. "Oh! take me to them," she
+cried with energy; "I will be to them all you or they can desire," This
+arrangement of Fatima's was rather perplexing to him; her tears and
+entreaties, however, prevailed over his preference, and he quieted her
+agitation by agreeing to take her to India with him.
+
+'After maturely weighing all the circumstances of the voyage by sea, and
+the long journey by land from Bombay to Lucknow, he came to the
+determination of giving Fatima a legal claim to his protection, and
+thereby a security also from slanderous imputations either against her or
+himself, by marrying her before they embarked at Mocha; and on their
+arrival at Lucknow, Fatima was presented to his first wife as worthy her
+sympathy and kindness, by whom she was received and cherished as a dear
+sister. The whole family were sincerely attached to the amiable lady
+during the many years she lived with them in Hindoostaun. Her days were
+passed in piety and peace, leaving not an instance to call forth the
+regrets of Meer Hadjee Shah, that he had complied with her entreaties in
+giving her his permanent protection. Her removal from this life to a
+better was mourned by every member of the family with equal sorrow as when
+their dearest relative ceased to live.'
+
+It is my intention (if I am permitted), at some future period, to write a
+more circumstantial account of Meer Hadjee Shah's adventures through life,
+than my present limits allow. In the meantime, however, I must satisfy
+myself by a few remarks founded on a personal observation and intimacy
+during the last eleven years of his eventful life. His example and precept
+kept pace with each other, 'That this world and all its vanities, were
+nothing in comparison with acquiring a knowledge of God's holy will, and
+obeying Him, in thought, in word, and deed.'
+
+He was persuaded by the tenets of his religion that by exercising the body
+in the pilgrimage to Mecca, the heart of man was enlightened in the
+knowledge and love of God. He found by obeying the several duties of the
+religion he professed, and by enduring the consequent trials and
+privations of a pilgrimage without regard to any feelings of selfish
+gratification or indulgent ease, that, his nature being humbled, his love
+to God was more abundant.
+
+His law commanded him to fast at stated periods, and although he was
+turned of seventy when I first saw him, yet he never failed, as the season
+of Rumzaun approached, to undergo the severity of that ordinance day by
+day during the full period of thirty days; and it was even a source of
+uneasiness to my venerated friend, when, two years prior to his decease,
+his medical friends, aided by the solicitude of his family, urged and
+prevailed on him to discontinue the duty, which by reason of his age was
+considered dangerous to health, and perhaps to life. Prayer was his
+comfort; meditation and praise his chief delight. I never saw him
+otherways than engaged in some profitable exercise, by which he was
+drawing near to his Creator, and preparing himself for the blessedness of
+eternity, on which his soul relied.
+
+During our eleven years' constant intercourse, I can answer for his early
+diligence; before the day had dawned his head was bowed in adoration to
+his Maker and Preserver. At all seasons of the year, and under all
+circumstances, this duty was never omitted. Even in sickness, if his
+strength failed him, his head was bowed on a tray of earth, to mark his
+dutiful recollection of the several hours appointed for prayer. The
+Psalmist's language has often been realized to my view, in him, 'Seven
+times a day do I praise thee, O Lord,' and 'at midnight I will rise to
+give thanks unto Thee,' when witnessing his undeviating observance of
+stated prayer duties; and when those duties were accomplished, even his
+amusements were gleaned from devotional works, visits of charity, and acts
+of benevolence. I never saw him idle; every moment was occupied in prayer
+or in good works. His memory was retentive, and every anecdote he related
+was a lesson calculated to lead the mind of his auditor to seek, trust,
+and obey God, or to love our neighbour as ourselves.
+
+The many hours we have passed in profitable discourses or readings from
+our Holy Scripture and the lives of the Prophets have left on my memory
+lasting impressions.
+
+I was, at first, surprised to find Meer Hadjee Shah so well acquainted
+with the prominent characters of our Scripture history, until the source
+from whence his knowledge had been enlarged was produced and read aloud by
+my husband every evening to our family party. The 'Hyaatool Kaaloob' (a
+work before alluded to) occupied us for a very long period, each passage
+being verbally translated to me by my husband.
+
+When that work was finished, our Holy Scripture was brought forward, which,
+as I read, each passage was again translated by my husband, either in
+Persian or Hindoostaunic, as best suited the understanding of our party at
+the time. So interesting was the subject, that we have been five or six
+hours at, a time engaged without tiring or even remembering the flight of
+those moments which were devoted, I trust, so beneficially to us all.
+
+Meer Hadjee Shah's views of worldly enjoyments resembled the Durweish's in
+principle; for he thought it unworthy to heap up riches, to swell his
+wardrobe, or to fare on sumptuous diet; but his delight consisted in
+sharing the little he could at any time command with those who needed it.
+He possessed an intelligent mind, highly cultivated by travel, and a heart
+beaming with tenderness and universal charity: so tempered were his
+affections by a religious life, that the world was made but a place of
+probation to him whilst looking forward with joy to the promises of God in
+a happy eternity. His purity of heart and life has often realized to my
+imagination that 'Israelite in whom (our Redeemer pronounced) there was no
+guile.'
+
+I must here draw my Letters to a conclusion, with many an anxious wish
+that my gleanings in the society of the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun may
+afford profitable amusement to my friends and to those persons who may
+honour my work with a perusal, humbly trusting that the people whose
+character, manners, habits, and religion, I have taken upon me to pourtray,
+may improve in their opinion by a more intimate acquaintance.
+
+In my attempt to delineate the Mussulmauns, I have been careful to speak
+as I have found them, not allowing prejudice to bias my judgment, either
+on the side of their faults or virtues. But I deem it incumbent to state,
+that my chief intimacy has been confined to the most worthy of their
+community; and that the character of a true Mussulmaun has been my aim in
+description. There are people professing the faith without the principle,
+it is true; but such persons are not confined to the Mussulmaun persuasion;
+they are among every class of worshippers, whether Jew or Gentile
+throughout the world.
+
+Of my long sojourn in the society of the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun, I
+need here but remark, that I was received amongst them without prejudice,
+and allowed the free usage of my European habits and religious principles
+without a single attempt to bias or control me; that by respecting their
+trifling prejudices as regards eating and drinking, their esteem and
+confidence were secured to me; and that by evincing Christian charity,
+(which deters the possessor from proud seeming), I believe, I may add,
+their affection for me was as sincere, as I trust it will be lasting.
+
+It may be regretted, with all my influence, that I have not been the
+humble instrument of conversion. None can lament more than myself that I
+was not deemed worthy to convince them of the necessity, or of the
+efficacy of that great Atonement on which my own hopes are founded. Yet
+may I not, without presumption, hope my sojourn, with reference to a
+future period, may be the humble means of good to a people with whom I had
+lived so many years in peace? I must for many reasons be supposed to
+entertain a lively interest in their welfare, and an earnest desire for
+their safety, although at the present moment I can distinguish but one
+advantage accruing from our intimacy, namely, that they no longer view the
+professors of Christianity as idolaters. They have learned with surprise
+that the Christian religion forbids idolatry,--thus the strong barrier
+being sapped, I trust it may be thrown down by abler servants of our Lord;
+for the Mussulmauns are already bound by their religion to love and
+reverence Christ as the Prophet of God: may the influence of his Holy
+Spirit enlighten their understandings to accept Him as their Redeemer!
