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diff --git a/old/13111-8.txt b/old/13111-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7dab569 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/13111-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2837 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Brain and the Voice in Speech and Song, by F. W. Mott + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Brain and the Voice in Speech and Song + +Author: F. W. Mott + +Release Date: August 3, 2004 [EBook #13111] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BRAIN AND VOICE *** + + + + +Produced by David Newman and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND SONG + +BY + +F.W. MOTT, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. + +1910 + + + + +PREFACE + + +The contents of this little book formed the subject of three lectures +delivered at the Royal Institution "On the Mechanism of the Human Voice" +and three London University lectures at King's College on "The Brain in +relation to Speech and Song." I have endeavoured to place this subject +before my readers in as simple language as scientific accuracy and +requirements permit. Where I have been obliged to use technical anatomical +and physiological terms I have either explained their meaning in the text, +aided by diagrams and figures, or I have given in brackets the English +equivalents of the terms used. + +I trust my attempt to give a sketch of the mechanism of the human voice, +and how it is produced in speech and song, may prove of interest to the +general public, and I even hope that teachers of voice production may find +some of the pages dealing with the brain mechanism not unworthy of their +attention. + +F.W. MOTT + +LONDON + +_July, 1910_ + + + + +CONTENTS + + +THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF SPEECH + +THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT: THREE QUALITIES OF MUSICAL SOUNDS, LOUDNESS, PITCH +AND TIMBRE + +THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT AND ITS THREE PARTS + +(1) THE BELLOWS AND ITS STRUCTURE: VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF BREATH + +(2) THE REED CONTAINED IN THE VOICE-BOX OR LARYNX: ITS STRUCTURE AND ACTION + +(3) THE RESONATOR AND ARTICULATOR, ITS STRUCTURE AND ACTION IN SONG AND +SPEECH + +PATHOLOGICAL DEGENERATIVE CHANGES PRODUCING SPEECH DEFECTS AND WHAT THEY +TEACH + +THE CEREBRAL MECHANISM OF SPEECH AND SONG + +SPEECH AND RIGHT-HANDEDNESS + +LOCALISATION OF SPEECH CENTRES IN THE BRAIN + +THE PRIMARY SITE OF REVIVAL OF WORDS IN SILENT THOUGHT + +CASE OF DEAFNESS ARISING FROM DESTRUCTION OF THE AUDITORY CENTRES IN THE +BRAIN CAUSING LOSS OF SPEECH + +THE PRIMARY REVIVAL OF SOME SENSATIONS IN THE BRAIN + +PSYCHIC MECHANISM OF THE VOICE + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + +FIG. + +1. The thoracic cage and its contents + +2. The diaphragm and its attachments + +3. Diagram illustrating changes of the chest and abdomen in breathing + +4. Diagram of the cartilages of the voice-box or larynx with vocal cords + +5. Front view of the larynx with muscles + +6. Back view of the larynx with muscles + +7. Diagram to illustrate movements of cartilages in breathing and phonation + +8. Section through larynx and windpipe, showing muscles and vocal cords + +9. The laryngoscope and its use + +10. The glottis in breathing, whispering, and vocalisation + +11. The vocal cords in singing, after French + +12. Vertical section through the head and neck to show the larynx and +resonator + +13. Diagram (after Aikin) of the resonator in the production of the vowel +sounds + +14. König's flame manometer + +15. Diagram of a neurone + +16. Left hemisphere, showing cerebral localisation + +17. Diagram to illustrate cerebral mechanism of speech, after Bastian + +18. The course of innervation currents in phonation + + + + +THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND SONG + + +In the following pages on the Relation of the Brain to the mechanism of the +Voice in Speech and Song, I intend, as far as possible, to explain the +mechanism of the instrument, and what I know regarding the cerebral +mechanism by which the instrument is played upon in the production of the +singing voice and articulate speech. Before, however, passing to consider +in detail the instrument, I will briefly direct your attention to some +facts and theories regarding the origin of speech. + + + + +THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF SPEECH + + +The evolutionary theory is thus propounded by Romanes in his "Mental +Evolution in Man," pp. 377-399: "Starting from the highly intelligent and +social species of anthropoid ape as pictured by Darwin, we can imagine that +this animal was accustomed to use its voice freely for the expression of +the emotions, uttering danger signals, and singing. Possibly it may also +have been sufficiently intelligent to use a few imitative sounds; and +certainly sooner or later the receptual life of this social animal must +have advanced far enough to have become comparable with that of an infant +of about two years of age. That is to say, this animal, although not yet +having begun to use articulate signs, must have advanced far enough in the +conventional use of natural signs (a sign with a natural origin in tone and +gesture, whether spontaneously or intentionally imitative) to have admitted +of a totally free exchange of receptual ideas, such as would be concerned +in animal wants and even, perhaps, in the simplest forms of co-operative +action. Next I think it probable that the advance of receptual intelligence +which would have been occasioned by this advance in sign-making would in +turn have led to a development of the latter--the two thus acting and +reacting on each other until the language of tone and gesture became +gradually raised to the level of imperfect pantomime, as in children before +they begin to use words. At this stage, however, or even before it, I think +very probably vowel sounds must have been employed in tone language, if not +also a few consonants. Eventually the action and reaction of receptual +intelligence and conventional sign-making must have ended in so far +developing the former as to have admitted of the breaking up (or +articulation) of vocal sounds, as the only direction in which any +improvement in vocal sign-making was possible." Romanes continues his +sketch by referring to the probability that this important stage in the +development of speech was greatly assisted by the already existing habit of +articulating musical notes, supposing our progenitors to have resembled the +gibbons or the chimpanzees in this respect. Darwin in his great work on the +"Expression of the Emotions" points to the fact that the gibbon, the most +erect and active of the anthropoid apes, is able to sing an octave in +half-tones, and it is interesting to note that Dubois considers his +Pithecanthropus Erectus is on the same stem as the gibbon. But it has +lately been shown that some animals much lower in the scale than monkeys, +namely, rodents, are able to produce correct musical tones. Therefore the +argument loses force that the progenitors of man probably uttered musical +sounds before they had acquired the power of articulate speech, and that +consequently, when the voice is used under any strong emotion, it tends to +assume through the principle of association a musical character. The work +of anthropologists and linguists, especially the former, supports the +progressive-evolution theory, which, briefly stated, is--that articulate +language is the result of an elaboration in the long procession of ages in +which there occurred three stages--the cry, vocalisation, and articulation. +The cry is the primordial, pure animal language; it is a simple vocal +aspiration without articulation; it is either a reflex expressing needs and +emotions, or at a higher stage intentional (to call, warn, menace, etc.). +Vocalisation (emission of vowels) is a natural production of the vocal +instrument, and does not in itself contain the essential elements of +speech. Many animals are capable of vocalisation, and in the child the +utterance of vowel sounds is the next stage after the cry. + +The conditions necessary to the existence of speech arose with +articulation, and it is intelligence that has converted the vocal +instrument into the speaking instrument. For whereas correct intonation +depends upon the innate musical ear, which is able to control and regulate +the tensions of the minute muscles acting upon the vocal cords, it is +intelligence which alters and changes the form of the resonator by means of +movement of the lips, tongue, and jaw in the production of articulate +speech. The simple musical instrument in the production of phonation is +bilaterally represented in the brain, but as a speaking instrument it is +unilaterally represented in right-handed individuals in the left hemisphere +and in left-handed individuals in the right hemisphere. The reason for this +we shall consider later; but the fact supports Darwin's hypothesis. + +Another hypothesis which was brought forward by Grieger and supported by +some authors is summarised by Ribot as follows: "Words are an imitation of +the movements of the mouth. The predominant sense in man is that of sight; +man is pre-eminently visual. Prior to the acquisition of speech he +communicated with his fellows by the aid of gestures and movement of the +mouth and face; he appealed to their eyes. Their facial 'grimaces,' +fulfilled and elucidated by gesture, became signs for others; they fixed +their attention upon them. When articulate sounds came into being, these +lent themselves to a more or less conventional language by reason of their +acquired importance." For support of this hypothesis the case of +non-educated deaf-mutes is cited. They invent articulate sounds which they +cannot hear and use them to designate certain things. Moreover, they employ +gesture language--a language which is universally understood. + +Another theory of the origin of the speaking voice is that speech is an +instinct not evolved, but breaking forth spontaneously in man; but even if +this be so, it was originally so inadequate and weak that it required +support from the gesture language to become intelligible. This mixed +language still survives among some of the inferior races of men. Miss +Kingsley and Tylor have pointed out that tribes in Africa have to gather +round the camp fires at night in order to converse, because their +vocabulary is so incomplete that without being reinforced by gesture and +pantomime they would be unable to communicate with one another. Gesture is +indispensable for giving precision to vocal sounds in many languages, e.g. +those of the Tasmanians, Greenlanders, savage tribes of Brazil, and Grebos +of Western Africa. In other cases speech is associated with inarticulate +sounds. These sounds have been compared to clicking and clapping, and +according to Sayce, these clickings and clappings survive as though to show +us how man when deprived of speech can fix and transmit his thoughts by +certain sounds. These mixed states represent articulate speech in its +primordial state; they represent the stage of transition from pure +pantomime to articulate speech. + +It seems, then, that originally man had two languages at his disposal which +he used simultaneously or interchangeably. They supported each other in the +intercommunication of ideas, but speech has triumphed because of its +greater practical utility. The language of gesture is disadvantageous for +the following reasons: (1) it monopolises the use of the hands; (2) it has +the disadvantage that it does not carry any distance; (3) it is useless in +the dark; (4) it is vague in character; (5) it is imitative in nature and +permits only of the intercommunication of ideas based upon concrete images. +Speech, on the other hand, is transmitted in the dark and with objects +intervening; moreover, distance affects its transmission much less. The +images of auditory and visual symbols in the growth of speech replace in +our minds concrete images and they permit of abstract thought. It is +dependent primarily upon the ear, an organ of exquisite feeling, whose +sensations are infinite in number and in kind. This sensory receptor with +its cerebral perceptor has in the long process of time, aided by vision, +under the influence of natural laws of the survival of the fittest, +educated and developed an instrument of simple construction (primarily +adapted only for the vegetative functions of life and simple vocalisation) +into that wonderful instrument the human voice; but by that development, +borrowing the words of Huxley, "man has slowly accumulated and organised +the experience which is almost wholly lost with the cessation of every +individual life in other animals; so that now he stands raised as upon a +mountain-top, far above the level of his humble fellows, and transfigured +from his grosser nature by reflecting here and there a ray from the +infinite source of truth." Thought in all the higher mental processes could +not be carried on at all without the aid of language. + +Written language probably originated in an analytical process analogous to +the language of gesture. Like that, it: (1) isolates terms; (2) arranges +them in a certain order; (3) translates thoughts in a crude and somewhat +vague form. A curious example of this may be found in Max Müller's "Chips +from a German Workshop," XIV.: "The aborigines of the Caroline Islands sent +a letter to a Spanish captain as follows: A man with extended arms, sign of +greeting; below to the left, the objects they have to barter--five big +shells, seven little ones, three others of different forms; to the right, +drawing of the objects they wanted in exchange--three large fish-hooks, +four small ones, two axes, two pieces of iron." + +Language of graphic signs and spoken language have progressed together, and +simultaneously supported each other in the development of the higher mental +faculties that differentiate the savage from the brute and the civilised +human being from the savage. In spoken language, at any rate, it is not the +vocal instrument that has been changed, but the organ of mind with its +innate and invisible molecular potentialities, the result of racial and +ancestral experiences in past ages. Completely developed languages when +studied from the point of view of their evolution are stamped with the +print of an unconscious labour that has been fashioning them for centuries. +A little consideration and reflection upon words which have been coined in +our own time shows that language offers an abstract and brief chronicle of +social psychology. + +Articulate language has converted the vocal instrument into the chief agent +of the will, but the brain in the process of time has developed by the +movements of the lips, tongue, jaw, and soft palate a kinęsthetic[A] sense +of articulate speech, which has been integrated and associated in the mind +with rhythmical modulated sounds conveyed to the brain by the auditory +nerves. There has thus been a reciprocal simultaneity in the development of +these two senses by which the mental ideas of spoken words are memorised +and recalled. Had man been limited to articulate speech he could not have +made the immense progress he has made in the development of complex mental +processes, for language, by using written verbal symbols, has allowed, not +merely the transmission of thought from one individual to another, but the +thoughts of the world, past and present, are in a certain measure at the +disposal of every individual. With this introduction to the subject I will +pass on to give a detailed description of the instrument of the voice. + +[Footnote A: Sense of movement.] + + + + +THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT + + +A distinction is generally made in physics between sound and noise. Noise +affects our tympanic membrane as an irregular succession of shocks and we +are conscious of a jarring of the auditory apparatus; whereas a musical +sound is smooth and pleasant because the tympanic membrane is thrown into +successive periodic vibrations to which the auditory receptor (sense organ +of hearing) has been attuned. To produce musical sounds, a body must +vibrate with the regularity of a pendulum, but it must be capable of +imparting sharper or quicker shocks to the air than the pendulum. All +musical sounds, however they are produced and by whatever means they are +propagated, may be distinguished by three different qualities: + +(1) Loudness, (2) Pitch, (3) Quality, timbre or klang, as the Germans call +it. + +Loudness depends upon the amount of energy expended in producing the sound. +If I rub a tuning-fork with a well-rosined bow, I set it in vibration by +the resistance offered to the rosined hair; and if while it is vibrating I +again apply the bow, thus expending more energy, the note produced is +louder. Repeating the action several times, the width of excursion of the +prongs of the tuning-fork is increased. This I can demonstrate, not merely +by the loudness of the sound which can be heard, but by sight; for if a +small mirror be fixed on one of the prongs and a beam of light be cast upon +the mirror, the light being again reflected on to the screen, you will see +the spot of light dance up and down, and the more energetically the +tuning-fork is bowed the greater is the amplitude of the oscillation of the +spot of light. The duration of the time occupied is the same in traversing +a longer as in traversing a shorter space, as is the case of the swinging +pendulum. The vibrating prongs of the tuning-fork throw the air into +vibrations which are conveyed to the ear and