+
+Like the true Christian, they are looking forward to that period when
+Jesus Christ shall revisit the earth, and when all men shall be of one
+faith. How that shall be accomplished, they do not pretend to understand,
+but still they faithfully believe it, because it has been declared by an
+authority they reverence, and deem conclusive. Often, during my
+acquaintance with these people, have I felt obliged to applaud their
+fidelity, although, in some points, I could not approve of the subject on
+which it was displayed--their zeal at Mahurrum, for instance, when they
+commemorate the martyrdom of the grandchildren of their Prophet,--I have
+thought 'had they been favoured with the knowledge we possess, what
+zealous Christians would these people be, who thus honour the memory of
+mere holy men.'
+
+The time, I trust, is not very far distant when not one nation in the
+whole world shall be ignorant of the Saviour's efficacy, and His
+willingness to receive all who cast their burden at the foot of His cross.
+My heart's desire for the people I have dwell amongst is that which St.
+Paul in the Epistle to the Romans declares to be his prayer to God for
+Israel, 'that they might be saved!' and I know not any way in which I
+could better testify my regard for the Mussulmauns collectively, or my
+gratitude individually, than by recommending the whole of the tenth
+chapter of the Romans to the serious consideration of those persons who
+possess such influence, us that the gospel of peace may be preached to
+them effectually by well-chosen and tried servants of our Lord, who are
+duly prepared both in heart and speech, to make known the glad tidings to
+their understandings that 'God so loved the world, that He gave His only
+begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish, but have
+everlasting life;' that 'If any man sin we have an Advocate with the
+Father, Jesus Christ the righteous;' and that 'He is the propitiation for
+our sins: and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world.'
+
+Should the view I have conscientiously given of their character be the
+humble means of removing prejudice from the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun, so
+that they may be sought and won by brotherly kindness, my humble heart
+will rejoice that my labours, as an observer and detailer, have been
+successful through the merciful orderings of Divine Providence.
+
+
+[1] Ludhiana, a city, not the capital of the Panjab: 'the land of
+    five rivers' _(panj-ab)._
+
+[2] Under the Peshwas, Baji Rao I and Balaji Rao
+    (A.D. 1720-61) the incursions of the Mahrattas extended as far north
+    as the Panjab.
+
+[3] _Barahdari_, a room nominally with twelve doors.
+
+[4] Shuja-ud-daula, son of Mansur 'Ali Khan, Safdar Jang,
+    Governor of Oudh: born A.D. 1731; succeeded his father, 1753. He was
+    present at the battle of Panipat in 1761: became Wazir of the
+    Emperor Shah 'Alam: defeated by the British at the battle of
+    Buxar, 1764: died at Faizabad, then his seat of government, 1775.
+
+[5] _Shikari_.
+
+[6] Bandar [harbour] Kangun, a port on the west side of the Persian
+    Gulf, about 100 miles west of Gombroon.
+
+[7] Firangi Bagh, Franks' Garden.
+
+[8] Darzi, a tailor.
+
+[9] Shaikh Muhammad.
+
+[10] Baitu'l-faqir, 'house of a holy man'.
+
+[11] _Dinar_, Lat. _denarius_, a coin of varying value: see Yule,
+    _Hobson-Jobson_[2], 317 f.
+
+[12] _Karwan_, a caravan.
+
+[13] _Hazrat_.
+
+
+
+THE END
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS
+
+USED IN PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
+
+
+Arnold, T.W. _The Preaching of Islam_, London, 1896.
+
+Beale, T.W. _An Oriental Biographical Dictionary_, London, 1894.
+
+Burton, Sir R.F. _The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night_, 12 vols.,
+London, 1894.
+
+Burton, Sir R.F. _A Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Mecca_, 2 vols.,
+London, 1893.
+
+Crooke, W. _The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_,
+2 vols., Westminster, 1896.
+
+Fanshawe, H.C. _Delhi Past and Present_, London, 1902.
+
+Fazalalullah Lutfullah, 'Gujarat Musalmans', in _Bombay Gazetteer_,
+ix, part ii, Bombay, 1899.
+
+Fuehrer, A. _The Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions of the
+North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, Allahabad, 1891.
+
+Irwin, H.C. _The Garden of India_, London, 1880.
+
+Jaffur Shurreef, _Qanoon-e-Islam, or the Customs of the Mussulmans of
+India_, trans. G.A. Herklots, Madras, 1863.
+
+_Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh_, 3 vols., Lucknow, 1877.
+
+Hughes, T.P. _A Dictionary of Islam_, London, 1885.
+
+[Knighton, W.] _The Private Life of an Eastern King_, London, 1855.
+
+_Koran, The_, trans. J.M. Rodwell, Everyman's Library, London, _n.d._;
+by G. Sale, London, 1844.
+
+Lane, E.W. _An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern
+Egyptians_, 2 vols., 5th ed., London, 1871.
+
+_Mishcat-ul Masabih_, by Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah, trans. A.N.
+Matthews, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1809-10.
+
+Ockley, S. _History of the Saracens_, London, 1848.
+
+Parks, F. _Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque_, 2 vols.,
+London, 1852.
+
+Polly, Col. Sir L. _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from
+Oral Tradition_, 2 vols., London, 1879.
+
+Sell, E. _The Faith of Islam_, Madras, 1880.
+
+Sleeman, Major-Gen. Sir W.H. _A Journey through the Kingdom of
+Oudh, in 1849-1850_, 2 vols., London, 1858.
+
+Sleeman, Major-Gen. Sir W.H. _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian
+Official_, ed. V.A. Smith, 2 vols., Westminster, 1893.
+
+Watt, Sir G. _A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_, 6 vols.,
+Calcutta, 1889-93.
+
+Yule, Col. H., Burnell, A.C. _Hobson-Jobson_, 2nd ed., London, 1903.