produce the sensation of +sound. The duration of time occupied in the vibrations of the tuning-fork +is therefore independent of the space passed over. The greater or less +energy expended does not influence the duration of time occupied by the +vibration; it only influences the amplitude of the vibration. + +The second quality of musical sounds is the pitch, and the pitch depends +upon the number of vibrations that a sounding body makes in each second of +time. The most unmusical ear can distinguish a high note from a low one, +even when the interval is not great. Low notes are characterised by a +relatively small number of vibrations, and as the pitch rises so the number +of vibrations increase. This can be proved in many ways. Take, for example, +two tuning-forks of different size: the shorter produces a considerably +higher pitched note than the longer one. If a mirror be attached to one of +the prongs of each fork, and a beam of light be cast upon each mirror +successively and then reflected in a revolving mirror, the oscillating spot +of light is converted into a series of waves; and if the waves obtained by +reflecting the light from the mirror of the smaller one be counted and +compared with those reflected from the mirror attached to the larger fork, +it will be found that the number of waves reflected from the smaller fork +is proportionally to the difference in the pitch more numerous than the +waves reflected from the larger. The air is thrown into corresponding +periodic vibrations according to the rate of vibration of the +sound-producing body. + +Thirdly, the quality, timbre, or klang depends upon the overtones, in +respect to which I could cite many experiments to prove that whenever a +body vibrates, other bodies near it may be set in vibration, but only on +condition that such bodies shall be capable themselves of producing the +same note. A number of different forms of resonators can be used to +illustrate this law; a law indeed which is of the greatest importance in +connection with the mechanism of the human voice. Although notes are of the +same loudness and pitch when played on different instruments or spoken or +sung by different individuals, yet even a person with no ear for music can +easily detect a difference in the quality of the sound and is able to +recognise the nature of the instrument or the timbre of the voice. This +difference in the timbre is due to harmonics or overtones. Could we but see +the sonorous waves in the air during the transmission of the sound of a +voice, we should see stamped on it the conditions of motion upon which its +characteristic qualities depended; which is due to the fact that every +vocal sound whose vibrations have a complex form can be decomposed into a +series of simple notes all belonging to the harmonic series. These +harmonics or overtones will be considered later when dealing with the +timbre or quality of the human voice. + +The vocal instrument is unlike any other musical instrument; it most nearly +approaches a reed instrument. The clarionet and the oboe are examples of +reed instruments, in which the reed does not alter but by means of stops +the length of the column of air in the resonating pipe varies and +determines the pitch of the fundamental note. The organ-pipe with the +vibrating tongue of metal serving as the reed is perhaps the nearest +approach to the vocal organ; but here again it is the length of the pipe +which determines the pitch of the note. + +The vocal instrument may be said to consist of three parts: (1) the +bellows; (2) the membranous reed contained in the larynx, which by the +actions of groups of muscles can be altered in tension and thus variation +in pitch determined; (3) the resonator, which consists of the mouth, the +throat, the larynx, the nose, and air sinuses contained in the bones of the +skull, also the windpipe, the bronchial tubes, and the lungs. The main and +important part of the resonator, however, is situated above the glottis +(the opening between the vocal cords, _vide_ fig. 6), and it is capable of +only slight variations in length and of many and important variations in +form. In the production of musical sounds its chief influence is upon the +quality of the overtones and therefore upon the timbre of the voice; +moreover, the movable structures of the resonator, the lower jaw, the lips, +the tongue, the soft palate, can, by changing the form of the resonator, +not only impress upon the sound waves particular overtones as they issue +from the mouth, but simultaneously can effect the combination of vowels and +consonants with the formation of syllables, the combination of syllables +with the formation of words, and the combination of words with the +formation of articulate language. The reed portion of the instrument acting +alone can only express emotional feeling; the resonator, the effector of +articulate speech, is the instrument of intelligence, will, and feeling. It +must not, however, be thought that the vocal instrument consists of two +separately usable parts, for phonation (except in the whispered voice) +always accompanies articulation. + +In speech, and more especially in singing, there is an art of breathing. +Ordinary inspiration and expiration necessary for the oxygenation of the +blood is performed automatically and unconsciously. But in singing the +respiratory apparatus is used like the bellows of a musical instrument, and +it is controlled and directed by the will; the art of breathing properly is +fundamental for the proper production of the singing voice and the speaking +voice of the orator. It is necessary always to maintain in the lungs, which +act as the bellows, a sufficient reserve of air to finish a phrase; +therefore when the opportunity arises it is desirable to take in as much +air as possible through the nostrils, and without any apparent effort; the +expenditure of the air in the lungs must be controlled and regulated by the +power of the will in such a manner as to produce efficiency in loudness +with economy of expenditure. It must be remembered, moreover, that mere +loudness of sound does not necessarily imply carrying power of the voice, +either when speaking or singing. Carrying power, as we shall see later, +depends as much upon the proper use of the resonator as upon the force of +expulsion of the air by the bellows. Again, a soft note, especially an +aspirate, owing to the vocal chink being widely opened, may be the cause of +an expenditure of a larger amount of air than a loud-sounding note. +Observations upon anencephalous monsters (infants born without the great +brain) show that breathing and crying can occur without the cerebral +hemispheres; moreover, Goltz's dog, in which all the brain had been removed +except the stem and base, was able to bark, growl, and snarl, indicating +that the primitive function of the vocal instrument can be performed by the +lower centres of the brain situated in the medulla oblongata. But the +animal growled and barked when the attendant, who fed it daily, approached +to give it food, which was a clear indication that the bark and growl had +lost both its affective and cognitive significance; it was, indeed, a +purely automatic reflex action. It was dependent upon a stimulus arousing +an excitation in an instinctive automatic nervous mechanism in the medulla +oblongata and spinal cord presiding over synergic groups of muscles +habitually brought into action for this simplest form of vocalisation, +connected with the primitive emotion of anger. + +I will now consider at greater length each part of the vocal instrument. + + + + +I. THE BELLOWS + + +[Illustration: Fig 1] + +[Description: FIG. 1.--Front view of the thorax showing the breastbone, to +which on either side are attached the (shaded) rib cartilages. The +remainder of the thoracic cage is formed by the ribs attached behind to the +spine, which is only seen below. The lungs are represented filling the +chest cavity, except a little to the left of the breastbone, below where +the pericardium is shown (black). It can be seen that the ribs slope +forwards and downwards, and that they increase in length from above +downwards, so that if elevated by the muscles attached to them, they will +tend to push forward the elastic cartilages and breastbone and so increase +the antero-posterior diameter of the chest; moreover, the ribs being +elastic will tend to give a little at the angle, and so the lateral +diameter of the chest will be increased.] + +The bellows consists of the lungs enclosed in the movable thorax. The +latter may be likened to a cage; it is formed by the spine behind and the +ribs, which are attached by cartilages to the breastbone (sternum) in front +(_vide_ fig. 1). The ribs and cartilages, as the diagram shows, form a +series of hoops which increase in length from above downwards; moreover, +they slope obliquely downwards and inwards (_vide_ fig. 2). The ribs are +jointed behind to the vertebrae in such a way that muscles attached to them +can, by shortening, elevate them; the effect is that the longer ribs are +raised, and pushing forward the breastbone and cartilages, the thoracic +cage enlarges from before back; but being elastic, the hoops will give a +little and cause some expansion from side to side; moreover, when the ribs +are raised, each one is rotated on its axis in such a way that the lower +border tends towards eversion; the total effect of this rotation is a +lateral expansion of the whole thorax. Between the ribs and the cartilages +the space is filled by the intercostal muscles (_vide_ fig. 2), the action +of which, in conjunction with other muscles, is to elevate the ribs. It is, +however, unnecessary to enter into anatomical details, and describe all +those muscles which elevate and rotate the ribs, and thereby cause +enlargement of the thorax in its antero-posterior and lateral diameters. +There is, however, one muscle which forms the floor of the thoracic cage +called the diaphragm that requires more than a passing notice (_vide_ fig. +2), inasmuch as it is the most effective agent in the expansion of the +chest. It consists of a central tendinous portion, above which lies the +heart, contained in its bag or pericardium; on either side attached to the +central tendon on the one hand and to the spine behind, to the last rib +laterally, and to the cartilages of the lowest six ribs anteriorly, is a +sheet of muscle fibres which form on either side of the chest a dome-like +partition between the lungs and the abdominal cavity (_vide_ fig. 2). The +phrenic nerve arises from the spinal cord in the upper cervical region and +descends through the neck and chest to the diaphragm; it is therefore a +special nerve of respiration. There are two--one on each side supplying the +two sheets of muscle fibres. When innervation currents flow down these +nerves the two muscular halves of the diaphragm contract, and the floor of +the chest on either side descends; thus the vertical diameter increases. +Now the elastic lungs are covered with a smooth pleura which is reflected +from them on to the inner side of the wall of the thorax, leaving no space +between; consequently when the chest expands in all three directions the +elastic lungs expand correspondingly. But when either voluntarily or +automatically the nerve currents that cause contraction of the muscles of +expansion cease, the elastic structures of the lungs and thorax, including +the muscles, recoil, the diaphragm ascends, and the ribs by the force of +gravity tend to fall into the position of rest. During expansion of the +chest a negative pressure is established in the air passages and air flows +into them from without. In contraction of the chest there is a positive +pressure in the air passages, and air is expelled; in normal quiet +breathing an ebb and flow of air takes place rhythmically and +subconsciously; thus in the ordinary speaking of conversation we do not +require to exercise any voluntary effort in controlling the breathing, but +the orator and more especially the singer uses his knowledge and experience +in the voluntary control of his breath, and he is thus enabled to use his +vocal instrument in the most effective manner. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2 + +Adapted from Quain's "Anatomy" by permission of Messrs. Longmans, Green & +Co.] + +[Description: FIG. 2.--Diagram modified from Quain's "Anatomy" to show the +attachment of the diaphragm by fleshy pillars to the spinal column, to the +rib cartilages, and lower end of the breastbone and last rib. The muscular +fibres, intercostals, and elevators of the ribs are seen, and it will be +observed that their action would be to rotate and elevate the ribs. The +dome-like shape of the diaphragm is seen, and it can be easily understood +that if the central tendon is fixed and the sheet of muscle fibres on +either side contracts, the floor of the chest on either side will flatten, +allowing the lungs to expand vertically. The joints of the ribs with the +spine can be seen, and the slope of the surface of the ribs is shown, so +that when elevation and rotation occur the chest will be increased in +diameter laterally.] + +[Illustration: FIG 3] + +[Description: FIG 3.--Diagram after Barth to illustrate the changes in the +diaphragm, the chest, and abdomen in ordinary inspiration _b-b_', and +expiration _a-a_', and in voluntary inspiration _d-d_' and expiration +_c-c_', for vocalisation In normal breathing the position of the chest and +abdomen in inspiration and expiration is represented respectively by the +lines _b_ and _a_; the position of the diaphragm is represented by _b_' and +_a_'. In breathing for vocalisation the position of the chest and abdomen +is represented by the lines _d_ and _e_, and the diaphragm by _d_' and +_c_'; it will be observed that in voluntary costal breathing _d-d_ the +expansion of the chest is much greater and also the diaphragm _d_' sinks +deeper, but by the contraction of the abdominal muscles the protrusion of +the belly wall _d_ is much less than in normal breathing _b_.] + +A glance at the diagram (fig. 3) shows the changes in the shape of the +thorax in normal subconscious automatic breathing, and the changes in the +voluntary conscious breathing of vocalisation. It will be observed that +there are marked differences: when voluntary control is exercised, the +expansion of the chest is greater in all directions; moreover, by voluntary +conscious effort the contraction of the chest is much greater in all +directions; the result is that a larger amount of air can be taken into the +bellows and a larger amount expelled. The mind can therefore bring into +play at will more muscular forces, and so control and regulate those forces +as to produce infinite variations in the pressure of the air in the +sound-pipe of the vocal instrument. But the forces which tend to contract +the chest and drive the air out of the lungs would be ineffective if there +were not simultaneously the power of closing the sound-pipe; this we shall +see is accomplished by the synergic action of the muscles which make tense +and approximate the vocal cords. Although the elastic recoil of the lungs +and the structure of the expanded thorax is the main force employed in +normal breathing and to some extent in vocalisation (for it keeps up a +constant steady pressure), the mind, by exercising control over the +continuance of elevation of the ribs and contraction of the abdominal +muscles, regulates the force of the expiratory blast of air so as to employ +the bellows most efficiently in vocalisation. Not only does the contraction +of the abdominal muscles permit of control over the expulsion of the air, +but by fixing the cartilages of the lowest six ribs it prevents the +diaphragm drawing them upwards and _inwards_ (_vide_ fig. 2). The greatest +expansion is just above the waistband (_vide_ fig. 3). We are not conscious +of the contraction of the diaphragm; we are conscious of the position of +the walls of the chest and abdomen; the messages the mind receives relating +to the amount of air in the bellows at our disposal come from sensations +derived from the structures forming the wall of the chest and abdomen, viz. +the position of the ribs, their degree of elevation and forward protrusion +combined with the feeling that the ribs are falling back into the position +of rest; besides there is the feeling that the abdominal muscles can +contract no more--a feeling which should never be allowed to arise before +we become conscious of the necessity of replenishing the supply of air. +This should be effected by quickly drawing in air through the nostrils +without apparent effort and to as full extent as opportunity offers between +the phrases. By intelligence and perseverance the guiding sense which +informs the singer of the amount of air at his disposal, and when and how +it should be replenished and voluntarily used, is of fundamental importance +to good vocalisation. Collar-bone breathing is deprecated by some +authorities, but I see no reason why the apices of the lungs should not be +expanded, and seeing the frequency with which tubercle occurs in this +region, it might by improving the circulation and nutrition be even +beneficial. The proper mode of breathing comes almost natural to some +individuals; to others it requires patient cultivation under a teacher who +understands the art of singing and the importance of the correct methods of +breathing. + +The more powerfully the abdominal muscles contract the laxer must become +the diaphragm muscle; and by the law of the reciprocal innervation of +antagonistic muscles it is probable that with the augmented innervation +currents to the expiratory centre of the medulla there is a corresponding +inhibition of the innervation currents to the inspiratory centre (_vide_ +fig. 18, page 101). These centres in the medulla preside over the centres +in the spinal cord which are in direct relation to the inspiratory and +expiratory muscles. It is, however, probable that there is a direct +relation between the brain and the spinal nerve centres which control the +costal and abdominal muscles independently of the respiratory centres of +the medulla oblongata (_vide_ fig. 18). The best method of breathing is +that which is most natural; there should not be a protruded abdomen on the +one hand, nor an unduly inflated chest on the other hand; the maximum +expansion should involve the lower part of the chest and the uppermost part +of the abdomen on a level of an inch or more below the tip of the +breastbone; the expansion of the ribs should be maintained as long as +possible. In short phrases the movement may be limited to an ascent of the +diaphragm, over which we have not the same control as we have of the +elevation of the ribs; but it is better to reserve the costal air, over +which we have more voluntary control, for maintaining a continuous pressure +and for varying the pressure. + + + + +II. THE REED + + +I will now pass on to the consideration of the voice-box, or larynx, +containing the reed portion of the vocal instrument. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4 From Behnke's "Mechanism of the Human Voice"] + +[Description: FIG. 4.--The cartilages of the larynx or voice-box. A large +portion of the shield cartilage on the right side has been cut away, in +order to show the two pyramid cartilages; these are seen jointed by their +bases with the ring cartilage; anteriorly are seen the two vocal processes +which give attachment to the two vocal cords (white ligaments), which +extend across the voice-box to be inserted in front in the angle of the +shield cartilage. Groups of muscles pull upon these cartilages in such a +manner as to increase, or diminish, the chink between the vocal cord in +ordinary inspiration and expiration; in phonation a group of muscles +approximate the cords, while another muscle makes them tense.] + +_The Larynx_.--The larynx is situated at the top of the sound-pipe (trachea +or windpipe), and consists of a framework of cartilages articulated or +jointed with one another so as to permit of movement (_vide_ fig. 4). The +cartilages are called by names which indicate their form and shape: (1) +shield or thyroid, (2) the ring or cricoid, and (3) a pair of pyramidal or +arytenoid cartilages. Besides these there is the epiglottis, which from its +situation above the glottis acts more or less as a lid. The shield +cartilage is attached by ligaments and muscles to the bone (hyoid) in the +root of the tongue, a pair of muscles also connect this cartilage with the +sternum or breastbone. The ring cartilage is attached to the windpipe by +its lower border; by its upper border in front it is connected with the +inner surface of the shield cartilage by a ligament; it is also jointed on +either side with the shield cartilage. The posterior part of the ring +cartilage is much wider than the anterior portion, and seated upon its +upper and posterior rim and articulated with it by separate joints are the +two pyramidal cartilages (_vide_ fig. 4). The two vocal cords as shown in +the diagram are attached to the shield cartilage in front, their +attachments being close together; posteriorly they are attached to the +pyramidal cartilages. It is necessary, however, to describe a little more +fully these attachments. Extending forwards from the base of the pyramids +are processes termed the "vocal processes," and these processes give +attachment to the elastic fibres of which the vocal cords mainly consist. +There are certain groups of muscles which by their attachment to the +cartilages of the larynx and their action on the joints are able to +separate the vocal cords or approximate them; these are termed respectively +abductor and adductor muscles (figs. 5 and 6). In normal respiration the +posterior ring-pyramidal muscles contract synergically with the muscles of +inspiration and by separating the vocal cords open wide the glottis, +whereby there is a free entrance of air to the windpipe; during expiration +this muscle ceases to contract and the aperture of the glottis becomes +narrower (_vide_ fig. 10). But when the pressure is required to be raised +in the air passages, as in the simple reflex act of coughing or in +vocalisation, the glottis must be closed by approximation of the vocal +cords, and this is effected by a group of muscles termed the adductors, +which pull on the pyramid cartilages in such a way that the vocal processes +are drawn towards one another in the manner shown in fig. 7. Besides the +abductor and adductor groups of muscles, there is a muscle which acts in +conjunction with the adductor group, and by its attachments to the shield +cartilage above and the ring cartilage below makes tense the vocal cords +(_vide_ fig. 5); it is of interest to note that this muscle has a separate +nerve supply to that of the abductor and adductor muscles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5 + +Diagram after Testut (modified), showing the larynx from the front.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6 + +Diagram after Testut (modified), showing the posterior view of the larynx +with the muscles.] + +On the top of the pyramid cartilages, in the folds of mucous membrane which +cover the whole inside of the larynx are two little pieces of yellow +elastic cartilage; and in the folds of mucous membrane uniting these +cartilages with the leaf-like lid cartilage (epiglottis) is a thin sheet of +muscle fibres which acts in conjunction with the fibres between the two +pyramid cartilages (_vide_ fig. 8). I must also direct especial attention +to a muscle belonging to the adductor group, which has another important +function especially related to vocalisation: it is sometimes called the +vocal muscle; it runs from the pyramid cartilage to the shield cartilage; +it apparently consists of two portions, an external, which acts with the +lateral ring-shield muscle and helps to approximate the vocal cords; and +another portion situated within the vocal cord itself, which by contracting +shortens the vocal cord and probably allows only the free edge to vibrate; +moreover, when not contracting, by virtue of the perfect elasticity of +muscle the whole thickness of the cord, including this vocal muscle, can be +stretched and thrown into vibration (_vide_ fig. 8). In the production of +chest notes the whole vocal cord is vibrating, the difference in the pitch +depending upon the tension produced by the contraction of the tensor +(ring-shield) muscle. When, however, the change from the lower to the upper +register occurs, as the photographs taken by Dr. French and reproduced in a +lecture at the Royal Institution by Sir Felix Semon show, the vocal cords +become shorter, thicker, and rounder; and this can be explained by +supposing that the inner portion of the vocal muscle contracts at the break +from the lower to the upper register (_vide_ fig. 11); and that as a result +only the free edges of the cords vibrate, causing a change in the quality +of the tone. As the scale is ascended the photographs show that the cords +become longer and tenser, which we may presume is due to the continued +action of the tensor muscle. Another explanation is possible, viz. that in +the lower register the two edges of the vocal cords are comparatively thick +strings. When the break occurs, owing to the contraction of the inner +portion of the vocal muscle, we have a transformation into thin strings, at +first short, but as the pitch of the note rises, the thin string formed by +the edge of the vocal cord is stretched and made longer by the tensor. It +should be mentioned that Aikin and many other good authorities do not hold +this view. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7 A-A', Ring cartilage. B, Shield cartilage. 1, Pyramid +cartilage. 2, Vocal process, with 2', its position after contraction of +muscle. 3, Postero-external base of pyramid, giving attachment to abductor +and adductor muscles at rest, with 3', its new position after contraction +of the muscles. 4, Centre of movement of the pyramid cartilage. 5, The +vocal cords at rest. 5', Their new position after contraction of the +abductor and adductor muscles, respectively seen in I and II. 6, The +interligamentous, with 7, the intercartilaginous chink of the glottis. 8, +The arrow indicating respectively in I and II the action of the abductor +and adductor in opening and closing the glottis.] + +[Description: FIG. 7.--Diagram after Testut (modified), showing: (i.) the +action of the abductor muscle upon the pyramid cartilages in separating the +vocal cords; (ii.) the action of the adductor muscles in approximating the +vocal cords.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +[Description: FIG. 8.--Diagram after Testut (modified) with hinder portion +of larynx and windpipe cut away, showing the conical cavity of the +sound-pipe below the vocal cords. The ventricle above the vocal cords is +seen with the surface sloping upwards towards the mid line.] + +A diagram showing a vertical section through the middle of the larynx at +right angles to the vocal cords shows some important facts in connection +with the mechanism of this portion of the vocal instrument (_vide_ fig. 8). +It will be observed that the sound-pipe just beneath the membranous reed +assumes the form of a cone, thus the expired air is driven like a wedge +against the closed glottis. Another fact of importance may be observed, +that above the vocal cords on either side is a pouch called a ventricle, +and the upper surfaces of the vocal cords slope somewhat upwards from +without inwards, so that the pressure of the air from above tends to press +the edges together. The force of the expiratory blast of air from below +overcomes the forces which approximate the edges of the cords and throws +them into vibration. With each vibration of the membranous reeds the valve +is opened, and as in the case of the siren a little puff of air escapes; +thus successive rhythmical undulations of the air are produced, +constituting the sound waves. The pitch of the note depends upon the number +of waves per second, and the _register_ of the voice therefore depends upon +two factors: (1) the size of the voice-box, or larynx, and the length of +the cords, and (2) the action of the neuro-muscular mechanism whereby the +length, approximation, and tension of the vocal cords can be modified when +singing from the lowest note to the highest note of the register. + +Thus the compass of the-- + + Bass voice is D to f 75- 354 vibs. per sec. + Tenor " c " c'' 133- 562 " " + Contralto " e " g'' 167- 795 " " + Soprano " b " f''' 239-1417 " " + +The complete compass of the human voice therefore ranges from about D 75 to +f''' 1417 vibrations per second, but the quality of the same notes varies +in different individuals. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +[Description: Fig. 9.--_Description of the laryngoscope and its mode of +use_.--The laryngoscope consists of a concave mirror which is fixed on the +forehead with a band in such a way that the right eye looks through the +hole in the middle. This mirror reflects the light from a lamp placed +behind the right side of the patient, who is told to open the mouth and put +out the tongue. The observer holds the tongue out gently with a napkin and +reflects the light from the mirror on his forehead on to the back of the +throat. The small mirror, set at an angle of 45° with the shaft, is of +varying size, from half an inch to one inch in diameter, and may be fixed +in a handle according to the size required. The mirror is warmed to prevent +the moisture of the breath obscuring the image, and it is introduced into +the back of the throat in such a manner that the glottis appears reflected +in it. The light from the lamp is reflected by the concave mirror on to the +small mirror, which, owing to its angle of 45°, illuminates the glottis and +reflects the image of the glottis with the vocal cords.] + +The discovery of the laryngoscope by Garcia enabled him by its means to see +the vocal cords in action and how the reed portion of the vocal instrument +works (_vide_ fig. 9 and description). The chink of the glottis or the +opening between the vocal cords as seen in the mirror of the laryngoscope +varies in size. The vocal cords or ligaments appear dead white and contrast +with the surrounding pink mucous membrane covering the remaining structures +of the larynx. Fig. 10 shows the appearance of the glottis in respiration +and vocalisation. The vocal cords of a man are about seven-twelfths of an +inch in length, and those of a boy (before the voice breaks) or of a woman +are about five-twelfths of an inch; and there is a corresponding difference +in size of the voice-box or larynx. This difference in length of the vocal +cords accounts for the difference in the pitch of the speaking voice and +the register of the singing voice of the two sexes. We should also expect a +constant difference in the length of the cords of a tenor and a bass in the +male, and of the contralto and soprano in the female, but such is not the +case. It is not possible to determine by laryngoscopic examination what is +the natural register of an individual's voice. The vocal cords may be as +long in the tenor as in the bass; this shows what an important part the +resonator plays in the timbre or quality of the voice. Still, it is +generally speaking true, that a small larynx is more often associated with +a higher pitch of voice than a large larynx. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +[Description: Fig. 10.--Diagram (modified from Aikin) illustrating the +condition of the vocal cords in respiration, whispering, and phonation. (1) +Ordinary breathing; the cords are separated and the windpipe can be seen. +(2) Deep inspiration; the cords are widely separated and a greater extent +of the windpipe is visible. (3) During the whisper the vocal cords are +separated, leaving free vent for air through the glottis; consequently +there is no vibration and no sound produced by the cords. (4) The soft +vocal note, or aspirate, shows that the chink of the glottis is not +completely closed, and especially the rima respiratoria (the space between +the vocal processes of the pyramidal cartilages.) (5) Strong vocal note, +produced in singing notes of the lower register. (6) Strong vocal note, +produced in singing notes of the higher register.] + +Musical notes are comprised between 27 and 4000 vibrations per second. The +extent and limit of the voice may be given as between C 65 vibrations per +second and f''' 1417 vibrations per second, but this is most exceptional, +it is seldom above c''' 1044 per second. The compass of a well-developed +singer is about two to two and a half octaves. The normal pitch, usually +called the "diapason normal," is that of a tuning-fork giving 433 +vibrations per second. Now what does the laryngoscope teach regarding the +change occurring in the vocal cords during the singing of the two to two +and a half octaves? If the vocal cords are observed by means of the +laryngoscope during phonation, no change is _seen_, owing to the rapidity +of the vibrations, although a scale of an octave may be sung; in the lower +notes, however, the vocal cords are seen not so closely approximated as in +the very high notes. This may account for the difficulty experienced in +singing high notes piano. Sir Felix Semon in a Friday evening lecture at +the Royal Institution showed some remarkable photographs, by Dr. French, of +the larynx of two great singers, a contralto and a high soprano, during +vocalisation, which exhibit changes in the length of the vocal cords and in +the size of the slit between them. Moreover, the photographs show that the +vocal cords at the break from the lower to the upper register exhibit +characteristic changes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +[Description: Fig. 11.