+
+       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Aameen, Ameen, Ami, Amen
+Aaroon, Aaron
+Abass Ali, 'Abbas, nephew of Husain;
+  Abass Ali Huzerut ke Durgah, Hazrat 'Abbas 'Ali ki dargah
+Ablution
+Aboubuker, Abubakr, the Caliph
+Abraham, sacrifice of Ishmael;
+  his title
+Abstinence during the Muharram festival
+Adam, his burial-place;
+  his title;
+  image of
+Affrine Khaun, Afrin Khan, a eunuch
+Afthaadah, _aftabgir_, a sun-shade
+Agha Mir, minister in Oudh
+Ahmud Kaabeer, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir, a saint
+Akbhar Shah, Akbar Shah II, King of Delhi
+Akbar, the Moghul Emperor, his capture of Chitor
+Alchemy
+Aleppo
+Alexandria, alleged destruction of the library at
+Ali, 'Ali, son-in-law of Muhammad;
+  murder of;
+  imparted knowledge to the Sufis
+Ali Reezah, Ar-Raza
+Ali Ul Hoodah, 'Ali ul Huda
+Al-kauloek, _alkhalaq_, a coat with sleeves
+Allah Khareem, Al-Karim, 'the generous one'
+Allah wo uckbaar, _Allah u akbar_, 'God is most great'
+Alligators, caught by monkeys
+Allum, _'alam_, a standard
+Allumgeer, 'Alamgir, the Emperor Aurangzeb
+Al Mauss Ali Khaun, Almas 'Ali Khan, a eunuch
+Almsgiving at the Muharram festival
+Alrouschid, Harun-al-Rashid, the Caliph
+Amulets for children
+Amusements of children
+Angels, the attendant
+Animal, fights at the Court of Oudh;
+  mode of slaughtering by Musalmans;
+  life, sanctity of
+Antelopes, hunted by leopards
+Ants;
+  sugar laid near their nests;
+  white
+Apples
+Arg, _arka_, the fire plant
+Arms, polishers of
+Arrack, _'araq,_ spirits
+Artoojee, _ustadji_, a teacher
+Artush-baajie, _atishbazi_, fireworks
+'Ashura, the last day of the Muharram festival
+Asof ood Duolah, Nawab Asaf-ud-daula;
+  his proclamation against infanticide
+Asthma, a cure for
+Astrology
+Ausmaun, 'Usman, the Caliph
+Ausur namaaz, _'asr ki namaz_, prayer at the third watch of the day
+Ayah, _aya_, a nurse
+Ayashur, Ayishah, wife of Muhammad
+
+Baalee Peer, Bala Pir
+Baaraat, _barat_. the procession of the bridegroom
+Baarah Daree, _barahdari_ a room with twelve doors
+Babool, _babul_, the tree _acacia arabica_
+Bacherkaunie, _baqirkhani_, a kind of bread
+Ba daanah, _bedanah_, seedless grapes
+Baer, _ber_, the tree _Zizyphus Jujuba_
+Bahadhoor, _bahadur_, 'a champion', a title of honour
+Baittee, _beti_, a daughter
+Bamboos,
+  uses of;
+  flowering of;
+  set on fire by friction
+Banner of Husain (see ALLUM)
+Bareheaded people not allowed in a house
+Basun, _besan_, pulse flour
+Bazars described
+Beards worn by Musalmans;
+  dyeing of
+Bearer caste, the
+Bedspreads
+Bedsteads
+Beeby Sahib, _bibi sahiba_, an English lady
+Beggar, a famous, in Lucknow
+Begum, _begam_, a title of a Sayyid lady
+Biles and blains
+Birds,
+  catchers of;
+  released in time of sickness
+Birth rites,
+  scanty rejoicings at birth of a girl;
+  gun-firing;
+  nursing,;
+  first dose of medicine;
+  bathing of child;
+  forty days' impurity after childbirth;
+  gifts made to the child;
+  birthday celebrations;
+  circumcision;
+  child carried to the Dargah
+Bis ma Allah, _bi'smi'llah_, 'in the name of Allah'
+Bleeding, procedure at
+Blistering, flies used for
+Blood-spitting; cure for
+Blue stone, a remedy for snakebites
+Boats set adrift in honour of Khwaja Khizr
+Bodice, the
+Bohue Begum, _Bahu Begum_, a daughter-in-law
+Bootkhanah, _butkhanah_, an idol temple
+Borehaun, _burhan_, the critical days of fever
+Bows and arrows, use of
+Brahmanical cords burnt
+Bread, varieties of
+Bricks, ancient
+Bride,
+  the peculium of;
+  modes of selecting;
+  dress of
+Bridegroom, veil worn by
+Brushes for hair and teeth
+Buckaria, Bokhara
+Buckrah Eade, the _baqarah id_, festival;
+  gifts sent at
+Budgerow, a kind of boat
+Bull-bull, _bulbul_, the nightingale
+Bundah Kungoon, Bandar Kangun
+Bunyah, Baniya, a corn merchant
+Buraq, the animal on which Muhammad flew to Mecca
+Burbut, _bargat_, the banyan tree
+Burghutt, caste, regard for animal life
+Burial rites, purification after touching the corpse; see DEATH.
+Burkhundhar, _barqandaz_, a man armed with a matchlock
+Burqa', a woman's veil
+Burrhsaatie, _barsati_ a disease of horses
+Burruff wallah, _barfwala_ a seller of ice
+Bushire, a town on the Persian Gulf
+Bussorah, Basra, a town on the Shatt el Arab in Asiatic Turkey
+Bussund, _basant_, the spring festival
+Butcher bird, the
+Butchers
+Buttaire, _bater_, a quail
+Butter sellers
+Buttooah, _batua_, ornamented bag
+Bytool Faakere, _baitu'l-faqir,_ 'the house of a holy man'
+
+Cain, reputed founder of Kanauj
+Caliphas, _khalifah_, of Shi'ahs and Sunnis;
+  a head of a trade or profession
+Camphor, used in treating cholera;
+  in burial rites
+Cardimun, the cardamom
+Cards, the game of
+Carounder, _karaunda, Carissa Carandas_
+Castanets, see CHUCKIE
+Catechu, used with betel
+Cattle, slaughter of, objected to by Hindus
+Chaff, thrown on the head in mourning
+Chain at the Ka'bah;
+  of justice, put up by Jahangir
+Chair, right to use
+Chapaatie, _chapata_, a griddle cake
+Charaagh, _chiragh_, a lamp
+Charity, a religious duty;
+  among Musalmans
+Charpoy, _charpai_, a kind of bed
+Chatnee, _chatni_, a kind of relish
+Chattah, _chhata_, an umbrella
+Cheek, _chiq_, a door screen
+Cheetah, _chita_, a hunting leopard
+Cherries
+Children, fasting of
+Chillum, _chilam_, the bowl of a water-pipe, the tobacco used to
+fill it
+Chillumchee, _chilamchi_, a wash-hand basin
+Chilubdhaar, _chalapdar_, a cymba player
+China vessels, use of
+Chirrya wallah, _chiryawala_, a bird-catcher
+Chitcherah, _chichra_, the _Achryanthes aspera_ tree
+Chitlah, _chitra_, a kind of melon
+Chobdhaah, Chobdhaar, _chobdar_, a mace-bearer
+Chokeedhar, _chaukidar_, a watchman
+Cholera;
+  cures for
+Chowrie, Chowry, _chauri_, a yak tail fan
+Chowsah, _chausa_, four-sided, of dice
+Chubbaynee, _chabena_, parched grain
+Chuckie, Chuckee, _charkhi_, a kind of castanets;
+  _chakki_, a grindstone
+Chuddah, Chudha, _chadar_, a sheet
+Chuhsah, _chhahsa_, six-sided, of dice
+Chumund, _chaman_, a flower bed
+Chundole, _chandol_, a kind of sedan chair
+Chupha, _chhappar_, a thatched shed
+Chupkund, _chapkan_, a kind of coat
+Cider, made from melon juice
+Circumcision
+Clepsydra, used to mark time
+Cloak, hooded, worn by women
+Cock-fighting
+Coel, _koil_, a kind of cuckoo
+Concubinage
+Confectioners
+Cookery, in Musalman families
+Cooking, prohibited in the house of mourning
+Cord, Brahmanical, burned
+Cossum, Qasim, nephew of Husain;
+  model of his tomb taken in procession
+Courtie, _kurti_, a woman's jacket
+Cowry shells
+Cream sellers
+Cries of hawkers
+Crown of the King of Oudh
+Crows, impudence of
+Cummerbund, _kamarband_, a waist-cloth, girdle
+Cuppers
+Curd sellers.
+Currants
+Currie, _karhi_
+Cutlers
+Cuttie, _khatai_, soured milk;
+  kath, gum used with pan
+
+Daak, _dak_, the letter post
+Daaood, Daud, David, his mother's prayer
+Dacca cloths
+Damascus fig, the
+Dancing, considered degrading;
+  women
+Dates, eating of
+Dead, food for the;
+  period of mourning for
+Death rites
+Debt, imprisonment for, said to be forbidden
+Decca, Dacca
+Delhi described
+Deluge, said not to be known in India
+Deputtah, _dopatta_, a double sheet
+Devotees, Musalman.
+Dhall, _dal_, pulse
+Dhaullie, _dali_, a basket of fruit and vegetables
+Dhie, _dahi_, curds
+Dhie mudgelluss, _dah majlis_, the ten days of the Muharram festival
+Dhobie, _dhobi_, a washerman
+Dholle, _dhol_, a drum
+Dhollie, a 'dooly', a litter;
+  wives
+Dhome, a drum
+Dhull Dhull, Duldul, the mule of Muhammad
+Dhurzie, darzi, the tailor caste
+Diamonds
+Dice, games played with
+Dimishk, Dimashq, Damascus
+Dinar, _dinar_, denarius, a coin
+Dinners provided in time of mourning
+Dirzy; see DHURZIE
+Divination in selecting a bride
+Divorce
+Dog, an impure animal
+Domenie, Domni, a singing woman
+Dooar prayer, _du'a_, supplication
+Doob grass, _dub, Cynodon Dactylon_
+Dowry of bride, how fixed
+Draughts, the game of
+Dress, not changed during the Muharram festival;
+  of a bride
+Duffelee, _dafali_, the drummer caste
+Dukhaun, _dukan_, a shop
+Dulhaun, _dalan_, the hall, entrance of a house
+Dullha, _dulha_, a bridegroom
+Dullun, _dulhin_, a bride
+Dunkah, _danka_, a kettle-drum;
+  dunkah wallah, _dankawala,_ a drummer
+Dunyah, _dhaniya_, coriander
+Durbar, _darbar_, a court
+Durgah, _dargah_, a saint's shrine;
+  processions to, at Lucknow
+Durwaun, _darwan_, a doorkeeper
+Durweish, _darvesh_ a beggar, a religious mendicant;
+  pretenders to the title
+Dustha-khawn, _dastarkhwan_, a table-cloth
+Dustoor, _dastur_, custom,
+  the percentages on purchases taken by native servants
+Dust-storms
+
+Eade, _'Id_, a festival;
+  eade-gaarh, _'Idgah_,
+  the place where the festival rites are performed
+Ear cleaners
+Earrings
+Earwax, human, administered to elephants
+Earthquakes;
+  follow a flight of locusts;
+  Kanauj damaged by
+Eclipse observances
+Eggs sent at the Nauroz festival
+Elephant trained to march in time;
+  carriages drawn by;
+  beggar riding on;
+  etiquette on meeting the king
+Elias ky kishtee, _Ilyas ki kishti_,
+  boats set adrift in honour of Khwaja Khizr
+Elijah, Elisha, the prophet
+Emaum, _Imam_, leaders of the faithful;
+  Jaffur Saadick, Ja'far as-Sadiq
+Emaum baarah, _Imambara_,
+  the place where the Muharram rites are performed
+Emaum zamunee, _imam zamini_,
+  a charm to secure safety in a journey
+English women not visiting the Lucknow bazar
+Esaee, _'Isa 'l-Masih_, Jesus Christ, the Messiah
+Eshaa namaaz, _salatu 'l-'Isha_, the night prayer
+Etiquette in the zenanah;
+  at the Court of Oudh
+Eunuchs, their power in the Court of Oudh;
+  tale of a pilgrim
+Eve, the grave of
+Execution of criminals
+Exercise, modes of, used by young men
+Exorcism of evil spirits
+Eyes decorated with antimony
+
+Faakeer, _faqir_, a beggar, holy man
+Fahteeah, _al Fatihah_, the first chapter of the Koran
+Falsah, _phalsa, falsa_, the fruit _Grewia asiatica_
+Fasting;
+  exemptions from
+Fat, not eaten by Musalmans
+Fatima, Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad;
+  an Arab girl purchased
+Feringhee Bargh, _Farangi Bagh_, 'the Franks' Garden
+Fierdowsee, Firdausi, the poet;
+  translations of;
+  on slavery
+Fig, the
+Fire, jumping into, and walking through
+Fireworks at the Shab-i-Bara'at festival;
+  see ARTUSH-BAAJIE
+Firing guns at the birth of a boy
+Fish, use of;
+  varieties prohibited for use as food;
+  a symbol at the Court of Oudh
+Flags, in use at the Court of Oudh
+Flies, inconvenience from;
+  a variety which produces blisters
+Flower gardens, neglect of;
+  in Moghul palaces
+Flowers, scent of, the food of aerial spirits
+Folk tales, told in the zenanah;
+  tale reciters;
+  tale of Daaood;
+  of the Prophet;
+  of pilgrims;
+  of a charitable Arab;
+  of Syaad Harshim;
+  of a saint changing the course of a river;
+  of an ungrateful snake;
+  of a king who longed for a fruit
+Food, for the dead;
+  not cooked in a house of mourning;
+  lawful for Musalmans
+Fraught, Furat, the river Euphrates
+Friday, the Musalman Sabbath
+Frogs
+Fruit, use of;
+  sellers of
+Furniture in the zenanah
+Furrukhabaad, Farrukhabad, Nawab of
+
+Gabriel, the Angel;
+  inspires the Koran
+Games played by boys;
+  in the zenanah
+Gaming prohibited
+Genii, the Jinn
+Ghauzee ood deen, Ghazi-ud-diu, King of Oudh
+Ghee, _ghi_, clarified butter
+Ghurrie, _ghari_, a space of about twenty minutes
+Glass, _gilas_, a cherry
+Glass, vessels, use of;
+  use in windows
+Goatah chandnie, _gola chandni_, lace
+Goattur, _gota_, a substitute for betel, at the Muharram
+God, ninety-nine names of
+Golard, Goulard water
+Gooderie, _gudri_, a quilt
+Goolbudden, _gulbadan_, a silk fabric
+Goolistaun, Gulistan of Sa'adi
+Goomtie, the river Gumti
+Gooseberries
+Gootlie, _guthli_, the first dose given to a baby
+Grain, threshing and winnowing of
+Gram, a kind of chick pea, _Cicer arietinum_
+Green, the colour preferred by Sayyids;
+  symbolizing Hasan
+Greengrocers
+Grief, exhibition of, at the Muharram festival
+Guaver, the guava fruit
+Guinah, _genda_, the marigold
+Gurdonie, _gardani_, a neck ring
+Gurhum dahnie, _garm dahani_ prickly heat
+
+Haafiz, Hafiz, the Persian poet
+Haarh, _har_, a necklace;
+  see HARRH
+Hackery, _chhakra_, a bullock carriage
+Hadge, _hajj_, pilgrimage to holy places
+Hadjee, _hajji_, a pilgrim
+Hafiz, a man who has learned the Koran by heart
+Hafsah, the wife of Muhammad
+Hair, mode of dressing;