--Drawings after Dr. French's photographs in Sir +Felix Semon's lecture on the Voice, (1) Appearance of vocal cords of +contralto singer when singing F# to D; it will be observed that the cords +increase in length with the rise of the pitch, presumably the whole cord is +vibrating, including the inner strand of the vocal muscle. At the break +from D to E (3 and 4) the cords suddenly become shorter and thicker; +presumably the inner portion of the vocal muscle (thyro-arytenoid) is +contracting strongly, permitting only the edge of the cord to vibrate. For +the next octave the cords are stretched longer and longer; this may be +explained by the increasing force of contraction of the tensor muscle +stretching the cords and the contained muscle, which is also contracted.] + +When we desire to produce a particular vocal sound, a mental perception of +the sound, which is almost instinctive in a person with a musical ear, +awakens by association motor centres in the brain that preside over the +innervation currents necessary for the approximation and minute alterations +in the tensions of the vocal cords requisite for the production of a +particular note. We are not conscious of any kinęsthetic (sense of +movement) guiding sensations from the laryngeal muscles, but we are of the +muscles of the tongue, lips, and jaw in the production of articulate +sounds. It is remarkable that there are hardly any sensory nerve endings in +the vocal cords and muscles of the larynx, consequently it is not +surprising to find that the ear is the guiding sense for correct modulation +of the loudness and pitch of the speaking as well as the singing voice. In +reading music, visual symbols produced by one individual awakens in the +mind of another mental auditory perceptions of sound varying in pitch, +duration, and loudness. Complex neuro-muscular mechanisms preside over +these two functions of the vocal instrument. The instrument is under the +control of the will as regards the production of the notes in loudness and +duration, but not so as regards pitch; for without the untaught instinctive +sense of the mental perception of musical sounds correct intonation cannot +be obtained by any effort of the will. The untaught ability of correct +appreciation of variations in the pitch of notes and the memorising and +producing of the same vocally are termed a musical ear. A gift even to a +number of people of poor intelligence, it may or may not be associated with +the sense of rhythm, which, as we have seen, is dependent upon the mental +perception of successive movements associated with a sound. Both correct +modulation and rhythm are essential for melody. The sense of hearing is the +primary incitation to the voice. This accounts for the fact that children +who have learnt to speak, and suffer in early life with ear disease, lose +the use of their vocal instrument unless they are trained by lip language +and imitation to speak. The remarkable case of Helen Keller, who was born +blind and deaf, and yet learned by the tactile motor sensibility of the +fingers to feel the vibrations of the vocal organ and translate the +perceptions of these vibrations into movements of the lips and tongue +necessary for articulation, is one of the most remarkable facts in +physiological psychology. Her voice, however, was monotonous, and lacked +the modulation in pitch of a musical voice. Music meant little to her but +beat and pulsation. She could not sing and she could not play the piano. +The fact that Beethoven composed some of his grandest symphonies when stone +deaf shows the extraordinary musical faculty he must have preserved to bear +in his mind the grand harmonies that he associated with visual symbols. +Still, it is impossible that Beethoven, had he been deaf in his early +childhood, could ever have developed into the great musical genius that he +became. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +[Description: Fig. 12.--Diagram showing the position of the larynx in +respect to the resonator and tongue. The position of the vocal cords is +shown, but really they would not be seen unless one half of the shield +cartilage were cut away so as to show the interior of the voice-box. Sound +vibrations are represented issuing from the larynx, and here they become +modified by the resonator; the throat portion of the resonator is shown +continuous with the nasal passages; the mouth portion of the resonator is +not in action, owing to the closure of the jaw and lips. The white spaces +in the bones of the skull are air sinuses. In such a condition of the +resonator, as in humming a tune, the sound waves must issue by the nasal +passages, and therefore they acquire a nasal character.] + + + + +III. THE RESONATOR AND ARTICULATOR + + +_The Resonator_.--The resonator is an irregular-shaped tube with a bend in +the middle; the vertical portion is formed by the larynx and pharynx, the +horizontal by the mouth. The length of the resonator, from the vocal cords +to the lips, is about 6.5 to 7 inches (_vide_ fig. 12). The walls of the +vertical portion are formed by the vertebral column and the muscles of the +pharynx behind, the cartilages of the larynx and the muscles of the pharynx +at the sides, and the thyroid cartilage, the epiglottis, and the root of +the tongue in front; these structures form the walls of the throat and are +all covered with a mucous membrane. This portion of the resonator passage +can be enlarged to a slight degree by traction upon the larynx below +(sterno-thyroid muscle), by looseness of the pharyngeal muscles, and still +more by the forward placement of the tongue; the converse is true as +regards diminution in size. The horizontal portion of the resonator tube +(the mouth) has for its roof the soft palate and the hard palate, the +tongue for its floor, and cheeks, lips, jaw, and teeth for its walls. The +interior dimensions of this portion of the resonator can be greatly +modified by movements of the jaw, the soft palate, and the tongue, while +the shape and form of its orifice is modified by the lips. + +There are accessory resonator cavities, and the most important of these is +the nose; its cavity is entirely enclosed in bone and cartilage, +consequently it is immovable; this cavity may or may not be closed to the +sonorous waves by the elevation of the soft palate. When the mouth is +closed, as in the production of the consonant m, e.g. in singing _me_, a +nasal quality is imparted to the voice, and if a mirror be placed under the +nostrils it will be seen by the vapour on it that the sound waves have +issued from the nose; consequently the nasal portion of the resonator has +imparted its characteristic quality to the sound. The air sinuses in the +upper jaws, frontal bones, and sphenoid bones act as accessory resonators; +likewise the bronchi, windpipe, and lungs; but all these are of lesser +importance compared with the principal resonating chamber of the mouth and +throat. If the mouth be closed and a tune be hummed the whole of the +resonating chambers are in action, and the sound being emitted from the +nose the nasal quality is especially marked. But no sound waves are +produced unless the air finds an exit; thus a tune cannot be hummed if both +mouth and nostrils are closed. + +From the description that I have given above, it will be observed that the +mouth, controlled by the movements of the jaw, tongue, and lips, is best +adapted for the purpose of articulate speech; and that the throat, which is +less actively movable and contains the vocal cords, must have greater +influence on the sound vibrations without participating in the articulation +of words. While the vocal cords serve the purpose of the reed, the +resonator forms the body of the vocal instrument. Every sound passes +through it; every vowel and consonant in the production of syllables and +words must be formed by it, and the whole character and individual +qualities of the speaking as well as the singing voice depend in great part +upon the manner in which it is used. + +The acoustic effect is due to the resonances generated by hollow spaces of +the resonator, and Dr. Aikin, in his work on "The Voice," points out that +we can study the resonances yielded by these hollow spaces by whispering +the vocal sounds; but it is necessary to put the resonator under favourable +conditions for the most efficient production. When a vowel sound is +whispered the glottis is open (_vide_ fig. 10) and the vocal cords are not +thrown into vibration; yet each vowel sound is associated with a distinct +musical note, and we can produce a whole octave by alteration of the +resonator in whispering the vowel sounds. In order to do this efficiently +it is necessary to use the bellows and the resonator to the best advantage; +therefore, after taking a deep inspiration in the manner previously +described, the air is expelled through the open glottis into the resonating +cavity, which (as fig. 13 shows) is placed under different conditions +according to the particular vowel sound whispered. In all cases the mouth +is opened, keeping the front teeth about one inch apart; the tongue should +be in contact with the lower dental arch and lie as flat on the floor of +the mouth as the production of the particular vowel sound will permit. When +this is done, and a vowel sound whispered, a distinctly resonant note can +be heard. Helmholtz and a number of distinguished German physicists and +physiologists have analysed the vowel sounds in the whispering voice and +obtained very different results. If their experiments show nothing else, +they certainly indicate that there are no universally fixed resonances for +any particular vowel sound. Some of the discrepancies may (as Aikin points +out) be due to the conditions of the experiment not being conducted under +the same conditions. Aikin, indeed, asserts that if the directions given +above be fulfilled, there will be variations between full-grown men and +women of one or two tones, and between different men and different women of +one or two semi-tones, and not much more. As he truly affirms, if the tube +is six inches long a variation of three-quarters of an inch could only make +a difference of a whole tone in the resonance, and he implies that the +different results obtained by these different experimenters were due to the +faulty use of the resonator. + +In ordinary conversation much faulty pronunciation is overlooked so long as +the words themselves are intelligible, but in singing and public speaking +every misuse of the resonator is magnified and does not pass unnoticed. +Increased loudness of the voice will not improve its carrying power if the +resonator is improperly used; it will often lead to a rise of pitch and the +production of a harsh, shrill tone associated with a sense of strain and +effort. Aikin claims that by studying the whispering voice we can find for +every vowel sound that position of the resonator which gives us the maximum +of resonance. By percussing[A] the resonator in the position for the +production of the various vowel sounds you will observe a distinct +difference in the pitch of the note produced. I will first produce the +vowel sound _oo_ and proceed with the vowel sounds to _i_; you will observe +that the pitch rises an octave; that this is due to the changes in the form +of the resonator is shown when I percuss the resonator in the position of +the different vowel sounds. You will observe that I start the scale of C +with _oo_ on f and proceed through a series of vowel sounds as in +whispering _who_, _owe_, _or_, _on_, _ah_. I rise a fifth from f to c, and +the diagram shows the change in the form of the resonator cavity to be +mainly due to the position of the dorsum of the tongue. Proceeding from +_ah_ to the middle tone of the speaking register, we ascend the scale to +_i_ as in _me_, and the dorsum of the tongue now reaches the roof of the +mouth; but the tongue not only rises, it comes forward, and the front +segment of the resonator is made a little smaller at every step of the +scale while the back segment becomes a little larger. I consider this +diagram of Aikin to be more representative of the changes in the resonator +than the description of Helmholtz, who stated that the form of the +resonator during the production of the vowel sound _u_ and _o_ is that of a +globular flask with a short neck; during the production of _a_ that of a +funnel with the wide extremity directed forward; of _e_ and _i_ that of a +globular flask with a long narrow neck. + +[Footnote A: This was done by the lecturer placing his left forefinger on +the outside of the right cheek, then striking it with the tip of the middle +finger of the right hand, just in the same way as he would percuss the +chest.--F.W.M.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13 I & II To face page 47] + +[Description: FIG. 13.--Diagram after Aikin. + +1. To show position of tongue and lips in the production of the vowel +sounds _a, o, oo_. + +2. To show successive positions of the tongue in the production of the +vowel sounds _a, ei, e, i_.] + +I have already said that Helmholtz showed that each vowel sound has its +particular overtones, and the quality or "timbre" of the voice depends upon +the proportional strength of these overtones. Helmholtz was able by means +of resonators to find out what were the overtones for each vowel sound when +a particular note was sung. The flame manometer of König (_vide_ fig. 14) +shows that if the same note be sung with different vowels the serrated +flame image in the mirror is different for each vowel, and if a more +complicated form of this instrument be used (such as I show you in a +picture on the screen) the overtones of the vowel sounds can be analysed. +You will observe that this instrument consists of a number of resonators +placed in front of a series of membranes which cover capsules, each capsule +being connected with a jet of gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14 + +Four-sided revolving mirror + +Images of gas jets + +Resonators, with capsules connected with gas jets] + +[Description: FIG. 14.--König's flame manometer. The fundamental note C is +sung on a vowel sound in front of the instrument; the lowest resonator is +proper to that note and the air in it is thrown into corresponding periodic +rhythmical vibrations, which are communicated through an intervening +membrane to the gas in the capsule at the back of the resonator; but the +gas is connected with the lighted jet, the flame of which is reflected in +the mirror, the result being that the flame vibrates. When the mirror is +made to revolve by turning the handle the reflected image shows a number of +teeth corresponding to the number of vibrations produced by the note which +was sung. The remaining resonators of the harmonic series with their +capsules and gas-jets respond in the same manner to the overtones proper to +each vowel sound when the fundamental note is sung.] + +Each resonator corresponds from below upwards to the harmonics of the +fundamental note c. In order to know if the sound of the voice contains +harmonics and what they are, it is necessary to sing the fundamental note c +on some particular vowel sound; the resonators corresponding to the +particular harmonics of the vowel sound are thus set in action, and a +glance at the revolving mirror shows which particular gas jets vibrate. +Experiments conducted with this instrument show that the vowel _U=oo_ is +composed of the fundamental note very strong and the third harmonic (viz. +g) is fairly pronounced. + +_O_ (_on_) contains the fundamental note, the second harmonic (the octave +c') very strong, and the third and fourth harmonics but weak. + +The vowel _A_ (_ah_) contains besides the fundamental note, the second +harmonic, weak; the third, strong; and the fourth, weak. + +The vowel _E_ (_a_) has relatively a feeble fundamental note, the octave +above, the second harmonic, is weak, and the third weak; whereas the fourth +is very strong, and the fifth weak. + +The vowel _I_ (_ee_) has very high harmonics, especially the fifth, which +is strongly marked. + +We see from these facts that there is a correspondence between the +existence of the higher harmonics and the diminished length of the +resonator. They are not the same in all individuals; for they depend also +upon the _timbre_ of the voice of the person pronouncing them, or the +special character of the language used, as well as upon the pitch of the +fundamental notes employed. + +Helmholtz inferred that if the particular quality of the vowel sounds is +due to the reinforcement of the fundamental tone by particular overtones, +he ought to be able to produce synthetically these vowel sounds by +combining the series of overtones with the fundamental note. This he +actually accomplished by the use of stopped organ pipes which gave sensibly +simple notes. + + * * * * * + +Having thus shown that the fundamental note is dependent upon the tension +of the vocal cords--the reed portion of the instrument--and the quality, +timbre, or "klang" upon the resonator, I will pass on to the formation of +syllables and words of articulate speech by the combination of vowel sounds +and consonants. + +"The articulate sounds called consonants are sounds produced by the +vibrations of certain easily movable portions of the mouth and throat; and +they have a different sound according as they are accompanied by voice or +not" (Hermann). + +The emission of sounds from the resonator may be modified by interruption +or constriction in three situations, at each of which added vibrations may +occur, (1) At the lips, the constriction being formed by the two lips, or +by the upper or lower lip with the lower or upper dental arch. (2) Between +the tongue and the palate, the constriction being caused by the opposition +of the tip of the tongue to the anterior portion of the hard palate or the +posterior surface of the dental arch. (3) At the fauces, the constriction +being due to approximation of the root of the tongue and the soft palate. +Consonants can only be produced in conjunction with a vowel sound, +consequently the air is thrown into sonorous waves of a complex character, +in part dependent upon the shape of the resonator for the production of the +vowel, in part dependent upon the vibrations at each of these situations +mentioned above. Consonants may accordingly be classified as they are +formed at the three places of interruption--lips, teeth, and fauces +respectively: (1) labial; (2) dental; (3) guttural. + +The sounds formed at each of the places of interruption are divided into-- +1. _Explosives_.--At one of the situations mentioned the resonator is +suddenly opened or closed during the expulsion of air--(_a_) without the +aid of voice, p, t, k; (_b_) with the aid of voice, b, d, g. When one of +these consonants begins a syllable, opening of the resonator is necessary, +e.g. pa; when it ends a syllable, closure is necessary, e.g. ap. No sharp +distinction is possible between p and b, t and d, and k and g if they are +whispered. + +2. _Aspirates_.--The resonator is constricted at one of the points +mentioned so that the current of air either expired or inspired rushes +through a small slit. Here again we may form two classes: (_a_) without the +aid of the voice, f, s (sharp), ch, guttural; (_b_) with the aid of voice, +v, z, y. The consonants s and l are formed when the passage in front is +closed by elevation of the tongue against the upper dental arch so that the +air can only escape at the sides between the molar teeth: sh is formed by +the expulsion of the current of air through two narrow slits, viz. (1) +between the front of the tongue and the hard palate, the other between the +nearly closed teeth. If a space be left between the tip of the tongue and +the upper teeth two consonant sounds can be produced, one without the aid +of the voice--th (hard) as in that; the other with the aid of voice--th +(soft) as in thunder. Ch is a guttural produced near the front of the +mouth, e.g. in Christ, or near the back as in Bach. + +3. _Resonants_.--In the production of the consonant m, and sometimes n, the +nasal resonator comes into play because the soft palate is not raised at +all and the sound waves produced in the larynx find a free passage through +the nose, while the mouth portion of the resonator is completely closed by +the lips. The sounds thus produced are very telling in the singing voice. + +4. _Vibratory Sounds_.--There are three situations in which the consonant r +may be formed, but in the English language it is produced by the vibration +of the tip of the tongue in the constricted portion of the cavity of the +mouth, formed by the tongue and the teeth. + +The consonants have been grouped by Hermann as follows:-- + + | |Labials.|Dentals. |Gutturals.| + |1. Explosives-- | | | | + |a. Without the voice|P |T |K | + |b. With the voice |B |D |G | + |2. Aspirates-- | | | | + |a. Without the voice|F |S (hard), L, Sh,|Ch | + | | |Th (hard) | | + |b. With the voice |V |Z, L, Th, Zh |Y in yes | + | | |(soft) | | + |3. Resonants |M |N |N (nasal) | + |4. Vibratory sounds|Labial R|Lingual R |Guttural R| + +H is the sound produced in the larynx by the quick rushing of the air +through the widely opened glottis. + +Hermann's classification which I have given is especially valuable as +regards the speaking voice, but Aikin classifies the consonants from the +singing point of view, according to the more or less complete closure of +the resonator. + + +CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS (AIKIN) + + Jaw fully open H, L, K, G + " less " T, D, N, R + " nearly closed, lips closed P, B, M + " " " upper lip on lower teeth F, V + " quite closed S, Z, J, N, Ch, Sh + +Aikin, moreover, points out that the English language is so full of +closures that it is difficult to keep the resonator open, and that accounts +for one of the principal difficulties in singing it. + +"The converse of this may be said of Italian, in which most words end in +pure vowels which keep the resonator open. In fact, it is this circumstance +which has made the Italian language the basis of every point of voice +culture and the producer of so many wonderful singers." As an example +compare the English word 'voice,' which begins with closure and ends with +closure, and the Italian 'voce,' pronounced _voché_, with its two open +vowel sounds. The vowel sound ah on the note c is the middle tone of the +speaking register, and as we know, can be used all day long without +fatigue; therefore in training the voice the endeavour should be made to +develop the register above and below this middle tone. In speaking there is +always a tendency under emotional excitement, especially if associated with +anger, to raise the pitch of the voice, whereas the tender emotions lead +rather to a lowering of the pitch. Interrogation generally leads to a rise +of the pitch; thus, as Helmholtz pointed out, in the following sentence +there is a decided fall in the pitch--"I have been for a walk"; whereas in +"Have you been for a walk?" there is a decided rise of pitch. If you utter +the sentence "Who are you?" there is a very definite rise of pitch on +'are.' + + + + +PATHOLOGICAL DEGENERATIVE CHANGES PRODUCING SPEECH DEFECTS +AND WHAT THEY TEACH + + +As I have before remarked, children utter vowel sounds before consonants, +and I used this as an argument that phonation preceded articulation; but +there is another reason for supposing that articulate sounds are of later +development phylogenetically, as well as ontogenetically. Not only are they +more dependent for their proper production on intelligence, but in those +disorders of speech which occur as a result of degenerative processes of +the central nervous system the difficulty of articulate speech precedes +that of phonation. Take, for example, bulbar paralysis, a form of +progressive muscular atrophy, a disease due to a progressive decay and +destruction of the motor nerve cells presiding over the movements of the +tongue, lips, and larynx, hence often called glosso-labial-laryngeal palsy. +In this disease the lips, tongue, throat, and often the larynx are +paralysed on both sides. "The symptoms are, so to speak, grouped about the +tongue as a centre, and it is in this organ that the earliest symptoms are +usually manifested." (Gowers). Imperfect articulation of those sounds in +which the tongue is chiefly concerned, viz. the lingual consonants l, r, n, +and t, causing indistinctness of speech, is the first symptom; the lips +then become affected and there is difficulty in the pronunciation of sounds +in which the lips are concerned, viz. u, o, p, b, and m. Eventually +articulate speech becomes impossible, and the only expression remaining to +the patient is laryngeal phonation, slightly modulated and broken into the +rhythm of formless syllables. + +The laryngeal palsy _rarely_ becomes complete. The nervous structures in +the _physiological mechanism_ of speech and phonation are affected in this +disease; but there are degenerative diseases of the brain in which the +_psychical mechanism_ of speech is affected, e.g. General Paralysis of the +Insane, in which the affection of speech and hand-writing is quite +characteristic. There is at first a hesitancy which may only be perceptible +to practised ears, but in which there is no real fault of articulation once +it is started; sometimes preparatory to and during the utterance there is a +tremulous motion about the muscles of the mouth. The hesitation increases, +and instead of a steady flow of modulated, articulate sounds, speech is +broken up into a succession of irregular, jerky, syllabic fragments, +without modulation, and often accompanied by a tremulous vibration of the +voice. Syllables are unconsciously dropped out, blurred, or run into one +another, or imperfectly uttered; especially is difficulty found with +consonants, particularly explosive sounds, b, p, m; again, linguals and +dentals are difficult to utter. Similar defects occur in written as in +vocal speech; the syllables and even the letters are disjointed; there is a +fine tremor in the writing, and inco-ordination in the movements of the +pen. Silent thoughts leave out syllables and words in the framing of +sentences; consequently they are not expressed by the hand. The ideation of +a written or spoken word is based upon the association of the component +syllables, and the difficulty arises primarily from the progressive +impairment of this function of association upon which spoken and written +language so largely depends. Examination of the brain in this disease +explains the cause of the speech trouble and the progressive dementia (loss +of mind) and paralysis with which it is associated. There is a wasting of +the cerebral hemispheres, especially of the frontal lobes, a portion of the +brain which, later on, we shall see is intimately associated with the +function of articulate speech. + + + + +THE CEREBRAL MECHANISM OF SPEECH AND SONG + + +Neither vocalisation nor articulation are essentially human. Many of the +lower animals, e.g. parrots, possess the power of articulate speech, and +birds can be taught to pipe tunes. The essential difference between the +articulate speech of the parrot and the human being is that the parrot +merely imitates sounds, it does not employ these articulate sounds to +express judgments; likewise there are imbecile human beings who, +parrot-like, repeat phrases which are meaningless. Articulate speech, even +when employed by a primitive savage, always expresses a judgment. Even in +the simple psychic process of recalling the name aroused by the sight of a +common object in daily use, and in affixing the verbal sign to that object, +a judgment is expressed. But that judgment is based upon innumerable +experiences primarily acquired through our special senses, whereby we have +obtained a knowledge of the properties and uses of the object. This +statement implies that the whole brain is consciously and unconsciously in +action. There is, however, a concentration of psychic action in those +portions of the brain which are essential for articulate speech; +consequently the word, as it is mentally heard, mentally seen, and mentally +felt (by the movements of the jaw, tongue, lips, and soft palate), occupies +the field of clear consciousness; but the concept is also the nucleus of an +immense constellation of subconscious psychic processes with which it has +been associated by experiences in the past. In language, articulate sounds +are generally employed as objective signs attached to objects with which +they have no natural tie. + +In considering the relation of the Brain to the Voice we have not only a +physiological but a psychological problem to deal with. Since language is +essentially a human attribute, we can only study the relation of the Brain +to Speech by observations on human beings who during life have suffered +from various speech defects, and then correlate these defects with the +anatomical changes found in the brain after death. + +Between the vocal instrument of the primitive savage and that of the most +cultured singer or orator there is little or no discoverable difference; +neither by careful naked-eye inspection of the brain, nor aided by the +highest powers of the microscope, should we be able to discover any +sufficient structural difference to account for the great difference in the +powers of performance of the vocal instrument of the one as compared with +that of the other; nor is there any sufficient difference in size or minute +structure of the brain to account for the vast store of intellectual +experiences and knowledge of the one as compared with the other. The +cultured being descended from cultured beings inherits tendencies whereby +particular modes of motion or vibration which have been experienced by +ancestors are more readily aroused in the central nervous system; when +similar stimuli producing similar modes of motion affect the sense organs. +But suppose there were an island inhabited only by deaf mutes, upon which a +ship was wrecked, and the sole survivors of the wreck were infants who had +never used the voice except for crying, would these infants acquire +articulate speech and musical vocalisation? I should answer, No. They would +only be able to imitate the deaf mutes in their gesture language and +possibly the musical sounds of birds; for the language a child learns is +that which it hears; they might however develop a simple natural language +to express their emotions by vocal sounds. The child of English-speaking +parents would not be able spontaneously to utter English words if born in a +foreign country and left soon after birth amongst people who could not +speak a word of English, although it would possess a potential facility to +speak the language of its ancestors and race. + +It is necessary, however, before proceeding further, to say a few words +explanatory of the brain and its structure, and the reader is referred to +figs. 15, 16, 17. The brain consists of (1) the great brain or cerebrum, +(2) the small brain or cerebellum, and (3) the stem of the brain, which is +continuous with the spinal cord. The cerebro-spinal axis consists of grey +matter and white matter. The grey matter covers the surface of the cerebrum +and cerebellum, the white matter being internal. The stem of the brain, the +medulla oblongata, and the spinal cord, consists externally of white +matter, the grey matter being internal. The grey matter consists for the +most part of nerve cells (ganglion cells), and the white matter consists of +nerve fibres; it is white on account of the phosphoretted fatty +sheath--myelin--that covers the essential axial conducting portion of the +nerve fibres. If, however, the nervous system be examined microscopically +by suitable staining methods, it will be found that the grey and white +matters are inseparably connected, for the axial fibres of the nerves in +the white matter are really prolongations of the ganglion cells of the grey +matter; in fact the nervous system consists of countless myriads of nervous +units or neurones; and although there are structural differences in the +nervous units or neurones, they are all constructed on the same general +architectural plan (_vide_ fig. 15). They may be divided into groups, +systems, and communities; but there are structural differences of the +separate systems, groups, and communities which may be correlated with +differences of function. The systems may be divided into: (1) afferent +sensory, including the special senses and general sensibility; (2) motor +efferent; (3) association. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +[Description: FIG. 15.--Diagrammatic representation of a motor neurone +magnified 300 diameters. Whereas the nerve cell and its branching processes +(the dendrons) form but a minute speck of protoplasm, the nerve fibre which +arises from it, although microscopic in diameter, extends a very long +distance; in some cases it is a yard long; consequently only a minute +fraction of the nerve fibre is represented in the diagram.] + +The great brain or cerebrum consists of two halves equal in weight, termed +hemispheres, right and left; and the grey matter covering their surface is +thrown into folds with fissures between, thus increasing enormously the +superficial area of the grey matter and of the neurones of which it +consists without increasing the size of the head. The pattern of the folds +or convolutions shows a general similarity in all human beings, certain +fissures being always present; and around these fissures which are +constantly present are situated fibre systems and communities of neurones +having particular functions (_vide_ fig. 16.) Thus there is a significance +in the convolutional pattern of the brain. But just as there are no two +faces alike, so there are no two brains alike in their pattern; and just as +it is rare to find the two halves of the face quite symmetrical, so the two +halves of the brain are seldom exactly alike in their pattern. Although +each hemisphere is especially related to the opposite half of the body, the +two are unified in function by a great bridge of nerve fibres, called the +corpus callosum, which unites them. The cortical centres or structures with +specialised functions localised in particular regions of one hemisphere are +associated by fibres passing to the same region in the opposite hemisphere +by this bridge. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +[Description: FIG. 16.