+  let loose at the Muharram festival;
+  not shaven in mourning
+Hand, spread, a symbol;
+  left, not used in eating
+Harrh, _har_, a necklace;
+  see HAARH
+Harshim Syaad, Sayyid Hashim, tale of
+Hasan, the martyr;
+  Hasan ul Ushkeree, Hasan al-Askari
+Hatim Tai
+Haundhee, _audhi_, a dust storm
+Haverdewatt. avadavat, the bird _estrelda amadara_;
+  see LOLLAH
+Heifer, sacrifice of
+Herbs used in cooking
+Hindu gods, images of
+Holie, the Holi festival
+Hookha, _huqqah_, the water-pipe;
+  etiquette in use of;
+  makers of 'snakes' for
+Horse racing at Lucknow
+Horses, food of;
+  use of heel ropes;
+  marks on;
+  paces of;
+  shoes fixed on doors;
+  tails and legs dyed;
+  tails not docked;
+  use of in carriages
+Hosein, Husain, the martyr;
+  disposal of his head
+Howdah, _haudah_, a seat fixed on an elephant
+Hudeeth, _hadis_, the sayings of the Prophet
+Hummoomaun, the monkey god Hanuman
+Hummoon Shah, Hamun Shah
+Hurkaarah, _harkara_, a footman, messenger
+Hurrh, al-Hurr, the Shami leader
+Hurrundh, _arand_, the castor-oil plant
+Hurth Maaree, the scene of the slaughter of the martyrs
+Husbandmen, life of
+Huzerut, _hazrat_, a title of respect
+Hydrabaad, Hyderabad
+Hydrophobia, a cure for
+Hyza, _haiza_, cholera
+
+Ibrahim, son of the Prophet;
+  Ibraahim Mukhaun, Ibrahim Makan,
+  'the place of Abraham', at Mecca
+Ice-making
+Idolatry prohibited to Musalmans
+Infanticide among Musalmans
+Ink-making
+Ishmael, son of the Prophet;
+  sacrifice of
+Islaaim, Islam
+
+Ja'adah poisons Hasan
+Jaffur Saadick, the Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq
+Jahaun-punah, _jahan panah_, a title of honour, 'asylum of the world'
+Jahmun, Jamun, _jaman, jamun_, the fruit _Eugenia Jambolana_;
+  see JARMUN
+Jains, their tenderness for animal life
+Jarmun, see JAHMUN
+Jaullie, _jali_, netting
+Jeddah
+Jerusalem, pilgrimage to
+Jessamine tree, the
+Jesus Christ, the Musalman title of;
+  His Nativity;
+  His Coming
+Jewellery, craving of women for;
+  put aside at the Muharram festival
+Jhaawn namaaz, _ja'e namaz_, a prayer carpet
+Jhammah, _jama_, a long gown
+Jhaumdanie, _jamdani_, an ornamented bag
+Jhanngeer, the Emperor Jahangir, his chain of justice
+Jhewl, _jhul_, the trappings of an elephant
+Jhillmun, _jhilmil_, venetian shutters for doors and windows
+Jhy Singh, Raja Jai Singh, his observatories
+Jillewdhar, _jilaudur_, an attendant on a man of rank
+Jinn, the
+Joel, the Prophet
+Jonk, a leech
+Joshun, _joshan_, an ornament worn by women on the upper arm
+Judee, Mount
+Jugglers
+Jumma musjid, Jumna musjid, _Jame' masjid_, a congregational mosque
+Justice, administration of in Oudh
+
+Kaabah, _Ka'bah_, the holy place at Mecca;
+  water spout at
+Kaanaut, _qanat_, the side walls of a tent
+Kaarawaun, _kawan_, a caravan
+Kaareem Zund, Karim Khan Zand, anecdote of;
+  see KHAREEM ZUND
+Kaarjil, _kajal_, lampblack applied to the eyes
+Kaawaus, _khawass_, a special female attendant
+Kabooza, _kharbuzah_, the melon
+Kalipha, _khalifah_, a Caliph, head servant;
+  see CALIPHA
+Kallonie wallah, _khilauniwala_, a toy-seller
+Kannoge, the city of Kanauj;
+  founded by Cain;
+  destroyed by an earthquake
+Katorah, _katora_, a shallow drinking cup
+Kauflaah, _kafilah_, a caravan
+Kaullie Nuddee, the Kali Nadi river
+Kauzy, _Qazi_, a Musalman law officer
+Keebaab, _kabab_, pieces of meat roasted on skewers
+Keerah, _kira_, a leech
+Ketcherie, _khichri_, rice cooked with pulse and spices
+Kettledrum, the;
+  see DUNKAH
+Khadijah, wife of the Prophet
+Khareem Zund;
+  see KAAREEM ZUND
+Khaun, _khan_, 'lord', a title of honour
+Khaunce, Kansa, King of Mathura
+Khaunie, a folk tale
+Kheer, _khir_, milk boiled with rice
+Khidmutghar, _khidmatgar_, a table servant
+Khillaut, _khil'at,_ a robe of honour
+Khodah Afiz, _Khuda hafiz_, 'God be your Protector!'
+Khoraan, the Koran, Qur'an;
+  its history;
+  not to be translated;
+  taught to girls;
+  its doctrine regarding women;
+  passages of, inscribed as amulets;
+  learnt by heart;
+  readers of
+Khus-khus, _khaskhas_,
+  the fragrant root of the grass _Andropogon muricatus_
+Khusru Parviz, King of Persia
+Khwaja Khizr, the saint
+Kiblaah, _qiblah_, the direction assumed in prayer
+Killaah, _qal'a qil'a_, a fort
+Kirhnee, _kirni_, the fruit _Canthium parviflorum_
+Kirrich, _kirch_, a straight thrusting sword
+Kishtee, _kishti_, a boat
+Kitchens in the zenanah
+Kite-flying
+Knife-grinders
+Koofah, the city Kufah
+Kootub, the Qutb Minar pillar at Delhi
+Kornea, Kanhaiya, Krishna
+Koss, _kos_, a measure of distance, about two miles
+Kraabaalah, Kerbela, Karbala, the holy city
+Kuffin, _kafn_, a coffin, winding-sheet
+Kummeruck, _kamrak_, the  fruit _Averrhoa Carambola_
+Kungoon, Bandar Kangun in the Persian Gulf
+Kurah, _kora_, aloe water
+Kurbootah, _kharbuza_, the shaddock fruit
+Kutcher, _khichar_, rice boiled with pulse and spices
+
+Labaadah, Labaadh, _labada_, a rain-coat
+Labaun, _loban_, frankincense;
+  see LAHBAUN
+Ladies, European, not visiting bazars;
+  Musalman, conversation of
+Lahaaf, _lahaf_, a quilt
+Lahbaun, see LABAUN
+Lampblack, applied to the eyes
+Lance, exercises with the
+Leopards trained for sport
+Leech vendors
+Leechie, _lichi_, the fruit _Nephelium Lichi_
+Left hand used for ablution, not for eating with
+Letters, dedicated to God
+Licenses for marriage unknown
+Lights burned before the Taziahs
+Lime, applied to wounds
+Liquors, fermented, prohibited to Musalmans
+Locusts;
+  used for food
+Lollah, _lal_, the bird _Estrelda amandava_;
+  see HAVERDEWATT
+Loodocanah, the city and district Ludhiana
+Looking-glasses in zenanahs;
+  bride's face first seen in
+Lota, a brass water-vessel
+Luchmee, Lakshmana, image of
+Luggun, _lagan_ a washing pan