--Diagram of the left hemisphere of the brain showing +localised centres, of which the functions are known. It will be observed +that the centres for the special senses, tactile, muscular, hearing, and +vision, are all situated behind the central fissure. The tactile-motor +kinęsthetic sense occupies the whole of the post-central convolution; the +centre for hearing (and in the left hemisphere memory of words) is shown at +the end of the first temporal convolution, but the portion shaded by no +means indicates the whole of the grey cortex which possesses this function; +a large portion of this centre cannot be seen because it lies within the +fissure forming the upper surface of the temporal lobe. Behind this is the +angular gyrus which is connected with visual word memory. The half-vision +centre, and by this is meant the portion of brain which receives +impressions from each half of the field of vision, is situated for the most +part on the inner (unseen) surface of the occipital lobe. In front of the +central fissure is situated the motor area, or that region destruction of +which causes paralysis of the muscles moving the structures of the opposite +half of the body. If the situations indicated by black dots be excited by +an interrupted electric current, movements of the limbs, trunk, and face +occur in the precise order shown, from the great toe to the larynx. In +front of this precentral convolution are the three frontal convolutions, +and it would seem that the functions of these convolutions are higher +movements and attention in fixation of the eyes; moreover, in the lowest +frontal region, indicated by fine dots, we have Broca's convolution, which +is associated with motor speech; above at the base of the second middle +frontal convolution is the portion of cortex in which is localised the +function of writing. Taste and smell functions reside in brain cortex only +a small portion of which can be seen, viz. that at the tip of the temporal +lobe.] + +Muscles and groups of muscles on the two sides of the body which invariably +act together may thus be innervated from either hemisphere, e.g. the +muscles of the larynx, the trunk, and upper part of the face. + +Gall, the founder of the doctrine of Phrenology, wrecked his fame as a +scientist by associating mental faculties with conditions of the skull +instead of conditions of the brain beneath; nevertheless, he deserves the +highest credit for his discoveries and deductions, for he was the first to +point out that that part of the brain with which psychic processes are +connected must be the cerebral hemispheres. He said, if we compare man with +animals we find that the sensory functions of animals are much finer and +more highly developed than in man; in man, on the other hand, we find +intelligence much more highly developed than in animals. Upon comparing the +corresponding anatomical conditions, we see, he said, that in animals the +deeper situated parts of the brain are relatively more developed and the +hemispheres less developed than in man; in man, the hemispheres so surpass +in development those of animals that we can find no analogy. Gall therefore +argued that we must consider the cerebral hemispheres to be the seat of the +higher functions of the mind. We must moreover acknowledge that the +following deductions of Gall are quite sound: "The convolutions ought to be +recognised as the parts where the instincts, feelings, thoughts, talents, +the affective qualities in general, and the moral and intellectual forces +are exercised." The Paris Academy of Science appointed a commission of +inquiry, May, 1808, which declared the doctrine of Gall to be erroneous. +Gall moreover surmised that the faculty of language lay in the frontal +lobes, and Bouillaud supported Gall's proposition by citing cases in which +speech had been affected during life, and in which after death the frontal +lobes were found to be damaged by disease. A great controversy ensued in +France; popular imagination was stirred up especially in the republic by +the doctrine of Gall, which was an attempt to materialise and localise +psychic processes. Unfortunately Gall's imagination, encouraged by a +widespread wave of popular sympathy, overstepped his judgment and launched +him into speculative hypotheses unsupported by facts. His doctrine of +Phrenology was shown to be absolutely illogical; consequently it was +forgotten that he was the pioneer of cerebral localisation. + + + + +SPEECH AND RIGHT-HANDEDNESS + + +The next step in Cerebral Localisation was made by a French physician, Marc +Dax, who first observed that disease of the left half of the cerebrum +producing paralysis of the right half of the body (right hemiplegia) was +associated with loss of articulate speech. This observation led to the +establishment of a most important fact in connection with speech, viz. that +right-handed people use their left cerebral hemisphere as the executive +portion of the brain in speech. Subsequently it was shown that when +left-handed people were paralysed on the left side by disease of the right +hemisphere, they lost their powers of speech. But the great majority of +people are born right-handed, consequently the right hand being especially +the instrument of the mind in the majority of people, the left hemisphere +is the leading hemisphere; and since probably specialisation of function of +the right hand (dexterity) has been so closely associated with that other +instrument of the mind, the vocal instrument of articulate speech, the two +have now become inseparable; for are not graphic signs and verbal signs +intimately interwoven in the development of language and human +intelligence? + +What has determined the predominance of the left hemisphere in speech? I +can find no adequate anatomical explanation. There is no difference in +weight of the two hemispheres in normal brains. Moreover, I am unable to +subscribe to the opinion that there is any evidence to show that the left +hemisphere receives a larger supply of blood than the right. Another theory +advanced to explain localisation of speech and right-handedness in the left +hemisphere is that the heavier organs, lung and liver, being on the right +side have determined a mechanical advantage which has led to +right-handedness in the great majority of people. This theory has, however, +been disposed of by the fact that cases in which there has been a complete +transposition of the viscera have not been left-handed in a larger +proportion of cases. The great majority of people, modern and ancient, +civilised and uncivilised, use the right hand by preference. Even graphic +representations on the sun-baked clay records of Assyria, and the drawings +on rocks, tusks, and horns of animals of the flint-weapon men of +prehistoric times show that man was then right-handed. There is a +difference of opinion whether anthropoid apes use the right hand in +preference to the left. Professor Cunningham, who made a special study of +this subject, asserts that they use either hand indifferently; so also does +the infant at first, and the idiot in a considerable number of cases. Then +why should man, even primitive, have chosen the right hand as the +instrument of the mind? Seeing that there is no apparent anatomical reason, +we may ask ourselves the question: Is it the result of an acquired useful +habit to which anatomical conditions may subsequently have contributed as a +co-efficient? Primitive man depended largely upon gesture language, and the +placing of the hand over the heart is universally understood to signify +love and fidelity. Uneducated deaf mutes, whose only means of communicating +with their fellow-men is by gestures, not only use this sign, but imply +hatred also by holding the hand over the heart accompanied by the sign of +negation. Moreover, pointing to the heart accompanied by a cry of pain or +joy would indicate respectively death of an enemy or friend. Again, +primitive man protected himself from the weapons of his enemies by holding +the shield in his left hand, thus covering the heart and leaving the right +hand free to wield his spear. The question whether it would have been to +his advantage to use either hand indifferently for spear and shield has +been, to my mind, solved by the fact that in the long procession of ages +evolution has determined right-handed specialisation as being more +advantageous to the progress of mankind than ambidexterity. +Right-handedness is an inherited character in the same sense as the +potential power of speech. + + + + +LOCALISATION OF SPEECH CENTRES IN THE BRAIN + + +In 1863 Broca showed the importance in all right-handed people (that is in +about ninety-five per cent of all human beings) of the third _left_ frontal +convolution for speech (_vide_ figs. 16 and 17); when this is destroyed by +disease, although the patient can understand what is said and can +understand written and printed language, the power of articulate speech is +lost. _Motor Aphasia_. This portion of the brain is concerned with the +revival of the motor images, and has been termed by Dr. Bastian "the +glosso-kinęsthetic centre," or the cortical grey matter, in which the +images of the sense of movement of the lips and tongue are formed (_vide_ +fig. 17). A destruction of a similar portion of the cortex in a +right-handed person produces no loss of speech; but if the person is +left-handed there is aphasia, because he, being left-handed, uses the third +_right_ inferior frontal convolution for speech. These facts have for long +been accepted by most neurologists, but recently doubts have been cast upon +this fundamental principle of cerebral localisation by a most distinguished +French neurologist, M. Marie; he has pointed out that a destructive lesion +of the cortex may be accompanied by subcortical damage, which interrupts +fibres coming from other parts of the brain connected with speech. + +In the study of speech defects it is useful to employ a diagram; a certain +part of the brain corresponds to the _Speech Zone_ there indicated, and +lesions injuring any part of this area in the left hemisphere cause speech +defects (_vide_ fig. 17). All neurologists, M. Marie included, admit this, +and the whole question therefore is: Is a destruction of certain limited +regions of the superficial grey matter the cause of different forms of +speech defects, or are they not due more to the destruction of subcortical +systems of fibres, which lie beneath this cortical speech zone? + +There is a certain portion of the speech zone which is assumed to be +connected with the revival of written or printed language, and is called +the _visual word-centre_. There is another region connected with the memory +of spoken words--the _auditory word-centre_; you will observe that it is +situated in the posterior third of the first temporal convolution, but this +does not comprise nearly the whole of it, for there is an extensive surface +of grey matter lying unseen within the fissure, called the transverse +convolutions, or gyri. Lesions of either of these regions give rise to +_Sensory Aphasia_, which means a loss of speech due to inability to revive +in memory the articulate sounds which serve as verbal symbols, or the +graphic signs which serve as visual symbols for language. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +[Description: FIG. 17.--Diagram to illustrate the Speech Zone of the left +hemisphere (Bastian). This scheme is used to explain the mechanism of +speech, but probably the centres are not precisely limited, as shown in the +diagram; it serves, however, to explain disorders of speech. Destruction of +the brain substance in front of the central fissure gives rise to what is +termed Motor Aphasia and Motor Agraphia, because the patient no longer +recalls the images of the movements necessary for expressing himself in +articulate speech or by writing. Destructive lesions behind the central +fissure may damage the portion of the brain connected with the mental +perception of the sounds of articulate language, or the portion of the +brain connected with the mental perception of language in the form of +printed or written words--Sensory Aphasia; the former entails inability to +speak, the latter inability to read. + +This speech zone acts as a whole, and many disorders of speech may arise +from destructive lesions within its limits. It has a special arterial +supply, viz. the middle cerebral, which divides into two main branches--an +anterior, which supplies the motor portion, and a posterior, which supplies +the posterior sensory portion. The anterior divides into two branches and +the posterior into three branches, consequently various limited portions of +the speech zone may be deprived of blood supply by blocking of one of these +branches. The speech zone of the left hemisphere directly controls the +centres in the medulla oblongata that preside over articulation and +phonation; innervation currents are represented by the arrows coming from +the higher to the lower centres.] + +These several cortical regions are connected by systems of subcortical +fibres to two regions in front of the ascending frontal convolution (_vide_ +fig. 17), called respectively the "glosso-kinęsthetic" (sense of movement +of tongue) and the "cheiro-kinęsthetic" (sense of movement of hand) centres. +Now a person may become hemiplegic and lose his speech owing either to the +blood clotting in a diseased vessel, or to detachment of a small clot from +the heart, which, swept into the circulation, may plug one of the arteries +of the brain. The arteries branch and supply different regions, +consequently a limited portion of the great brain may undergo destruction, +giving rise to certain localising symptoms, according to the situation of +the area which has been deprived of its blood supply. Upon the death of the +patient, a correlation of the symptoms observed during life and the loss of +brain substance found at the _post-mortem_ examination has enabled +neurologists to associate certain parts of the brain surface with certain +functions; but M. Marie very rightly says: None of the older observations +by Broca and others can be accepted because they were not examined by +methods which would reveal the extent of the damage; the only cases which +should be considered as scientifically reliable are those in which a +careful examination by sections and microscopic investigation have +determined how far subcortical structures and systems of fibres uniting +various parts of the cortex in the speech zone have been damaged. Marie +maintains that the speech zone cannot be separated into these several +centres, and that destruction of Broca's convolution does not cause loss of +speech (_vide_ figs. 16, 17). There are at present two camps--those who +maintain the older views of precise cortical centres, and those who follow +Marie and insist upon a revision. + +Herbert Spencer says that "our intellectual operations are indeed mostly +confined to the auditory feelings as integrated into words and the visual +feelings as integrated into ideas of objects, their relations and their +motions." + +Stricker by introspection and concentration of attention upon his own +speech-production came to the conclusion that the primary revival of words +was by the feeling of movements of the muscles of articulation; but there +is a fallacy here, for the more the attention is concentrated upon any +mental process the more is the expressive side brought into prominence in +consciousness. This can be explained by the fact that there is in +consequence of attention an increased outflow of innervation currents to +special lower executive centres, thence to the muscles, but every change of +tension in the speech muscles is followed by reciprocal incoming +impressions appertaining to the sense and feeling of the movement. The more +intense the sense of movement, the greater will be the effect upon +consciousness. In fact, a person who reads and thinks by articulating the +words, does so because experience has taught him that he can concentrate +his attention more perfectly; therefore his memory or understanding of the +subject read or thought of will be increased. Very many people think and +commit to memory by this method of concentrating attention; they probably +do not belong to the quick, perceptive, imaginative class, but rather to +those who have power of application and who have educated their minds by +close voluntary attention. Galton found a large proportion of the Fellows +of the Royal Society were of this motor type. But the fact that certain +individuals make use of this faculty more than others does not destroy the +arguments in favour of the primary revival of words in the great majority +of persons by a subconscious process in the auditory centre, which is +followed immediately by correlated revival of sensori-motor images. +Although the sensori-motor images of speech can be revived, it is almost +impossible without moving the hand to revive kinęsthetic impressions +concerned in writing a word. Both Ballet and Stricker admit this fact, and +it tends to prove that the sense of hearing is the primary incitation to +speech. + +Charcot in reference to the interpretation of speech defects divided +persons into four classes--auditives, visuals, motors, and indifferents. +There are really no separate classes, but only different kinds of +word-memory in different degrees of excellence as regards the first three; +and as regards the fourth there is no one kind of memory developed to a +preponderating degree. Bastian doubts the second class, but does not deny +that the visual type may exist; for Galton has undoubtedly shown that +visual memory and power of recall of visual word images varies immensely in +different individuals, and it is unquestionable that certain individuals +possess the visualising faculty to an extraordinary degree; some few, +moreover, can see mentally every word that is uttered; they give their +attention to the visual symbolic equivalent and not to the auditory. Such +persons may, as Ribot supposes, habitually think and represent objects by +visual typographic images. Lord Macaulay and Sir James Paget were notable +possessors of this visualising faculty. The former is said to have been +able to read a column of "The Times" and repeat it _verbatim_; the latter +could deliver his lectures _verbatim_ as he had written them. Both saw +mentally the print or MS. in front of them. + +Nevertheless it is a question of degree how much motor images enter into +silent thought and into the primary revival of words in different +individuals. Mach in "Analysis of Sensations" says: "It is true that in my +own case words (of which I think) reverberate loudly in my ear. Moreover, I +have no doubt that thoughts may be directly excited by the ringing of a +house-bell, by the whistle of a locomotive, etc., that small children and +even dogs understand words which they cannot repeat. Nevertheless I have +been convinced by Stricker that the ordinary and most familiar, though not +the only possible way, by which speech is comprehended is really _motor_ +and that we should be badly off if we were without it. I can cite +corroborations of this view from my own experience. I frequently see +strangers who are endeavouring to follow my remarks slightly moving their +lips." + + + + +THE PRIMARY SITE OF REVIVAL OF WORDS IN SILENT THOUGHT + + +Since destructive lesions of the speech zone of the left hemisphere in +right-handed persons leads to inability to revive the memory pictures of +the sounds of words as heard in ordinary speech, the revival of visual +impressions as seen in printed or written characters, and of the +kinęsthetic (sense of movement) impressions concerned with the alterations +of the minute tensions of the muscle structures employed in the +articulation of words, it must be presumed that the left hemisphere in +right-handed persons is dominant in speech and silent thought; it may even +dominate the use of the left hand for many movements. But does not the +right hemisphere take a part? Yes; and I will give my reasons later for +supposing that the whole brain is in action. During the voluntary recall of +words in speech and thought by virtue of the intimate association tracts +connecting the grey matter of the whole