+Lungoor, _langur_, the ape _Semnopithecus entellus_
+
+
+Mabaaruck Now-Rose, _Nauroz mubarak_
+Maccurrub, _muqarrab_, angel messengers
+Madhaar, Madar, the saint
+Magic, to bring rain;
+  to cause fertility
+Mahana, _miyana_, a kind of litter
+Mahdhaar, _madar_, the tree _Calotropis gigantea_
+Mahout, _mahawat_, an elephant driver
+Mahrattas, raids of in the Panjab
+Mahul, _mahall_ the seraglio
+Mahummud, Muhammad, the Prophet, his mission;
+  his title;
+  tales regarding;
+  fixes Friday as the Sabbath;
+  laws of the pilgrimage;
+  his rules of conduct;
+  laws regarding polygamy
+Mahummud Baakur, Muhammad Baqir
+Mahurrum, the Muharram festival;
+  date of;
+  ornaments laid aside at;
+  immense expenditure on;
+  second day observances;
+  fifth day observances;
+  last day observances;
+  clothes given away;
+  inauspicious for marriages;
+  objected to by Sunnis
+Majoob Soofies, _majzub_, 'abstracted'
+Mango tree, the
+Marriage, forced, prohibited;
+  age for;
+  settlements unknown;
+  service;
+  exorbitant expenditure on
+Matchmakers
+Matunjun, _muttajjan_, meat boiled with sugar and spices;
+  see MATUNJUN
+Maulvee, _maulavi,_ a doctor of the law
+Mautunjun, see MATUNJUN
+Mayllah, _mela_, a fair, a religious assemblage
+Mayndhie, _mendhi_,
+  the shrub _Lawsonia alba_, apllied to hands and feet;
+  smeared on bride and bridegroom;
+  procession of;
+  sent to bridegroom by bride;
+  smeared on horses;
+  rite at marriage
+Mayvour, _mewa_, fruit
+Mazoor, Mazoorie, _mazdur, mazdurni_, a day labourer
+Meals, among Musalmans
+Meat, use of by Musalmans
+Mecca, the holy city;
+  the Holy House;
+  life held sacred at;
+  Black Stone at;
+  see KAABAH
+Medicine, native system of
+Medina, the holy city
+Meer, _mir_, a title of Sayyids
+Meer Eloy Bauxh, Mir Ilahi Bakhsh
+Meer Hadjee Shah, Mir Haji Shah, his life;
+  character;
+  makes his own winding sheet;
+  listens to the reading of the Bible;
+  views on fasting;
+  tea drinking;
+  describes the Hajj;
+  describes Mecca;
+  life at Ludhiana;
+  adventure with a snake;
+  adventures with tiger;
+  his pilgrimage to Arabia;
+  cures an Arab lady;
+  attacked by pirates;
+  purchases Fatimah, an Arab girl
+Meer Hasan Ali, husband of the authoress
+Meer Hasan Ali, Mrs., the authoress
+Meer Nizaam ood deen, Mir Nizam-ud-din
+Meer Syaad Mahumud, Mir Sayyid Muhammad
+Meetah, meettah, _mitha, mithai_, sweet, sweetmeats
+Melons,
+  cider made from the juice
+Metals transformed into gold
+Mhembur, _minbar, mimbar_, the pulpit of a mosque
+Mhidie, al Mahdi, 'the Directed One';
+  signs of his coming;
+  his birthday
+Mina, _maina_, the bird _Gracula religiosa_
+Minerals, medicinal use of
+Missee, _missi_, a preparation for staining the teeth
+Mittie wallah, _mithaiwala_, a sweetmeat vendor
+Moat, _moth_, the aconite-leaved kidney bean
+Mocha, Mokha, a port on the Red Sea
+Moghdhur, _mugdar_, a sort of dumb-bell or club used in athletic exercises
+Mohur, a gold coin
+Monkeys;
+  and alligators;
+  affection for their offspring;
+  and snakes;
+  wounded;
+  and treasure;
+  use of antidotes for poison
+Moollakhaut, _mulaqat_, a mourning assemblage
+Mooltanie mittee, _multani mitti_, fuller's earth
+Moon, new, festival at;
+  influence of;
+  when full auspicious;
+  drinking the;
+  influence on wounds
+Moonkih, Munkar, Munkir, the Recording Angel
+Moonshie, _munshi_, a writer, secretary
+Moosa, Musa, Moses;
+  Musa al-Kazim, the Caliph
+Moosul, _musal_, a pestle used for husking rice
+Mortem, _matam_, mourning
+Moses, Musalman title of;
+  tale regarding
+Moslem, Muslim, cousin of Husain
+Mosque, absence of decoration in;
+  caretakers of;
+  at Kanauj;
+  pollution of
+Mosquitoes
+Mourning, dress worn during the Muharram festival;
+  chaff thrown on the head;
+  head and feet left bare;
+  for forty days after a death;
+  shaving forbidden during
+Muchullee, _machhli_, fish
+Mucka Beg
+Muckunpore, Makanpur
+Mudgeluss, _majlis_, a mourning assembly
+Muggalanie, _Mughlani_, a Moghul woman, a needlewoman
+Mugganee, _mangni_, the marriage engagement
+Muggrib, _maghrib ki namaz_, sunset prayer
+Mukburrah, Mukhburrah, _maqbarah_, a mausoleum
+Mukhdoom Jhaunneer, Makhdum Jahaniya Jahangasht, the saint
+Mukhun, _makkhan_, butter
+Mulberries
+Mullie, _malai_, cream
+Munall, _munhnal_, a pipe mouth-piece
+Muntah, _mantra_, spells, incantations
+Murdanah, _mardanah_, the men's quarters in a house
+Murseeah, _marsiyah_, a funeral elegy;
+  see MUSSEEAH
+Musheroo, _mashru_, silk cloth permitted to be worn at prayer
+Mushukh, _mashk_, a skin water-bag
+Music in the zenanah
+Musnud, _masnad_ a pile of cushions, a throne
+Musseah, Musseeah;
+  see MURSEEAH
+Mustaches
+Myriam, Maryam, the Virgin Mary
+Myrtle, the tree
+
+Naalkie, _nalki_, a kind of litter
+Naarah, _nara_, a string
+Nadir Shaah, Nadir Shah, King of Persia
+Najoom, najoomee, _nujumi_, an astrologer
+Nala and Damayanti, tale of
+Namaaz, _namaz_, the daily liturgical prayer of Musalmans
+Namaazie, _namazi_, one given to prayer, a devotee,
+  one who calls the people to prayer
+Nativity of Jesus Christ, observed by Musalmans
+Naunbye, _nanbai_, a bazar baker
+Nautch woman;
+  Nautchunee, _nachni_, a dancer
+Neam, _nim_, the tree _Melia Azadirachta_;
+  see NEEM
+Neellah tootee, _nila tutiya_, blue vitriol, medicinal use of
+New Moon festival, the
+New Year's Day, see NOU-ROSE
+Nitre, manufacture of
+Nizaam ood deen, Nizam-ud-din, the saint
+Noah, Musalman title of;
+  his place of burial;
+  ark of, where rested
+Nose-rings;
+  see NUT
+Nou-Rose, _nauroz_ the New Year's Day festival
+Nudghiff Usheruff, Nejef, Mashhad 'Ali
+Nujeeb, _najib_, a class of infantry
+Nusseer ood Deen Hyder, Nasir-ud-din Haidar, King of Oudh
+Nut, Nutt, _nath_, a nose-ring
+Nuwaub, _nawab_, 'a deputy', title of the rulers of Oudh
+Nuzza, _nazr, nazar_, an offering from an inferior to a superior
+Nykee, Nakir, the Recording Angel
+
+Omens, at Nauroz festival;
+  used in selecting a bride;
+  at marriage
+Omir, 'Umar, the second Caliph;
+  said to have destroyed the Alexandrian library
+Ood-ood, _hudhud_, the lapwing, hoopoe
+Oostardie, _ustadi_, a teacher;
+  see ARTOOJEE
+Orme, _am_, the mango
+Orme peach, the peach
+Ornaments, use of by women;
+  see JEWELLERY
+Otta, _'itr,_ otto of roses
+Oudh, administration of justice in the Nawabi;
+  Nawabs and Kings of
+
+Paadishah Begum, Padshah Begam, the
+Paak, _pak_, pure
+Pachisi, the game
+Paidshah, _padshah_, a King
+Palace, the, at Delhi
+Palkie, _palki_, the common palanquin
+Pallungh, _palang_, a kind of bed
+Paper, written, objection to burning;
+  made of bamboo
+Pataan, one of the Pathan tribe
+Pawn, _pan_, betel leaf;
+  not used during the Muharram festival
+Pawndawn, _pandan,_ a box to hold betel leaf
+Peach, the
+Pearls
+Pedigrees of Sayyids carefully kept
+Peer, _pir_, a Musalman saint or holy man
+Pellet bow, use of the
+Pepul, _pipal_, the sacred fig tree, _Ficus religiosa_
+Pickles, use of, and sale
+Pigeon flying;
+  shooting
+Pilgrims, regulations for;
+  cloak worn by
+Pillau, _pilau_, meat or fowl boiled with rice and spices
+Pineapple, the;
+  see UNANAS
+Plague, an outbreak of
+Plums
+Poison detected by means of dishes
+Polygamy;
+  among Indian kings
+Pomegranate, the
+Prayer, the call to;
+  'opening of difficulties';
+  carpet;
+  times of, how announced
+Prickly heat
+Printing, not practised in Lucknow
+Prisoners released to effect a cure of the sick or as a thank-offering
+Punkah, _pankah_, a kind of fan;
+  punkah wala, _punkah wala_, a fan-seller
+Pappayah, _papaiya_, the papaw tree, _Carica Papaya_
+Purdah, _pardah_, a screen to conceal ladies
+Purrh, _pahar_, a watch, a measure of time
+Pyjaamah, _paejama_, drawers;
+  stuff used in making
+
+Quail fighting
+Quicksilver, use of in medicine
+
+Racaab puttie, _rikab patthari_, a stone plate
+Rain magic
+Rainy season, the
+Rajpoots, Rajputs, infanticide among
+Raspberries
+Ravenscroft, G., murder of
+Red, the Sunni colour;
+  of Husain
+Reetah, _ritha_ the soapnut, use of in medicine
+Resident at Lucknow, the
+Resurrection, doctrine of the
+Ricketts, Mordaunt, Resident at Lucknow
+Right hand used in eating
+River, course of changed by a saint
+Romall, _rumal_, a handkerchief
+Rooey, _rohu_ the carp fish
+Rope-dancing
+Roses;
+  smelling of, causes colds and sneezing;
+  rose water;
+  syrup, seeds, oil, uses of
+Roshunie, _roshanai_, ink
+Rozedhaar, _rozadar_, one who keeps a fast
+Rumzaun, Ramazan, Ramzan, the festival
+Rutt, _rath_, a bullock carriage
+Ruzzie, _razai_ a quilt
+Ryott, _ra'iyat_ a subject, a cultivator
+
+Saabeel, _sabil_,
+  the place where sherbet is distributed at the Muharram festival
+Saadie, Shaikh S'adi, the Persian poet
+Saag, _sag,_ herbs of various kinds used in cooking
+Saalik, _salik_, a devotee, a kind of Sufi
+Saatarah, _sitara_, a guitar
+Sabbath, the, among Musalmans
+Sacrifice of animals at the Bakrah 'Id festival
+Safdar Jang, Nawab of Oudh, tomb of
+Sahbaund, Sawan, the fourth Hindu month
+Sahib Logue, Sahib Log, Europeans
+Saints' tombs at Kanauj
+Sainturh, _sentha_ the grass _Saccharum ciliare_;
+  see SECUNDAH
+Sakeena Koobraah, Sakina Kibriya, daughter of Husain
+Salaam-oon-ali khoon, _salam 'alai-kum_, 'Peace be with thee'
+Sallon, _salan_, a curry of meat, fish, or vegetables
+Sampwalla, _sampwala_, a snake-charmer
+Sarchuk, _saachaq_, fruits, &c., carried in procession at a marriage
+Saulgirrah, _salgirah_, the knot tied to mark a birthday
+Scales, the, doctrine of
+Scapegoat, released in times of sickness
+Scorpio, moon of, inauspicious
+Scorpions, mode of repelling
+Seclusion of womem, origin of the custom
+Secundah, _sarkanda_,
+  roots of the grass _Saccharum ciliare_, used for mats and screens;
+  see SAINTURH
+Secungebeen, _sikanjabin_, oxymel, vinegar
+Seepie wallah deelie sukha,
+  _sipi wala gila sukha_, moist or dry cuppers
+Seer, _scr_, a weight of about two pounds
+Serai, _sarai_, a native inn
+Seur, _suar_ a hog, a term of abuse
+Seven, a lucky number
+Shaah Jhee, Shahji, a beggar
+Shaah Nudghiff, Shah Najaf, a shrine at Lucknow
+Shaah ood Dowlah, Shah-ud-daula, a darvesh
+Shah Allum, Shah 'Alam II, King of Delhi, his grave
+Shah Allumgeer, Shah 'Alamgir, the Emperor Aurangzeb
+Shah Jahan, the Moghul Emperor
+Shahjee, see SHAH SHERIF OOD DEEN
+Shahnama, the poem by Firdausi
+Shah Nizaam ood deen, Shaikh Nizam ud-din Auliya, the saint
+Shah Sherif ood deen Mahmood,
+  Shah Sharif ud-din Mahmud, a darvesh
+Shampooing
+Shaving, discontinued during mourning
+Shawm, Sham, Syria
+Shawmie, Shami, a native of Syria
+Sheah, Shiah, the Musalman sect;
+  quarrels with Sunnis at the Muharram;
+  their numbers compared with those of Sunnis;
+  the creed of
+Sheah-maul, _shirmal_, a kind of bread; see SHEERMAUL
+Sheekaree, _shikari_, a huntsman
+Sheermaul, _shirmal_, a kind of bread; see SHEAH-MAUL
+Sheikh Mahumud, Shaikh Muhammad
+Sherbet, _sharbat_, a drink, how made;
+  distributed at the Muharram festival;
+  payment for at marriages
+SHERREFAH, SHERREEFHA, _sharifah_, the custard apple
+Sheruff, Sharif, the governor of Mecca
+Shimeear, Shimar, the chief agent in the murder of Husain
+Shiraaz, Shiraz, a city in Persia
+Shoes removed in sacred places and in houses;
+  varieties of
+Shooghur Allah, see SHUGGUR ALLAH
+Shopkeepers, mode of doing business
+Shroff, _sarraf_, a moneychanger
+Shroud, the burial
+Shubh-burraat, _Shab-i-bara'at_, the night of record, a festival
+Shubnum, _shabnam_, 'dew', a kind of fine cloth