speech zone, it is not a single +part of this zone which is in action, but the whole of it; and when we +assign to definite parts of the speech zone different functions in +connection with language, we really refer to areas in which the process is +most active or is primarily initiated, for the whole brain is in action +just as it is in the recognition of an object which we see, hear, feel, or +move. What really comes before us is contributed more by the mind itself +than by the present object. + +There is, however, a direct functional association between the auditory and +glosso-kinęsthetic (sense of movement of the tongue) centres on the one +hand and the visual and cheiro-kinęsthetic (sense of movement of the hand) +on the other. No less intimate must be the connection between the auditory +word-centre and the visual word-centre; they must necessarily be called +into association actively in successive units of time, as in reading aloud +or writing from dictation. Educated deaf mutes think with revived visual +symbols either of lips or fingers. Words are to a great extent symbols +whereby we carry on thought, and thinking becomes more elaborate and +complex as we rise in the scale of civilisation, because more and more are +verbal symbols instituted for concrete visual images. + +In which portion of the brain are words primarily and principally revived +during the process of thinking? I have already alluded to the views of +Stricker and those who follow him, viz. that words are the revived images +of the feelings of the sense of movement, caused by the alteration in the +tension of the muscles of articulation occurring during speech, with or +without phonation. There is another which I think the correct view, that +words are revived in thought primarily as auditory images, so that the +sense of hearing is essential for articulation as well as phonation; the +two operations of the vocal organ as an instrument of the mind being +inseparable. The arguments in favour of this are:-- + +1. The part of the brain concerned with the sense of hearing develops +earlier and the nerve fibres found in this situation are myelinated[1] at +an earlier period of development of the brain than the portion connected +with the sense of movement of the muscles of articulation. + +[Footnote 1: The covering of the fibres by a sheath of phosphoretted fat +serving to insulate the conductile portion of the nerve is an indication +that the fibre has commenced to function as a conductor of nervous +impulses.] + +2. As a rule, the child's first ideas of language come through the sense of +hearing; articulate speech is next evolved, in fact the child speaks only +that which it has heard; it learns first to repeat the names of persons and +objects with which it comes into relation, associating visual images with +auditory symbols. + +An example of this was communicated by Darwin to Romanes. One of his +children who was just beginning to speak, called a duck a "quack." By an +appreciation of the resemblance of qualities it next extended the term +"quack" to denote all birds and insects on the one hand, and all fluid +objects on the other. Lastly, by a still more delicate appreciation of +resemblance the child called all coins "quack" because on the back of a +French sou it had seen the representation of an eagle (Romanes' "Mental +Evolution in Man," p. 183). Later on, children who have been educated +acquire a knowledge of the application of visual symbols, and how to +represent them by drawing and writing, and associate them with persons and +objects. + +3. There is more definiteness of impression and readiness of recall for +auditory than for articulatory motor sense feelings. + +4. After the acquirement of speech by the child, auditory feelings are +still necessary for articulate speech processes; for if it were not so, how +could we explain the fact that a child up to the fifth or sixth year in +full possession of speech will become dumb if it loses the sense of hearing +from middle-ear disease, unless it be educated later by lip language. + +5. Cases have been recorded of bilateral lesion of the auditory centre of +the brain producing loss of hearing and loss of speech, the motor centres +being unaffected. This is called Wernicke's sensory aphasia. The following +case occurring in my own practice is probably the most complete instance +recorded. + + + + +CASE OF DEAFNESS ARISING FROM DESTRUCTION OF THE AUDITORY CENTRES IN THE +BRAIN CAUSING LOSS OF SPEECH + + +A woman at the age of twenty suddenly became unconscious and remained so +for three hours; on recovery of consciousness it was found she could not +speak; this condition remained for a fortnight; speech gradually returned, +although it was impaired for a month or more. She married, but soon after +marriage she suddenly lost her hearing completely, remaining permanently +stone deaf; and although she could understand anything of a simple +character when written, and was able imperfectly to copy sentences, she was +unable to speak. Once, however, under great emotional excitement, while I +was examining her by written questions, she uttered, "Is that." But she was +never heard to speak again during the subsequent five years that she lived. +The utterance of those two words, however, showed that the loss of speech +was not due to a defect of the physiological mechanism of the vocal +instrument of speech, nor to the motor centres in the brain that preside +over its movements in the production of articulate speech. She recognised +pictures and expressed satisfaction or dissatisfaction when correct or +incorrect names were written beneath the pictures; moreover, in many ways, +by gestures, facial expression, and curious noises of a high-pitched, +musical, whining character, showed that she was not markedly deficient in +intelligence. Although in an asylum and partially paralysed, she was not +really insane in the proper sense, but incapable of taking care of herself. +When other patients were getting into mischief this patient would give a +warning to the attendants by the utterance of inarticulate sounds, showing +that she was able to comprehend what was taking place around and reason +thereon, indicating thereby that although stone deaf and dumb, it was +probable that she possessed the power of silent thought. I observed that +during emotional excitement the pitch of the sounds she uttered increased +markedly with the increase of excitement. After having been discharged from +Claybury Asylum she was sent to Colney Hatch Asylum. Upon one of my visits +to that institution I learnt that she had been admitted, and upon my +entering the ward, although more than a year had elapsed since I last saw +her, she immediately and from afar recognised me; and by facial expression, +gesture, and the utterance of inarticulate sounds showed her great pleasure +and satisfaction in seeing one who had taken a great interest in her case. +This poor woman must have felt some satisfaction in knowing that someone +had interpreted her mental condition, for of course, her husband and +friends did not understand why she could not speak. I may mention that the +first attack of loss of speech was attributed to hysteria. + +This woman died of tuberculosis seven years after the second attack, and +examination of the brain _post-mortem_ revealed the cause of the deafness. +There was destruction of the centre of hearing in both hemispheres (_vide_ +fig. 17), caused by blocking of an artery supplying in each hemisphere that +particular region with blood. The cause of the blocking of the two arteries +was discovered, for little warty vegetations were found on the mitral valve +of the left side of the heart. I interpreted the two attacks thus: one of +these warty vegetations had become detached, and escaping into the arterial +circulation, entered the left carotid artery and eventually stuck in the +posterior branch of the middle cerebral artery, causing a temporary loss of +word memory, consequently a disturbance of the whole speech zone of the +left hemisphere. This would account for the deafness to spoken language and +loss of speech for a fortnight, with impairment for more than a month, +following the first attack. But both ears are represented in each half of +the brain; that is to say, sound vibrations entering either ear, although +they produce vibrations only in one auditory nerve, nevertheless proceed +subsequently to both auditory centres. The path most open, however, for +transmission is to the opposite hemisphere; thus the right hemisphere +receives most vibrations from the left ear and _vice versa_. Consequently +the auditory centre in the right hemisphere was able very soon to take on +the function of associating verbal sounds with the sense of movement of +articulate speech and recovery took place. _But_, when by a second attack +the corresponding vessel of the opposite half of the brain was blocked the +terminal avenues, and the central stations for the reception of the +particular modes of motion associated with sound vibration of all kinds +were destroyed _in toto_; and the patient became stone deaf. It would have +been extremely interesting to have seen whether, having lost that portion +of the brain which constitutes the primary incitation of speech, this +patient could have been taught lip language. + +There is no doubt that persons who become deaf from destruction of the +peripheral sense organ late in life do not lose the power of speech, and +children who are stone deaf from ear disease and dumb in consequence can be +trained to learn to speak by watching and imitating the movements of +articulation. Helen Keller indeed, although blind, was able to learn to +speak by the education of the tactile motor sense. By placing the hand on +the vocal instrument she appreciated by the tactile motor sense the +movements associated with phonation and articulation. The tactile motor +sense by education replaced in her the auditory and visual senses. The +following physiological experiment throws light on this subject. A dog that +had been deprived of sight by removal of the eyes when it was a puppy found +its way about as well as a normal dog; but an animal made blind by removal +of the occipital lobes of the brain was quite stupid and had great +difficulty in finding its way about. Helen Keller's brain, as shown by her +accomplishments in later life, was a remarkable one; not long after birth +she became deaf and blind, consequently there was practically only one +avenue of intelligence left open for the education of that brain, viz. the +tactile kinęsthetic. But the tactile motor sense is the active sense that +waits upon and contributes to every other sense. The hand is the instrument +of the mind and the agent of the will; consequently the tactile motor sense +is intimately associated in its structural representation in the brain with +every other sense. This avenue being open in Helen Keller, was used by her +teacher to the greatest possible advantage, and all the innate +potentialities of a brain naturally endowed with remarkable intellectual +powers were fully developed, and those cortical structures which normally +serve as the terminal stations (_vide_ fig. 16) for the reception and +analysis of light and sound vibrations were utilised to the full by Helen +Keller by means of association tracts connecting them with the tactile +motor central stations. The brain acts as a whole in even the simplest +mental processes by virtue of the fact that the so-called functional +centres in the brain are not isolated fields of consciousness, but are +inextricably associated one with another by association fibres. + + + + +THE PRIMARY REVIVAL OF SOME SENSATIONS IN THE BRAIN + + +I have on page 77 referred to Stricker's views on the primary revival of +words in the sense of movement of the lips and tongue. Mach ("Analysis of +the Sensations") says: "The supposition that the processes in the larynx +during singing have had something to do with the formation of the tonal +series I noticed in one of my earlier publications, but did not find it +tenable. Singing is connected in too extrinsic and accidental a manner with +hearing to bear out such an hypothesis. I can hear and imagine tones far +beyond the range of my own voice. In listening to an orchestral performance +with all the parts, or in having an hallucination of such a performance, it +is impossible for me to think that my understanding of this broad and +complicated sound-fabric has been effected by my _one_ larynx, which is, +moreover, no very practised singer. I consider the sensations which in +listening to singing are doubtless occasionally noticed in the larynx a +matter of subsidiary importance, like the pictures of the keys touched +which when I was more in practice sprang up immediately into my imagination +on hearing a performance on the piano or organ. When I imagine music, I +always distinctly hear the notes. Music can no more come into being merely +through the motor sensations accompanying musical performances, than a deaf +man can hear by watching the movements of players. I cannot therefore agree +with Stricker on this point" (comp. Stricker, "Du langage et de la +musique," Paris, 1885). + +Of the motor type myself and having a fairly good untrained ear for music, +I find that to memorise a melody, whether played by an instrument or by an +orchestra, I must either try to sing or hum that melody in order to fix it +in my memory. Every time I do this, association processes are being set up +in the brain between the auditory centres and the centres of phonation; and +when I try to revive in my silent thoughts the melody again, I do so best +by humming aloud a few bars of the melody to start the revival and then +continuing the revival by maintaining the resonator in the position of +humming the tune, viz. with closed lips, so that the sound waves can only +escape through the nose; under such circumstances the only definite +conscious muscular sensation I have is from the effect of closure of the +lips; the sensations from the larynx are either non-existent or quite +ill-defined, although I hear mentally the tonal sensations of the melody. +No doubt by closing the lips in silent humming I am in some way +concentrating attention to the sensori-motor sphere of phonation and +articulation, and by reactive association with the auditory sphere +reinforcing the tonal sensations in the mind. The vocal cords (ligaments) +themselves contain very few nerve fibres; those that are seen in the deeper +structures of the cords and adjacent parts mainly proceed to the mucous +glands. This fact, which I have ascertained by numerous careful +examinations, is in accordance with the fact that there are no conscious +kinęsthetic impressions of alterations of position and tension of the vocal +cords. A comparative microscopic examination of the tip of the tongue and +the lips shows a remarkable difference, for these structures are beset with +innumerable sensory nerves, whereby every slightest alteration of tension +and minute variations in degrees of pressure of the covering skin is +associated with messages thereon to the brain. The sense of movement in +articulate speech is therefore explained by this fact. There is every +reason then to believe that auditory tonal images are the sole primary and +essential guides to the minute alterations of tension in the muscles of the +larynx necessary for the production of corresponding vocal sounds. By +humming a tune we concentrate our attention and thereby limit the activity +of neural processes to systems and communities of neurones employed for the +perception of tonal images and their activation in motor processes; and +this helps to fix the tune in the memory. + + + + +PSYCHIC MECHANISM OF THE VOICE + + +A musical speaking voice denotes generally a good singing voice, and it +must be remembered that articulation cannot be separated from phonation in +the psychic mechanism. In speaking, we are unconscious of the breath +necessary for the production of the voice. Not so, however, in effective +singing, the management of the breathing being of fundamental importance; +and it is no exaggeration to say that only the individual who knows how to +breathe knows how to sing effectually. A musical ear and sense of rhythm +are innate in some individuals; in others they are not innate and can only +be acquired to a variable degree of perfection by persevering efforts and +practice. The most intelligent persons may never be able to sing in tune, +or even time; the latter (sense of rhythm) is much more easily acquired by +practice than the former (correct intonation). This is easily intelligible, +for rhythmical movement appertains also to speech and other acts of human +beings, e.g. walking, dancing, running, swimming, etc.; moreover, +rhythmical periodicity characterises the beat of the heart and respiration. + +But how does a trained singer learn to sing a song or to take part in an +opera? He has to study the performances of two parts for the vocal +instrument--the part written by the composer and the part written by the +poet or dramatist--and in order to present an artistic rendering, the +intellectual and emotional characters of each part must be blended in +harmonious combination. A singer will first read the words and understand +their meaning, then memorise them, so that the whole attention subsequently +may be given to applying the musical part to them and employing with proper +phrasing, which means more than knowing when to breathe; it means imparting +expression and feeling. A clever actor or orator can, if he possess a high +degree of intelligence and a fairly artistic temperament, so modulate his +voice as to convey to his audience the passions and