+Shuggur Allah, _shukr Allah_,
+  'Praise be to God!'; see SHOOGHUR ALLAH
+Shujah ood Dowlah, Shuja ud-daula, Nawab of Oudh
+Shutteringhie, _shatranji_, a striped floor-cloth
+Sickley ghur, _saikalgar_, a polisher of arms
+Sickness, attributed to spirits
+Sikhs, the;
+  campaign against
+Silk, wearing of
+Sin, repentance of
+Singing women
+Siraat, _sirat_, the bridge over which the soul passes
+Sirrakee, _sirki_, the reed _Saccharum
+  ciliare_, used for mats, &c
+Sita ki Rasoi, a building at Kanauj
+Slaves, domestic, condition of;
+  female in the zenanah;
+  liberated by or on the death of the owner;
+  property of reverting to the master
+Snake charmers, deception practised by
+Snakes, superstitions regarding;
+  and monkeys;
+  tale of an ungrateful;
+  an adventure with
+Soap, substitutes for
+Society of Musalman ladies
+Solomon, King, tale of;
+  the first Sufi
+Soobadhaar, _subahdar_, a native officer, a viceroy
+Soobadhaarie, _subahdari_, a province under a viceroy
+Soobhoo namaaz, _namaz-i-subh_, the dawn prayer
+Soofy, Sufi, a sect of Musalmans;
+  consulted to solve mysteries;
+  pretenders to piety;
+  assemblage of with singing and dancing;
+  principles of
+Soojinee, _sozani_, a quilted cloth
+Soonie, Sunni, the Musalman sect;
+  rulers at Mecca
+Soota-badhaar, _Soutabardar_, a mace-bearer;
+  see SOTA-BADHAAH
+Sota-badhaah; see SOOTA-BADHAAR
+Spinach, varieties and uses of
+Spirits, evil, exorcism of
+Starvation, a cure for disease
+Stockings, wearing of in the zenanah
+Stone dishes
+Strawberries
+Subzah, _sabzah_, a song bird
+Suffee Ali, Safiya 'Ilah, a title of Adam
+Sulleed, _tharid_, a kind of bread
+Sulmah, _surma_, antimony applied to the eyes
+Sumdun Begum, _samdhan begum_, a connexion by marriage
+Surraie, _surahi_, a long-necked water flagon
+Surringhee, _sarangi_, a sort of violin
+Sutkah, _sadaqah_, offerings of intercession
+Suwaaree, _sawari_, an equipage, escort
+Sweetmeats, sellers of;
+  given to a man in a state of ecstasy,
+Swine, held abominable by Musalmans
+Sword exercises
+Syaad, Sayyid, a class of Musalmans;
+  their origin;
+  care used and difficulty in making marriage engagements;
+  respect paid to;
+  dues received by
+Syaad Ahmad Kaabeer, Sayyid Ahmad Kabir,
+Syaad Harshim, Sayyid Hashim
+
+Taaif, Ta'if, a fertile tract near Mecca,
+Taarkhanah, _tahkhanah_, an underground room,
+Taaseel-dhaar, _tahsildar_, a native collector of revenue,
+Taaweez, taawize, _ta'wiz_, an amulet, talisman,
+Tahujjoot, _namaz-i-tahajjud_, prayer after midnight,
+Tale kee archah wallah,
+  _Tel ka acharwala_, a seller of oil pickles,
+Talismans; see TAAWEEZ
+Tamarind tree, the, vegetation beneath it dying,
+Tamerlane, Taimur Lang, introduces seclusion of women,
+Tarantula, the,
+Tattle, _tatti_, a screen, a device for cooling rooms,
+Tawurshear, _tabashir_, a substance found in bamboos,
+Tazia, _ta'ziya_,
+  a model tomb carried in procession at the Muharram festival;
+  not peculiar to India;
+  not used by Sunnis;
+  burial of,
+Tea, use of,
+Teeth, cleaning of, 59
+Thonjaun, _tamjhan_, _thamjhan_, a kind of litter,
+Throne, of the King of Oudh,
+Tigers, tamed, wandering about the house;
+  adventure with,
+Time, Musalman division of;
+  measured by a clepsydra,
+Timoor, Taimur, his invasion of India,
+Tin, use of in dyeing and in medicine,
+Tithes,
+Toddy,
+Toothbrushes,
+Tope, a grove of trees,
+Tor, _tar_, the palm tree, _Borassus flabelliformis_,
+Toy sellers,
+Trades in Lucknow,
+Travellers excused from fasting,
+Treasure, burying of,
+Trees, speaking on the Mahdi's birthday,
+Tuckht, _takht_, a wooden platform on which men sit and sleep,
+Tufaun, _tufan_, a storm,
+Tumaushbeen, _tamashabin_, 'a spectator of wonders',
+Tundhie, _thandi_, a cooling draught taken at the breaking of a fast,
+Turkaarie, _tarkari_, vegetables
+
+Uberuck, _abrak_, talc, mica,
+Ulsee, _alsi_, linseed, _Linum usitatissimum_,
+Umbrella, a mark of dignity,
+Umultass, _amaltas_,
+  the Indian laburnum, _Cassia fistula_, use in medicine,
+Ungeeah, _angiya_, an under-jacket or bodice,
+Ungeel, _injil_, Evangel, the Gospels,
+Unnah, _anna_, a nurse,
+Unrurkha, _angarkha_, a long tunic,
+Ununas, _ananas_, the pineapple, _Ananassa sativa_,
+Urzees, _arziz_, tin, used in medicine and dyeing,
+Usury, forbidden
+
+Vakeel, _wakil_, an agent
+Vazeefah, _wazifah_, a passage read from the Koran
+Vegetables, use of as food
+Veil, worn by a bridegroom
+Venus, the conjunction of
+Vermicelli, used in the times of fasting
+Villoiettee Begum, Wilayati begam, 'the foreign lady'
+Vizier, _wazir_, the prime minister at the Court of Oudh
+
+Walking barefoot, a sign of mourning
+Wax from the human ear administered to elephants
+White ants
+Widows, dress of;
+  reduced numbers of;
+  marriage of
+Window glass, scarcity of
+Witch, tale of a;
+  hair plucked from the head of;
+  has crooked feet;
+  sucking out the vitals of a victim
+Witchcraft, general belief in
+Wives, prescribed number of;
+  large numbers of married
+Women, belief that they do not possess souls;
+  seclusion of
+Wounds, treatment of
+
+Yaacoob, Ya'qub, Jacob
+Yeusuf, Yusuf, Joseph
+Yieyah, Yahya, St. John
+Yoube, Aiyub, Job
+Yumen, Yemen in Arabia
+Yuzeed, Yazid, second Caliph of the house of Umaiyah
+
+Zahur morah, _zahr mohra_, the bezoar stone
+Zarbund, _zerband_, a waist string
+Zechareah, Zachariah
+Zeearut, _ziyarah, ziyarat_, a visit to a shrine
+Zeenahnah, the zenanah, described
+Zemindhaar, _zamindar_, a landowner
+Zohur namaaz, _salatu-'z-zuhr_, mid-day prayer
+Zuckhaut, _zakat_, alms for the poor
+Zynool auberdene, Az-zainu'l-'abidin
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSSULMAUNS OF
+INDIA***
+
+
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