emotions while feeling +none of them himself; so many great singers who are possessed of a good +musical ear, a good memory, and natural intelligence, although lacking in +supreme artistic temperament and conspicuous musical ability, are +nevertheless able to interpret by intonation and articulation the passions +and emotions which the composer has expressed in his music and the poet or +dramatist in his words. The intelligent artist possessed of the musical +ear, the sense of rhythm, and a well-formed vocal organ accomplishes this +by the conscious control and management of his breathing muscles and the +muscles of articulation, which by education and imitation he has brought +under complete control of the will. With him visual symbols of musical +notes are associated with the visual symbols of words in the mind, and the +visual symbols whether of the words or of the musical notes will serve to +revive in memory the sound of the one or the other, or of both. But he +produces that sound by alteration of tension in co-ordinated groups of +muscles necessary for vocalisation, viz. the muscles of phonation in the +larynx, the muscles of articulation in the tongue, lips, jaw, and palate, +and the muscles of costal respiration. _The mind_ of the orator, actor, and +dramatic singer exercises a profound influence upon the respiratory system +of nerves, and thereby produces the necessary variations in the force, +continuance, and volume of air required for vocal expression. + +Sir Charles Bell, who discovered the respiratory system of nerves, pointed +out how the lungs, from being in the lower animals merely the means of +oxygenating the blood, become utilised in the act of expelling air from the +body for the production of audible sounds--the elements of human voice and +speech. Likewise he drew attention to the influence which powerful emotions +exercise upon the organ of respiration, including the countenance, e.g. the +dilated nostrils in anger. Again, "when the voice suffers interruption and +falters, and the face, neck, and chest are animated by strong passion +working from within the breast, language exerts its most commanding +influence." + +In hemiplegia or paralysis of one half of the body, there is a difference +between the two sides for ordinary automatic unconscious diaphragmatic +breathing and voluntary or costal breathing. Thus in ordinary breathing the +movements are increased on the paralysed side, especially in the upper part +of the chest, while in voluntary breathing they are increased on the sound +side. Hughlings Jackson suggested the following theory to explain these +facts: "_Ordinary breathing_ is an automatic act governed by the +respiratory centre in the medulla. The respiratory centre is double, each +side being controlled or inhibited by higher centres on the opposite side +of the brain. Voluntary costal breathing, such as is employed in singing, +is of cerebral origin, and controlled by centres on the opposite side of +the brain, the impulses being sent down to the respective centres for the +associated movements of the muscles of articulation, phonation, and +breathing, in the same way as they are sent to the centres for the +movements of the arm or leg. With voluntary breathing the respiratory +centre in the medulla has nothing to do. It is in fact out of gear or +inhibited for the time being, so that the impulses from the brain pass by +or evade it. There are thus two sets of respiratory nerve fibres passing +from the brain--the one inhibiting or controlling to the opposite half of +the respiratory centre in the medulla; the other direct, evading the +respiratory centre and running the same course to the spinal centres for +the respiratory movements as the ordinary motor fibres do to the centres +for other movements. Both sets would be affected by the lesion (or damage) +which produced the hemiplegia. The inhibitory fibres being damaged, the +opposite half of the respiratory centre would be under diminished control +and therefore the movements of ordinary breathing on the paralysed side +would be exaggerated. The damage to the direct fibres would prevent the +passage of voluntary stimuli to the groups of respiratory muscles (as it +would do to the rest of the muscles of the paralysed side), and thus the +voluntary movement of respiration would be diminished--diminished only and +not completely abolished as in the limbs; because according to the theory +of Broadbent, in the case of such closely associated bilateral movements +the lower nervous respiratory centres of both sides would be activated from +either side of the brain." This certainly applies also to the muscles of +phonation, but not to the principal muscles of articulation, viz. the +tongue and lips. It is not exactly known what part of the cerebral cortex +controls the associated movements necessary for voluntary costal (rib) +respiration in singing; probably it is localised in the frontal lobe in +front of that part, stimulation of which gives rise to trunk movements +(_vide_ fig. 16). Whatever its situation, it must be connected by +association fibres with the centres of phonation and articulation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +[Description: FIG. 18.--The accompanying diagram is an attempt to explain +the course of innervation currents in phonation. + +1. Represents the whole brain sending voluntary impulses _V_ to the regions +of the brain presiding over the mechanisms of voluntary breathing and +phonation. These two regions are associated in their action by fibres of +association _A_; moreover, the corresponding centres in the two halves of +the brain are unified in their action by association fibres _A'_ in the +great bridge connecting the two hemispheres (Corpus Callosum). On each side +of the centre for phonation are represented association fibres _H_ which +come from the centre of hearing; these fibres convey the guiding mental +images of sounds and determine exactly the liberation of innervation +currents from the centre of phonation to the lower centres by which the +required alterations in tension of the laryngeal muscles for the production +of the corresponding sounds are effected. Arrows are represented passing +from the centre of phonation to the lower centres in the medulla which +preside over the muscles of the jaw, tongue, lips, and larynx. Arrows +indicate also the passage of innervation currents from the centres in the +brain which preside over voluntary breathing. It will be observed that the +innervation currents which proceed from the brain pass over to the opposite +side of the spinal cord and are not represented as coming into relation +with the respiratory centre _R_. This centre, as we have seen, acts +automatically, and exercises especially its influence upon the diaphragm, +which is less under the control of the will than the elevators of the ribs +and the abdominal muscles. + +The diagram also indicates why these actions of voluntary breathing and +phonation can be initiated in either hemisphere; it is because they are +always bilaterally associated in their action; consequently both the higher +centres in the brain and the lower centres in the medulla oblongata and +spinal cord are united by bridges of association fibres, the result being +that even if there is a destruction of the brain at _a-b_, still the mind +and will can act through both centres, although not so efficiently. +Likewise, if there is a destruction of the fibres proceeding from the brain +centres to the lower medullary and spinal centres, the will is still able +to act upon the muscles of phonation and breathing of both sides of the +body because of the intimate connection of the lower medullary and spinal +centres by association fibres.] + +Experiments on animals and observations on human beings show that the +centres presiding over the muscles of the larynx are situated one in each +hemisphere, at the lower end of the ascending frontal convolution in close +association with that of the tongue, lips, and jaw. This is as we should +expect, for they form a part of the whole cerebral mechanism which presides +over the voice in speech and song. But because the muscles of the tongue, +the lower face muscles, and even the muscles of the jaw do not necessarily +and always work synchronously and similarly on the two sides, there is more +independence in their representation in the cerebral cortex. Consequently a +destruction of this region of the brain or the fibres which proceed from it +to the lower executive bulbar and spinal centres is followed by paralysis +of the muscles of the opposite side. Likewise stimulation with an +interrupted electric current applied to this region of the brain in monkeys +by suitable electrodes produces movements of the muscles of the lips, +tongue, and jaw of the opposite side only. Not so, however, stimulation of +the region which presides over the movements of the muscles of the larynx, +for then _both_ vocal cords are drawn together and made tense as in +phonation. It is therefore not surprising if removal or destruction of this +portion of the brain _on one side_ does not produce paralysis of the +muscles of phonation, which, always bilaterally associated in their +actions, are represented as a bilateral group in both halves of the brain. +These centres may be regarded as a part of the physiological mechanism, but +the brain acts as a whole in the psychic mechanism of speech and song. From +these facts it appears that there is: (1) An automatic mechanism for +respiration and elemental phonation (the cry) in the medulla oblongata +which can act independently of the higher centres in the brain and even +without them (_vide_ p. 18). (2) A cerebral conscious voluntary mechanism +which controls phonation either alone or associated with articulation. The +opening of the glottis by contraction of the abductor (posterior +ring-pyramid muscles) is especially associated with descent of the +diaphragm in inspiration in ordinary breathing; whereas the voluntary +breathing in singing is associated with contraction of the adductor and +tensor muscles of the vocal cords. + +A perfect psychic mechanism is as necessary as the physiological mechanism +for the production of perfect vocalisation, especially for dramatic +singing. A person, on the one hand, may be endowed with a grand vocal +organ, but be a failure as a singer on account of incorrect intonation, of +uncertain rhythm or imperfect diction; on the other hand, a person only +endowed with a comparatively poor vocal instrument, but knowing how to use +it to the best advantage, is able to charm his audience; incapable of +vigorous sound production, he makes up for lack of power by correct +phrasing and emotional expression. We see then that the combination of a +perfect physiological and psychological mechanism is essential for +successful dramatic singing, the chief attributes of which are: (1) Control +of the breath, adequate volume, sustaining power, equality in the force of +expulsion of air to avoid an unpleasant vibrato, and capability of +producing and sustaining loud or soft tones throughout the register. (2) +Compass or range of voice of not less than two octaves with adequate +control by mental perception of the sounds of the necessary variation in +tension of the laryngeal muscles for correct intonation. (3) Rich quality +or timbre, due partly to the construction of the resonator, but in great +measure to its proper use under the control of the will. Something is +lacking in a performance, however perfect the vocalisation as regards +intonation and quality, if it fails to arouse enthusiasm or to stir up the +feelings of an audience by the expression of passion or sentiment through +the mentality of the singer. + +The general public are becoming educated in music and are beginning to +realise that shouting two or three high-pitched chest notes does not +constitute dramatic singing--"a short _beau moment_ does not compensate for +a _mauvais quart d'heure_." It would be hard to describe or define the +qualities that make a voice appeal to the multitude. Different singers with +a similar timbre of voice and register may sing the same song correctly in +time, rhythm, and phrasing, and yet only one of them may produce that +sympathetic quality necessary to awaken not only the intellectual but the +affective side of the mind of the hearers. Undoubtedly the effects produced +upon the mind by dramatic song largely depend upon circumstances and +surroundings, also upon the association of ideas. Thus I was never more +stirred emotionally by the human voice than upon hearing a mad Frenchman +sing at my request the Marseillaise. Previously, when talking to him his +eyes had lacked lustre and his physiognomy was expressionless; but when +this broad-chested, six foot, burly, black-bearded maniac rolled out in a +magnificent full-chested baritone voice the song that has stirred the +emotions and passions of millions to their deepest depth, and aroused in +some hope, in others despair, as he made the building ring with "Aux armes, +citoyens, formez vos bataillons" I felt an emotional thrill down the spine +and a gulp in the throat, while the heart and respirations for an instant +stayed in their rhythmical course. Not only was I stirred by the effect of +the sounds heard, but by the change in the personality of the singer. It +awakened in my mind the scenes in the French Revolution so vividly +described by Carlyle. The man's facial expression and whole personality +suddenly appeared changed; he planted his foot firmly forward on the +ground, striking the attitude of a man carrying a musket, a flag, or a +pike; his eyes gleamed with fire and the lack-lustre expression had changed +to one of delirious excitement. A pike in his hand and a red cap on his +head would have completed the picture of a _sans culotte_. Dramatic song +therefore that does not evoke an emotional response is _vox et pręterea +nihil_. + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +Abductors and Adductors of Vocal cords, 30 _seq._ +Aikin, Dr., 33, 45, 46, 47 + Classification of Consonants, 54 + "The Voice," 44 +Aphasia, Motor and Sensory, 72 _seq_. +Articulation and phonation, 57 _seq_., 92, 94 _seq_., fig. 18 +Assyria, clay records, 70 + +B + +Ballet, 78 +Bastian, Dr., 72, 78 +Beethoven, symphonies, 40 +Bell, Sir Charles, 97 +Bouillaud, M., 68 +Brain:-- + How developed, 10 + Localisation of Speech Centres, 72 _seq_., fig. 17 + Primary Revival of Sensations, 90 + Primary Site of Revival of words in Silent thought, 80 _seq._ + Relation to the Voice, 61 _et passim_ + Structure, 63 _seq_., figs. 15, 16, 17 +Breathing, art of, 16 _seq_., 22, 26, 27, 94 _seq._ +Broadbent, Sir W., 99 +Broca, 72, 76 + +C + +Charcot, 78 +Consonants, 50 _seq._ + Classifications, 54 +Cunningham, Professor, 71 + +D + +Darwin, 83 + "Expression of the Emotions," 3 +Dax, Marc, 69 +Deaf Mutes, 62, 71, 82 +Deafness causing loss of speech, 84 _seq._ +Diaphragm, 20 _seq_., 103, fig. 2 + +E + +Ear in Music, 39 +English, difficult to sing, 55 +Epiglottis, 28, 31 + +F + +Flame Manometer, 48, fig. 14 +French, Dr., 32, 37 + +G + +Gall, founder of Phrenology, 67, 68 +Galton, 78, 79 +Garcia, 34 +Gibbon, the, 3 +Glottis, 30, 35, 44, 103, fig. 10 +Goltz's dog, 18 +Gowers, on Bulbar Paralysis, 57 +Grieger, 5 + +H + +Harmonics, 14, 47 _seq_. +Hearing and Speech, 78, 82 _seq_. +Helmholtz, 45, 47, 48, 50, 55 +Hermann, on Articulate Sounds, 50 + Groups of Consonants, 54 +Huxley, 8 + +I + +Italian, easy to sing, 55 + +J + +Jackson, Hughlings, 97 + +K + +Keller, Helen, 40, 89, 90 +Kingsley, Miss, 6 +Klang, 13 +König, flame manometer, 48, fig. 14 + +L + +Language, a human attribute, 61 + Of Gesture, 6, 7, 71 + Written, 8 +Laryngoscope, 34, 35, 37, fig. 9 +Larynx, 28 _seq_., figs. 4-8 + +M + +Macaulay, Lord, 79 +Mach, "Analysis of Sensations," 79, 90 +Marie, M., 73, 76 +Marseillaise, 106 +Memory, visual, 79, 80 +Mouth, 43, 44 +Müller, Max, "Chips from a German Workshop," 8 + +N + +Nerves of Respiration, 21 +Neurologists, 73 + +O + +Overtones, 14, 47 _seq_. + +P + +Paget, Sir James, 79 +Paralysis:-- + Bulbar, 57 + Hemiplegia, 97 + Of the Insane, 58 +Paris Academy of Science, 68 +Parrot, Speech, 60 +Phonation and Articulation, 57 _seq_., 92, 94 _seq._., fig. 18 +Phrenology, 67, 68 +Pitch, 34, 36, 37, 39, 46, 50, 55 + +R + +Reading and Thinking by Articulating Words, 77 +Resonator, 15 _seq_., 41 _seq_. +Rhythmical Movement, 94 +Ribot, 79 + On Words, 5 +Right-handedness and Speech, 69 _seq_., 80 +Rodents, 3 +Romanes, "Mental Evolution in Man," 1, 3, 83 + +S + +Sayce, 6 +Semon, Sir Felix, 32, 37 +Singing, 95, 98 _seq_. + Chief Attributes, 104 _seq_. + Hearing and, 91 +Sound-pipe, 33 +Sounds, articulate, 50 _seq_., 60 _seq_. +Sounds, musical, three qualities, 11 _seq._ +Speech:-- + Cerebral Mechanism of song and, 60 _seq._ + Defects, 57 _seq_., 73 + Hearing and, 78, 82 _seq_. + Localisation centres in the brain, 72 _seq_., fig. 17 + Loss of, caused by deafness, 84 _seq_. + Right-handedness, 69 _seq_., 80 + Theories on the origin of, 1 _seq._ + Three stages, 4 +Spencer, Herbert, 76 +Stricker, 77, 78, 80, 82, 90 + +T + +Thorax, 18 _seq_., fig. 3 +Throat, 43 +Timbre, 13 +Tuning-forks, 12, 13, 37 +Tylor, 6 + +V + +Ventricle, 33 +Vocal cords, 29 _seq_., 35, 36, 37, 43, 93, figs. 10, 11 +Vocal instrument, three parts 15 _seq_., 62 _et passim_ + Bellows, 18 _seq_., fig. 1 + Reed, 28 _seq_., _See also_ Larynx + Resonator, 41 _seq_. +Vocal Muscle, 31 +Vocalisation. _See_ Singing +Voice, compass of, 34, 37 +Voice, psychic mechanism, 94 _seq_. + +W + +Wernicke's sensory aphasia, 84 +Word-memory, 78 +Words, defined, 82 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Brain and the Voice in Speech and +Song, by F. 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